July Yojana Final
July Yojana Final
July Yojana Final
Vol 60
: Vatica Chandra
YOJANA
Rig Veda
CONTENTS
Role of Water Resources Management in
Economic Development
Sacchidananda Mukherjee...........................................................7
Creating water abundance through
conservation and judicious use
Indira Khurana...........................................................................13
do you know? . ................................................................19
special article
Interlinking of Rivers and efficient Water
Management
R K Sivanappan.........................................................................23
Water Scarcity and Public
Investment in Irrigation
Seema Bathla.............................................................................30
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YE-59/2016
YOJANA
Water: Driving Force of Nature
ncient Indians knew the indispensability of water for life on earth. According to ancient
beliefs, the universe comprised of five basic elements: kshiti (earth), apah (water), teja
(light/heat), marut (air) and vyoma (ether/space). As per the Rig Veda, all life evolved from
water (apah). Pure water was called divyajal due to its properties of sheetam (cold to touch),
suchihi (clean), shivam (replete with useful minerals and elements), Istham (transperant) and
vimalam lahu shadgunam (acidic balance should not exceed normal limits). Besides, there
are copious references to medicinal properties of water.
With two thirds of the earths surface covered by water and the human body consisting
of 75 percent of it, it is evidently clear that water is one of the prime elements responsible
for life on earth. Civilisations owe their evolution to water ever since the beginning of
humankind.Water influenced where people lived as our ancestors formed small cities around
water for agricultural reasons.
This precious resource has now become a very crucial factor for our economy. It is a vital component not only for
agriculture, industry, transportation but also for forestry, recreation, and environment. However contrary to the past, modern
society has become apathetic towards this miracle of life. Rivers, seas and oceans are being exploited, mistreated and
contaminated leading to water becoming a scarce commodity in almost every part of the world. Precious man-days or rather
woman-days are lost in searching for water for household purposes in villages. In urban areas too there are frequent fights
over water. Severe scarcity of water during droughts affects agriculture and farmers welfare leading to loss in agricultural
output and quite often suicides by desparate farmers. At the same time excess of water during floods also results in immense
loss of life and property year after year. This dichotomy has become a regular feature of our economy.
Realising the gravity of the situation, experts world over are busy finding newer ways to conserve water. Governments
are busy formulating policies to deal with water related issues. Indian government has been taking a number of steps to
mitigate the problems caused by floods and droughts to both the farmer and the common man. Improved irrigation practices
have been introduced to farmers through awareness campaigns, Pradhan Mantri Sinchai Yojana being one such programme.
Water conservation methods like rainwater harvesting and flood water management are being introduced in a big way all
over the country to address the looming crisis.
On a larger scale, while inter linking of rivers is expected to help by channelizing excess water in some rivers to the
dry river beds in other regions without disturbing the ecology, storage dams across major rivers can absorb excess water
during floods which can be used for irrigation, electricity generation and various other purposes. Projects like Namami
Gange and Yamuna action plan are being looked upon as potential solutions to save drying and dying rivers. Commitment
on part of centre and state governments is the need of the hour.
There is a true proverb in Hindi Jal hai to Kal hai which means if there is water then only our future is safe. However
man has been mercilessly misusing this precious resource given by nature. It is time that the bugle call is sounded to make
everyone realize that water cycle and the life cycle are one. Therefore, from today let all of us start saving each and every
drop of water and conserve this priceless resource.
q
YE-58/2016
financial implications
economy
ndia is experiencing
a high average annual
economic growth of
7.28 per cent since
2002-03.1 The growth
is not only supported
by consumption of fixed capital (manmade capital), but also by natural
resources. 2 Apart from goods and
services, production and consumption
processes also generate pollution and
wastes which are deposited into the
environment (air, water and land).
In addition to direct use as inputs,
environment acts as a sink of wastes
and assimilates the pollution load. If
pollution load exceeds the assimilation
capacity of the environment (air, water
and land), it causes environmental
degradation (air and water pollution,
soil (land) degradation). The unpaid
ecosystem services of the environment
(e.g., pollution assimilation) as a
factor of production and the depletion
and degradation of some natural
resources (like air, water and soil
pollution) are not accounted into the
present System of National Accounts
(SNA); as a result it is difficult to
understand the actual environmental
debt of Indian economy. 3 In other
words, the contribution of natural
resources like water (both depletion
and degradation) in GDP is not
accounted and hence, it could limit
the potential to achieve high economic
The author is an Associate Professor at the National Institute of Public Finance and Policy (NIPFP), New Delhi. he was
earlier with International Water Management Institute (IWMI), Hyderabad and World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF)-India,
New Delhi. He has worked on public finance, environmental economics and water resources management issues in India
for more than a decade. He has published papers in national and international journals and co-edited many books.
YOJANA July 2016
Figure: Water productivity, total (constant 2005 US$ GDP per cubic meter of total
freshwater withdrawal)
World
High income
Low income
2014
North America
2002
Sub-Saharan Africa
(developing only)
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
South Asia
L a rg e s c a l e d i v e r s i o n s a n d
withdrawals of water in the upstream
of rivers leave little fresh water
available for the downstream uses.
