EXP. NO.1.

OBJECT: (a) To plot the forward and reverse characteristics of a semiconductor diode.
(b) To plot the reverse characteristics of a Zener diode.
EQUIPMENT/APPARATUS/COMPONENTS USED:
S.No.

Lab No.

1.

Equipment

Specifications

Quantity

Variable
DC
Power Supply
Voltmeter
Milli-Ammeter
Resistors
Diode
Zener Diode

2.
3.
4.
5.
6

CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS:
(a) Forward Characteristics (To obtain the reverse characteristic, the diode has been
reversed)

V
R = 1K
mA
VD
0-32V

VS

Fig. 1. For forward characteristics of diode

V
R = 1K
A
VD
0-32V

VS

Fig. 2. For reverse characteristics of diode

(b) Characteristics of the Zener diode in the reverse breakdown region.

R = 1K
mA

IZ
0-32V

VS

VZ

Fig. 3. For reverse characteristics of Zener diode

PROCEDURE:
1. To obtain forward characteristic of diode (Fig. 1), vary the DC power supply voltage (VS)
to vary voltage across diode (VD).
2. Measure VD in steps of 0.1V, till cut in voltage of 0.7 volts is reached. Record the
corresponding values of ID (in mA) for this variation of VD.
3. Vary VS further and measure VD & ID to get forward charactersticsof diode. The value of ID
should not exceed above the maximum current rating of given diode (IDmax).
4. To obtain reverse characteristic of diode (Fig. 2), vary VS up to 30 V.
5. Measure VD across the diode and record the corresponding values of ID with a microammeter.
6. To obtain the I-V characteristics of the Zener diode in the breakdown region, connect the
circuit as shown in Fig. 3.
7. Vary VS slowly till the voltage across Zener (VZ) reaches the Rated Zener Breakdown
Voltage/Knee Voltage (VZK). After breakdown, VZ becomes constant and reverse Zener
current IZ starts increasing.
8. Vary VS further and measure the corresponding values of IZ for this variation of VS to get the
I-V characteristics of Zener diode.
9. The value of IZ should not exceed above the maximum current rating of given Zener diode
(IZmax).

OBSERVATIONS:
Observations for forward bias condition
S.No. Supply voltage VS (V) Voltage across diode VD (V) Diode current ID (mA)
1.

0.1

2.

0.3

3.

0.5

4.

0.6

5.

0.62
.

1. To obtain reverse characteristic of diode.

Observations for reverse bias condition
S.No. Voltage across diode VD volts Diode current ID(A)
1.

2.

3.

.
.
32

2. To obtain reverse characteristics of Zener diode.

S.No. Supply voltage VS (V) Voltage acrs Zener diode VZ (V) Zener current IZ (mA)
1.

2.

3.

.
15

3. Plots of the forward and reverse (VD - ID) characteristics of the semiconductor diode, and the
breakdown (VZ - IZ) characteristic of the Zener diode.
REFERENCES:
1. Sedra & Smith, Microelectronic Circuits, OUP, Fifth Edition.

EXP. NO.2.
OBJECT: To design and test an RC passive network for a given phase shift at a given
frequency f.

EQUIPMENT/APPARATUS/COMPONENTS USED:
S.No.

Lab No.

1.
2.
3.
4.

Equipment
Function
Generator
CRO
Resistor
Capacitor

Specifications

Quantity

THEORY:
A CRO is used to measure the phase shift of an RC network. The sinusoidal input and output
waveforms of the circuit are simultaneously applied to the X and Y plates of CRO.
The resultant pattern on the screen is then an ellipse, the exact pattern of which depends upon
the relative phase of the input and output voltages waveforms. The phase difference between
the two waveforms is given by
(1)

The theoretical phase shift of their RC network is

(2)
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

R
y

VI

Ymax

Function
Generator

Vo

Yint
x

Fig. 1. Circuit for RC phase shift

Fig. 2. Measurement of phase shift

on CRO

DESIGN:
For given values of phase shift and frequency f, design the values of R and C using
equation (2). Select a suitable value of capacitor C (in F) and calculate the corresponding
value of resistance R. Choose a value of R close to the calculated value.
Finally find out the actual theoretical phase shift (th) using (2) and designed values of R and
C.
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect circuit shown in Fig. 1, with the designed values of R and C.
2. Take a sine wave signal VI (5V p-p) of given frequency (f), from a function generator and
apply it to RC network of Fig. 1.
3. Connect the input voltage signal VI, to CH#1 of CRO and output voltage signal VO, to CH#2
of CRO.
4. Set the CRO in X-Y mode to get a pattern (ellipse) at the CRO screen.
5. Measure the values of Yint and Ymax.
OBSERVATIONS:
Trace the pattern from the CRO screen and note down the values of Yint (cm) and Ymax (cm).
CALCULATION:
Calculate the practical phase shift pr using (1). Also calculate th, using (2) with designed
values of R and C. Compare the two-phase shifts and calculate % age error.

