Sri Manakula Vinayagar Engineering College, Puducherry

Department of Computer Science and Engineering

Subject Name: COMPUTER HARDWARE AND NETWORK TROUBLESHOOTING
Subject Code: CS T72

Prepared By :
Dr.E.Kodhai,Asso.Prof./CSE
M.Ganesan, AP/CSE
R.Rajadurai, AP/CSE
Verified by :

Approved by :
UNIT I

Personal Computer: Introduction History of the Personal Computers System Components - Data
flow inside the PC Processor types and specifications 16-bit to 64-bit evolution specifications
Cache Memory Processor Features: System Management Mode Super scalar execution Dynamic
Execution - Dual independent bus architecture Hyper threading Dual and multi core technology socket and slot types Intels Pentium and Core Processors AMD K6 to K8 series processors.
2 Marks
1.

Define Personal Computer (PC)?

A personal computer (PC) is any general-purpose computer whose size, capabilities, and original
sales price make it useful for individuals, and which is intended to be operated directly by an enduser with no intervening computer operator.

2.

Draw the data flow diagram inside the PC?

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3.

Define PC System Design Guide?

The PC System Design Guide (also known as the PC 97, PC 98, PC 99, or PC 2001 specification) is
a series of hardware design requirements and recommendations for IBM PC compatible personal
computers, compiled by Microsoft and Intel Corporation during 19972001.

4.

What is UMA and HMA?

Upper Memory Area (UMA): This is the upper 384 KB of the first megabyte of system memory
(immediately above conventional memory). It is reserved for use by system devices and for special
uses such as ROM shadowing and drivers. It uses addresses A0000h to FFFFFh.
High Memory Area (HMA): This is the first 64 KB (less 16 bytes) of the second megabyte of
system memory. Technically this is the first 64 KB of extended memory, but it can be accessed when
the processor is in real mode, which makes it different from the rest of extended memory. It is
usually used for DOS, to allow more conventional memory to be preserved. It occupies addresses
100000h to 10FFEFh.

5.

Define Over clocking?

Over clocking is the process of making a computer or component operate faster than specified by the
manufacturer by modifying system parameters.

6.

What is Cache Memory? (NOV 2012)

Cache memory is random access memory (RAM) that a computer microprocessor can access more
quickly than it can access regular RAM. As the microprocessor processes data, it looks first in the
cache memory and if it finds the data there (from a previous reading of data), it does not have to do
the more time-consuming reading of data from larger memory.

7.

Clarify Super scalar execution?

A superscalar CPU can execute more than one instruction per clock cycle. Because processing speeds
are measured in clock cycles per second (megahertz), a superscalar processor will be faster than a
scalar processor rated at the same megahertz.

8.

What is processor? (NOV 2013)

A processor is the logic circuitry that responds to and processes the basic instructions that drive a
computer. The term processor has generally replaced the term central processing unit (CPU). The
processor in a personal computer or embedded in small devices is often called a microprocessor.

9. Define system clock? (NOV 2013)

system clock that shows a time-of-day clock in a computer system. It is an electronic device in a
computer that issues a steady high-frequency signal that synchronizes all the internal components
10. Write the Microprocessor Types and Specifications?
Processor Types
P1 (086) First-Generation Processors
P2 (286) Second-Generation Processors
P3 (386) Third-Generation Processors
P4 (486) Fourth-Generation Processors
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P5 (586) Fifth-Generation Processors
Pseudo-Fifth-Generation Processors
P6 (686) Sixth-Generation Processors
Pseudo-Sixth-Generation Processors
P7 (786) Seventh-Generation Processors
Processor Upgrades
OverDrive Processors
OverDrive Processor Installation
OverDrive Compatibility Problems
Processor Benchmarks
Processor Specifications
Processor Speed Ratings
Data Bus
Internal Registers
Address Bus
Internal (Level 1) Cache
Processor Modes
Processor Features
Processor Manufacturing
Physical Packaging
Processor Sockets
CPU Operating Voltages
Heat and Cooling Problems
Math Coprocessors
Processor Bugs
Processor Update Features
Intel Processor Codenames
11. Define Dual Independent Bus (DIB)
Dual Independent Bus (DIB) is a processor architecture that includes two buses: one to the main
system memory and another to the level 2 cache. The processor can access both simultaneously for
improved performance. In Dual Independent Bus (DIB) architecture systems the single system bus is
replaced by a back-side bus for accessing level 2 cache, and a front-side bus for communicating data
between the CPU and main memory and input and output devices.
12. What is Hyper-threading?
Hyper-threading is a technology developed by Intel Corporation. It is used in certain Pentium 4
processors and all Intel Xeon processors. Hyper-threading technology, commonly referred to as "HT
Technology," enables the processor to execute two threads, or sets of instructions, at the same time.
Since hyper-threading allows two streams to be executed in parallel, it is almost like having two
separate processors working together.
13. What is Dual-core Technology?
A single chip that contains two distinct processors that work simultaneously. IBM introduced dual
cores in its Power 4 chips in 2000. In 2004, Sun and HP introduced their first dual core CPUs.
14. Define Processor Codenames?
Intel, AMD, and Cyrix have always used codenames when talking about future processors. The
codenames usually are not supposed to become public, but they typically do. They can often be

