Nicoletta Gatti & George Ossom-Batsa

Journeying with
the Old Testament

Peter Lang

Journeying with
the Old Testament

DAS AL T E T E S T A M E N T IM D I A L O G
an o u t l i n e o f an o l d t e s t a m e n t d i a l o g u e
Band / Vol. 5
H erausgegeben von / edited by
M ichael Fieger & Sigrid H odel-H oenes

PETER LANG
Bern Berlin Bruxelles Frankfurt am M ain N ew York O xford W ien

Nicoletta Gatti & George Ossom-Batsa

Journeying with
the Old Testament

PETER LANG
Bern Berlin Bruxelles Frankfurt am M ain New York O xford W ien

Bibliographie information published by die Deutsche Nationalbibliothek

Die D eu tsch e N ation alb ib lioth ek lists this p u b licatio n in the D eutsche N atio n al
bibliografie; detailed b ib liograp h ic d ata is available o n the Internet
at <h ttp ://d n b .d -n b .d e >.
British Library C atalogu in g-in -P u b lication D ata: A catalogu e record for this b ook
is available from T h e British Library, G reat Britain
Library o f C ongress C atalog in g-in -P u b lication D ata
G atti, N icoletta
Journeying w ith the O ld T estam en t / N icoletta Gatti & G eorge O ssom -B atsa.
p. cm . - (A lte T estam en t im D ia lo g ; Bd. 5 )
Includes bib liograp h ical references.
ISBN 9 7 8 - 3 - 0 3 4 3 - 1 0 0 6 - 2
1. Bible. O .T .-C riticism , in terp retation , etc. 2 . Bible. O .T .-S tu d y and teach in g-A frica.
I. O ssom -B atsa, G eorge, 1 9 5 9 - II. Title. III. Series: Alte T estam ent im D ia lo g ; Bd. 5.
B S 5 1 1 .3 .G 3 8 5 2011
2 2 1 .6 - d c 2 3
2011036660

T he m ap s co n tain ed in th e b o o k are from The N ew Interpreter's Bible Vol. 1 1 9 9 4

by A b in gd on Press; N ew Interpreter's Bible Vol. 2 1 9 9 8 A bingdon Press LIsed by
p erm ission . All rights reserved.
LIm schlaggestaltung: T h o m as Jaberg, Peter Lang AG
ISSN 1 6 6 2 - 1 6 8 9
ISBN 9 7 8 - 3 - 0 3 4 3 - 1 0 0 6 - 2
Peter Lang AG, In tern ation al A cad em ic Publishers, Bern 2011
H ochfeldstrasse 3 2 , C H -3 0 1 2 Bern, Switzerland
in fo @ p e te rla n g .c o m , w w w .peterlang.com
All rights reserved.
All parts o f this p u b lication are p rotected by copyright.
Any utilisation ou tsid e the strict lim its o f the copyright law, w ith ou t the
p erm ission o f th e publisher, is forbidden and liable to p rosecu tion .
This applies in p articu lar to rep rod u ctions, tran slation s, m icrofilm ing, and storage
an d p rocessing in electro n ic retrieval systems.
Printed in Sw itzerland

Dedicated to the blessed memory o f

Mrs. M

ary

Ah

o rlu

a lover o f the W O R D

Table o f Contents

F o re w o rd ..........................................................................................................
List o f A b b rev iatio n ......................................................................................11
General In tro d u ctio n ................................................................................... 15
Step 1: T h e World o f the Old T estam en t..............................................17
Section 1: Israels Ancient Near East
Geographical C o n te x t..............................................21
Section 2: Israel and the Near Eastern P o w e rs.................... 25
To Know More .............................................................................. 31
Step 2: T h e Canon o f the Old Testament ........................................... 33
Section 1: Explanation o f T erm in olog ies.............................. 37
Section 2: T h e Formation o f the Hebrew Canon .............41
Section 3: Reasons for the Canon
o f the Hebrew B i b l e ................................................ 47
Section 4: T h e TaNaK-T\\z Hebrew Bible
in Hebrew ..................................................................51
Section 5: T h e Septuagint - T h e Hebrew Bible
in G r e e k .......................................................................55
Section 6: T h e Bible o f the Early Church ............................59
To Know More .............................................................................. 63
Step 3: T h e Structure and Content o f the T orh .............................. 65
Section 1: An Overview o f the Torh ................................... 69
Section 2: T h e Problem o f Mosaic Authorship
o f the Torh ............................................................... 75
Section 3: T h e Documentary H y p o th esis............................79
Section 4: T h e Structure o f the T orh ................................... 85

Section 5: Three M ajor Them es in the Torh .................. 91

Section 6: Literary Forms in the Torh ............................... 99
To Know More ............................................................................104
Biblical A n th o lo g y .......................................................................105
Step 4: T h e Structure and Content of the NebVm ......................107
Section 1: The Former Prophets ........................................... I l l
Section 2: The Latter Prophets ..............................................115
Section 3: The Prophetic Ministry ...................................... 121
Section 4: The Literary Forms
o f the Prophetic B o o k s .........................................127
To Know More ............................................................................133
Biblical A n th o lo g y .......................................................................134
Step 5: T h e Structure and Content o f the Ketbm ......................137
Section 1: An Overview o f the Kct bm ...............................141
Section 2: Reflecting on L i f e ...................................................145
Section 3: Celebrating Life ..................................................... 149
Section 4: Confronting the Challenges o f Life ............... 153
To Know More ............................................................................157
Biblical A n th o lo g y .......................................................................158
Step 6: Studying the TaNaK in Africa ............................................... 159
Section 1: Africa in the Old T e s ta m e n t...............................163
Section 2: Interpreting the Old Testament
from an African Perspective .............................. 167
Section 3: Reading the Old Testament
with African Eyes ...................................................175
To Know More ............................................................................181
General C o n c lu s io n ................................................................................... 183
List o f Reference

......................................................................................185

Foreword

This book is an innovative approach to a general introductory study o f

the Old Testament. Its innovativeness lies in the fact that it is an active
text. It provides the student with opportunities to be involved with the
text, through reading selected passages from the Bible and doing rec
ommended exercises as a means o f reinforcing what has been learnt.
Besides, each step begins with a presentation o f a map o f the journey,
objectives to be achieved, a summary and a final section that helps the
student to evaluate his/her comprehension. There is never a dull m o
ment in reading this book. It is practical.
It is also contextual. It has a chapter dedicated to the Old Testament
in Africa which provides the reader, the opportunity to appreciate the
relevance o f the Old Testament world to Africa and with possibilities
o f acquiring skills to interpret the Old Testament from African per
spectives. Much o f the available literature on general introduction to
the Old Testament, lack this contextual aspect and do not give room to
the readers active engagement with the text, which aids comprehen
sion.
Although brief in its coverage o f the themes, this becomes a strength
o f the book. T h e reader is enabled to cover detailed grounds through
the reading and recommended exercises.
Dr. George Ossom-Batsa and Dr. Nicoletta Gatti have considerable
experience at teaching Old Testament at the tertiary level in Ghana.
Dr. Ossom-Batsa has been teaching at the Department for the Study of
Religions at the University o f Ghana since the year 2 0 0 3 . This Depart
ment has a track record for excellence and Dr. Ossom-Batsa is a key
player in achieving this. Dr. Gatti has taught for many years in Ethio
pia and she is currently lecturing at Central University College, one o f
the leading private universities in Ghana. They have brought these ex
periences to bear on this book. T h e book is actually a product o f long
years o f teaching and discussion in Africa and with African students.

This book deserves to be read by all students who offer Old Testa
ment studies in the tertiary institutions as well as those interested in
understanding how God speaks to us through the Old Testament.
It is to the credit o f Dr. Ossom-Batsa and Dr. Gatti to have written
a useful book that helps our understanding o f the Old Testament and
seeks to make the study practical, easy and quick.
Rev. Prof. Emmanuel Adow Obeng
Former Vice-Chancellor, University o f Cape-Coast (Ghana)

10

Abbreviations

ABD

Anchor Bible Dictionary

AICM AR

African Institute for Contemporary Mission and Research

ANE

Ancient Near East

Auss

Andrew University Seminary Studies

B.C .E.

Before Common Era

BEThL

Bibliotheca Ephemeridum Theologicarum

c.

Circa

C .E .

Common Era

CBQ

Catholic Biblical Quarterly

Deuteronomist

Elohist

IDB

Interpreters Dictionary of the Bible

Yahwist

JSO T

Journal for the Study of the Old Testament

JSOTSup.

Journal for the Study of the Old Testament; Supplement Series

NT

New Testament

NTS

New Testament Studies

OT

Old Testament

OTS

Old Testament Studien

Priestly

VT

Vetus Testamentum

W BC

World Biblical Commentary

ZAW

Zeitschrift fr die neutestamentliche Wissenschaft

Lovaniensium

11

Biblical Books

a. Old Testament
Gen

Genesis

Wis

Wisdom of Solomon

Exod

Exodus

Sir

Sirach

Lev

Leviticus

Isa

Isaiah

Num

Numbers

Jer

Jeremiah

Deut

Deuteronomy

Lam

Lamentations

Josh

Joshua

Bar

Baruch

Judg

Judges

Ezek

Ezekiel

Ru

Ruth

Dan

Daniel

12 Sam

12 Samuel

Hos

Hosea

12 Kgs

12 Kings

Joel

Joel

12 Chr

1 -2 Chronicles

Amos

Amos

Ezra

Ezra

Obad

Obadiah

Neh

Nehemiah

Jonah

Jonah

Tob

Tobit

Mic

Micah

Jdt

Judith

Nah

Nahum

Esth

Esther

Hab

Habakkuk

Job

Job

Zeph

Zephaniah

Ps

Psalms

Hag

Haggai

Prov

Proverbs

Zech

Zechariah

Mai

Malachi

1 -2 Mac

1 -2 Maccabees

Qoh
Cant

12

Qoheleth (Ecclesiastes)
Canticles

b.

New Testament

Matt

Matthew

1 -2 Thess

12 Thessalonians

Mark

Mark

12 Tim

1 -2 Timothy

Luke

Luke

Titus

Titus

John

John

Phlm

Philemon

Acts

Acts of the Apostles

Heb

Hebrews

Rom

Romans

Jas

James

12 Cor

12 Corinthians

1 -2 Pet

12 Peter

Gal

Galatians

1 -3 John

1 -3 John

Eph

Ephesians

Jude

Jude

Phil

Philippians

Rev

Revelations

Col

Colossians

13

General Introduction

This Journeying with the Old Testament is the fruit o f many years o f
teaching in two different Universities in Ghana. Encouraged by our
students, we decided to transform our lesson notes into a tool that
could be o f use to a wider readership. We have observed that between
the highly scientific introductions on one hand and the popular
ones on the other, there is nothing intermediate capable o f combining
rigorous scientific approach to Scripture (Mark 12:10; 15:28; Luke 4:21 ;
Acts 1:16; 8:3 2 .3 5 ) with a style accessible to undergraduate and Sem i
nary students.
T h e work originates in Ghana, in an ecumenical context charac
terized by a plurality o f churches unified around the Word o f God,
where the Bible is loved, read, feared ... but not always understood
(Obeng 2 0 0 1 ). It is a context that lives a conflictual relationship with
the texts o f the Old Testament: while, in fact, a certain cultural com
munion draws it nearer to the heart o f the African world view, it is
sometimes perceived as secondary revelation in relation to the New
Testament.
In a liberal inter-religious environment, where Christian and Mus
lim students meet and interact in our lecture Halls, studying the Bible
and the Q uran together and sharing in the common fatherhood o f
Abraham, the need for a basic tool becomes urgent.
Besides, Africa is a continent where the Bible is at home, a conti
nent that has featured in the Scriptures from the time o f the Patriarchs
(Adamo 1998; Holter 2 0 0 0 ), a continent which today sees the Bible as
a tool for a journey o f liberation, reconstruction, and rediscovery o f its
own identity (Getui - O beng 1999; W est-Dube 2000).

15

This Introduction, therefore, intends to be a journey which begins

with the ancient Hebrew Scriptures and, step by step, conducts the
reader home to read his/her story with eyes transfigured by meeting
Jesus in the Word (Luke 2 4 :3 1 -3 3 ).
It is an Introduction, a beginning capable o f giving to all who desire
to know the Old Testament, the Bible of Jesus, the possibility to jour
ney, to acquire a a baggage o f sufficient information to interpret the
texts, and to continue the voyage through further readings, indicated
at the end o f each Step. It is an active text, which requests the reader to
participate with a Bible in his hand, doing all the recommended exer
cises. It is a didactic text: each step opens with a presentation o f the
map o f the journey, objectives to achieve, a summary, and a final sec
tion that helps the reader to evaluate his/her comprehension. It is a
contextualized text: the last chapter, dedicated to the Old Testament in
Africa, permits the reader to discover the relationship between the Af
rican continent and the biblical world, and the possibility o f interpret
ing the Old Testament from an African perspective.
I f readers find this volume a useful tool to approach the Hebrew
Bible, then our goal is achieved.
Shalom!
Dr. Nicoletta Gatti and Dr. George Ossom-Batsa

16

Step 1

The World of the Old Testament

Introduction

This first step provides an overview o f Israels Ancient Near East (ANE)
environment and the historical circumstances in which the literature
o f the Hebrew Bible originated.
T h e Hebrew Bible narrates the experiences (religious, social, eco
nomic, political) o f the people o f Israel, who lived in a defined geo
graphical territory among other nations, within a certain period o f
time. T h e history o f any land and people is influenced by the geo
graphical environment and geopolitical relationships (Aharon 1979, 3;
Rogerson - Davies 2 0 0 7 , 39 and Harris 2 0 0 3 , 4 3 - 6 8 ) . This is the
case o f Israel, who from a humble beginning eventually came to settle
in the Fertile Crescent, between the powerful empires o f Egypt and
Mesopotamia.
In other to appreciate and understand Israels experience, there is
the need to take a closer look at this geographical environment as well
as its geopolitics, as these greatly influenced their worldview.

O ur M ap

Section 1: Israels Ancient Near East Geographical Context

Section 2: Israel and the Near Eastern Powers

At the end o f Step 1 you will be able to:

S Draw the map o f A N E and locate the various A N E nations.
S Discuss the geopolitics o f the ANE context.

19

Section 1
Israels Ancient Near East Geographical Context

Introduction

This section will present you with the map o f A N E, the geographical
features, main towns and regions, especially the Fertile Crescent. You
will also learn why the Fertile Crescent region is important to the na
tions in the area.
7/ / <it . S <

ARARAT
HITTITE
EMPIRE
Cjft ^ < .

EGYPT

AttA
M.
.r . i.V..
....

Ancient \ a r East
Second M illennium B.L.
Cx v . vui
i

y
Vu

: a

."Jt

CUSH

i K V < iori pnllrloa!

21

The Fertile Crescent

It is the stretch of land in a curved form, lying between the Persian

G u lf on the east, extending to Syria in the north, and then southwards
to Palestine (Canaan) and to Egypt. Towards the end of the 4 th century
B .C .E . and the beginning o f the 3 rd century B .C .E., the foundations
o f human civilisation were laid here, in the two lands o f the great riv
ers, Tigris and Euphrates (Aharon 1979, 5), which originates in the
Armenian highlands and flow into the Persian Gulf. Villages gradually
sprang up as human life began to flourish in the area. Archaeological
excavations in the region attest to this fact. T h e land, which is in a
form o f a crescent, is fertile because the great rivers (the river Nile in
cluded) when filled up and overflow water their banks.
Abrahams journey narrated in Genesis encompasses this area, and
this has set the parameters o f the biblical world. Born in Ur in Mesopo
tamia, Abraham later moved to Haran in Syria; following Gods com
mand he travelled through Canaan to Egypt and then back to Canaan/
Palestine (Gen 11:2732; 1 2 :1 -2 0 ). Palestine then became the home
o f the Israelites. Its extension rather varied from one era to the other.
Palestine and Syria served as a middle ground between Egypt and Meso
potamia from both the political and economic point o f view. All the
kingdoms on both sides considered the Fertile Crescent a thoroughfare.
They all tried to impose their authority on it: to control trade routes, and
to use it as offensive and defensive (Aliaron 1 9 7 9 ,5 -9 ; Harris 2 0 0 3 ,4 8 -4 9 ).
According to Aharon (1979, 6), the position o f Palestine as a land
bridge between the two great powers surrounding it made an indelible
impression upon its history. Notably, the clearest expression o f the
geopolitical situations impression on the minds o f the ancients is re
flected in the biblical table o f nations in Gen 10 and 1 Chr 1 :1 -2 3 .

Activity
S Draw the map o f the A N E and shade the Fertile Crescent.
S Indicate the following towns: Nineveh, Babylon and Ur.
S Read Gen 1213 and trace the journey o f Abraham and Sarah.
22

P re -M o n a rch y Period

Timeline of the History of Israel

(Before 1020 B .C .E .)

The Babylonian Period

(6 1 2 -5 3 9 B .C .E .)

The Persian Period

( 5 5 9 -3 3 0 B .C .E .)

The Maccabean Period

( 1 6 4 - 6 3 B .C .E .)

The Roman Period

(from 63 B .C .E .)

23

Section 2
Israel and the Near Eastern Powers

Introduction

T he territory o f the ancient Near East in which Israel lived was con
trolled successively by one great power or the other. Israels history is
linked to this geopolitical situation: people living within her boarders,
people living on the boarders o f Palestine and more especially, the oc
cupying empires (Rogerson-Davies 2 0 0 7 , 3 9 - 6 2 ) . The concern here is
with the influence o f the succession o f the occupying empires in the
region. The following paragraphs will present a discussion o f the timeline
o f the history o f Israel.

Pre-Monarchy

T he Egyptians controlled Canaan/Palestine long before Israel came to

settle there (cf. Rogerson-Davies 2 0 0 7 , 51; Chapentier 2 0 0 0 , 1 6 -1 7 ).
According to Burnette-Bletsch (2007, 5) around 1200 B .C .E ., the
Egyptians repelled Aegean invaders who then settled in south-western
Canaan, where they became known as the Philistines. Notably, at the
end o f the late bronze age (c. 1250 B .C .E .), and especially during the
early part o f the Iron age (c. 1200 B .C .E . onwards), as Egyptian power
waned, smaller kingdoms like Israel, Judah, Aram, Ammon, Moab, etc.,
sprang up and emancipated.

25

The United M onarchy (1 0 2 0 -9 2 2 B .C .E )

T h e dedine in Egyptian power and control facilitated the develop

ment and emancipation o f smaller kingdoms and nations. Each nation
attempted to assert itself over the others. This brought about rifts and
conflicts. In order to respond adequately to hostile incursions posed by
their neighbours, especially the Philistines, the tribes o f Israel united
and emerged as a political entity under successive leadership o f Saul,
David and Solomon (Burnette-Bletsch 2 0 0 7 , 5). T h e emergent Israel
ite nation, under King David grew in power and gradually positioned
itself on the political landscape o f the region.

T he Divided Monarchy (9 2 2 -7 2 2 B .C .E )
and Assyrian Period (7 4 5 -6 1 2 B .C .E )

After the death o f Solomon in 922 B .C .E ., the United Kingdom split

into two separate kingdoms, the northern kingdom o f Israel with its
capital at Samaria, and the southern kingdom o f Judah with the capital
seat at Jerusalem. W hile Israel and Judah and other smaller kingdoms
tried to assert themselves, the Assyrian empire grew more powerful and
aggressive, eventually conquering the whole territory (cf. Rogerson Davies 2 0 0 7 , 51; Harris 2 0 0 3 , 65). By the 8 th century B .C .E ., Israel
and Judah were vassals o f Assyria and had to pay huge sums o f tribute.
Sargon II, an Assyrian king, destroyed Samaria, the capital o f the
northern kingdom, in the year 7 2 2 -7 2 1 B .C .E ., and deported the ur
ban upper class. Foreigners brought in to settle in Samaria intermar
ried with the Israelites to later become the Samaritans (2 Kgs 17:24).
Refugees who fled the Assyrian invasion and settled in Judah brought
along with them the Elohist tradition, which were revised and com
bined /blended with the Yahwist tradition by the Judean scribe to form
a composite narrative known as JE .

26

Sennacherib, another Assyrian king, entered Judah and destroyed

most o f its fortified cities, except Jerusalem (2 Kgs 18:1316). Towards
the end o f the seventh century B .C .E ., Assyria grew weaker and this
brought a rapid change into the politics o f A N E (Harris 2 0 0 3 , 66).
Josiah , king o f Judah ( 6 4 0 - 6 0 9 B .C .E .) took advantage o f this situa
tion, expanded Israels territory and carried out an extended religious
reform (revival o f Mosaic traditions) prescribing the Jerusalem Temple
as the only place for sacrifice (2Kgs 2 2 -2 3 ).

The Babylonian Period (6 1 2 -5 3 9 B .C .E )

In 6 1 2 B .C .E ., Nineveh, the Assyrian capital, fell to a coalition force

o f Babylonians and Medes, and it came to an end. The struggle for
Palestine was then between the Egyptians and Babylonians. In the

27

year 6 0 9 B .C .E ., Judah was invaded by Necho, the Pharaoh o f Egypt,

and Josiah was killed in a battle at Meggido. This brought to an end
the Josian reform (2 Kgs 2 3 :2 9 ). In 605 B .C .E ., king Nebuchadnezzar
o f Babylon defeated the Egyptians in a battle in Carchemish and be
came the ruling power in the ANE.
Babylon exercised control over Palestine from 605 B .C .E . In 597
B. C. E., she captured Jerusalem, and in 587 B. C. E. destroyed the whole
city together with Solomons temple. After this, the upper class in
habitants were sent into exile in Babylon (5 8 7 -5 3 9 B .C .E .), with only
the poor left in Jerusalem (Harris 2 0 0 3 , 66), and the rest spread abroad
(2Kgs 2 4 25). During the exile the Jews were without King, country,
and sanctuary (Dan 3 :3 4 - 4 0 ) - the essential elements in the promise to
Abraham and David (Enns 1989, 5 1 -5 2 . 6 1 -6 2 ; Tbet 2001, 121-124).

T he Persian Period (5 3 9 -3 3 0 B .C .E )
L
->* '...........
* .

..
/

>

y/

'

:'th8ace\,,__

V , . _____ V

<

V .......\ . .

c a p ? d O C IA

t( / 0

fai ,

**\

A .J

...;

'*

SO G D IA N A

'

........>

PARTMIA

t.

;r

Ptr Sta

/ y-i.

a r a s ia
.**

<___

28

vj

t\N
#0*

->

*"
1 1

'

The Persian
Empire

N.

y
/

^T

x\ ' / \

a \ \
*< >
1 \
y V * \
%*
\\ ;*3
)
1

A R l*

or,

1* T , .....
) V* f

a ,.

\
\Q, ^
iJs. . \ * j j h u s h a n
'- T \
\ c -V

*. TA

" " * * *

/ .r

/r+rn
M m*.
#**%%. AV

Persia became a great power in the A N E from the time o f Cyrus on

wards (cf. Rogerson-Davies 2 0 0 5 , 57). In 538 B .C .E., Cyrus the great
captured Babylon, and a year later issued an edict that permitted the
Jewish exiles to return home and restore worship to their God (cf. Isa
4 5 55, Dan 1). Not all Jews returned to Jerusalem; some remained in
Babylon, where they continued to complete and edit legal and pro
phetic documents that eventually became part o f the Hebrew Bible
(Harris 2 0 0 3 , 67). Much o f the compilation, editing, composition of
the books o f the Hebrew Bible took shape during the exile and Persian
domination.
T h e Temple was re-dedicated in the year 515 B .C .E.: the six cen
turies that follow this reconstruction event are referred to as Second
Temple Period.

The Greek Period (3 3 0 -1 6 4 B .C .E .)

Alexander the Great (3 3 6 - 3 2 3 B .C .E .) conquered the Persians in the

4 th century and established a powerful Greek empire, stretching from
Greece to India and to Egypt in the south (i.e., the whole o f the ANE).
He set out to promote Hellenism (adoption o f Greek language, litera
ture, custom, values, social life, etc.) in the entire empire. This was
carried out to the extreme after him by his successors.
After his death, the empire was divided among two o f his generals:
a. Ptolemy (Ptolemaic dynasty): Egypt;
b. Seleucus (Seleucid dynasty): Syria and the territory o f Mesopotamia.
T he region o f Judea was under the Ptolemaic control until 199 B. C. E.
when it passed over to the Seleucids. T h e attempt o f Antiochus IV, a
Seleucid king (1 7 5 -1 6 3 B .C .E .), to emphasise the Hellenization pro
gram led to the Maccabean revolt that gave birth to an independent
Jewish kingdom (1 and 2 Maccabees).

29

The Maccabean Period (1 6 4 -6 3 B .C .E .)

W ith the victory of the Maccabees over the Syrian forces, the Jews
gained their independence from foreign domination. A Jewish state
emerged, ruled by the H asm onians, who were descendant of the
Maccabees. This Jewish independence lasted from 142 till 63 B .C .E.,
when Roman troops under Pompey conquered Judea. Jewish attempt
to revolt against Rome led to their tragic end in 70 C .E ., when Titus
the Roman emperor, captured Jerusalem, destroyed the Temple, and
massacred ten thousands o f Jews (Harris 2 0 0 3 , 69). A new form o f
Judaism arose, led by the Rabbis who actualised the Trh for their
contemporaries (cf. Harris 2 0 0 3 , 69).

g f Test Yourself
1. Explain why Israels geographical location caused repeated domi
nation by superior military forces.
2. Prepare your time-line o f the History o f Israel.
3. In the light o f Amos 2 :1 - 1 6 and Jer 2 2 :1 -2 3 , analyse the pro
phetic interpretation o f the destruction o f Israel and Judah.

/ C-J / General Summary

In this section you were introduced to:
> the geographical context o f Ancient Israel;
> the time-line o f the history o f Ancient Israel.

30

bd

To Know More ...

Aharoni, Y. (1979). The Land o f the Bible. A Historical Geography. Philadelphia: West
minster.
Hayes, J. H. - Miller, J. M. (1990) Israelite andJudean History. London: SCM - Phila
delphia: Westminster.
Kessler, R. (2008). The Social History o f Ancient Israel. An Introduction. Minneapolis:
Fortress Press.
Noth, M . (1966). The Old Testament World. London: Adam &L Charles Black.
Rogerson, J. - Davies, R. P. (2005). Old Testament World. London: T & T Clark Inter
national.
Soggin, J. A. (1984). A History o f Israel. From the Beginnings to the Bar Kochba Revolt,
AD 135. London: SCM.

31

Step 2

The Canon of the Old Testament

Introduction

Step 2 is the beginning o f an interesting journey through the Old

Testam ent. You will be introduced to some im portant terms like
Scripture, Tradition and Canon. This will help you to approach the
Old Testament as Word o f G od and begin to investigate the number
o f books it contains, its arrangement and message. O ne important
thing you need on this journey is a Bible, constantly opened in front
o f you!
Have you ever checked for the number o f books in the Old Testa
ments? You may pick up your Bible and count them. W hat have
you realized? You will soon discover that some Bibles contain more
books than others. How did this come about? You will discover that
here.

