Caledonian College Of

Engineering

Mohammed Khalifa
Alkhodhouri
ID:130683

MSc Maintenance Management

[ Coursework
II: Renewable
energy Case study]
Energy Audit and Energy Asset
Management
Module Code: MMH213159

Contents
Contents1
Preface..2
Abstract3
Acknowledgment.4
1. Introduction..................................................................... 5
1.1 Problem Identification............................................ 5
1.2 Objective................................................................ 5
2. LITERATURE SURVEY.............................................. 6
2.1 Wind Energy........................................................... 6
2.2 Factors Affecting Wind Speed.6
2.3 Wind Turbines..6
2.4 How Wind Turbines Work? .....................................7
2.5 Wind Turbines Aspects 7
2.6 Wind Pumps..8
2.7 Wind Capacity Credit...8
2.8 Wind Farm................................................................ 9
2.8.1 Site Selection.9
2.8.2 Sizes of Wind Farms.9
2.8.3 Wind Park Effect.9
2.8.4 Types of Wind Farms..10
2.8.5 Cost of Grid Connection.10
2.8.6 Preliminary Layout Design of Wind Farms11
Technical Issues Related to Wind Turbines12
Issues Related to Wind Turbine Protection System...14
Wind Data and Site Selection.15
5.1 Wind Data15
5.2 Site Selection.15
AVERAGE DAILY REQUIREMENTS AND PEAK DEMAND..17
6.1 Load Profile.17
6.2 Peak Demand18
SIZE AND COST OF WIND TURBINES..19
7.1 Design.19
7.2 Cost......20
7.3 Total cost of wind.21

REFERENCES....................................................................24

Preface
I have chosen to write about wind energy in Oman because it is a new
technology coming in the world and because of a prediction of fuel reduction. The
introduction talks about the history of wind energy technology in the Oman. Also, it
states the future industry market of this technology. The main body talks about the
types of wind turbines, their effects and costs. In the conclusion, a comparison of fuel
cost and net present value of different types of wind turbines.

Abstract
This course work is aimed to find the prospects of wind energy utilization for
decentralized applications in Qairoon Hariti at Dhofar region in Sultanate of Oman.
The economic comparison for small power applications is made between different
types of wind turbines at the selected location.
Different types of wind turbines are used for evaluating the economy of wind
energy. The main propose of the course work is to find the savings done by wind
energy in reducing the fuel consumption of the generators.
The study has shown that wind turbines can be economically used as fuel
savers in the selected site. Installing wind turbines with diesel generators reduces the
levelized cost of energy of the system since the fuel consumed by the generators is
reduced.

Acknowledgement
First of all, I would like to thank the Almighty Allah. At the same time, I wish
to thank my advisors Dr. Farokhi Shahab and Prof. Joseph for their supervision and
help during course work. I would like to thank my colleagues in energy audit course
for every moment spent to interchange information in order to finish my course work.

Introduction
1.1 Problem Identification
In the last few years, many companies in the world started to integrate
renewable energy as a partial replacement of fossil fuels such as gas and oil for
electricity generation. Countries took initiations about renewable energy because the
awareness of oil and gas reserves depletion and the increase of their cost as they are
depleting.
One of this renewable energy that countries have started to implement is the
wind energy which can be converted into electrical energy using wind turbines. At the
end of 2008, 121.2 GW of electricity was produced from wind energy which is equal
to 1.5% of worldwide electricity usage [1].

1.2 Objective
The objective of this document is to find and verify the economic feasibility of
wind energy for electricity a specific area in Oman.

LITERATURE SURVEY
2.1 Wind Energy
Wind energy is an indirect form of solar energy. It is estimated that 1% to 3%
of the solar radiation that reaches the earth is converted in the atmosphere into wind
energy. Wind is created by the uneven heating of the atmosphere. This creates high
and low pressure in the atmosphere. Air moves from high pressure to low pressure
creating the winds that circulate the earth. The term wind energy describes the process
by which the wind is used to generate mechanical or electrical energy.