Not many perennial rivers have
adequate fresh water flow during
summer to maintain the desired
environmental flow (or ecological
flow) for sustaining basic ecosystem
functions (services) e.g., groundwater
recharge. Interdependence of surface
water and groundwater is vulnerable
to disturbance of river ecosystem and
it leads to large scale depletion and
degradation of water. In many parts
of India, groundwater level is falling
at an alarming rate. Adoption of water
intensive crops (e.g., sugarcane, paddy)
throughout the year, low investment in
surface water based irrigation system,
unreliability of canal water supply,
China
India
End Notes
1 Growth rate of GDP (at factor cost) (at
2004-05 prices) (RBI, 2014)
*6,,3/86
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YE-40/2016
12
water management
way forward
The author is Lead WASH (Water, Sanitation & Hygiene), in IPE Global Limited, an international social development consulting organisation,
working on natural resources management, drinking water and sanitation, food security and rural livelihoods for more than a decade.She
has written several papers and reports, co-authored and co-edited books and written several articles for the print and electronic media.
13
Bundelkhand districts
across Madhya Pradesh and
Uttar Pradesh continue to reel
under the third drought in a row.
Almost 50 per cent of its water
sources have dried up. Women
travel long distances to collect
drinking water. Agriculture has
failed, leading to mass migration,
poverty and hunger. Four major
reservoirs that supply water to
Hyderabad city have dried up.
The
In
There
Tajola,
Immediate steps:
These steps are important to handle
the immediate crisis and include the
following:
1. F o r m d r o u g h t m i t i g a t i o n
committees in the villages:
These village committees should
comprise of panchayat members
and representatives of all interest
groups in the village. These
committees can take care of, and
monitor, drought requirements and
management.
2. Elicit commitment to prevent
suicide: The distressed villagers
should have confidence that they
are not alone and collectively take
an oath that they will not commit
suicide.
3. Arrange for tanker water supply
where there is drinking water
scarcity: Involve villagers to
ensure that the water is safe and
provided to all in the village. The
Ministry of Drinking Water Supply
and Sanitation has provisions
for emergency situations such
as drought and these should be
availed of.
4. Arrange for water and fodder
for livestock in livestock camps:
People are forced to sell/ abandon
their livestock (for example in
Bundelkhand region, Rajasthan),
since they are not able to provide
for them. These camps will
provide essential requirements
for livestock and prevent distress
sale.
14
d) Laser levelling:
Figure-1
16
d) Water offset
Conclusion
It is possible to reverse the trend
and make India a water rich country.
A basket of measures such as those
suggested above indicates some of
the steps that can be undertaken. It
does not really matter how much rain
India gets unless all our efforts are
made to harness it for immediate and
future use.
Disclaimer: This paper reflects the
ideas of the author and IPE Global is
not responsible for the contents.
Endnotes
1
Readings
World Bank. 2016. High and Dry:
Climate Change,Water, and the Economy.
World Bank, Washington, DC.
IPE Global and PHDCCI, 2016.
Creating water abundance: Towards water
security in India
Khurana Indira, Sen Romit and Jain
Shilpi. 2015. Reflections on Managing
Water: Earths Greatest Natural Resource.
Assam: Balipara Foundation.
https://www.weforum.org/reports/theglobal-risks-report-2016/
http://delhi.gov.in/wps/wcm/connect/
doit_publicity/Information+and+Publicity/
Press+Release/Chief+Minister/Kapil+Mish
ra+initiates+global+first-of-its-kind+Conse
rve+and+Use++Palla+Floodplain+Water+
Harvesting+Project,+01st+June+2016
h t t p : / / w w w. u n . o r g /
sustainabledevelopment/sustainabledevelopment-goals
BBC, 2016. Is India facing its worstever water crisis. Onlinehttp://www.bbc.
com/news/world-asia-india-35888535
[accessed on 14th April 2016]
Indian Express. 2016. Pune water crisis:
PMC logs more than 17,000 tanker trips in
one month. Online http://indianexpress.
com/article/cities/pune/maharashtra-punedrinking-water-crisis-2754392/ [accessed
on 14th April 2016]
Indian Express. 2016. After jaundice
outbreak, Shimla faces another crisis that
of water. Online http://indianexpress.com/
article/cities/chandigarh/after-jaundiceoutbreak-shimla-faces-another-crisis-thatof-water/ [accessed on 14th April 2016]
NDTV. 2016. Water Emergency In
Hyderabad, The First In 30 Years. Online.
http://www.ndtv.com/telangana-news/
water-emergency-in-hyderabad-thefirst-in-30-years-minister-ktr-tells-ndtv1397447[accessed on June 8, 2016]
Times of India. 2016. Only 24% water
left in 91 key reservoirs. New Delhi: TOI
Times of India. 2016. 1000 Gujrat
villages reel under drinking water crisis.
Gandhinagar: TOI
Times of India. 2016. Water shortage
to affect industrial output: Experts. Online
http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/
business/india-business/Water-shortageto-affect-industrial-output-Experts/
articleshow/51818065.cms [accessed on
June 8 , 2016]
The Economic Times. 2016. Second
water train reaches Latur. Online http://
articles.economictimes.indiatimes.
com/2016-04-14/news/72322756_1_
reaches-latur-miraj-wagons [accessed on
June 8, 2016]
The Indian Express.2016. Centre to
SC: A third of India affected by severe
drought. Onlinehttp://indianexpress.com/
article/india/india-news-india/its-centresresponsibility-to-warn-States-on-droughtsupreme-court-maharashtra-latur-watercrisis-2761046/ [accessed on June 8 April
2015]
q
(E-mail: [email protected])
17
YE-44/2016
18
do you know?
