CHAPTER 11

CHAPTER 11

Folds and folding

Folds are eye-catching structures occurring in

practically any rock type, tectonic setting and
crustal depth. They have been recognized and
explored since long before geology became
a science (Leonardo da Vinci discussed them
some 500 years ago). Our understanding of
folds and folding has changed over time, and the
fundament of what is today called modern fold
theory was established in the 1950s and 60s.
Folds, whether observed on the micro-, macroor meso-scale, are clearly some of our most
important windows into the local and regional
strain and deformation history of the past. Their
geometries and expressions carry important
information about the type of deformation,
kinematics and tectonics of an area. Besides,
they can be of great economic importance, both
as oil traps and in the search and exploitation of
ores and other mineral resources.

Geometric description

Axial trace

We can learn much about folds and folding by

performing controlled physical experiments and
numerical simulations, but modeling must always
be rooted in observations of naturally folded rocks.
Before going into a discussion about how folds form
we need to be able to describe their geometry and
occurrence accurately.

a)
Axial trace
Bisecting angle

1.1.1 Single fold structures

A fold is, as shown in Figure 11.1, made up of a
hinge that connects two usually differently oriented
limbs. The hinge may be sharp and abrupt, but more
commonly the curvature of the hinge is gradual,
and a hinge zone is defined. The point of maximum
curvature of the folded layer is located in the hinge
zone and is called the hinge point. Hinge points are
connected in three dimensions by a hinge line. The
hinge line is commonly found to be curved, but where
it appears as a straight line it is called the fold axis.
The axial surface, or axial plane when
approximately planar, connects the hinge lines of
a folded layered rock. The axial trace of a fold is
the line of intersection of the axial surface with the
surface of observation (e.g. the surface of an outcrop
or a geologic section). The axial trace connects hinge
points on this surface. Note that the axial surface does
not necessarily bisect the limbs (Figure 11.2b).
Folds with straight hinge lines are cylindrical
(Figure 11.3a). A cylindrical fold can be viewed as
a partly unwrapped cylinder where the axis of the
cylinder defines the fold axis. At some scale all folds
are non-cylindrical, since they have to start and end
somewhere, but the degree of cylindricity varies from
fold to fold. In many cases folds look cylindrical
at a certain scale of observation, for instance in an
outcrop (Figure 11.4). Such cylindricity has important
characteristics that can be taken advantage of. The
most important is that the poles to a cylindrically
folded layer define a great circle, and the pole (-axis)
to that great circle defines the fold axis (Figure 11.5a).

Figure 11.1 Geometric aspects of folds.

a)

Fo

ld

axi

Cylindrical fold

Hinge line

b)

Non-cylindrical fold

Figure 11.3 Cylindrical and non-cylindrical fold geometries.

e lin

Hing

face

d
Hinge Fol
s
axi
e
n
o
z
e

Hing

Limb

Amplitude
Wavelength

n lin

tio
flec

In

ge
Hin

zon

ac
e

Lim

Interlimb
angle

Traces of
bisecting surfaces

rf

point

41

Figure 11.2 a) Boxfolds have two sets of axial surfaces. b) The

bisecting surface, i.e. the surface dividing the interlimb angle in two, is
not necessarily identical to the axial surface.

l sur

Axia

su

Inflection

b)

pi
ng

41

el
o

Hinge poin

Axial trace

nv

1.1

geology

Structural

Folds

Upright

Horizontal inclined

Upright 80o Steeply

inclined

Horizontal

and folding

Dip of axial surface

60o

Moderately
inclined

30o Gently
inclined

10o

Recumbent

Gently
plunging

10o

Figur 11.4 Cylindrical folded granite dike in

amphibolite.

Moderately
plunging

Plunging inclined

60o
Steeply
plunging

Plunging
upright

Plunge of hinge line

30o

80

Reclined

When great circles are plotted

Figure 11.6 Classification of folds
based on the orientation of the hinge
instead of poles, the great circles to a
line and the axial surface. Based on
cylindrically folded layer will cross
Fleuty (1964).
Vertical
in a common point representing the
fold axis, in this case referred to as
antiforms. An antiform is a structure where the limbs
the -axis (Figure 11.5b). This method can be very dip down and away from the hinge zone, whereas a
useful when mapping folded layers in the field but synform is the opposite, trough-like shape (Figure
also works for other cylindrical structures, such as 11.8b-c). Where a stratigraphy is given, an antiform is
corrugated fault surfaces.
called an anticline where the rock layers get younger
A fold is described by the orientation of its axial away from the axial surface of the fold (Figure 11.8e).
surface and hinge line (Figure 11.6). Furthermore, Similarly, a syncline is a trough-shaped fold where
folds can be characterized by their opening or interlimb layers get younger toward the axial surface (Figure
angle, which is the angle enclosed by its two limbs. 11.8d). Returning to Figure 11.6, we can have upright
Based on this angle folds are separated into gentle, or plunging synforms as well as antiforms. We can
open, tight and isoclinal (Figure 11.7).
even have recumbent synclines and anticlines,
Most of the folds shown in Figure 11.6 are because their definitions are related to stratigraphy
and younging direction. The terms recumbent and
.
vertical antiforms and synforms have no meaning.
Imagine a tight to isoclinal recumbent fold being
refolded during a later tectonic phase. We now have a
set of secondary synforms and antiforms. The younging
direction across their respective axial surfaces will
depend on whether we are on the inverted or upright

limb of the recumbent fold, as shown in Figure 11.8h.
a)