2.2 Factors Affecting Wind Speed

There are many factors affecting the wind speed such as the pressure gradient
which is the difference in air pressure between two points in the atmosphere. This
means that the greater the difference, the faster the wind will flow. Also, it is affected
by the Rossby waves which are strong winds in the upper troposphere and local
weather conditions such as hurricanes, monsoons and cyclones [1].

2.3 Wind Turbines

Wind turbines are systems that convert wind energy into electrical energy. The
components of Wind turbines are composed of different parts which are,

Hub. The higher the hub height, the higher the wind power is transferred to

the rotor but also the higher the cost.

Rotor which usually have three blades. A large rotor diameter captures more

energy but costs more.

Nacelle which houses the gear box and the generator.
Tower which supports the nacelle and the rotor
Control panels
Transformer to step up the generated voltage
Power electronics to convert dc electricity to AC electricity.

There are three aspects to wind turbine systems which are size, type, and
suitability for particular sites. Large turbines have a variety of problems such as the
6

rotor weight, their complexity, very high initial capital costs and uncertain structural
life. There are also difficulties in transporting, installing and maintaining wind
turbines with rotor sizes around 60 meters in diameter.

2.4 How Wind Turbines Work?

When power is transferred from the wind to the rotor, the blades starts to turn
and therefore spins the shaft. This shaft is connected to an electrical generator which
converts the wind energy to electrical energy. A gear box is installed on the same shaft
before the generator to control the speed of the rotation.

2.5 Wind Turbines Aspects

There are three aspects to wind turbine systems which are size, type, and
suitability for particular sites. Large turbines have a variety of problems such as the
rotor weight, their complexity, very high initial capital costs and uncertain structural
life. There are also difficulties in transporting, installing and maintaining wind
turbines with rotor sizes around 60 meters in diameter. There are two main types of
wind turbines which are the horizontal axis (HAWT) and the vertical axis (VAWT)
[7].
The VAWT turbine has blades that spin in a vertical axis instead of a
horizontal axis this gives it an advantage of accepting winds from all directions.
However, the main disadvantage of a VAWT turbines is that they are not self-starting
and do not generate electricity at a constant rate. Also, electricity generated by VAWT
turbines is less than electricity generated by HAWT turbines as they are installed in
the same area of land. Type of a VAWT turbine is the egg-beater style turbine which
has its generator and control devices on the ground which makes them easy to reach
[8].
Propeller-style turbine which is a type of HAWT turbines that requires
equipment that senses the wind direction and turn the turbine to face the direction the
wind coming from.

Utility-scale turbines range in size from 100 kilowatts to as large as several

megawatts. Larger turbines are grouped together into wind farms, which provide bulk
power to the electrical grid.
Single small turbines, below 100 kilowatts, are used for homes,
telecommunications dishes, or water pumping. Small turbines are sometimes used in
connection with diesel generators, batteries, and photovoltaic systems. These systems
are called hybrid wind systems and are typically used in remote, off-grid locations,
where a connection to the utility grid is not available. The efficiency of the wind
turbines vary with the locations they are located on.

2.6 Wind Pumps

A wind pump is type of wind energy conversion systems in which wind energy
can be converted into mechanical energy. When constructing a wind pump, the bladed
rotor needs to be matched to the pump. There are different types of wind pumps such
as Cambered plate bladed rotor wind pumps which are still manufactured in countries
such as the United States. Wind pumps require little maintenance compared to other
types of pumps and their efficiency depends on the type of bladed rotor.
Wind pumps can be classified according to different categories which are:

Type of transmission
Type of pump that is driven by the rotor
Level of technology.