O ur M ap

Section 1: Explanation o f Terminologies

Section 2: T h e Formation o f the Hebrew Bible
Section 3: Reasons for the Canon o f the Hebrew Bible
Section 4: T h e TaNaK - T h e Hebrew Bible in Hebrew
Section 5: T h e Septuagint - T h e Hebrew Bible in Greek
Section 6: The Bible o f the Early Church

35

At the end o f Step 2 you will be able to:

S Explain the following terms: Canon, Scripture and Tradition.
S Identify the stages in the formation o f the Old Testament
S
S
S
S

36

Canon.
State the reasons why there was the need for the Canon o f the
Hebrew Bible.
Differentiate between the Hebrew Bible in Hebrew and the
Hebrew Bible in Greek.
List the various sections o f the Hebrew Bible in Hebrew and
the Hebrew Bible in Greek
N ote the differences between the Greek versions o f the
Hebrew Bible and the Bible o f the Early Church.

Section 1
Explanation of Terminologies

Introduction

You may have come across this important expression the Word o f God.
W hat does it refer to? It simply refers to G ods disclosure o f himself to
humanity. This exists in two forms: Sacred Tradition and Sacred Scrip
ture. T h e authoritative list o f books that make up Sacred Scripture is
referred to as Canon.

W hat is Sacred Tradition?

Sacred Tradition is the heritage o f Gods revelation to the people o f

Israel and then to the primitive Church, until it attained its final form
as we have it in the Bible today. Accordingly, we can speak o f the He
brew Tradition which is an account o f Gods relationship with the cho
sen people o f Israel that each generation handed on to the subsequent
one, until it assumed a written form. Christian Tradition, on the other
hand, is G ods revelation through Jesus which the apostles handed on
to their successors and which the church perpetuates for all genera
tions. Sacred Tradition is therefore the oral form o f the Word o f God.
In a general and broader sense, tradition comprises the whole way
o f life o f both the Jewish and Christian communities: how they inter
preted the Word o f God, how they lived it, and how they passed their
faith on to subsequent generations.
Sacred Scripture, the material you shall be dealing with in this jour
ney, is the tradition that in time came to be fixed in a written form.

37

Both the oral (Sacred Tradition) and the written (Sacred Scripture)
forms have ever since existed alongside each other as the two sources o f
the Word o f God.

Activity
Before you continue, read 2M acc 8:23 to find out how it refers
to Scripture.

W hat is Sacred Scripture?

Sacred Scripture, in general, refers to sacred written texts that preserve

the faith o f a religious group. Jews refer to their Sacred Writings as
TaNaK Christians, on the other hand, call their Sacred Writings Bible.
Not all the literature in ancient society was considered Sacred or Scrip
ture. For a writing to be Scripture, it must define the faith o f the par
ticular religious group concerned. It must also originate from the di
vine and preserve his will. Many writings initially circulated among the
Jews, all o f which were claiming to be Scriptures. But not all o f them
were accepted by the Jewish Com m unity as such. Doubts that sur
rounded some o f them called for scrutiny to eliminate the spurious
ones. Consequently, some texts were, in the case o f the Judaism, ac
claimed as containing the will o f God, and therefore preserving their
faith. T h e result o f such a decision is the drawing up o f a list o f books
believed to contain the will o f God. T h e definite list was referred to as
Canon - the rule o f their faith. Through its sacred texts, the believing
community engages its own current experience in the effort to find life
and to live well (Schneiders 2 0 1 1, 1).
T h e term Sacred Scripture was used for the first time in 2M acc
8 :2 3 , around the second half o f the 2 nd century B .C . E., to refer to the
books in the Palestinian canon. However, the idea already existed be
cause G ods communication through Moses to the people has always
retained an authoritative force as the Word o f God.

38

0 Activity
Read 2Tim 3 :1 6 - 1 7 . W hat does it say about the function o f the
Scripture?

W hat is the M eaning o f Canon?

Now that you have learnt Sacred Tradition and Sacred Scripture, let us
take a look at what Canon means. T h e word Canon derives from Se
mitic cognates such as Assyrian !qanu, and Hebrew 'qanah\ which origi
nally meant reed. T h e word was transliterated into Greek (kanon),
Latin and modern languages to mean a measure.
T he Greeks transposed the original meaning o f the word to a stand
ard o f living, a norm for life, and by so doing included both mean
ings o f the term: a list and a rule o f faith with regard to the Scriptures
(Harrison 2 0 0 4 , 260).
In recent times Canon has come to be understood not simply as a
historical development or literary decision, but as a theological prac
tice. As Brueggemann (2003, 6) intimates, the development o f the lit
erary corpus took place through a theological impulse, a concern to
shape the literature according to defining theological convictions. The
term canon attests that the literature o f the Bible functions as norma
tive for the believing Community. Th e Hebrew Bible alone is the canon
o f Judaism, whereas for Christianity it is the Hebrew Bible and the
Greek New Testament.

^ / Sum m ary
In this section you have learnt:
a) the meaning o f Tradition, Scripture, and Canon;
b) the relationship between the three terms.

39

Section 2
The Formation of the Hebrew Canon

Introduction

We shall now explore the history o f how the Jewish Com m unity came
to have the final form o f their Scriptures. They took a long time to
come out with a definite list o f books which they held to be inspired
and therefore authoritative guide for the transmission o f their faith. In
this section we shall lead you to discover when writing began in Israel,
how the various books developed in different moments in the history
o f Israel, and why we have many canons o f Scripture today. According
to modern scholarship, the origin o f the written tradition in Israel dates
back to the period o f the Monarchy. But it was not until after the
Babylonian exile o f 587 B .C . E. that the process o f creating a Canon o f
scripture began.

Activity
Read the following biblical references before you proceed: Exod
17:14; 2 4 :4 ; Num 33:2; D eut 3 1 :9 .2 4 ff.

The Period o f the Monarchy

W hen did Israel begin to write down her traditions? And how was
the collection done, organised and transmitted? And when was the
Canon fixed? These are some o f the questions we shall be discussing
here.

41

Unfortunately, the Bible says nothing explicit about how the Holy
Writings were assembled or the people who exercised influence over
the literature during its process o f growth or formation. However, Bib
lical tradition ascribes the beginnings o f the collection of Sacred W rit
ings in Ancient Israel to Moses (cf. Exod 17:14; 24:4; Num 3 3 :2 ; Deut
3 1 :9. 2 4 ff.). T h e extent of this literary activity is rather uncertain. Fuller
(1 9 6 9 , 22) suggests the earliest nucleus o f Law, together with the then
scanty written records o f the tribes, were gathered together by him
(Moses), for transmission to posterity.
Modern biblical scholarship retains that the period o f the monar
chy, from 1000 B .C .E ., during the reign o f Solomon, marked the be
ginnings o f any consistent effort o f Israel to collect together their lit
erature. This was the time writing actually began in Israel. T h e laws
taught by the priests and other officials were gradually collected to
gether (cf. the Covenant Code in Exod 2 1 :1 -2 3 . 19). T h e Josiahan
reforms o f 621 B .C .E . suggest the existence o f other laws (cf. the
Deuteronomic code in D eut 1 2 -2 6 ), which were used as the basis o f
the reform. O ther collections o f laws (ceremonial and rituals laws) were
added later. This was also the time when Israel began recollecting and
writing down their traditions: the experiences o f their past (the Exo
dus), the story o f the Patriarchs and the origins o f hum anity (cf.
Carpentier 1982, 2 2 -2 3 ).
After the death of Solomon in 933 B .C .E ., the United Kingdom
broke into two: the Southern and the Northern. T h e Southern part,
the kingdom o f Judah, which continued in the Davidic dynasty, gradu
ally recorded her traditions. This became known as the Sacred History
o f Judah (J). T h e traditions o f the Northern part eventually developed
into the Sacred History o f the North (E). T h e collection o f laws gath
ered in the North, were brought to the South when Israel was con
quered by the Assyrians and became known as Deuteronomy (D). When
Judah in turn had been conquered by the Babylonians and was taken
into exile in Babylon, the exiles under the leadership o f their priests,
reflecting on their experiences in the light of their earlier traditions
rethought their history, which developed into the Priestly History (P).
These four traditions (JE D P ) later became the sources for the elabora
tion o f the Trh.

42

The Post-exilic Period

It is within this period that the Trh (Law), the Prophets and the
Writings became Scripture. In the following pages you will discover
how it happened.

Activity
Read Neh 8 and Ezra 7: these will aid you in understanding the
exposition in the paragraphs that follow.

The Law as Scripture

T h e returnees o f the Babylonian exile (538 B .C .E .) enjoyed a fair

amount o f relative peace under Persian rule. As a result o f this a lot o f
literary activities went on. T h e various collections o f legal codes, the
Covenant code, the Deuteronomic code, the Priestly code were com
bined with the narrative traditions by Ezra, the priest-scribe, to form a
unified whole. By the end o f the 5 th century, there was an identifiable
body o f law. This, framed in the narrative accounts o f Genesis and
Exodus, came to be known as the Law o f Moses. T h at the people
gathered for public reading o f the Law o f Moses, as attested to by Neh
8:1 and Ezra 7 :1 4 , suggest that the laws exercised an authoritative force
and were held to be the rule o f faith. By the third century B .C .E . an
identifiable collection, Trh, was complete and fixed since it served
as the basis o f the Septuagint translation.

43

T he Prophets as Scripture

T h e second group o f writings (Joshua - 2 Kings) was probably com

piled during and after the Exile. T h e traditions o f this corpus were
known to the Chronicler who rewrote the same history some two cen
turies later. The Chronicler used the existing texts, but introduced some
changes and additions for his theological perspectives.
T h e works o f Isaiah and Jeremiah were authoritative in the 4 rh cen
tury, as they served to prepare the people for restoration after the exile.
W ithin this same period, the works o f the 12 M inor Prophets were
collected, and by the time the author o f Ecclesiasticus wrote, c. 190 B. C. E.,
they existed as a single collection on a scroll (Sir 1:1). Thus by the
2 ndcentury B .C .E . there existed a body o f writings known as xhcNebi'im.
But the list was not closed (cf. the position o f the book o f Daniel).

T he Writings as Scripture

T he presence o f a third collection is attested by the book o f Ecclesiasticus

(c. 190 B .C .E .), but its exact character is not indicated. Even in the
New Testament times, we have no clear character o f the third collec
tion. Luke speaks o f the Law, the Prophets and the Psalms (cf. Luke
2 4 :4 4 ). So also Philo in the 1st century speaks o f the Law, the Prophets
and the Hymns. Some manuscripts from Qum ran which date to the
same period (The Damascus Docum ent 7 :1 4 - 1 8 ; and T h e Manual of
Discipline 8 :1 5 - 1 6 ) , mention only the Law and Prophets; they say
nothing about the Writings. O ther Qum ran documents, however,
mention the Psalms (cf. Donald 1995, 3 4 - 4 8 ) .
These attestations suggest:
a) T h at the Psalms occupy a primary position in the third division.
b) T h at the list was fluid, since the L X X tradition accepted other books
into the Palestinian tradition.

44

T he Septuagint tradition, also known as the Alexandrian Canon, revo

lutionised the process by drawing up a different list. Manuscripts within
this tradition show that there was not one list but many at the time,
which again suggests the fluidity o f a canonical list. It was only after
the assembly o f Jam nia1 that a definite list o f canonical books for the
Palestinian Judaism was drawn up, which became binding for the Syna
gogue till today.
This brief panoramic view demonstrates why the Torh occupies a
primary position in the Hebrew tradition and is at the centre o f Jewish
life. We may also draw the following conclusions:
a) T h e individual Books possessed and exercised divine authority be
fore they were officially proclaimed as such.
b) T h e Jews considered their Sacred Scriptures an essentially vital and
relevant writings - related to life; so it was possible to replace one
law with another when circumstances changed (Harrison 2 0 0 4 ,
p. 2 6 2 ).
c) T h e Council o f Jamnia appears to have only confirmed popular
opinion on canonical status o f the transmitted Jewish Canon in
Palestine (cf. Harrison 2 0 0 4 , 2 7 8 -2 7 9 ).

^ / Sum m ary
You have learnt the following:
a) literary activity in Israel began at the time o f the monarchy;
b) the traditions recorded in the books developed in specific his
torical settings;
c) actual writing o f traditions took place after the Babylonian exile
when Israel enjoyed some amount o f peace;

Jamnia is a variant writing for the ancient city Jabnel (cf. Josh 15:1) between
Joppa and Aschalon. It is believed that after the destruction of Jerusalem, it
became the seat of the Sanhdrin and the centre of Jewish spirituality until the
year 135 C. E.

45

d) the Torh was the first division to take shape, followed by the
Prophets and then the Writings;
e) though all the books were all along held to be authoritative, it
was only at the council at Jam nia that the Canon was officially
fixed.

46

Section 3
Reasons for the Canon o f the Hebrew Bible

Introduction

In the preceding section you learnt that it is impossible to know ex

actly when the Canon was fixed. However, there are indications that
it was only after the catastrophes which befell Jerusalem in 70 and
134 C. E. that it became necessary to give Sacred Scripture a fixed form.
Though many writings were in circulation within the period o f the
formation o f the Canon, not all found their way into the official list.
T he believing Com m unity has always been attentive to the preserva
tion and transmission o f its faith.
W hy was it necessary to have a definite list at all for the Jewish
Community? Can you guess? Scholars normally identify two factors:
internal and external. Both factors necessitated the fixing o f a definite
list o f the Hebrew Canon. Internal factors refer to causes or influences
from within, whereas external factors refers to outside causes.

Internal Factors

As already explained above, we are concerned here with factors from

within the Jewish community itself. Initially, the traditions on the Jew
ish heritage circulated in the community with much freedom. Apart
from using it in the liturgies and catechetical instructions, the comm u
nity often adapted the message they receive to suit their changing and
new needs and circumstances. Gradually the adaptations came to stay
alongside the original traditions.

47

Secondly, the rise o f various sects within Judaism (Essenes, Pharisees

and Sadducees) led to certain aspects o f Jewish faith given more promi
nence than others in different circles (Trebolle Barrera 19 9 8 ,151 ). Besides,
the fluidity o f the many writings circulating, all claiming authority, did
not contribute to the unity o f the Jewish faith. Instead, it became a
threat, since individual communities tended to accept some writings
and reject others. To forestall all these, a unified list became necessary.

External Factors

Here we consider forces from outside the community that compelled it

to have a recognised list o f its Scriptures. T h e major external factor was
the Babylonian invasion, which brought an end to the Davidic dynasty,
coupled with many attendant problems. The fall o f Jerusalem and the
Babylonian exile o f 587 B .C .E . led to many Jews living outside Palestine,
where Hebrew was no longer spoken. Apart from the language problem
o f the Jews in the diaspora, there was also, to some extent, a gradual
influence o f Hellenistic culture. Because they lived among pagans, the
diaspora Jews tended to be more eclectic, combining Jews ideas with
certain writings reflecting Hellenistic thoughts that circulated around
them. Canonising their Scriptures was to guard the purity o f faith in
Palestinian Judaism against adulteration (Gillinghman 1998, 4 6 - 4 8 ) .
T h e canonization process took a very long time. It was only with
time that the Jewish religious leaders came to accept a list o f books as
inspired, and therefore perpetuating their faith. O ther books, on the
other hand, were refused entry into the list because o f their content.

Activity

S Read Ps 119 and describe the importance o f the Law in the life
o f Israel.
S List the main external and internal factors that contributed to
the formation o f the Canon.

48

/ ^ / Summary
T h e canonization o f the Hebrew Scriptures was to:
a) safeguard the purity o f Jewish faith;
b) preserve the unity o f Jewish faith.

49

Section 4
The TaNaK: 1 he Hebrew Bible in Hebrew

Introduction

Now that you know how the Jews came to have a Canon - a definite
list o f books they held to be authoritative, you are in the position to
examine this body o f writings, their identity. This is what you will
learn in this section.
T h e Hebrew Scriptures exist in two languages or traditions. These
are the Palestinian tradition (the Hebrew version known as the TaNaK)
and the Alexandrian tradition (the G reek version known as the
Septuagint: LXX). In this section you will study the divisions o f the
TaNaK and the arrangement o f the books in each part. In the next
section we shall take a look at the divisions in the Septuagint. You will
discover that the TaNaK and the Septuagint are not identical.

W hat is the TaNaK?

T he word Bible or O ld Testament does not exist in Jewish vocabu

lary. These are terms that evolved inChristian circles.
In the Jewish
tradition, the people refer to the collection o f thesacred writings as
TaNaK. TaNaK is composed from the initial letter o f the three divi
sions o f the Sacred Scripture o f the Hebrews.
These divisions are:

/ Trh T (initial letter)

S Neb m N (initial letter)
S Ketbm K (initial letter)

51

T h e vowel a was introduced between the consonants TNK for pro

nunciation purposes.

T he Arrangement o f the Books in the Hebrew Canon

T h e Hebrew Canon is composed o f 39 books, organized in three divi

sions. The Torh occupies the first position because it is believed to
contain the foundational doctrines o f the Jewish faith: Torh, in fact,
means instruction or teaching. This division concludes with the book
o f Deuteronomy, which presents a theology o f divine retribution. Is
rael prospers when it remains faithful to covenant, and experiences
hardships when unfaithful.
T h e first part o f the second division, Joshua - 2 Kings, traces the
rise and fall o f Israel in relation to covenant fidelity and infidelity. The
second part, the books o f the writing prophets (men who lived and
worked in specific places in specific times in the history o f Israel) links
well with Joshua to 2 Kings and also with the Torh. T h e prophets
constantly challenged Israel to the life o f covenant fidelity. They proph
esied blessing for fidelity and doom for infidelity.
T h e third division contains works composed after the exile. They
reflect on the experience o f the exile and their constant failure, and
they look back on covenant fidelity as the true way o f life. The TaNaK
closes with 2 Chronicles which invite all Jews to return to Jerusalem,
where God is accessible, and once more to learn to live in his presence
(Harris 2 0 0 3 , 9).
Below is the list o f books.

52

Torh (The Law)

N cb'm (The Prophets)

Ketbm (The Writings)

Genesis
Exodus

a) The Former Prophets

Joshua

Psalms
Job

Leviticus

Judges

Proverbs

Numbers
Deuteronomy

1 Samuel
2 Samuel
1 Kings

Ruth

2 Kings

b) The Latter Prophets:

Song of Songs
Qoheleth/Ecclesiastes
Lamentations
Esther

Isaiah

Daniel

Jeremiah (with Lamentation

Ezra
Nehemiah

and Baruch)
Ezekiel

The scroll o f the Twelve

1Chronicles
2Chronicles.

Hosea
Joel
Amos
Obadiah
Jonah
Micah
Nahum
Habakkuk
Zephaniah
Haggai
Zechariah
Malachi

Activity
Before you go into the next section do the following:

S write the Hebrew names for the three divisions o f the Hebrew
Bible;
S memorize the books under the first and second divisions.

53

/ / Sum m ary
You have learnt in this section the following:
a) what TaNaK stands for;
b) the list o f books in the TaNaK;
c) the importance o f the Trh in the tri-partite structure.

54

Section 5
The Septuagint: The Hebrew Bible in Greek

Introduction

Were you ever in Church when a Bible reading was called out and you
could not find it in your Bible? O r have you ever noticed that some
Bibles have more books for the I than others?
You already know that the Hebrew Bible exists in two Traditions
that are not identical. In this section you will study the Canon o f the
Greek Bible. Under the Greek-Persian domination, Greek language
and culture became dominant in the entire empire. As many Jews
abroad no longer spoke Hebrew but Greek, it therefore becomes nec
essary to have their Scriptures translated into Greek. O ne such un
dertaking was in Alexandria, in Egypt, a great centre o f learning at
the time.
According to a legend recorded in the Letter o f Aristeas, 72 scholars
were charged to translate the Pentateuch for the king Ptolemy II
Philadelphus o f Alexandria in the 3 rd century It seems much more
plausible that the translation was made by the Jews themselves for those
living in the diaspora (cf. the prologue o f Ben Sirach, where the author
mentions the existence o f a Greek translation o f the Torh, the proph
ets and other books o f our Fathers). To the Greek translation o f the
Torh were eventually added, at different stages, the historical, pro
phetic and other books (Harris 2 0 0 3 , 13).

55

W hat is the Septuagint?

T h e Septuagint (LXX) is the Greek edition o f the Hebrew Bible. It

is more than the translation o f the TaNaK. Besides its insertion in
Hellenistic worldview, it contains other writings which are not in the
TaN aK. Examples include, T h e Psalms o f Solom on, T h e Odes o f
Solomon, 3 & 4 Maccabees, T h e Book o f Jubilees, etc. (cf. Gillinghman 1998, 5 2 -5 3 ). At the time there was not a fixed Canon o f Scrip
ture, even though certain books were held to be authoritative. This
fluidity allowed for books to be included and excluded from the Canon
easily.
It has a four-part division:
1. T h e Pentateuch
2. Historical Books
3. T h e Poetic/Wisdom Books
4. T h e Prophetic Books

The Arrangement o f the Books in the Septuagint

Manuscripts o f the Septuagint exhibit differences in both the number

o f books they contain and the order in which they are arranged, hence
the variations in the number o f books in the Septuagint.
W hat follows is just one out o f the many lists.

56

Pentateuch

Historical Books

Poetic Books

Prophetic Books

Genesis
Exodus

Joshua
Judges
Ruth

Psalms
Odes

Major Prophets

Leviticus

(Including the Psalms

Isaiah
Jeremiah

o f M anasseh)

Baruch

3 and 4 Kings

Proverbs
Ecclesiastes

Lamentations,
Letter of Jeremiah

(in Hebrew, 1 & 2 Kings)

Song of Songs

Ezekiel

1 and 2 Chronicles
Apocryphal Ezra

Job
Wisdom of Solomon

(1 Ezra)

Ben Sirach

Ezra-Nehemiah

(Ecclesiasticus)

(2 Ezra)

Psalms o f Solomon

Numbers
1 and 2 Kings
(in
Hebrew, 1 and
Deuteronomy

2 Sam uel)

Esther

Daniel
(with apocryphal addi
tions, including the Prayer
o f A zariah and the song
of the three children,
Susanna, and Bel and
D ragon )

(with Apocryphal A dditions)

Judith
Tobit
1 Maccabees
2 Maccabees
3 Maccabees
4 Maccabees

Minor Prophets
Hosea
Joel
Amos
Obadiah
Jonah
Micah
Nahum
Habakkuk
Zephaniah
Haggai
Zechariah
Malachi

Many books were eventually excluded from this canon when the Chris
tians adopted it. However, such books have had some influence on the
writers o f some parts o f the New Testament. This influence is seen in
the traditions about angels, the resurrection o f the dead, the Son o f
Man, etc. (cf. Gillinghman 1998, 52).

57

Other Greek Canons

Apart from the Septuagint (LXX), there were other Greek Bibles (ca
nonical lists). It appears that adoption o f the L X X by Christians and its
consequent polemical use against the Jews led to its rejection by the
Jewish community towards the end o f the 1st century C .E . W hen this
happened, the need for another Greek translation o f the Hebrew Bible
for the Diaspora Jews came up.
T his task was first undertaken by a Jewish proselyte from Pontus by
name Aquila (c. 128 C .E ). A second and a third translation from the
Hebrew Canon were made by Theodotio and Symmachus, respectively.
These three translations were faithful to the Hebrew texts. There were
other Greek translations from the Hebrew, whose authors are not known,
but evidence o f which is attested by the Hexapla o f Origen in the 3 rd
century C .E .

0 Activity
Do the following before continuing your reading:

S name the four divisions o f the Septuagint;

S list the books under the heading Historical Books.

/ ^ / Sum m ary
In this section you have learnt:
a) the different Greek Canons;
b) the list o f books in each o f the four division o f the Septuagint.

58

Section 6
The Bible o f the Early Church

Introduction

In the last section o f this unit, you will explore the Bible the Early
Church read at its origin. Is it different from the Bible we are reading
today? You will discover the answer in this exposition.

The Scriptures o f the Early Church

T he Bible o f the early Church was the Greek version o f the OT. This
was because the Church first spread into the Hellenistic world. T h e
primitive apostolic preaching and the quotations o f the O T in the N T
all come from the LXX. T h e Early Christian Com m unity excluded
from the Greek version some writings, and eventually came up with
4 6 books.
T h e one Christian Church shortly divided into two, on geographical/
territorial basis: the Church in the West and the Church in the East.
The Fathers o f the Western Church regularly quoted from the Greek
version o f the Old Testament which suggests that they accepted its
authority and inspiration. T h e works o f the Fathers in the East, on the
other hand, reflect only the books o f the TaNaK suggesting the use o f
this tradition in the East.
Much later at the Reformation, the use o f the Septuagint by the
Church became part o f the points o f dissension that eventually led
to the formation o f the Protestant Bible. Protestants, Greek O rtho
dox, and Roman Catholics disagree as to which books should be

59

included in the canon o f the Christian O T (cf. Gillinghman 1998,

6 3 68).
After the reformation the Protestant Churches adopted the shorter
list (Palestinian Canon) for the Old Testament whereas the Roman
Catholic Church has continued to use the longer list (the Alexandrian
Canon, i.e. the Septuagint tradition).

T he Longer list o f the O ld Testament

This list is made up o f 46 books, and it follows the fourfold division o f

the Septuagint. Roman Catholics and the Greek Orthodox follow this
tradition
Pentateuch

Historical Books

Poetic Books

Prophetic Books

Genesis
Exodus
Leviticus

Joshua

Job

Judges
Ruth

Numbers
Deuteronomy

1 & 2 Samuel

Psalms
Proverbs
Qoheleth

Isaiah
Jeremiah

(Ecclesiastes)

1 & 2 Kings
1 & 2 Chronicles

Song of Songs

Ezra
Nehemiah

Wisdom
Sirach

Tobit
Judith

(Ecclcsiasticus)

Esther
1 & 2 Maccabbees

Lamentations
Baruch
Ezekiel
Daniel

Minor Prophets
Hosea
Joel
Amos
Obadiah
Jonah
Micah
Nahum
Habakkuk
Zephaniah
Haggai
Zechariah
Malachi

60

l y j Activity
Count the number o f books you have in the Old Testament sec
tion o f your Bible.
S How are they organized?
S In how many divisions?

The Shorter list o f the O ld Testament

T he shorter list o f the Old Testament is made up o f 39 books. This is

the one used mostly by the Protestant Churches. Though it has exactly
the same number of books as the TaNaK, the order is slightly different.
Below is the list o f books.
Pentateuch

Historical Books

Poetic Books

Prophetic Books

Genesis
Exodus

Job
Psalms

Jeremiah

Leviticus

Joshua
Judges
Ruth

Numbers
Deuteronomy

1 & 2 Samuel
1 & 2 Kings
1 & 2 Chronicles
Ezra
Nehemiah
Esther

Proverbs
Qoheleth

Isaiah
Lamentations

(E cclesiastes)

Ezekiel
Daniel

Song o f Songs

Minor Prophets
Hosea
Joel
Amos
Obadiah
Jonah
Micah
Nahum
Habakkuk
Zephaniah
Haggai
Zechariah
Malachi

61

Deuterocanonical /Apocryphal Books

Th e seven books present in the longer list o f the O T that are absent in
the shorter list are:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)

W isdom,
Ben Sirach (Ecclesiasticus),
IMacabbees
2Macabbees
Tobit,
Judith,
Baruch
Some pericopes o f Esther and Daniel conserved only in Greek.