Isoclinal
30-0

b)

Figure 11.5 Measurements of bedding around a folded conglomerate

layer. a) Poles to bedding plot along to a great circle. The pole to this
great circle (-axis=106/15) represents the fold axis. b) The same data
plotted as great circles. For a perfectly cylindrical fold the great circles
should intersect in the point (-axis=106/15) representing the fold axis.
Data from a natural fold (Fossen 1988).

Gentle
180-120

Open
120-70

Tight
70-30

Figure 11.7 Fold classification based on interlimb angle.

Structural

geology

Class 1 folds

Stratigraphy
unknown

a)

Monocline

dip
isogon

1B

1A

b)

Synform

c)

22

22

1C

Antiform

Stratigraphy known, = younging direction

Class 2 folds

d)

f)

Syncline

Synformal
anticline

e)

g)

Anticline

h)

Synformal
antiform

Class 3 folds

Anticline

Figure 11.9 Ramsays (1967) classification based on dip isogons.

Dip isogons are lines connecting points of identical dip for vertically
oriented folds.

Antiformal
syncline

be doubly-plunging. Large doubly-plunging antiforms

can form attractive traps of oil and gas in fact they
form some of the worlds largest oil traps. When the
non-cylindricity is pronounced, the antiform turns into
a dome. Similarly, a strongly non-cylindrical synform
is called a basin.
A monoclinal fold is a fold with only one (dipping)
limb and is mostly used about map-scale structures
related to reactivation of underlying faults or

Anticline

Syncline

Antiformal
syncline
Synformal
anticline

Figure 11.8 Basic fold shapes. The bottom figure illustrates how
various types of syn- and antiforms may occur in a refolded fold.

Class 1A

1.0

1B

t'A

ss
la

1B

Class 1C

We now need new terms, synformal anticline and

antiformal syncline, to separate the two cases (Figure
11.8f-g). A synformal anticline is an anticline because
the strata get younger away from its axial surface.
At the same time, it has the shape of a synform, i.e.
it is synformal. Similarly, an antiformal syncline is
a syncline because of the younging direction, but it
has the shape of an antiform. Technically, a synformal
anticline is the same as an anticline turned upside
down, and an antiformal syncline looks like an
inverted syncline. Confused? Remember that these
terms only apply when mapping in polydeformed
stratigraphic layers, typically in orogenic belts.
As already stated, most folds are non-cylindrical. A
non-cylindrical upright antiform is sometimes said to

1A

1C

0.5

0.0
0

Class 3

45

Dip of isogons

90

Figure 11.10 Fold classes plotted in a diagram where normalized layer

thickness is plotted against dip of the folded surface. t is the local
layer thickness divided by the layer thickness in the limb.

Folds

Cl

1B

ass

Amplitude

Class
3

a)

Class
3

ass 1B
Cl

Shape categories
B
C
D

and folding

b)

Figure 11.11 Alternating class 1B and 3 folds are commonly seen in

folded layers. Competent layers exhibit class 1B geometry.

differential compaction of the subsurface. (Figure

11.8a)

Figure 11.13 Fold classification based on shape. From Hudleston

(1973).

Some folds have layers that maintain their thickness

through the fold, while others show thickened limbs
or hinges. These, and related features, were explored
by the British geologist John Ramsay, who classified
folds geometrically by means of dip isogons. By
orienting the fold so that its axial trace becomes
vertical, lines or dip isogons can be drawn between
points of equal dip on the outer and inner boundaries
of a folded layer. Dip isogons portray the difference
between the two boundaries and thus the changes
in layer thickness. Based on dip isogons, folds can
be classified into three main types (Figures 11.9 and
11.10):

thickness, while 1C folds have slightly thinned limbs.

Class 2 and, particularly, class 3 folds have more
pronounced thin limbs and thickened hinges.

Folds are also classified according to shape.

