COURSE OVERVIEW

ANN 121: Applied Animal Nutrition-I (2+1)

Dear learners, the course on Applied Animal Nutrition (Ruminants) has been
given a scientific insight with more of field photos, Quiz, Power point slides
and a Question bank for easy understanding of the subject and revision. I
hope as you go through the chapters it will be easy to learn and understand
the practicality of feeding calves, heifers, milch cows and buffaloes, sheep
and goats.
Introduction
Scientific dairy, sheep and goat farming under free range systems and
intensive system is gaining momentum in our country.
Cross breeding in dairy cattle has parrellely paved way for scientific feeding
of cattle with balanced ration.

Awarness among farmers on the importance of various nutrients like

carbohyrates,

protein,

fat,

minerals

and

vitamins

for

maximising

productivity in cow has spread large and wide.

Farmers have started to cultivated fodders like grasses, cereals and legumes
in 10 to 15 cents of land for every dairy cow producing 10 liters of milk per
day.

Sheep farmers have started flushing sheep before mating season to improve
lambing percentage.

Intensive goat farming on slatted floor sheds is gaining importance due to

the demand for chevon.

With this background in mind students should focus on understanding the

fundamental theory in ruminant nutrition for various species and categories
of production.

SYLLABUS
THEORY
Importance of scientific feeding. Feeding experiments. Digestion and
metabolism trial. Norms adopted in conducting digestion trial. Measurement
of digestibility. Factors affecting digestibility of feed. Feeding standards, their
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uses and significance, merit and demerits of various feeding standards with
reference to ruminants. Nutrient requirement of livestock energy and
protein requirement for maintenance and production. Methods adopted for
arriving at energy and protein requirement for maintenance and production
in terms of growth, reproduction, milk, meat, wool and work. Balanced
ration and its characteristics. General principles of computation of rations.
Formulation of rations and feeding dairy cattle and buffaloes during
different phase of growth, development and production ( Neonate, young,
mature, pregnant, lactating and dry animals; breeding bull and working
animals). Formulation of ration and feeding of sheep and goat during
different phases of growth, development and production (milk, meat and
wool). Use of NPN compound for ruminants.
PRACTICALS
Demonstration of conducting digestion trial in ruminants. Calculation of
nutritive value of different feedstuffs in terms of digestible crude protein
( DCP), total digestible nutrient (TDN), Nitrogen retention (NR) and Starch
Equivalent (SE). Calculation of requirements of nutrients in terms of DCP,
TDN and metabolisable energy (ME) for maintenance, growth and other
types of production like meat, milk, wool, reproduction and work.
Formulation of rations for different categories of livestock under different
conditions. Demonstration of the methods for improving the nutritive quality
of straws and other crop residues. Formulation of ration for feeding of
livestock during scarcity periods. Visit to feed factories.

CHAPTER-1: IMPORTANCE OF SCIENTIFIC FEEDING OF RUMINANTS

AND FEEDING EXPERIMENTS
Learning objectives
This chapter will give the learner an insight to understand

the present status of feeding ruminants in India,

why scientific feeding should be practised?

feeds, forages, feedstuffs and nutrients,

physiological phases in livestock production,

feeding experiments in livestock,

comparative feeding trials,

feeding trials with laboratory animals and

the purified diet method.

PRESENT STATUS OF FEEDING RUMINANTS IN INDIA

Dairy cow and buffalo

Non descript cows and buffaloes with low milk production ability are
allowed for grazing after morning milking till evening milking time.

Common grasses are cut from bunds and fodders like paddy straw,
sorghum fodder are fed as dry fodders.

Medium and high yielding animals are maintained in house and fed
with

cultivated

grasses

like

Bajra

Napier

grass,

Sorghum

fodder,Guinea grass and leguminous fodders like Hedge Lucerne,

Cowpea etc. In addition concentrate feeds comprising of grains, oil
cakes, brans and mineral supplements are fed.

In organised farms, the body weight of the animals are measured and
the nutrient requirement of the animal for maintenance and
production are calculated and accordingly fed as a balanced ration
containing green fodder, dry fodder and concentrates.

Sheep and Goats

Nearly 80 to 90 % of the Sheep and Goats in India are reared under

free range system.

They are allowed for 6- 8 hours grazing in cultivated lands, and village
pond bunds. Occasionally tree leaves are lopped and fed.

In few parts of India, intensive goat farming through semi intensive

system

or

slatted

floor

housing

system

has

gained

momentum,wherein the sheep and goats are stall fed with cultivated
fodders and concentrates

WHY SCIENTIFIC FEEDING SHOULD BE PRACTISED?

To explore the genetic potential of the Cow, buffalo, Sheep or Goats by

feeding a balanced ration to meet the daily nutrient requirements of
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the animal to perform in terms of weight gain, milk or wool

production.

India possess a huge livestock population

There is a deficiency of 11 % in dry fodder, 28 % in concentrates and

35 % in green fodder

So a judicious use of available feed resources is possible only through

scientific feeding

Scientific feeding involves :

o An understanding of the different nutrients required by
livestock

for

different

physiological

functions

such

as

maintenance, growth, reproduction, milk production, wool

production etc
o An understanding of the physical and nutrient components of
different feed and fodder resources, the nutrients contained in
them and how efficiently they are utilized by the animals
o Formulating balanced rations by combination of different feed
and fodder resources to supply the nutrients by livestock for
different physiological functions.
FEEDS, FORAGES, FEEDSTUFFS AND NUTRIENTS
Nutrient

It is defined as any food constituent or group of food constituents of

the same general composition that aids in the support of animal life.

There are six classes of nutrients that are essential to every living
animal for survival:
o Water
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o Protein
o Carbohydrates
o Fats/Lipids
o Vitamins
o Minerals
Functions of Nutrients

Basic functions
o Maintenance and building of body structures : Water, protein,
fat, minerals, vitamins.
o Serve as source of energy for heat production, work and fat
deposition: Carbohydrates, fats and proteins.
o Regulate body processes or they are required for formation of
body produced regulators. Vitamins, minerals, certain amino
acids and fatty acids.

Accesory functions:

Production of milk, egg, meat, wool etc.

Feedstuffs used in ruminant nutrition

Balanced rations for ruminants are made up of five basic types of feed.
When combined in the right amounts, these feeds can supply all the
nutrients needed to keep cattle healthy and productive. The five types
of feed are:

Bulk forages for energy

These are mostly grass-like plants that have long stems, long narrow
leaves and flower spikes and contain a lot of fibre in their structure.
They include fresh materials, such as green grass, as well as dry
materials, such as hay. They provide most of the energy a cow needs
and some minerals and will make up most of the ration they are
what fills the animal and stops it feeling hungry. Most bulk forages
contain only low levels of protein. They often grow naturally, such as
grass and other plants on roadside reserves or natural pastures, or
are the part of the plant left over when crops grown for people are
harvested, such as stovers or straws of maize, sorghum wheat or rice.
Napier grass is often grown on the farm as bulk forage.

Supplementary forages for energy and protein

Supplementary forages provide both energy and protein and some

minerals. These are fibrous plants, similar to bulk forages, but they
are usually especially grown on the farm as feed for cattle and contain
higher protein and/or energy levels than bulk forages. Most are
legumes and include herbaceous plants, shrubs and trees. They are
fed in addition to the bulk forages, usually in smaller amounts. They
can

be

used

either

to

compensate for poor quality bulk forages or they can be used as

substitutes

for

concentrates.

The

feeding

value

of

different

supplementary forages varies; for calliandra, three kilograms of fresh

forage is equivalent to one kilogram of a good quality commercial dairy
meal.
Concentrates for energy and protein

These are feeds that supply more highly concentrated nutrients than
forages. They contain high levels of protein or energy or both, and also
some minerals. They are also low in fibre and easy to digest. They
include specially made feeds, such as commercial dairy meals, as well
as cereal by-products (wheat germ, maize germ) and other high energy
and/or high protein feedstuffs (molasses, fish meal and brewers dried
grains). Cereal grains such as maize, wheat and barley, if available
and

economical

to

feed.

Concentrates are expensive and are therefore fed in small amounts in

addition to forages; the amounts fed should depend on the milk
produced by a cow.
Mineral supplements

Although

some

minerals

are

naturally

present

in

bulk

and

supplementary forages and concentrates, dairy cows also need to be

regularly fed additional minerals. This is most easily done by regularly
offering access to a commercially manufactured mineral supplement.
Vitamins supplements

Not a problem with practical dairy cow rations: some vitamins are made
by the micro-organisms in the rumen and others are naturally present
in feeds, such as leafy green forages.

Water, essential for life

Ideally, dairy cows should have access to clean drinking water at all
times. In addition to the amount required for normal bodily
functioning, a milking cow requires about five litres of water to
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produce one litre of milk. A cow will also drink more water in hot
weather.
Forages or fodders

Bulk forages

Supplementary forages

Bulk forages

The cheapest ingredients and the ones that form the largest part of
the dairy ruminant rations, are the bulk forages. These are plant feeds
with high fibre contents such as fresh grass, , weeds, hay, straw and
stovers.

Forages that are specially grown for feeding to livestock, such as

Napier grass or fodder legumes, are usually referred to as fodders.

Forages can be fed to animals either fresh (grazed directly or cut-andcarried), dried (as hay) or preserved as silage.

Some forages, such as Napier grass, which have long stems, should be
chopped into approximately 3 cm lengths before feeding to cattle. This
makes it easier to mix with other feeds, such as concentrates, and
also prevents wastage by making it more difficult for cattle to select
only their favourite parts of the plant.

To remain healthy, stimulate rumination and produce good quality

milk with a high fat content, the dairy cows ration has to contain
enough forage; at least 70 per cent of the dry matter content of the
ration should come from forage.

Dry cows can survive on forage alone and, provided they are given
enough good quality forage, milking cows can produce 5 to 10 litres of
milk per day from forage alone.

But if the forage is of poor quality (Rice straw or dry maize stover)
then production levels from forage will be much lower.

Higher milk producing cows cannot eat enough bulk forage to obtain
all the nutrients they need their gut fill before they are able to
absorb sufficient nutrients - and they have to be given other, more
nutrient-rich feeds which are called supplements.

Supplements can be
o better quality forages, or
o concentrates.

Quality of bulk forages

Good
10

Young grasses like Napier , Rhodes, sorghum, fodder maize etc cut
and fed to animals when they are at prefloweing stage or the hay or
silage.

Medium

Napier grass (1 to 2 metres tall),

Rhodes/Setaria grass (yellowing leaves and stems; seed set)

Fodder sorghum (yellowing leaves and stems; seeds set and dropped)

Mature pasture/grass (yellowing leaves and stems; seed set)

Green maize stover (fresh, green leaves and stalks with cobs removed;

Hay (made after seed set)

Mature roadside grass (seed set, leaves and stems drying and turning
yellow)

Sugarcane tops

Poor

Overgrown Napier grass ((more than 2 metres tall)

Dry maize or sorghum (stover after harvesting of the cob)

Straws (Rice, Wheat and Barley )

Dry pasture/grass (dry leaves and dry, hard stems;seed dropped)

Supplementary forages

Fibrous plants similar to bulk forages but they have higher level of
protein and energy than ordinary bulk forages. Most supplementary
forages are legumes crops, especially grown on the farm to feed dairy
cattle. They include herbaceous legumes, such as lucerne and
desmodium, and legume shrubs and trees grown for their leaves such
as calliandra. They are classified as medium to high quality feeds in
terms of their protein and energy content.

Can be used in two ways: to compensate for poor quality bulk forages
or to substitute for concentrates.

Can be fed fresh, dried as hay, leaves of shrub and tree legumes as
dry leaf meal, or preserved as silage. But they should be fed with
caution as feeding large amounts of some supplementary forages can
cause bloat and other problems.

Should not make up more than 25 to 30 per cent of the ration on an

as-fed basis.

Examples

11

All legume forages such as cowpea, berseem, pillipesara, Hedge

Lucerne, Stylo etc

Tree leaves such as subabul, sesbania, gliricidia, mulberry leaves .

PHYSIOLOGICAL PHASES IN LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION

The science of livestock production divides itself into several different
physiological phases.Every animal should be fed so that the nutritive
requirements of each physiological phase of production with which it is
involved are met.
The physiological phases

Maintenance

Growth

Pregnancy

Milk Production

Work

Wool production

Maintenance

Maintaining an animal in a state of well-being or good health from day

to day,makes no growth, develops no fetus or yields no product. While
formulating rations, the maintenance nutrient requirements are
satisfied first and the requirements for other purposes are in addition
to maintenance. On an average, about one-half of all feed fed to
livestock

goes

for

maintenance.

The requirements for maintenance are as follows:

o Energy for the vital functions: heart beat, respiration, body
temperature and for voluntary activity and other vital functions.
o Protein for the repair of body tissues.
o Minerals to replace mineral losses.
o All of the vitamins are essential for maintenance.
o Water is required for essentially all body functions.
Growth

Increase in muscle, bone, organs, and connective tissue. Growth is

essential for an animal to produce meat or to attain mature body
weight.The daily growth rate of animals increases up to puberty and
then gradually declines.The nutritive requirements for growth are in
addition to those listed above for maintenance.

The primary nutrients required for growth:

12

o Protein: The dry matter of muscle and connective tissue, and to

a considerable degree, also that of bone, primarily is protein.
Hence, protein is one of the major nutritive requirements of
growth. Protein for growth must be of good quality-that is, it
must contain the proper proportions and amounts of essential
amino acids at the tissue level.
o Energy in the form of net energy must be provided to meet this
need in addition to that in the protein of tissue. Also, a certain
amount of additional energy is used by the body for growth.
o Minerals: Since bone formation is a primary activity of growth
and since bone is high in calcium and phosphorus content,
these two minerals are very essential for growth. Other minerals
are involved in the digestion and utilization of other nutrients
needed for growth.
o Vitamins: Certain vitamins
processes

related

to

function
nutrient

in

various

utilization

metabolic

for

growth

Water: Fat-free muscle tissue is about 75% to 80% water.

Milk Production

Milk is produced and secreted by the mammary glands. Nutrients for

milk production are carried by the blood to the mammary glands. The
nutrients are removed from the blood by the mammary glands,
converted into milk, and secreted into the udder more or less
throughout the day.

Nutrients for milk production must come from the feed, either directly
or indirectly via body reserves of nutrients, which come originally from
the animal's feed.

The peak milk production is reached during 4-8 weeks after lactation
starts and the animals also lose body weight during early lactation
since their appetite is low and they may not take sufficient feed to
meet the nutrient requirements. So during peak lactation, milk yield
will be high, the feed intake will not be sufficient and the animals lose
body weight.

Nutritive requirements for milk production are in proportion to the

amount of milk produced and are over and above those for other
physiological phases of production such as maintenance, growth,
fattening, fetal development, etc.

13

The major nutritive requirements for lactation are,

Protein: Must be of good quality at the glandular level. Animals will

not produce milk low in protein. If ration is deficient in protein, tissue
reserves of protein may be used for milk production

Energy: Energy over and above that for milk protein is required for the
formation of milk fat and milk sugar. Must be in the form of net
energy. May come from carbohydrates, fat, or excess protein of the
ration.

Minerals and vitamins

Wool production

Wool is practically pure protein and contains Sulphur containing

amino acids.

The primary nutritive requirements for wool production are:

Protein: Must be sulfur-containing as fed or as synthesized in the

rumen.

Energy: This must be in the form of net energy and can come from any
feed energy source.

Potassium: This mineral is an essential component of the suint in

wool. It is more than adequate in most ordinary rations.

Other minerals and vitamins:

Pregnancy

Nutritive requirements for development of foetus are energy, protein,

calcium, phosphorus, and vitamin D in particular and other minerals
and vitamins.

More than 2/3rd of the foetus growth occurs during the last trimester
of pregnancy. Proper feeding during pregnancy is essential to avoid
birth of dead foetus or weak foetus, to build up body reserves lost
during early lactation and at the same time the animal should not
become obese.

Work

Energy, protein, minerals and vitamins are required.