These books were composed later, possibly originating in Egypt (House

1994). They are believed to have been composed in Greek and, from
the third century onwards, were incorporated into the LXX, which
became the Scriptures o f the Early Christians. Protestant Tradition re
fers to them as Apocryphal (hidden). Roman Catholics, on the other
hand, refer to them as Deutero-canonical (belonging to a second canon).

/ ^ / Summary
In this section you have learnt that:
a) the Bible o f the early Christians was the Septuagint;
b) besides the Septuagint there were other Greek Canons;
c) seven books in the Bible of the early Church, absent in the TaNaK,
are referred to as deuteron-canonical /apocryphal.

Test Yourself
1. Explain the following terms, Tradition, Scripture and Canon.
2. Discuss the difference between the TaNaK and the Septuagint.

62

/ General Summary

We may summarise the main points in Step 2 as follows:

> the fixation of the Hebrew Canon was to preserve the unity and
purity o f Jewish faith;
> the TaNaK was held to be authoritative even before its canoniza
non;
> the authoritative Canon served as a guide for Jewish faith;
> the Septuagint was important for the development o f Christian
ity.

To Know More

Auwers, J.-M . - De Jonge, H .J. (Eds). (2 0 0 2 ). The Biblical Canons. B E T L 163.

Leuven: Peeters.
Beckwith, R. T. (1985) The Old Testament Canon o f the New Testament Church and Its

Background in Early Judaism. Grand Rapids: Baker.

Evans, C . A. Tov, E. (Eds). (2008). Exploring the Origins o f the Bible: Canon Forma
tion in Historical, Literary, and Theological Perspective. Grand Rapids: Baker.
McDonald, L. M. - Sanders, J.A . (Eds). (2002). The Canon Debate. Peabody, MA:
Hendrickson.
McDonald, L. M. Porter, S.E. (2000). Early Christianity and Its Sacred Literature.
Peabody, MA: Hendrickson.
McDonald, L. M. (2007). The Biblical Canon: Its Origin, Transmission, and Authority.
Peaboby, MA: Hendrickson.
Sanders, J.A . (1972) Trh and Canon. Philadelphia: Fortress.
Sanders, J.A . (1987) From Sacred Story to Sacred Text. Philadelphia: Fortress.

63

Step 3

The Structure and Content

of the Torh

Introduction

We learnt in Step 2 that the expression Old Testament is a Christian

designation o f the Hebrew Bible, in relation to the writings concerning
the revelation through Jesus Christ (New Testament). T h e Old Testa
ment can refer to two different traditions - the TaNaK and the Greek
edition o f the Hebrew Bible adopted by the Early Church in its origin.
Each o f these has its own structure and content. For our study and
exposition, we shall use the expression Old Testament to refer to the
TaNaK.
In this Step, you will study the structure o f the first division o f the
TaNaK, the relationship between individual books and discuss the main
theological ideas they present. You will also be introduced to the main
scholarly hypothesis about the formation and the organization ot the

Trh.

O ur M ap

Section 1: An Overview o f the Trh

Section 2: The Problem o f Mosaic Authorship
Section 3: T h e Documentary Hypothesis
Section 4: T h e Structure o f the Trh
Section 5: Three M ajor Themes in the Trh
Section 6: Literary Forms in the Trh

67

At the end o f Step 3 you will be able to:

S Describe what the Torh is in Judaism.
S Discuss the problems associated with Mosaic authorship.
S Explain the documentary Hypothesis in relation with the com
position o f the Torh.
S Trace the narrative structure o f the Torh.
S Identify, name and discuss some o f the major themes in the
Torh.
S Explain the Literary Forms present in the Torh.

68

Section 1
An Overview of the Torh

Introduction

In this section you will learn the various ways o f referring to the first
five books o f the TaNaK and what they imply. This will lead you to the
discussion o f the order o f the books from the literary as well as the
theological perspective. You will discover an interesting link among the
five books and how they relate to the Prophets.
T h e Torh depicts human history as a revelation o f divine will. It
emphasises Y H W H s promises o f future benefits to the Patriarchs, Isra
els ancestors, and the obligation laid upon them and the descendants
to obey Y H W H s laws and worship him exclusively. T h e story, which
spans a long period o f time, is expressed in different literary forms:
narrative, poetry and legal codes. Modern scholarship believes that it is
not the work o f a single author, but o f different writers and redactors.
Its final stage reflects the concerns o f an exilic and post-exilic com m u
nity w hich was hoping to possess the land Y H W H promised to
Abrahams progeny (Harris 2 0 0 3 , 94).

W hat is the Pentateuch?

T he English term Pentateuch derives from the Greek term Pentateuchos,

which is composed o f two words, penta and teuchos. Penta means five
while teuchos can take on various meanings in classical Greek. Gener
ally it is used to designate a cylindrical container and by metonym the
content o f the container.

69

T h e Greek expression hepentateuchos has its origin, probably, among

the Hellenistic Jews o f Alexandria in the first century C .E ., as testified
by Philo o f Alexandria. Whereas Rabbinic tradition in general referred
to the first five books o f their Testament as Torh or hamis hums
hattorh the five parts o f the Law (La Verdiere 1971, 5) Christian
tradition appropriated the term Pentateuch (2 Macc 1 5 :9 )2.
In the Hebrew tradition, the word Torh, apart from referring to
the five books grouped together has a deeper meaning. T h e root T-R-H
signifies to teach or to lay a foundation. Torh therefore indicates the
foundational doctrines o f the Hebrew people, the teachings which they
received from God through Moses at Sinai. Related to this, the Rabbi
speak o f oral (what the N T calls the tradition o f the elders, cf. Mark
7 :3 .5 .7 ; 7 :8 .9 .1 3 ) and written Torh. The oral Torh consists o f the
teachings transmitted in the tradition, which are believed to go back to
Moses. Rabbinic tradition considers both the oral and written Torh
one body o f revelation.
O ther terms with which the Jews refer to the first part o f their Bible
are the Law o f Moses (2 Chr 2 3 :1 8 ; 3 0 :1 6 ; Ezra 3:2 ), the Book o f
the Law o f Moses (Neh 8:1) and the the Book o f Moses (2 Chr
3 5 :1 2 ; Ezra 6 :1 8 ; Neh 13:1; Mai 3:22; Dan 9:11).
Christian tradition inspired by Jewish tradition came to accept Moses
as the author o f the Torh. Hence references such as the following:
Moses s a id ... (Mark 7 :1 0 ), Moses w ro te ... (Rom 10:5) and M o
ses show ed ... (Luke 20:37).
But did Moses actually write the Torh?

Notwithstanding the above observation, it must be noted the New Testament

follows the Jewish usage and speaks of the Law (cf. Luke 10:26; 2 4:44). In the
writings of the Fathers of the Church, we find both designations, the Law and
Pentateuch.

The Titles o f the Books o f the Pentateuch

T he names or titles o f the books differ in the Maso retie Text (M T )3

and Septuagint (LXX) tradition. T h e M T uses the first important word
of each book to call or refer to that book4 whereas the L X X makes use
o f the content.
English

MT

LXX

Genesis

Brst

Genesis

(in the beginning)

(origin )

Semt

Exodos

(the names)

(the coming out of Egypt)

Wayyiqra

Levitikon

(and he called)

(laws in reference to the tribe of Levi)

Remidbar

Arithmoi

(in the desert)

(in reference to the census o f the Jews

who came out of Egypt)

D'brm

Deuteronomion

(the words)

(the second law)

Exodus
Leviticus
Numbers

Deuteronomy

Attestations o f the Pentateuch as a Unit

An explicit reference to the Trh/Pentateuch, as divided into five books,

is first noted by Flavius Josephus in his work Contra Apionem 1 ,3 7 - 4 1 .
Implicit references i.e. allusions to the five part division are found in
some Qumran scrolls, in the work o f the Greek philosopher Philo o f
Alexandria and the Letter o f Aristea.
3

The term designates the standard text of the Hebrew Bible as given final form
by the Masoretes, medieval Jewish scholars, in the seventh through ninth cen
tury C .E .

According to LaVerdiere (1 9 7 1 , 8) this manner o f entitling the Books is a com

mon practice in the Ancient Near East. For example, the Babylonian poem of
creation is entitled Enuma Elish, when on high, based on its opening words.

71

Though the New Testament frequently uses the formula the Law
and Prophets, there are no explicit references to the five-part division
o f the Pentateuch. Some Scholars, however, see a similarity between
the five-part divisions of the Pentateuch and the organization o f M at
thews Gospel.

J Activity
S List the terms Jews use to refer to the first section o f their Scriptures.
S Memorise the Hebrew and Greek names for the five books o f the
Torh.

Challenges to the Traditional Notion o f Pentateuch:

Som e Modern Theories

T h e traditional or classical Hebrew division o f the O T, especially with

regard to the Pentateuch, has been challenged by some modern schol
ars. Basing themselves on the content o f the narratives, they propose
different divisions.
1. Hexateuch (a scroll o f six books): for H. Ewald (1864) and G . von
Rad (1966) the story in the Pentateuch has its conclusion in the
account o f Israels settlement in the Promised Land, that is, in the
book o f Joshua.
2. Nonateuch (a scroll o f nine books): D. N. Freedman (1967) and others
extend the story in the Pentateuch to include the history o f the
monarchy, in the books o f Samuel and Kings.
3. Tetrateuch (a scroll o f four books): adherents to this theory (Noth
1972) hold that Deuteronomy marks the beginning o f another major
historical work and therefore does not belong to the books that pre
cede it. Hence they speak o f a tetrateuch for the first division o f the
Hebrew Bible.

72

For our purpose, we are not going to study in details all these theories
and the arguments they put forward. Their presence should, however,
remind us o f the effort scholars have made and are still making to see
the link between the books o f the Bible. These theories do not exclude
the traditional way o f organising the books, namely, the Pentateuch,
which has value for the believing Jewish and Christian communities.

Activity
Read the following Bible passages before you continue: Deut
3 4 :1 0 - 1 2 ; Num 1 2 :6 -8 ; Ps 1 :1 -2 ; Josh 1 :7 -8 .

Reasons for Retaining the N otion Pentateuch

T he narrative o f Exodus to Deuteronomy is dominated by the figure

o f Moses. Moses birth is recorded at the beginning o f the book o f
Exodus (Exod 2:2) and his death at the end o f Deuteronomy (Deut
3 4 :5 ), forming an inclusion.5
Deut 3 4 :1 0 12 asserts the unique importance o f the figure o f M o
ses and suggests the books which follow (i.e. Joshua to 2 Kings) be
considered a separate unit (cf. Whybray 1995, 2). Furthermore, Deut
3 4 :1 0 - 1 2 affirms three very important ideas (cf. Ska 1998, 2 0 -2 1 ):
1. Moses is greater than any other prophet. For this reason the Law o f
Moses is superior to other forms of revelation. Because o f its unique
ness, the Law o f Moses precedes the Prophets and the Writings, which
are to be read in view o f the teaching o f Moses in the Pentateuch.
2. T h e superiority o f Moses derives from the superior character o f his
relationship with Y H W H (Deut 3 4 :1 0 ; cf. Exod 3 3 :1 1 ; Num 12:6
8). Unlike other prophets, Moses had direct contact with God (cf.
D eut 3 4:10: face to face).
5

There is an inclusion when you have the similar word, phrase, or idea at the
beginning and ending of a pericope, a unit or a book.

73

3. T h e Exodus, computed under Moses, was a fundamental event in

the history o f Israel. This makes Moses, and not David or Solomon,
the foundation father o f Israel.
T h e Trh o f Moses is underlined as the point o f reference in Jewish
biblical tradition. In Josh 1 :1 -8 , Joshua, the successor o f Moses, is de
scribed not in relation to Y H W H as Moses was, but subordinated to
Moses: adjutant o f Moses (cf. 1:1). Joshuas success would be meas
ured in his fidelity to the Law o f Moses, viewed as a written docu
ment (Josh 1 :7 -8 ). Mai 3 :2 2 - 2 4 , which closes the prophetic corpus,
makes reference to Moses as servant o f Y H W H and requests that the
teaching o f Moses be remembered. Remembering in Jewish tradition
implies making memorial, keeping alive a teaching by living it. This
suggests the uniqueness o f the teachings o f Moses, which other writ
ings have the task to actualise.
Psalm 1 shows how the Psalms and the Writings are related to the
Law o f Moses. W hat distinguishes the foolish from the wise is the medi
tation o f the Law (cf. Ps 1 :1 -2 ). T h e Law o f Y H W H is the criterion for
all justice. Inviting all to meditate the Psalms and the Writings as the
Law o f Y H W H , the Psalmist suggests a link between the Torh and the
Writings. But in so doing he also considers the Law a separate unit.
We shall study the Pentateuch in its canonical form. Our attention
in the following sections will be focused on authorship, structure and
content.

ZjZJ

Sum m ary

In this section we learnt the following:

a) Rabbinic tradition refers to the first part of their Scriptures as Torh,
whereas Christian tradition appropriates the term Pentateuch.
b) Jewish tradition follows Ancient Near Eastern practice by using
the first key word o f a book to refer to it.
c) T he notion Pentateuch is retainable in spite o f other scholarly
proposals.

74

Section 2
The Problem of Mosaic Authorship of the Trh

Introduction

O ur study has so far shown us that the Pentateuch is made up o f vary

ing material that spans a long period o f time. Even though Tradition
has ascribed the authorship o f these first five books o f the Bible to
Moses, critical reading o f the texts raises insurmountable literary prob
lems, which make Mosaic authorship as well as the authorship o f a
single individual impossible.
W hat are some o f these problems? They are the numerous repeti
tions, contradictions, and various discrepancies in the texts. In view o f
the above, critical scholarship suggests the work to be the product o f
multiple authors and editors working within many centuries (cf. Harris
2 0 0 3 , 95).

Legislative Texts

Both the narrative and legislative texts6 o f the Pentateuch present vari
ous literary problems. We shall only take a few examples o f each to
illustrate the problem and its nature, and how these offer compelling
evidence against Mosaic authorship.

A narrative text is a literary composition that tells a story, arranging the charac
ters and events in a certain sequential and coherent manner. Legislative texts
or legal texts, on the other hand, are documents that stipulate laws and legal
procedures.

75

Legislative texts in the Pentateuch are extremely important as they

are the Words o f Y H W H revealed to Moses. If all the laws attract the
same authority then one would not expect to find divergences or ap
parent contradictions! But the three major codices [the code o f the
Covenant (Exod 2 1 :2 2 -2 3 :3 3 ); the Deuteronomic code (Deut 12:1
2 6 :1 5 ); the law o Holiness (Lev 1 7 -2 6 )] show divergences on the law
on slavery, the law on loans, the law on the love o f an enemy and the
Decalogue. They are not homogeneous in both style and content. This
may have arisen due to the fact that the laws reflect different stages in
the history o f the covenant community.

Activity
S Read the following passages on slavery: Exod 2 1 :211 ; Lev 2 5 :3 9
55; Deut 1 5 :1 2 -1 8 .
S Write down the convergences and divergences that you notice.

Narrative Texts

In the narrative texts, literary problems revolve around: double or triple

versions o f the same account narrated and the presence o f doublets
within the same narrative.
T h e following are examples o f varied versions o f the same account:
-

T h e two accounts o f creation (Gen l :l - 2 :4 a and 2 :4 b -2 4 ).

T h e two accounts o f the flight o f Hagar, Abrahams concubine (Gen
16 and Gen 2 1 :8 21).
T h e two accounts o f Abrahams covenant with God (Gen 15 and
Gen 17).
T h e triple account o f wife/sister (Gen 1 2 :1 0 -2 0 ; 2 0 :1 - 1 8 ; 2 6 :1

).
T h e double narrative o f the episode at Meriba (Exod 1 7 :1 -7 ; Num

2 0 :1 -1 3 ).

76

Below are examples o f doublets within the same narrative:

-

T h e account of the deluge and flood (Gen 6 - 8 ) : there are discrep

ancies on the number o f animals that entered the ark (cf. Gen 6 :1 7
and Gen 7 :1 -9 ) and on the duration o f the flood (Gen 7 :1 2 -2 4
and Gen 8 :6 - 1 4 ) .
T h e story o f Joseph in Gen 37 shows inconsistencies on the sale o f
Joseph. According to Gen 3 7 :2 7 . 28b he was sold by his brothers to
Ismaelites who in turn sold him to an Egyptian. In the same narra
tive he is said to be put in a cistern. He was later removed by passing
Medianite merchants who sold him to Purtiphar (cf. Gen 37:28a.
36). In the second account his brothers had no hand at all in his
being sold. Here and elsewhere the text suggests compilation of sepa
rate existent accounts into a continuous narrative.

Activity
Open your Bible and read:
S Gen 1:1 2:4a and Gen 2 :4 b -2 4 : compare their content.
S Gen 6 - 8 and note down the inconsistencies in the narrative.

Discrepancies

It refers to inexactness in a narrative due to, for example, its anachro

nistic nature. Note the following:
- At that time the Canaanites were in the land (Gen 12:6; 13:7).
This refers to an era many centuries after the time o f Moses, when
the original inhabitants had been expelled or assimilated by the Is
raelite population.
- List o f Edoms kings who ruled before an Israelite king ruled (Gen
3 6 :3 1 ): an author o f such a narrative may have lived after Israels
monarchy had been established - that is centuries after Moses. At
the time of Moses there were no Israelite kings!

77

Activity

S Explain the following terms with examples:

- narrative;
- legislative text.
S W hy will you say the story o f Joseph is a doublet?

/ ^ / Summary
In this ended section you have learnt that
a) there are numerous literary problems in the Pentateuch;
b) the many inconsistencies in the Pentateuch may be due to its
composite nature, being the product o f many hands and historical
periods. Thus it could not have come from the pen of one au
thor - Moses.
In the next section you will study about how critical scholarship ap
proaches the whole issue.

78

Section 3
The Documentary Hypothesis

Introduction

T he presence o f doublets, contradictions and many repetitions led some

O T scholars to the conclusion that the Pentateuch consists o f many
documents/traditions brought together. This has left some traces in
the text due to incoherent insertion. Consequently, compositional theo
ries were put forward to explain this phenomenon (Whybray 1995,
1227). O ne o f these theories,7 which has for a long time been influ
ential but now put into question, is the Docum entary Hypothesis
(Blenkinsopp 1992, 3 2 -3 8 ).

W hat is the Docum entary Hypothesis?

T he Documentary Hypothesis is one o f the fruits o f Source Critical

Study o f the Pentateuch (Wellhauser 1866; Blenkinsopp 1992, 2 0
32). Studying its compositional history, scholars propose a theory aimed
at accounting for the repetitions and discrepancies in the text. As Harris
(2 0 0 3 , 100) notes, this theory holds that the Trh is a literary patch
work in which at least four originally separate documents and/or oral
traditions - dating from different periods o f Israelite history - have
been stitched together to form the present text.

Another compositional theory of the Pentateuch is the Fragmentary or Supple

mentary hypothesis. It holds the view that the Pentateuchal stories grew as they
were retold and linked by subsequent editors.

79

T h e classic version o f the documentary hypothesis recognises four

sources behind the books o f the Pentateuch. These are classified as the
Yahwist, Elohist, Deuteronomist, and Priestly.

The Yahwist Source

T h e classic documentary hypothesis identifies the earliest source as the

Yahwist ( J - the siglum J is from the initial o f the German Jahweh).
T h is source is so named because the author consistently uses the
tetragram Y H W H for the deity in his narrative. T h e work incorpo
rates oral traditions about Israels pre-history and ancestry.
In general, most scholars recognize J material in the Pentateuch
but they disagree on its time o f composition (Albright 1957, 3 4 5 -3 4 7 ;
Friedman 1987). T h e standard documentary view is that J was com
posed around the 10th - 9 th century to justify the Davidic monarchy. A
contrary opinion is held by some modern scholars (cf. Whybray 1987;
Rendtorff 1990) that the time o f composition was after the end o f the
Davidic dynasty (c. 587 B .C .E .).

0 Activity
Read Gen 2:4b 25 and Gen 3 :1 -2 4 : what is the divine name
used in this passages?

The Elohist Source

This is the second oldest source according to the documentary hypoth

esis. T h e siglum E comes from Elohim, the name for God in the narra
tives that precede G ods revelation in Exod 3 :1 3 -1 5 . In the view o f the
documentary hypothesis, the strand o f material in the Pentateuch

80

was composed after the division o f the United Kingdom (921 B .C .E )

in the north as a corrective to / s Judah-oriented account (Harris
2 0 0 3 , 102). material not only focuses on traditions associated with
the northern part o f Israel, but also introduces significant differences
into the existing biblical tradition as a whole. We can note the follow
ing examples in the table below (for further examples refer to Harris
2 0 0 3 , 1 0 2 -1 0 3 ).
Item / event

Place o f revelation of Torh to Israel

Mount Sinai

Mount Horeb

Inhabitants o f Palestine

Canaanites

Amorites

Moses father in law

Ruel or Hobab

Jethro, priest of Median

The Deuteronom ist Source

This is the third source in the documentary hypothesis. It is designated

deuteronomist because its nucleus is believed to be the the book o f the
Law discovered in 621 B .C .E . during repair work on the Jerusalem
Temple (2 Kgs 22). T h e perspective o f this Mosaic document, denomi
nated Deuteronomy, is the centralization o f Judahs worship in Jeru
salem and the insistence that Israels national welfare was conditional
upon the peoples loyalty to Y H W H and their allegiance to the Torh
requirement.
T h e prose narrative that follows the book o f Deuteronomy from
Joshua through 2 Kings - has the same theological perspective and has
thus been referred to as D euteronom istic History (D H ).8 Though
Deuteronomy may in origin have formed a cohesive literary unit with
Joshua to Kings, the final redactors o f the Pentateuch separated them
(cf. Harris 2 0 0 3 , 1 0 3 -1 0 4 ).
8

Deuteronomic History is history in the narrative of the book of the Deuter

onomy whereas Deuteronomistic History (D H ) is material pertaining to histori
cal narratives in Joshua - Kings.

81

0 Activity
Read D eut 12. W hat does it say about worship in Judah?

T he Priestly Source

T h e final source o f the Pentateuch, according to the documentary hypo

thesis, is designated Priestly (P). It was the work o f Priestly redactors who
lived during and after the Babylonian exile (c. 587 B. C . E). This school
o f writers collected several separate legal codes, statutes, and ordinances
and inserted them at various points in the existing collated narrative
tradition. T h e content o f the material places much emphasis on ritual
and purity laws, and cult sacrifice. Much o f the P material is found in
the body o f legal documents that extends from Exod 35 to Num 10.

Activity
Read Exod 35 and 36. W hat laws are stipulated here?

Recent Developments in the Documentary Hypothesis

Though the documentary hypothesis to a large extent succeeded in

explaining the repetitions, duplications and discrepancies in the Penta
teuch, it has from its very beginning been contested. Below is a sum
mary o f some critical scholarly opinions (cf. Ska 1998, 1 4 5 -1 8 5 ;
Blenkinsopp 1992, 3 9 - 4 3 ; Harris 2 0 0 3 , 104).
a. P material was not originally a separate document. It was instead a
series o f unconnected interpolations inserted by post exilic redactors
in older existing material.

82

b. P represents a long succession o f Priestly editors who expanded and

combined JE D data inserting their distinctive legal material to form
unitary narrative o f the Pentateuch in its present form.
c. Instead o f older written documents, some scholars posit oral tradi
tions about Israels national cult, developed in the various sanctuar
ies (e.g. Bethel, Shechem, Shiloh, and Kadesh and Jerusalem) as the
material that was eventually put together to form the Pentateuch.
This betrays the different theological perspectives in the final form.
Brueggemann (2003, 8 -1 2 ) uses the expression imaginative remem
bering to describe the traditioning process in the formation o f bib
lical texts. Instead o f documents, he prefers to speak o f traditions (oral)
as material for the elaboration o f the Pentateuch. According to him,
each stratum relied on what it remembered, took what it could use,
neglected others and reformulated its vision to make a new structure.
In this traditioning process older material is partly retained with newer
ones (Brueggemann 2 0 0 3 , 9 if.). This position is akin to the Fragmen
tary or Supplementary hypothesis.

/ ^ / Sum m ary
In this section you have learnt:
a) the four sources in the Documentary Hypothesis;
b) the recent developm ents in the D ocum entary H ypothesis,
represented by Brueggemann: in the traditioning process older
material is partly retained along with newer ones, but always
modified by its context.

83

Section 4
The Structure of the Torh

Introduction

Scholars have noticed that material division o f the Pentateuch into five
books does not perfectly coincide with the historical periods in the
narratives (Blenkinsop 1992, 4 6 - 4 7 ; see also Ska 1998, 2 7 -2 8 ). If this
is the case, then the criteria for the division must be looked for from
elsewhere.
Theological reasons better explain the division o f the Pentateuch
into five books. T h e structure o f the canonical form o f the Pentateuch
can be appreciated by examining the narrative links between the five
books.
Below are two proposals.
T he first proposal presents the Pentateuch articulated in two parts:
a. Genesis
b. Exodus-Deuteronomy
This proposal explains that Genesis is about the origin o f Israel, whereas
Exodus to Deuteronomy is dominated by the figure o f Moses. T h e
birth o f Moses is recorded at Exod 2:2 and his death at D eut 34:5.
T he second proposal also maintains a two-part division for the Pen
tateuch, but differentiates from the first by grouping Genesis to Num
bers in its first division and only Deuteronomy in the second. It is
argued that Genesis to Numbers has mainly words o f Y H W H to Israel,
but Deuteronomy is essentially the words o f Moses to the people.

85

Activity
You are to go through this section with a Bible in hand. Look up
all the references indicated in the text. Read each and note down
what it says.

Survey o f the Literary Links in the Pentateuch

A closer examination o f the texts o f the Pentateuch reveals the follow

ing characteristics or features.

Genesis
T h e first observation is that Genesis begins with the creation o f the
world (Gen l :l - 2 :4 a ) , and ends with the death o f Joseph (Gen 5 0 :2 2
26). T h e death o f Joseph brings the story o f a family to an end, but
opens up the perspective for Israel to become a nation. Before his
death, Joseph announced the return o f his descendants to the land
promised to Abraham, Isaac and Jacob: I am about to die, but God
will certainly take care o f you and lead you out o f this land that he
solemnly promised to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob (Gen 50:24).
Verse 24 is a very important summary because it looks back and
forwards; it recapitulates the main events that will be narrated subse
quently. In this way it functions as a link between Genesis on one hand,
and Exodus-Deuteronomy on the other.
Besides the above points, there are close verbal correspondences be
tween the account o f creation in Gen 1:1-2 :4 a and the construction o f
the tent o f meeting in Exod 2 4 :1 6 ; 3 9 :1 - 4 0 :4 3 . Ska (2001) suggests
this as a feature for structuring the Pentateuch. He provides the scheme
o f the correspondences as shown in the table below.