A spectrum of shapes is found, from angular chevron
folds (Figure 11.12a), via circular or concentric folds,
to box-folds. Box-folds are special in that they have
two hinge zones and two sets of axial surfaces (Figure
11.2).
Folds do not necessarily show the regularity
of mathematical functions as we know them from
Class 1: Dip isogons converge downward. The inner simple classes of algebra. Nevertheless, simple
harmonic analysis (Fourier transformation) has been
(lower) arc is tighter than the outer one.
Class 2 (similar folds, also called shear folds): Dip applied in the description of fold shape. A matematical
isogons parallel the axial trace. The shape of the inner function is then fitted to a given folded surface (layer
interfaces), and the form of the Fourier transformation
and outer arcs are identical.
Class 3: Dip isogons diverge downward. The outer useful to geologists is:
arc is tighter than the inner one.
f(x) = b1sinx + b3sin3x + b5sin5x ... (11.1)

Class 1 folds are further subdivided into classes

1A, B and C, where 1A folds are characterized by
thinned hinge zones, 1B folds (also called concentric
or parallel folds; Figure 11.11) have constant layer

This series converges rapidly, so it is sufficient to

Figure 11.12 a) Chevron folds (angular folds) in micaceous metasediment, b) S-fold in mylonitic gneisses, and c) Z-fold.

Structural

geology

Shortening
X

Field of
finite
extension

Zfol
d

old
S-f

M-folds

Shortening

Neut Extensi
ral s on
Cont urface
ract
ion

boudin

Figure 11.16 Fold vergence in relation to the strain ellipsoid for coaxial
deformation, Note that folds can also occur between boudins in the field
of finite extension.

1) If a fold system represents parasitic (secondorder) folds on a larger synformal or antiformal

structure, such as shown in Figure 11.14, then their
(a)symmetry indicates their position on the largescale structure. They can therefore be used to map out
related first-order structures that may not be directly
visible in the field.
2) If asymmetric folds are unrelated to any lowerorder structure and located in a shear zone, the
asymmetry may give information about the kinematics
(sense of movement) in the zone (such analyses
should be used together with independent kinematic
indicators; see Chapter 15).
3) The (a)symmetry of folds may reflect strain and
the orientation of the strain ellipse (Figure 11.16). In
general, layers that are parallel to ISA3 (see Chapter
3) will develop symmetric folds. This picture is more
complicated for simple shear and other non-coaxial
deformations, since layers that are parallel to ISA3 at
one moment will have rotated away from this position
at the next.

Figure 11.14 Z- M- and S-folds may be related to lower-order folds, in

which case they provide information about the geometry of the largescale fold.

consider only the first coefficients, b1 and b3, in the

description of natural folds. Based on this method
Peter Hudleston prepared the visual classification
system for fold shape shown in Figure 11.13.
1.1.2 Fold systems
Folds usually come in groups or systems, and although
folds may be quite non-systematic, neighboring folds
tend to show a common style, especially where they
occur in rows or trains. In these cases they can, akin
to mathematical functions, be described in terms
of wavelength, amplitude, inflection point and a
reference surface called the enveloping surface. The
enveloping surface is the surface or line tangent to
individual hinges along a folded layer, as shown in
Figure 11.1.
Folds can be symmetric or asymmetric in cross
section and form M-folds (symmetrical) or S- and
Z-folds (asymmetrical, see Figures 11.12 and 11.14).
Fold systems consisting of folds with the same
symmetry (Z or S) have a certain vergence. Consider
the sense of displacement of the upper limb relative to
the lower one when determining the vergence (Figure
11.15). Fold vergence is important in structural
analysis:
Vergence

boudin

Buckling

Bending

Passive folding

After folding

Before folding

Figure 11.17 The relation between how force is applied and fold
mechanisms.

Figure 11.15 The concept of fold vergence. This fold is right-verging.

Folds

High

Passive folding

Passive with a
component of
active folding

Active
folding:
Buckling
Layerparallel
shortening

Buckling of single layers

Buckling of single, competent layers in a less

competent (viscous) matrix (Figure 11.19) is relatively
easy to explore. Single-layer folds formed by buckling
have the following characteristics:

(Flexural
flow)
Bending

Viscosity/competency contrast

No Shear
folding

1) The fold wavelength-thickness ratio (L/h) is constant

for each folded layer if the material is mechanically
homogeneous and if they were deformed under the
same physical conditions. Such folds are often called
periodic folds. If the layer thickness varies, then the
wavelength is changed accordingly (Figure 11.20).
2) The effect of the folding disappears rapidly (about
the distance corresponding to one wavelength) away
from the folded layer.
3) The folds in the competent layer approximate class
1B folds (constant layer thickness). If there are two or
more folded competent layers then the incompetent
layers in between are folded into class 1A and class
3 folds (Figures 11.11 and 11.21). The cusp (pointed)
hinges point to the more competent layers.
4) The outer part of the competent layer is stretched

(Flexural
slip)
Simple
shear

Layerperpendicular
simple shear

Kinematics

Figure 11.18 Classification of fold mechanisms with respect to viscosity

contrast and kinematics.

h0

1.2

and folding

MM

L0

ML

Folding mechanisms and processes

MM

a)

Folds can form in many different ways by means of

different mechanisms. There are different ways to
separate the different fold mechanisms, but a common
one is to distinguish between active folding, passive
folding and bending (Figures 11.17 and 11.18).

hT

MM

LT

ML

1.2.1 Active folding

Active folding or buckling is a process that can
initiate when a layered rock is shortened parallel to
the layering (Figure 11.19). If an isotropic rock layer
has perfectly planar and parallel boundaries and
perfectly parallel with a constantly oriented 1, then
it will shorten without folding even though there is a
viscosity contrast between the layer and the host rock.
However, if there are small irregularities on the layer
interfaces, then these irregularities can grow to form
buckle folds with a size and shape that depend on the
thickness of the folded layer and its viscosity contrast
with its surroundings.