FEEDING EXPERIMENTS
Introduction

A knowledge of the quantitative needs of the body for the nutrients

and the relative value of feeds as source of these nutrients is the basis

14

of scientifc feeding, which has been gained gradually by means of

research and experience over many years.

An understanding of the methods by which it has been attained and

which are still being employed to augument it is essential for the
student of nutrition.

Trial and error were the means by which the art of feeding animals
was originally developed.

Feeding experiments have been carried out with farm animals during
the past two centuries to compare the value of different feeds or
combination of feeds.

More recently feeding studies have been conducted with laboratory

animals, fish, primates and even humans to determine the value and
utilisation of individual feeds and the nutritional adequacy or safety of
different diets.

The feed given to animals are first chemically analysed for its
composition and later to find out its utilization in the animals, feeding
experiments are conducted.

Usually in feeding experiments the value of feed is compared to that of

another feed whose efficiency is known.

The

qualitative

value

of

feed

is

expressed

as

digestibility,

metabolizability or its effect on production like weight gain, milk

production, egg production etc.

In large animals it is difficult to measure the composition of the whole

animals, wherein nitrogen balance trials are conducted, to indirectly
measure the nitrogen retention. The combined use of digestion
studies, slaughter experiments or balance studies along with feeding
trials to measure the intake, absorption and retention of specific
nutrients add greatly to the amount of information obtained.

Feeding trial or experiment

It is a record of the results produced in terms of growth, milk

production, or nitrogen balance etc from a given feed or ration.

Variations in feeding experiments

o Genetic
o Environmental
o Age

15

To minimize the uncontrolled variations, experiments are statistically

designed.

Guidelines for the design of feeding experiments

Diets: The experimental diets must be similar in terms of ingredients,

except for the ingredient which is to be tested.

Animals: Should be of similar age, size and sex .

Statistical design:
o Randomization of animals of same age and size into different
groups.
o Whenever group feeding is done, replication of the group is
important.

Experimental design

Completely Randomized Design (CRD)

Randomized Block Design (RBD)

Latin Square Design

Factorial design

The different feeding experiments are:

Comparative feeding trials

Feeding trials with laboratory animals

The purified diet method

Germfree Technique

Group feeding versus Individual feeding

Controlled versus Ad Libitum feeding

Equalized Paired feeding or Paired feeding

COMPARATIVE FEEDING TRAILS

It is the simplest form of feeding trial.

Two or more rations may be compared with each other on this basis.

Additional records as to the feed eaten, provide a comparison of the

relative amounts of the ration required to produce a unit of product
and by the use of cost figures, the results may be put on a money
basis.

16

The records here obtained tell us nothing as to why one ration proved
better than another, unless the poorer one was so unpalatable as to
be little consumed or unless it caused absolute harm.

As a further step of interest of more specific information, individual

feeds may be compared as a part of rations, wherein the other
ingredients are held constant.

An example to show soyameal is better protein than Groundnut cake

for broilers

Rations

Body

weight

at

6 Feed

wks

weks

2.0 kg

4.0 kg

Groundnut 1.8 kg

4.4 kg

consumed

in

Ration 1
150 kg Soyabean meal
Ration 2
150

kg

cake
Note: This experiment tells us that comparitively, Soyabean meal diet was
better than groundnut oil cake diet. But it tells nothing as to why the
Soyabean meal was better. Was it due to better quality protein? or the
presence of higher lysine? etc. which cannot be foundout by just
comparison.

In case of two rations, t test is used while in case of three or more

rations analysis of variance test is applied to analyse the data like
feed consumed per day, average daily gain (ADG), feed consumed per
kg gain (feed efficiency) etc for statistical significance.

FEEDING TRIALS WITH LABORATORY ANIMALS

Today many of the problems in nutrition are being studied with small
animals, such as the rat. The Processes of growth, reproduction and
lactation can be effectively investigated and the value of various feeds
for the different functions can be determined.

The feeding trials can be conducted with several laboratory animals

like rat, mice, guinea pig,rabbit,hamster etc.,

17

Advantages

Low cost in terms of animals, feed and labour and the shorter time
involved for a given experiment in view of the shorter lifecycle of the
lab animal.

The influence of individual variability can be reduced to a minimum

by the use of animals of similar genetic and nutritional history by
using large number of animals and by close environmental control.

It is very easy to slaughter lab animals for chemical and histological

examinations compared to large animals.

Laboratory animals are useful for studying various fundamental

principles of nutrition.

Serve as a pilot experiment, by means of which much preliminary

information can be obtained more quickly and at much less cost than
with large animals.

Disadvantages

The results obtained in feeding trials with small animals cannot be

considered to have direct application to the various species of farm
animals

because

of

the

differences

in

physiology

and

other

considerations.
PURIFIED DIET METHOD

Purified diets were used in conducting feeding trials with lab animals.
Purified diets consist of purified sources of the various nutrients.

Carbohydrates are supplied as starch, glucose or sucrose;

Protein is supplied as Casein, Purified soyabean protein or urea;

Fat as lard or some oil;

Minerals as chemically pure salts.

Vitamins as pure crystalline compounds.

18

Such a diet makes it possible to include or withdraw a given nutrient

with a minimum disturbance to other nutrients.

The influence of different levels or sources of nitrogen can be studied

by including varying amounts of pure protein or amino acids without
any change in the rest of the ration, whereas the addition of a natural
protein source such as meat or beans would introduce many
variables, because they contain many other nutrients as well.

When more and more purified diets were fed to animals, the results
obtained were discouraging, which indicated that many unidentified
factors were essential. This led to the discovery of vitamins.

In 1816, Magendie fed diets of pure sugar and of pure fat to dogs to
ascertain whether or not N was required in the food.

J.B.Boussinggault, the famous French chemist carried on nutritional

studies with various species, involving the use of diets consisting in
part of purified nutrients. McCollum and Davis, Osborne and Mendel
used this method.

Advantages

This method was responsible for much of our modern knowledge of

nutrition, especially poultry nutrition including the physiology of
vitamins, the establishment of differences in protein quality and more
exact information regarding many of the minerals.

This method is the only method by which the role of an element

needed by the body in small amounts can be effectively carried out
only with basal diets where the element can be freed or added in
known amounts easily.

Disadvantages

The ingredients of these diets cannot be considered pure in the

absolute sense. For example, starch cannot be entirely freed from

19

mineral

elements.

Some

of

the

vitamins

were

identified

as

impurities.

Some of the constituents, notably protein, in purified diets may be

altered from their natural state in the process of purification.

The kind of pure carbohydrate used affects the significance of the

results in the case of certain vitamins because of the effects of various
carbohydrates on vitamin synthesis in the alimentary tract.

All the nutrient requirements of the species should be known to

prepare a completely purified diet.

The diet must be of suitable physical nature and sufficiently palatable

so that it will be consumed as per the need.

20

CHAPTER-2: FEEDING EXPERIMENTS

Learning objectives
This chapter will give the learner an insight to understand the following:

conducting feeding experiments through various methods like:

o germ free technique,
o group feeding versus individual feeding,
o controlled versus and ad libitum feeding,
o equalized paired feeding or paired feeding,

slaughter experiments and

experimental designs.

GERM FREE TECHNIQUE

It is evident from previous discussions regarding various vitamins that

are synthesised in the intestinal tract and contribute to the host's
nutrition and complicate the interpretation of the data on dietary
requirements obtained in feeding trials.

Thus nutritionist has special interest in the techniques which have

been developed for obtaining animals which are germfree at birth and
for rearing them in an uncontaminated environment thereafter.

Germ free means, free of contamination by bacteria, yeasts, moulds,

fungi, protozoa and parasites in general, that is, free of all other life.

21

The new born are obtained by Caesarian section and reared in

specially designed apparatus in an uncontaminated environment and
are fed sterilized diet.

Success has been reported with rats, rabbits, hamsters, mice,

chickens, turkeys and monkeys. Rats mice and chickens have been
bred through successive generations.

Techniques have been developed for obtaining " Specific Pathogen free"
baby pigs by hysterectomy and using them for nutrition experiments.

Specific Pathogen Free (SPF) animals are developed to avoid the

multiplication

of

intestinal

organisms

and

used

in

nutrition

experiments.

GROUP FEEDING VERSUS INDIVIDUAL FEEDING

Feed records are desirable features of all feeding trials.

It is essential for the interpretation of the results based on the feed

consumed, leftover if any etc.

In many feeding experiments to avoid labour and equipment cost, the

animals are fed as a group,

It is more common when there is wide variability in the individual

behaviour of the animal within the lot, as to both production and feed
consumption.

The

performance

of

the

individual

can

be

eliminated

consideration, but the food it ate cannot be exactly found out.

22

from

It is here where individual feeding plays an important role.

In certain species which are fed together in practice may consume

somewhat less when fed individually. Thus certain workers stress this
" Competition in the feedlot" as being of practical importance in
feeding trials with beef cattle, sheep and hogs.

Here several small groups will yield a more sensitive test than a few
large ones.

Group feeding
Advantages

This

is

cheaper

in

terms

of

equipment and labour cost.

Disadvantages

Group

feeding

introduces

complications in the interpretation

of

results

variation

if

there

in

the

is

wide

individual

behaviour within the group like in

production, feed consumption etc.,

In case of the death of an animal in

a group, the feed consumed by the
dead animal till death could not be
accounted.

In group feeding, when fed together,

the animals consume somewhat
less than when fed individually.
This may be due to competition in
the feedlot.

Individual feeding

23

Advantages

The data on feed consumption can

be maintained and the individual
performance of the animal can be
ascertained.

Individual records are much more

useful

from

stand

point

of

statistical treatment.
Disadvantages

High cost of equipment and labour

required.

CONTROLLED VERSUS AD LIBITUM FEEDING

When the amount of feed consumed is regulated in some way by the

experimenter,the feeding is controlled, as distinguished from the ad
libitum system in which each animal or group is allowed to eat all it
wants.

Ad libitum feeding, or unrestricted feeding of animals is the most

commonly followed procedure in farm animal investigations and gives
unbiased results for direct practical application.

By keeping records of feed intake,the results can be expressed on an

efficiency basis, such as "feed required per 100 kg gain" as well as in
terms of total increase in weight.This system gives unbiased results for
direct practical application in terms of the feed, species and function
under study.

It is subject to the limitation, however, that with certain feeds and

rations differences in nutritive value may be masked by differences in
palatability.Further, the method does not provide the controlled
conditions

required

for

certain

purposes-for

example,

the

deterimination of digestibility.

Thus, in many instances there is an advantage in using some system

of controlled feeding. Earlier in their studies of protein quality,
Osborne and Mendel recogonised that ad libitum feeding, frequently
gave rise to variable results.

In one series of studies Osborne and Menedel kept the food intakes
alike for each diet under study, in accordance with a prescribed
schedule based upon the preliminary experiment.

24

They were thus able to compare the growth made on different diets
consumed in the same amount.Recognising that the more rapidly
growing animals might be at a disadvantage under this system in view
of their increasing maintenance requirement.

They carried out another series in which the food intake was adjusted
in accordance with increase in weight.

In another experiment Osborne and Mendel allowed ad libitum feeding

and selected for comparison the growth records of those animals
which had consumed substantially the same amount of food under
this system.

Ad libitum gives unbiased results for direct applications

Ad libitum feeding does not provide the controlled conditions required

for certain purposes like the determination of digestibility.

Ad libitum feeding frequently gives rise to variable results.

EQUALIZED PAIRED/PAIRED FEEDING

In paired feeding, the feed intakes are completely controlled.

In this method of comparing two rations, the animals are fed alike in a
preliminary period.

Then animals are selected by pairs and are kept on ration A and ration
B and are fed same quantity of feed limiting the intakes of both to that
of the animal consuming the lesser amount.

The two animals of the pair are similar in size, age and previous
history.
25

But such equalities are not essential from pair to pair.

The equalization of feed intake is also limited to with in the pair.

Minimum of four pairs of animals are to be used to carry out

statistical analysis.

In a experiment in which the two rations under comparison were alike

with the exception of the phosphorus carrier,both the rations
contained same amount of phosphorus and in the same ratio to
calcium. It is noted that for a given pair of rats the food intakes were
substantially alike over the experimental period of 35 days.

When it is desired to compare three rations at the same time, the

animals can be selected in trios.

Advantages

Properly conducted equalized feeding experiments have a distinct

advantage over ad libitum method as regards to the adaptability of the
results to statistical treatment.

Other things being equal, the larger the number of pairs or trios, the
greater is the reliability of the results.

Disadvantages

The faster-growing animal is penalized because of restricted feeding.

As the animal on the superior ration increases in weight over its mate,
its maintenance requirement becomes greater than that of its mate.

Under these conditions, an equal feed intake for both means, that the
larger animal must be using a larger proportion for maintenance and
less remains for growth promotion.

The frequent effect of a nutritionally deficient ration is to decrease

feed consumption.

By limiting feed intake, the full effect of the better ration cannot
express itself.

The method is not suitable for finding out how much superior one
ration is to another for growth.

SLAUGHTER EXPERIMENTS

Slaughter experiments involves the analysis of certain specific tissues

or of the body as a whole,

26

In studies of the protein requirement for growth or of the comparitive

value of different protein sources, it is important to know the specific
effect in terms of protein tisuue formed, since the increase in the body
as a whole is due to water, fat and minerals as well as protein, the
relationship may vary.

To study the effect of a given diet on changes in body composition, a

group of like animals are selected and a part of them are slaughtered
and analysed at the start of the experiment.

The others are fed different experimental diets for a given period and
then slaughtered and analyzed.

The difference in their composition from that of the animals killed at

the start reveals the effect of the diet fed.

In general, small laboratory animals are much easier to work with

than the larger farm animals.

Advantages

The slaughter method has found its greatest application in studying

the nutrition of beef cattle, sheep and swine.

Slaughter diets may also include various measures of market value,

such as dressing percentages and quality of the carcass and such
measures are frequently used in meat production experiments

To study the influence of a given ration, upon the quality of the

product and upon its selling price.

Disadvantages

It requires much more time and labour than is involved in merely

weighing feed and animals.

Difficult problems are presented in the selection of representative

samples of tissues and in their preparation for analysis.

For each period of observation, a sufficiently large number of animals

must be examined to minimize the large individual variability in
composition.

27

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
Commonly the experiments are designed by

CRD (Completely Randomised Designs)

RBD (Randomised Block Designs),

Factorial Design and

Latin Square Design (LSD).

In Factorial experiments, two factors like protein (16% and 18%) and
Energy (3000 kcal and 3300 kcal) at two levels are compared.

Use of statistiacl methods nutrition experiments

In a feeding trial certain factors, such as the amounts and quantities

of feed, the time and method of feeding and the general care and
management, can be definitely fixed. Certain other factors, inherent in
the animals used, cannot be controlled.

The

object

of

well-planned

experiment

is

to

reduce

these

uncontrollable factors to minimum by giving attention, in the selection

of animals used, to genetic and nutritional history as well as to such
factors as age, size, vigor etc. Even though this is effectively done,
there still remain inherent variables which cause two individuals to
respond somewhat differently though treated exactly alike in an
experiment.

The effect of the inherent variables cannot be measured, but the

probability that the observed differences in experimental results could
arise from the uncontrollable variables alone, can be estimated and
taken into account. This is done by a statistical analysis of the data
obtained. Such an analysis helps the investigator to decide whether
the results from a given comparison reflect a real difference in
response to the treatments or may have occurred simply because of
inherent variations in the animals used.

28

Statistical methods have become an essential tool of the investigators

of nutrition and some knowledge of them is helpful to all students in
this field as an aid in the evaluation of published research.

Overall conclusion on feeding expeiments

No single method is suitable for the solution of all types of nutrition

problems.

The effective investigator must select his method in accordance with

his problem, frequently employing more than one method.

He must interpret his results with a full consideration of the

advantages and limitations of the methods used.

CHAPTER-3: EVALUATION OF FEEDS BY DIGESTION EXPERIMENTS

Learning objectives
This chapter will give the learner an insight to understand the following:

history of digestion experiments,

measurement of digestibility Co-efficient,

norms adopted in conducting digestion and metabolism trial and

metabolic stall or crate used in digestion experiments.