REFERENCE:
1. Mathur, Kulshreshths & Chadda, Electronic Devices, Applications & Integrated Circuits,
Omesh Publications, 1984.

EXP.NO.3.
OBJECT: To design and implement circuits to integrate and differentiate sine and square
waves of given frequency f = ---- kHz.
EQUIPMENT/APPARATUS/COMPONENTS USED:
S.No.

Lab No.

Equipment
Function
Generator
Dual DC power
supply
CRO
Resistor
Capacitor

1.
2
3.
4.
5.

Specifications

Quantity

CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS:
(a) Integrator

(b) Differentiator
R'

VI
Function
Generator

VI
Function
Generator

VO

VO

Fig.1.

Fig.2.

BRIEF THEORY:

BRIEF THEORY:

In time domain, the voltage across the

capacitor is given by:

In time domain, the output voltage can be

expressed as:

Where VC is the initial voltage on the capacitor. The frequency domain transfer function is
The output voltage is given as:
For physical frequencies, we get
The inverting sign attached denotes that the
circuit realizes an inverting integrator.

In frequency domain:

And phase

For physical frequencies, we get

Thus the integrator transfer function has a

magnitude

Setting the voltage gain to unity, we again

get the same relationship as obtained for the
integrator.

and phase
Now to set the voltage gain to unity, we have

Where,

Note: R' has been considered as infinite while

deriving the above relations.

DESIGN FOR INTEGRATOR AND DIFFERENTIATOR:

Design the circuits of integrator (Fig. 1) and differentiator (Fig. 2) such that the magnitude of
the voltage gain is unity at the given frequency

Now, for given frequency choose a suitable value of the capacitor (0.01F or 0.1F) and
calculate R from the above relationship.
Using the designed value of RC and Eqn (1), calculate the Actual/Theoritical frequency fth.
For the case of integrator (Fig. 1), as the input is not perfect ac, a small dc level of the source
is integrated and clips the output waveform. Therefore, it is advisable to connect additional
resistance (R') as shown in Fig.1. The value of R' can be chosen depending upon the
frequency of interest as given below:
R' = 470K, for C = 0.01F, at 1KHz
R' = 15K, for C = 0.1F, at 1KHz
R' = 33K, for C = 0.01F, at 5KHz
R' = 33K, for C = 0.01F, at 10KHz
R' = 180K, for C = 0.01F, at 10KHz
PROCEDURE: (For Integrator)
1. Check op-amp in unity gain.

2. Connect the circuit of Fig. 1, using the designed values of R and C. Also connect R'
accordingly as explained above.
3. Take a sine/square wave VI (5 Vp-p), of given frequency fth, from a function generator and
apply it at the input of integrator (Fig. 1).
4. With proper design, a phase shifted output voltage VO with the same frequency fth and same
amplitude (5 Vp-p) is obtained at the output of integrator for a sine wave input VI.
5. Apply VI at CH#1 and VO at CH#2 of CRO.
6. For a sine wave input waveform (VI), and using the CRO in X-Y Mode, a circle is obtained
for a 90 phase shift between VI at and VO.
7. For a square wave input waveform (VI), and using the CRO in Normal Mode, a triangular
wave with negative slope, is obtained at the output of integrator (VO).
PROCEDURE: (For Differentiator)
1. Connect the circuit of Fig. 2, using the designed values of R and C.
2. Take a sine/square wave VI (5 Vp-p), of given frequency fth, from a function generator and
apply it at the input of differentiator (Fig. 2).
3. With proper design, a phase shifted output voltage VO with the same frequency fth and same
amplitude (5 Vp-p) is obtained at the output of differentiator for a sine wave input VI.
8. Apply VI at CH#1 and VO at CH#2 of CRO.
9. For a sine wave input waveform (VI), and using the CRO in X-Y Mode, a circle is obtained
for a 90 phase shift between VI at and VO.
10. For a square wave input waveform (VI), and using the CRO in Normal Mode, VO is obtained
at the output of differentiator in the form of -ve pulses of 15 V, at the rising and falling
edge of VI.
OBSERVATIONS:
1. Observe the amplitude and frequency (fpr) of VI at CH#1 and VO at CH#2 of CRO and trace
the waveforms of both differentiator & integrator.
2. Trace of the input and output waveforms are to be attached.
3. Compare the values of fth and fpr for both differentiator & integrator.
4. Explore the variations in the amplitude of the output waveform when the input signal
frequency is deviated from the design frequency.
REFRENCES:
1. Sedra & Smith, Microelectronic Circuits, OUP, fifth edition.