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found in online and print news and magazine articles talking about future-generation processors.
Sometimes, they even appear in motherboard manuals because the manuals are written before the
Processors are officially introduced.
15. What is meant by Power Management?
Power management is a feature of some electrical appliances, especially copiers, computers and
computer peripherals such as monitors and printers, that turns off the power or switches the system to
a low-power state when inactive. In computing this is known as PC power management
16. Explain the history of PC?
The history of personal computers began in the 1970s. A personal computer is one intended for
individual use, as opposed to a mainframe computer where the end user's requests are filtered
through operating staff, or a time sharing system in which one large processor is shared by many
individuals. After the development of the microprocessor, individual personal computers were low
enough in cost that they eventually became affordable consumer goods. Early personal computers
generally called microcomputers were sold often in electronic kit form and in limited numbers, and
were of interest mostly to hobbyists and technicians.
17. Differentiate hardware and software?
Hardware and software work together in digital devices and systems to provide computerized
functionality. Hardware includes the physical components, such as the motherboard, chips, memory,
and hard drives, while software includes the programs that run on the hardware.
18. What are the two types of hardware interrupts (NOV 2010)
There are two basic types of hardware interrupts: Non Maskable Interrupts (NMI) and (maskable)
Interrupt Requests (IRQ)
19. What is BIOS? (APR 2011), (NOV 2012)
BIOS (basic input/output system) is the program a personal computer's microprocessor uses to get the
computer system started after you turn it on. It also manages data flow between the computer's
operating system and attached devices such as the hard disk, video adapter, keyboard, mouse and
printer.
20. List any four components of Mother Board? (APR 2011)
1. North Bridge
2. Soth Bridge
3. Chipset
4. Processor Sockets
5. Memory Slots
6. Power Connectors
21. Expand SMPS, DMA? (APR 2012)
SMPS - switched-mode power supply
DMA - Direct memory access
22. What are the types of memory? (APR 2012)
The types of memory in a computer system are:
Cache Memory - This is a small amounts of memory used to speed up system performance.
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Main memory - This is the RAM (random access memory)
Secondary memory - This is a magnetic storage that keeps applications and data available to be used,
and may also serves as virtual memory depending upon the operating system
23. List out the Hardware components of PC? (NOV 2012)

Power Supply
Motherboard
Microprocessor.
Memory
Drive controllers
Hard disk drive(s)
CD-ROM drive(s)
Floppy drive(s)
Monitor
Keyboard
Mouse

24. Define computer? (NOV 2012)

A computer is a device that accepts information (in the form of digitalized data) and manipulates it for
some result based on a program or sequence of instructions on how the data is to be processed.
Complex computers also include the means for storing data (including the program, which is also a
form of data) for some necessary duration. A program may be invariable and built into the computer
(and called logic circuitry as it is on microprocessors) or different programs may be provided to the
computer (loaded into its storage and then started by an administrator or user). Today's computers
have both kinds of programming.
25. Why is the maximum value in decimal that can be represented by an eight bit binary number?(
NOV 2014)
Each character can be converted to its equivalent ASCII code. That ASCII code will be stored in the
memory in 8 bit form.
26. If the number of bits in MAR is 10, What is the maximum memory capacity? (NOV 2014)
210 = 1024 locations
0000000000 -> location no. 0
0000000001 -> location no. 1
..
1111111111 -> Location no.1023
So totally 1024 locations

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11 MARKS
Personal Computer:
A personal computer (PC) is comprised of hardware, Operating system and software. Each of these
components is fairly complex; However
The Hardware: The most fundamental elements of a PCs hardware are the central processing unit(CPU)
and memory modules mounted on the motherboard. When the PC is powered on, the CPU begins
communicating with motherboard and starts the basic input output system(BIOS) which is stored on a
chip on the motherboard. After verifying that the required components are present and functioning, it may
check the floppy drive, hard disk or CD ROM for the presence of an OS. Other common examples of
hardware which may be a part of a PC include a modem, soundcard, network card and video card. The
components attached outside of the computer such as the keyboard, mouse, printer and monitor are called
peripherals.
The Operating System: The OS is responsible for everything from enabling hardware components to
function to how to communicate with the internet as well as playing the role of traffic cop for all the
software.
The OS allocates the resources of the PC to the software and hardware in an organized way. The
resources include things like memory storage space, access to the hard disk and what is displayed on the
monitor. Without the OS, the software programs might interface with each other, causing the PC to
malfunction or crash continually. Even with the OS, many PCs have difficulty operating smoothly.
The software: While the OS is technically a software program it is distinct from other software
specifically referred to asApplication Software. Application software, well just call it software are
programs that you install onto a PC that make the PC useful.
Software is a complex series of instructions telling the computer what to do. The instructions are very
detailed because they have to tell the computer every single step to be performed. For example a word
processing program has instructions for what to do when you press the letter A. The software tells the
computer to take the letters you already typed and it tells he computer to display the letters on the screen
so you can see what you have typed. The computer doesnot do anything without very explicit instructions.
1. Explain briefly about History of the PC
1617

John Napier creates Napiers Bones wood (or) Ivory rods used for calculation.

1642

Blaise Pascal introduces the Pascaline digital adding machine.

1822

Charles Babbage introduces the difference engine and later the analytical engine, a true
general purpose computing machine.

1937

John V Atanesoff begins work on the Atanasoff Berry Computer(ABC). First electronic
computer,uses tubes, transistors,Selenoids and relays.

1945 -

John Von Neuman writes First draft of a report on the EDVAC, architecture of the
modern stored program computer.

1946 -

ENIAC is introduced by John Mouchly and J.Prespe Eckert.

1949 -

Maurice wilkes assembles the EDSAC, First practical stored program computer at
Cambridege University.

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1953 -

IBM ships its first electronic computer the 701.

1955 -

Bell laboratories announces the first fully transistorised computer, TRADIC.

1956 -

MIT researchers build TX-0, the first general purpose, programmable computer build with
transistors.

1959 -

IBMs 7000 series mainframes are the companys first transitorised computer.

1960 -

Bell labs designs its Dataphone, the first commercial modem specifically for converting
digital data to analog signals for transmission across long distnce network.

1964 -

Online transaction processing makes its debut in IBMs SABRE reservation system, setup
for American Airlines.

1969 -

Internet begins when the department of defence establishes 4 nodes on the ARPANET, two
at University of Californiacampuses and one each at Sri international and the University of
Utah.

1971 -

A team at IBMs Sanjose labortories invents 8 floppy disk.

1974 -

Xerox Palo Alto research centre design the Alto, the first workstation with a built in mouse
for input.

1975 -

Telenet, the first commercial packet switching network and civilian equivalent of
ARPANE is born.

1976 -

Steve Wozniak designs the Apple I, a single board computer.

1980 -

Seagate technology creates the first hard disk drive for micro computers, ST-506.

1981 -

The first optical data storage disk has 60 times the capacity of 5 floppy disk.

1981 -

Xerox introduces PC with graphical user interface(GUI)

1981 -

Sony introduces the first 3 FDD.

1981 -

Adam Osborne completes the first portable computer OsborneJ, which weighs 24 lbs and
cost $1,795.