2.7 Wind Capacity Credit

Wind capacity credit is the amount of conventional resources that could be
replaced by the renewable production, without making the system less reliable [9].
There are number of factors that can affect the capacity credit of wind which are:

Penetration of wind power

Average wind speed

Degree of system security

Aggregated capacity factor
Demand and wind correlation

2.8 Wind Farm

8

A wind farm is a group of wind turbines that are located on the same area to
produce electrical power. A large wind farm consists of hundreds of wind turbines and
covers large area of about hundreds of square miles. This large area can also be used
for agriculture purposes.
2.8.1 Site Selection
There are many factors that need to be considered when selecting a site for
constructing a wind farm to check if the selected land is suitable or not. These factors
are:

2.8.2

Average wind speed which is the most important factor

Proximity to natural obstructions such as hills or forests
Suitability of land for supporting the foundations for the turbines
Altitude. Wind speed increases as the altitude of the wind turbine increases.
Easy access of the site
Sizes of Wind Farms
The size of a wind farm depends on many factors which are ground

conditions, finance available and wind resources.

2.8.3

Wind Park Effect

This effect is simply the mutual interference between wind turbines which

leads to losses in the wind turbines outputs. Therefore, spaces between each wind
turbine should be large enough to minimize output losses.

2.8.4

Types of Wind Farms

Wind farms can be classified into three types which are:

Onshore where wind turbines can be installed on hilly regions and it is usually
3 Km or more away from the nearest shoreline.

Near shore where wind turbines can be installed on land or water and these
sites are between onshore and offshore. These sites are good sites because of

wind produced by convection due to differential heating of land and sea.

Offshore where wind turbines are installed on sea with about 10 Km or more
from land. In offshore the wind speed is higher compared with onshore and
near shore but it is more expensive to install wind turbines. Offshore
foundation is more expensive to build and they require more maintenance and
protection from corrosion. Also, transferring the generated electricity from the
wind farm to the land is more expensive.

2.8.5

Cost of Grid Connection

The cost of grid connection can be divided into two costs which are the cost of
electrical installation of the wind farm and the cost of connecting it to the grid. The
cost of electrical installation may depend on

Equipment's prices
Technical requirements
Distance between turbines
Size of the wind farm

The cost of connecting to the grid will mainly depend on the distance between the
wind farm and the grid to be connected to. The larger the distance between the wind
farm and the grid the larger the costs since long transmission lines are required.

2.8.6

Preliminary Layout Design of Wind Farms

Before designing a wind farm there are some constraints that need to be identified
which are:

Maximum installed capacity

Minimum spaces between turbines as it is mentioned by the manufactures
Site boundary
Environmental constraints

10

Technical Issues Related to Wind Turbines

The operation of wind turbine has an impact on the power quality of the
connected grid. Depending on the grid configuration and the type of wind turbine
used, different power quality issues may arise [10]. Figure 3.1 shows the classification
of different power quality phenomena occurs in the wind system.
Power Quality
11
Flickers
Voltage

Harmonics
Frequency

Transients Interruption
Voltage
Variations

Figure 3.1: Classification of Different Power Quality phenomena

First of all, if the wind turbine is operating at fixed speed with the Squirrel
Cage Induction Generator connected directly to the grid, the wind speed variation will
result in fluctuating power. Therefore, voltage fluctuation occurs because of output
power of wind turbines varies most of the time. This power fluctuations cause voltage
variations on the grid which may cause disturbances to consumers. However, this
problem con be eliminated by introducing wind turbines with controllable power
factor to reduce the voltage fluctuations [11]. The fixed speed Squirrel Cage Induction
Generator consumes reactive power and cannot contribute to voltage control. To
overcome with this problem Static capacitor control is used to provide the reactive
power.
The second problem which may occur is the harmonics problem and
especially in the variable-speed wind turbines with Doubly Fed Induction Generator
and the variable speed wind turbine with Synchronous Generator which cause

harmonic voltages that may affect equipment or disturb consumers. Harmonics can
cause increased currents, power losses and overheating in equipment. Depending on
the type of inverter used different harmonics are produced [10]. These harmonics can
be reduced using filters which mean an increase in cost. The most two common types
of inverters used are the line-Commutated and forced commutated ones. These two
types of inverters produce two different harmonics and to get rid of these harmonics a
special type of filter is needed called a grid filter. One advantage of a grid filter is that