EXP. NO.4.
OBJECT: To design and test OP-AMP based inverting and non-inverting amplifiers for a
given voltage gain AV = VO/VI = -------.
EQUIPMENT/APPARATUS/COMPONENTS USED:
S.No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Lab No.

Equipment
Function
Generator
CRO
Dual
power
supply
Op-AMP
Resistors

Specifications

Quantity

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
R1

R2

VI
Function
Generator

VO

Fig. 1. OP-AMP based inverting amplifier

R1

R2

Function
Generator

VO
VI

Fig. 2. OP-AMP based non-inverting amplifier

FORMULA USED: (a) For inverting amplifier

(b) For non-inverting amplifier,

PROCEDURE:
1. Check op-amp in unity gain.
2. For a given AV, design R1=K & R2=K, for both inverting & non-inverting amplifiers.
3. Calculate the actual/theoretical value of AVth using designed values of R1 and R2.
4. Take VI (DC/sine wave/square wave) from a function generator and apply it to the input of
inverting/non-inverting amplifiers (Fig. 1/Fig. 2) and observe the corresponding output VO.
5. Select a proper value of VI, so that VO should not exceed the biasing voltage (15 V), for
proper amplification
OBSERVATIONS:
Observe VI at CH#1 and VO at CH#2 of CRO and note down the values of VI and VO for both
inverting and non-inverting amplifiers.
CALCULATIONS & RESULT:

Gain of inverting/non-inverting amplifier (AVpr)

DISCUSSION: Compare the results of

REFERENCE:
1. Millman.J. and Grabel.A., Microelectronics, McGraw Hill, 1987.

Exp.No.5.
OBJECT:To implement a Full Wave Rectifier (with and without filter) using diodes.
EQUIPMENT/APPARATUS/COMPONENTS USED:
S.No.

Lab No.

1.

Equipment
Center
transformer
Diode
Zener Diode
Capacitors
Resistors
CRO

2.
3.
4.
5.
6

Specifications

Quantity

tap

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
D1

VI

ac line
voltage

R=
1K

Center
tap

VS

R = 1K

VR

VZ

VC

Y
VS

D2

Fig.1. Center tap full wave rectifier circuit with filter and voltage regulator
THEORY:
Power
transformer
Ac line
220V
VI
(rms) 50
Hz
VI

VS

Diode rectifier

VS
t

Voltage
regulator

Filter

VR
t

IL C

VC
t

VZ

Load

VZ
t

Fig.2. Different stages of a regulated power supply

The above diagram shows the different stages of a regulated voltage supply. Comparison with
the circuit diagram given above shows that the capacitor 'C' acts as the filter and the

Zenerdiode is used as a voltage regulator. The expected output at point 'A' in the circuit
diagram is a Full Wave Rectifier output (VR). At point 'B', a filtered voltage VCbecomes
available, containing an ac component of mV range. This is referred to as the ripple voltage
or ac voltage.This waveform also consists of a dc component of the order of few volts.

VC

Ripples
Fig.3. Ripples at the output of filter

The above waveform consists of two components: ac (ripples of the order of mV) and a dc
component of the order of few volts.
PROCEDURE:
(PART A)
1. Initially, connect the Full Wave Rectifier (FWR) part of the circuit only (i.e. till point 'A'
shown above).
2. Apply and observe the input waveform VS (sinusoidal voltage between points X & Y) on
CH#1 of CRO/DSO.
3. Similarly, apply and observe the output voltage of the FWR VR (at point 'A'), on CH#2 of the
CRO/DSO.
4. Trace both waveforms VS and VR and measure the peak-to-peak value of VS and Average/dc
value of VR.
(PART B)
1. Now, connect the remaining part of the circuit and trace of the output waveforms VC and VZ
at points 'B' and 'C' respectively.
2. To measure the ac component (ripples) of the waveform VC at point 'B', select the mode
control switch (ac/dc switch) of CRO/DSO, in ac position. Select the voltage/div knob in
mV/div range. Trace the waveform VC at point B and measure its ac value.
3. To measure the dc value of the same waveformVC at point 'B', fix the reference with GND
switch. Now, select the mode control switch (ac/dc switch) of CRO/DSO, in dc position.
Select the voltage/div knob in the range of 5V/div.Trace the waveform VC at point 'B' and
measure its dc value.