1981 -

Philips and Sony introduces the CD-DA format(Compact Disk Digital Audio)

1982 -

Sony is the first with a CD Player on the market.

1983 -

Compaque introduces its first PC clone that uses the same software as the IBM PC.

1990 -

The world wide web is born when Tim Borners Lee develops HTML.

1993 -

Intel releases Pentium 5 processor.

1995 -

Intel releases Pentium 6 processor.

1995 -

Microsoft releases Windows 95, the first mainstream 32bit OS.

1997 -

Intel releases Pentium III processor.

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1998 -

Microsoft releases Windows 98.

1998 -

AMD releases Athlon.

1999 -

IEEE officially approves the 5Ghz band 802.11a 54mbps and 2.4Ghz band 802.11b
11mbps wireless networking standards.

2000 -

The first 802.11b wi-fi certified products are introduced.

2000 -

Microsoft releases Windows ME and Windows

2001 -

Microsoft releases Windows XP.

2006 -

Microsoft releases Windows Vista.

2009 -

Microsoft releases Windows 7.

2012 -

Microsoft releases Windows 8.

2013 -

Microsoft releases Windows 8.1

2015 -

Microsoft releases Windows 10

2. Draw the functional Block diagram of the PC and explain its parts (APR 2011)
A computer system consists of mainly four basic units; namely input unit, storage unit, central processing
unit and output unit. Central Processing unit further includes Arithmetic logic unit and control unit, as
shown in the figure:.

A computer performs five major operations or functions irrespective of its size and make. These are

it accepts data or instructions as input,

it stores data and instruction

it processes data as per the instructions,

it controls all operations inside a computer, and

it gives results in the form of output.

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Desktop Computer System
Functional Units:
a. Input Unit: This unit is used for entering data and programs into the computer system by the user for
processing.
Basic Computer Organisation
b. Storage Unit: The storage unit is used for storing data and instructions before and after processing.
c. Output Unit: The output unit is used for storing the result as output produced by the computer after
processing.
d. Processing: The task of performing operations like arithmetic and logical operations is called
processing. The Central Processing Unit (CPU) takes data and instructions from the storage unit and
makes all sorts of calculations based on the instructions given and the type of data provided. It is then sent
back to the storage unit. CPU includes Arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and control unit (CU)
Computer Chip
Arithmetic Logic Unit: All calculations and comparisons, based on the instructions provided, are
carried out within the ALU. It performs arithmetic functions like addition, subtraction, multiplication,
division and also logical operations like greater than, less than and equal to etc.
Control Unit: Controlling of all operations like input, processing and output are performed by control
unit. It takes care of step by step processing of all operations in side the computer.
Memory
Computers memory can be classified into two types; primary memory and secondary memory
RAM
a. Primary Memory can be further classified as RAM and ROM.
RAM or Random Access Memory is the unit in a computer system. It is the place in a computer where
the operating system, application programs and the data in current use are kept temporarily so that they
can be accessed by the computers processor. It is said to be volatile since its contents are accessible
only as long as the computer is on. The contents of RAM are no more available once the computer is
turned off.
ROM or Read Only Memory is a special type of memory which can only be read and contents of
which are not lost even when the computer is switched off. It typically contains manufacturers
instructions. Among other things, ROM also stores an initial program called the bootstrap loader whose
function is to start the operation of computer system once the power is turned on.
b. Secondary Memory
RAM is volatile memory having a limited storage capacity. Secondary/auxiliary memory is storage other
than the RAM. These include devices that are peripheral and are connected and controlled by the
computer to enable permanent storage of programs and data.
Secondary storage devices are of two types; magnetic and optical. Magnetic devices include hard
disks and optical storage devices are CDs, DVDs, Pen drive, Zip drive etc.
Hard Disk are made up of rigid material and are usually a stack of metal disks sealed in a box. The hard
disk and the hard disk drive exist together as a unit and is a permanent part of the computer where data
and programs are saved. These disks have storage capacities ranging from 1GB to 80 GB and more. Hard
disks are rewritable.
Compact Disk (CD) is portable disk having data storage capacity between 650-700 MB. It can hold
large amount of information such as music, full-motion videos, and text etc. CDs can be either read only
or read write type.
Digital Video Disk (DVD) is similar to a CD but has larger storage capacity and enormous clarity.
Depending upon the disk type it can store several Gigabytes of data. DVDs are primarily used to store
music or movies and can be played back on your television or the computer too. These are not rewritable.
Input / Output Devices:
These devices are used to enter information and instructions into a computer for storage or processing and
to deliver the processed data to a user. Input/Output devices are required for users to communicate with
the computer. In simple terms, input devices bring information INTO the computer and output devices
bring information OUT of a computer system. These input/output devices are also known as peripherals
since they surround the CPU and memory of a computer system.