12

it produces a reactive power. The production of the reactive power increases the
power factor of the wind turbine generator system.
The third problem in the wind system is transient problem.Transients seem to
occur mainly when wind turbines are started or stopped. The variable speed wind
turbine with Doubly Fed Induction Generator presents some difficulties to ridethrough voltage dips, because voltage dip generate high voltages and currents in the
rotor circuit and the power converter could be damaged .Voltage dip in the wound
turbine system can be avoided with a soft-starter. A sudden wind rise or wind drop
will affect the power balance and it will cause a variation in the frequency. This
problem could be solved by using sophisticated variablespeed wind turbine with
Doubly Fed Induction Generator with a back-to-back converter in the rotor and hence
frequency balance is improved.
The fourth problem which may also available in the wind-diesel system is the
flicker. Flicker is an old way of quantifying voltage fluctuations. This method is based
on measurement of variations in the voltage amplitude, the duration and magnitude of
the variations. The fluctuations are classified by two different filters. One filter
corresponds to the response of 60 W light bulbs and the other filter corresponds to the
response of human eye and brain [12].

Issues Related to Wind Turbine Protection System

Wind turbine protection should provide for under voltage, overvoltage, under
frequency, over frequency and over current. Due to overload and short circuit the
wind turbine protection system relays disconnect the turbine from the grid within 5
seconds in the event of a voltage level lower than 90 % or exceeding 106 % of
nominal voltage and the frequency deviations exceeding 1 Hz. When there is a
13

reduction in the active and reactive power supplied to the grid the Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT) inverter is used for both control of active and reactive power
supplied to the grid and to reduce harmonic distortion [13]. In case of stability
problem the state reactive power compensator (STATCOM) and dynamic braking
resistor (DBR) were used to improve the stability of a large wind farm [14].
When a short circuit fault takes place in some location in the grid, the voltage
on the faulted phases will be zero. Due to the low impedance of transmission circuits
a large voltage will decrease across large areas on the transmission system until the
fault is cleared by the opening of circuit-breakers [15].
When there is overload in the grid, for instance at forced outage of a line, the
grid operator will ask the wind farm to rapidly reduce its power output and the power
reduction will continue while the external protection signal is active. If the protection
signal disappears, the power will be kept at the value in the instant the protection
signal is disabled [15].

Wind Data and Site Selection

5.1 Wind Data
Wind data measurements are carried out by Directorate General of Civil
Aviation & Meteorology at 21 stations and wind data is measured at 10 m above
ground level. The data shows that high wind speeds are found along the coast from
14

Masirah to Salalah and the highest wind speeds are in the Dhofar Mountain Chain
north of Salalah [2].

Qairoon
Hariti Harirti

Thumrai
t

Masirah
At 10 m

Duq
m

Mathur
a

Figure 5.1: Annual Mean Wind Speed in Some Sites

Figure 5.1 shows the wind data measurements of five stations with the highest
wind speeds at Qairoon Hariti. Wind speed is usually higher during summer when
power demand is also higher.

5.2 Site Selection

The best location for locating a wind turbine is on top of a hill where air moves up
a hill quicker than it moves down a hill. Also, wind turbines have to be located away
from any obstacles such as houses and trees.

The selected site of this project is Qairoon Hariti which is in Dhofar region. This
site was selected according to different factors which are:

Availability of Land: In all the selected sites there are large areas that are
enough to locate number of wind turbines away from any residential buildings
or trees which can form obstacles against air movements towards wind

turbines. Also, constructing a wind farm in the selected places can be possible.
Wind Resource: Metrological data on wind speed of the selected sites in 2008
shows that the average wind speed is above 5 m/s except in Qairoon Hariti
15

where the average wind speed is 4.9 m/s which is close to 5 m/s. These
average wind speeds of those selected sites are considered to be reasonable for

wind turbine installation.

Grid Connection: The selected site is considered as remote location which is
not connected to the Main Interconnected System (MIS). The selected site is
powered by the Rural Area Company which uses diesel generators. Wind

turbines can be installed in this site to save fuels used to run these generators.
Interference: The wind turbines are not expected to cause any interference

problems to telecommunications in this site.