HISTORY OF DIGESTION EXPERIMENTS

The first true digestibility trials on farm stock were carried out at the
Weende Experiment Station near by Henneberg and Stohmann. They began
their experiments in 1858 and in I860 published their findings. In it they
condemned

Thaer's

hay

equivalents

and

gave

results

of

their

experiments. The digestion experiments were started almost at the same

time when the feedstuff were being analysed chemically at the Weende
experiment station.

Actually the work on losses of nutrients in the faeces was conducted

even before 1860 to calculate the TDN.

Schneider and Flatt (1975) recorded the results of more than 3000
publications.

In India, ICAR published the results of over 430 digestion trials

conducted with the Indian feeds and fodders at different research
stations.
29

MEASUREMENT OF DIGESTIBILITY CO-EFFICIENT

The potential value of a food for supplying a particular nutrient can be

determined by chemical analysis, but the actual value of food to the
animal can be arrived at only after making allowances for the
inevitable

losses

that

occur

during

digestion,

absorption

and

metabolism.

The first tax imposed on a food is that represented by the part of it

which is not absorbed and is excreted in the faeces.

The digestibility of a food is most accurately defined as that proportion

which is not excreted in the faeces and which is, therefore assumed to
be absorbed by the animal.

It is commonly expressed in terms of dry matter and as a coefficient

or percentage. When the digestibility is expressed in percentage it is
known as digestibility coefficient.

For example, if a cow ate 10 kg of hay containing 9 kg of dry matter

and excreted 4 kg of dry matter in its faeces, the digestibility of the
hay dry matter would be:

The

digestibility

coefficient

determined

is

apparent,

since

the

faeces/dung contain metabolic (mucosal debris, unspent enzymes,

undigested microorganisms) as well as undigested feed.

Dung (digested DM excreted) = 3.7 kg from feed + 0.3 kg from body.

30

Thus the apparent digestibility of feed is less than the true

digestibility.

The losses of the ingested carbohydrates as methane and carbon

dioxide

are

also

accounted

in

digestibility.

So

digestibility

of

carbohydrates is overestimated.

Digestibility coefficients are estimated for all organic nutrients.

For ash or minerals it is not estimated, because it does not contribute

to energy to the feed, and most of the absorbed minerals are excreted
through the gut.

In a digestion trial the faecal matter is only analysed,whereas in a

metabolism trial both faecal matter and urine will be analysed for
losses of nutrients of dietary origin.

METABOLIC STALL OR CRATE USED IN DIGESTION EXPERIMENTS

A metabolism crate is actually a specially designed stall or box large

enough for the experimental animal to be housed in controlled
conditions during experimental period.

Here the animal enjoys freedom of movement, particularly as regards

lying down and getting up.

It is so designed to permit the collection of faeces and urine separately

under it.

In older type, the bottom is a metal grid or mesh of metal rods

through which both the faeces and urine pass, the faeces being
caught on a screen underneath and below the latter is a metal hopper
or funnel like subfloor to catch the urine.

In the type now more commonly used, the animal is confined so that
it cannot turn around, and the length of the cage is adjusted to the
size of the animal in such a way that the faeces fall into a properly
placed container.

The feed box is attached to the front, so constructed and placed as to

prevent scattering.

In order to avoid feed lodging at the corners, the bottoms of the metal
boxes should be rounded at the sides.

The bottom of each feed box, if made of metal, should be made of one
continuous piece of smooth sheet metal to eliminate joints or corners
where feed may accumulate. Thus very little or no feed may be lost.

31

CHAPTER-4: MEASUREMENT OF DIGESTIBILITY

Learning objectives
This chapter will give the learner an insight to understand the following:

methods of determining digestibility,

indirect method of determining digestibility by difference and

indicator method of determining digestibility.

METHODS OF DETERMINING DIGESTIBILITY

Digestion trial vs. Metabolism trial
Particulars Digestion trial

Metabolism trial

Purpose

Similar to digestion trials

Gives
32

information
proportion

on but

gives

of information on utilization

nutrients in a of

nutrient

feed or diet that absorption

are

more
after

from

the

absorbed gastro intestinal tract

from the gastro

intestinal tract
Information Information on In
obtained

addition

digestibility co- digestibility

efficient

to

co-efficient,

of one gets information on

nutrients

nutrient balances such

as

nitrogen,

calcium,

pPhosphorus, energy etc.

Hence, metabolism trials
provide

complete

information on nutrient
digestion and utilization
from

feedstuffs

than

digestion trials
What

is Only feces

In

collected

addition

to

feces,

urine, milk, gases like

co, sloughed
feathers

etc

hair,
are

also

collected
Result

Apparent

In addition to apparent

digestibility co- digestibility co-efficient of

efficient

of nutrients,

nutrients

the

information on positive
or

negative

nutrient

balance is obtained
Methods of Determining Digestibility
I. In vivo method

In this animals like sheep, goat, rabbit, pig, dairy cattle etc in which
digestibility of a feed is to be determined are used.

The two in vivo methods are :

o Direct Method or Conventional method
33

o Indirect: In the indirect method there are two methods:

Difference Method

Indicators/Markers Method

II. Semi in vivo methods

Nylon bag technique

VIVAR technique

III. In vitro methods

Using rumen liquor

Using enzymes instead of rumen liquor

RUSITEC method

INDIRECT

METHOD

OF

DETERMINING

DIGESTIBILITY

DIGESTIBILITY BY DIFFERENCE
Difference method

When the digestibility of poor quality non-maintenance type of forage

like stovers, kadbi, straws or mature grasses is to be determined
because these cannot be fed as sole source of nutrients.

If the digestibility of oilseed cakes, cereal grain and concentrate

mixture is to be determined then difference method is followed since
these cannot be fed as sole feed to ruminants.

Procedure
For example, if the digestibility of nutrients in a concentrate like maize grain
or groundnut cake and in a poor quality roughage like straw is to be
determined then three digestibility trials in a sequence are conducted.

1st digestion trial

o

feed the animals with a good quality roughage like legume hay
e.g. cowpea hay to determine the digestibility of nutrients in it.

nd

digestion trial
o the same animals are fed the same good quality fodder i.e.
cowpea hay that was fed during first digestion trial along with
known quantity of concentrate like groundnut cake or maize
grain etc whose digestibility is to be estimated by difference.

rd

3 digestion trial
o by feeding the same animals with the concentrate whose
digestibility was estimated in the second trial along with the
poor quality roughage i.e. grass whose digestibility is to be
determined. The digestibility of poor quality roughage will be
34

determined by difference using predicted value of groundnut

cake with the help of earlier trials (a) and (b).

INDICATOR METHOD OF DETERMINING DIGESTIBILITY

In some circumstances the lack of suitable equipment of the

particular nature of the trial may make it impracticable to measure
directly either food intake or faeces out put, or both. For instance,
when animals are fed as a group it is impossible to measure the intake
of each individual.

Digestibility can still be measured, however, if the food contains some

substance which is known to be completely indigestible.

If the concentrations of this indicator substance in the food and in

small samples of the faeces of each animal are then determined, the
ratio between these concentrations gives an estimate of digestibility.

For example, if the concentrations of the indicator increased from 1%

dry matter to 2% in the faeces, this would mean that 50% of the dry
matter

had

been

digested and

absorbed.

The indicator may be a natural constituent of the food or be a

chemical mixed into it. It is difficult to mix chemicals with foods like
hay, but an indigestible constitutent such as lignin may be used.

35

Other indicators in use today are fractions of the food known as

indigestible acid-detergent fibre and acid insoluble ash (mainly silica)
and also some naturally occuring n-alkanes of long chain length (C 25C35).

The indicator most commonly added to foods is chromium in the form

of chromic oxide, Cr2O3.Chromic oxide is very insoluble and hence
indigestible; moreover, chromium is unlikely to be present as a major
natural constituent of foods.

For non ruminants ,titanium dioxide may be added to foods as an

indicator.

Chromic oxide may be used as an indicator in a different way, to

estimate faeces output rather than digestibility.

In this application the marker is given for 10 -15 days in fixed

amounts ( eg. administered in a gelatin capsule) and once its excretion
is assumed to have stabilised its concentration in faeces samples is
determined.Faeces dry matter output (kg/day) is calculated as follows:

Marker dose (g per day)/ Marker concentration in faeces DM (g/kg).

For example, if an animal was given 10 g of chromic oxide per day and
the concentration of the marker was found to be 4 g/kg faecesDM,
faeces output would be calculated as 10/4 =2.5 kg DM/day. If food
intake was known, dry matter digestibility could be calculated in the
usual way.

The ideal specification of an indicator/marker are :

It should be totally indigestible.

It should not have any pharmacological action on the digestive tract. It

should be inert to the digestive system.

It must mix intimately and remain uniformly distributed in the

digesta.

It should pass through the tract at a uniform rate and should be

voided entirely.

It can readily be determined chemically, and

Preferably be a natural constituent of the feed under test.

Indicators may be used to measure digestibility of feed under the

following circumstances :

If metabolism cages and other facilities for direct collection of feces

and urine voided are not available

36

If animals are fed in groups, then it is impossible to record the

feed consumed and feces voided by each animal in the group but still
it is possible to measure digestibility of feed by the indicator method.

To know intake of herbage from cultivated or natural pastures

and digestibility of nutrients in the pasture consumed by the animal.

CHAPTER-5: MEASUREMENT OF DIGESTIBILITY

Learning objectives
This chapter will give the learner an insight to understand the following:

measurement of pasture consumption and digestibility in grazing

animals and

laboratory methods of estimating digestibility.

MEASUREMENT OF PASTURE CONSUMPTION AND DIGESTIBILITY IN

GRAZING ANIMALS

It is essential to know the quantity of forage a grazing animal

consumes from the pasture or a range and the nutritive value of the
pasture. So initially pasture grasses were harvested and digestion
trials were conducted in the stall. This method was not correct since
the grazing animals have a tendency of selective grazing. Subsequently
the grazing animals were harnessed with faeces collection bags and
faeces voided in 24 hours was determined. This can provide total dry
matter voided.

Pasture grasses were harvested and fed in the stalls to determine

digestibility coefficients. From these two figures the total dry matter
intake (DMI) of the animals was calculated.

37

It is difficult to obtain, the representative sample of forage actually

eaten by the grazing animal and quantitative collection of faeces by
faeces

bag.

Therefore markers

have

been

used

for

both

the

determination of digestibility of pasture herbage and DMI through

grazing.

Digestibility can be determined through use of an internal indicator.

Faecal output is measured concurrently by using an external marker

and intake is calculated as follows.

Normally chromic oxide is fed in a capsule to the grazing animals and

the number of grab samples of faeces are taken at different time
interval to determine the average concentration of the indicator per
unit weight of faeces.

For example: A grazing animal was fed 2 g of Cr 2O3 in a capsule per

day. Find out the forage intake and its DM digestibility.
% Composition
DM

Lignin(Internal Indicator)
38

Cr2O3(External Indicator)

Forage 20

0.05

Forage 15

0.10

0.1

Solution

Use of markers

Measurement of digestibility coefficients without total faecal collection

Measurement of herbage intake in grazing animals

Markers are used for quantifying the rate of passage and extent of
digestion in different segment of the gut.

Rare

earths

(Lanthanam,Samarium,cerium,ytterbium

and

dysprosium) may be used as reliable markers of particulate phase of

digesta.

Polyethylene glycol (PEG), Chromium, EDTA and Cobalt EDTA are

liquid phase markers in ruminant studies.

LABORATORY METHODS OF ESTIMATING DIGESTIBILITY

Since digestibility trials are laborious to perform, there have been

numerous attempts made to determine the digestibility of foods by
reproducing in the laboratory the reactions which take place in the
alimentary tract of the animal.

Digestion in non-ruminants is not easily simulated in its entirety, but

the digestibility of food protein may be determined from its
susceptibility to attack in vitro by pepsin and hydrochloric acid.

39

It is also possible to collect digestive tract secretions via cannulae and

to use them to digest foods in vitro.

Tilley and Terry method

Digestibility of feeds for ruminants can be measured quite accurately

in the laboratory by treating them first with rumen liquor and then
with pepsin.

During the first stage a known weight of the finely ground sample of
the feed whose organic matter composition is already determined is
incubated for 48 hours with buffered rumen liquor in a tube under
anaerobic conditions.

In the second stage the bacteria are killed by acidifying with

hydrochloric acid to pH 2 and are then digested by incubating them
with pepsin for a further 48 hours.

The insoluble residue is filtered off, dried and ignited and again
weighed.

The difference between the two weighing gives the organic matter
present in the residue.

The

digestibility

coefficient

determined in

vitro is

generally

1-2

percentage units lower than the coefficient measured in vivo.

In sacco or In situ or Semi in vivo or Nylon or Dacron Bag Technique.

40

The digestibility/degradability of feeds in the rumen can

be determined by keeping the feed sample in bags which
are immersed in rumen contents of rumen fistulated
animals.

The bags are made up of nylon, dacron or silk cloth

which is indigestible and should be of very fine mesh so
that the test feed particles should not pass out of the
bag undegraded but at the same time it should allow the
rumen microbes to enter into the bag and act on the test
feed.

The bags on removal at different time intervals are

washed till the wash water is clear and dried at 60 0C for
48 hours.

The percent disappearence of dry matter, nitrogen/crude

protein, different fibre fractions etc are determined.

Applications of the technique

This technique provides a powerful tool for initial evaluation of

feedstuffs and

is

useful in

screening, rapidly,

large

number

of

samples developed in forage breeding experiments .

This technique is helpful to understand the rumen processes. It is

possible to vary the factors within the bag or within the rumen. The
animal can be fed a constant diet, and the effect of (treated straw
over untreated straw

or hay or complete diet) manipulating the

feedstuffs incubated in the bag on its degradation kinetics can be

studied. Alternatively, the conditions within the rumen ie: rumen
environment, can be varied and a standard material incubated in the

41

bag in order to study the effect of rumen environment on the rate of

degradation.
Limitations

The technique has certain inherent limitations.

The test feed in the bag is not subjected to the total ruminal
experience, ie., mastication, rumination and passage. What is actually
measured is the breakdown of material to a size small enough to leave
the bag and not necessarily a complete degradation to simple chemical
compounds.

In Vivo Artificial Rumen (VIVAR) Technique

42

CHAPTER-6: FACTORS AFFECTING DIGESTIBILITY OF FEED

Learning objectives
This chapter will give the learner an insight to understand the following:

factors affecting digestibility of a feed and

factors affecting the Total digestible nutrients (TDN) and ME value of

the feed.

FACTORS AFFECTING DIGESTIBILITY OF FEED

A. ANIMAL FACTORS
B. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF THE FEED
C. PREPARATION OF FEED
A. ANIMAL FACTORS
Species

Roughages high in crude fibre are better digested by ruminants than

by non-ruminants due to the pre-gastric fermentative digestion that
occurs in the ruminants.

In several non-ruminants, post-gastric fermentative digestion occurs

which helps in digestion of crude fibre.

Pre-gastric

fermentative

digestion

is

highly

efficient

since

the

nutrients released are digested and absorbed in stomach and small

intestine.

The ruminant is more efficient in the digestion of high-fibre, low

protein forage; whereas the simple stomached pig is more efficient in
digestion of high protein, low-fibre feedstuffs.

Age
43

Very young or very old animals are usually less efficient in their
digestion of feeds.

The young ruminants can neither eat nor digest roughage until their
digestive tracts, specially their rumens are developed.

After 6 months of age there appears to be no difference in the

digestibilty of the ration in the calf and adult dry animal.

In newly born piglets, development of digestive enzyme system takes

place gradually.

Digestibility of fat in chickens is higher in adults than in young chicks.

In case of old animals their ability to chew feed is impaired by worn

out teeth.

Declining health and reduced secretion of enzymes may adversely

affect the digestibilty at an advanced age.

Work

Light work seems to improve digestibility of feeds, while heavy work

depresses it.

Individuality

Individual variation of as much as 25% has been observed in the

digestive ability of the same feed among animals. However, most
animals have shown variation of about 4 - 5%.