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Input Devices
An input device is any device that provides input to a computer. There are many input devices, but the
two most common ones are a keyboard and mouse. Every key you press on the keyboard and every
movement or click you make with the mouse sends a specific input signal to the computer.
Keyboard: The keyboard is very much like a standard typewriter keyboard with a few additional keys.
The basic QWERTY layout of characters is maintained to make it easy to use the system. The additional
keys are included to perform certain special functions. These are known as function keys that vary in
number from keyboard to keyboard.
Mouse: A device that controls the movement of the cursor or pointer on a display screen. A mouse is a
small object you can roll along a hard and flat surface. Its name is derived from its shape, which looks a
bit like a mouse. As you move the mouse, the pointer on the display screen moves in the same direction.
Trackball: A trackball is an input device used to enter motion data into computers or other electronic
devices. It serves the same purpose as a mouse, but is designed with a moveable ball on the top, which
can be rolled in any direction.
Touchpad: A touch pad is a device for pointing (controlling input positioning) on a computer display
screen. It is an alternative to the mouse. Originally incorporated in laptop computers, touch pads are also
being made for use with desktop computers. A touch pad works by sensing the users finger movement
and downward pressure. Touch Screen: It allows the user to operate/make selections by simply touching
the display screen. A display screen that is sensitive to the touch of a finger or stylus. Widely used on
ATM machines, retail point-of-sale terminals, car navigation systems, medical monitors and industrial
control panels.
Light Pen: Light pen is an input device that utilizes a light-sensitive detector to select objects on a
display screen.
Magnetic ink character recognition (MICR): MICR can identify character printed with a special ink
that contains particles of magnetic material. This device particularly finds applications in banking
industry.
Optical mark recognition (OMR): Optical mark recognition, also called mark sense reader is a
technology where an OMR device senses the presence or absence of a mark, such as pencil mark. OMR is
widely used in tests such as aptitude test.
Bar code reader: Bar-code readers are photoelectric scanners that read the bar codes or vertical zebra
strips marks, printed on product containers. These devices are generally used in super markets, bookshops
etc.
Scanner Scanner is an input device that can read text or illustration printed on paper and translates the
information into a form that the computer can use. A scanner works by digitizing an image.
Output Devices:
Output device receives information from the CPU and presents it to the user in the desired from. The
processed data, stored in the memory of the computer is sent to the output unit, which then converts it into
a form that can be understood by the user. The output is usually produced in one of the two ways on the
display device, or on paper (hard copy).
Monitor: is often used synonymously with computer screen or display. Monitor is an output device
that resembles the television screen (fig. 1.8). It may use a Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) to display
information. The monitor is associated with a keyboard for manual input of characters and displays the
information as it is keyed in. It also displays the program or application output. Like the television,
monitors are also available in different sizes.
Printer: Printers are used to produce paper (commonly known as hard copy) output. Based on the
technology used, they can be classified as Impact or Non-impact printers.
Impact printers use the typewriting printing mechanism wherein a hammer strikes the paper through a
ribbon in order to produce output. Dot-matrix and Character printers fall under this category.
Non-impact printers do not touch the paper while printing. They use chemical, heat or electrical signals to
etch the symbols on paper. Inkjet, DeskJet, Laser, Thermal printers fall under this category of printers.
Plotter: Plotters are used to print graphical output on paper. It interprets computer commands and
makes line drawings on paper using multi colored automated pens. It is capable of producing graphs,
drawings, charts, maps etc.
Facsimile (FAX): Facsimile machine, a device that can send or receive pictures and text over a
telephone line. Fax machines work by digitizing an image.
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Sound cards and Speaker(s): An expansion board that enables a computer to manipulate and output
sounds. Sound cards are necessary for nearly all CD-ROMs and have become commonplace on modern
personal computers. Sound cards enable the computer to output sound through speakers connected to the
board, to record sound input from a microphone connected to the computer, and manipulate sound stored
on a disk.
3. Explain briefly about Data Flow inside the PC
The flow of data through our computer and discover exactly what happens to the data along this
journey. There are four devices involved in the flow of data through your computer.
Input Devices - These are devices used by the operator to send data into the computer. Some basic
examples of input devices would be your keyboard and mouse.
CPU - (Central Processing Unit) This is the brain of your computer and where all the processing of data
takes place.
Storage - This is a device used to store data either permanently or temporarily. Some examples of storage
devices are Main Memory, ROM, RAM and floppy disc.
Output - An output device sends processed information from the computer to the operator. Some basic
examples would be your monitor and your printer.
Now that we know the devices involved in our data flow lets start our journey. We can think of our data
flow like a trip to the doctor.Our operator will input the letter d into his word processing program using
his keyboard.This could be compared to our doctor's receptionist taking our information.Our keyboard
contains a small chip that has the binary codes for each key stored. This binary code is then sent to our
computers RAM.Think of this as the receptionist giving our information to the nurse.The easiest way to
think of RAM is as a temporary storage bin where data waits to be processed. Our d is now sitting in our
storage bin waiting for the computer to send it to the CPU.This would be much like our information being
put into the pile until the doctor is ready to see us.

The CPU will read the binary code and follow the coded instructions. These instructions tell the CPU
where to send the data next. In this case our d will be sent to our graphic card and then displayed on our
screen.The CPU would be like our doctor examining us, deciding on a treatment, and carrying it out.

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Input a Operator types the letter d on the keyboard. a The keyboard sends binary codes for our letter to
our RAM a Our letter d waits in RAM until the CPU is ready to process it a Our CPU reads the binary
code and sends it to our graphics card a Our graphic card displays our letter d on our monitor a Output
4. Explain briefly about Microprocessor Types and Specifications
5. Explain the types of Microprocessor. (NOV 2013)
6. Describe the specifications of processors. (NOV 2014)
Microprocessors
The brain or engine of the PC is the processor (sometimes called microprocessor), or central
processing unit (CPU). The CPU performs the systems calculating and processing. The processor is
easily the most expensive single component in the system, costing up to four or more times greater than
the motherboard it plugs into. Intel is generally credited with creating the first microprocessor in 1971
with the introduction of a chip called the 4004. Today Intel still has control over the processor market, at
least for PC systems. This means that all PC-compatible systems use either Intel processors or Intelcompatible processors from a handful of competitors (such as AMD or Cyrix).
It is interesting to note that the microprocessor had only existed for 10 years prior to the creation
of the PC! The microprocessor was invented by Intel in 1971. The PC was created by IBM in 1981. Now
nearly 20 years later, we are still using systems based more or less on the design of that first PC (and
mostly backward compatible with it). The processors powering our PCs today are still backward
compatible in many ways with the 8088 selected by IBM in 1981.
Processor Specifications
Processors can be identified by two main parameters: how wide they are and how fast they are.
The speed of a processor is a fairly simple concept. Speed is counted in megahertz (MHz), which means
millions of cycles per secondand faster is better! The width of a processor is a little more complicated
to discuss because there are three main specifications in a processor that are expressed in width. They are

Internal registers

Data input and output bus

Memory address bus

Intel Processor Specifications

Process

Proce Cloc

Voltag Register Data

Max.

or

ss

Memo

Bus

L1

L2

Mul.

Transist

Instr

ors

ry

u.