MM

b)

L
hT

LT

MM
ML
MM

c)

Buckling or active folding implies that there is layer

parallel shortening and a viscosity contrast involved.

Figure 11.19 Buckling of a single layer. L0 is the original length that is

changed into LT after initial shortening (a-b) while L and M are layer
and matrix viscosities, respectively. h0 is the original layer thickness (a)
which increases to hT during the initial thickening phase (b). L is the
wavelength while LT is the arc length. Based on Hudleston (1986).

Structural

geology

1 cm
Ne

Extension

utral

surface

Contraction

Figure 11.22 Strain distribution in the hinge zone of a folded limestone

layer in shale. Outer-arc stretching is separated from inner-arc shortening
by a neutral surface. From Hudleston & Holst (1984).
Figure 11.20 Two folded layers of different thickness. The upper and
thinner one shows a smaller dominant wavelength than the lower one.

L and M are the viscosities of the competent layer

and the matrix, respectively, while Ld is the dominant
wavelength and h the layer thickness. Experiments and
theory show that homogeneous shortening (T) occurs
initially, together with the growth of irregularities into
very gentle and long-amplitude fold structures. When
the most accentuated folds achieve opening angles
around 160-150, the role of layer-parallel shortening
decays. From that point on the folds grow without any
significant increase in layer thickness. Equation 11.2
can be expanded to include layer-parallel thickening:
LdT/hT= 2(L/6M(T+1)T2)1/3

LdT is here the revised expression of the dominant

wavelength, while hT is the thickness when layerparallel shortening (thickening) is taken into account.
The factor T is identical to the strain ratio X/Z, or
1+e1/1+e3.
The viscosity contrast L/6M can be estimated
(formulas not shown here) by measuring the average
length of the folded layer over one wavelength
and hT for a fold population. In addition, the layerparallel shortening T in the competent layers must be
estimated.
Buckling has been modeled under the assumption
of linear or Newtonian viscosity (Equation 5.23). It
is likely that most rocks show non-linear rheological
behavior during plastic deformation, which has
consequences for the buckling process. A powerlaw rheology is then be assumed (Equation 5.24),
where the exponent n>1. The higher the n-exponent,
the quicker the fold growth and the less the layer
parallel shortening T. Many natural folds show low
T-values, and, together with low L/h ratios (L/h<10),
this indicates a non-linear rheology. However, the

Figure 11.21 Extension fractures (veins) in the outer arc of folded

competent layers. Varanger, Northern Norway.

while the inner part is shortened. The two parts

are typically separated by a neutral surface (Figure
11.22). Note that layer-parallel shortening, which
always takes place prior to folding, can reduce or
eliminate the outer extensional zone.
5) The normal to the axial surface or axial cleavage
indicate the direction of maximum shortening (Z).
If the layers are Newtonian viscous, and disregarding
any layer-parallel shortening, then the relation
between wavelength and thickness is given by:
Ld/h= 2(L/6M)1/3

(11.2)

(11.3)

Folds

Ld=5mm

12mm

6.3mm

and folding

Ld=13mm

1.2.2 Flexural slip and flexural flow

Flexural slip is slip along layer interfaces or very thin
L
layers during folding. Flexural slip experiments
are carried out daily all over the world when paperback books or phone directories are bent. During this
process slip occurs between individual paper sheets. It
is a prerequisite that the deforming medium is layered
or has a strong mechanical anisotropy. In nature, the
Figure 11.23 Folding of multilayered rocks. When far apart the layers anisotropy could be mica-rich thin layers in a quartzite
act as individual layers (left). The closer they get, the more they behave or mylonite, or thin shale layers between thicker
as a single layer with thickness larger than that of the thickest of the sandstone or limestone beds in sedimentary rocks.
individual layers. Based on experiments by Currie et al. (1962).
Flexural slip can occur in the middle crust where
plastic deformation mechanisms would be involved,
but flexural slip is perhaps more common where
differences between the results from viscous and sedimentary strata are folded in the upper crustal
power-law rheology models are not great.
brittle regime. In the latter case bedding surfaces
act like faults, and slickenlines will sometimes be
developed on the slipped surfaces, as shown in Figure
Multilayer folding
Ld/h is significantly less for multilayer than for single 11.26a. Maximum slip occurs at the inflection points
layer buckling. Where two thin layers get close they
will behave more like a single layer whose thickness
is the sum of the two thin layers (Figure 11.23). Where
we have alternating thick and thin layers the thin
layers will start to develop folds first (Figure 11.24
a-b). At some point also the thick layers will start to
fold (with longer wavelength) and control the process.
The result is relatively large folds controlled by thick
layers together with small, second-order folds formed
earlier in the process (Figure 11.24c). An example is
shown in Figure 11.25.
Buckling of layers can be modeled by different
mechanisms. The simplest ones are known as
orthogonal flexuring and flexural slip and flow. We
will briefly review these fundamental models. Just
remember that these are idealized, end-member
models and that natural folding generally involves a
component of several of them.
a)

b)

c)
Figure 11.24 Illustration of how folding initiates in thin layers. Once
the thicker layer starts to fold, the smaller folds in the thin layer becomes
parasitic and asymmetric as they become deformed by flexural flow.