Level of feeding

Generally when more feed is consumed by the animal the rate of

passage of the digesta in the alimentary canal is faster and the
digestibilty declines due to lesser retention time. This effect has been
significantly observed in ruminants and to some extent in swine as
well.

B. CHEMICAL COMPOSTION OF FEED

Generally grains are well utilised by all classes of livestock.

The digestibility of forages is closely related to the chemical

composition.

The chemical composition of the forage is affected by number of

factors like soil composition, manuring and fertilization, water supply,
stage of maturity of the plant, frequency of cutting, variety and strain

44

of the plant, climate, etc; the predominant factor being the stage of
maturity when cut.

Differences among varieties within the same species may be due to

the physical composition of the plant.ie: leaf to stem ratio, soil fertility,
etc. Early cut fodder has higher digestibility than late-cut.

The protein, minerals and vitamins decreases while crude fibre

increases as the plant matures.

C. PREPARATION OF FEED
Particle size of the feed

Grinding of grains and other feed helps to improve digestibility in

young piglets with undeveloped teeth and in older animals with worn
out teeth.

In general grinding increase digestibility, because of increase surface

area for enzymatic action and disruption of grain coat. If grain or any
other feed is ground to a fine particle size, the feed is less palatable
and digestible. If roughages are ground to fine grinding, digestibility of
fibre is decreased while total consumption is increased due to
increased rate of passage.

Rumen fermentation pattern is also changed due to fine grinding of

feed.

Soaking

Soaking of grains and feed in water before feeding generally increases

digestibility.

Processing of grains/feed

Processing by boiling, steam processing, micronization, pelleting,

extrusion

cooking,

improves

their

digestibility.

However

some

processing methods depress digestibility due to increased dry matter

consumption and the eventful faster rate of passage. This is more
conspicuous in pelleting of roughages, where digestibilty of DM and
crude fibre decreases.
Nutrient content in the ration/ration composition

Protein level: When several feeds are fed in a ration, one feed may
influence the digestibility of the other. This "associative effect" of feeds
on one another's digestibility is more evident in the case of ruminants,
when the addition of a protein or NPN compound to a low protein
ration increases the microbial
45

digestion of the crude fibre by

stimulating the growth of microorganisms in the rumen. Thus as the

dietary protein level increases, the digestibility of all the nutrient
increases. Similarly, as the dietary protein level is lowered ,the
digestibility of all the nutrients decreases.

Carbohydrates: The nature and level of dietary carbohydrates affect

the digestibility of all nutrients present in the diet. In ruminants,
excessive levels of soluble carbohydrates (eg.molasses 7% and above)
results in lower microbial breakdown of crude fibre. It tends to
depress not only the digestibility of cellulose, hemicellulose, etc., but
other nutrients also. High crude fibre content of mixed diets decreases
their digestibility. The higher the percentage of crude fibre in a ration,
the lower is the digestibility of dry matter and all other nutrients.

Lipids: Addition of oil or fat in a diet increases the digestibility

coefficient of ether extract, as such fats have higher digestibility than
other constituents of the ether extract. Higher levels of fat in the diets
generally reduce the digestibility of other nutrients, particularly of
dietary fibre.

Minerals: In the diets of pigs and poultry, mineral content does not
seem to influence the digestibility of other dietary constituents, while
mineral deficiency produces more severe deficiency symptoms in their
body. Deficiency of minerals in herbivorous animals limits the growth
of microorganisms and this will reduce the digestibility of crude fibre
and of other nutrients as well. Adequate amount of salt and water
tend to improve digestibility.

FACTORS AFFECTING THE TOTAL DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS (TDN)

AND ME VALUE OF FEED AND WEAKNESS OF TDN SYSTEM
Factors affecting the Total Digestible Nutrients (TDN) value of feed

Percentage of dry matter : The more the water present in a feed, the
less is the other nutrients and resulting in a lower total digestible
nutrient value (TDN) .

Digestibility of dry matter : Unless the dry matter of a feed is

digestible, it has no TDN value. eg. Mineral oil has a high gross energy
46

value, but it cannot be digested and so has no digestible energy or

TDN value.

Amount of mineral matter in the dry matter : The more mineral matter
a feed contains, the lower will be the organic matter and its TDN
value.

Digestibility of fat in the dry matter: The more digestible fat a feed
contains, the greater will be the TDN value.

Feed

Weakness of the TDN system

It is based on proximate analysis of the feed,which does not partition

the feed into well defined chemical constitutents. Almost all proximate
principles are composed of more than one chemical compound.

The highly digestible nitrogen free extract (NFE) contain part of

hemicellulose and lignin, while crude fibre residue contains all the
original cellulose, variable proportions of the hemicellulose, and small
and variable proportion of lignin. That is why the assumption about
high digestibility of NFE and low digestibility of crude fibre is always
not true and for some feeds crude fibre is as digestible as NFE.

The factor, 2.25 used in case of fat to equalise its high energy content
with that of carbohydrate and protein is not always a constant.

47

It is also based on human and dog experimental data. The ether

extract of various feeds differ in the true fat content.

It does not measure energy in energy units.

It attempts to measure what feed 'contains' rather than what they

accomplish or produce.

It over estimates the energy value of forages in relation to

concentrates.

The term TDN implies that digestion losses only are taken into
account. But actually this is not the case. To put protein on an
equivalent carbohydrate basis, as was done for fat, digestible protein
should have been multiplied by a factor namely,1.3 (5.2/4=1.3). But
this is not being done. That is how calculation of TDN took account of
urine as well as digestion losses. Actually, as calculated, it is a
measure similar to ME for those species having no gaseous losses.
Thus TDN doe not mean what it implies.

Factors affecting the metabolizable energy value of feeds

Main factors that affect the metabolizable energy value of a feed are
those which influences its digestibility.

ME value of a feed will obviously vary according to the species of

animal to which it is given, or more specifically, to the type of digestion
to which it is subjected. Fermentative digestion incurs losses of energy
as methane.

A disadvantage of the intervention of microorganisms in digestion is

an increase in the losses of energy in either urine (as the breakdown
products of the nucleic acids of bacteria that have been digested and
absorbed) or faeces (as microorganisms grown in the hindgut are not
digested). In general, losses of energy in methane and in urine are
greater for ruminants than for non-ruminants. So feeds such as
concentrates, that are digested to the same extent in ruminants and
non-ruminants, will have higher ME value for non-ruminants.

The ME value of a feed will vary according to whether the amino acids
it supplies are retained by the animal for protein synthesis or are
deaminated and their nitrogen excreted in the urine as urea/uric acid.
For this reason, ME values are sometimes corrected to zero nitrogen
balance.

48

Preparation of feed: For ruminats the grinding and pelleting of

roughages leads to an increase in faecal losses of energy, but this may
be partly offset by a reduction in methane production. But for poultry
the grinding of cereals has no consistent effect on ME values.

Increase in the level of feeding of ruminants may cause an appreciable

reduction in the digestibility of their feed and hence in its, ME value.
For finely ground roughages and for mixed roughages and concentrate
diets, ME value is reduced by increase in the level of feeding.

The end products of rumen fermentation influence the value of ME.

High concentrate, low roughage rations increase propionic and butyric
acids and lowers the acetic acid in the rumen contents; methane
production is also reduced.

49

CHAPTER-7: FEEDING STANDARDS

Learning objectives
This chapter will give the learner an insight to understand the following:

feeding standards - Definition and Expression and

classification of feeding standards.

FEEDING STANDARDS -Definition and expression

Feeding standards are statements or quantitative descriptions of the

amounts of one or more such nutrients needed by animals.

Feedings standards are the tables, which indicate the quantities of

nutrients to be fed to the various classes of livestock for different
physiological functions like growth, maintenance, lactation, egg
production and wool growth.

The nutrient requirements are generally expressed in quantities of

nutrients required per day or as a percentage of diet.

For dairy animals, nutrient requirements are generally expressed as

separate body functions but in case of poultry and pigs, combined
requirements of maintenance and other body functions are given.

There are two terms, which has been used, in the feeding standards.

One

is

the

nutrient

allowance

and

another

is

the

nutrient

requirement.

The former gives an extra allowance of nutrient over the requirement,

which gives a margin of safety whereas latter term gives the
requirement for optimum production.

For convenience, all such feeding standards are grouped under major
heading on the basis of principles of the standards such as
o Comparative type
o Digestible nutrient system
o Production value type.

The various feeding standards of the world which are available for
feeding of different categories of livestock are given below:
50

Name of the country

Protein

Energy

NRC (USA)

CP, DCP

TDN, DE, NE

ARC (UK)

DCP, AP

DE, ME

SCANDINAVIA

DTP

FEED UNIT

GERMAN

DCP

SE

INDIA

DCP

TDN,ME

Where,
CP

= Crude Protein

DCP = Digestible Crude Protein

DTP = Digestible True Protein
AP

= Available Protein

TDN = Total Digestible Nutrient

SE

= Starch Equivalent

DE = Digestible Energy
ME = Metabolizable Energy
NE = Net Enrgy
CLASSIFICATION OF FEEDING STANDARDS
Comparative type

Hay Equivalent standard

Scandinavian feed Unit Standard

Digestible-Nutrient system

Grouvens

Wolffs

Wolffs Lehmann

Haeckerss

Savage

Morrison

National Research Council

Indian

Production-value type

Kellner

Armsby

Agricultural and Food Research Council

51

CHAPTER-8: FEEDING STANDARDS

Learning objectives
This chapter will give the learner an insight to understand the following:

hay standard and

scandinavian feed unit standard.

HAY STANDARD

In 1810 German scientist Thaer, suggested that different feeds should

be compared using meadow hay as a unit.

He published the " HAY EQUIVALENT" as measure of relative value

based on determining the materials in feeds extractable with water
(and other solvents).

This standard provided that 100 lbs. of meadow hay was equal in
nutritive value to 91 lbs. of clover hay or 200 lbs. of potatoes, 625 lbs.
of mangels.
52

Nothing was known of the chemical value of these feeds and the
physiological requirements of the animals.

The only measure was the practical feeding experience.

SCANDINAVIAN FEED UNIT SYSTEM

In 1884, Professor Fjord formulated the Scandinavian feeding

standard.

In this system only one factor, namely, the feed unit was taken into
account.

The value of one pound of common grain such as corn, barley or

wheat, is given as one unit value and the value of all other foods is
based upon this.

According to this standard one feed unit is required for each 150 lbs of
body weight and an additional unit for every three pounds of milk
production.

This feeding standard was based upon the actual milk production
record of the farm animals.

Further as per modification to this standard it was suggested that in

addition to feed unit,0.065 lbs of digestible crude protein (DCP) per
100 lbs body weight and 0.05 lbs of DCP per lbs of milk production
should be given to the animals.

Being simple and easy to calculate, this feeding standard is still

continued in a number of Scandinavian countries for formulation of
ration for livestock.

As the grains are of different types in different countries, the feed

units should also be different.

Hence the Scandinavian units are not applicable in our country

unless experiments are conducted here with our own grains.

CHAPTER-9: FEEDING STANDARDS

Learning objectives
This chapter will give the learner an insight to understand the following:

Grouvens

Wolffs

Wolffs Lehmann

Haeckers and

Savage

53

GROUVENS FEEDING STANDARD

In 1859 Grouven, a German chemist published his feeding standard

with crude protein, carbohydrates and fat contained in the feed as the
basis of the standard.

According to this standard a cow weighing 1,000 lbs. should be fed

28.7 lbs. of dry matter containing 2.67 lbs. of crude protein 0.6 lb. of
crude fat and 14.55 lbs. of crude carbohydrates.

Very soon after standard of Grouven, Henneberg and Stohmann found

that the total nutrient contained in a feed did not form an accurate
guide to its value.

The proportion of digestible parts varied with different feeds and

hence the digestible nutrient would be more valuable.

So due to this defect Grouvens feeding standard was abandoned.

WOLFFS FEEDING STANDARD

In 1864 Dr. Emil von Wolff ( German Scientist ) proposed a feeding

standard based on digestible protein, digestible carbohydrates and
digestible fats contained in a feeding stuff.

His standard for dairy cows weighing 1,000 lbs. was 24.5 lbs. of dry
matter containing 2.5 lbs. of digestible carbohydrates and 0.4 lb. of
digestible fats.

This has a nutritive ratio 1:5.4.

This standard though an improvement over the standard of Grouven,

it does not consider the quantity and quality of milk produced and the
maintenance

and

production

requirement

were

not

considered

separately. Keeping these shortcomings in mind Professor Kuhn

published feeding standards in 1867 based upon the maintenance
and production requirements along with quantity of milk production.

Wolff's standards were published annually

without fundamental

change until 1897, when they were modified by G.Lehmann (German

scientist) to become Wolff-Lehmann standards for various classes of
animals.

Atwater brought the Wolff's standard to the attention of American

workers in 1874 in the annual report of the Connecticut Board of
Agriculture. In 1880 these standards were also published by Armsby
in his book " Manual of cattle feeding". As a result, the Wolff
standards commenced to be used in the United states.

54

WOLFFS LEHMANN FEEDING STANDARD

Dr. G. Lehmann of Berlin modified Wolffs standard in 1896. Till then

Wolffs standard was in use.

He took into account the quantity of milk produced, but he failed to

take into account the quality of milk.

The requirements of a cow with a body weight of 1000 lbs. as fixed by

this standard for maintenance and maintenance cum milk production
are
For

maintenance For

production

only

maintenance

Dry matter

18 lb.

25 lb

Crude protein

0.7 lb.

1.6 lb.

Fat

0.1lb.

0.3 lb.

Carbohydrate

8.0 lb.

10 lb.

and

s
HAECKERS FEEDING STANDARD

Keeping in view the demerits of Wolff Lehmann standard, Haecker

(1903) an American worker formulated the feeding standard, who for
the first time considered the quantity as well as the quality of milk
produced in formulating a milk standard.

He took into account the allowance for the percentage of fat in the
milk in addition to the requirement for maintenance, production and
total milk yield.

He was also the first to separate the requirements for maintenance

from the requirements of production (milk yield).

His standards included digestible crude protein, carbohydrates and

fats.
55

Later it was expressed as digestible crude protein and total digestible

nutrients .

According to this standard a cow weighing 800 lbs will require 0.56
lbs DCP and 6.34 lbs TDN for maintenance and 0.054 lbs DCP and
0.341 lbs TDN for every lbs of milk with 4 percent fat in it.

An American scientist Savage concluded that the Haecker's standard

was too low especially in protein requirement and published his
feeding standard in 1912 by increasing 20 percent of protein
requirements.

He expressed his standard in terms of DCP and TDN and further

showed that about 2/3 requirement of the dry matter should be met
by feeding roughages and the remaining 1/3 from concentrates.

Fat content of the milk was also considered.

He suggested that in case of milking cows at least 24 lbs. of dry

matter should be provided for an average cow.

The nutritive ratio should not be wider than 1:6 or narrow than 1:4.5.

According to this standard a cow weighing 1000 lbs will require 0.70
lbs TDN for maintenance. In addition to this, cow will require 0.065
lbs DCP and 0.350lbs TDN for every lbs of milk produced with 4
percent of fat.

CHAPTER-10: FEEDING STANDARDS

56

Learning objectives
As you read this chapter, the following chapters will give you an insight to
understand

Morrison,

National Research Council and

Indian standards.

MORRISON FEEDING STANDARD

Morrison F.B. observed that stockmen are spending large sums of

money for entirely unnecessary amounts on protein supplement, thus
considerably reducing their profits.

He therefore, endeavoured to combine in one set of standards what

seem in the judgment to be the best guide available in computation of
rations for the various classes of livestock.

These standards were first presented in the 15 th edition of Feeds and

Feeding published in 1915 under the authorship of Henry and
Morrison. They

were then called Modified Wolff and Lehmann

standard.

They soon came to be known as the Morrison Feeding Standard.

These standards were expressed in terms of Dry Matter (D.M.),

Digestible Protein (D.P.) and Total Digestible Nutrients (T.D.N.).