8088

3.0

1x

5v

16 bit

8 bit

1MB

29,000

8086

3.0

1x

5v

16 bit

16 bit

1MB

29,000

Pentium

0.35

2x+

3.3v

32 bit

64 bit

64GB

2x8K

256

5.5M

KB,

Pro

512

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KB,
1MB
Pentium

0.35

II

3.5x

2.8v

32 bit

64 bit

64GB

Celeron

Pentium

0.25

0.25

3.5x

1.8v-

2.8v

4x+

2.0v-

III

32 bit

64 bit

32 bit

64 bit

64GB

64GB

2.05v

Pentium

0.18

3x+

1.7v

32 bit

64 bit

64GB

IV
Core 2

0.065

Duo

1.75

0.9v-

x+

1.3v

64bit

64 bit

1TB

2x16

512

KB

KB,

2x16

0KB

KB

2x16

256

KB

KB,

12+8

256

KB

KB,

2x32

1/2

KB(x

MB(

2)

x2)

L1

L2

MM

7.5M

X
-

MM

7.5M

X
-

SSE

44M5

SSE2

42M

SSE3

291M

Mul.

Transist

Instr

ors

AMD Processor Specifications

Process

Proce Cloc

Voltag Register Data

Max.

or

ss

Memo

Bus

ry
AMD

0.35

K5

1.5x

3.5v

32 bit

64 bit

4GB

AMD

0.25

5x+

ATHLO

u.
16+8

4.3M

2x64

512

Enh.3

32M

KB

KB,

KB
1.6v-

32 bit

64 bit

4GB

1.8v

now

AMD

0.13

ATHLO

5x+

1.5-

32 bit

64 bit

1.8v

4GB

2x64

256

KB

KB,

N XP

3D

32.2M

Now!
Pro

7. What is Cache memory? Explain in detail.

Cache memory is random access memory (RAM) that a computer microprocessor can access more
quickly than it can access regular RAM. As the microprocessor processes data, it looks first in the
cache memory and if it finds the data there (from a previous reading of data), it does not have to do
the more time-consuming reading of data from larger memory.
Cache memory is fast and expensive. Traditionally, it is categorized as "levels" that describe its
closeness and accessibility to the microprocessor:

Level 1 (L1) cache is extremely fast but relatively small, and is usually embedded in the processor
chip (CPU).

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Level 2 (L2) cache is often more capacious than L1; it may be located on the CPU or on a separate
chip or coprocessor with a high-speed alternative system bus interconnecting the cache to the CPU, so
as not to be slowed by traffic on the main system bus.

Level 3 (L3) cache is typically specialized memory that works to improve the performance of L1 and
L2. It can be significantly slower than L1 or L2, but is usually double the speed of RAM. In the case of
multicore processors, each core may have its own dedicated L1 and L2 cache, but share a common L3
cache. When an instruction is referenced in the L3 cache, it is typically elevated to a higher tier cache.

8. Explain the features of Processors. (NOV 2014)

9. Explain the Following : a) System Management Mode b)Super Scalar Execution
c) Dynamic Execution d) Dual Independent Bus (DIB) e)Hyper-Threading
f)Dual and Multi-Core Technology
System Management Mode:
System Management Mode (SMM, sometimes called ring -2) is an operating mode of x86 central
processor units (CPUs) in which all normal execution, including the operating system, is suspended and
special separate software, which is usually part of the firmware or a hardware-assisted debugger, is
executed with high privileges.
It was first released with the Intel 386SL. While initially special SL versions were required for SMM,
Intel incorporated SMM in its mainline 486 and Pentium processors in 1993. AMD implemented Intel's
SMM with the Enhanced Am486 processors in 1994. It is available in all later microprocessors in the x86
architecture.
A Special mode of operation, where

All the special tasks like power management, error handling and any specific platform related
operations are performed.
Entered in SMM by invoking SMI(System Management Interrupt).

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Saves all the context of current task in execution.

Executes the handler located in SMRAM.

SMRAM is a special memory which is accessible in SMM but not accessible in normal execution
made.
Returns to normal execution by executing instruction RSM.

SMBASE is re locatable to SMRAM address spase.

SUPERSCALAR EXECUTION
The fifth-generation Pentium and newer processors feature multiple internal instruction execution
pipelines, which enable them to execute multiple instructions at the same time. The 486 and all preceding
chips can perform only a single instruction at a time. Intel calls the capability to execute more than one
instruction at a time superscalar technology. This technology provides additional performance compared
with the 486.
The super scalar technique is identifying characteristics:
Instructions are issued from a sequential instruction stream.
CPU hardware dynamically checks for data dependencies between instructions at runtime.
CPU accepts multiple instructions per cycle.
DYNAMIC EXECUTION
First used in the P6 or sixth-generation processors, dynamic execution is an innovative combination of
three processing techniques designed to help the processor manipulate data more efficiently. Those
techniques are multiple branch prediction, data flow analysis, and speculative execution. Dynamic
execution enables the processor to be more efficient by manipulating data in a more logically ordered
fashion rather than simply processing a list of instructions, and it is one of the hallmarks of all sixthgeneration processors.
The way software is written can dramatically influence a processor's performance. For example,
performance will be adversely affected if the processor is frequently required to stop what it is doing and
jump or branch to a point elsewhere in the program. Delays also occur when the processor cannot process
a new instruction until the current instruction is completed. Dynamic execution allows the processor to
not only dynamically predict the order of instructions, but execute them out of order internally, if
necessary, for an improvement in speed.
DUAL INDEPENDENT BUS (DIB)
Dual Independent Bus (DIB) is a processor architecture that includes two buses: one to the main system
memory and another to the level 2 cache. The processor can access both simultaneously for improved
performance.
In Dual Independent Bus (DIB) architecture systems the single system bus is replaced by a back-side bus
for accessing level 2 cache, and a front-side bus for communicating data between the CPU and main
memory and input and output devices.