86

Gen 1 :12:4a [Gen 1:5. 8. 13. 19. 23. 31; 2:2. 3]

Exod 2 4 :1 6
Gen 1:31

Gen 2:1

Gen 2:2

Gen 2:3

Exod 39:43a

Exod 3 9 :3 2

Exod 40:33b

Exod 39:43b

T h e verbal correspondences between the two sets o f texts suggest a

relationship between the account o f creation and the construction o f
the tent, where Y H W H the creator would dwell among his people, to
guide and instruct them.
It is important to note that it is YH W H the creator who now dwells
in the tent. This observation has consequences for interpreting the nar
rative links between the books o f the Pentateuch. Ska (2001, 3 3 1 -3 5 2 )
notes that the theme o f Y H W H as creator is present either at the be
ginning or end o f each book o f the Pentateuch; and this creates a link
with what precedes and what follows.

Exodus
T he book o f Exodus opens by resuming the story o f the death o f Joseph
(Exod 1 :1 -8 ). W ith Exod 1:8, there is the beginning o f a new episode.
A new king who did not know Joseph comes into power in Egypt and
rises up against the descendants o f Joseph.
T h e book o f Exodus ends on the account o f the glory o f Y H W H
which comes to fill the Tent of Meeting (Exod 4 0 :3 4 - 3 5 ) . This signi
fies YH W H has come to dwell among the people. From the tent YH W H
instructs and guides Israel on her sojourn (4 0 :3 6 -3 8 ).

Leviticus
T he book o f Leviticus starts by making reference to the end o f Exodus
(Exod 4 0 :3 6 - 3 8 ; cf. Lev 1:1). Y H W H calls Moses from the tent to
give him instructions. Clearly then, Leviticus is linked to Exodus
through this resumption.

87

Scholars m aintain that the original conclusion o f the book o f

Leviticus is 26 :4 6 . T h e verse indicates that the laws and commands
numerated were the laws and commands Y H W H gave to Moses on
M ount Sinai. T h e canonical conclusion 2 7 :3 4 also notes that YH W H
gave the preceding laws and commands to Moses on M ount Sinai.
T h e mention of M ount Sinai in both conclusions not only links Le
viticus to Exodus, but also puts forward the unique im portance
o f M ount Sinai as the unique place o f the revelation o f Y H W H in
Jewish tradition.

Numbers
T h e book o f Numbers also begins by making reference to Exod 4 0 :3 6
38 (Num 1:1). Y H W H speaks to Moses in the desert o f Sinai from the
tent. Thus Num 1:1, and Lev 1:1 are verbally and structurally similar.
T h e end o f Numbers is similar to the two conclusions o f Leviticus
(cf. 2 6 :4 6 ; 2 7 :3 4 ): These are the rules and regulations that YH W H
gave the Israelites through Moses in the plains o f Moab across the River
Jordan from Jericho (Lev 3 6 :1 3 ).

Deuteronomy
Deuteronomy commences by indicating that the words which follow
are words o f Moses spoken to the people o f Israel when they were in
the wilderness.
T h e book o f Deuteronomy ends with the death o f Moses (Deut
3 4 :5 ), and that brings to an end the narrative o f the Pentateuch.

88

Narrative Structure o f the Pentateuch

T he brief survey above shows that there are linguistic and verbal fea
tures which provide both the literary unity o f each book o f the Penta
teuch and the links that exist between them. Apart from Genesis, the
other four books are all dominated by the figure o f Moses. But a close
link between Genesis and the rest o f the Pentateuch is suggested by the
creation motif.
Deuteronomys relationship to the books that precede it is not evi
dent at first sight. However, in a subtle way, the creation m otif suggests
such a relationship. YH W H the creator, who chose Israel as his people,
has come to live among them in the tent. He requires o f them fidelity
to himself (cf. the laws o f Deuteronomy).
Basing our reflections on Ska (2001), we suggest the following nar
rative structure for the Pentateuch:
1. Y H W H creator chooses a people and comes to live among them
(Gen - Exod)
2. Y H W H instructs his people from his dwelling, his Sanctuary. Le
viticus teaches how to live in the presence o f God and to be holy as
He is Holy (Lev 19:2).
3. Y H W H guides his people from his dwelling, his Sanctuary. Num
bers teaches how to walk, and to organize the life o f the people
around a centre founded on the presence o f God.
4. Finally, Moses addresses the people on the Salvation received from
Y H W H . Deuteronomy teaches how to make relevant the experi
ence o f the Exodus for future generations.
T he Pentateuch opens with an account o f G ods creation o f the world
and humanity (Gen 1 -1 1 ). Beginning with Gen 12, there is a shift to
the narration o f the origins and creation o f Israel as a chosen people
among whom their God, Y H W H , comes to dwell. The gratuitous choice
of Israel is linked with promises as well: growth in number, possession
o f the land, and divine blessing. From his dwelling place among them,
Y H W H instructs Israel - statutes, precepts - prescribing a way o f life
that distinguishes them from the other nations. O n their march to

89

wards the Promised Land, YH W H continues to guide Israel with fur

ther laws (Numbers). Deuteronomy reminds Israel o f the Salvation re
ceived. Towards the end o f the narrative, Israel is asked to choose be
tween fidelity to the Lord which would lead to prosperity and abundant
blessings to the whole nation or infidelity which would inevitably lead
to suffering and death (cf. Deut 2 7 -3 0 ). This event is retained crucial
since it determined the nations subsequent history as narrated in Joshua
- 2 Kings.

Activity
Summarise in your own words the narrative structure o f the
Pentateuch.

/ ^ / Sum m ary
You have learnt three main points in this section:
a) two ways o f grouping the books o f the Pentateuch;
b) the final redactors o f the Pentateuch intend their work to be read
as a continuous narrative by providing narrative links between
the individual books;
c) creation is one o f the themes that unifies the Pentateuch.

90

Section 5
Three M ajor Themes in the Torh

Introduction

Books are normally written around certain key ideas. Interpretation

and understanding involves identifying these ideas and examining how
the author has woven them together to present his or her purported
message.
In the preceding sections we learnt that the books o f the Pentateuch
form a narrative unit. In the light o f this conclusion, we shall now
examine some major themes that unify the diverse material in the Pen
tateuch. Those ideas that recur over and over, which provide a coherent
picture o f the narratives, are those that may be considered major ideas.
Harris (2 0 03, 105), for example, holds that the two important themes
that unify the Pentateuch are promises to Abraham, Isaac and Jacob,
and Y H W H s relationship with the Israelites. To these we will add the
theme o f creation.
But these are not the only themes in the Pentateuch. Can you make
some guesses in the light o f what you have learnt so far? For brevity o f
time and space, we shall discuss only the themes o f creation, blessing
and covenant.

Creation

T he Pentateuch opens with an account o f G ods creation o f the world

and humanity (cf. Gen 1 -1 1 ). According to Gen 1:12:4a, all things
have their origin from Y H W H : In the beginning, God created the

91

heaven and the earth (Gen 1:1). Creation is the beginning o f history;
it is the first o f the saving actions o f God.
Besides the explicit creation accounts in Gen 1 -2 , there are numer
ous indirect references to creation in the Pentateuch and the TaNaK as
a whole. These indirect references are referred to as allusions (cf. Ps
7 4 :1 3 -1 5 ; Job 3 8 :8 -1 1 ). In the allusions to creation, the creative power
o f Y H W H is a directive intelligence which maintains order and har
mony among so many conflicting and divergent agents.
In some o f the allusions, creation is presented as a combat between
God and other forces o f nature. Creation as combat is probably the
oldest approach to creation in ancient Israel, which is now reflected
only in some few texts (cf. Ps 8 9 :1 0 -1 1 ; Isa 27: 1 ff; Job 9:1 3 ). These
accounts present Y H W H as a creative God victorious in combat. They
reflect the mythology o f other people (Mesopotamians, Canaanites,
Egyptians) - the mentality o f the Ancient Near East o f which Jews are
an integral part. T h e survival o f this mentality in the O T exhibits a
basic conception o f nature that Israelites shared with her neighbours.
W ith the progress o f belief in Y H W H , this account o f creation as com
bat was abandoned in favour o f other more advanced explanations. It
now survives only in poetic allusions.

Activity
S Read Gen 1 -2 and compare the two different creation narra
tives.
S Read the following passages: Ps 74; Job 3 8 :8 - 1 1 . How do they
talk about creation?

Blessings

Brueggemann (1997, 164) defines Y H W H as the God who makes

promises, a powerful and reliable presence, able to turn life in the
world, for Israel and for all peoples, beyond present circumstances to a

new life-giving possibility. Similarly, de Vaux (1965, 1.161) affirms

that the narrative unity o f the Pentateuch is built around the theme o f
promises and fulfilment: the history o f the Patriarchs is joined to the
Exodus experience through blessing transformed in reality by Y H W H s
faithfulness. For this reason the book o f Genesis is defined by Tbet
(2001) as the book o f blessing.
T he divine blessings ( berkt), present in the book o f Genesis, con
vey the following promises (Tbet 2 0 0 1 , 1 2 0 -1 2 1 ; Harris 2 0 0 2 , 105
107):
L

Descendants: the presence o f God in Abrahams life was experienced

through the gift o f a son (18:10) as a starting point o f a descendants
that would be as numerous as the stars o f heaven and as the sand that
is on the seashore (22:17; 13:16).

Presence: starting with Jacob/Israel, God constantly assures the people

o f his active presence in their life: I will be with you, and I will bless
you (2 6 :3 . 24; 2 8 :1 5 ; 31 :3 ). T h e theme o f divine presence became a
major feature in the book o f Exodus ( 3 - 4 ) , when the Presence became
a visible force that guided and protected them: T h e L O R D went in
front o f them in a pillar o f cloud by day, to lead them along the way,
and in a pillar o f fire by night, to give them light, so that they might
travel by day and by night (13:21). At the end o f the book, God him
self came to dwell among his people: Then the cloud covered the tent
o f meeting, and the glory o f the L O R D filled the tabernacle. Moses
was not able to enter the tent o f meeting because the cloud settled
upon it; and the glory o f the L O R D filled the tabernacle (4 0 :3 4 -3 5 ).

Covenant: God binds himself to Abraham and Abrahams progeny:

I will establish my covenant between me and you, and your offspring
after you throughout their generations, for an everlasting covenant, to
be G od to you and to your offspring after you (1 7 :7 -8 ). T h e external
sign o f the covenant becomes the circumcision, a memory engraved in
the flesh, which distinguishes Israel from other nations (1 7 :1 0 14). At
the end o f the Pentateuch, God promises a different circumcision, the
circumcision o f the heart, a divine action that will transform Israel in a
new people, capable o f belonging totally to their God: And the L O R D

93

your God will circumcise your heart, and the heart o f your seed, to love
the L O R D your God with all your heart, and with all your soul, that
you may live (D eut 30:6).

Land: For to you and to your descendants I will give all these lands,
and I will fulfill the oath that I swore to your father Abraham (Gen
2 6 :3 ; cf. 1 2 :1 -8 ; 1 3 :1 4 -1 7 ; 1 5 :7 -2 1 ). In the theological horizon o f
the Pentateuch, the land becomes a tangible sign o f Y H W H s faith
fulness to his promises (Deut 6 :1 0 - 1 8 ) . Lack o f faith in him led the
people to a long sojourn in the desert (Num 1 4 :2 0 -2 3 ), and infidelity
to the covenant will eventually cause them to lose the Land (Deut 2 8
30; Lev 26).

Universal Blessing: in Abraham the covenant people are called to be

come a source o f blessing for all nations: . .and in you all the families
o f the earth shall be blessed. (Gen 12:3). Israel is a people chosen by
God to become an instrument o f blessing for all nations (Brueggemann
1997, 4 3 1 - 4 3 4 ) , and her mission is to be a conveyer o f YH W H s favor
to humankind (Gen 18:18; 2 2 :1 8 ; 2 6 :3 - 4 ; 28:14).

Activity

S Read the following texts from the book o f Genesis: 12:13. 6 - 7 ;

1 3 :1 4 -1 7 ; 15; 17; 18:10; 2 2 :1 5 -1 8 . Verify the presence o f the
five elements mentioned above.
Read Gen 2 3 :1 5 -2 0 ; Exod 1:7; 4 0 :3 4 -3 6 and Lev 11:44. Do
you think that we can see a partial fulfilment o f the promises?

Covenant

T h e term berit (covenant) has a certain flexibility in the Hebrew Bible.

It is used generally to indicate relationship between human parties such
as friendship (1 Sam 18:3; 20 :8 ), marriage (Mai 2:1 4 ; cf. Ezek 16:8)
and treaties or agreements between rulers (Gen 2 1 :2 7 ; 2 6 :2 8 ; 3 1 :4 4 ).

But more specifically, it is used to describe an intimate relationship

between Y H W H and individuals and Y H W H and his chosen people.

Covenant with Noah

Though the idea o f covenant is already present in the creation account
(Gen 1), it is only at Gen 6 :1 8 , where God promises to establish a
covenant with Noah, that we have the first occurrence o f the term lVrt,
used to describe the relationship. Reading the narrative o f the covenant
(Gen 9 :8 -1 7 ) in the light o f its context (Gen 8 :2 2 -9 :7 ) helps us to see
verbal links it has with the creation story in Gen 1 (cf. 9:1 and 1:28;
9 :2 - 3 and 1:29; 9 :1 0 and 1 :2 0 -2 5 ).
N ot only did God create humans in his own image and likeness, but
also bounded him self to all humanity through Noah (cf. Enns 1989,
47; Brueggemann 2 0 0 5 , 4 5 4 ). This covenant is an inclusive and an
unconditional relationship in which God takes the initiative.

Covenant with Abraham

Two times God enters into covenant with Abraham (Gen 15:18 and
17:2). Both accounts have to be read and understood in the light of the
promise God made to Abraham in Gen 1 2 :1 -3 . T h e three main fea
tures o f this covenant are: Land, Posterity, and Blessing. These prom
ises are reaffirmed and begin to find their fulfillment in Abrahams de
scendants Isaac (Gen 2 1 :1 2 ; 2 6 :3 -4 ) and Jacob (Gen 2 8 :1 4 - 1 5 ).
T h e nature o f this covenant may be described as:
-

Unconditional: there are no conditions attached for its fulfillment,

Literal: the promises are envisaged in time, to be fulfilled in history,
Everlasting: it remains forever.

T he realization of the promises is what forms the basis for the Sinaitic
covenant. T h e God who has blessed Abraham with numerous descend
ants leads them from slavery towards freedom and a permanent home.

95

Covenant with Israel

Preceding the narrative o f the Sinaitic covenant (Exod 1 9 -2 4 ) is the
event o f the Exodus, G ods act o f deliverance of Israel, his chosen peo
ple, from slavery in Egypt. There is a strong theological link between
the two narratives. W hile the Exodus both marks Israels transition from
a people to a nation and election by God, Sinai ratifies the relationship
(Zuck 1991, 31). Thus the Exodus is a redemptive prerequisite to the
covenant relationship (Merrill 1991, 7), and it is unconditional. Y H W H
gratuitously takes the initiative to redeem the people.
T h e covenant offered by Y H W H here is conditional (Exod 19:4
6). Y H W H commits himself to Israel. An if clause in 19:5 lays upon
the people the responsibility to keep the covenant, to which they ad
hered in 19:8. Becoming a covenant partner o f Y H W H , Israel is de
fined by obedience (Brueggemann 2 0 0 5 , 417).
T h e Ten Commandments (Exod 2 0 :2 -2 7 ), supplemented by the
laws o f the Book o f the Covenant (Exod 2 1 -2 3 ), the Holiness code
(Lev 17 -2 6 ) and Deuteronomic code (Deut 12 -2 6 ) constitute the main
stipulations o f the covenant. These laws are to regulate the life o f Israel
in the theological framework o f their election to be holy and priestly
people, and become means o f blessings to the nations (Exod 19:6).
T h e mediatory role imputed to Israel suggests that Y H W H s goal lies
beyond Israel: communion with the whole of humanity (cf. the Noahic
covenant). Performing this function in obedience becomes a means o f
sanctification for Israel herself.
T h e book o f Deuteronomy reiterates and underlines the importance
o f Israels vocation, covenant fidelity. Before taking possession o f the
Promised Land, Israel is strongly reminded that obedience to the com
mands o f Y H W H would lead to blessing (Deut 2 8 :1 -1 4 ) whereas diso
bedience to utter destruction (Deut 2 8 :1 5 -6 8 ).

Activity
Read Gen 15 and 17. W hat does Y H W H demand from Abraham?
Do you think that the two covenants are different? Explain.

96

/ ^ / Summary
T h e three major themes in the Pentateuch we explored in this sec
tion are:
a) Creation;
b) Blessing;
c) Covenant.

97

Section 6
Literary Forms in the Trh

Introduction

G ods Word in the Bible is expressed in many forms o f human lan

guage, technically known as genres. In relating to humans, God speaks
a language intelligible to them, and he uses the various ways through
which humans talk about and reflect on reality. To understand what
God is communicating to us, we must know and understand the lan
guage form he is using. This suggests that knowledge o f the genres in
the Bible and how they function in literature are essential for an in
formed reading and interpretation o f the Christian Scriptures (cf. Hirsch
1967, 7 8 - 8 6 ) .
In ordinary life, people normally do not speak about genres, though
implicitly they follow the conventions inherent in it when they learn
to communicate with one another. Nobody asks her/his friend in a
conversation what type o f genre he/she is using. But the question is
always implied for both parties to the communication to understand
each other. Maybe the question is normally not asked or even thought
o f because o f familiarity and a shared worldview. O nce this familiarity
and shared experience breaks down the question becomes obvious and
necessary.
For any meaningful communication to take place both, speaker and
hearer /addressee, must share the same conventions or at least under
stand them. The implication o f this is that we use genres and process
them without being consciously aware o f the activity we engage in.
T h e Pentateuch is made up o f a mixture o f different types o f litera
ture. These are laws, stories (narratives) and poetry. O f these, legal codes
and narratives feature most.

99

0 Activity
As you study this lesson, refer to all the biblical texts indicated
and read them carefully.

T he Legal Codes

In its final form, the Pentateuch contains five separate groups o f legal
instructions framed by narrative texts. They are:

S T h e Decalogue T h e Ten Com mandments (Exod 2 0 :1 - 1 7 and

Deut 5 :6 -2 1 );
S T h e Rook o f Covenant also called the Covenant Code (Exod 2 0 :2 2
2 3 :3 3 );
S T h e Law Code o f Deuteronomy (D eut 1 2 -2 6 );
S T h e Holiness Code (Lev 1 7 -2 6 );
/ T h e Priestly Code (Exod 2 5 -3 1 ; 3 5 - 4 0 ; Lev 1 -1 6 ).
Modern scholarship holds the view that these codes existed distinc
tively. They are believed to derive from different groups within the
Israelite society, and also reflect circumstances o f different periods of
Israelite society (Harris 2 0 0 3 , 111; see also Ska 1998, 5 3 - 6 6 ) . This
accounts for the same subject being treated more than once (for exam
ple the law on slavery) and the differences, sometimes contradictions
in the rulings (Ska 1998, 5 3 - 6 6 ) .
T h e laws touch on various aspects o f human life. They also present
a view o f how Y H W H intends to regulate human worship. In them
the will o f Y H W H is made known to the people in reference to their
circumstances. Hence the need for interpretation before application to
the contemporary situation, which is different from that o f the biblical
times.

100

The Narratives

A cursory glance at the Pentateuch shows that much o f it consists o f

narrative. Narrative refers to the use o f language to describe a sequence
of events, whether real or fictional. Much of the Bible is narrative in
that it tells the story o f G ods relation to humanity and human re
sponse to God (Ska 1998, 6 7 -9 0 ).
Narrative subdivides into other genres such as myths, parables, miracles,
legends, sagas etc. O ne basic feature o f narrative is that it does not seek
to impress and convince the audience with arguments; instead it sets out
the truth in a picturesque language that speaks for itself. Narrative pro
poses an alternative world with values different from our present reality,
and sets it before us, making us aware that our present perception is not
the only way humans can live and act. If we become fascinated by these
alternative values and adopt them, then the narrative has achieved its pur
pose, winning us to its side. This is technically referred to as the performa
tive act o f the narrative, namely, what the narrative does to the reader.
As Harris (2003, 108) notes, the Pentateuch qualifies as a narrative
because it contains all the essential elements (setting, characters, con
flict and plot). Though there are long stretches o f narrative material
such as Gen 1:1 to Exod 19:3, we also have narrative material in be
tween legal codes (cf. Exod 24; 3 2 -3 4 ). Some of the sub-genres of nar
ratives in the Pentateuch include myths (cf. Gen 1), parables, miracles,
legends, sagas, aetiologies, genealogies (cf. Gen 5) etc.

Myth as Sub-genre o f Narrative

Myth comes from the Greek mythos\ which could mean tale, story,
legend, or fable. In both primitive as well as modern cultures, myths
are used by a people to explain the origin o f the world and themselves,
and their relationship with the divine, with the origins of culture and
societal institutions, with life, suffering and death. In other words, myths
are stories that deal with the interaction o f the gods and human beings.
They develop around special or unusual persons.

101

T h e purpose o f myths is not to convey historical facts, but to ex

plain beliefs, practices or natural phenomenon in a meaningful way to
the persons who hear or read the myths. M ythic language, in contrast
to scientific language, employs a different mode o f expression, differ
ent linguistic forms, to present reality. Viewed critically, myths can be
said to complement scientific investigation by explaining those mys
teries o f life that otherwise will remain inexplicable for lack o f scien
tific data.

Legend as a Sub-genre o f Narrative

T h e word legend applied to the Bible creates some anxiety in the mind
o f some readers, because in ordinary usage, it refers to some fantastic
story, something that is not wholly true, but edifying.
O n the contrary, in ethnological and anthropological language, leg
end is not negative in connotation, but positive. In these sciences, leg
end refers to the record o f some facts in the past which could have
happened to a person or group o f person who could have really existed,
about which we possess only material o f a popular type. Thus legend is
a primitive type o f historiography which has not yet reached a rational,
critical and evaluative stage, where sources may be supplied for infor
mation provided.
T h e interest people show in their past, their origins, events, their
ancestors, leads to the formation o f legend. For the people concerned,
their legends are not fantastic stories, but a record o f their cherished
past.
Legendary as a literary genre abounds in the Bible, especially in the
O T, which goes back much further to ancient cultures. Taking cogni
sance o f the fact that the Biblical material passed first through an oral
stage for many years, before committed into writing, it is quite under
standable that the people preserved the cherished past through their
legends (the story of the Patriarchs; see also Exod 1).

102

Poetry

Poetry is a piece o f writing arranged in verse form, and is characterised

by figurative language (simile, metaphor). Some whole books in the
Bible are poetic in form (e.g. the Book of Psalms), but we also find
poetic texts showing up in narratives, as is the case o f the Pentateuch.
Poetic texts in this section o f the Hebrew Bible are rather few. Scholars
(cf. Hinson 1977, II, 2223, Harris 2 0 0 3 , 111) identify the following:
Gen 1; Gen 4 :2 3 - 2 4 ; Exod 15:21; Num 2 1 :1 7 -1 8 ; and Deut 32.

Activity
'S Read Exod 2 1 :2 11; Deut 1 5 :1 2 -1 8 and Lev 2 5 :3 9 -5 5 . W hat
are the differences in the passages concerning slavery?
S Read Gen l-2 :4 a . Are there similar creation myths in your own
culture?

/ ^ / Sum m ary
At the end o f this section you have learnt:
a) the two main literary types in the Pentateuch;
b) the different types o f narratives in the Pentateuch;
c) the importance o f genres for biblical interpretation.

Test Yourself
1. Explain what the Documentary hypothesis is. Discuss its contri
bution to the study o f the Pentateuch.
2. Did Moses write the Pentateuch? Explain your answer.
3. List and describe with examples three main literary genres in the
Pentateuch.

103

/ / General Sum m ary

In this section you were introduced to the Torah.
>
>
>
>
>
>

the
the
the
the
the
the

ICQ

meaning and composition;

literary problems;
narrative structure;
main types o f writings;
three major themes;
literary genres.

To Know More

I. References
Alexander, T. D. - Baker, D .W . (2003). Dictionary o f the Old Testament: Pentateuch.
Leicester Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity.
Barton, J. M uddiman,J. Eds. (2010). The Pentateuch. The Oxford Bible Commen
tary. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Blenkinsopp, J. (1992). The Pentateuch. An Introduction to the First Five Books o f the
Bible. AB Reference Library. New York - London: Doubleday.
Campbell, A. E O Brien, M .A . (1993). Sources o f the Pentateuch. Texts, Introduc
tions, Annotations. Minneapolis, M N: Fortress Press.
Rof, A. (1999). Introduction to the Composition o f the Pentateuch. The Biblical Semi
nar, 58. Sheffield: Academic Press.
Ska, J .L . (2006). Introduction to Reading the Pentateuch. Winona Lake, IN: Eisen
brauns.
Whybray, R .N . (1995). Introduction to the Pentateuch. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans.

104

II. Biblical Anthology (Ska 2010)

Genesis
13 (creation and sin); 6 :5 9 :1 7 (flood); 12:13 (Abrahams call); 15 (covenant with
Abraham); 1 8 :1 -1 5 (revelation in Mamre); 2 2 :1 - 1 9 (Abrahams test); 2 8 :1 0 -2 2 (vi
sion in Bethel); 3 2 :2 3 33 (Jacob received a new name); 37 (Joseph sold by his brother);
4 5 :1 13 (Self-revelation of Joseph); 5 0 :1 5 31 (Reconciliation).

Exodus
2 :1 - 1 0 (Moses birth); 3 :1 - 4 :1 7 (vocation of Moses); 7 :1 - 1 0 :1 1 ; 1 2 :2 9 -3 6 (the
plagues); 14:1 -3 1 (crossing the Red Sea); 1 9 :1 -1 9 (revelation on Mount Sinai); 2 0 :1
17 (the Ten Commandments); 2 4 :1 -1 1 (Sinaitic Covenant); 3 2 - 3 4 (the Golden
Calf; Moses intercession; the renewal of the Covenant).

Leviticus
1 9 :1 -1 9 (You shall be holy: for 1 the LO RD your God am holy).

Numbers
1314 (the exploration of the Promised Land); 2224 (Balaam).

Deuteronomy
4 (Sinai); 6 :1 - 9 (Shema Israel); 8 (temptations in the Promised Land); 3 0 :1 1 - 1 4
(the nearness of Gods Word); 3 0 :1 5 - 2 0 (the two ways).