Accessibility: Since wind turbines are large in size, they require cranes and
large trucks to install them in the site. Therefore, there is an easy access to this

site.
Regulations: Rural area companies and Authority for Electricity Regulation of
Oman promote installing such projects in rural areas.

AVERAGE DAILY REQUIREMENTS AND PEAK DEMAND

Half of the generated electricity is mainly used in domestic consumption while
the other half is consumed equally between the commercial sector and the government
administration. Also, a small percentage of the generated electricity is consumed by
the industrial sector.
6.1 Load Profile

16

The load profile of a weekday varies between 0.6 p.u to 1 p.u while in a
weekend it varies between 0.7 p.u to 1 p.u.
A typical weekday load profile of Qairoon Hariti is shown in Figure 6.1.
Weekday Load Profile
30
25
20
Power Demand (p.u)

15
10
5
0

Time (Hours)

Figure 6.1: A typical Weekday Load Profile of Qairoon Hariti.

A typical weekend load profile of Qairoon Hariti is shown on Figure 6.2.

17

Weekend Load Profile

30
25
20

Power Demand (p.u)

15
10
5
0

Time (Hours)

Figure 6.2: A typical Weekend Load Profile of Qairoon Hariti

6.2 Peak Demand

Table 5.1 shows the monthly average peak demand and that the maximum peak
demand occurs in April.
Table 5.1: Monthly Peak Demand of Qairoon Hariti
Month

Jan

Fe
b

Ma
r

Ap
r

Ma
y

Jun Jul

Au
g

Se
p

Oct

No
v

Dec

Peak
Dema
nd
(MW)

1.
5

1.6 1.7

1.7
5

1.7
8

1.8

1.
8

1.7
9

1.7
8

1.7
4

1.6
8

1..5
5

18

SIZE AND COST OF WIND TURBINES

7.1 Design
There are two factors that contribute to the size of the wind turbine which are:

The amount of wind energy available

The amount of energy needed

Different wind turbines from different manufactures and different rated power
were used for the selected site to see which type and which is more economical for
installing wind turbines. The wind turbines are from different manufactures. Table 7.1
provides the wind turbine characteristics.
Table 7.1: Wind Turbines Characteristics
Wind
Turbine
FL250
E33
Vesta 100
Vesta 82
HW77
GE 1.5sl
PGE25
FL 30
FL 100
WES 5
Tulipo
SW Sky
Stream 1.8

Rated
Power
(kW)
250
330
1800
1650
1500
1500
25
30
100

Cut-in
speed
(m/s)
2
2
3
3
3
4
4
3
3

Cutout
speed
(m/s)
25
25
24
25
19
25
25
23
25

50 or 42
50
95
80
50
100
25
30
35

Rotor
diameter
(m)
29.5
33.4
100
82
29.5
77
25
13
21

2.5

25

30

1.8

3.5

25

33.5

3.7

Hub height
(m)

The hub height of some of the wind turbines can come in two different height values
for example FL 250 can be either 42 or 50 m.

19

7.2 Cost
The cost of a wind turbine can be divided into three different costs which are the

capital cost or the initial cost and it is the total installed cost of that

component at the beginning of the project

replacement cost which is the cost of replacing a component at the end of its

life time
operation and maintenance cost is the cost of maintaining the wind turbine

These costs values vary from one wind turbine to another according to the amount
of power generated by each wind turbine.
Table 7.2 provides the capital cost of wind turbines roughly assumed as 1600 US$
per kW. Since the study period is considered 20 years and the life time of the wind
turbines is also 20 years, the replacement cost of wind turbines will be zero.
Operation and maintenance cost of a wind turbine is assumed to be 1% of the
capital cost.
The capital and operation and maintenance cost are shown on Table 7.2.
The cost values shown on Table 7.2 were calculated for one wind turbine only.
Table 7.2: Cost of Wind Turbines
Wind Turbine
FL250
E33
Vesta 100
Vesta 82
HW77
GE 1.5sl
PGE25
FL 30
FL 100
WES 5 Tulipo
SW Sky Stream
1.8