Figure 11.25 Buckled multilayers. Note how the largest folds affect the
entire layer package.

Structural

geology

Neutral
surface

Orthogonal flexuring

Flexural flow

Figure 11.27 Layer-parallel shortening resulting in orthogonal flexuring

and flexural flow. Note what happens to the originally orthogonal
lines.

tan
she Y=ta
ar s nge
trai ntia
Y
n
l

a)

b)

inner and outer part of a fold, but strain increases away

from the hinge. Note that evidence for a combination
of orthogonal flexuring (see below) and flexural flow
or slip is commonly found in buckle folds, in which
case a neutral surface generally exists.
Pure flexural folds are perfect class 1B folds. We
can estimate the amount of layer-parallel shortening
for such folds by measuring the length of any of the
folded layers. This layer has maintained its original
length because it was the shear plane throughout the
folding history. The presence of additional mechanisms
changes this opportunity.

Flexural slip

Flexural
flow

1.2.3 Orthogonal flexuring

Orthogonal flexuring or tangential longitudinal strain
is a deformation type with its own specific conditions:
all lines originally orthogonal to the layering remain
so throughout the deformation history. The result is
stretching of the outer part and shortening of the inner
and dies out towards the hinge line, where it is zero.
part of the folded layer. The long axis of the strain
The sense of slip is opposite on each limb, and the
ellipse is therefore orthogonal to bedding in the outer
slip is consistent relative to the hinges. For an upright
part of the layer and parallel to bedding in the inner
fold in sedimentary layers, slip is always towards the
part, as shown in the folded limestone layer in Figure
anticline hinge and away from the syncline hinge
11.22. Figure 11.27 shows a comparison between
(Figure 11.26a).
flexural flow and orthogonal flexuring.
In cases where strain is more evenly distributed
A neutral (no strain) surface separates the
in the limbs in the form of shear strain, as is more
outer extended and inner contracted part of the folded
commonly the case in the plastic regime, flexural slip
turns into the closely related mechanism called flexural
flow. In this case the shear strain is directly related to
the orientation (rotation) of the layers, as shown in
Figure 11.26b: the higher the rotation, the higher the
shear strain. For originally horizontal layers folded
into an upright fold, shear strain is directly related to
dip ( = tan(dip value)). In general, the shear strain is
zero in the hinge line and the axial surface, and the
sense of shear is opposite on each side of the fold
(Figure 11.26b). This results in a characteristic strain
distribution in the fold. For example, the neutral surface
separating extension from contraction, typical for
many buckle folds, is not found in pure flexural-flow
folds. Flexural flow produces identical strain in the Figure 11.28 Passive (class 2) folding of quartzite in a Caledonian

Figure 11.26 a) Flexural slip, showing opposite sense of slip on each

limb, decreasing towards the hinge zone. b) Flexural flow, where fold
limbs are being sheared. Ideally, layer thickness is preserved. Thickened
hinges are commonly found in natural folds, indicating that flow other
than by layer-parallel simple shear is involved.

10

mylonite zone.

Folds

layer. During the folding history, the neutral surface

moves inward towards the core of the fold, which
can result in contraction structures overprinted by
extension structures.
Pure orthogonal flexuring is only possible for
open folds. When folds get tighter, the conditions of
orthogonal flexuring becomes harder and harder to
maintain, and flexural slip or flow may gradually take
over. Evidence for orthogonal flexuring is typically
found in stiff, competent layers that are resistant
to ductile deformation. Some newer works have
simplified the definition of orthogonal flexuring to a
mechanism resulting in outer-arc contraction and an
inner-arc extension. By getting rid of the requirement
of orthogonality, the model gets more general and
embraces many more natural examples.

serves as a visual expression of strain. Perfectly

passive folds are class 2 (similar) folds, and passive
folds that are associated with simple shear are called
shear folds.
Examples of passive folding are found where
layers enter shear zones or elsewhere are affected
by heterogeneous simple shear. Drag folds along
faults (Chapter 8) are examples typical for the brittle
regime. Passive folds are frequently found in mylonite
zones, particularly in quartzites (Figure 11.28) where
the mechanical effect of layering is negligible. Thus,
passive folds form under heterogeneous simple shear
(Figure 11.29), but can also form under heterogeneous
pure shear (Figure 11.30), in which case they should
not be referred to as shear folds.
1.2.5 Bending
Bending occurs when forces act across the layers at a
high angle (Figure 11.17), unlike buckle folds where

1.2.4 Passive folding

Passive folding is typical for rocks where passive flow
occurs, i.e. where the layering exerts no mechanical
influence on folding. In these cases the layering only
G

and folding

MM

MLMM

MM

a)

G
G

b)

G

Figure 11.29 Formation of class 2 fold by simple shearing of a nonplanar layer. No viscosity contrast is involved.