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HYPER THREADING
Hyper-Threading is a technology used by some Intel microprocessor s that allows a single microprocessor
to act like two separate processors to the operating system and the application program s that use it. It is a
feature of Intel's IA-32 processor architecture.
With Hyper-Threading, a microprocessor's "core" processor can execute two (rather than one) concurrent
streams (or thread s) of instructions sent by the operating system. Having two streams of execution units
to work on allows more work to be done by the processor during each clock cycle . To the operating
system, the Hyper-Threading microprocessor appears to be two separate processors. Because most of
today's operating systems (such as Windows and Linux) are capable of dividing their work load among
multiple processors (this is called symmetric multiprocessing or SMP ), the operating system simply acts
as though the Hyper-Threading processor is a pool of two processors.
DUAL AND MULTI-CORE TECHNOLOGY
Dual core technology is basically putting two processors on a single chip. Dual Core Processor is between
a single core processor and a dual processor system for architecture. Dual core technology has two
processors but it does not mean that it will be providing double performance in all the areas to the user. It
has two cores but shares some of the hardware like the memory controller and bus while a dual processor
system has completely separate hardware and shares nothing with the other processor.
Multi-core processors may have:

two cores (dual-core CPUs, for example, AMD Phenom II X2 and Intel Core Duo)

three cores (tri-core CPUs, for example, AMD Phenom II X3)

four cores (quad-core CPUs, for example, AMD Phenom II X4, Intel's i5 and i7 processors)

six cores (hexa-core CPUs, for example, AMD Phenom II X6 and Intel Core i7 Extreme Edition
980X)

eight cores (octa-core CPUs, for example, Intel Core i7 5960X Extreme Edition and AMD FX8350)

ten cores (deca-core CPUs, for example, Intel Xeon E7-2850)

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10. Explain with neat diagram socket and slot types of Intels Pentium and core processors and
AMD K6 to K8 processors.

Intel and AMD have created a set of socket and slots for their processors. Each socket or slot is designed
to support a different range of original and upgrade processors. The table below shows the designations
for the various standard processor sockets/slots and lists the chips that drop into them.

Chip Class Socket

423
478

Intel
P4/Core

Pins Layout
39x39
SPGA
26x26
478
mPGA
423

Supported Processors

Introduced

Pentium 4 FC-PGA

Nov. 2000

Pentium 4/Celeron FC-PGA2,

Celeron D

Oct. 2001

T (LGA 775) 775

30x33
LGA

Pentium 4/Extreme Edition, Pentium

D, Celeron D, Pentium dual-core,
June 2004
Core2

LGA 1156
(Socket H)

1156

40x40
LGA

Pentium, Core i3/i5/i7, Xeon

Sept.
2009

LGA 1136
(Socket B)

1366

41x43
LGA

Core i7, Xeon

Nov. 2008

LGA 1155
40x40
1155
(Socket H2)
LGA

Core i7, i5, i3

Jan. 2011

Core i7

Nov. 2011

Athlon 64

Sept.
2003

Athlon 64 v.2

June 2004

LGA 2011
754
939

58x43
hexLGA
29x29
754
mPGA
31x31
939
mPGA
2011

940

940

31x31
mPGA

Athlon 64 FX, Opteron

Apr. 2003

AM2

940

31x31
mPGA

Athlon 64/64FX/64 X2, Sempron,

Opteron, Phenom

May 2006

AM2+

940

31x31
mPGA

Athlon 64/64 X2, Opteron, Phenom

Nov. 2007
X2/X3/X4, II X4

AM3

9412

31x31
mPGA

Athlon II, Phenom II, Sempron

Feb. 2009

AM3+

9412

31x31
mPGA

"Bulldozer" Processors

Mid-2011

F (1207 FX) 1207

Athlon 64 FX, Opteron

Aug. 2006

FM1

A4, A6, A8, Athlon II, E2, Sempron Jul. 2011

AMD K8

AMD A
FM2

35x35
LGA
31x31
905
LGA
31x31
904
LGA

A4, A6, A8, A10

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Sockets 1, 2, 3, and 6 are 486 processor sockets and are shown together in the figure below so you can see
the overall size comparisons and pin arrangements between these sockets.

486 Processor Sockets

Sockets 4, 5, 7, and 8 are Pentium and Pentium Pro processor sockets and are shown together in the figure
below so you can see the overall size comparisons and pin arrangements between these sockets.

Pentium And Pentium Pro Processor Sockets

When the Socket 1 specification was created, manufacturers realized that if users were going to upgrade
processors, they had to make the process easier. The socket manufacturers found that 100 lbs. of insertion
force is required to install a chip in a standard 169-pin Socket 1 motherboard. With this much force
involved, you easily could damage either the chip or the socket during removal or reinstallation. Because
of this, some motherboard manufacturers began using low insertion force (LIF) sockets, which required a
smaller 60 lbs. of insertion force for a 169-pin chip. Pressing down on the motherboard with 60100 lbs.
of force can crack the board if it is not supported properly. A special tool is also required to remove a chip
from one of these sockets. As you can imagine, even the LIF was relative, and a better solution was
needed if the average person was ever going to replace his CPU.
Manufacturers began using ZIF sockets in Socket 1 designs, and all processor sockets from Socket 2 and
higher have been of the ZIF design. ZIF is required for all the higher-density sockets because the insertion
force would simply be too great otherwise. ZIF sockets almost eliminate the risk involved in installing or
removing a processor because no insertion force is necessary to install the chip and no tool is needed to
extract one. Most ZIF sockets are handle-actuated: You lift the handle, drop the chip into the socket, and
then close the handle. This design makes installing or removing a processor easy.
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11. Describe the classification of computer. (NOV 2012)
Classification of computers:
MICRO-COMPUTER
MINI-COMPUTER
MAINFRAME COMPUTER
SUPER-COMPUTER
Micro computers: These computers use a microprocessor chip and this chip is used instead of CPU
means that this microprocessor chip works as a CPU. These computers are also called personal
computers. Two major types of these computers are laptop or Desktop computers. Only one user uses
these computers at time that's why they are also known as personal computers.
Mini Computers: Minicomputers are much smaller than mainframe computers and they are also much
less expensive. The cost of these computers can vary from a few thousand dollars to several hundred
thousand dollars. They possess most of the features found on mainframe computers, but on a more limited
scale. They can still have many terminals, but not as many as the mainframes. They can store a
tremendous amount of information, but again usually not as much as the mainframe. Medium and small
businesses typically use these computers.
Mainframe Computer: Mainframe computers are very large, often filling an entire room. They can store
enormous of information, can perform many tasks at the same time, can communicate with many users at
the same time, and are very expensive. The price of a mainframe computer frequently runs into the
millions of dollars. Mainframe computers usually have many terminals connected to them. These
terminals look like small computers but they are only devices used to send and receive information from
the actual computer using wires. Terminals can be located in the same room with the mainframe
computer, but they can also be in different rooms, buildings, or cities. Large businesses, government
agencies, and universities usually use this type of computer.
Super Computers: As the name "super computer" specifies that these are most powerful computers even
than mainframe. Actually, when we optimize a mainframe computer then we get super computer.
12. Briefly explain the terminologies for processor. (NOV 2012)
The brain or engine of the PC is the processor (sometimes called microprocessor), or central processing
unit (CPU). The CPU performs the systems calculating and processing. The processor is easily the most
expensive single component in the system, costing up to four or more times greater than the motherboard
it plugs into.
Clock Speed
The digital chips on a motherboard are keep in sync with each other by the clock signal (a stream of
pulses) of the motherboard. Clock speed is measured in units of cycles per second, which is called a Hertz
(Hz). Computer boards and CPUs run at rates of millions and billions of Hertz, megahertz (MHz) and
gigahertz (GHz).
CPU Speed
Clock speed is only one aspect that contributes to the overall processing speed of a microprocessor.
The architecture of the chip also is a factor. This includes such considerations as the word size of the chip,
which is how many bits it can input/output and process at a time. Early microprocessors used 8-bit word
size; the newest microprocessors use 64-bit word size. Other aspects of chip architecture that affect speed
include the ability of some CPUs to work on multiple instructions at the same time.
Data Bus
The data bus is the multi-lane electrical highway of connections that link the CPU to the other chips on
the motherboard, such as the RAM memory and I/O controllers. It is also called the front side bus (FSB).
The word size of the data bus determines how many bits can be moved simultaneously along it.