Water and Constitution
Water is one of the most important resources for any country and the majority of this water is obtained from rivers
to meet the needs of irrigation, cattle rearing and various other sanitation purposes by our states.These rivers, flowing in
all directions passing through different states in India are either intra-state (flowing within a single state from the point
of its source to its mouth) or inter-state river (which flows through the boundary of two or more states), which, in some
cases have even led to disputes among the states. And this is where the role and the power of Union government comes
into play, i.e. to manage these inter-state rivers and tackle any related disputes. It is also enshrined in our constitution
that it is our fundamental duty to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers, and
wild-life and to have compassion for living creatures.
As per Indian constitution, a state government has the power to make laws for the water resources of that state.
Under Entry 17 of the state list, the legislative power of a state has to be exercised without adversely affecting the
interests of other states and avoiding any dispute. But since the power to legislate the regulation and development
of interstate rivers lies with the Parliament, the authority of the state Government over water can be exercised, but it
will be subjected to limitations that can be imposed by the Parliament.Thus, it wont be right if we say that water is
entirely a state-subject.Rather, it is as much a Union subject as it is a state subject as the supremacy in all its matters
lies with the Parliament. In view of this, our Indian Constitution has many provisions with regard to water, interstate
water sharing and related disputes.
The legislative framework of the constitution related to water is based on Entry 17 of the State List, Entry 56 in the
Union List, and Article 262 of the Constitution. These are:
a) Entry 17 in List II (State List) in Schedule VII : Although water is a state subject and therefore is in the State
List, but it is subject to the provisions of Entry 56 in the Union List, which reads as:
b) Entry 56 of List I (Union List): Regulation and development of inter-state rivers and river valleys to the extent
to which such regulation and development under the control of the Unionisdeclared by Parliament by law to be
expedient in the public interest.
Article 248 (Residuary powers of legislation): Parliament has exclusive power to make any law with respect to
any matter not enumerated in the Concurrent List or State List.
Article 254: Inconsistency between laws made by Parliament and laws made by the Legislatures of States: If
any provision of a law made by the Legislature of a State is repugnant to any provision of a law-made by Parliament
which Parliament is competent to enact, or to any provision of any existing law with respect to one of the matters
enumerated in the Concurrent List, then, subject to the provisions of clause (2), the law made by Parliament, whether
passed before or after the law made by the Legislature of such State, or, as the case may be, the existing law, shall
prevail and the law made by the Legislature of the state shall, to the extent of the repugnancy, be void.
c) Article 262: (1) Parliament may, by law, provide for the adjudication of any dispute or complaint with respect to
the use, distribution or control of the waters of, or in, any Inter-State river or river valley. (2) Not withstanding
anything in this Constitution, Parliament may by law provide that neither the Supreme Court nor any other court
shall exercisejurisdictionin respect of any such dispute or complaint as is referred to in clause (1).Some other
articles and entries may also have a bearing on the matter.
The River Boards Act 1956: The River Boards Act, 1956, provides for the establishment of River Boards, for the
regulation and development of inter-State rivers and river valleys. On a request received from a State Government or
otherwise, the Central Government may establish a Board for advising the Government interested in relation to such
matters concerning the regulation or development of an inter-State river or river valley (or any specified part) as may be
notified by the Central Government. Different Boards may be established for different inter-State rivers or river valleys.
The Board will have persons having special knowledge and experience in irrigation, electrical engineering, flood control,
navigation, water conservation, soil conservation, administration or finance. Functions of the Board are advisory and
cover conservation of the inter-State river, schemes for irrigation and drainage, development of hydro-electric power,
schemes for flood control, promotion of navigation, and control of soil erosion and prevention of pollution.
Inter-State Water Disputes Act, 1956: This Act extends to the whole of India. Under this Act, a State Government
which has a water dispute with another State Government may request the Central Government to refer the dispute to
a tribunal for adjudication.If the Central Government thinks that the dispute cannot be settled by negotiation, it refers
the dispute to a Tribunal. The Tribunal then investigates the matter and gives its decision, which is considered final and
binding on the parties, and even the Supreme Court and other courts shall not interfere with its decision.The Central
Government may frame a scheme, providing for all matters necessary to give effect to the decision of the Tribunal.
YOJANA July 2016
19
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20
www.lexisnexis.in
`595/-
`595/-
`575/-
`575/-
`550/-
YE-46/2016
`595/-
21
YE-38/2016
22
The author is an international water consultant and Founder Director, Water Technology Centre, Tamil Nadu Agriculture
University and former member, state planning Commission, Govt. of Tamil Nadu.
YOJANA July 2016
23
=195.29 + 43.20 =
238.49 MHM
= 69.00 +
39.56=108.60
MHm
24
Table 1- Mean flow, Utilisable Surface and Ground Water Resource-Basin Wise
S.
No.