0% shortening

c)
50%

80%

d)
Figure 11.31 Examples of bending in various settings and scales. a)
Figure 11.30 Class 2 fold formed by pure shearing of non-planar layer. between boudins. b) above thrust ramps, c) above reactivated faults,
and d) above shallow intrusions or salt stocks or ridges.
No viscocity contrast.

11

Structural

geology

the main force acts parallel to layers. In fact, most

folds caused by bending can be regarded as passive
or passive shear folds in which layers are extended
rather than shortened during bending. Any mechanical
contrast has therefore only limited influence on the
resulting fold structure, although boudinage may
occur internally in the fold limbs. Bending has been
studied in great detail by engineers because of its
importance in the field of construction engineering.
There are many examples of bending:
-Fault-bend folds, where thrust sheets are bent as
they move over a ramp structure (Figure 11.31b) (see
Chapter 16).
-Bending or flexuring of sedimentary sequences
over reactivated faults. Numerous examples of this
exist where basement fault become reactivated and
affect the overlying soft sedimentary layers (Figure
11.31c).
-Differential compaction, where a layer compacts
more in one area than in another due to different
degrees of compaction of the underlying layers. This
is very common in postrift-deposits in sedimentary
basins.
-Bending of rock layers above a pluton or a salt
diapir (Figure 11.31d).
-Around or between boudins (Figure 11.31a and
11.32).

Figure 11.32 Passive folding of layers between boudins.

laminated rocks rich in phyllosilicate minerals. Kink

bands are cm- to dm-wide zones or bands with sharp
boundaries across which the foliation is abruptly
rotated. Wider zones are more commonly referred
to as kink folds. Geometrically kink bands and kink
folds are asymmetric Class 2 folds. They are relatively
low-temperature plastic deformation structures where
there is no slip along the foliation (no flexural slip).
Like chevron folds they have no hinge zone, but there
are significant differences between the two. One is
that chevron folds commonly deform by flexural slip.
Both orthogonal flexuring, flexural slip and flexural Another is that chevron folds initiate with their axial
flow are mechanisms that can occur during bending surface perpendicular to 1, while kink bands are
oblique to 1. Furthermore, kink bands may develop
of layers.
in conjugate sets (Figure 11.33), in which case 1
bisects the sets as shown in Figure 11.34. Conjugate
kink bands or kink folds are also called box folds,
1.2.6 Kinking
Kink bands and kink folds are common in well- conjugate kinks or conjugate folds. When kink bands
FOLD OVERLAP STRUCTURES
Individual folds can overlap and interfere. Just like faults (Chapter 8), they initiate as small structures
and may interact through the formation of overlap or relay structures. Fold overlap structures were first
mapped in thrust and fold belts, particularly in the Canadian Rocky Mountains,
and many of the fundamental principles
of fault overlap structures come from the
Overlap
zone
study of fold populations.Fold overlaps are
zones where strain is transferred from one
fold to another. Relay ramps form, and the
rapid variations in offset that characterize fault overlap zones correlate to rapid
changes in amplitude along folds in these
zones.
12

Folds

and folding

S1

a)
S1

Figure 11.33 Conjugate kink bands in mylonitized anorthosite gabbro,

Bergen Arcs.

occur as single sets, 1 is known to be oblique to the

band, but its precise orientation is unknown.
It is a general principle that stress can only be
estimated from strain when the amount of strain is
modest. Conjugate kink bands generally involve small
strains, which justifies their link to stress. However,
kink folds can rotate during the deformation history if
strain keeps accumulating, and the result may be the
formation of chevron folds.

b)
S1

Figure 11.34 The orientation of s1 is only vaguely indicated by the

orientation of a single set of kink bands (a). For conjugate sets s1 can
be determined more presicely.

basin structure, Type 2 is the so-called boomerangtype (Figure 11.37), and Type 3 has been described as
the hook-shaped type. Interference patterns typically
arise from the overprinting of a second phase of
deformation on an earlier set of deformation structures,
but can also be the result of non-steady-state flow,
where the orientation of the ISA locally or regionally
1.3 Fold interference patterns
changed during the course of the deformation. There
is also a Type 0 pattern defined by two identical, but
In areas affected by two or more deformation phases temporally separate fold systems. The result of Type
we may find that folds may be superimposed on each 0 interference is simply a tighter fold structure. Type
other. In such cases of fold interference we may find 1 patterns can also be the result of a single phase
simple or complex patterns of folding that depend on of heterogeneous non-coaxial deformation, or by
the orientations of the two fold sets. John Ramsay amplification of preexisting irregularities (Figure
distinguished between three main patterns (Figures 11.38). These extremely non-cylindrical folds are
11.35 and 11.36). Type 1 is the classical dome-and- often called sheath-folds. In general it is useful to
TYPE 0

1+2

TYPE 2

TYPE 1

1+2

TYPE 3

1+2

1+2

13

Figure 11.35 Principal types

of fold superposition. Based
on Ramsay (1967).