4. To measure the dc value of the waveform VZ at point 'C', select the mode control switch
(ac/dc switch) of CRO/DSO, in dc position. Select the voltage/div knob in the range of
5V/div. Trace the waveform VZ at point C and measure its dc value.
CALCULATIONS:
(a) Peak-to-peak value of VS = (VS/div) (No. of div) = ------ V (ac)

At point X

(b) Average/dc value of VR = ------ V (dc)

At point A

(c) ac component (ripples) ofVC = (VC/div) (No. of div) = --------- mV (ac) At point B
(d) dc component of VC = (VC/div) (No. of div)

= ---------- V (dc)

At point B

(e) dc component of VZ = (VZ/div) (No. of div)

= ---------- V (dc)

At point C

RESULTS:
Attach the traces of VS, VR, VC &VZ at points X, A, B and C respectively and report the ac/dc
levels of the waveforms, measured at these points.

Exp.No.6.
OBJECT:To study and plot the input and output characteristics of an NPN BJT in CommonEmitter configuration.
EQUIPMENT/APPARATUS/COMPONENTS USED:
S.No.

Lab No.

1.

Equipment

Specifications

Quantity

Dual DC power
supply
NPN Transistor
Variable Resistor
Resistor
Micro-Ammeter
Milli-Ammeter

2.
3.
4.
5.
6

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

RB

IB

IC

mA
47K

5V

VBB

VI
VCE

VCC

032V

1M
VBE

Fig.1. NPN transistor in Common emitter configuration

PROCEDURE:
Part-A: Input characteristics VBE Vs IB curve at (a) VCE= 1V and (b) VCE= 10V.
1. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig. 1. Using a 0-30 volts variable dc power supply, set the
value of VCC, such that VCE = 1V.
2. Vary the input voltage VI (using 5V dc power supply with a variable resistance R), and
measure the corresponding values of VBE and IB.
3. Repeat the experiment for VCE = 10V.
4. Plot the graph between VBE and IB.

Part-B: Output characteristics VCE - ICE curve for IB = 10A, 20A and 30A.
1. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig. 2. Vary the input voltage VI (using 5V dc power supply
with a variable resistance R), set a suitable value of base current (say 20 A)
2. Now, vary the output voltage VCC and measure the corresponding value of VCEand IC.
3. Repeat the experiment for different valuesof IB= (10 A, 20 A,30 A) or IB = (25 A, 50
A, 75 A).
4. Plot the graph between VCE and IC & for different values of IB and find the value of hfe (from
these curves) compare it with the value given in transistor manual.
OBSERVATION TABLE:
For Part (A).
(i)
VCE = -----------VBE
IB
(ii)

VCE = ------------

VBE
IB
For Part (A).
(i)
Base current IB = -----------VCE
IC
(ii)

Base current IB = ------------

VCE
IC
REPORT:
Explain the following features of C.E. Configuration as compared to other standard
configurations:
1. Input characteristics.
2. Output characteristics.
3. Gain.
PRECAUTION
Don't vary the value of VCC above 15 V

Exp.No.7.
OBJECT: To design and test a Wien's bridge oscillator for a given frequency of ---- KHz.

EQUIPMENT/APPARATUS/COMPONENTS USED:
S.No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Lab No.

Equipment
Function
Generator
CRO
Dual
power
supply
741 Op-AMP
Resistors
capacitors

Specifications

Quantity

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
R1

R2

Vo

R
C

Fig.1. Wien's bridge oscillator

FORMULA USED:
Frequency for oscillations is given by,

DESIGN:
1. Select a suitable value of C (in F) and calculate the value of R (in K ) for the given
frequency.
2. Design condition for oscillator R2 = 2R1.
3. This is achieved by using a variable resistor of about 0-10K and adjusting its variable knob
till oscillations of designed frequency are obtained.
4. Finally calculate the actual/theoretical frequency (fth) using designed values of R and C.
PROCEDURE:
1. Check the OP-AMP in unity gain on a bread board.
2. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig. 1.
3. To obtain a value of R2 = 2R1, take a variable resistor of 10K. Adjust the knob of variable
resistor till a sinusoidal output is obtained
4. Trace this output waveform from the CRO.
5. Measure the amplitude and frequency (fpr) of this waveform
CALCULATIONS
1. Calculate the frequency of waveform obtained at CRO (fpr) and compare with the designed
value fth.
REPORT:
1. Comment on the balance bridge formed in this circuit.
2. Comment on the existence of a virtual short at the input terminals of OP-AMP in a large
number of applications.