River Basin
Mean Flow
Utilizable Flow
Replenishable
Utilisable
Surface water
Surface water
Ground Water
BCM
BCM
BCM
Ground
Water
BCM
24.3
156.8
24.4
Indus
73.31
46.0
26.50
2a
Ganga
2b
Brahmaputra
525.02
250.0
171.00
*629.05
24.0
26.55
2c
Barak
48.36
8.52
7.8
Godavari
110.54
76.3
40.64
Krishna
**69.81
58.0
26.40
Cauvery
21.36
19.0
12.30
Subernarckha
12.37
6.8
1.82
Brahmani-Bartarni
28.48
18.3
4.05
Mahanadi
66.88
50.0
16.50
Pennar
10
Mani
11
6.32
6.9
4.93
11.02
3.1
7.20
Sabarmati
3.81
1.9
12
Narmada
45.64
34.5
10.80
13
87.41
11.9
17.70
37.2
24.2
11.30
1.7
3.7
15.1
4.5
6.6
9.9
16.20
14
113.53
24.3
15
22.52
13.1
11.22
10.3
16
16.46
16.7
18.80
17.20
17
15.10
15.0
18
0.00
19
31.0
18.12
16.8
1937.99
675.8
423.05
388.0
Total
Source: CWC, Publication 6/93-Reassessment of Water Resources Potential of India. Ground Water Resources of India CGWB-1995
* Includes Additional Contribution of 91.81 BCM being flow of 9 Tributries Joining Braharmaputra
** Assessment is based on mean flow of the yield series accepted by KWDT award. The figure of the CWC assessed from run-off data
at Vijaywada is 78.12 BCM
*** Computed on proportionate basis from annual replenishment 10 BCM=1 MHM
26
Table 2- The Available and Utilizable Water Per Capita Per Year In M3 in India (From 1991)
Year
Population
Million
Utilizable water
108.60 MHM per
capita/year M3
Remarks
1991
850
2830
1290
2001
1030
2316
1055
2011
1210
1970
910
2025
1350-1400
(estimated)
1700
780
>1700M3-Water-No Problem
M3=Cubic mlter
2050
1650 (estimated)
1445
680
Sub-basin
Kalinadi
Shravathi
Chakra River
Netravathy
Varahi
Mahadavi
Bedthi
Independent catchment between
Sharavathi and Chakra River
Aghanashini
Independent Catchment between
Sharavathi and Chakra River
Independent catchment between
varahi and netravathy
Independent Catchment between
Netravathy and Barapole
Barapole
Total
Catchment area
(in sqkm)
412
3592
336
3222
759
412
3574
401
Average yield
(MCM)
934
8816
991
9939
2263
934
5040
906
1330
1042
3028
3066
3067
9457
1320
4474
1274
57489MCM
or
2000 TMC
Source : Water Resources Development Organisation, Government of Karnataka,
Bangalore
560
b) Diversion of West
flowing rivers to East
In Karnataka, the
Western Ghats which is
about 13 per cent of the
geographical area of the
state has 60 per cent of the
state's water resources in
terms of quantity due to
high intensity of rainfall
and every drop of it is
running as waste into
the sea. The balance
87 per cent of the area
of the state, mostly
comprising Krishna and
Cauvery basins have
27
YE-43/2016
YE-57/2016
29
The author is Professor, Centre for the Study of Regional Development, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi. She has published
two books (one co-authored) and more than 40 research articles in national and international journals. She was conferred Jawaharlal
Nehru Award for Outstanding Post-Graduate Agricultural Research by the Indian Council of Agriculture Research, New Delhi
in 2008.
30
and education
during the
1990s, which
also made a
strong case
for diverting
expenditure
from subsidies
to investments
(Fan, Gulati and
Thorat 2000).
H o w e v e r,
a big push in
investment in
irrigation was
given during the 2000s to trigger
agricultural growth that had been at its
minimal for long. The investment shot
up from almost Rs.94.4 billion during
the eighties and the nineties to Rs.240.4
Fig-1
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
Investment
Subsidy
Fig-2
Canals
Tubewells
1981-89
0.71
0.05
0.43
0.10
0.004
0.03
0.41
0.33
1.62
0.37
0.09
0.31
0.18
0.11
1.22
0.98
0.94
Major-Medium
1990-99
2000-13
0.15
2.38
-0.002
0.01
0.73
0.99
0.03
0.07
0.002
0.01
-0.03
0.01
0.54
0.99
0.58
1.03
0.77
0.46
0.11
0.05
0.11
-0.07
0.16
-0.03
0.07
0.17
0.04
-0.03
-0.46
0.49
-0.09
0.93
-0.22
0.62
1981-89
0.10
0.08
0.003
0.02
0.02
-0.08
0.06
0.28
0.07
-0.01
0.06
0.01
-0.02
0.35
0.35
Minor
1990-99
0.03
0.01
0.07
0.01
0.003
0.01
0.01
0.03
0.29
-0.01
0.004
0.02
0.02
0.04
-0.04
-0.06
-0.23
2000-13
0.29
0.08
0.29
-0.02
0.02
0.05
0.21
0.22
0.12
0.21
0.001
0.05
0.06
0.02
0.19
0.50
0.22
Note: MEI = 1/ICOR and ICOR was estimated using capital stock in major-medium and minor irrigation and SDPA; The SDPA, taken
at 2004-05 prices is three years moving averages. Capital expenditure is taken as stock by taking base year value in stock and making
allowance for depreciation in expenditure each year.
