Exercise 1
Exercise 1
Exercise 1
Cells:
-
Primordial germ cells (initial germ cells formed) -> developing gonads (where they divide mitotically) -> spermatogonia and oogonia (stem cells)
Stem cells undifferentiated cells that divide mitotically producing 2 types of cells
1. Remain as stem cells to keep cell line alive
2. Cells will become differentiated
- This nature that allows organisms to produce billions of sperms and eggs
Gametogenesis 1st phase in the sexual reproduction of animals
- process of formation of sex cells, which will laso undergo transformation to become specialized cells
- SPERMATOGENESIS (males) sperm formation
- OOGENESIS (females) ova formation
MAJOR PROCESSES:
1. Cell proliferation- primitive germ cells repeatedly divide by mitosis -> identical cells
2. Cell growth- cessation of mitosis; acquisition of raw materials for synthesis of protoplasm
3. Cell maturation- 2 successive cell divisions (meiosis) take place; accompanied by chromosomal division -> haploid number of
chromosomes
OVERVIEW:
Spermatogenesis:
- Round sperm > elongate > oval shape more pointed on one part
- Lose cytoplasm retaining only a small amount
- Form flagellum
Oogenesis:
- Do not transform much
- Increase in size and start to have a large amount of yolk
- Immotile
Common between them: They undergo MEIOSIS -> haploid # of chromosomes
*Embryo starts the development of organism and formed during zygote stage of an animal
SPERMATOGENESIS
-
FROG
-
MOUSE
*stained with H&E (blue: nuclei; pink:
cytoplasm)
* The same for CHICKS TESTIS but do
not stain clearly
- tunica albuginea: tissue
covering the testis; thick layer of
fibrous CT with a covering of
mesothelial cells
- subdivides the testis into
lobules, each containing
seminiferous tubules
- seminiferous tubules:
spherical; filled with
spermatogenic cells; convoluted
tubules with specialized
epithelium
- seminiferous epithelium made
up of sertoli cells and male sex
cells
- Spermatogenic cyce lasts a total
of 48 days
- Successive cycles start every 12
days
- 4 overlapping cycles
Sertoli cells
- spaced at fairly regular intervals
against the basement
membrane around the
circumference of the
seminiferous tubules
- near spermatogonia
- often surrounded by sperm
Functions:
1. form the blood-testes barrier
2. determine which substances
reach the germ cells
(spermatogonia are outside the
blood-testis barrier)
3. produce antigen-binding
proteins (necessary for
spermiogenesis)
2 types:
1. Active: pyramidal, apex towards
the lumen, and nucleus
perpendicular to tubule wall
2. Inactive: polygonal, nucleus
parallel to tubule wall
Spermatogonia:
- small, crowded; located at blunt ends
- nuclei: beaded appearance of chromatin; large
nuclei containing conspicuous masses of
chromatin
- These cells multiply for some time before
undergoing maturation
Spermatogonia:
- small, closely packed cells each with
granular oval nucleus
- each gonium invested by follicle
cells
- number of so-called residual
spermatozoid maintain this condition
permanently (source of germ cell
proliferation)
Spermatogonia:
- most primitive of the male sex
cells
- undergoes MD and their
progenies are translocated
(mediated by sertoli cells)
1. Rests on basement membrane;
interrupted by sertoli cells
2. Appears as thin layers of cells
with compact deeply staining
3. Nuclei tend to be quite small
Primary Spermatocyte:
- spermatogonium that has undergone growth;
ready to divide
- located near cysts containing sgonia
- very large nuclei
SUBSTAGES:
Interphase:
- inconspicuous, finely granular, may show a
single pale vascular nucleolus
Leptotene:
- chromatin crusts or granules -> finely beaded
filaments -> clearly filamentous
- chromosomes are at their longest (uncoiled),
Primary Spermatocyte:
- very large cells, irregularly spherical,
possess large and vesicular nuclei
- meiotic prophase configurations
may also be discerned
3 types of spermatogonia:
Type A:
- chromatin particles appear fine
and evenly dispersed
- single prominent chromatin
nucleolus, usually appears in an
eccentric position (these are
usually the germ line)
Type B:
- presence of coarse granules or
flakes of heavily stained
chromatin associated with the
nuclear membrane and
nucleolus
- most common, outnumbers tyoe
A and intermediate
- last stage before they transform
into primary spermatocytes
*most of the nuclei are in interphase
stage
INTERMEDIATE:
- with chromaphilic chromatin in
the form of delicate crusts or
flakes attached to the nuclear
membrane
- have prominent nuclei appearing
in a central position
Primary Spermatocyte:
- significantly large size and
nuclei
- chromosomes are very much
visible and the nuclear
membrane are not visible
(disintegrated)
Interphase:
- similar to gonial B
- Distinguished by finely granular
nucleus with pale nucleolus
- 3% total time of spermatogenic
Secondary spermatocytes:
- half the size of primaries
- lie toward the lumen of the tubule
- darkly staining nucleus
- cytoplasm clearly visible and
prominent
Secondary spermatocytes:
- smaller than primaries
- may contain pale-stained
granular chromatin and several
globules of chromaphilic
chromatin free in the
nucleoplasm or associated with
the nuclear membrane
Spermatids:
- half the size of secondaries
- possess haploid set, but not functional as
gametes
- undergoes spermiogenesis: spermatids ->
sperm
Major events:
1. Spermatid elongates