Structural

geology

1.4

Angle between axial surface 1 and axis 2

2

90

1-2

Folds in shear zones

Angle between axis 1 and axial plane 2

In high-strain shear zones or mylonite zones folds

form and grow continuously during shearing.
Folding can occur where layers initially occur in the
90
contractional field or where layers are rotated into
this field due to irregularities in the zone. Such folds
can be regarded as passive if the mechanical contrast
1
2
1-2
between layers is negligible, or active if a significant
viscosity contrast exists. Whether a fold is active or
passive can be addressed by geometric analysis, since
passive folds are Class 2 and active folds Class 1 and
3 folds (Figures 11.9 and 11.10).
3
3
0
At high strains the foliation in a shear zone will,
in principle, be almost parallel to the shear plane.
0
It will still be in the extensional field, but a modest
perturbation of the layering can easily cause it to
enter the contractional field. The result is a family of
folds that verge in accordance with the sense of shear.
Figure 11.36 Fold interference patterns of cylindrical folds, classified This sort of rotation can occur around tectonic lenses
according to the relative orientations of fold axes and axial planes. The or heterogeneities (see Figure 15.23) or by a slight
patterns are numbered 0-3. Based on Ramsay & Huber (1987).
rotation of the ISA due to a change in the stress field
or rotation of the shear zone.
If the hinge lines of the folds lie in the shear
be able to recognize the geometric relations between plane they will remain in this position. In practice,
different fold phases by use of the patterns depicted however, hinge lines will initiate at an angle to the
in Figure 11.36.
shear plane and rotate towards parallelism with the
shear direction. Open folds with hinge lines that make
a high angle to the transport direction (Figures 11.38a
DUCTILE FOLDING IN THE BRITTLE REGIME
Most folds are the result of plastic flow in the middle and lower crust, but folding can also occur at
shallower depth. They may form where gravitational instabilities or dewatering cause deformation of
unconsolidated sediments. Folding of buried porous sediments is particularly common where pore fluid
pressure is high (overpressure). Folds
in sediments are often found to be very
non-cylindrical, somewhat similar to
noncylindrical folds found in some
mylonitic rocks. They do not however
develop axial planar cleavage so commonly asfolds formed under metamorphic conditions. They are also confined to special layers where the layers
above and below may be untouched by
the folding.

Folds formed in unconsolidated or poorly consolidated

sediment (Varanger, Norway).

14

Folds

and folding

Figure 11.37 Type 2 interference pattern in folded quartz schist.

and 11.39) are therefore thought to have experienced

less shearing than those that are tighter with hinge
lines closer to the transport direction (Figure 11.38c).
This rotational behavior of fold hinges in non-coaxial
flow has been used to explain why many high-strain
shear zones contain folds with hinges subparallel to
the lineation. Extensive rotation of hinges may result
in so-called sheath folds, where the hinge line is
subparallel to the lineation for the most part, except
for their noses where the hinge line abruptly changes
orientation (Figure 11.38c). Sections through sheath

a)

b)
Figure 11.39 a) Early-stage folds in Caledonian shear zone. Hinge
lines make a high angle to the lineation and transport direction (arrow).
b) More mature stage of folding in the same shear zone. Hinge lines
are highly curved and refolded, oriented both parallel, oblique and
orthogonal to the transport direction (arrow).

a)

b)

c)

Figure 11.38 Development of sheath folds (highly non-cylindrical

folds) by amplification of a pre-existing irregularity. Note that it takes
high shear strains to form sheath folds by simple shear. Shear strain
increases from a) to c).

15

folds resemble Type 1 fold interference patterns, but

are formed during a single event of shearing (not
necessarily a during a pure simple shear).
Folds in shear zones can also form in other ways.
The foliation may be perpendicular to the shear
zone walls, which is the case in many steep strikeslip shear zones (Chapter 18). Folds form with hinge
lines oblique to the zone. The obliquity depends on
the vorticity number of the zone and on the exact
orientation of the layering relative to the shear zone.

Structural

geology

Examples of such folds are found along the San

Andreas Fault in California.

1.5

Folds in the upper crust

While most of the folds discussed above and seen in

nature formed in the plastic regime in the crust, folds
also form in the upper crust. Gravity-conrolled softsediment deformation of sand create non-cylindrical
folds are recorded, for example, on unstable delta
slopes or continental slopes. Soft-sediment folds are
also associated with mud diapirs. Fault propagation
folds forming ahead of a fault tip also occur in
unmetamorphosed and even unconsolidated sediments
and sedimentary rocks in the upper part of the crust.
Deflection of layers around a fault, known as drag,
is another example of fault-related folds. Hangingwall folds controlled by fault geometry is yet another.
These structures are covered in Chapters 8, 16 and
19. Most of these shallow-crustal structures have in
common that they are formed by brittle deformation
mechanisms and that they are not associated with
axial plane cleavages.