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13. Describe in detail about the computer room preparation. (NOV 2013)
Influencing Factors
Purpose - The purpose of a computing facility will greatly impact most design aspects including room
layout, computer hardware, printing systems, projection/presentation systems, etc. Consider what the
primary use of this facility will be:
Open computer use - users come and go to use the computers for assignments or projects
Instructional computing facility - facility is used for instruction lead by a single person
Collaborative work - facility is used by students in a group project setting
Laboratory work - computers are used for data collection or in a laboratory setting
Specific application - The greatest influence on the computer hardware itself is the intended application
and operating system. These will drive the need for more powerful computers, larger monitors, specific
printing needs, and other technical decisions.
Budget - If everyone could afford to build the perfect lab they would, but there are always budget
limitations. Find the limits and project priorities
Staffing/Maintenance - A computing facility requires staffing to install, configure, and maintain
hardware and software. The size, complexity, and purpose of a computing facility will determine the
staffing needs. The lack of proper staffing and maintenance may limit a facilities availability or
usefulness.
Aspects for consideration
For all of the following hardware items, one should consider the reliability, serviceability, and
warranty of the specific items. This can greatly impact the maintenance costs and headaches down the
road. We recommend at least a three-year warranty on all computer hardware if available.
Workstation hardware - This central aspect of the facility is influenced by all of the previously
mentioned factors. Consider the needs in the following areas
CPU - What level of processing power is required by the applications?
Memory - What amount of RAM is required by the applications?
Primary storage space - How much storage space is required to install the local applications? Will
users be storing documents on the local machines? Do applications require a great deal of swap
space?
Sub-systems - evaluate your needs for:
o Networking - generally only a 10/100 Ethernet card is required
o Audio - Sound card, speakers, headphones, microphones
o Video - Video card speed and memory
o Secondary storage - CD, CD-R, DVD, Zip, etc.
o Input - Keyboard and mouse variations
Monitor - Is a large monitor needed for graphics or engineering work?
Form factor - Is a small computer required due to furniture or space limitations? Is a small form
factor monitor required for students to see the instructor or each other?
Server hardware - Most computing facilities rely on a server for application serving, print serving, or
storage. This hardware can vary greatly depending on the specific use of the server.
Networking - Networking is a core component of computing facilities; it allows access to Internet
resources, access to e-mail, and the ability to collaborate remotely. Potential networking costs include
installation/activation of Ethernet jacks, hubs/switches for networking within the room, and cabling.
Networking may represent a good portion of the cost of the facility.
Printing - Most computing facilities require some form of printing to be available. For most applications
this simply means the ability to print black and white text documents, but there are a variety of printing
needs. Another consideration is the quantity of printing expected in the facility. This greatly influences
the specific model of printer within a type of printer. The following are the most popular forms of printing
in campus computing facilities:
Black and white laser printing
Color printing (laser or inkjet)
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Plotting
Other peripherals - The purpose and specific application of a facility may require additional hardware
not in a traditional computing lab. These are some common peripherals used in special applications:
Scanning
Special storage (CD-R, DVD-R, etc.)
Special input (tablets, mapping, data acquisition, etc.)
Audio/Video systems (projector, sound, etc.) - Many computing facilities, especially instructional ones,
benefit from the ability to display information for the entire room. This may include the ability to project
computer screens, project television/video tapes/DVDs, play audio tapes/CDs, and amplify input from
microphones. More advanced systems even allow instructors to project any of the workstation screens to a
projector or to other computer screens on the fly.
Upgrade path - Any computer hardware and software will eventually have to be replaced as it becomes
obsolete. Computing facilities should have an upgrade plan and budget for both hardware and software. In
general, ITS uses a three-year replacement cycle for hardware in computing facilities. Software is
replaced more frequently, usually as new, more useful, versions are released. Budgeting for new software
is difficult due to the unpredictable nature of software development, but plan on spending about a third of
your original software costs each year in upgrades.
Furniture - The purpose of a facility is the strongest influence on the furniture and layout of the facility.
An open computer lab may simply be rows of computers on basic tables. An instructional facility may
have rows all facing the front of the room for instruction. A collaborative facility may have single
computers (or groups of computers) at large tables designed to seat many students. At least one
workstation in each facility should be placed on an adjustable height table for accessibility by people
using wheelchairs. In an instructional facility, the instructors workstation should also be placed on an
adjustable height table.
Accessibility - In addition to placing accessible tables in the lab, one should also consider the
accessibility of the computer applications(using special input/output hardware or software), other systems
(printing, A/V equipment, etc.), and the accessibility of the room layout.
Power - Often the existing power circuit(s) in a room are not sufficient for a computing facility. Examine
your power needs and resources, and contact facilities management regarding power system upgrades.
14. Describe the DMA Architecture of the PC in detail? (NOV 2010)
Direct memory access (DMA) is a feature of computerized systems that allows certain hardware
subsystems to access main system memory independently of the central processing unit (CPU).