105

Step 4
' -
%
X

The Structure and Content
of the Neb m

Introduction

Welcome to Step 4! After journeying through the Torh, the founda

tional document o f the Jews, you will, in this unit, concentrate on the
second parts o f the TaNaK: the Prophets. A few interesting questions
to ask at the beginning o f this unit are: who are the Prophets? W hat
do the prophetic writings teach? And finally, how are the Prophets re
lated to the Torh?
T h e concept o f prophecy may not be new to you since in contem
porary Africa one hears constantly o f prophets and their activities.
Many prophets were present in the ancient Near East and Israel as
well.
But is the understanding o f prophecy the same among all peoples?
W hat makes prophecy in Israel unique? And who are the prophet?
You will be guided to discover answers to the above questions in this
Step.

O ur M ap

Section 1: T h e Former Prophets

Section 2: T h e Latter Prophets
Section 3: T h e Prophetic Ministry
Section 4: Literary Genres o f the Prophetic Books

109

At the end o f Step 4 you will be able to:

S Discuss the relationship between the Book o f Deuteronomy
S
S
S
S

110

and the Former Prophets.

List the books o f the Latter Prophets and their theological
content.
Distinguish between the Former and Latter Prophets, and
show the link between them.
Discuss the nature, function o f Israels Prophets and their mes
sage.
Explain the literary genres o f the Prophetic Books.

Section 1
The Former Prophets

Introduction

W elcome to the world o f prophecy! As you know, the second major

section o f the Hebrew Bible is referred to as The Prophet - N ebm
in Hebrew. It is divided into two parts: the Former Prophets and the
Latter Prophets. In this section we shall concern ourselves with the
narrative o f the Deuteronomistic historian in Joshua - 2 Kings. The
Later Prophets, on the other hand, will be studied in Section 2.

An overview o f the Former Prophets

T he narrative contained in the books o f the Former Prophets is re

ferred to as Deuteronomistic history by biblical scholars (Noth 1943;
Collins 2 0 0 7 ,9 4 - 1 5 2 ; Leclerc 2 0 0 6 , 6 1 -9 9 ). This is because the books
interpret Israels historical experience in the light o f the book o f D eu
teronomy, which teaches that Israel would prosper only by faithfully
observing the Trh prescriptions, namely, remaining faithful to Y H W H
(cf. D eut 2 8 -3 0 ). In short, the Former Prophets continued the theo
logical reflection o f Deuteronomy to show how Israel lived G ods rev
elation to them.
T h e historical-theological perspective o f the books illustrates the
disastrous consequences o f Israels failure to remain faithful to YH W H
exclusively (Judg 2 :1 - 4 ; 2 Chr 3 6 :5 -2 0 ). This becomes the background
for the teaching o f the Latter Prophets, who appeared mostly in times
o f crises to proclaim Y H W H s message to Israel. As G ods spokesmen,

111

they reminded the people o f the consequences o f their actions if they

did not return to God (Isa 1 :2 -2 0 ; Jer 2 -3 ).
Scholars are divided on the id en tity o f the author/s o f the
Deuteronomistic History. For Friedman (1987) the narrative is the work
o f a single individual, most likely the prophet Jeremiah. Not all schol
ars accept this proposal. Others think the work comes from the pen of
a school or circle o f Judean scribes (cf. Harris 2 0 0 3 , 161). There is, in
fact, no way o f knowing exactly who lies behind the documents as
there is no internal evidence. All that we can deduce from synchronic
analysis is the theological perspective present in the work that draws it
close to Deuteronomy.
According to Leclerc (2 0 0 6 ), a first edition o f the Deuteronomistic
History was composed during the kingdom o f King Josiah (6 4 0 -6 0 9
B .C . E.), to support the religious reform o f the country. A second edi
tion took place probably during or after the exile, when the records
were updated to include the latest sad events o f Israels rebellion to
God. Whoever the authors may be, they certainly relied on oral and
written traditions, collections o f ancient material which has reminis
cence in the present texts.
T h e following may be noted (cf. Harris 2 0 0 3 , 162):
1. the Book o f Jashar (Josh 10:13; 2 Sam 1:18);
2. the Book o f the Acts o f Solomon (1 Kgs 11:41);
3. the Book o f the Annals o f the Kings o f Judah (lK g s 14:29);
4. the Book o f the Annals o f the Kings o f Israel (lK g s 14:19).
How much o f the material in these lost books has been appropriated
by the redactor o f the Deuteronomistic narrative cannot be determined.
It is most likely that he utilised material that served his theological
m otif and discarded the rest.

0 Activity
Compare Deut 34:5 and Josh 1 :1 -2 below and note the verbal
links between them.

112

Deut 34:5 - Then Moses, the servant o f the L O R D , died there in the
land o f Moab, at the L O R D s command.

Josh 1:12 - After the death o f Moses the servant o f the L O R D , the
L O R D spoke to Joshua son o f Nun, Moses assistant, saying: My serv
ant Moses is dead. Now proceed to cross the Jordan, you and all this
people, into the land that I am giving to them, to the Israelites.

Narrative Structure and D om inant Ideas

T h e B o ok o f Joshu a, the first in the chain o f six books o f the

Deuteronomistic History, resumes the narrative o f Israels relationship
with God after the death o f Moses (Deut 3 4 :5 ; Josh 1:12).
T h e history that follows, from Joshua to 2 Kings, narrates Israels
rise and fall in respect to loyalty or disloyalty to YH W H . In other words,
all the historical experiences o f Israel - the success or failure at battle,
progress o f the nations - are seen through the lens o f faith in Y H W H .
T h e narrative may be divided into seven periods, based on the most
significant events therein (cf. Harris 2 0 0 3 , 1 6 2 -1 6 3 ).
Event

Book

1.

The Conquest of Canaan

Joshua

2.

The Battles of 12 tribes with Canaanite City-states

Judges

3.

The Tribal unification and the establishment of

1& 2 Sam; 1 Kings

the United Monarchy

4.

The Divided Kingdom (northern and Southern)

after the death of Solomon

1 Kings

5.

Narrative of the Parallel dynasties till Assyrias

2 Kings

destruction o f Israel in 721 B .C .E .

6.

King Josiahs reform in Judah following 621 B .C .E .

2 Kings

7.

Babylons conquest of Judah and destruction of

2 Kings

Jerusalem Temple in 587 B .C .E .

113

It is important to note that the main character in these books is the

Word o f God, not the king o f Israel or any individuals. T h e authors
were interested in seeing the event in the history as the unfolding o f
G ods plan, which is proceeding as revealed through the prophets. T hat
prophetic word, as we saw early, is linked by the Deuteronomists to the
covenant: fidelity assures blessing and prosperity, but infidelity (idola
try) brings curse and disaster. Individual episodes and events are re
corded as evidence that the divine word is trustworthy (Leclerc 2006).

Activity
Read Judg 2 :1 - 4 .1 1 - 2 3 ; 1 0 :6 -1 8 ; 1 Sam 13; 1 Kgs 14; 2 Kgs
2 4 :8 - 2 0 . Can you identify the fundam ental them e o f the
Deuteronomistic History?

^ / Sum m ary
At the end o f this section you have learnt:
a) the list o f books that make up the Former Prophets;
b) that the Former Prophets interpret Israels history in the light of
the teaching o f Deuteronomy;
c) that the dominant theme in this division o f the Hebrew Bible is
fidelity and infidelity to the covenant.

114

Section 2
The Latter Prophets

Introduction

You have come to the second part o f the NebVm. T h e Latter Prophets
is a collection o f works mostly in poetry - anthologies o f oracles ascribed to individual prophets who lived and worked in different places
at different times. They were spokesmen o f Y H W H , as indicated by
the term prophtes, the Greek translation o f the Hebrew word nbi.
Prophtes means to speak in the place o f or on behalf o f somebody,
to be the mouthpiece o f somebody, or to speak before somebody.
T he canonical prophets, fifteen in number, span a period o f more
than three hundred years from the mid-eighth century to fifth cen
tury B .C .E . T heir oracles/preaching were first collected as oral pro
nouncements and later on transcribed by their disciples.

Brief Historical Development o f Prophecy in Israel

O ur exposition in this section will discuss three main questions:

a. W hen did prophecy begin in Israel?
b. W hen did the Prophets preach? And when were the words written
down?
c. W hen did Prophecy end?

115

When did prophecy begin in Israel?

Documents from ancient archaeological sites (Mari; Nineveh; etc.) have
revealed that prophecy cannot be restricted to Israel, but is part of a larger
religious tradition that seeks to establish communication between divine
beings and humanity through intermediaries (Leclerc 2 0 0 6 , 1 8 -3 6 ).
Numerous studies have shed light on the phenomenon throughout
the A N E, revealing several similarities to biblical terms referring to the
prophetic figure and also genres and motive (Weinfeld 1977; Nissinen
2 0 0 3 ).
In the TaNaK, the term nb and other labels ( reh; Hzeh; is
'lhm ) are variously used in the biblical texts in the different periods
o f Israels history, as you can notice in the following table:
reh (seer - 1 lx : cf. ISam 9:9. 11. 18. 19; Isa 3 0 :1 0 ). The term underlines the
extraordinary insight that comes to the prophets to contemplate the reality from
Gods perspective (Isa 3 0 :1 0 ).

Hzeh. (visionary - 16x: cf. 2Sam 2 4 :1 1; Am 7:1 2 ; Mic 3 :5 - 7 ; Isa 2 9 :1 1 ). The

word highlights the method of reception of Gods revelation by means of visions
and dreams.
7 / 'elhm. (man of God - 77 x : ISam 9:6. 7. 8. 10; lKgs 17:18. 24; 2Kgs 1:9. 11.
13, etc.: Samuel, Elijha and Elisha). It defines a person possessed by God for
special service in time of crisis; a person so near to God to share His power to
perform miracles (cf. lKgs 17:24).

nb' {prophet - 315: Gen 2 0 :7 ; Deut 18:15; 3 4 :1 1 ; Num 11:25; Hos 12:14;
etc.) It is used to denote various functions or attitudes: an ecstatic behaviour, a
preacher, a diviner and, above all, a mediator of the word.

N b is the most common term used in the TaNaK to refer to the

prophetic ministry. For this reason, we are going to explore the histori
cal development o f the term.

0 Activity
Read the biblical texts carefully before proceeding to the next
paragraph: Num 11 and Deut 18. Note down what they disclose
about prophecy.

116

Before Entry into the Promised Land

{T o ra h )

O nly three persons in the whole o f the Pentateuch are designated as

nb\ Abraham (Gen 2 0 :7 ); Aaron (Exod 7 :1 ); and Miriam (Exod
1 5 :2 0 ).9 Moses is not designated merely as prophet; he is said to be
greater than all the prophets since he could see God face to face and
speak to him (cf. Num 1 2 :6 -8 ; Deut 34:10).
O ne very important text is Num 1 1 :2 5 -2 7 , where the verb to pro
phesy is used to denote the action that produces the Spirit o f God:
these verses suggest that prophecy is a divine institution. In Deut 18 :9
22, we have the warning against false practices and G ods promise to
send a prophet like Moses as his successor.

In the Promised Land (Former Prophets)

Before the monarchy

T he use o f the term ^ / becomes very frequent in the early prophets
(Joshua - 2 Kings). Individuals (Deborah: Judg 4:4; Samuel: 1 Sam
3 :9 - 2 0 ; 9 :9) as well as groups (ISam 1 0 :5 - 1 3 ) receive the name
prophet. O nly from the book o f Samuel onwards do we have the ap
pearance o f the plural form o f nbi - rfb'm. W ithin this period the
term acquired its rich significance and also came to signify a religious
vocation.

There were other prophetesses in Israel. Among them we can name the follow
ing: Deborah (Jud 4:4); Huldah (2 Kgs 2 2 :1 4 ); Noadiah (Neh 6 :1 4 ; see also
Isa 8:2).

117

During the Period o f the Monarchy

Groups o f prophets were prominent at the kings court. They lived in
community around a master (cf. 2 Kgs 4 :3 8 ; 6:1) whom they called
father (2 Kgs 6:2; 2:1 2 ). However, some prophets lived and worked as
individuals (2 Sam 2 4 :11 ; 1 Kgs 1 6 :7 -1 2 ; 18:36; 2 Kgs 6:1 2 ). This was
especially the case in the period o f the divided monarchy. Individual
prophets were at the disposition o f the king, but also o f the people, to
consult God.
Besides these individuals, there appeared within the divided mon
archy personages who assumed the name prophets and whose oracles
have been preserved in writing for us. These men comm only referred
to as classical prophets separated themselves from the court o f the king,
and often offered a critic o f the monarchy, the behaviour of the king
and the people at large. They called for conversion, and also predicted
the judgement o f God upon the people. It is in the activities o f these
charismatic persons that prophecy in Israel acquired its full meaning
and significance.

The Former and Latter Prophets:

Relationships and Differences
We have already noted that the section o f the Hebrew Bible known as
NebVm consists o f the Early Prophets (Joshua - 2 Kings) and the Lat
ter Prophets (Isaiah -M alachi). T h e final editors o f the Hebrew Bible
m ay have p laced the L a tte r P ro p h ets im m e d ia te ly after th e
Deuteronomic History because o f the relationship they see between
them. T h e reason for Y H W H s rejection o f the covenant people (D H )
appears to be illustrated in the Latter Prophets, which bears witness to
Israels failure to pay heed to Y H W H s voice through his spokesmen.
Besides the theological link between the two sections, there are con
siderable differences among which we note the following (Albrego de
Lacy 1 9 9 6 ,3 0 - 3 1 ) :

118

a. T h e books o f the Latter Prophets all bear the name o f a person, but
only Joshua and Samuel are names o f individual persons in the Early
Prophets.
b. T he Latter Prophets present a systematic collection o f narratives and
oracles o f the named prophets. The Early Prophets, instead, have
only sporadic narratives on the prophets and their activities.
c. T h e Latter Prophets address their message to the whole people o f
Israel, predict the end, utter indictment, but also hope, and they
sometimes intervene for Y H W H s mercy T h e Early Prophets, on
the other hand, preoccupy themselves with only particular ques
tions.
d. T he Early Prophets make recourse to the religious interpretation o f
the period or m oment to preach their message whereas the latter
prophets base their preaching on the important traditions o f Israel,
but modify it where necessary.

/ ^ / Sum m ary
At the end o f this section you have learnt:
a) the terms used to denote the prophetic phenomenon;
b) the historical development o f prophecy in Israel;
c) the differences and similarities between the Former and Latter
Prophets.

119

Section 3
The Prophetic Ministry

Introduction

Prophetic ministry became established only in the period o f the mon

archy. Various biblical texts help us to locate the activity o f the prophet
in interaction with the king and leaders o f the nations. It is within
these interactions that we discover their function and message.

The Preaching o f the Classical Prophets

T he preaching o f the classical prophets dates to the period o f the M on

archy but continued till shortly after the Babylonian exile. Evidently,
they did not all live in the same period and place. Some were contem
poraries but worked in different areas, in the Northern or Southern
kingdoms.
T h ey may be grouped into one o f the three historical critical
periods: the Assyrian crisis, the Babylonian crisis, the post-exilic re
adjustment.
Below we have the Prophets distributed in their historical periods.

121

Historical Period

Prophets

The Assyrian Crisis

The Eighth Century (the rise of Assyria)

Amos, Hosea, I Isaiah, Micah.

The Seventh Century (decline of

Assyrian and the rise of Babylon)

Zephaniah, Nahum, Habakkuk,

Jeremiah.

The Babylonian Crisis

The Sixth Century

Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Obadiah, II Isaiah.

The Postexilic Readjustment

The Late Sixth or Fifth Century

Haggai, Zechariah, III Isaiah, Malachi,

Joel, Jonah, Obadiah

T he preaching o f the Israelite prophets lived on in their writings (Leclerc

2 0 0 6 , 1 0 0 -1 2 2 ; Bovati 20 0 8 ). As will be discussed in the following
pages, prophecy as a ministry in Israel almost disappeared shortly after
the end o f the Babylonian exile. After the time o f Ezra, traditional
prophecy ceased (Sicre 1995, 3 7 6 - 3 8 9 ; Harris 2 0 0 3 ,2 1 6 ). The prophe
tic function was gradually taken over by priests, scribes and sages professional teachers o f wisdom.

The Written Words o f the Classical Prophet

T h e prophetic ministry was preaching-based. Very rarely do we find in

the TaNaK indication o f writings attributed to prophets (Isa 8 :1 .1 6 ;
3 0 :8 ; Jer 36; Ezek 2:83:3; Hab 2:2; Mai 3:1 6 ). T h e most interesting
example is Jer 36: a scroll was written as a substitute o f the prophet, to
carry the message o f God where Jeremiah could not more go: And
Jeremiah ordered Baruch, saying, am prevented from entering the
house o f the L O R D ; so you go yourself, and on a fast day in the hear
ing o f the people in the L O R D s house you shall read the words o f the
L O R D from the scroll that you have written at my dictation. You shall
read them also in the hearing o f all the people o f Judah who come up
from their towns. (3 6 :5 - 6 ) . As the prophet is silenced and perse-

122

cuted, so also the scroll is hidden (36:20) and destroyed (36:23. 27):
but the word o f God cannot be silenced, and a new scroll is re-com
posed (3 6 :2 8 -3 2 ).
However, the process o f assembling in written form the preaching
o f the prophets by their disciples began after the mid-eighth century
(Sicre 1995, 1 9 3 -2 2 5 ). There is no clear evidence in the biblical text
itself as to how this was done. Notably, by the end the Persian period in
the late 4 th century B. C. E. Isaiah and Jeremiah were probably accepted
as canonical works. T h e M inor Prophets, preserved as a single roll, how
ever, achieved a fixed form some time after the 4 th century. Editorial
ad ditions and revisions may have contin u ed well in to the last
centuries B .C .E . The status o f Ezekiel was, instead, discussed until the
1st century.
In spite o f this a collection known as the rfb m was sufficiently
stable to be translated as one corpus from Hebrew into Greek in the
3 rd_ 2 nd century B .C .E . (Abrego de Lacy 1996, 2 3 4 -2 4 0 ), as testified
by the introductory lines o f Ben Sirachs prologue:
The Law, the Prophets, and the other writers succeeding them have passed on to
us great lessons, in consequence of which Israel must be commended for learn
ing and wisdom. Furthermore, it is a duty, not only to acquire learning by
reading, but also, once having acquired it, to make oneself of use to people
outside by what one can say or write. My grandfather Jesus, having long de
voted himself to the reading of the Law, the Prophets and other books o f the
Fathers and having become very learned in them, himself decided to write some
thing on the subjects of learning and wisdom, so that people who wanted to
learn might, by themselves accepting these disciplines, learn how better to live
according to the Law.

0 Activity
Read the following biblical texts: Amos 2 and 7 and Jer 5.

123

The Function o f Israels Prophets

T h e prophets performed different functions in Israel. They were some

times summoned by the king to provide counsel in times o f crisis (cf.
1 Kgs 22). For example, Zedekiah asked Jeremiah to inquire from
Y H W H about Judahs military fortunes (cf. Jer 27) and Hezekiah con
sulted Isaiah at the time o f the impending Assyrian invasion (cf. Isa 37;
2 Kgs 19). O ther times the prophets were not called upon, but on their
own offered encouragement or criticisms. For example, 2 Sam 7 :1 -1 7 ;
12:14; Amos 7 :1 0 - 1 7 ; Jer 26.
Some o f them were also involved in political struggles (cf. 1 Kgs
1 7 -1 9 ; 2 Kgs 1). T h e prophet Elisha was instrumental in the revolt
that brought O m ri s dynasty to an end and established Jehu as king
(2 Kgs 9). Jeremiah played a key role in one o f the parties that resisted
Judahs foreign policy in the years prior to the exile (Jer 2 7 -2 9 ).
Prophets generally functioned at the national level, acting as inter
mediaries between God and the people. Thus, their message is grounded
on communication with God, but also carried the peoples reaction or
response back to God (cf. Amos 2 :1 0 - 1 2 ; 7 :1 0 - 1 7 ; Jer 5 :1 2 -1 3 ).
Harris (2003, 213) writes: Their function was to perceive and an
nounce Y H W H s will in an immediate circumstance in terms com
prehensible or at least relevant to their original audience. Rather than
predicting events in the near future, the Ncb m endeavoured to illu
minate Y H W H s intentions in the present.

The Message o f the Prophets

It is a difficult task to summarize the prophetic message. However the

following motifs could be identified (Harris 2 0 0 3 , 210):
> Warnings that foreign invasions and national disasters are divine
punishment for infidelity and social injustice. T h e exclusive wor-

124

ship o f YH W H is often linked with ethical behaviours towards fel

low Israelites (cf. Amos 2). In spite o f adherence to the classical
teaching o f Mosaic legislation, all Y H W H s actions are believed to
be founded on his unlimited kindness.
> Appeals to return to Y H W H in order to avoid catastrophes (OssomBatsa 2 001). Not only do they indicate the consequences of Israels
unfaithfulness but also they call her back to a life o f righteousness
(cf. Jer 2 :1 - 4 :2 ; 3 1 :1 5 -2 2 ; 3 :2 3 -2 5 ). In this way they portray Gods
desire that the sinner converts and be reconciled with him.
> Visions o f thefuture in which Jerusalem will be restored and YH W H
will reign supreme over all creation. Whereas the message o f the
pre-exilic prophets is characterised by impending punishment and
doom, that o f the exile and post-exilic offers hope and comfort.
Sicre in his detailed analysis (1995, 3 9 0 - 5 8 0 ) provides the following:
the unveiling o f the hidden idolatry; the fight for social justice; the
disapproval o f ritualism; the vision o f history and messianic hope.
O ther scholars emphasise the unique contribution of the prophetic
phenomenon in the development o f Israelite religion (Fohrer 1972).
For example, Abrego de Lacy (1 9 9 6 , 2 3 2 -2 3 4 ) underscores the fol
lowing:
a. widening the horizon o f religion beyond cult to include social jus
tice (Amos 8:5; Hos 4 :1 - 3 ) ;
b. incarnation o f biblical faith in history, through the interpretation o f
historical, political, econom ic, etc. events from Gods perspective
(Hab 1 -2 );
c. purification o f Israels faith, through the constant return to the cov
enant experience (Jer 2 -3 ).

/ ^ / Sum m ary
You have learnt the following in this section:
a) the formation o f the prophetic canon;
b) the function o f the prophets in Israel and their message.

125

Section 4
The Literary Forms of the Prophetic Books

Introduction

You are already familiar with literary forms in general. Here you will
concentrate on the forms present in the works o f the classical prophets.
You will be learning the various ways through which the prophets present
the message to their audience and study forms like oracles, symbolic
action, vision reports etc.
T h e prophetic books exhibit a variety o f genres or forms, which
come from different life situations. There are various ways o f classify
ing these forms or genres. In the following pages, we are going to com
pare the opinion o f two contemporary scholars.

0 Activity
Read Ezek 2 2 :1 - 6 and Jer 2 6 :1 6 - 2 5 , and compare their format
and content.

J.L . Sicre

Sicre (1995, 1 5 8 -1 9 2 ) provides the following classification: Forms that

are not strictly Prophetic and Forms that are strictly Prophetic.

127

Forms not Strictly Prophetic

According to Sicre, these are forms that are not limited to the pro
phetic writings. Below are examples:
1. Forms that come from the tribal and fam iliar wisdom, used by the
family to inculcate virtue and right behaviour in children and adults
such as exhortations, rhetorical questions, parables, allegories,
enigma, benediction, blessings and curses (2 Sam 1 2 :1 -7 ).
2. Forms that arise in worship, related to cult. T h e scholar lists hymns
(Isa 12; Amos 4 :1 3 ; 5 :8 -9 ; 9 :5 - 6 ), prayers (Jer 3 2 :1 6 - 2 5 . 43), in
structions (Amos 4 :4 -5 ) , exhortations and also oracle o f salvation
(admonishment the prophet gives to soldiers for victory in the name
o fY H W H ).
3. Forms that come from juridical context. Som etim es the prophet
presents his message as a court case with an accusation against an
individual or a group (Ezek 2 2 :1 - 6 ; 1 8 :5 -9 ).
4. Forms that arise from daily life, in the context of love (Isa 5:17),
work (Ezek 2 4 :3 - 5 .9 - 1 0 ) , death (funeral dirge: Amos 5 :2 - 3 ; Isa
5 :7 -1 0 ; Hab 2 :7 - 8 ) .
5. Symbolic actions-}^ actions performed which have metaphorical mean
ing (Isa 20; 8 :1 -4 ; Hos 1; 3; Jer 1 3 :1 -1 1 ; 1 6 :1 -9 ; Ezek 2 1 :2 3 -2 8 ).

Forms Strictly Prophetic

These are forms that are present only in the classical Prophets. They
divide into two as follows:
1. Oracle o f Judgement against an individual.
2. Oracle o f Judgement against a group.

10 Sicre himself treats this under a separate heading, but his explanation suggests it
be put under forms not strictly prophetic.

128

J.M . Abrego de Lacy

Abrego de Lacy (1996, 3 2 -3 9 ) classifies the literature o f the prophetic

books into two broad groups: prose accounts and poetic accounts. These
two groups also sub-divide into various literary types as shown below.

Prose Accounts
Symbolic action
Narratives o f a Prophet s call
Vision reports

Poetic Account
Oracles: divine and Prophetic speech.
T he discussion below will not follow any particular classification but
rather take each form, discuss it and illustrate with examples how it
functions.

A Discussion o f the Various Genres

Symbolic Action Report

Instead o f verbal communication the symbolic action report describes
prophetic behaviour that is designed to convey a message (Isa 2 0 :1 -6 ;
Jer 1 3 :1 -1 1 ). There are normally three elements present in the text:
a. Divine order.
b. Execution o f the order by the prophet.
c. Interpretation o f the prophecy.
Sometime the life o f the prophet himself becomes a symbolic action:
typical examples o f this genre type include: the matrimony o f Hosea

129

(Hos 1 -3 ), the celibacy o f Jeremiah (Jer 1 4 -1 9 ); the widowhood o f

Ezekiel (2 4 :1 5 - 2 4 ; see also Jer 1 9 :1 - 2 .1 0 - 1 1 ; 2 7 :1 -3 .1 2 ; 3 2 :7 -1 5 ;
Ezek 1 2 :1 - 6 .8 - 1 1 ; 2 1 :2 3 -2 8 ; 3 7 :1 5 - 1 9 ).

0 Activity
Read Jer 13:111; Isa 2 0 :1 -6 . Can you identify the three ele
ments named above in these texts?

Narratives o f a Prophets Call

T h e books o f the three M ajor Prophets begin with a narration o f the

prophets biography, especially his vocation (Jer 1; Isa 6; Ezek 1 :1 - 3 :15;
cf. Isa 4 0 ). T h e narratives have as scope the presentation o f the integ
rity o f the prophet and the authenticity o f his message. T h e prophets
call precedes his mission.
T h e general structure o f the narratives:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.

Divine Manifestation
Introductory word
Commission
O bjection
Reassurance
Signs

Activity
Read Jer 1 and Isa 6. Use the elements above to write down the
structure o f the texts.