Morrison indicated the nutrient requirement of animals in a range

rather than in one figure.

In the year 1956, Morrison included in the standard the allowances

for

Calcium,

Phosphorus

and

Carotene

besides

digestible

carbohydrates, digestible proteins and net energy in therms.

The average of Morrison standards has been accepted for Indian

livestock.

57

NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL (N.R.C.) STANDARD

In USA a sub-committee of the committee on Animal Nutrition under

the auspices of the National Academy of Sciences - National Research
Council

(NRC)

and

US

Department

of

Agriculture

(USDA)recommended a nutrient allowance for dairy cattle which was

first published in 1945. Since then they have been publishing the
nutrient requirements for all types of farm animals .

The standard includes digestible protein and total digestible nutrients

and also includes the recommended requirements for calcium,
phosphorus, carotene and vitamin D for dairy cattle, beef cattle, pigs,
poultry, sheep, dogs, horses, laboratory animals etc.

Today in a number of countries N.R.C. standards are followed where

they use ME for poultry, DE for swine and horses, DE, ME and TDN
for sheep, ME, TDN and NEm and NEg for beef cattle and for dairy
cattle, values are given for DE, ME, TDN, NE m and NEg for growing
animals with additional values as NEl for lactating cows.

INDIAN STANDARDS
Sen and Ray standard
Dr. K. C. Sen, the first Director, National Dairy
Research

Institute,

Bangalore

and

Karnal

and

Ray have compiled the feeding standards for Zebu

cattle

and

buffaloes,

based

on

Morrisons

recommendations, where they adopted the average of

maximum and minimum values recommended by
Morrison. Later on Sen, Ray and Ranjhan (1978)
revised the Sen and Ray (1964) standard on the
basis of experimental trials conducted in Indian
animals. These modified values are still functioning
in many of our established dairy farms.
Indian council of agricultural research feeding standardRD
Considering the fact that nutrient needs of livestock and poultry breeds
under tropical environments are different from those developed in temperate
climate, the Indian Council of Agricultural Research, realising the necessity
of setting up suitable feeding standards for the Indian livestock and poultry,
58

assigned this task to Late Dr. N. D. Kehar, the then Chairman, I. C. A. R.

scientific panel on Animal Nutrition and Physiology, as he had been
associated with this type of research activities for about two decades.

The scientific panel set up sub-committees for each species by inviting

experts from various institutes of the country.

On

the

basis

of

the

scientific

information

arising

from

the

experimental work carried out in India over the past two decades,
nutrient requirement of Indian livestock and poultry ultimately has
been published by I. C. A. R. in January 1985 under the able
Chairmanship of the panel Dr. K. Pradhan, which formed a strong
basis for feeding our livestock and poultry.These standards were
updated and were revised in 1998.

The feeding standards are based on the experimental results and have
been organized to contain information on daily DM, DCP, TDN,
Calcium and Phosphorus intake. Since most of the data on energy
and protein value of feed and animals's requirement in India have
been expressed in TDN and DCP. The figure of total digestible nutrient
can be converted into digestible and metabolizable energy by taking
4.4 Mcal DE and 3.6 Mcal ME per kg TDN.

59

CHAPTER-11: FEEDING STANDARDS

Learning objectives
This chapter will give the learner an insight to understand the following:

Kellner,

Armsby,

Agricultural and Food Research Council and

Usefulness and limitations of feeding standards.

KELLNER FEEDING STANDARD

In 1907 Kellner, a German scientist investigated a feeding standard

based upon Starch as the unit of measurement.

He took into account not only the digestibility of the feeds as

calculated from the amount lost in faeces and urine but also the
entire loss from the body including energy expended in digestion and
passing the food inside the body (chewing, etc.).

For measuring the amount of energy lost from the body as heat,
Kellner devised a respiration apparatus.

Here heat is determined indirectly by finding the amount of carbon

dioxide gas liberated or by measuring the amount of oxygen gas used
up in oxidation which takes place in the body.

The animal breathes through an airtight mask placed over its nose
and mouth.

According to this system, a 1,000 lbs. animal needs 0.6 lb. of

digestible protein and 6.35 lbs. of starch equivalent.

This starch equivalent in turn can be converted into energy by a

method worked out by Armsby and Kellner.
60

For any feed if the composition of it is known it may be converted to

starch equivalent by using the following factors:

Dig Protein
Fat from coarse fodder
Fat from cereal grain
Fat from oil seeds
Dig. Carbohydrates and fibre
ARMSBY FEEDING STANDARD

x
x
x
x
x

Armsby standard in U.S.A

was based on true protein
and net energy values.

By

means

respiration

of

the

calorimeter,

Armsby determined the net

energy

required

mastication,

for

digestion,

assimilation and also the

amount of heat and gases
given

off

through

the

excretory channels.

Thus after considering the

various losses of energy
such as in urine, faeces,
gases and in the work of
digestion, he was able to
estimate the amount of net
energy

available

productive
Armsby

for

purposes.
expresses

his

standard in two factors,

that is true protein and
therms of net energy.

A common criticism of the

Armsby standard is that
the expense of determining
requirements

of

the

animals and the net energy

in the various feeds is
61

0.94
2.1
2.1
2.4
1.0

=
=
=
=
=

S.E.
S.E.
S.E.
S.E.
S.E.

excessively high.

The net energy values of

only a very few feeds had
actually been determined
and most of the values
have been computed from
the

Table

of

Morrisons

digestible nutrients.

Armsby standard is not as

widely used as are the
standards

based

on

digestible nutrients.

AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD RESEARCH COUNCIL (A.F.R.C.) STANDARD

In United Kingdom a technical committee was set up to develop the

standards in 1959, by the Agricultural Research Council (ARC), which
later came to be known as Agricultural and Food Research Council
(AFRC).

Between 1960 and the mid-1980s, feeding standards in the United

Kingdom were drawn up by research scientist and then translated into
practical manuals by extension workers of the Ministry of Agriculture,
Food and

Fisheries

(MAFF) and

associated

governmental and

commercial organizations .

In 1983 AFRC set up a single organisation for the UK, Technical

committee on Responses to Nutrients (TCORN) and this became
responsible for both revising the standards and producing practical
manuals.

Requirements are set forth in three separate reports dealing with

poultry, ruminants and pigs, each of these reports are extensive
summaries of the literatures upon which the requirements are based.
62

The unit of energy requirements has been expressed in terms of

Starch equivalent instead of T.D.N. or ME or NE as in Morrison and in
N.R.C. standards.

USEFULLNESS AND LIMITATIONS OF FEEDING STANDARDS

Feeding standards serve as a guide in feeding animals and in

estimating the adequacy of feed intakes and of feed supplies for
groups of animals .

In practical feeding operations, it is

frequently desirable to take

economic

Thus,

factors into

account.

modifications

(in

feeding standards) may be called for in the interest of obtaining the

rate of gain or level of milk production that seems the most
economical

in

terms

of

current

feed

costs

and

the

market

price of the product.

No standard can be a complete guide to feeding because other factors

such as palatability and the physical nature of the ration must also
be taken into account.

Further, environment may change nutrient requirement.

Merits and Demerits of various feeding standards

The units used in feeding standards should be the same as those used
in the evaluation of feeds.

Energy evaluation

It is not tenable to consider one nutrient more important than

another, Since all must be available to the animal in adequate
amounts if efficient production is to be maintained. However, an
animal's requirement for energy is the primary consideration from a
quantitative and economic position.

Energy is the most important factor which limits livestock production

and meeting the energy requirement for maintenance and production
is the major cost associated with feeding animals.

The best unit for expressing the energy value is the one which takes
into account all the losses incurred by the animal in utilising the
energy present in feeds.

TDN and DE Systems

The TDN and DE system of feed evaluation have been and continue to
be used because these measures are useful as first approximations of
a feeds value as a source of energy and a considerable and valuable
63

volume of knowledge exists concerning the proximate composition and

the TDN or DE value of feedstuffs.
Merits

TDN is a measure of apparent DE but is expressed in units of weight

or percent rather than energy per se.

TDN value provides a relative measure of the DE content of feed:1 kg

TDN =4.409 Mcal DE.

It is easy to determine the TDN content of feedstuffs: proximate

composition of feed and faeces and digestion trial are to be done.

Digestible energy can readily be determined by using

a bomb

calorimeter to measure the Gross energy of feed and faeces. No

chemical analysis are required.
Demerits

TDN systems takes into account only the losses of nutrients in the
faeces but not the other losses from the body.

TDN system overevaluates the energy value of poor quality roughages

in relation to concentrates specially so in hot environment because
o TDN does not consider large amounts of energy wasted in the
digestion of fibrous feeds in the form of gases and heat
increment and
o Ether extract of forages largely comprise other than true fat. So
a kg of TDN in roughages has less value for productive purpose
than a kg of TDN in concentrate.

Certain species of forage were found to have high gross energy and
high TDN values due to essential oils but low ME values.

The measurement of DE takes into account the losses only through

faeces.

Starch equivalent and metabolizable energy system

The total digestible nutrients (TDN) system in the USA, Canada and India
and Starch Equivalent (SE) system in Europe have been widely used since
early 1900s. The SE system was replaced by the ME system devised by
Blaxter in the UK. The ARC has adopted the ME system since 1980. ME goes
a step beyond DE or TDN (Since energy losses in urine and gasses produced
during digestion are corrected) and provides a more accurate measure of the
value

of

feedstuff.

It has been common to use ME as a measure of feed value for poultry

64

because their faeces and urine are excreted through a common orifice; it is
actually easier to determine ME than DE for them.
Merits of ME system

ME represents a more accurate measure since losses in urinary and

gaseous products of digestion are also accounted for.

ME provides a more satisfactory measure of nutritive value than do

TDN or DE

ME is cheaper and easier to obtain than NE values.

The efficiency of utilisation of ME takes into consideration the

purpose for which it is fed, level of feeding and caloric density of the
diet.

Demerits

The requirement of the animal and feed value are given in terms of NE
and ME, respectively.

The large differences in the efficiency of utilisation of ME are primarily

due to wide variation in the energy losses as heat increment.

65

CHAPTER-12: NUTRIENT REQUIREMENT FOR LIVESTOCK - ENERGY

REQUIREMENT FOR MAINTENANCE
Learning objectives
This chapter will give the learner an insight to understand the following:

Introduction.

Energy requirement for maintenance -Fasting catabolism, energy

metabolism of fasting animals.

Basal and fasting metabolism and

Units of reference in fasting metabolism/basal metabolism.

INTRODUCTION

Nutritive requirements are the statements of the amount of nutrients

required by animals that should support normal function.

ENERGY REQUIRMENTS FOR MAINTENANCE

Feeding for maintenance

Primarily the nutrients in a ration are used for maintaining the life of
the animal. Certain amount of energy, protein and other nutrients is
required for life sustaining activities of the body such as for the heart
to pump blood, for respiration, for the nervous system to maintain its
own activity and muscle tone, for temperature regulation, for the
general metabolism of most tissues, for active absorption and
transport of chemical compounds, for repair of damaged or worn
tissues, protein turnover and for the production of hormones and
enzymes. If an animal is not fed, the energy, protein and other
nutrients required for the above functions will be drawn from the
animals body reserves of fats, proteins etc. leading to negative energy
or protein balance and the animal will lose body weight over a period
of time. The purpose feeding animals is to prevent this drain on the
animals body reserves

Maintenance requirement

The maintenance requirement of a nutrient can be defined as the

quantity which must be supplied in the diet so that the animal
experiences neither net gain nor net loss of the nutrient.

Energy required for maintenance

The maintenance energy requirements includes three components,

o Basal metabolism
o Energy to maintain the animals body temperature
66

o Energy for voluntary activity, protein turnover etc.

An animal is in a state of maintenance when the amount of nutrients

in the feed will maintain the animal in equilibrium i.e., its body
composition remains constant and is not growing, not working or not
giving any product as milk or mutton or egg.

This minimum demand of feed is referred to as the maintenance

requirement. If this need is not met, the animals are forced to draw
upon their body reserves to meet their nutrient requirements for
maintenance, commonly revealed by a loss in weight and other
undesirable consequences. The destruction of body tissue is referred
to as fasting catabolism.

Livestock are fed for production and generally not for maintenance.
Maintenance of an animal is an important overhead of the livestock
business. A dairy cow weighing 500 kg and producing 20 kg of 4% fat
milk daily, uses 37% of its total ME requirement for maintenance,
versus 23% at a yield of 40 kg. That is why high milk producing
animals are preferred for a profitable dairy enterprise.

Fasting catabolism

In the absence of feed, the nutrients required to support the activities

essential to life (viz, respiration, circulation, maintenance of muscular
tonus, manufacture of internal secretions, etc. ) come from the
breakdown of body tissue itself. This destruction of body tissue is
referred to as the fasting catabolism and it can be measured in terms
of the waste products eliminated through the various paths of
excretion. Most of the tissue breakdown occurs to meet the demand of
the fasting organism for energy for its vital processes.

Energy metabolism of fasting animal

The energy expended in the fasting animal is represented by the

fasting animal heat production and this can be measured in the
respiration calorimeter (Direct Calorimetry) or can be obtained by one
of the methods of indirect calorimetry.

Its measurement provides a useful basis of reference for other phases

of energy metabolism.

The energy used by animals for maintenance is converted into heat

and leaves the body as heat.

The quantity of heat arising in this way is known as the basal

metabolism and measuring this heat produced gives a direct estimate
67

of the net energy the animal should get from its feed to meet the
maintenance energy requirement.
Methods to determine the energy required for maintenance of animals

Measuring basal or fasting metabolic rate

Metabolizable

energy

requirements

can

also

be

estimated

by

conduction short and long term trials with mature, non producing
animals fed at the maintenance level (if the energy content of their
food is known).

By conducting feeding trials with different levels of feed intakes and by

extrapolation of

intake of feed towards zero level of production.

Regression methods

By conducting slaughter experiments

BASAL AND FASTING METABOLISM

Basal metabolism

The term Basal Metabolism or Basal Metabolic rate (BMR) refer to the
heat production of an animal resting in a thermally neutral
environment (temperature range in which environmental temperature
does not stimulate normal metabolism, approximately 25 oC) and in a
post-absorptive state (that is after the digestion and absorption of the
last food ingested has stopped).

During this rest period although the animal will be doing no external
or digestive work nor will it have any emotional excitement, still it will
carry on a variety of internal processes, which are essential to life.

These processes include respiration, circulation, maintenance of

muscular tonus, production of internal secretions, etc.

In the absence of feed, the nutrients required to support these

activities must come from the breakdown of body tissues itself.

The heat production can be determined by direct calorimetry, or by

indirect calorimetry.

The conditions which are essential for measuring metabolic rate, are :

Good nutritive condition: This implies that the previous diet of the
animal has been adequate, especially as regards to energy and
protein. Poor state of previous nutrition tends to decrease basal heat
production.
68

Environmental temperature: Temperature of about 25oC is specified as

it provides thermoneutral environment.

Rest: by this way the minimum muscular activity can be achieved.

This is very difficult for any kind of animal other than man.

Post-absorptive state: state when the process or digestion or absorption

disappears. It is reached by an overnight starvation in case of human,
but for ruminants it may require about three or four days. Any
ruminants can hardly fulfill this condition; hence it is measured after
a starvation period of about 5 hours. Because of the fact that the last
two conditions cannot be fulfilled and a modification is recommended
for ruminant animals, hence the term resting metabolism is used in
place of basal metabolism.

To determine if an animal has reached a post absorptive state,

measurement of heat production to the point of a constant minimum
level can be made.

Measurement of the respiratory quotient (RQ) to the point that the

non protein RQ of fat (0.7) is reached also indicates that a post
absorptive state has been acheived.

In ruminants a decline in methane excretion to a minimum level

indicates a postabsorptive state. By third day of fasting it declines to
0.5 litre from 30L in sheep and in cattle to 2 litres from 200L per day.
So the measurement of basal metabolism in the ruminant cannot have
the exact significance as it has in humans.