DMA Architecture

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Without DMA, when the CPU is using programmed input/output, it is typically fully occupied for the
entire duration of the read or write operation, and is thus unavailable to perform other work. With DMA,
the CPU first initiates the transfer, then it does other operations while the transfer is in progress, and it
finally receives an interrupt from the DMA controller when the operation is done. This feature is useful at
any time that the CPU cannot keep up with the rate of data transfer, or when the CPU needs to perform
useful work while waiting for a relatively slow I/O data transfer. Many hardware systems use DMA,
including disk drive controllers, graphics cards, network cards and sound cards. DMA is also used for
intra-chip data transfer in multi-core processors. Computers that have DMA channels can transfer data to
and from devices with much less CPU overhead than computers without DMA channels. Similarly, a
processing element inside a multi-core processor can transfer data to and from its local memory without
occupying its processor time, allowing computation and data transfer to proceed in parallel.
DMA can also be used for "memory to memory" copying or moving of data within memory. DMA can
offload expensive memory operations, such as large copies or scatter-gather operations, from the CPU to
a dedicated DMA engine. An implementation example is the I/O Acceleration Technology.
A DMA controller can generate memory addresses and initiate memory read or write cycles. It contains
several processor registers that can be written and read by the CPU. These include a memory address
register, a byte count register, and one or more control registers. The control registers specify the I/O port
to use, the direction of the transfer (reading from the I/O device or writing to the I/O device), the transfer
unit (byte at a time or word at a time), and the number of bytes to transfer in one burst.[1]
To carry out an input, output or memory-to-memory operation, the host processor initializes the DMA
controller with a count of the number of words to transfer, and the memory address to use. The CPU then
sends commands to a peripheral device to initiate transfer of data. The DMA controller then provides
addresses and read/write control lines to the system memory. Each time a byte of data is ready to be
transferred between the peripheral device and memory, the DMA controller increments its internal
address register until the full block of data is transferred.
DMA transfers can either occur one byte at a time or all at once in burst mode. If they occur a byte at a
time, this can allow the CPU to access memory on alternate bus cycles this is called cycle stealing since
the DMA controller and CPU contend for memory access. In burst mode DMA, the CPU can be put on
hold while the DMA transfer occurs and a full block of possibly hundreds or thousands of bytes can be
moved.[2] When memory cycles are much faster than processor cycles, an interleaved DMA cycle is
possible, where the DMA controller uses memory while the CPU cannot.
In a bus mastering system, the CPU and peripherals can each be granted control of the memory bus.
Where a peripheral can become bus master, it can directly write to system memory without involvement
of the CPU, providing memory address and control signals as required. Some measure must be provided
to put the processor into a hold condition so that bus contention does not occur.
15. Explain in detail about computer mnemonics. (APR 2012)
In general, a mnemonic (from Greek mnemon or mindful) is a memory aid, such as an abbreviation,
rhyme or mental image that helps to remember something. The technique of developing these
remembering devices is called "mnemonics." Mnemonics can be used to remember phone numbers, all
your new department colleagues' names or the years of the reigns of the Kings and Queens of England. A
number of approaches are used.
A mnemonic is a term, symbol or name used to define or specify a computing function. Mnemonics are
used in computing to provide users with a means to quickly access a function, service or process,
bypassing the actual more lengthy method used to perform or achieve it. Assembly language also uses a
mnemonic to represent machine operation, or opcode.

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In computer programming, routine programming functions are assigned a mnemonic that is shorter in
length but provides the same functionality as the original function. In assembly language, mnemonics are
used to specify an opcode that represents a complete and operational machine language instruction. This
is later translated by the assembler to generate the object code. For example, the mnemonic MOV is used
in assembly language for copying and moving data between registers and memory locations.
Pondicherry University Questions
PARTA (2 Marks)
1. What is processor? (NOV 2013)
2. Define system clock? (NOV 2013)
3. What are the two types of hardware interrupts (NOV 2010)
4. List the type of switching logic control in SMPS? (NOV 2010)
5. What is BIOS? (APR 2011), (NOV 2012)
6. List any four components of Mother Board? (APR 2011)
7. Expand SMPS, DMA? (APR 2012)
8. What are the types of memory? (APR 2012)
9. List out the Hardware components of PC? (NOV 2012)
10. Define computer? (NOV 2012)
11. What is meant by cache memory? (NOV 2012)
12. Why is the maximum value in decimal that can be represented by an eight bit binary number?( NOV
2014)
13. If the number of bits in MAR is 10, What is the maximum memory capacity? (NOV 2014)
PART B (11 Marks)
1. Explain briefly about History of the PC. (Ref.Pg.No.6,Qn.No.1)
2. Draw the functional Block diagram of the PC and explain its parts (APR 2011)
(Ref.Pg.No.8,Qn.No.2)
3. Explain briefly about data flow inside the PC. (Ref.Pg.No.11,Qn.No.3)
4. Explain briefly about Microprocessor Types and Specifications(NOV 2013) (NOV 2014).
(Ref.Pg.No.12,Qn.No.4,5,6)
5. What is Cache memory? Explain in detail. (Ref.Pg.No.13,Qn.No.7)
6. Explain the features of Processors. (NOV 2014) (Ref.Pg.No.14,Qn.No.8)
7. Explain the Following : a) System Management Mode b) Super Scalar Execution
c) Dynamic Execution d) Dual Independent Bus (DIB) e) Hyper-Threading
f) Dual and Multi-Core Technology. (Ref.Pg.No.14,Qn.No.9)
8. Explain with neat diagram socket and slot types of Intels Pentium and core processors and AMD K6
to K8 processors. (Ref.Pg.No.17,Qn.No.10)
9. Describe the classification of computer? (NOV 2012) (Ref.Pg.No.19,Qn.No.11)
10. Briefly explain the terminologies of the processor (NOV 2012) (Ref.Pg.No.19,Qn.No.12)
11. Describe in detail about computer room preparation (NOV 2013) (Ref.Pg.No.20,Qn.No.13).
12. Describe the DMA Architecture of the PC in detail? (NOV 2010) (Ref.Pg.No.21,Qn.No.14)
13. Explain in detail about computer mnemonics. (APR 2012) (Ref.Pg.No.22,Qn.No.15)

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