YE-65/2016
________________________________________________________________________
34
YE-37/2016
35
n order to promote the rich cultural heritage of the North Eastern States of India, Ministry of Development of North Eastern
Region(DoNER) and Ministry of Textiles have undertaken a joint initiative to promote the handicrafts and handloom products
of the North Eastern States of India by organizing an exhibition of high quality products from North Eastern Region at CCIC
(Central Cottage Industries Corporation) showroom in Delhi. The products are being sourced from artisans and weavers
q
including master craft persons and National awardees from all over India.
he North Eastern Handicrafts and Handlooms Development Corporation Ltd (NEHHDC) has set up the Purbashree stall at
Dilli Haat, Delhi. This stall will further boost the development and promotion of North East handicrafts and handlooms
products. It is for the first time that the stall has been set up on a permanent basis which is devoted exclusively to North east.
The stalls showcasing North-east were earlier put up on temporary basis. These stalls will showcase the North Eastern culture
and ethnicity, help in generating the revenue and will also help in the promotion of start-ups.
q
he First Battalion The Assam Regiment celebrated its 75th Raising Day (Platinum Jubilee) with ceremonial fervor
at Shimla, Himanchal Pradesh, on 15th July, 2016. The highlight of the whole occasion was release of 'First Day
Cover' by Colonel of the Assam Regiment & Arunachal Scout, Lt Gen Subrata Saha and flagging in of a Motorcycle
Rally, led by Brig Charandeep Singh, by Lt Gen PM Hariz, General Officer Commanding -in - Chief of the Army
Training Command.
YE-48/2016
The Battalion was raised on this very day in 1941 and has had an illustrious military history. It is one of the only units
in the history of warfare to have been awarded six Battle Honours, namely, Jessami (Nagaland), Kohima (Nagaland),
Aradura (Nagaland), Mawlaik (Burma), Kyaukmyaung (Burma) and Toungoo (Burma) and one Theatre Award BURMA
within a short span of three years of its raising. The Battalion is also the proud recipient of Chief of the Army Staff Unit
Citation for its role in combating terrorism on Line of Control in Jammu & Kashmir.
q
36
YE-50/2016
37
Baori
Dams, tanks and irrigations canals were built by kings from
different dynasties all over the country. In eastern India, Pala and Sena Kings (760-1100 A.D.) built a number of large
tanks and lakes in their kingdoms. Rajtarangini of Kalhana gives a detailed account of irrigation systems developed
in the 12th Century in Kashmir.Feroze Shah Tughlaq (1351-1388 A.D.) built the Western Yamuna Canal in 1355 to
extend irrigation facilities in the dry land tracts of the present-day Haryana and Rajasthan. Emperor Shahjahan built
many canals, prominent among these being the Bari Doab or the Hasli Canal. Under the rule of Rangila Muhammad
Shah, the Eastern Yamuna Canal was built to irrigate large tracts in Uttar Pradesh. The Vijaynagar Kingdom (1336-1546
A.D.) in the south took keen interest in building large and small storage tanks like the Anantraj Sagar tank across the
Maldevi river and the Korangal dam. The Bahamani rulers (1388-1422 A.D.) introduced canal irrigation for the first
time in the eastern provinces of the Deccan.
All forts, built in different terrains and climatic conditions, had
elaborate arrangements for drinking water. Those built on hilltops
or in rocky terrain depended mainly on rain water harvested from
surrounding hills. The Amber Fort near Jaipur built about three
centuries ago is a classic example of such a system. It has an
automatic arrangement for desilting and aeration of harvested rain
water before its entry into the large storage tank. The Jodhpur fort in
western Rajasthan had water harvesting arrangements to tap both rain
water and groundwater. The Panhala Fort of Maharaj Shivaji built
on a hillock near Kolhapur in Maharashtra had Baolis and wells to
tap underground springs originating in nearby higher hill slopes. The
fort at Chittor on top of a hill has a large reservoir formed from the
harvested waters of springs.At the Buddhist site of Sanchi (Madhya
Jhalara
Pradesh) dating back to the 3rd Century B.C., there are three ancient
tanks to store rain water from the hill slopes.Most of the old temples in south India built centuries ago have large tanks
in their premises. These tanks are either fed by harvested rain water or by tapping underground springs. In Tamil Nadu
alone, there are 39 temple tanks with areas varying from 0.25 to 3 hectares. These are all fed by rain water. Though
these were used mainly for bathing and religious purposes, these also recharged the drinking water wells.
While the state only built infrastructure for storage of water on a large scale and for irrigation purposes, individual
communities had their own water management and rainwater harvesting techniques - each being suitable to the geography
and climate of the locality.
Both Gujarat and Rajasthan had well developed and efficient water management systems, mainly due to their arid
and desert geography. Notable among these are the Paar system, talabs/bandhis, sazakuva, Johads, naada/bandhas,
38
rapat, chandela and bundela tanks, kund/kundis, Kuis and Beris, jhalaras, nadis, tobas, tankas, khadins, vav/vavdi/
bavadi/baoli, virdas and Ahar Pynes.
Water harvesting practices were also prevelant in other parts of the country. South Bihar had a traditional floodwater
harvesting system called aharpynes. Katas/Mundas/Bandhas are the main irrigation sources of the ancient kingdom of
the Gonds(now in Orrisa and Madhya Pradesh).