Fasting metabolism

Fasting metabolism refers to the heat production at specified times

after the last feeding. In ruminats the value determined is referred as
fasting metabolism rather than as basal metabolism.This should not
be confused with the term fasting catabolism,which also includes
energy voided in the urine of fasting animals.

To avoid some of the problems associated with a four day fast in

ruminants, some workers have determined heat production over a
specific time period after the last feeding and have referred this value
as standard metabolism.

The term resting metabolism has been used to denote the heat
eliminated when an animal is lying at rest, though not strictly in a
thermoneutral environment or in the postabsorptive state.

69

UNIT

OF

REFERENCE

IN

FASTING

METABOLISM/ BASAL

METABOLISM

Heat production or basal metabolism rate varies with body size.

Rubner developed the concept, referred to as the surface area law that
the heat given off by all warm blooded animals is directly proportional
to their body surface and that, expressed on this basis, heat
production is constant to body surface for all species.

The surface area on the other hand is very difficult to measure, and
methods were therefore devised for predicting it from their fractional
or decimal power of body weight.

Scientists decided to standardize the expression of fasting metabolism

on power of body weight i.e., Kg. W 0.75 because of the close
relationship between metabolism and metabolic body weight.

The fasting metabolism of adult animals of various species ranging in

size from rat to cow has an average value of 70 kcal per Kg. W 0.75 per
day, but there are considerable variations from species to species.

Basal metabolism of various body weights are now a days determined

from the formula

B.M (Kcal) = 70W

0.75

Kg

The coefficient 70 represents an average value for the kilocalories of

basal heat produced per unit of metabolic size in experiments with
groups of adult mammals.

It should be noted that the above formula applies only in case of adult
animals whose growth is complete.

70

CHAPTER-13: NUTRIENT REQUIREMENT OF LIVESTOCK - PROTEIN

REQUIREMENT FOR MAINTENANCE AND ITS ESTIMATION
Learning objectives
This chapter will give the learner an insight to understand the following:

protein requirement for maintenance and

methods adopted to estimate protein requirement for maintenance.

PROTEIN REQUIREMENTS FOR MAINTENANCE

Loss of protein continuously occurs through wear and tear of body

tissue, for renewal of hairs, nails, feathers, hooves

etc., which

represents the amount of protein required for maintenance. If the

losses are not completed promptly by proper amount of protein either
in the form of tissue protein or NPN substances, the animal will
71

rundown in condition and its reproducing ability or productivity will

be adversely affected.

The losses of body protein in the animal when kept on a protein free
ration occurs through urine and faeces in negligible amount, through
shedding of hairs, loss of nail, skin etc.

The loss, which occurs through urine, is known as EUN or endogenous

urinary nitrogen loss and loss, which occurs through faeces, is
called MFN or Metabolic faecal nitrogen loss.

Endogenous -nitrogen metabolism :

Endogenous Urinary Nitrogen (EUN): Here the loss of nitrogen is due

to the catabolism incidental to maintenance of the vital tissues of the
body, which can be measured at the minimum urinary excretion on a
nitrogen free otherwise adequate (particularly energy adequacy) diet.
The greater part of the nitrogen in the urine of mammals not receiving
food N is in the form of urea, the typical byproduct of amino acid
catabolism, which arises from the turnover of body proteins.

Like basal metabolism, endogenous -nitrogen metabolism is a function

of body size. Terroine and Sorg-Matter in 1927 reported that a
relationship exists, for the first time, 2.3 to 2.9 mg nitrogen per
kilcalorie BMR. Later in 1934, Brody and coworkers confirmed that
realtionship and is indicated by the following formula,

EUN mg/d =146 W0.72kg

This interspecies equation was arrived at by the analysis of a body of

data on minimum EUN excreted by mature animals of different
species,ranging in weight from 0.02 to 500 kg. It was suggested that
mammals excrete 2 mg of EUN per kilocalorie of basal metabolism or
140 mg N/kg0.75/day. EUN is highest in young animals and lowest
during hibernation, since EUN tends to reflect energy metabolism.
EUN of Indian cattle was 0.2g/kg BW, while that of Bos taurus was
0.289g/kg BW.

Metabolic faecal nitrogen (MFN or FNm):

It consists principally of spent digestive enzymes, abraded mucosa

and bacterial nitrogen. It is difficult to obtain MFN using a nitrogenfree diet in ruminants.Mitchell used a well balanced protein such as
4% of defatted egg protein in rats instead of nitrogen free diet. Egg
protein was 100% absorbed. MFN is proportional to feed intake and it
is about 2 mg per g DMI in rats.
72

In 1927 Titus introduced a technique with steers, which involved

plotting of the total N intake as a function of the total faecal N
excretion, using rations of varying protein content but of constant feed
intake. He extrapolated the straightline thus obtained back to the
point of zero protein intake and arrived at the estimated metabolic
faecal N excretion for the test feed. It is about 5 mg /g of DM
intake.This is over twice the value for rats and would appear logical
since both microbial residues and tissue desquamation would
appear to be higher in ruminants. The MFN values determined in
Indian cattle were 0.35 g/100 g DMI and in buffaloes 0.34 g/100 g
DM intake.These values are lower than the values determined in Bos
taurus.

Endogenous urinary nitrogen and metabolic faecal nitrogen put

together has come to 350 mg N/kg metabolic body size per day in
ruminants.It is two to three times as great as in non-ruminants.

METHODS ADOPTED TO ESTIMATE PROTEIN REQUIREMENT FOR

MAINTENANCE

The estimation of maintenance requirement for protein as compared

with that of energy is more complicated because of the following
reasons.
o Protein may also be used as a source of energy in case of energy
shortage.
o An excessive supply of protein results in deamination of protein
and utilisation of the resulting N free-substances as a source of
energy, since deposition of protein in reserve tissue of mature
animals is limited.

The protein requirements can be estimated for maintenance based on

calculations of the factors causing nitrogen losses from the body
during maintenance. These factors include endogenous urinary
nitrogen and metabolic faecal nitrogen.

Losses of hair, feathers and scurf are other factors that are involved.
Although not strictly required for maintenance, factors such as growth
of wool, feathers or hooves do occur in animals otherwise being
maintained.

The term adult growth is used to refer the growth and renewal of
these epidermal tissues.
73

Protein requirements have been calculated by conducting nitrogen

balance trials, feeding trials and factorial method where endogenous
urinary nitrogen, metabolic faecal nitrogen, nitrogen loss through skin
and biological values (BV) of proteins are estimated to assess the
protein requirements.

1. Nitrogen balance method

Various rations containing different levels of protein are fed to the

various groups of non producing adult and healthy animals.

The rations are otherwise adequate in energy, minerals and vitamins

required by the animals.

Nitrogen balance is determined in the experimental animals.

The minimum protein intake at which nitrogen equilibrium is achieved

is the maintenance requirement.

The experimental animals chosen for the studies must be in adequate

protein nutrition at the start of the experiment.

Disadvantages

It is a short-term measurement carried out under closely controlled

conditions and thus question always arises as to how accurately the
results apply to the long-term feeding.

2. Feeding trial method

Long term feeding trials are conducted with non producing adult,
healthy animals which are kept on different levels of protein with
adequate intake of energy, minerals and vitamins.

The level of protein at which the animal maintains its body weight
without loss or gain over an extended period is considered the
maintenance requirement of protein.

3. Factorial method

Protein requirement can be determined accurately by factorial method.

Mostly this method has been followed throughout the world.

In India many workers have followed factorial method where EUN and MFN
are estimated to assess protein requirement. Dermal losses of hair and scuff
(2.2g N/d) are also included.

The net requirement, however only covered replacing these losses and the
efficiency with which the absorbed protein is utilized (BV value) also must be
considered.

ARC assumed BV values of 70% for cattle and 65% for sheep.

74

Since animals are being fed for productive purposes, the biological values for
the combined function of maintenance and production are the ones of
practical importance.

For pigs and poultry, protein requirement are usually stated for maintenance
and production together.

CHAPTER-14: METHODS

ADOPTED

FOR

ESTIMATING

ENERGY

REQUIREMENT FOR MAINTENANCE

Learning objectives
This chapter will give the learner an insight to understand the following:

methods adopted to estimate energy requirement for maintenance

-Direct calorimetry,

indirect calorimetry,

measurement of respiratory exchange and

energy requirement by feeding trials.

METHODS ADOPTED TO ESTIMATE ENERGY REQUIREMENTS FOR

MAINTENANCE - DIRECT CALORIMETRY

Energy requirements are best determined by measurement of energy

expenditure.

Energy expended for maintenance of an animal is converted into heat

and leaves the body.Thus an intake sufficient to offset the loss
represented by the fasting metabolism would be the requirement if the
animal is maintained under basal conditions.

Data on maintenance

requirements of energy have mainly been

obtained in three ways.

o Fasting metabolism as a basis for estimating maintenance
requirement.
o By short and long-term trials

with mature, non producing

animals fed at the maintenance level.

o Data on maintenance requirements are obtained by extrapolation
of intake of feed towards zero level production.
Fasting metabolism as a basis for estimating maintenance requirement:

Dry

non-producing, mature

animals

were

fasted,

kept

in

thermoneutral environment and their heat production was determined

(fasting catabolism). This gives an estimate about the minimum
quantitity of net nergy which must be supplied to the animal to keep it

75

in energy equilibrium. This can be estimated by both direct and

indirect calorimetry.
Direct calorimetry

This is simple in theory, difficult in practice; sensible heat loss (heat of

radiation conduction) from the animal body can be measured with two
general types of calorimeters, adiabatic and gradient.

The insensible heat (latent heat of water vapourized from the skin and
the respiratory passages) is estimated by determining in some way the
amount of water vapour added to the air, which flows through the
calorimeter. For this, rate of airflow and change in humidity is
measured.

Adiabatic calorimeters

In this type an animal is confined in a chamber constructed in such a

way that heat loss through the walls of the chamber is reduced to
near zero. This is attained by a box within a box.

When the outer box or wall is electrically heated to the same

temperature as the inner wall, heat loss from the inner wall to the
outer wall is impossible.

Water circulating in a coil in such a chamber absorbs the heat

collected by the inner wall; the volume and change in temperature of
the water can be used to calculate sensible heat loss from animal
body.

The construction and operation are complicated and very expensive.

Gradient calorimeters

Calorimeters of this type allow the loss of heat through the walls of
the animal chamber.

The outer surface of the wall of the calorimeter is maintained at a

constant temperature with a water jacket; the temperature gradient is
measured with thermocouples, which line the inner and outer
surfaces of the wall.

By the use of appropriate techniques it is possible to measure

separately the radiation component of the sensible heat loss.

76

METHODS ADOPTED TO ESTIMATE ENERGY REQUIREMENT FOR

MAINTENANCE - INDIRECT CALORIMETRY
Indirect Calorimetry

Most of the work on energy requirement in India, was conducted using

the indirect calorimetry method.

The fasting metabolism is only a portion of the energy required for

maintenance, since it is only the energy required in a fasting animal,
in a comfortable temperature, without voluntary activity.

Energy required for consumption and digestion of food, energy

required for the increased respiration and heart rate due to walking
and other movements, varying environmental temperatures are not
accounted for in the determinantion of basal heat production.

The amount needed for activity is known as activity increment.

Cattle under feedlot require less than those under grazing or range
system.

In case of cattle, sheep and swine the activity increments may be of

the order of 20 to 30%.

77

Adding factors such as activity increment to the fasting metabolism to

obtain the maintenance energy requirement is called the factorial
method of estimating requirements.

Values obtained in this way are not as reliable as those determined

under practical conditions in feeding trials.

Devices used for estimating gas exchange

Because the animal body ultimately derives all of its energy from
oxidation, the magnitude of energy metabolism can be estimated from
the exchange of respiratory gases.

A variety of techniques is available for measuring the respiratory

exchange; all ultimately seek to measure oxygen consumption and
CO2 production per unit of time.

Open circuit system

Devices allow the animal to breath atmospheric air of determined

composition; the exhaust air from a chamber or expired air from a
mask or cannula, is either collected or else metered and sampled and
then analysed for O2 and CO2 content.

Analysis of gases has been accomplished with chemical and

volumetric or manometric techniques.

Closed circuit system

Devices require the animal to rebreathe the same air. CO 2 is removed

with a suitable absorber which may be weighed before and after use to
determine its rate of production.

The use of oxygen by the animal body decreases the volume of the
respiratory gas mixture, and this change in volume is used as a
measure of the rate of oxygen consumption.

Oxygen used by the animal is then replaced by a metered supply of

the pure gas.
78

Both O2 consumption and CO2 production must be corrected for any

differences in the amounts present in the circuit air at the beginning
and end of the experiment.

Methane is allowed to accumulate in the circuit air, and the amount

present is determined at the end of the experiment.

INDIRECT CALORIMETRY BY THE MEASUREMENT OF RESPIRATORY

EXCHANGE

The substances which are oxidised in the body, and whose energy is
therefore converted into heat, fall mainly into the three nutrient
classes of carbohydrates, fat and proteins.

The overall reaction for the oxidation of a carbohydrate such as

glucose is

And for the oxidation of the typical fat, tripalmitin, is

In an animal obtaining all its energy by the oxidation of glucose, the

utilisation of 1 litre of oxygen would lead to production of 673/
(6x22.4)=5.007 kcal of heat, for mixtures of carbohydrates an average
value is 5.047 kcal per liter. Such values are known as thermal
equivalents of oxygen, and are used in indirect calorimetry to estimate
heat production from oxygen consumption.
79

For an animal catabolising mixtures of fats alone, (of 4.715 kcal per
liter calculated from equation (2) above).

Animals do not normally obtain energy exclusively from either

carbohydrate or fat. They oxidise a mixture of these (and of protein
also), so that in order to apply the appropriate thermal equivalent
when converting oxygen consumption to heat production it is
necessary to know how much of the oxygen is used for each nutrient.

The proportions are calculated from what is known as the respiratory

quotient (RQ). This is the ratio between the volume of carbon dioxide
produced by the animal and the volume of oxygen used. Since, under
the same conditions of temperature and pressure, equal volumes of
gases contain equal numbers of molecules, the RQ can be calculated
from the molecules of carbon dioxide produced and oxygen used.

From equation (1) the RQ for carbohydrate is calculated as 6 Co2/6

O2 = 1, and from equation (2) that of the fat, tripalmitin, as 51
CO2/72.5 O2=0.70. If the RQ of an animal is known, the proportions
of fat and carbohydrate oxidised can then be determined from
standard tables.

For example, an RQ of 0.9 indicates the oxidation of a mixture of

67.5% carbohydrate and 32.5% fat, and the thermal equivalent of
oxygen for such a mixture is 4.924 kcal/liter.

The mixture oxidised generally includes protein.

The quantity of protein catabolised can be estimated from the output

of nitrogen in the urine, 0.16g of urinary N being excreted for each
gram of protein.

The heat of combustion of protein (i.e. the heat produced when it is

completely oxidised) varies according to the amino acid proportions
but averages 5.3 kcal per g.

Protein, however, is incompletely oxidised in animals because the body

cannot oxidise nitrogen, and the average amount of heat produced by
the catabolism of 1 g. of protein is 4.3 kcal.

For each gram of protein oxidised, 0.77 liters of carbondioxide is

produced and 0.96 litres of oxygen used, giving an RQ of 0.8.

ENERGY REQUIREMENT BY FEEDING TRIALS

80

The value may be expressed in terms of TDN by inclusion of a

digestion trial or may be calculated from the average digestion
coefficients.

The inclusion of metabolic trial helps to calculate the results in terms

of ME.

As live weight is the sole criterion of exactness of this method, it

should be noted that the weight should remain constant over an
extended period for direct application into practice.

If for any reason there be gain in weight or loss, necessary correction

in intake should accordingly be made for such loss or gain in weight.
Correction figures are shown below:

Pounds gained x 3.53 = TDN required for gain

Pounds lost x 2.73 = TDN equivalent to loss.

Such corrections are, however, only approximate since the nature of

tissue gained or lost is difficult to assess, eg., if the accumulation of
water, which has no feed equivalent, be responsible for weight gain,
then the use of the above correction factor form gain will be
meaningless.