------

geometry of mylonite zones. Journal of Geology,

92: 667-686.
Cobbold, P.R. & Quinquis, H., 1980. Development of
sheath folds in shear regions. Journal of Structural
Geology, 2: 119-126.
Platt, J.P., 1983. Progressive refolding in ductile
shear zones. Journal of Structural Geology, 5:
619-622.
Fossen, H. & Holst, T.B., 1995. Northwest-verging
folds and the northwestward movement of the
Caledonian Jotun Nappe, Norway. Journal of
Structural Geology, 17(1): 1-16.
Harris, L.B., Koyi, H.A. & Fossen, H., 2002.
Mechanisms for folding of high-grade rocks in
extensional tectonic settings. Earth-Sciences
Review, 59: 163-210.
Krabbendam, M. & Leslie, A.G., 1996. Folds with
vergence opposite to the sense of shear. Journal
of Structural Geology, 18: 777-781.
Skjernaa, L., 1989. Tubular folds and sheath folds:
definitions and conceptual models for their
development, with examples from the Grapesvare
area, northern Sweden. Journal of Structural
Geology, 11(6): 689-703.
Vollmer, F.W., 1988. A computer model of sheathnappes formed during crustal shear in the Western
Gneiss Region, central Norwegian Caledonides.
Journal of Structural Geology, 10: 735-745.

Buckling
Biot, M.A., 1961. Theory of folding of stratified
viscoelastic media and its implications in
Folds in metamorphic rocks are closely associated with
tectonics and orogenesis. Geological Society of
cleavage and to some extent also lineations. We will
America Bulletin, 72: 1595-1620.
there fore proceed with a look at these structures.
Hudleston, P. & Lan, L., 1993. Information from
fold shapes. Journal of Structural Geology, 15:
253-264.
Further reading:
Sherwin, J.-A. & Chapple, W.M., 1968. Wavelengths
of single layer folds: a comparison between
General
theory and observation. American Journal of
Donath, F. A. and Parker, R. B., 1964, Folds and
Science, 266: 167-179.
Folding: Geological Society of America Bulletin,
v. 75, p. 45-62.
Hudleston, P.J., 1986. Extracting information from Fold geometry
folds in rocks. Journal of Geological Education, Bell, A.M., 1981. Vergence: an evaluation. Journal of
Structural Geology, 3: 197-202.
34: 237-245.
Stabler,
C.L., 1968. Simplified fourier analysis of fold
Johnson, T.E., 1991. Nomenclature and geometric
shapes.
Tectonophysics, 6: 343-350.
classification of cleavage-transected folds.
Journal of Structural Geology, 13: 261-274.
Ramsay, J.G. & Huber, M.I., 1987. The techniques of Mechanisms and processes
modern structural geology: folds and fractures, 2. Bobillo-Ares, N.C., Bastida, F. & Aller, J., 2000.
On tangential longitudinal strain folding.
Academic Press, London.
Tectonophysics, 319: 53-68.
Hudleston, P.J., Treagus, S.H. & Lan, L., 1996.
Folds in shear zones
Flexural flow folding. Does it occur in nature?
Bell, T.H. & Hammond, R.E., 1984. On the internal
16

Folds

Geology, 24: 203-206.

Ramsay, J.G., 1974. Development of chevron folds.
Geological Society of America Bulletin, 85:
1741-1754.
Tanner, P.W.G., 1989. The flexural-slip mechanism.
Journal of Structural Geology, 11: 635-655.
Strain in folds
Holst, T.B. & Fossen, H., 1987. Strain distribution in a
fold in the West Norwegian Caledonides. Journal
of Structural Geology, 9: 915-924.
Hudleston, P.J. & Holst, T.B., 1984. Strain analysis
and fold shape in a limestone layer and
implications for layer rheology. Tectonophysics,
106: 321-347.
Ramberg, H., 1963. Strain distribution and geometry
of folds. Bulletin of the Geological Institution of
the University of Uppsala, 42: 1-20.
Roberts, D. & Strmgrd, K.-E., 1972. A comparison
of natural and experimental strain patterns around
fold hinge zones. Tectonophysics, 14: 105-120.
Folds in extensional settings
Chauvet, A. & M. Sranne, 1994. Extension-parallel
folding in the Scandinavian Caledonides:
implications for late-orogenic processes.
Tectonophysics 238: 31-54.

Fletcher, J.M., Bartley, J.M., Martin, M.W., Glazner,
A.F. & Walker, J.D., 1995. Large-magnitude
continental extension: an example from the central
Mojave metamorphic core complex. Geological
Society of America Bulletin, 107: 1468-1483.

17

and folding