130

Vision Reports

T he word vision describes an important prophetic experience. Som e

times it appears as headline o f the whole book (cf. Nah 1:1; Obad 1;
Hab 1:1) or o f specific sections (Amos 7:1; Ezek 8:1). Vision report as
literary gender consists o f the description o f what the prophet sees or
experiences, concerning the present or the future. Sometimes, the
prophet understands the vision on his own and then act on it (cf. Amos
7 :4 ff.). O ther times Y H W H (cf. Ezek 8 :1 7 -1 8 ) or a divine agent (Zech
1 :1 8 -1 9 ; cf. Dan 7 :1 5 - 1 6 ) interprets the meaning to him.

Activity
Read Dan 7 :1 5 -1 6 ; Ezek 8 :1 7 -1 8 and Amos 7. W ho explained
the vision to the prophets in each case?

Prophetic Lawsuit

{R b )

T he form has received much attention with regard to the prophetic

books (cf. Nielson 1978; Bovati 1994). It consists o f five essential ele
ments:
1. Preliminaries o f the Case: heaven and earth are called as witnesses to
die pact; the calling o f the accused until he gives ears to the call; decla
ration o f innocence by the judge.
2. The questioning o f the accused by the judge.
3. Requisition. It is generally done in historical terms, making refer
ence to benefits and unfaithfulness.
4. Ofcial declaration o f guilt. The guilt o f the accused is pronounced.
It serves as the basis for judgement.
5. Judgement expressed in the form o f a threat and not as a sentence.
Examples o f the rb are Isa 1:23- 1 0 -2 0 ; M ic 6 :1 - 8 ; Jer 2 :4 13. 29

131

Oracles

Scholars make a distinction between Divine oracles (first person speech

cf. Isa 27:3) and prophetic speech (third person speech Jer 8 :1 8
19).
An oracle is basically composed o f two parts, but sometimes there is
an introductory invitation to listen (cf. Sicre 1995, 163):
a. Indictment/accusation: names the crime or negative behaviour o f
the addressee (the verb is normally in the past).
b. Sentence or judgement: states the verdict, introduced by phrases
such as: therefore, thus, so etc.
Sometimes we have the inverse: the verdict is given then the motiva
tion follows.
The genre has been used as structuring element for the Major Prophets.
A scheme similar to the following results for most o f the prophets:
1. Oracle o f judgement against Israel.
2. Oracle o f judgement against the nations.
3. Oracle o f salvation for Israel.

^ / Sum m ary
In this section you have learnt:
a) the various ways o f classifying the forms o f prophetic litera
ture;
b) the structure o f the different forms.

132

 Test Yourself
1. Define the nature and function o f Israels Prophets.
2. W ith examples, discuss the relationship between the Latter Prophets
and the Former Prophets.
3. Name five literary genres o f prophetic literature and explain three
o f them with examples.

/ General Summary

In this section you were introduced to the second part o f the

TaNak, the Ncbim . We analysed:
> the relationship between the Book o f Deuteronomy and the
Former Prophets;
> the historical development o f the Prophecy in Israel;
> the books o f the Latter Prophets and their theological content;
> the relationship between the Former and Latter Prophets;
> the prophetic literary genres.

To Know More ...

/. References
a.

Former Prophets

Campbell, A.F. - O Brien, M. (2000). Unfolding the Deuteronomistic History. Ori

gins, Upgrades, Present Text. Minneapolis, M N: Fortress Augsburg Press,
de Pury, A. - Rmer, T. - Macchi, J.-D . (2001). Israel Constructs its History. Deutero

nomistic History in Recent Research. JSO TS, 306. Sheffield: Academic Press.
Hamilton, V.P. (2001). Handbook on the Historical Books:Joshua, Judges, Ruth, Samuel,
Kings, Chronicles, Ezra-Nehemiah, Esther. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker.

133

Mayes, A. D .H . (1983). The Story o f Israel between Settlement and Exile: a Redactional

Study o f the Deuteronomistic History. London: SCM.

Rmer, Th. (2006). The So-called Deuteronomistic History. A Sociological, Historical
and Literary Introduction. London: T & T Clark.
b. Later Prophets
Barton, J. (2007) Oracles o f God: Perceptions o f Ancient Prophecy in Israel after the
Exile. Oxford New York: Oxford University Press.
Blenkinsopp, J. (1983, 21996). A History o f Prophecy in Israel. Louisville, KY: West
minster John Knox Press.
Clements, R. E. (1996). Old Testament Prophecy: From Oracles to Canon. Louisville,
KY: John Knox Westminster.
Hauser, A .J. Kaufman, S. (Eds). (2008). Recent Research on the Major Prophets.
Recent Research in Biblical Studies 1. Sheffield: Phoenix Press.
Lundbom, J.R . (2010). The Hebrew Prophets: An Introduction. Minneapolis, M N :
Fortress Press.
Seitz, C. R. (2007) Prophecy and Hermeneutics: Toward a New Introduction to the
Prophets. Studies in Theological Interpretation. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Aca
demic.
Sweeney, M .A . (2005). The Prophetic Literature. Interpreting Biblical Texts. Nash
ville: Abingdon Press.

II. Biblical Anthology (Ska 2010)

Joshua
3 - 4 (Israel crossed the Jordan); 5 :1 3 15 (Joshuas Vision); 6 :1 21 (Jericho taken
and destroyed); 2 4 :1 -2 8 (The Covenant at Sichern).

Judges
2 :1 1 23 (the cycle of disobedience, unfaithfulness and salvation); 6 :1 1 24 (vocation
of Gideon); 7 :1 22 (Gideons Victory); 16:431 (Samson).

12 Samuel
1 Sam 3 :1 21 (Samuels call and prophetic activity); 12:125 (Samuels farewell ad
dress); 1 6 :1 -1 3 (David anointed as king); 1 7 :1 -5 4 (David and Goliath).
2 Sam 7 :1 - 2 9 (Gods Covenant with David); 11 (David and Bathsheba); 1 2 :1 -1 5
(Judgment on David).

1-2 Kings
1 Kgs 3 :1 6 - 2 8 (Salomons Wisdom); 8 :1 -2 1 (Dedication of the Temple); 1 0 :1 -1 0
(the Visit of the Queen of Sheba); 1 2 :1 -3 3 (The divided Kingdom); 1 8 :1 -4 6 (Elijahs
sacrifice); 1 9 :1 -2 1 (Elijah on Mount Horeb); 21 (Naboths Vineyard).

134

2 Kgs 2 :1 - 1 8 (Elijah Ascends to Heaven); 5 :1 - 2 7 (The Healing of Naaman); 17:1

41 (The End of Israel); 2 2 :1 20 (Josiahs Reform); 2 5 :1 25 (The Exile).

Isaiah
2:15 (The Nations go up to the Lords mountain); 5:17 (the vineyard song); 6:1
13 (call o f Isaiah); 7 :1 0 -2 5 (Immanuel prophecy); 1 4 :3 -2 3 (again the king of Babylon);
2 5 :6 - 9 (a feast for all People); 4 0 :1 -1 1 (the new Exodus); 4 2 :1 - 9 (First Song: the
Servant of the Lord); 4 9 :1 - 6 (Second Song); 5 0 :4 -1 1 (Third Song); 5 2 :1 3 -5 3 ,1 2
(Forth Song); 6 1 :1 11 (the mission of the Prophet).

Jeremiah
1 :4 -1 0 (call); 2 :1 - 1 3 (infidelity of Israel); 7 :1 - 1 5 (oracle against the Temple); 12:1
2 0 :1 - 1 3 (Jeremiahs Confessions); 2 3 :1 - 8 (the true Shepherd); 3 0 -3 1 (the book of
consolation); 36 (Baruchs scroll).

Ezekiel
1:128 (vision); 2 8 :1 19 (prophecy against the Prince of Tyre); 3 4 :1 31 (against the
shepherds of Israel); 3 6 :1 6 38 (regeneration of Israel); 3 7 :1 14 (the dry bones);
4 7 :1 - 1 2 (the stream).

Hosea
1: 19 (a despised love); 2 :1 25 (infidelity and conversion); 11:111 (the love of God).

Joel
3 :1 5 (the out-pouring o f the Spirit)

Amos
2 :6 - 1 6 (oracle against Israel); 3 :3 - 8 (the Prophet and the Word o f God); 5 :1 8 -2 0
(the Day o f the Lord); 7 : 1 0 - 1 7 (Amos conflict with authority); 8 :4 - 8 (against greed).

Jonah: 14
Micah
3 :1 8 (oracle against the governors and the prophets); 5:15 (the coming of the
Messiah); 6 :1 8 (Israel on trial before God).

Habakkuk
1:12 :1 4 (before the oppressor the just live by faith).

Zephaniah
3 :1 1 - 1 7 (conversion o f Israel).

Zechariah
9 :9 - 1 0 (a just and humble Messiah); 1 4 :1 -2 1 (the Judgment).

Malachi
3 :1 -2 1 (the day of the Lord).

135

Step 5

%
%

The Structure and Content

of the Ketbm

Introduction

Welcome to the third section o f the Hebrew Bible referred to as Kctbm

(the Writings). From what you know about the Torh and the Nebfim
you can confidently approach this last part o f the Hebrew Scriptures.
After journeying through the first two parts o f the TaNaK, you have
understood the priority o f the Torh in Jewish life. T h e underlying
theological assumption is that the Prophets and the Writings are all to
be read looking backwards, in the light o f the Torh.
As you discovered in the Step 4, the prophetic ministry involved re
interpretation and application o f the Torh for various communities.
In the Kctbm we find the human response to the divine appeal.
Essentially they are a record o f Israels speaking to God: a cry o f de
spair; a supplication for help; a song of praise; a joyful thanksgiving; a
reflection about the radical problems o f the human life - suffering,
death, relationship.
As Murphy (2002, ix) explains, the Books we are going to explore in
this Step are exciting because they deal directly with life. Their con
cern is the present, how to cope with the challenges provoked by ones
immediate experience. For this reason, perhaps, they are very near to
us, as you will discover soon!

O ur M ap

Section 1: An Overview o f the Ketbm.

Section 2: Reflecting on Life
Section 3: Celebrating Life
Section 4: Confronting the Challenges o f Life

139

At the end o f Step 5 you will be able to:

S Discuss the Historical Background o f the Ketbm.
S List and classify the various books.
S Discuss their content.

140

Section 1
An Overview of the K tbm.

Brief Historical Context

T he Writings originate in the post-exilic period (from fifth to second

century B .C .E .) and they reflect the difficulties and the problems the
returnees had to go through in their readjustment exercise, under the
guidance o f priests, in the crisis posed by the apparent absence ofY H W H
from their political scene.
In the year 538 B .C .E ., Cyrus, king o f Persian, gave a decree that
permitted the exiles in Babylon to return to their homeland, Jerusalem.
T he re-establishment o f the former State o f Judah and the Davidic
dynasty, as promised in the prophecies o f Haggai and Zechariah was
never fulfilled. In fact, the whole Judean homeland was eventually re
duced to a province o f Judea (Ezra 5:8) in the Persian Empire and
continued to be dominated till the final fall. Even though the ruling
political power favoured the restoration program and supported it, Jeru
salem never recovered the glorious future in the vision o f Second Isaiah.

Classification

In the Hebrew Scriptures, the books that comprise the Ketbm are
arranged in the following order: Psalms, Proverbs, Job, Song o f Songs,
Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, Esther, Daniel, Ezra, Nehemiah, 1
2 Chronicles.
T h e book o f Psalms, which stands at the head o f the list, focuses
on issues o f divine justice, whereas 12 Chronicles, the last books, re

141

interpret the role o f the Davidic kings and portrays them as advocators
o f priestly Temple rituals. In between the Psalms and Chronicles we
have a collection o f literature that exhibit different genres and perspec
tives (develop many different themes).
Generally, the Writings express various religious, social and psycho
logical struggle of a covenant community living under foreign domi
nation (Harris 2 0 0 3 , 258). Ancient institutions in Judah, such as Tem
ple, cult and priesthood are revived. And Y H W H s purpose for the
covenant community is interpreted anew in the light o f the changed
circumstances. Preferred forms used include poetry, wisdom, lyrics, and
sacred history. Based on the literary form we can classify the books as
follows:
Group

Literary Genres

Psalms

Poetry

Song of Songs
Lamentations
Ruth

Short stories

Esther
Proverb

Wisdom

Job
Ecclesiastes
Daniel
Ezra-Nehemiah

Historical narrative

1 & 2 Chronicles

It is interesting to note the difficulty o f grouping the books o f the

Writings, as witnessed by the L X X which scattered them among the
Former and Later Prophets according to a historical-thematic order
(Burnette-Bletsch 2 0 0 7 , 240).
In recent time, different scholars propose diverse classification: lit
erary, thematic, historical, etc. O n our journey we shall follow a divi
sion based on a shared perspective. Section two will lead us to four
books that reflect on life: Psalms and three books classified as Wisdom
literature (Proverb, Job and Ecclesiastes).
Section three will put us in contact with texts that celebrate life, given
that they are normally read on the occasion o f the great Jewish feasts.

142

In the end, in section four, we shall explore Daniel, Ezra, Nehemiah,

and 12 Chronicles to find out how the Post-exilic community con
fronted the challenges o f life to affirm the true identity.
Books

Perspective

Psalms
Proverbs

Reflecting on Life

Job
Ecclesiastes
Songs o f Songs
Ruth

Celebrating Life

Lamentation
Esther
Daniel

Confronting the Challenges o f Life

Ezra
Nehemiah
1& 2 Chronicles

b d Activity
Read Job 1 and 46. W hat are the similarities and differences?

143

Section 2
Reflecting on Life

Psalms

Besides being at the head o f the Writings, they often stand for the
whole third section o f the Hebrew Canon (Luke 2 0 :4 2 ; Acts 1:20).
This can help us to understand their importance: countless genera
tions o f Jews and Christians appropriated the words o f the Psalms to
express their prayers and feeling.
T h e Psalter is a collection o f 150 texts, organized in five books at
the later stage o f its development ( 1 - 4 1 ; 4 2 - 7 2 ; 7 3 - 8 9 ; 9 0 -1 0 6 ; 107
150). T h e reason, probably, is the one suggested by the Midras Tehillim
on Ps 1: Moses gave Israel the Five Books, and David gave Israel the
five books o f Psalms.
A sign o f the composite nature o f the Psalter is seen in the two
psalms that open and close it. Ps 1 guides the reader to enter the Psalter
with the same loving attention devoted to the Torah. Ps 150 closes the
book inviting everything which has breath to praise the Lord.
T h e classification o f the Psalms is complex. Scholars propose differ
ent criteria: the heading (W ilson 1985); the content and the type
(Mowinckel 1962; Seybold 1990). Following the type-criterion, which
is widely accepted, we can list the following:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.

Hymns: Ps 8; 19; 29; 33; etc.

Royal Psalms: Ps 2; 18; 20; 21; etc.
Lament o f the Com munity: Ps 44; 60; 74; 79; etc.
Lament o f the Individual: Ps 3; 5; 6; 7; 13; etc.
Thanksgiving o f the Individual: Ps 30; 32; 34; 40; 4 1 ; etc.
Wisdom Poems: Ps 9; 10; 25; 34; 73; etc.
Psalms o f Ascend: Ps 1 2 0 -1 3 4 ; etc.
Historical Psalms: Ps 78; 105; 106; etc.

145

However, an attentive reading o f the different types reveals a common

feature: the Psalms are a dialogue with the Lord. Most o f the time the
Psalmist addresses the Lord directly in the second person: you . In the
dialogue every aspect o f human life emerges: the painful disparity be
tween the ancient promises and the concrete historical realities (cf. Harris
2 0 0 3 , 258); the experience if salvation, despair and hope, confession of
sins. For this reason, we can consider it the most influential book o f
the Bible, able to mould the liturgy o f Jewish and Christian commu
nity along the century (Seybold 1990, 2 1 3 - 2 4 6 ; Murphy 2000).

W isdom Literature

Though wise men span the whole spectrum o f the history o f Israel,
and their ideas are scattered in the whole o f the OT, it is only after the
return from the Babylonian exile that their voice became predominant
in Jewish history and life. W ithin the TaNaK, three books are generally
considered wisdom literature: Proverbs, Job and Ecclesiastes. Biblical
scholarship, however, acknowledges the presence o f wisdom ideas in
other books (Murphy 2002, 1 -5 ). For example, the book o f Psalms is
not considered per se as part of wisdom literature even though, as we
have already underlined, it includes Psalms that are classified as W is
dom Psalms, such as Ps 1, 32, 34, 37, 49, 7 3 ,1 1 2 , 128 (cf. Bullock
1988, 21; Murphy 2 0 0 2 , 1 0 3 -1 0 4 ).
As pointed out by Murphy (2002, 1-2)
the most striking characteristic o f this literature is the absence of what one nor
mally considers as typically Israelite and Jewish. There is no mention o f the
promises to the patriarch, the Exodus and Moses, the covenant and Sinai, the
promise to David.

Job, Proverbs, and Ecclesiastes deal with human experience, family life
and childrens education; prosperity and extreme sufferings; the appar
ent absence o f God and the problem o f evil in the world that the
covenanted people, who returned to Judah after the Babylonian exile,

146

experienced. In the face o f their deadly hardships, the Sages often ques
tioned the traditional spirituality: faithfulness to God leads to success
and unfaithfulness to doom. In addition, they also provided counsel
on how to live, offering different attitudes towards life: traditional wis
dom (Proverbs); steadfastness (Jo b ); scepticism (Ecclesiastes).
Proverbs provide a number of commonsense pieces of advice on pru
dent behaviour in life, in serving God so as to attain good life and
wellbeing. It seeks to raise the consciousness o f the believer to look
beyond the ordinary to the extraordinary, always with the understand
ing that life is Gods gift and is present in human life, waiting to be
encountered. Going to the mines o f truths in the Pentateuch, the au
thor o f Proverbs re-proposes them as lasting means to attain life to his
contemporaries. For example, Prov 21:21 says He who pursues right
eousness and loyalty finds life, righteousness and honour (Murphy
2 0 0 2 , 1 5 -3 2 ).
Job , on the other hand, offers a different portrait o f God and ques
tions his righteousness in the midst o f injustice and pain in the world
(Gutierrez 2003). W hile Proverbs speaks to man about man, Job speaks
to God about man (Bullock 1988, 65). Representing the human race
in the narrative, he appeals to the justice o f God to come to his aid
(Jo b 2 3 :1 -1 7 ), to explain the plight o f humans (Jo b 3 1 : 3 5 -3 7 ). In
the person o f Job, the author suggests an attitude a believer, confronted
with conflict in his or her life, should adopt: talk to God about your
problem, seek righteousness and he will answer you (Murphy 2002,
3 3 -4 8 ).
T h e book o f Ecclesiastes shares similar themes with Job by concen
trating on cosm ic injustice and the problem o f evil. Unlike Job,
Ecclesiastes has searched for happiness and enduring quality rather
than personal vindication (Bullock 1988, 178). He accepts the reality
o f pain and suffering in human life, and the world in general, but con
siders it vanity to seek for an answer from the Divine (Q oh 8 :1 6
17). In view o f the fact that human life is short, he urges all to live the
present moment fully (Q oh 3 :1 -8 ) and enjoy it as G ods gift (Qoh
3 :1 2 -1 3 ; cf. Wright 1991, 4 9 0 ). This is what scholars call practical
wisdom. Such wisdom is based on life experiences, aimed at helping
others to appreciate their lives as G ods gift (Murphy 2 0 0 2 , 4 9 - 6 4 ).

147

Activity

S Read Job 3 1 :3 5 - 4 0 ; Qoh 3 :9 - 2 2 and Prov 19:9; 2 0 :2 4 ; 2 1 :3 0

31.
S Compare and contrast their attitude towards life and God.

/ ^ / Sum m ary
In this section you have been introduced to:
a. the Psalter;
b. the three Wisdom books;
c. the perspective o f biblical wisdom.

148

Section 3
Celebrating Life

Introduction

T he Megilloth, which is sometimes referred to as the five festival scrolls,

is made up o f five short books, put together by the Massoretes. It was
designed for liturgical purposes. Each o f the five books is read aloud at
one or the other o f the five principal festivals in the Jewish religious
calendar (Bullock 1988, 20).

The Books in the M e g illo t h and the Festivals

on which they are Read

T he Jews, like other Semites, are a practical people who celebrate their
faith in Y H W H throughout the whole year. Some o f these celebrations
are prominent and therefore have a permanent place on their liturgical
calendar. Five o f such festivals and feasts are: Pentecost, Passover, Feast
ofTabernacles, Purim and feast o f the Ninth o f Av. Below are the books
and the feasts on which they are read.

149

Book
Ruth

Festival
Pentecost The harvest festival

Song of Songs

Passover The annual festival that commemorates the end

of slavery in Israel

Ecclesiastes

Feast o f Tabernacles or Feast of booths The autumn agricultural feast of Thanksgiving

Lamentation

Feast o f the Ninth ofA v(JulyAugust) Commemoration

of the destruction of Jerusalem Temple

Esther

Purim or Festival of Lots (Feb-M arch) The Celebration

of Jewish deliverance from Persian attack

T h e five books above differ not only in style but also in theological
content. We have already introduced Ecclesiastes in the context o f W is
dom Literature. In the pages that follow, we shall concentrate on the
other books in the Megilloth.
The book o f Ruth is an astonishing narrative, because it presents as a
heroine, a M oabite woman, belonging to one o f the greatest enemies
o f Israel (cf. Num 25; Deut 23:3). Some scholars argue that the story
was composed as a polemic against the rejection o f marriage to foreign
women in the post-exilic time, offering an alternative vision o f a more
inclusive Judaism. Those who regard the genealogical reference to David
authentic date the story back in Solomons time; others who postulate
a post-exilic setting, believe that the reference to David was added in
order to make acceptable the inclusion o f a Moabite woman in the
Scripture o f Israel (Burnette-Bletsch 2 0 0 7 , 262).
In later Jewish tradition the Book became associated with the Feast
o f Weeks, a festival celebrating the harvest and the gift o f the Law to
Israel. The traditional Jewish interpretation sees in Ruth the type o f a
religious convert, loyal to the God o f Israel (Burnette-Bletsch 2 0 0 7 ,
263).
W ith Collins (2005, 2 7 1 ), we think that the book has a didactic
aim, teaching that people who act with fidelity and compassion are
ultimately blessed by God, even if they have to endure difficult cir
cumstances for a while.
The Song o f Songs is a love story, a dialogue between lovers inter
spaced with a chorus, the daughters o f Jerusalem. T h e relevance given

150

to sexual themes, the erotic language and the total absence o f any refer
ence to God, makes one wonder how it could attain canonical status.
Two factors contributed to that: the connection with Solomon (1:1. 5;
3:7. 9. 1 1; 8 :1 1 -1 2 ) and the allegoric interpretation o f the text as cel
ebration o f the love between Israel and God. Rabbi Akiba defines the
book as the holy of holies among Scripture, and proclaims that the
whole word was not worth the day on which the Song o f Song was
given to Israel ( m. Yad. 3.5).
W hen the scroll is read in the liturgy on the eight day o f Passover,
the Jewish community is invited to reflect on Gods love for Israel as
manifested in the Exodus experience (Burnette-Bletsch 2 0 0 7 , 257259;
Collins 2 0 0 7 , 2 4 5 -2 4 7 ).
The book o f Lamentation is organized in five poems, which express
the grief, anger, humiliation, despair o f Israel after the fall o f Jerusalem
in 587 B .C .E . Among the many voices - the narrator, Sion (1:9. 1 1
16; 1 8 -2 2 ), a captive (ch. 3), etc. - one voice is notably absent: the
voice o f God.
T h e Jewish liturgy read this book on the Ninth o f Av, a day o f prayer
and fasting in which the community commemorates the many trag
edies suffered by the Jewish people, including the destruction o f the
Temple in 3 5 7 B .C .E and in 70 C .E . (Burnette-Bletsch 2 0 0 7 , 2 6 3
26 7 ; Collins 2 0 0 7 , 2 4 5 -2 4 7 )
The book o f Esther is a narrative written on the background of the
royal court o f Susa, the winter palace o f the Persian Emperor. Though
God is not explicitly mentioned in the book, his hidden presence lies
behind the whole story. In the final form, the book explains the origins
o f one o f the most popular festivals, Purim, when the Jewish comm u
nity celebrates her identity and the struggle to survive among Gentile
hostility (Burnette-Bletsch 2 0 0 7 , 2 6 7 -2 6 9 ; Collins 2 0 0 7 , 2 7 3 -2 7 6 ).

Activity
Read the entire book o f Ruth. W hat is the story about?

151

/ / Sum m ary
In this section you have learnt:
a. the content o f the books that make up the Megilloth;
b. the feasts on which each o f these books is read.

152

Section 4
Confronting the Challenges o f Life

Introduction

In this interesting section, you will study about life in the post-exilic
community o f Judah. T h e five books you will be dealing with are: D an
iel, Ezra, Nehemiah, 1 and 2 Chronicles. From different perspectives,
they present us with various aspects o f the life and difficulties o f the
post exilic Community.
T he Babylonian exile was a bitter experience for the Jews, where the
question o f G ods presence in their lives and in history was raised. Each
o f the five books in this division o f the Writings attempts an answer to
this fundamental issue.
The book o f Daniel appropriates prophecy and W isdom tradi
tion in apocalyptic terms to show the covenant com m unity that
Y H W H is still in control o f world events. It strongly emphasises Torh
observance as the only way o f life that leads to success and a fruitful
life.
Because 1 and 2 Chronicles, Ezra and Nehemiah treat almost the
same themes (genealogies o f priestly families, Temple liturgies, priestly
functions, and devotions to the Mosaic Laws) some scholars assign
them to the same author (cf. Harris 2 0 0 3 , 300; Yamauchi 1996, 5 7 4
579; Howard Jr. 1993, 237). T h e view is, however, disputed by many
modern scholars who instead suggest that Ezra and Nehemiah come
from the same hand, whereas 1 and 2 Chronicle represent a different
writer. T he scholarly debate is still alive and open! (Barton Payne 1988,
3 0 6 -3 0 7 )
Ezra and Nehemiah deal with the difficulties of the postexilic C om
munity and the reorganisation activities o f Nehemiah, governor over
Judah appointed by Emperor Artaxerses.

153

1 and 2 Chronicles reinterpret Israels history to promote Y H W H s

cult with ethical and ritual purity, emphasising the priestly function of
Davidic kingship.

Activity
Before proceeding, read chapters 1 and 2 o f Daniel from your
Bible.