The object, therefore, is to use these correction factors as minimum as

possible.

Another defect of this method is that consistency of weight does not

necessarily mean the integrity of body tissue or in other words the
weight maintenance does not mean the energy maintenance.

This defect, however, can be eliminated by inclusion of slaughter test,

which, however, adds to the cost of experiment and at the same time
may not be practicable for all classes of livestock.

CHAPTER-15: ENERGY REQUIREMENT FOR GROWTH

Learning objectives
This chapter will give the learner an insight to understand the following:

growth in animals and

81

estimation of energy requirement for growth and fattening.

GROWTH IN ANIMALS

Growth is the increase in weight and or size that occurs over time (i.e.
age), and can be drawn as an S-shaped (sigmoid) curve.

Developmet may be defined as the changes that occur in the

proportion of various parts of the animal from conception to maturity.
As animals grow, they do not simply increase in size and weight but
also show what is termed development. By this we mean that the
various parts of the animal, defined as anatomical components (e.g.
legs), as organs (e.g. the liver) or as tissues (e.g. muscle) grow at
different rates, so that the proportions of the animal change as it
matures.

Nutrient requirements for growth

The nutrient requirements for growth are determined by the chemical

constituents of the body growth.

The animal growth contains water, protein, glycogen, fat and ash.

The energy content of the body is almost entirely contributed by the

energy contained in protein and lipid.

The

growth

of

all

these components

can be investigated

by

slaughtering and analyzing animals at successive/stages of growth.

Fat is deposited at an increasing rate and protein at decreasing rates.

The energy content of the body increases as the fat content increases.

As the body weight of the animal increases, the protein deposited

decreases while the fat and energy content increase.

The quantitative differences in body composition during growth are

very important because they affect the quality of meat and serve as a
basis for calculating the energy requirements.

ESTIMATION OF

ENERGY

REQUIREMENT

FOR

GROWTH AND

FATTENING

Energy requirement for growth and fattening can be obtained by

o Factorial calculations and
o Feeding trials

Factorial calculations

The principle of energy requirement for growth is that the energy of

the tissue formed is determined first and the value of basal
metabolism increased by an activity factor is added to it.

82

Thus the requirement of energy is determined at any given period by

the expected rate of gain and the average body weight during the
period in question.

Data from the slaughter experiment in respect of the fat and protein
provides the figure for computing the calories for expected rate of gain
while the body weight data provide the basis for arriving at the
required energy for basal metabolism.

An activity increment over the energy required for basal metabolism

has to be considered.

The data of basal metabolism and activity factor is to cover the

maintenance requirement.

Thus the sum of calories of basal metabolism + activity increment

factor + growth tissue formed is the estimated energy requirement
expressed as net energy.

70% DE = NE,
80% DE = ME,
1 Kg TDN = 4.4. MCal. DE
Based on feeding trials

Feeding different groups of animals with different levels of energy and

determining the energy level that promotes the growth or fattening.
Much of the earlier recommendations for beef and dairy cattle, swine
and sheep were on this basis.

The energy requirements of growing and fattening swine in current

NRC standards (1998) were based on feeding trials.

Although these were expressed in terms of DE and ME, some of the

values were converted from TDN.

The ME was appoximated as 96% of the DE values in pigs and 82% in

dairy cattle.

83

CHAPTER-16: PROTEIN REQUIREMENT FOR GROWTH

Learning objectives
This chapter will give the learner an insight to understand the following:

introduction and

protein requirement for growth.

INTRODUCTION

Protein plays a vital role in growth as well as in production and

reproduction.

Young calves require relatively larger proportion of protein for rapid

growth.

As the animals grow older, the amount of protein requirement is

proportionately lower.

This is primarily due to growth in the beginning of life being protein in

nature followed by growth of tissue of less protein and more fat.
o Factorial method,
o Nitrogen balance method for estimation of protein for growth,
o Feeding trials for estimating protein need for growth.

PROTEIN REQUIREMENT FOR GROWTH

Factorial method

The amount of protein required for maintenance is determined first.

The value thus obtained is added to the amount of protein required for
growth (or say gain in weight) plus losses in metabolism.

The maintenance needs can be determined directly on the basis of

endogenous urinary nitrogen or calculated from the basal energy
metabolism and later corrected for metabolic faecal nitrogen losses.
The amount required for the growth tissue formed can be estimated
from the slaughter data.

Nitrogen balance studies

It is an exact measure of actual requirement of protein.

Calves are raised on equal amounts of dry matter and on isocaloric

rations which contain different levels of protein and the minimum

84

intake of protein which provides maximum retention is taken as the

estimate of requirement.
Based on feeding trials

The rations containing different levels of protein are fed to determine

the minimum level required to give the maximum rate of growth.

The nature of growth thus obtained may be further tested by

slaughter tests for assessing the integrity of the nitrogenous tissues.

CHAPTER-17: NUTRIENT REQUIREMENT FOR REPRODUCTION

Learning objectives
This chapter will give the learner an insight to understand the following:

introduction

effect of nutrition on the initiation and maintenance of reproductive

ability

feeding of male animals

flushing and

effects of prolonged under or overfeeding of breeding animals.

INTRODUCTION

The influence of nutrition on reproduction begins early in the animal's

life, as the plane of nutrition in young animals can affect the age at
which they reach puberty.In mature animals, poor nutrition can
reduce the production of ova and spermatozoa, so that the female
either fails to conceive or produce fewer offspring than normal
(i.e.litter size is reduced).

The reproductive cycle may be considered to consist of three phases.

First phase

The first phase, which is important to both the sexes, comprises the
production of ova and spermatozoa.

Nutrient requirements for these processes in mammals are small

compared with the egg production in birds. foe eg; a boar, which
produces a large ejaculate of 150 -250 ml, is estimated to require 0.4
MJ, ME per ejaculate, which is equivalent to less than 2 % of its
maintenance requirement for metabolisable energy (23.8MJ/day).

Second phase
85

The second phase of the cycle is pregnancy. Even in pregnancy,

nutrient requirements for the growth of foetuses are in total, relatively
small. for eg: a ewe producing twin lambs weighing a total of 7 kg at
birth will deposit about 1.4 kg of protein in the foetuses and
associated tissues (such as placenta),which over a gestation period of
147 days is less than 10 g/day. In contrast, a growing sheep gaining
300 g in liveweight per day would deposit in its tissues about 50 g of
protein per day.

However in assessing nutrient requirements for reproduction, several

important features of reproductive processes must be borne in
mind.The first of these is that reproduction is often not the sole
productive process being carried out by the animal. In the case of
cattle, for eg: young females may be expected to conceive at 15 -20
months of age, at about half of their mature body weight and will have
to continue growing while producing a calf. After calving, the female
will be expected to conceive again within 2 -3 months, at a time when
she is producing large quantities of milk.

The

second

important

feature

of

nutrient

requirements

for

reproduction is that they vary considerably from one phase of the

reproductive cycle to another. For example, the ewe conceiving twins
will have very small protein requirements for foetal growth at the start
of pregnancy, but by the last week of pregnancy she will be depositing
as much as 30 g of protein per day in the foetuses.
Third phase

Third phase is lactation

In the female mammal, the quantities of nutrients required in excess

of those needed for maintenance are small for the production of
spermatozoa and ova, moderate for the pregnancy and large for the
lactation.

Consequently, nutrient requirements fluctuate considerably during

the reproductive cycle, especially when there is an interval between
weaning and the next conception.

Under natural conditions, such fluctuations in nutrient demand are

partly matched with fluctuations in the food supply, but both in the
wild and in intensive animal husbandry the mother often has to act as
a buffer by depleting her body reserves in times of high demand and
poor supply and restoring them when conditions are more favourable.
86

EFFECT OF NUTRITION ON THE INITIATION AND MAINTENANCE OF

REPRODUCTIVE ABILITY
Nutrition influences

Onset of puberty and sexual development

Reproduction in females and males

Pregnant animal nutrition and its effect on foetus development

Performance during lactation

The tendency today is for cattle, sheep and pigs of both sexes to be
mated when relatively young, which means that in the female the
nutrient demands of pregnancy are added to those of growth.

Inadequate nutrition during pregnancy is liable to retard foetal growth

and to delay the attainment of mature size by the mother.

Incomplete skeletal development is particularly dangerous because it

may lead to difficulties of parturition.

Rapid growth and the earlier attainment of a size appropriate to

breeding has the economic advantage of reducing the non-productive
part of the animals life.

With meat-producing animals a further advantage is that a high plane

of nutrition in early life allows the selection for breeding purposes of
the individuals which respond to liberal feeding most favourably in
terms of growth, and which may therefore be expected to produce fastgrowing offspring.

But there are also some disadvantages of rapid growth in breeding

stock, especially if there is excessive fat deposition.

In dairy cattle, fatness in early life may prejudice the development of

milk-secreting tissue, and there is also some evidence that rapid early
growth reduces the useful life of cows.

Over fat gilts do not mate as rapidly as normal animals and during
pregnancy may suffer more embryonic mortality.

The recommendation for rearing of breeding stock is that animals

should be fed at a plane of nutrition which allows rapid increase in
size without excessive fat deposition.

To prevent fat deposition the ratio of green fodder (2/3rd):dry fodder

(1/3rd) should be maintained in the daily ration, in addition to
concentrate feeds.

87

The commonly cultivated green fodder in India are Bajra Napier

grasses, Fodder sorghum and the dry roughages consist of crop
residues like paddy straw and wheat straw.

FEEDING OF MALE ANIMALS

In mammals, the spermatozoa and ova and the secretions associated

with them represent only very small quantities of matter.

The average ejaculate of the bull, for example, contains 0.5g of dry
matter.

It therefore seems reasonable to support that nutrient requirements

for the production of spermatozoa and ova are likely to be
inappreciable compared with the requirements for maintenance and
for processes such as growth and lactation.

If this were so, one would expect that adult male animals kept only for
semen production would require no more than a maintenance ration
appropriate to their species and size, but in practice such animals are
given food well in excess of that required for maintenance in female of
the same weight.

There is no reliable evidence that high planes of nutrition are

beneficial for male fertility, though it is recognised that underfeeding
has deleterious effects.

Males, however, do have a higher fasting metabolism and therefore a

higher energy requirement for maintenance than females and
castrates.

FLUSHING

A low plane of nutrition may reduce the secretion of gonadotrophic

hormones and hence affect fertility.
88

In sheep, there is often a period of several months between weaning

and remating during which the ewes may be on a low plane of
nutrition.

It has been found that ewes which have been better fed during this
period, and for this or other reasons are in better condition at the
start of the breeding season, are more likely to have multiple
ovulations and hence bear twins or triplets.

This effect is utilised in the practice known as flushing, in which ewes

are transferred from a maintenance level of feeding to a higher level for
4-6 weeks,beginning 2-3 weeks before the start of the breeding
season.

Flushing often increases the lambing percentage (lambs born per 100
ewes) by 1020 per cent. This effect is associated more with improved
than with improving body condition, and could just as well be
obtained by preventing the depletion of reserves.

Flushing is also used to increase litter size in gilts, the improved level
feeding being imposed for about 10 days before first mating.

In cows, only a single ovulation is normally required, and therefore

flushing is not needed.

It is recommended, however, that both dairy and beef cows should be

fed to gain weight from about day 70 of lactation so that re-conception
is achieved without difficulty.

EFFECTS OF PROLONGED UNDER OR OVER FEEDING OF BREEDING

ANIMALS

Animals given a sub-maintenance ration eventually show some

reduction in fertility.

In males this may be brought about by a decreased output of

spermatozoa or by a smaller output of the accessory secretions.

89

In females continued underfeeding leads to a cessation of ovarian

function; the farm animals most likely to suffer in this way are heifers
kept on inadequate rations during the winter feeding period. It should
be stressed, however, that underfeeding has to be severe and
prolonged to exert its full effect.

Thus a bull kept on a starvation ration and losing weight at the rate of
0.9 kg/day was at the end of 14 weeks still capable of producing
semen containing normal spermatozoa, but the production of fructose
and citric acid in the accessory secretion was much reduced by this
treatment.

The evidence for a causative association between overfeeding and

impaired reproductive ability is less convincing.

Very fat animals frequently are sterile, but the two conditions, fatness
and sterility, may both be effects of an endocrine disturbance, rather
than other cause.

Fatness and sterility occur together most commonly in sows, and also
occur together frequently in show animals.

Over-fat sows may continue to produce ova while failing to show signs
of oestrus; it has been suggested that the oestrogens intended to be
responsible for the latter are absorbed in the fat depots.

CHAPTER-18: NUTRITION REQUIREMENT FOR PREGNANCY

90

Learning objectives
This chapter will give the learner an insight to understand the following:

growth of the foetus,

mammary development,

energy metabolism during pregnancy,

extra-uterine growth during pregnancy and

consequences of malnutrition in pregnancy.

GROWTH OF THE FOETUS

The growth of the foetus is accompanied by the formation of the

membranes associated with it, and also by considerable enlargement
of the uterus.

In the early stage of pregnancy the amounts of nutrients deposited in

the uterus and mammary gland are small, and it is only in the last
third of pregnancy (from the sixth month onwards in cattle) that it
becomes necessary to make special provision in the diet for the growth
of the foetus.

Even in the later stages the net energy needed for the growth of the
uterus is small in relation to the maintenance requirement of the
mother herself, but net requirements for protein and for calcium and
phosphorus are quite appreciable in the last stage of pregnancy.

Nutrition of pregnant females and its influence on foetal development

The pregnant females must be offered adequate amounts of energy and
other nutrients in order to enable the satisfactory growth and development
of the foetus, uterus growth and development and to increase the mothers
bodily reserves needed for milk production following parturition. The growth
of the placenta and the increase in uterine fluids occur in early and midpregnancy. By the end of the second trimester of pregnancy. placental
development is almost complete. On the other hand, 80% of foetal
growth occurs in the last trimester of pregnancy. In the last one-third of
pregnancy the requirements of the foetus increase rapidly, and a low plane
of nutrition at this time will restrict fetal growth.
The foetus also obtains fat and proteins from the mothers blood across
placenta. Deficiencies of individual nutrients in pregnancy must be severe to
cause the death of fetuses. Protein and vitamin A are the nutrients most
likely to be deficient , although death of foetus through iodine, calcium,
riboflavin and pantothenic acid deficiencies have also been observed.
Congenital deformities of nutritional origin often arise from vitamin A
91

deficiency, which causes eye and bone malformations in particular. Iodine

deficiency causes goiter in the unborn, and in pigs has been observed to
result in a complete lack of hair in the young. Hairlessness can also be
caused by an inadequate supply of riboflavin during pregnancy. Copper
deficiency in the pregnant ewe leads to the condition of swayback in the
lambs.
MAMMARY DEVELOPMENT

Mammary development takes

place

throughout

pregnancy,

but it is only in the later stages

that it proceeds rapidly enough
to make appreciable nutrient
demands.

Even then the quantities of

nutrients

laid

down

in

the

gland are quite small.

In the heifer, for example, it has

been shown by the analysis of
animals slaughtered at various
intervals during pregnancy that
even in the last two weeks, i.e.
when

mammary

growth

is

proceeding at its fastest rate the

quantity of protein deposited
daily is more than 45 g.
ENERGY METABOLISM DURING PREGNANCY

If a pregnant animal is given a constant daily allowance of food, its

heat production will rise towards the end of gestation.

The increase is due mainly to the additional energy required by the

foetus for both maintenance and growth.

It has been found that metabolisable energy taken in by the mother in

addition to her own maintenance requirement is utilised by the foetus
with comparatively low efficiency.

Estimating nutritional requirements for pregnancy:

The energy, protein, minerals, vitamins etc required for pregnancy is

estimated by the factorial method.
92

The nutrient requirements during pregnancy includes :

o Maintenance requirements of the mother
o Nutrient for the growth of the mother if she conceived at a
young age and has not reached the mature body weight.
o Nutrients required for the growth of the foetus
o Nutrients required for the growth of the uterus and products of
conception i.e. placental membranes, placental fluid etc

The nutrients deposited in the tissues during pregnancy are estimated

by serial slaughter of the pregnant mothers at different stages of
pregnancy and the total nutrients required is estimated by the
quantity of the nutrient deposited and the efficiency with which the
nutrients in the feed are utilized for tissue synthesis

EXTRA-UTERINE GROWTH DURING PREGNANCY

The live weight gains made by pregnant animals are often considerably
greater than can be accounted for by the products of conception alone.