412,500
528,000
2,880,000
2,640,000
2,400,000
2,400,000
40,000
48,000
160,000
4,000

Operation &
Maintenance Cost
(US$)
4,125
5,280
28,800
26,400
24,000
24,000
400
480
1,600
40

2,880

28.8

Capital Cost
(US$)

20

7.3Total cost of wind

In Qairoon Hariti, the economic analysis shows that

installing Vesta 100 in the system saves more fuel compared to

the other types of wind turbines for almost same penetration
level as it is shown in Figure 7.1. Vesta 100 saves more fuel
because of its higher output power. This decrease in fuel
consumption leads to a reduction in the fuel cost and therefore
reduction in the total net present cost of the system as it is
shown on Figure 7.2. Therefore Vesta 100 is selected to be
installed to carry out the economic analysis in Qairoon Hariti as
the most economical fuel saver among the other types of wind
turbines.

Fuel Cost Comparison

35
30
25

Fuel Cost (Million $)

20
15

GE (1500kW)
Vesta 82 (1650kW)
Vesta 100 (1800kW)
HW77 (1500kW)

10
5
0

Figure 7.1: Fuel Cost Comparison for Different Types of Wind

Turbines

21

Total Net Present Cost for Different Types of Wind Turbines

48
47
46
45

Total Net Present Cost (Million $)44

Vesta 82 (1650 kW)

GE (1500 kW)
HW 77 (1500 kW)
Vesta 100 (1800 kW)

43
42
41
40

Figure 7.2: Total Net Present Cost for Different Types of Wind
Turbines

As the best fuel saver, the renewable fraction of the Vesta 100
system is increased by increasing the number of wind turbines used.
Numbers of analysis are carried out for Vesta 100 at different
renewable fraction to verify which system is more economical. The
analysis is carried out for 1, 3, 5, 10 and 20 (Vesta 100) wind
turbines system.
Increasing the number of wind turbines leads to more
reduction in the fuel cost as it is shown in Figure 7.3, whereas high
number of wind turbines increases the capital, operation and
maintenance cost of the system as it is shown in Figure 7.4.
Therefore, an optimum balance is needed between these costs.

22

Fuel Cost Comparison

60
50

Diesel Only
1 Wind Turbine

40

3 Wind Turbines
5 Wind Turbines

Fuel Cost (Million $) 30

10 Wind Turbines
20 Wind Turbines

20
10
0

Figure 7.3: Fuel Cost Comparison for Different Number of Vesta

100 Wind Turbines

Total Capital, Operating and Maintenance Costs Comparison

80
70

1 Wind Turbine

60

3 Wind Turbines

50

5 Wind Turbines
10 Wind Turbines

Net Present Cost (Million $) 40

15 Wind Turbines

30

20 Wind Turbines

20
10
0

Figure 7.4: Capital, Operating and Maintenance Costs Comparison

Figure 7.5 shows the V curve of the levelized cost of energy
verses the number of Vesta 100 wind turbines selected for the
sensitivity analysis. It is clear from Figure 7.5 the optimum number
of wind turbine to be installed in Qairoon Hariti is 5 wind turbines of
Vesta 100 with a levelized cost of 0.105 US$/kWh. At this levelized
23

cost of energy, the wind-diesel hybrid system is economical than the

diesel system which has a levelized cost of energy of 0.148
US$/kWh.
Levelized Cost of Energy Vs Number of Wind Turbines
0.25
0.2
0.15

Levelized Cost of Energy ($/kWh)

0.1
0.05
0
1

5 10 15 20

Number of Wind Turbines

Figure 7.5: Levelized Cost of Energy Comparison for Different

Number of Vesta 100 Wind Turbines

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25

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ESTIMATION

OF

EXTERNALITY

GENERATION FROM

COSTS

OF

ELECTRICITY

COAL: AN OH-MARKAL EXTENSION

DISSERTATION Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements forth

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26