2. Most of cytoplasm sloughed off, except for
small amount -> tail sheath (surrounds tail
which grows back from centrosome)
3. Chromatin mass becomes more condensed
and elongated to form solid staining head
Spermatozoa:
- ready to fertilize eggs
- consists of: head, middle piece (centrosome
and mitochondria), and tail
- long, thin, darkly staining heads
- abundant at distal region of the testis
Spermatids:
- smaller than secondaries
- possess a condensed nucleus of
irregular shape
- cyst appears as cluster of granules
with dark nucleus being almost as
small as the cross section of the
sperm head
- inner of the two spermatid centrioles
passes into the nucleus while the
other one gives rise flagellum
Spermatids:
- smaller than spermatogonia
- initially quite round, pale staining
- nuclei -> elongate
- nucleus will decrease
- DNA will condense
- In early spermatids, the golgi
apparatus appears as an
intense red granule near the
nucleus
- Usually lie in close association
with sertoli cells during
spermiogenesis
Spermatozoa:
- 0.30mm
- elongated, solid staining head with
anterior acrosome pointing
outwardly toward the periphery of
the seminiferous tubule
- tail appears as a gray filamentous
extension of sperm head
Spermatozoa:
- deeply stained, short structures
- form the innermost layer of the
tubule
- heads of mature sperm are
buried in sertoli cells, tails
extend into lumen
- mature sperm: head, middle
piece, and tail
- head: circle-shaped and
flattened; tail: long and flagellate
Seminiferous tubules:
Between the seminiferous tubules, there
are:
a.) small blood vessels usually filled
with RBCs
b.) clump of cells conspicuous
nuclei that contains blue-stained
chromatin
c.) CT cells with elongated (spindleshaped) nuclei
Mesorchium:
- portion of peritoneum that suspends testis
to the dorsal body wall
Tunica albuginea:
- outer CT which covers the testis
OOGENESIS
-
Egg formation
Polar bodies: produced after 1st MD, smaller than egg due to unequal cytokinesis
This occurrence has the advantage of providing ovum with a much greater amount of cytoplasm and stored food
Polar body produced after 1st MD may or may not undergo 2nd MD; ALL POLAR BODIES ARE NON-FUNCTIONAL
Ootid differentiates quickly into ovum; doesnt have to undergo major changes
Oogenesis takes place within the follicles of the ovaries
Ovary covered by a continuous sheet of epithelium called the germinal epithelium (thought to give rise to future oocytes) but consists of
ovarian tissue
- Mesovarium: mesentery that attaches the ovary to the dorsal body wall; the route for blood vessels to and from the ovary
- Ovary divided into:
1. Central medulla
- consists largely of CT and blood vessels; continuous with mesovarium
2. Peripheral cortex
- business part
FROG
CAT
HUMAN
- essentially a large yolk of sac with
Germinal epithelium:
heavier and larger granules
- epithelial lining of ovary composed of
concentrated toward the animal
cuboidal cells
hemisphere and in the vicinity of
Tunica albuginea:
germinal vesicle (immature nucleus)
- fibrous CT beneath germinal epithelium
- Coat: surrounds entire egg; necessary
Stroma:
for retaining shape and aids in
- CT beneath tunica albuginea
cleavage and gastrulation; contains
- Penetrates the substance of the ovary
pigment (metabolic by-product)
- Consists of CT fibers and spindle
shaped cells
Mesovarium:
Corpus luteum
- double-layered extension of peritoneum;
- may be in various stages of regression
attaches ovary to the dorsal body wall
- large cavity filled with loose CT and
remnants of lutein cells
Ovarian follicle:
Blood vessels
-collective term for theca externa, theca
- vein and artery
interna, and follicle cells
-
Theca externa:
- outermost CT surrounding ovary
- continuous with mesovarium
- region of rupture during ovulation to
allow egg to escape into body cavity
- thousands of individual sacs
containing eggs are suspended in this
covering
Theca interna:
- inner CT surrounding ovary and each
egg
*Theca externa and interna contain blood
vessels and nerves. They make up the limited
stroma of the frogs ovary
Follicle cells:
- cells derived from the oogonia
- contain oval and granular nuclei,
surrounds the developing oocyte
- found in close association with the
oocyte through maturation
Oogonia:
- usually located at the periphery of
ovary; much smaller than oocytes
- no pigment and contain little/no yolk
h. Atretic follicles
- unsuccessful follicles undergoing
degenerative process
*Initial atresia- occurs in the ovum after in
which there is degeneration of follicle cells
Resulting structure: scattered follicle cells,
unorganized stratum granulosum, and germ
cell fragments
- Atresia of growing follicle: presence of
collapsed ZP and cavity invaded by theca
interna (corpus atretica)
i.
-
Corpus lutea
masses of granular tissue in the ovary
resulting from ovulation of egg cells
from follicles
- persist during pregnancy; responsible
for production of progesterone
- lightly stained and follicles seem to be
converging at the mid portion
Structures present in corpus luteum:
1. Lutein cells
- Granulosa lutein: large, light stained,
from stratum granulosum, produces
progesterone
- Theca lutein: smaller, dark stained,
from theca interna, produces estrogen
and progesterone
j. Capillaries
- network of small blood vessels with a
single endothelial lining
- identified by blank spaces or by dark
masses of blood corpuscles
k. Capsule