T he Book o f Daniel

Daniel belongs to a literary genre known as Apocalypse, meaning rev

elation, or unveiling. Thus, an apocalypse deals with revelation o f events
ordinarily not accessible to human view or knowledge. It concerns the
invisible realm o f spiritual realities and the course o f events that lie in
the future.
T h e book o f Daniel was probably composed in the second century
B. C. E. during the heat o f persecution o f the Jews under Antiochus IV
Epiphanes, to give the people hope to the fact that Y H W H was still in
control o f world history, that he will overthrow all Gentile powers and
establish his rule over all creation. By this time the notion that proph
ets no longer spoke in the name o f Y H W H was well accepted in Israel
such that any writer who desired to communicate the understanding
o f G ods will to the people wrote under the name o f some important
personality o f the distant past (e.g. Enoch, Abraham etc.) in order to
make their teaching acceptable (Collins 2 0 0 7 , 2 7 8 -2 8 8 ).
Cast in prophetic form, it traces the history o f the Israelites from
the Babylonian exile to the Hellenistic era, stressing the issue o f keep
ing Jewish identity and Trh obligations. As Daniel dates to the same
period as the Deutero-canonical books, it shares in their general out
look - i.e., the crisis o f Judaism and Hellenistic assimilation.
Making use o f Wisdom insights, Daniel explores the mysterious
principles by which God rules the universe, seeking to learn the divine

154

will as communicated through natural phenomenon, human experi

ence and the arcane learning preserved in the religious books (Harris
2 0 0 3 ,3 1 6 ).
Though Daniel was not composed for 2 1 st century people, we share
the view o f Harris (2003, 324) when he writes: T h e books funda
mental themes remain relevant. Its picture of the deity firmly in con
trol o f earthly history, aiding the devout to survive adversity, and prom
ising the ultimate triumph o f life and faith over death and evil, make
Daniel an integral part o f the biblical heritage.

1 3 Activity
S At this point read chapters 1 and 2 o f Ezra from your Bible.
S W rite down the main issues in the text.

Ezra and Nehemiah

T he Jews who return to Jerusalem, following the decree o f Cyrus, did

not find life easy as they had to begin from the scratch to build on the
ruins o f Nebuchadnezzars devastation o f the land. They soon realised
that conditions were different from what they had hope for, on the
basis o f the visions o f the Second Isaiah (Isa 5 4 :1 -1 7 ). Furthermore the
prophecies o f Haggai (Hag 2:7) and Zechariah that the Davidic dy
nasty would be restored was never realised (Collins 2 0 0 7 , 2 2 0 -2 2 8 ) .
W hile the first six chapters o f Ezra focus on the difficulties the
returnees faced, the rest o f the book narrates the re-construction pro
gram put into place by the priest-scribe Ezra. T h e book o f Nehemiah
complements this narrative by first introducing Nehemiah as the ap
pointed governor o f the emperor to oversee the reconstruction (Neh
1 -7 ). Subsequent chapters narrate the promulgation o f the Torh (Neh
8 -9 ) and Nehemiahs zeal for enforcing Sabbath keeping (Neh 10
13).
1
1

155

The Chronicler History

T h e author o f 1 and 2 Chronicles retells Israels history from a priestly

perspective in which the postexilic priesthood could, as community
leaders, be viewed as logical successors to the Davidic kings. Opening
his revised history with extensive genealogy that links Adam with both
Levite priests and Davidic Kings, and concluding with Cyruss resusci
tating o f the Judean State, the Chronicler emphasises the continuity o f
his communitys past and present.
T h e Chroniclers primary intent is to insist that the nations mission
is to worship YH W H wholeheartedly and to demonstrate that the fail
ure o f later kings to honour the Jerusalem sanctuary led to the monar
chys collapse. This appears to be a way o f encouraging and arousing
the people to Yahwistic cult - a revival o f Levitical services (BurnetteBletsh 2 0 0 7 , 2 4 4 -2 4 8 ).
T h e book ends with Cyrus decree restoring the exiled Jews to their
homeland (2 Chr 36). T h e Hebrew Bible (TaNaK) in fact, concludes
with 2 Chronicles, calling for the return o f the Jews to Jerusalem, to
start a renewed relationship with their God.

^ / Sum m ary
In this section you have learnt:
a. what apocalyptic literature is;
b. the difficulties the Post-exilic community faced.

156

Test Yourself
1. How are the Writings different from the Prophets?
2. List the five books in the Megilloth and name the feasts on which
they are read.
3. Describe the situation o f the post-exilic community and the role
o f the leaders in the rebuilding process.

/ ^ / General Summary
In this Step you learnt about:
>
>
>
>

the
the
the
the

various books that make up the Writings;

five books o f the festival scroll and how they are used;
Wisdom books and their theological perspective;
life and difficulties o f the post-exilic Community.

To Know More ...

I. References
Crenshaw, J .L . (1 9 8 2 ; 1998; 52 0 1 0 ). Old Testament Wisdom. An Introduction. Lon
don: SCM Press Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox.
Dell, K .J. (2000). Get Wisdom, Get Insight: An Introduction to Israels Wisdom Litera
ture. London: Darton, Longman & Todd.
Estes, D .J. (2005). Handbook on Wisdom Books and Psalms. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker
Academic.
Flusser, D. (2009). Judaism o f the Second Temple Period. Vol. 2: Sages and Literature.
Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans.
Hunter, A .G . (2006). The Wisdom Literature. London: SCM.
Murphy, R. E. (21996). The Tree o f Life. An Exploration o f Biblical Wisdom Literature.
Grand Rapids, MI - Cambridge, UK: W. B. Eerdmans.

157

Perdue, L. G. (2007). Wisdom Literature: A Theological History. Louisville, KY: West

minster John Knox.
Perdue, L. G. (2008). The Sword and the Stylus: An Introduction to Wisdom in the Age
o f Empires. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans.
Weeks, S. (2010). An Introduction to the Study o f Wisdom Literature. T & T Clark
Approaches to Biblical Studies. London New York: T & T Clark International.

II. Biblical Anthology (Ska 2010)

Psalms
1; 2; 8; 16; 22; 23; 31; 36; 40; 4 2 ;4 3 ; 4 5 ; 4 9 ; 50; 51; 62; 72; 7 3 ; 89; 91; 100; 103;
104; 110; 114; 118; 121; 122; 126; 127; 130; 136; 137; 139; 150.

Job
1 -2 (Prologue); 3 :1 - 2 6 (Jobs Monologue); 1 6 :1 -1 7 :1 6 (The True God: Witness of
Job); 1 9 :1 -2 9 (Jobs Answer: God is the Redeemer); 2 8 :1 -2 8 (Hymn to Wisdom);
3 8 :1 - 3 9 :3 0 (First Speech of God); 4 0 :1 - 1 4 (The Challenge of God); 4 2 :7 - 1 6 (Epi
logue).

Proverbs
8 :1 2 - 3 6 (Appeal to Wisdom); 9 :1 - 6 (Lady Wisdom); 2 5 - 2 6 (The Second Solomonic
Collection); 3 1 :1 0 - 3 1 (The Ideal Wife).

Song o f Songs
1 :1 -1 7 (Dialogue between Lovers); 2 :8 - 1 7 (Springtime of Love); 3 :1 - 4 (Searching
in the Night); 8 :5 - 7 (The Mystery of Love).

Ecclesiastes
1:3-1 1 (Vanity of Wisdom); 3 :1 - 8 (Living the Present Moment); 1 2 :1 -7 (Poem on
Old Age).

Daniel
2 :1 - 4 9 (The Vision of the Statue); 3 :1 - 2 3 (The Three Men in the Furnace); 6 :2 - 2 9
(Daniel in the Lions Den); 7 :1 - 2 8 (Visions of Daniel); 12:14 (Resurrection).

Nehemiah
8 :1 - 1 8 (The Reading of the Law); 9 :1 - 3 7 (Confession of the People).

158

Step 6

Studying the TaNaK in Africa

Introduction

Welcome to the last Step o f our journey! In this chapter, you will be
guided to discover the relationship between our Continent, Africa, and
the biblical world, and the possibility o f reading theTaN aK with Afri
can eyes.
As you can see this Step brings you back home to read your reality
in the Word and the Word in your reality.

O ur M ap

Section 1 : Africa in the Old Testament

Section 2: Interpreting the Old Testament from an African Perspective
Section 3: Reading the Old Testament with African Eyes

In this section you will be introduced to:

S Africa and African presence in the TaNaK.
S Different approaches to African Biblical Hermeneutics.
S Different African readings o f an O T text.

161

Section 1
Africa and the Old Testament

Different scholars have given ample explanation to why many Africans

are attracted to the Old Testament (Kanyoro 1999; Dickson 1979),
but it appears little attention has been given to Africas contact with the
world and people o f Israel.
W hat was this contact like? And how does it contribute to the study
o f the O T in Africa? Such questions find their resonance and validity in
the scholarly view that any adequate study o f the O T must necessary take
into consideration the life and thought o f the peoples with whom Israel
came into contact (Adamo 1998; Holter 2 0 0 1 ; Dickson 1973; 1979).

Activity
Before proceeding, open your Bible and read:

S Gen 1 2 :1 0 -2 0 ; 4 2 :1 - 4 3 :3 4 : why did Abraham and Jacobs sons

go to Egypt?
S Jer 4 3 :1 7: why did Azariah andjohanan force Jeremiah and the
remnant o f Israel to fly to Egypt?

Presence o f Africa in the O T

W hat follows are a few references in the O T, where Africa and Africans
have come into contact with Jews.
Gen 1 2 :1 0 - 2 0 - Abraham migrated to Africa in search of food security.
Gen 3 9 :1 - 4 1 :5 7 " The sale of Joseph to an Egyptian master; Joseph a chief officer at
the Pharaohs court.

163

Gen 4 2 :1 4 3 :3 4 - The sons o f Jacob had to go to Africa (Egypt) to purchase food

during a famine in Canaan.
Gen 4 5 :2 8 - 4 6 - Jacob and his descendants settled in Goshen (Egypt).
Gen 4 6 :3 4 - Egypt offers security to Jacob and his family.
Exod 2 :1 - 1 0 - Education o f Moses, the liberator of the Israelites, in the house of
Pharaoh in Egypt.
2 Sam 18:2132 - A courageous Cushite, a military man in Davids army, delivers
news o f victory to him.
1 Kgs 10:113 " The Queen of Shebas visit to king Solomon to present to him
precious products of Africa.
Jer 4 3 :1 7 - Jeremiah was carried into Egypt by Jewish rebels after the assassination
of Gedeliah.
Jer 4 4 :1 14 - The word that came to Jeremiah for all the Judeans living in the land
o f Egypt, at Migdol, at Tahpanhes, at Memphis, and in the land of Pathros

All these references show that Africa was a home, a place o f security
and protection for the Jews for many years. Such relationship must not
be undermined in any authentic reading and interpretation o f the Jew
ish Scriptures in Africa.

Activity
Read Gen 2:13 and Ezek 2 9 :1 0 . Can you identify the land called

Kush?

Terms used to refer to Africa in the O T

Many terms are used in antiquity to refer to Africa. They include the
following: Wawat, Bush, Put, Magan, Meluhha, Kush and Ethiopia
(Adamo 1 9 9 8 ,9 - 2 8 ) .
In the TaNaK the most frequent is Kus (25x) - often translated as
Aithiopias in the L X X - followed by Pt (7 - Gen 10:6; 1 Chr 1:8; Jer
4 6 :9 ; Ezek 2 7 :1 0 ; 3 0 :5 ; 3 8 :5 ; Nah 3:9).
Kush is used in ancient Egyptian (kush, kash, or kesh), Assyrian (kusi,
kusu), and Hebrew (Ks) sources (Adamo 1998, 11). This underscores

164

its importance and suggests that the term probably passed from the
Egyptians to the Assyrians and then to the Jews.
T h e meaning o f the word is not clear. It is used for the land and
people o f southern Nile-valley, or Upper Egypt, extending from Syene
(Ezek 2 9 :1 0 ) indefinitely to the south. In the Hebrew Scriptures Ks
has been used in a dual sense: as a geographical location (Isa 11:11;
18:14; 5:14; Ezek 2 9 :1 0 ; Zeph 3:10; Job 2 8 :1 9 ; Esther 1:1; 8:9), or as
a collective name o f people with African descent (Cushite/s: 2 Sam
18:21; Isa 18:2; 2 0 :4 ; Jer 3 8 :6 - 1 4 ; 4 6 :9 ; Ezek 3 8 :5 ; Zeph 3:10).
It is interesting but also significant to note how the uncertainty
concerning the meaning o f the term, reflects in the different versions
o f the English Bible.
For example:
^ T h e Jerusalem Bible and The New International Version transliter
ate the Hebrew Ks to Kush.
^ King James Version, T h e American Standard Version and The Re
vised Standard Version translate Ks as Ethiopia.
> T h e Good News Bible translates Ks as Sudan.
In our opinion the above options are debatable on account o f the fol
lowing:
a. according to the basic principle o f translation - the translator must
avoid words which are not readily understood by the com m on
readers the word Kush is meaningless for a contemporary reader;
b. the identification of Ks as Ethiopia or Sudan is not faithful to a
term, that indicates the land indefinitely south, beyond the Nilevalley.
For this reason, together with Adamo (1998, 37), we think that a more
adequate way o f rendering Ks may be Africa. In addition, any racial
identification and discrimination will be avoided.

165

/ / Sum m ary
In this section you have learnt that in the O T times:
a. Africa was a home and a place o f security for the chosen people
o f Israelite;
b. the communication between Palestine and Africa were quite com
mon and frequent;
c. Africa is designated with different term: the most common in
the TaNaK is Ks, often translated as Aithiopias in the LXX.

166

Section 2
Interpreting the Old Testament
from an African Perspective

T he topic falls under the general theme o f African biblical hermeneutics.

As such an adequate exposition demands we first explain what African
biblical hermeneutics are, before discussing reading the TaNaK within
that framework.

W hat is African Biblical Hermeneutics?

Until the 1960s, biblical interpretation in Africa was done mainly from
the Western cultural point o f view, and the results passively learnt in
the Seminaries and theological Faculties o f the local Universities. A
shift occurred after this period, when many A frican interpreters
(Mushete 1976; Hegba 1976; Ela 1980; Bediako 1984; Dickson 1984;
Pobec 1992; Nyamiti 1994, Ukpong 1994; M biti 1994) began devel
oping models o f interpretation, with the objective o f inculturating the
Bible in a dynamic dialogue with the multiplicity o f cultures that char
acterise the African Continent. These different readings - which not
only lay emphasis on the African context, but also take it as the theo
retical framework for the analysis o f the biblical text - gradually came
to be denoted as A frican biblical hermeneutics.
African approach to biblical hermeneutics operates within the gen
eral framework o f biblical hermeneutics, namely, the art o f interpret
ing a biblical text in order to understand its original meaning and then
delineate its significance for the contemporary audience. Accordingly,
its primary task is to make the Word o f God life for contemporary
readers. Any authentic interpretation o f the Christian message, there-

167

fore, has to be actualised: the message must address the needs o f the
people dialoguing with the text, and ultimately influence their choice
in life (Osei-Bonso 2 0 0 5 ).
This way o f reading the Christian Scriptures is becoming very popu
lar in African biblical scholarship. Various terms such as adaptation,
indigenisation, incarnation, inculturation, or skenosis, have been used in
mission history to refer to the practice. In contemporary discussions the
term contextualization appears to be preferred (Bevans 1992, 2 1 -2 2 ).

Presuppositions of African Biblical Hermeneutics

T h e basic presuppositions on which African biblical interpretation and

theologising are based are twofold:
a. that the Bible is contextual;
b. that biblical message requests to be contextualized.

The Bible is Contextual

T h e God o f the Old Testament is a God involved in the daily life situ
ation o f his people, leading them to experience him in the events of
their lives (cf. the Exodus experience, narrated in the Torah). So also, in
the New Testament, Jesus entered into human history on a journey o f
progressive incarnation: in meeting him, we touch God tangibly. The
gospel narrative testifies to his involvement in the life o f his contempo
raries, expressed through his attention to their concerns and needs.
Paul also, as the other New Testament writers, wrote the Good News
o f Jesus Christ to help his communities to experience God concretely
in the situation in which they lived. These brief indications permit us
to see how Sacred Scripture is borne contextualized, and how the
same message arrives at us in different contexts (Imasogie 1983, 7).
In the Bible, context is not an abstract concept, but the concrete
life o f a people in a particular place and at a particular time. It is about

168

a group o f human beings and their story. Joy, sufferings, hopes and
despair, love and hatred... are elements o f the reality denoting con
text.
In brief, African biblical hermeneutics comes out o f a careful social
analysis. T h e social, economic, political, cultural, and religious envi
ronment, the history of the people... constitute the Tent in which
the Word lives among us (John 1:14). Discernment in this light helps
to see the negative and enslaving elements, and the positive prophetic
aspects that inspire genuine spirituality (Kalilombe 1994, 1 1 5 -1 3 5 ).

Activity

^ Read Acts 7 :2 -5 3 and 1 7 :2 2 -3 1 .

S W hat were the contexts in which Stephen and Paul preached?
How do the different religious and cultural contexts influence
the proclamation o f the Gospel?

Biblical Message Requests to Be Contextualised

Biblical tradition reveals how God has made him self known to the
people o f each generation. He initiated an intimate relationship with the
chosen people, through Moses and later through his Word spoken through
the prophets. At the appointed time, God spoke to humanity through
his own Son, Jesus (Heb 1 :1 -3 ). Before his ascension into heaven, Jesus
commissioned his disciples to continue his mission o f spreading the
Good News o f Gods presence in human life (M att 2 8 :1 9 -2 0 ).
In the light o f the foregoing, the Bible cannot be reduced to pieces
of information to be learnt. Instead, it reveals itself as a dialogue be
tween the living God and humanity (Sequeri 1998, 3 - 5 ) . It is a com
munication in which the whole person enters into an intimate rela
tionship with God, to learn to live his/her original vocation o f sonship,
discovering in the encounter with the Creator his original dignity.
In this unceasing dialogue resides the communicative potential o f
the Word of God, mediated through human words and culture: God
speaking to the heart o f human beings to transform their lives. Put in

169

other words, the Word o f God, whenever read, in whatever period and
moment, challenges the reader to make a fundamental option for a
better way o f living.
A presupposition of African hermeneutics is, therefore, that an Afri
can, in the moment in which he/she reads the Bible does not hear a
closed story, but reads his own life in dialogue with God.

Different Directions in Contextual Reading in Africa

Among the most characteristic approaches, we can list the following:

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

Interfaith approach,
Postcolonial approach,
Inter-cultural approach,
Comparative approach,
People based approach.

Interfaith or Multi-Faith or Comparative Approach

In this hermeneutic approach, the stress is on relation to other religions,
for example, African Traditional Religions and Islam. T h e Bible is not
used as a yardstick to judge the other religions, but as a dialogue partner
in the search for mutual enlightenment. Such a reading may be propi
tious in a religious pluralistic setting, and also contribute effectively in
promoting inter-religious dialogue (Ossom-Batsa 2 0 0 5 , 9 5 -1 0 1 ).

Postcolonial Approach
W hen the reading is inspired by the long history o f western colonialism
and imperialism, we have postcolonial approach (Maimela 1987). Post
colonialism saw many African nations in political and socio-economic

170

emancipation, fighting against neo-colonialism. A greater awareness

was being created among people for restoration o f African dignity freedom from oppression o f all forms to a dignified living - in the
Church as well.
In the attempt to forge a Christianity that responded to the needs
of the masses, particular attention was paid to the poor, the less privi
leged in society. This tendency resulted in the development o f African
liberation theology. T h e institutional comforts, the secure situation of
the privileged few and the appalling situation o f the masses, became
the cardinal point o f reference o f this approach (Ela 1994).

Cultural or Inter-cultural Approach

T he approach focuses on cultural context (Martey 2 0 0 6 , 8 3 -9 4 ; Okure
2 0 0 0 , 4 4 5 - 4 7 1 ) . T h e concepts present in the Bible and the tradition
are studied together, with the view o f each throwing more light on the
other. For example, miracle, discourse, reconciliation discourse, life,
death and resurrection, kingship, and healing, eschatology, to mention
but a few.
Such an approach appears to feature in the studies dedicated to Afri
can Christology, which try to view Jesus from an African perspective.
Among the many authors in this line we could name the following:
Nyamiti (1984), Bediako (1990), and Stinton (2004).

People Based or Community Approach

This approach is sometimes called popular reading. It is when ordinary
believers gathered in communities for Bible study and worship, to read
and apply the Bible to their lives. The traditional myths, fables, proverbs,
songs are valued as hermeneutic criteria for the interpretation o f the
biblical narratives. In this approach, the role of the community is essen
tial: as they appropriate the Word into their daily living, they gain more
insight, and their lives are transformed. M ost African Independent
Churches have their origins in this praxis (Nthamburi 2 0 0 2 , 1 8 -1 9 ).

171

|VJ Activity
Summarize in your own words the different approaches to Afri
can Biblical Interpretation.

African Interpretation o f the O T

in Com m unicative Perspective

In the precedent sections, we described biblical interpretation in Africa

and the various ways in which it is practised. W hat cuts across all the
different approaches, and in fact unite them, is focus on context, espe
cially the context o f the reader or interpreter.
In what follows we propose a reading from communicative perspective
(Ossom-Batsa 2 0 0 0 ,3 6 - 4 0 ) . It operates on a tri-partite level: adherence
to the biblical text, attention to the actions suggested in the text, contextualization o f the message o f the text in the context o f the interpreter.

Adherence to the Biblical Text

T h e communicative perspective implies due respect o f the biblical text
as an event o f communication. It insists on paying attention to the
linguistic and non-linguistic elements, as signals put there by the au
thor for his audience on his/her journey o f reading. Lack o f critical
reading or focus on all aspects o f the text does not lead to an informed
understanding. Furthermore, it stifles the communicative force o f the
text, an essential element in the interpretation.
N ot all contextual approaches in African hermeneutics, especially
people based ones, observe this rigorously. Reading from communica
tive perspective is an attempt to place the text in its unique position.
M aking use o f all the available exegetical tools, the composition and
structure o f the text is examined.

172

Call to Action in the Biblical Text

Studying the organisation o f the text and the communicative force o f
the different elements helps to highlight its functional organisation. In
other words, the actions suggested by the text to the implied reader
express the communicative function of the text (Gatti 2 0 0 7 , 2 5 -5 6 ).
Such an analysis has a consequence for the contextualisation. The
text is not made to say what the reader wants to hear. O ften, the temp
tation in African contextual reading is to read oneself, the socio-eco
nomic and political situation into the text and bend the text to suggest
an answer.
From the communicative point o f view, the reader is instead chal
lenged to read his or her life in the light o f the text, ultimately leading
to a transformed life in order to challenge his or her environment. The
understanding that comes out from the respect o f the text, the journey
o f the implied reader, becomes a call to action for the real reader. In
deed, it is this call to action that makes the Word o f God alive and
fruitful in the daily life o f the reader.

Context o f the Interpreter and Reader

From a communicative perspective, context is not the point o f refer
ence for the interpreter, but the frame within which the dialogue be
tween God and humanity takes place. T h e action suggested by the text
is the same, but its realisation is conditioned by the context o f the
community o f readers.
O nly at this point the experience o f the reader may lead him to see
more clearly certain aspects o f the text that may evade other readers
because o f their different experiences. An example may be, the impor
tance given to the healing narratives in a context where not everybody
has the opportunity o f basic medical care, or the relevance o f forgive
ness in an experience of armed conflict.

173

/ / Sum m ary
In this section you have learnt:
a. the meaning o f African Biblical Hermeneutic and its develop
ment;
b. the importance o f context in African Biblical interpretation;
c. some o f the most common approaches with special emphasis on
the Communicative Reading o f the Bible.

174

Section 3
Reading the Old Testament with African Eyes

In the preceding section you were introduced to some approaches schol

ars use to interpret the O T with African eyes. In the pages that follow,
we shall offer some concrete examples o f how these ways o f reading
have been applied to a particular text, yielding different results.
T h e text we have chosen is Gen 4 :1 -1 6 . It is an example o f a pericope
that African exegetes have interpreted using different approaches:
a. Cultural or Inter-cultural approach.
b. African Liberation theology.
c. Communicative perspective

Activity
Read Gen 4 :1 16. How does the text speak to your culture?

Cultural or Inter-cultural Approach:

Mukenge (1999) and Oduyoye (1984)

Mukenge (Congo) integrates the narrative method and the comparative

study o f Africa traditions, myths and proverbs. He reads Gen 4 :1 - 1 6
in the light o f an African traditional legend: the story o f Machilo e
Machilouan.
T h e two accounts have as a common focal point the acceptance o f
differences, made explicit in the proverb the fingers on the hand are
not all equal. Both intend to answer the same question: whether the
differences in roles, profession, success, etc., have to become the occa-

175

sion o f conflict. T h e answer o f the two texts is in the negative: it is

important to act well or in biblical terms to dominate sin, that as a
wild beast, is couching at the door (Gen 4 :7 ). It implies not desiring
to be the other - as some proverbs proposed by the author exemplify but upholding a new form o f justice in a way that the success o f Abel
can be perceived as blessing also for Cain.
Oduyoye (Nigeria) reads the biblical narrative as a foundational myth,
focalized on the conflict between nomads and sedentary people. The
discovery o f metal works (cf. Gen 4:2 2 ), with the consequent edifica
tion o f the city, rendered the agricultural culture dominant in respect o f
pasturing. Attraction to city life destroyed relationship with mother
earth. W ith the birth o f Seth (Gen 4 :2 5 ) God offers a new beginning:
the son Enosh will be freed from attraction to the city and follow the way
o f religious life, becoming the first worshiper o f Y H W H (Gen 4:2 6 ).
Oduyoye applies the text to the African continent where similar
conflict still exists. He writes: If today the blacks in Nigeria are inde
pendent, and the blacks in South Africa are suffering, it is because white
settlers (Qayin) arrived in the Cape in 1652 to compete with Zulu
cattle people, Qayin still kills Hebei

African Liberation Theology:

Boesak (1984) and M osala (1989)

Boesak (South Africa) intends to read the text with a community that
suffers and to create a bridge between the world o f the text and that of
the reader. In his interpretive journey, he underlines some key words:
a) Brother, its repetition emphasizes the seriousness o f the crime com
mitted.
b) Land: the term creates a link with the preceding chapters and indi
cates the destiny o f Cain. T h e inability to foster human relation
ships impedes also relation with the earth.

176

Contextualizing the text, Boesak indicates numerous connections:

a) T h e oppressors destroy any relationship with the created world and
humans: their destiny is non belonging, alienation.
b) T h e violent live in continuous anxiety, always afraid o f vindication.
This tragic story ended with a note of hope at the birth of a son. God
continues to dream o f a new beginning for humanity: After oppres
sion, murder, inhumanity, apartheid, and finally death - after all this,
God still wishes to begin all over again with us. T h e author deepens
this concept with two inter-testamental connections:
a) Like the sinner hanged on the cross (cf. Luke 2 3 :4 0 - 4 3 ) , Cain is
protected by God to have the possibility o f asking for pardon.
b) Through his death, Jesus annuls the cry o f vindication o f Lamech
with the offer o f forgiveness (M att 1 8 :2 1 -2 2 ).
Boesak asks if this type o f forgiveness is livable for his people: Is it
possible to transcend our present situation in South Africa? Can this
still happen? I do not know. I do not know how to tell Blacks in South
Africa to forgive seventy times seven times those who have seen their
own children shot and killed in the streets. Boesak concludes that if
with God everything is possible, even forgiveness that appears impos
sible can be the future.
T h e interpretation of another South-African scholar, Mosala, be
gins as a reaction to the proposal o f Boesak. Mosala believes that to
interpret a text, it is necessary to insert it in a historical moment and a
determined sociological context.
Following the common classification, he attributes the pericope to
the Yahwist source, and collocates it in the 10rh century (B .C .E .) dur
ing the reign o f David and Solomon. T h e socio-econom ic background
is seen in the transformation o f the agricultural economy from peasant
producers to large estate owners (2 Kgs 21).
According to the author, the function o f the text is, therefore, to
justify the appropriation of the land through the victimization of the
offender - Abel. T h e true victim, Cain, is criminalized: God is placed
on the side o f Abel, and the text manipulates the reader to assume the
perspective o f the dominant class.