Water management in Bengal was one of managing plenty since most parts of Bengal faced frequent flooding.
Accordingly, inundation channels were built to facilitate entry of flood water to the fields carrying not only rich silt, but
also fish swam into the lakes and tanks to feed on the larva
of mosquitoes. This helped check malaria in the region.
Small irrigation channels linking rice fields to streams
were also found in Jalpaiguri district of West Bengal.
Water harvesting methods in the hilly and high
regions were different from those in the plains, since these
systems had to manage run offs down the slopes of hills
and mountains. The zings in Ladakh, kuls in the Spiti
Valley in Himachal Pradesh, Naula in Uttaranchal, Khatri
in Hamirpur, Kangra and Mandi districts of Himachal
Pradesh and the Kuhl in Himachal Pradesh are some of
the water management systems practiced in the higher
reaches of the country.
Bamboo-Drip-Irrigation
Just as in other things like agriculture, cuisine,
dress and culture, the water management systems of
the North East were peculiar to the region. The zabo is a system practiced in Nagaland which combines water
conservation with forestry, agriculture and animal care. The cheo-ozihi is a system which brings the waters of
the river Mezil in Nagaland through a long channel,
diverted into branch channels and to terraces with the
help of bamboo pipes. Dongs are ponds constructed by
the Bodo tribes of Assam to harvest water for irrigation.
Meghalaya has an ingenious system of tapping of
stream and spring water by using bamboo pipes to
irrigate plantations. This system is known as bamboo
drip irrigation and has been practiced by tribal farmers
of Khasi and Jaintia hills to drip irrigate their black
pepper cultivation.Apatani is a wet rice cultivation
cum fish farming system in elevated regions practiced
by the Apatani tribes of Ziro in the lower Subansiri
district of Arunachal Pradesh.
Water management in the four southern states of Tamil
Temple-Tanks
nadu, Kerala, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh consisted
of Eris(tanks) in Tamil nadu which have traditionally
played the role of flood management, maintaining ecological harmony, preventing soil erosion and wastage of run off
during periods of heavy rainfall and recharging ground water; the Ooranis of south Travancore, which are tanks to
irrigate small acres of land; Surangams(tunnels), a system practiced in Kasargod district in Kerala where the terrain is
such that there is high discharge in rivers in the monsoon and low discharge in the dry months; and the Korumbus, a
temporary dam stretching across the mouth of channels made of brushwood, mud and grass. These are built twice a
year especially before the onset of the monsoon season in order to supply water during the winter and summer months.
Kare are tanks found predominantly in the central Karnataka plateau. These were fed by channels branching off from
anicuts(check dams) built across streams. The Cheruvu, found in Chitoor and Cuddapah districts of Andhra Pradesh
are reservoirs to store run offs. Cheruru embankments are fitted with thoomu(sluices), aluguormarva or katju(flood
weir) and kalava(canal).
The kohli tanks were built by the kohlis of Bhandara district, Maharashtra to irrigate their fields. These tanks, built
even 250 years ago, were the backbone of irrigation and are still crucial for sugar and rice irrigation. The Bhandaras are
check dams or diversion wiers found in Maharashtra. The Phad is a community irrigation system prevelant in northwestern Maharashtra, which probably existed some 300-400 years ago. This system is operated on three rivers in the
Tapi basin Panjhra, Mosam and Aram in Dhule and Nasik districts.
References : CSE: rainwaterharvesting.org, CPR Environmental Education Centre
39
YE-52/2016
40
ccupying a special
place in every Indians
heart, Ganga is the
most sacred river in the
country with a unique
cultural and spiritual
significance. Traversing over 2,500 km,
the colossal Ganga River is celebrated
and used by millions of people from
its origin in the Gangotri glacier in
the Himalayas to the Sunderbans
delta in Bangladesh. The Ganga basin
generates approximately 40 per cent
of the countrys GDP and is a valuable
environmental and economic resource
for India. Along its long journey,
the river enriches the vast lands of
Gangetic plains and sustains 50 major
Indian cities and hundreds of smaller
towns. Several tributaries in the higher
reaches have the potential to generate
sufficient hydropower to boost Indias
energy supplies and in the downstream,
the river has the potential to become a
vibrant waterway to carry goods and
people across long distances.This is
the only river basin in India which is
resource rich with lots of surplus water
still available.
But unfortunately, this massive
river is currently reeling from decades
of negligence and ill-treatment meted
out to it by an ever growing population.
The mere mention of Ganga brings
The author is Scientist Emeritus (WR) International Water Management Institute- New Delhi. He was earlier Asst. Director
General (Integrated Water Management), Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), New Delhi. He has more than 170
research and policy publications/ books and several awards to his credit. His key contributions include improving large irrigation
commands, assessment and management of groundwater in the Indo-Gangetic and Yellow river basins, impact of large inter-basin
water transfers on regional resources, assessment and improvement of water productivity and ICT applications in water resources
management. He has published and worked extensively in South Asian and East African countries.
41
Table 1. Freshwater consumed and wastewater generated by major industrial units in the Ganges basin
Industrial units
Chemical
Distillery
Food, Diary & Beverages
Pulp & Paper
Sugar
Textile, Bleaching & Dyeing
Tannery
Others
Total
Total Units
27
23
22
67
67
63
444
41
764
Water
Consumption (MLD)
210.9
78.8
11.2
306.3
304.8
14.1
28.7
168.3
1123
Wastewater Generation
(MLD)
97.8(46.4 per cent)*
37.0 (46.9 per cent)
6.5(58.0 per cent)
201.4(65.8 per cent)
96.0(31.5 per cent)
11.4(80.9 per cent)
22.1(77.0 per cent)
28.6(17.0 per cent)
501 (44.6 per cent)
42
Figure 1: Variation in 5-year average total coliform at 70 locations along the Ganga River (source: IIT Consortium, 2013)
Class
A: water
for use
drinking
waterwater
sourcesource
without
conventional
treatment
but afterbut
disinfection.
Class
A: water
forasuse
as drinking
without
conventional
treatment
after disinfection.
Class B: waters for use for organized outdoor bathing.
Class
B: waters
for use
for as
organized
bathing.
Class
C: Class
C waters
for use
drinkingoutdoor
water source
with conventional treatment followed by disinfection
Class C: Class C waters for use as drinking water source with conventional treatment followed by disinfection
43
v. I n s u f f i c i e n t E n v i ro n m e n t a l
Flows:
A healthy river requires that
after meeting all the requirements
of the diverse stakeholders, adequate
quantities of high quality water must
continue to flow in the river throughout
the year. At no point of time and in
no particular stretch of the river, the
flow may become insufficient and
discontinuous. As all the human
users and uses are very vocal and
demanding, it is generally the silent
but most important environmental
flow which generally gets sacrificed.
Large scale abstractions of surface
water directly through diversion canals
and distributed groundwater pumpage
throughout the basin seriously impact
the river flow regime. The middle
stretch of around 1,080 km from
Haridwar to Varanasi is the most
degraded due to significant irrigation
diversions through extensive canal
network and groundwater pumpage
and high degree of pollution loads
from different sources. Flow estimates
after the canal diversions at Haridwar,
Bijnor and Narora indicate that original
Ganga River is almost completely lost,
with little or no capacity to perform its
ecosystem services and assimilate the
large pollution loads (Mateo-Sagasta,
2015).
Past Efforts to Clean the Ganga
The poor river health, besides the
large negative environmental, cultural
and health impacts also constrains
the livelihood options for many of
those dependent on the river as more
than 200 million people in the basin
are among the Indias poorest. The
pervasive poverty in the states of
Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal
has a strong correlation with water
poverty (Sharma et al., 2010). Faecal
contamination caused by increasing
amounts of untreated sewage and
septage directly discharged into the
streams is a major concern for the
Ganges. Coliform levels are high all
along the river and make the water
generally unsuitable for traditional
bathing, not to speak of drinking,
barring a few upstream locations.
44
in/modules/recentinitiatives/NGRBA/
progress.htm
Ruhl, Onno.2015. Saving Ganga will
require planning and partnership. The
World Bank in India (January, 2015). The
World Bank, New Delhi
Sarkar, U. K. and Dubey V. K. (2015).
Threats to fish and fisheries in the Ganga
Basin: Consequences of changing habitats
and altering diversity patterns. Global
Water Forum. Avaialble at: http://www.
globalwaterforum.org/tag/ganga/
Sharma, B.R., Amarasinghe, U.A., Cai,
X., de Condappa, D.; Shah, T., Mukherji,
A., Bharati, L., Ambili, G., Qureshi, A.S,
Pant, D., Xenarios,S., Singh, R., Smakhtin,
V. 2010.The Indus and the Ganges: river
basins under extreme pressure. Water
International,35(5):493-521.
Tare V, Roy G and Bose P (2015)
Ganga River Basin Management Plan
(2015). Main document. Indian Institutes of
Technology of Bombay, Delhi, Guwahati,
Kanpur, Kharagpur, Madras, Roorkee.
Trivedi RC, 2010. Water quality of
the Ganga River - An overview. Aquatic
Ecosystem Health & Management
q
(E-mail: [email protected]
[email protected])
,$6
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YE-47/2016
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YE-51/2016
47
48
YE-63/2016
'(/+,&(175(+($'2)),&(
The author has worked with the National Commission on Water Resources of MOWR, as a consultant in Water Resources with the
Planning Commission. He was Member Secretary of the Indian National Committee on Irrigation and Drainage, under MOWR.
He has been involved with multipurpose water resources development projects in India, Nepal and Bhutan and as a Consultant
deputed from Govt. of India with the Iraq Government. he was also involved with their projects on Tigris river and has been
regularly writing in the national news papers on the various issues facing the water sector.
49
In 2004,unprecedented floods in
the Ganga and Brahmaputhra rivers
necessitated the Centre to constitute
a Task Force(TF) to suggest remedial
measures. The Task Force had
recommended more involvement by
the Centre to make flood management
efforts effective. The Working Group
of the Planning Commission then
had also emphasised the need for
Central involvement and for setting
up a Central Flood Management
Organisation.
The National Water Policy, 2012, (5)
had suggested that reservoir operation
procedures should be evolved and
implemented in such a manner so as
to have flood cushion and to reduce
trapping of sediments during flood
season. It has also suggested to
incorporate coping strategies for
possible climate changes, such as
increasing water storage capacity in
dams.