177

Application o f the text to the concrete situation identifies the estate

holders, the W hites, with the oppressors; while the just struggle o f the
peasant farmers, the Blacks, is condemned as criminal.

Activity
Compare and contrast the four proposals: which o f them is more
relevant to your own context? Why?

Com m unicative Perspective

In the following paragraphs, we propose a reading realized with differ

ent groups o f students in an O T Theology course.

Adherence to the Biblical Text

After reading and translating the text from Hebrew, through a syntac
tic and semantic study we tried to understand how Gen 4 :1 - 1 6 func
tions, its internal structure and its relationship with the literary con
text (G en 1 -1 1 ). Using different com m entaries and articles, we
compared our interpretation with that o f the academic world in order
to comprehend the journey the author proposes for the reader.

Call to Action in the Biblical Text

T h e text reveals how the interpersonal relationship is a fundamental
anthropological dimension: God does not only create a person but also
the relationship among persons. The other is an inevitable presence,
to be welcomed as a brother or rejected as an enemy. Gen 4 :1 - 1 6 in
vites us to overcome the fear o f the other and embrace difference as an
opportunity and richness. T h e care for the other, in his or her unique

178

ness, re-establishes harmony and justice in a new perspective, such that

Cain could perceive the blessing o f Abel as his gift also (cf. Gen 50:20).

Context o f the Interpreter and Reader

In an attempt to read the text with Ghanaian eyes, we tried to under
stand how culture expresses relationship with God and the other,
through cataloguing and analysis o f a few proverbs in one o f the most
diffused local languages.
Having outlined how the Akan proverbs define relationship with
God and fellow human beings, we put culture and text in dialogue.
As a first step, we asked with what presuppositions the culture en
counters the text. From the discussions, interesting imputes emerged:
that the justice o f God is retributive; that correct performance o f ritual
sacrifices averts the anger and punishment o f the ancestors and inter
mediate spirits; that to be human is to belong to a community: I am
because we are; and since we are therefore I am (M biti 1994, 106).
As a second step, we analyzed how the text can challenge the cul
ture. We outlined three areas:
a) T h e aspect o f the gratuitous love o f God, his preference for the last,
could furnish a useful antidote for retributive justice. Incriminating
the poor, searching for the guilty - that often leads to the destruc
tion o f innocent lives - could give way to the certainty that God is
by our side, journeying with us towards inclusive development.
b) According to Gen 4 :1 - 1 6 , violence entered the world as result of
the inability to welcome otherness as a gift. T h e contact with a
God who values difference as constitutive part o f his own nature
may lead to the affirmation o f the individual and the right to be self
as richness for others.
c) T h e awareness that true identity is founded on God, and given by
him alone, could lead Africa to reconcile her past and forge forward
to confront the future from G ods perspective.

179

7 Sum m ary
In this last section you have learnt:
a. how using different approaches can lead to multiple reading o f a
biblical text;
b. how adherence to the biblical text could minimise excessive sub
jectivism;
c. the relevance o f the interplay between culture and the biblical
text.

J Test Yourself
1. Discuss the various translations o f the Hebrew term Ks in dif
ferent English versions o f the Bible.
2. Critically evaluate African Biblical Hermeneutics.
3. W hy do you think context is important in the interpretative pro
cess?

/ ^ / General Sum m ary

In this section you were introduced to:
> Africa and African presence in the TaNaK;
> different approaches to African Biblical Hermeneutics;
> different African readings o f an O T text.

180

To Know More ...

Adamo, T. D. (1998). Africa and the Africans in the Old Testament. S. Francisco
London: Christian University Press
Getui, M. - Holter, K. Zinkurative, V. (2001). Interpreting the Old Testament in

Africa. Nairobi: Acton Publishers.

Holter, K. (2001 ). Jahweh in Afi'ica. Essay on Africa and the OT. Bible and Theology in
Africa: 1. New York: Peter Lang Publishing
Holter, K. (2006). Let my People Stay! Researching the Old Testament in Africa. Nai
robi: Acton Publishers.
Kanyoro, M. (1999). Reading the Bible from an African Perspective. Ecumenical

Review 51, 1 8 -2 4 .
Ossom-Batsa, G. (2007) African Interpretation of the Bible in Communicative Per
spectives, Ghana Bulletin o f Theology 2, 91104.
Ukpong, S.J. Ed. (2006). African interpretation o f the Bible. A reader. Atlanta: SBL.
Yamauchi, E. M. (2004). Africa and the Bible. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House

181

General Conclusion

The traveller is one who knows

where he has reached
at any given moment.
(Krobo Proverb Ghana)

Step by step you have reached the end o f our Journeying with the Old
Testament. It has been a long and interesting journey a journey which
has helped you to know the Sacred Scriptures o f Israel.
T h e same Word that accompanied Israel during the Exodus, the
Babylonian exile and persecution, the period o f the reconstruction .. .has
began to establish a relationship also with you!
In Step 1, you encountered the world o f the TaNaK, space and time,
in which this Word became Scripture.
In Step 2, you followed the long process o f the formation o f the
different canons (TaNaK, LXX, etc.), the fruit o f inculturation o f the
Jewish Scriptures in different worlds.
In Steps 3 - 5 , you were able to study the TaNaK, becoming familiar
with the three parts that comprises it: Torah, Prophets and Writings.
Thanks to the Biblical Anthologies and the different activities, you
have come into direct contact with many biblical texts.
In Step 6, you have come to comprehend the long-standing rela
tionship between the Jewish Scriptures and our Continent, Africa, and
how it is possible to read the O T with African eyes.
Now, as you close this guide, the real journey begins! W hat you
have received is only a map which helped you to become familiar with

183

an ancient book, written in languages you do not understand and in

cultural contexts far away from yours, but that has profoundly im
pressed on human history and continues to be a Sacred text for mil
lions o f people across the world.
At the end o f each step, section To Know M o r e ..., you have listed
specialized works that may guide you to further exploration of a text
that is always new, always to be discovered__
Save Journey! And if this our guide has aroused in you the desire to
love and transform the O T in a permanent journey companion .. .then
we can say we have achieved our goal!

184

References List

Abrego de Lacy, J. M. (1996). Ilibriprofetici. Introduzione alio studio della Bibbia 4.

Brescia: Paideia.
Adamo, T.D. (1998). Africa and the Africans in the Old Testament. S. Francisco
London: Christian University Press.
Aharoni,Y. (1979). The Land o f the Bible. A Historical Geography. Philadelphia: West
minster.
Albright, W. F. (1957). Prom the Stone Age to Christianity: Monotheism and the His
torical Process. Garden City, New York: Johns Hopkins Press.
Barton, P.J. (1988). 1 and 2 Chronicles. Gaebelein, F.E. (Ed). The Expositors Bible
Commentary, 4. Grand Rapids: Zondervan.
Bediako, K. (1984). Biblical Christologies in the Context o f African Traditional
Religions. Samuel, V. Sugden, C. (Eds). SharingJesus in the two thirds world:

evangelical Christologies from the contexts o f poverty, powerlessness, and religious

pluralism. The papers of the First Conference of Evangelical Mission Theolo
gians from the Two Thirds World, Bangkok, Thailand, March 2 2 - 2 5 , 1982.
Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans.
Bediako, K. (1 9 9 0 ). Jesus in African Culture. A Ghanaian Perspective. Accra: Asempa
Publisher.
Bevans, B.S. (1992). Models o f Contextual Theology. Maryknoll, New York: Orbis
Books.
Blenkensopp, J.A . (1992). The Pentateuch: An Introduction to the First Five Books o f
the Bible. New York: Doubleday.
Blenkinsopp, J.A . (1991). History o f Prophecy is Israel. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic
Press.
Boesak, A.A. (1984). Black and Reformed: Apartheid, Liberation and the Calvinistic

Tradition. Johannesburg: Skotaville.

Bovati, P. (1994). Re-establishing justice: legal terms, concepts and procedures in the
Hebrew Bible. JSOT. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press.
Bovati, P. (2008). Cost parla il Signore. Studi sul Profetismo Bblico. Bologna: ED B.
Brueggeman, W. (1998). Isaiah 1
39. Westminster Bible Commentary, Louisville:
Westminster John Knox Press.
Brueggemann, W. (1997). Theology o f the Old Testament. Testimony, Dispute, Advo

cacy. Minneapolis: Fortress Press.

Brueggemann, W. (2003). An Introduction to the Testament: The Canon and Christian
Imagination. Louisville London: Westminster John Knox Press.

185

Bullock, H. (1988). An Introduction to the Poetic Books. Moody Press: Chicago.

Burnette-Bletsch, R. (2007). Studying the Old Testament. A Companion, Nashville:
Abingdon Press.
Carroll, P. (1 9 8 6 ). The Book o f Jeremiah, Old Testament Library, London: SCM
Press.
Chapentier, E. (2000). How to Read the Old Testament. Mumbai: St. Paul.
Clines, D. (1997) The Theme o f the Pentateuch. JSOTSup. 10. Sheffield: Sheffield
Press.
Collins, J .J . (2007). A Short Introduction to the Bible. Minneapolis: Fortress Press.
Coogan, M. D. (2006). The Old Testament: A Historical and Literary Introduction to
the Hebrew Scriptures. New York Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Cook, E .J. (2006). Hear o f Heavens and Listen o f Earth. An Introduction to the Proph

ets. Collegeville: Liturgical Press.

de Vaux, R. (1965). Ancient Israel. Its Life and Institution. London: Darton, Longman
& Todd.
Dickson, K. (1973). The Old Testament and African Theology. Ghana Bulletin o f
Theology AtA. 1 -1 7 .
Dickson, K. (1979). Continuity and Discontinuity Between the Old Testament and
African Life and Thoughts. Appiah-Kubi, K. - Torres, S. Eds. African Theology
En Route. Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books.
Dickson, K.A. (1984). Theology in Africa. London: Darton, Longman and Todd.
Ela, J.-M . (1980). Le cri de l'homme africain. Paris: Librarie-Editions lHarmattan.
Ewald, H. (1864). Geschichte des Volkes Israels bis Christus. OTS 33. Gttingen: ln der
Dieterichshen buchandlung.
Fohrer, G. (1972). History o f Israelite Religion. Nashville: Abingdon Press.
Freedman, D .N . (1967). Pentateuch. IDB 3. Nashville: Abingdon Press. 7 1 1 -7 2 7 .
Fretheim, T. E. (1996). The Pentateuch. Nashville: Abingdon.
Friedman, R .E . (1987). Who Wrote the Bible? New York: Harper & Row.
Fuller, R. C. (1969). The Old Testament Canon. Fuller, R. C. - Nelson, T. (Eds). A

New Catholic Commentary on Holy Scripture. Nashville New York: Inc Pub
lishers 2 9 - 3 1 .
Gatti, N . (2 0 0 7 ) ...perch il piccolo diventi Jratello. La pedagoga del dialogo nel

cap. 18 di Matteo, T. Greg 146, Roma: Editrice Pontificia Universit Grego

riana.
Getui, M. - Holter, K. - Zinkurative, V. (2001). Interpreting the Old Testament in
Africa. Nairobi: Acton Publishers.
Getui, M. Obeng, A. E. (Eds). (1999). Theology o f Reconstruction. Exploratory Es

says. Nairobi: Acton.

Gillinghman, S. E. (1998). One Bible, Many Voices: Different Approaches to Biblical
Studies. London: SPCK.
Gitay, Y. Ed. (1997). Prophets and Prophecy. Semcia Studies. Atlanta: Scholars Press
1997.

186

Gutirrez, G. (1987). On Job. God-Talk and the Suffering o f the Innocent. Maryknoll,
New York: Orbis Books.
Harris, S.L. (2003). Understanding the Bible. Boston: McGraw Hill.
Harrison, R. K. (2004). Introduction to the Old Testament, Including a Comprehensive

View o f Old Testament Studies and Special Supplement on the Apocrypha. Peabody:
Hendrickson Publishers.
Hayes, J. H. - Miller, J. M. (1990) Israelite andJudean History. London: SCM - Phila
delphia: Westminster.
Hegba, M. P. ( 1976). mancipation d Eglises sous tutelle: essai sur Terepost-missionnaire.
Paris: Prsence africaine.
Hirsch, E. D. (1967). Validity in Interpretation, New Haven: Yale University Press.
Holter, K. (2001 ).Jahweh in Africa. Essay on Africa and the OT. Bible and Theology in
Africa: 1. New York: Peter Lang Publishing.
Holter, K. (2002). Old Testament Researchfor Africa A Critical Analysis and Annotated

Bibliography o f African Old Testament Dissertations, 1967-2000. Bible and Theo

logy in Africa: 3. New York: Peter Lang Publishing.
House, P. R. (1994). Canon of the Old Testament. Dockery, D. S. - Kenneth, A. M.
Eds. Foundations for Biblical Interpretation. Nashville: Broadman & Holman
Publishers.
Howard, D .M . Jr. (1993). An Introduction to the Old Testament Historical Books.
Chicago: Moody Press.
Imasogie, O. (1983). Guidelines for Christian Theology in Africa. Achimota: African
Christian Press.
Kalilombe, P.A. (1994). Spirituality in the African Perspective. Gibellini, R. Ed.

Paths o f African Theology. Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books. 115135.

Kessler, R. (2008). The Social History o f Ancient Israel. An Introduction. Minneapolis:
Fortress Press.
La Verdiere, E.A . (1971). Introduction to the Pentateuch. Collegeville: Liturgical Press.
Leclerc, L.T . (2007). Introduction to the Prophets. Their Stories, Sayings, and Scrolls.
New York: Paulist Press.
Maimela, S.S. (1987). Proclaim Freedom to my People. Johannesburg: Skotaville.
Martey, E. (2006). Christological Foundations of the New Testament and Contem
porary African Christology. Ghana Bulletin o f Theology 1/1. 8 3 -9 4 .
Mbiti, J.S . (1994). The Bible in Africa Culture. Gibellini, R. (Ed). Paths o f African

Theology. Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books. 2739.

Mbiti, J.S . (2004). The Role of the Jewish Bible in African Independent Churches.

International Review o f Mission. 93, 2 1 9 - 2 3 7 .

Merrill, E.H . (1991) A Theology of the Pentateuch. Zuch, R. B. (Ed). A Biblical

Theology o f the Old Testament. Chicago: Moody Press, 787.

Mosala, I. J. (1989) Biblical Hermeneutics and Black Theology in South-AJrica, Grand
Rapids: Eerdmans.
Mowinckel, S. (1962). The Psalms in Israel's Worship. Nashville: Abington Press.

187

Mukenge, A .K . (1999). Gn 4 , 1 - 1 6 dans le context african, in J.-M . Auwers A. Wnin, (Eds). Lectures et relectures de la Bible, Festschrift P.-M. Bogaert. BEThL
146. Lueven: Lueven University Press. 4 2 1 441.
Murphy, E. R. (2000). The Gift o f Psalms. Peabody: Hendrickson.
Murphy, E. R. (2002). The Tree o f Life. An Exploration o f Biblical Wisdom Literature.
Grand Rapids Cambridge: Eerdmand.
Mushete, A .N . (1976). Christianisme et authenticit. Le Monde Moderne 12, 4 1 -5 9 .
Nielson, K. (1978). YHWH as Prosecutor and Judge: An Investigation o f the Prophetic
Lawsuit (Rib-Pattern), JSO T Sup., 9. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press.
Nissinen, M. (2003). Prophets and Prophecy in the Ancient Near East. Atlanta: Society
of Biblical Literature.
Noth, M. (1966). The Old Testament World. London: Adam & Charles Black.
Noth, M. (1972). A History of Pentateuchal Tradition. New York: Prentice-Hall.
Nthamburi, Z. (2002). Biblical Hermeneutics in the African Instituted Churches.

AICMAR Bulletin 1. 1 5 -3 0 .
Nyamiti, C. (1984). Contemporary Christologies: Assessment and Practical Sugges
tions. Gibellini, R. Ed. Paths o f African Theology. Maryknoll, New York: Orbis
Books. 6 2 -7 8 .
Nyamiti, C. (1994). Christ as Ancestor: Christologyfrom an African Perspective. Gweru:
Mambo.
Obeng, E. (2001). Emerging Concerns for Biblical Scholarship in Ghana. Getui,
M. - Maluleke, T. - Ukpong, J. (Eds). Interpreting New Testament in Africa.
Nairobi: Acton.
Oduyoye, M. (1984) The Sans o f God and the Daughters o f Men: An Afro-Asiatic

Interpretation o f Genesis 111, Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books.

Okure, T. (2000). I will open my Mouth (Matt 13:35). A Case for Gospel Based
Biblical Hermeneutics. N TS 4 6 , 4 4 5 - 4 7 1 .
Osei-Bonso, J. (2005). The Inculturation o f Christianity in Africa. Antecedents and
Guidelinesfrom the New Testament and the Early Church. Frankfurt/Main: Peter
Lang.
Ossom-Batsa, G. (2001). The Theological Significance of the Root Sivb in Jeremiah,

Auss 39, 2 2 3 - 2 3 2 .
Ossom-Batsa, G. (2007) African Interpretation of the Bible in Communicative Per
spectives, Ghana Bulletin o f Theology 2, 9 1 -1 0 4 .
Pobee, J.S . (1992). Skenosis: Christian Faith in an African Context. Gweru: Mambo
Press.
Rendtorff, R. (1990). The Problem o f the Transmission o f the Pentateuch. JSOT. Shef
field: Sheffield Press.
Rogerson, J. - Davies, R. P. (2005). Old Testament World. London: T & T Clark Inter
national.
Sawyer, J.F. A. (1993). Prophecy and the Biblical Prophets. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.

188

Schneiders, S. M. (2011). The Lamb of God and the Forgiveness o f Sin(s) in the
Fourth Gospel. CQ 7 3 / 1, 1 -2 9 .
Sequeri, P. (1998). La struttura testimoniale delle Scritture Sacre. Angelini, G. La
rivelazione attestata: la Bibbia tra contesto e teologa. Milano: Glossa.
Seybold, K. (1997). Introducing the Psalms. Edinburgh: T & T Clark.
Sicre, J .L . (1995). Profetismo in Israele, Roma: Borla.
Ska, J.-L . (1998). Introduzione alia lettura del Pentateuco. Chiaviper Iinterpretazione
deiprimi cinque libri della Bibbia. Bologna: EDB.
Ska, J.-L . (2000). Piccola Antologa Bblica. Retrieved February 18, 2011 in <www.
biblico.it/doc-vari/ska_antolbibl.htm>.
Ska, J.-L . (2001). La structure du Pentateuch dans sa forme canonique. ZAW 113,
3 3 1 -3 5 2 .
Soggin, J. A. (1984). A History o f Israel. From the Beginnings to the Bar Kochba Revolt,
AD 135. London: SCM.
Stinton, D .B . (2004). Jesus ofAfrica: Voices o f Contemporary African Christology. By
Faith and Cultures Series. Maryknoll, N .Y.: Orbis.
Trebolle Barrera, J. (1998). The Jewish Bible and the Christian Bible: An Introduction
to the History o f the Bible. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans.
Ukpong, J.S . (1994). Christology and Inculturation: A New Testament Perspec
tive. Gibellini, R. (Ed). Paths o f African Theology. Maryknoll, New York: Orbis
Books. 4 0 61.
von Rad, G. (1966). The Form-Critical Problem of the Hexateuch. The Problem o f

Hexateuch and other Essays. New York: Oliver &c Boyd.

Weinfeld, M. (1977). Ancient Near Eastern Patterns in Prophetic Literature. VT
27/ 2, 1 7 8 - 1 9 5 .
Wellhauser, J. (1866). Die Composition des Hexateuchs und der historischen Bcher des
Alten Testaments. Berlin: Georg Reimer.
Wenham, G .J. (1998). Genesis 1-15, W B C 1, Dallas, Texas: Word Books, Publisher.
West, G. Dube, M. W. (2000). The Bible in Africa: Transactions, Trajectories, and
Trends. Oslo: Brill.
Whybray, R. N. (1987). The Making o f the Pentateuch: A Methodological Study. JSOT.
Sheffield: Sheffield Press.
Whybray, R .N . (1995). Introduction to the Pentateuch. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans.
Wilson, G. H. (1985). The Editing o f the Hebrew Psalter. Chico, CA: Scholars Press.
Wright, A .G . ( 1991) Ecclesiastes. Brown, R. E. - Fitzmyer, J.A. - Murphy, R.E.
Eds. The New Jerome Biblical Commentary. London: Geoffrey Chapman.
Yamauchi, E. M. (1988), Persia and the Bible. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House.

189

DAS

ALTE

TESTAMENT

IM

DIALOG

an o u t l i n e of an ol d t e s t a me n t d i a l o g u e
H erausgegeben von / edited by
M ichael Fieger & Sigrid H odel-H oenes
Diese Reihe will den w issenschaftlichen D ialogzw ischen dem A ltenT estam ent
und b en ach b arten Fchern frdern. Im M ittelpunkt des Interesses stehen
der weit verzw eigte D ialog zu m N euen T estam ent sow ie die w echselseitige
Beziehung m it den H um anw issenschaften, die durch die V ielschichtigkeit
des Alten T estam ents hervorgerufen wird. D azu gehren neben d erT h eologie,
A n th ro p ologie und Ethik auch G ebiete wie Psychologie, Pdagogik, S o zio lo
gie, k on om ie, G eschichtsschreibung, M usikw issenschaften und S p rach for
schung. Aber auch zu naturw issenschaftlichen Fragen wie beispielsw eise in der
M edizin gibt es einige w ichtige Bezugspunkte.
In diese in tern ation al ausgerichtete Reihe w erden sow ohl M on ograp h ien
und Tagungsbnde als auch D issertationen und H ab ilitatio n en in
deutscher, englischer, italienischer und ru m n isch er Sprache au fg en o m
m en. Ein w ichtiges Anliegen ist es, dass sich die Bnde nicht au s
schliesslich an Fachleute richten, sondern ein e breitere w issenschaftlich in
teressierte Leserschaft ansprechen.

This series intends to p ro m o te and stim u late th e scientific d ialogue betw een
the O ld T estam ent and its interrelated subjects. The interest is focused on the
New T estam ent and its relationship w ith the h u m an sciences. In ad d ition to
theology, an th ro p o lo g y and ethics and aside from areas relating to p sych o
logy, pedagogy, sociology, eco n o m ics, historiography, m usic and linguistics,
there are so m e im p o rtan t p oin ts o f reference to scientific questions, including
m edicine.
This in tern ation al series will publish n o t on ly m o n o g rap h s and con feren ce
volum es but also theses and dissertations in G erm an, English, Italian and
R om an ian. O f vital im p o rtan ce is the desire th at these volu m es address
them selves n o t exclusively to specialists, but to the general interested reader.

B a n d /V o l. 1

M ich a e l F ie ger & S ig rid I lo d e l-I lo e n e s

D e r E in z u g in gy p ten .
Ein B e itra g z u r a ltte sta m e n tlic h e n Jo se fsg e sc h ic h te .
2 0 0 7 . IS B N 9 7 8 -3 -0 3 9 1 1 - 4 3 7 - 5 .

Vol. 2

M ic h a e l U fo k U d o e k p o
R e -th in k in g th e D a y o f Y IIW II a n d R e sto r a tio n o f F o rtu n e s
in th e P r o p h e t Z e p h a n ia h .
A n E x e g e tica l a n d T h e o lo g ic a l S tu d y o f 1 :1 4 - 1 8 ; 3 :1 4 - 2 0 .
2 0 1 0 . IS B N 9 7 8 - 3 - 0 3 4 3 - 0 5 1 0 - 5 .

Vol. 3

Jin -M y u n g K im
H o lin e s s & P e rfe c tio n : A C a n o n ic a l U n f o ld in g o f L e v iticu s 19.
2011. IS B N 9 7 8 - 3 - 0 3 4 3 - 0 5 8 0 - 8 .

Vol. 4

M ic h a e l F ie g e r & J rg L a n c k a u (H r s g .)
E r sc h a ffu n g u n d Z e r st r u n g d e r S c h p fu n g .
E in B e itra g z u m I'h e m a M y th o s.
2 0 1 1 . IS B N 9 7 8 - 3 - 0 3 4 3 - 0 4 7 9 - 5 .

Vol. 5

N ic o le tta G a tti & G e o r g e O s s o m - B a t s a

Jo u r n e y in g w ith th e O ld T e sta m e n t.
2011. IS B N 9 7 8 - 3 - 0 3 4 3 - 1 0 0 6 - 2 .

This b o o k is an in tro d u cto ry study o f the O ld T estam en t and it is based

o n the lesson taught for m an y years by the au th ors in tw o different U n i
versities in G hana. It is an interactive and didactic w ork th at provides an
innovative ap p ro ach to th e study o f th e H ebrew Bible. T hrough reading
selected passages from th e Bible and d o in g reco m m en d ed exercises as a
m ean s o f reinforcing w h at has been learnt, th e reader will achieve a good
know ledge o f the O ld T estam en t and will acquire the capability o f rea
ding and in terpreting further texts. Each ch ap ter begins w ith a presen tati
on o f a m ap o f th e journey, the objectives to be achieved, a su m m ary and
a final section th at helps the stud ent to evaluate h is/h e r co m p reh en sio n .
This b o o k is also a con textu alized text. T he last ch ap ter is ded icated to the
O ld T estam en t in Africa and the relationship betw een the African C o n ti
nent and th e Bible, giving the reader th e possibilities o f acq u irin g skills to
in terpret the Old T estam en t from A frican perspectives.

N icoletta Gatti

holds a Licentiate in Biblical Sciences from the Ponti

fical Biblical Institute (R o m e) and a Ph.D in Biblical T h eology from the

G regorian U niversity (R o m e). She is a Lecturer o f Biblical Studies in the
D epartm ent o f Biblical and Church Historical Studies, School o f Theology
and Missions, Central University College (D ansom an - G hana). Her research
interest focuses on the intercultural and pragm atic ap p ro ach to the Bible.

G eorge O ssom -B atsa

ob tain ed a Licentiate in Biblical Sciences from

the Pontifical Biblical Institute (R o m e ), a Ph.D in Biblical T heology from

th e G regorian Llniversity (R o m e) and a M Phil in M issiology from the
sam e Institu tion. I Ie is a Senior lectu rer o f Biblical Studies in th e D ep art
m en t for th e Study o f Religions, U niversity o f G h ana (Legon - G h an a) and
his m ain research interest is in intercultural and p ragm atic ap p ro ach to
the Bible.