Flood damage mitigation works
Damage due to floods is mainly
caused by the spilling of the river over
its banks and inundating the marginal
areas along the rivers. For reducing
the damage, protective measures to be
taken include structural measures such
as storage dams to absorb and regulate
the flood flows; and construction of
embankments to confine the flows,
thereby preventing spilling. Works of
channel improvement and improving
the drainage conditions in the area
are also required to be carried out to
address flood conditions caused by
such situations. Wherever construction
of embankment is not desirable due to
acute drainage problems that would
arise, schemes for raising such villages
and connecting them to the nearby
roads are also being implemented.
YOJANA July 2016
52
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YE-64/2016
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YOJANA July 2016
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YE-53/2016
DELHI: 2nd Floor, Apsara Arcade, Near Metro Gate 6, 1/8 B, Pusa Road,
53
YE-45/2016
54
human disruption
scenario
limate of a region
represents the longterm (more than thirty
years) average of
weather. It is a resultant
of an extremely
complex system consisting of different
meteorological variables which vary
with time. Climate may be defined
as average weather or more as the
statistical description in terms of mean
and variability of relevant weather
variables over a period of time.
Climate change (CC) refers to
a statistically significant change in
either the mean state of the climate
or its statistical properties (such as
standard deviations, the occurrence
of extremes, etc.), persisting for an
extended period particularly decades
or longer. Climate change is not only
a major global environmental problem,
but also an issue of great worry to a
country like India.
Causes of Climate Change
CC can take place due to forcings
that may be external to Earth or internal.
Two external forcings are important.
Earths orbit and tilt of its rotational
axis are changing slowly, caused by
gravitational forces of other planets and
orbit of solar system about the centre
of Galaxy. Milankovitch cycles
is the collective name for cycles in
Earths movement. Changes in these
cycles cause very slow and long-term
The author is NEEPCO Chair Professor at IIT Roorkee. He has co-authored four books, edited 5 books and written number of
technical papers. He is a member of many national and international committees.
55
56
Fig. 3: Globally averaged combined land and ocean surface temperature anomaly
(Source: IPCC).
Downscaling
In climate change studies, the
time scales could vary from a short
time interval of 5 minutes (for urban
water cycle) to a year. Likewise, the
spatial resolutions could vary from
a few square kilometers (for urban
watersheds) to several thousand square
kilometers (for large river basins).
Global Climate Models (GCMs) which
simulate the global climate are among
the best available tools to compute the
global climatic variables. But these
models, so far, are unable to reproduce
well the details of regional climate
conditions at temporal and spatial
scales of relevance to hydrological
studies. As noted earlier, outputs from
GCMs are usually at a resolution that
is too coarse for many climate change
impact studies.
Many impact models require
information at scales of 10 km or
Fig. 5: A schematic illustrating the general approach and need for downscaling (Wilby
& Dawson 2007).
Actions needed:
1. Improve hydro-meteorological
network for better monitoring.
2. Update basin wise water availability
in the current situation.
3. Determining extent of current
climatic/hydro-meteorological
variability and future projections
in variability due to climate change
including the impact on rainfall
frequency and intensity.
4. Generate reliable downscaling of
GCM projections to regional and
basin level.
5. Assess impact of CC on surface and
ground water availability and their
interaction (with specific emphasis
on coastal areas).
6. Assess impact of CC on Land-Use/
Land-Cover and their coupled
impact on water resources.
7. Assess impact of CC on rainfall
Intensity-Duration-Frequency
relationships in urban areas.
8. Assess impact on magnitudeduration-frequency of drought
(agricultural, meteorological and
hydrological).
9. Assess impact on sediment loads
and management implications.
10. R eview hydrological planning
design, and operating standards in
view of changed scenario.
11. To cope up with enhanced scarcity
and variability in the water sector,
develop adequate infrastructure.
59
YE-62/2016
60
...sanitation, hygiene
and safe water are the
basic requirements
for good health. Our
national policies
and state policies in
these areas should
complement each other.
In addition, there
should be institutional
synergy as well, for
administering these
policies at various
levels
The author is Distinguished Fellow and Director, Water Resources and Forestry Division in TERI, New Delhi and a former
Secretary, Ministry of Water Resources, Govt. of India. He has several publications to his credit in national dailies and national
and international journals and also in the form of mimeograph. He has also authored and edited books on infrastructure issues.
61
Arsenic menace
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YE-42/2016
YE-56/2016
65
Tina Dabi
(AIR - 1 - 2015)
Registration No. 16082/06/12
Classroom Foundation Course
KSG Delivers...
YE-54/2016
66
Private Intervention
consequences
The author is founder, Research Foundation for Science, Technology and Ecology (RFSTE) and Navdanya, meaning
Nine Seeds, or New Gift in Hindi. She has written books on the Green Revolution, corporate led globalization,and
gender issues. was a founding Board Member of the Women Environment and Development Organization (WEDO). She
has also initiated Diverse Women for Diversity, an international movement of women working for food and agriculture.
she is on the National Board of Organic Standards of India, serves on Prince Charless expert group on Sustainable
Agriculture and she is a member of President Zapateros Scientific Committee in Spain.
YOJANA July 2016
67
and
Yojana
Forthcoming Issue
August 2016
Energy
YE-61/2016
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YE-55/2016
72
YE-60/2016
73
YE-39/2016
74