For example, a litter of 10 piglets and its associated membranes may

weigh 18 kg. at birth, but sows frequently gain over 50 kg during
gestation.

The difference represents the growth of the mother herself, and sows
may in their own tissues deposit 3 4 times as much protein and 5
times as much calcium as is deposited in the products on conception.

This pregnancy anabolism, as it is sometimes called, is obviously

necessary in immature animals which are still growing, but it occurs
also in older animals.

Frequently much of the weight gained during pregnancy is lost in the

ensuring lactation.

Pregnancy anabolism is often encouraged in pigs on the grounds that

it increases the birth weight of the young and that the reserves
accumulated allow the sow to milk better and hence promote faster
growth in the piglets.

In dairy cows a high plane of nutrition in the dry period preceding

parturition is claimed to promote the growth of mammary tissue and
to increase body reserves, and thus to raise milk yield in the ensuring
lactation.

This is the theory behind the practice of steaming up cows by giving

them increasing quantities of concentrates before calving.
93

However, if the cow is not unduly thin at the end of the previous
lactation there seems to be little effect on milk production

CONSEQUENCES OF MALNUTRITION IN PREGNANCY

Introduction

Malnutrition-meaning both inadequate and excessive intakes of

nutrients, may affect pregnancy in several ways.

The fertilized egg may die at an early stage (i.e. embryo loss) or later,
in pregnancy the foetus may develop incorrectly and die; it may then
be resorbed in uterine, expelled before full-term (abortion) or carried
to full term (still birth).

Less severe mal nutrition may reduce the birth weight of young and
the viability of small offspring may be diminished by their lack of
strength or by their inadequate reserves (eg. of fat).

Effect on the young

Deficiencies of individual nutrients on pregnancy must be severe to

cause the death of foetuses; proteins and vitamin-A are the nutrients
most likely to be implicated, although deaths through iodine, calcium,
riboflavin and pantothenic acid deficiencies have also been observed.

Congenital deformities of nutritional origin often arise from vitamin-A

deficiency, which causes eye and bone malformations in particular.

Iodine deficiency causes goiter in the unborn pigs, wherein it has been
observed to result in a complete lack of hair in the young.

Hairlessness can also be caused by an inadequate supply of riboflavin

during pregnancy.

Copper deficiency in the pregnancy ewe leads to the condition of sway

back in the lamb.

In the early stage of pregnancy, when the nutritional demands of the

embryo are still insignificant, the energy intake of the mother may
influence embryo survival.

There is evidence that in sheep and pig both very low and very high
intakes of energy at this stage may be damaging, especially in females
which is in poor condition at mating.

The probable cause is a disturbance of the delicate hormone balance

required at this time for implantation of the embryo.

In mid pregnancy, the nutrient requirements of the foetus are still low,
but the placenta must grow at this time; if the growth of placenta is
94

restricted by under nutrition it will be unable to nourish the foetus

adequately in the final stage of pregnancy, and birth weight will be
reduced.

For sheep and pig a common recommendation is that feeding for the
first two-thirds of pregnancy should be at about the maintenance
level.

In the last one-third of pregnancy, the requirements of the foetus

increases rapidly.

Variations in birth weight of nutritional origin are usually a reflection

of the energy intake of the mother during later stage of pregnancy.

Young animals should be born with reserves of mineral elements,

particularly iron and copper and of vitamin-A, D and E, because the
milk, which may be the sole item of diet for a time after birth, is
frequently poorly supplied with the nutrients.

With regard to iron, it appears that if the mother is herself adequately

supplied and is not anaemic, the administration of extra iron will have
no influence on the iron reserves of the new born.

The copper and fat soluble vitamin reserves of the newborn are more
susceptible to improve through the nutrition of the mother.

Effect on the mother

The high priority of the foetus for nutrients mean that the mother is
more severally affected directly to deficiencies.

The foetus has a high requirement for carbohydrate and by virtue of

its priority it is able to maintain the sugar concentration of its own
blood at a level higher than that of the mother.

If the glucose supply of the mother is sufficient her blood glucose may
fall considerably, to levels at which nerve tissues (which rely on
carbohydrate for energy) are affected.

This occurs is sheep in the condition known as pregnancy toxaemia,

which is prevalent in ewes in the last month of pregnancy.

Affected animals will become dull and lethargic, loose their appetite
and show nervous signs such as trembling and holding the head at an
unusual angle, in animals showing these signs the mortality rate may
be as high as 90%.

The disease occurs most frequently in ewes with more than one foetus
- where its alternative name of twin lamb disease' - and is most

95

prevalent in times of food shortage and when the ewes are subjected
to stress in the form of inclement weather or transportation.

Blood samples from affected animals usually show, in addition to

hypoglycaemia, a marked rise in ketone content and an increase in
plasma free fatty acids.

In the later stages of the disease the animal may suffer from metabolic
acidosis and renal failure.

The main predisposing factors in pregnancy toxaemia are the high

requirement of the foetus for glucose and possible fall in the
carbohydrate supply of the mother, which may arise through food
shortage or through a decline in appetite in late pregnancy.

An additional factor is that increased production of cortisol by the

adrenal cortex in response to stress may reduce the utilisation of
glucose.

The disease has been treated by the injection of glucose, by feeding

with substances likely to increase blood glucose levels, or by hormone
therapy.

The condition can be prevented by ensuring an adequate food supply

in late pregnancy and by using food which supply glucose or its
precursors rather than acetate.

CHAPTER-19: NUTRIENT

REQUIREMENT

FOR

LACTATING

COW,

WOOL PRODUCTION IN SHEEP AND FOR WORKING BULLOCKS

Learning objectives
This chapter will give the learner an insight to understand the following:

nutrient requirement for the lactating cow,

nutrient requirement for sheep and goat,

nutrient requirement for lactating dairy goats,

nutrient requirements for wool production and

nutrient requirement of work.

NUTRIENTS REQUIREMENT FOR THE LACTATING COW

The nutrient requirement of the dairy cow for milk production

depends upon the amount of milk being produced and upon its
composition.
96

Milk Yield

The yield of the cow is decided primarily by the breed of the cow. Older
cows tend to have higher yields than younger animals but the main
short-term factor affecting milk yield is the stage of lactation.

Yield generally increases from parturition to about 35 days post

partum and then falls regularly at the rate of about 2.5 percent per
week to the end of lactation.

Peak yield may be calculated as 1.1 times the yield recorded two
weeks post partum. eg,a cow yielding 23 kg at this time could be
expected to have a peak yield of 25 kg.

Energy requirement for lactation

The energy standards for milk production is derived factorially. This

involves an estimate of the gross energy value (EV l) of the milk, which
may be used along with the yield to estimate the net energy
requirement for milk production.

Energy requirements

Energy

requirements

for

milk

production

are

based

on

the

composition of the milk and milk yield and the efficiency of conversion
of dietary energy into milk energy. Generally, the energy requirement
increases with fat content of milk.
Lactation energy requirements
97

The NE required for lactation (NEL) is defined as the energy contained

in the milk produced. The NEL concentration in milk is equivalent to
the sum of the heats of combustion of individual milk components
(fat, protein, and lactose). The reported heats of combustion of milk
fat, protein, and lactose are 9.29, 5.71 and 3.95Mcal/kg, respectively.

Milk lactose content is the least variable milk component and is

essentially a constant 4.85 percent of milk and varies only slightly
with breed and milk protein concentration

Usually animals produce milk with varying fat (percentage) content

and the number of liters of milk produced by dairy cattle may also
vary from 2-20 liters or more per day. So the milk yields are adjusted
to a 4% fat equivalent in case of cattle or 6 % in case of buffaloes to
compare them on an equal-energy basis.

Gaines Formula for 4% fat corrected milk (FCM) kg = (0.4 + 0.15F) X

M Where F = Fat % in the milk produced by the animal M = Quantity
of milk produced/day

Protein requirement

Milk secretion represents a direct loss of protein to the animal body

which needs to be replaced. Estimates of the efficiency of utilization of
digestible protein for milk production vary from 60 to 70%;

In the ruminants, dietary protein performs two functions :

o It

must

satisfy

the

nitrogen

demands

of

the

rumen

microorganisms.
o It must supply the absorbable true protein required to satisfy
the demand for amino acid nitrogen at tissue level.

Metabolisable protein requirement

The metabolisable protein requirement may be defined as the quantity

of truly absorbable true protein required to satisfy the demand for
amino acids nitrogen at tissue level.

NUTRIENT REQUIREMENT OF SHEEP AND GOAT (ICAR,1998)

Sheep
DM
Maintena 60.6
nce
of per

Goat
DCP

TDN

g 3.0 g per 27.3

kg kg
per
98

DM

DCP

TDN

g 65.2 per 3.0 g per 30.0 per

kg kg
kg
kg

adult
animals

metabolic metabolic metabolic

body size body size body size
or 2.5%
of
body
weight

metabolic metabolic metabolic

body size body size body size
or 2.5%
of
body
weight

Pregnant 1.5 times

animals maintena
nce
during
the last
six weeks
of
pregnanc
y

2.5 times
maintena
nce
during
the last
six weeks
of
pregnanc
y

2.0 times
maintena
nce
during
the last
six weeks
of
pregnanc
y

1.5 times
maintena
nce
during
the last
six weeks
of
pregnanc
y

1.8 times
maintena
nce
during
the last
six weeks
of
pregnanc
y

1.6 times
maintena
nce
during
the last
six weeks
of
pregnanc
y

Lactating 2 times
animals the
maintena
nce DM
during
1sttwo
months
of
lactation
&
1.5 times
maintena
nce
during
the
remainin
g period
of
lactation

2.5 times
maintena
nce
during
1st two
months
of
lactation
&
1.5 times
maintena
nce
during
the
remainin
g period
of
lactation

Twice the
maintena
nce
during
1st two
months
of
lactation
&
1.5 times
maintena
nce
during
the
remainin
g period
of
lactation

525
g
DM per
kg of 4%
FCM over
and
above the
maintena
nce
requirem
ent

45 g DCP
per kg of
4% FCM
over and
above the
maintena
nce
requirem
ent

345
g
TDN per
kg of 4%
FCM over
and
above the
maintena
nce
requirem
ent

NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS OF THE LACTATING DAIRY GOATS

Goat milk is also used for human consumption. The nutrient

requirement for lactation depends upon the amount and composition
of the milk produced.
99

Milk yield

Lactation normally last for about ten months, during which time upto
1350 kg of milk may be produced. Peak yield usually occurs at about
the sixth week, post partum and is maintained for the next four weeks
before declining at the rate of about 2.5 - 3% per week.

Energy requirement
Maintenance

The fasting metabolism of lactating goats, require 315 kj/kg W 0.75 per
day. This is the basic energy requirement.

It should be increased by about 10% for animals kept indoors, 20% for
grazing animals under lowland conditions and 30% for those on the
hill, to allow for increased activity. In very dry or mountainous
situations these may have to be increased to as much as 100 %.

Milk Production

The net requirement of energy for milk repoduction is the gross energy
of the milk produced. This will depend upon the yield and the energy
value (MJ/kg) of the milk.

The energy value of goats milk is calculated as

EVl (MJ/kg) = 0.0376 x Fat (g/kg) + 0.0209 x Protein (g/kg) + 0.948.

When no data are available, a value of 3.25 MJ/kg or breed values

based on the above table may be adopted.

Protein requirement
Maintenance

The net requirement for nitrogen for maintenance is that required to

replace the endogenous urinary loss (EUN) plus part of the metabolic
faecal nitrogen loss (MFN) plus loss of nitrogen in hair and scurf (D).
The total is termed the basal endogenous nitrogen (BEN) and is of the
order of 0.35 g/kg W0.75/ day, which translates to a metabolisable
protein demand of 2.19 g/ kg W0.75. Metabolisable protein is assumed
to be used for maintenance with an efficiency of 1.0.

Lactation

The average value of crude protein in milk is 32 g/kg and the

efficiency of utilisation of metabolisable protein for milk production is
0.68 and the metabolisable protein requirement for milk production is
then 32 /0.68 = 47 g /kg.

Requirement for Calcium, Phosphorus and Magnesium.

100

Milk may contain 1.3 g Calcium, 0.9 g, Phosphorus and 0.13 g

magnesium per kg. Due to lack of information on the minerals
requirement for lactating goats, the values similar to cattle are
adopted, wherein 0.51,0.55 and 0.17% dietary Calcium, Phosphorus
and Magnesium, respectively are recommended.

Nutrient requirement for Indian goats

Ewes

Milk production from the ewe is directly related to the genetic

potential, nutrition, and number of lambs suckling.

The genetic potential for milk production varies between and within
breeds.

The lactation curve of sheep is such that peak milk yield is at about 3
to 4 weeks, and 70% of milk production will occur in 8 weeks of
lactation.

The best quality pasture/hay should be saved for feeding during early
lactation.

Does

The average milk yield of a non-descript doe is 60 litres, while it is 100

and 250 litres for Barbari and Jamunapari breeds, respectively, per
lactation of 120 days.

On an average the lactation requirement is 345 g TDN and 45 g DCP

per kg of 4% FCM over and above the maintenance requirement.

NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS FOR WOOL PRODUCTION

The weight of wool produced by sheep varies considerably from one

breed to another, and an average value is useful only for guidance.

For eg: a Merino weighing 50 kg produces annually 4 kg fleece. Such a

fleece would contain about 3 kg of actual wool fibre, the remaining 1
kg being wool wax, suint, dirt and water.

Wool wax is produced by the sebaceous glands, and consists mainly of

esters of cholesterol and other alcohols.

101

The wool fibre consists almost entirely protein and wool keratin. To
grow in one year, a fleece containing 3 kg protein the sheep would
need to deposit a daily average of about 8 g protein or 1.3 g nitrogen.

If this latter figure is compared with the 6.6 g nitrogen which a sheep
of 50 kg might lose daily as endogenous nitrogen, it seems that in
proportion to its requirement for maintenance, the sheeps nitrogen
requirement for wool growth is small.

These figure however do not tell the whole story, since the efficiency
with which absorbed amino acids are used for wool synthesis is likely
to be much less than that with which they are used for maintenance.

Keratin is characterised by its high content of the sulphur-containing

amino acid, cystine, which although not an indispensable amino acid
is synthesised from another indispensable amino acid, methionine.

The efficiency with which food protein can be converted into wool is
therefore likely to depend on their respective proportions of cystine
and methionine.

Keratin contains 100200 g/kg of these acids, compared with the 20

30 g/kg found in plant protein and in microbial proteins synthesised
in the rumen and so the biological value of food protein for wool
growth is likely to be not greater than 0.3.

Wool growth reflects the general level of nutrition of the sheep. At submaintenance levels, when the sheep is losing weight, its wool
continuous to grow, although slowly.

As the plane of nutrition improves and the sheep gains in weight, so

wool growth too increases.

There appears to be a maximum rate of growth for wool, varying from

sheep to sheep with a range as great as 5 to 40 g/day.

The dependence of wool growth rate on the plane of nutrition (i.e.

energy intake) of the sheep is due in part to the association between
energy intake and the synthesis of microbial protein.

102

The real determinant of wool growth rate is likely to be the quality of

protein digested and absorbed in the small intestine of the sheep and
it has been shown, for example, that a Merino must absorb 120 150
g protein/day to achieve its maximum rate of wool growth.

In a ewe with a metabolisible energy intake of 12 MJ/day (i.e. twice its

maintenance requirement), only 101 g microbial protein would be
synthesised per day and only 101 x 0.8 x 0.85 = 69 g would be
absorbed as amino acids.

To achieve maximum growth of wool the sheep is therefore dependent

on a good source of under-graded food protein.

In practice this is likely to be supplied by the consumption of large

quantities of protein in pasture herbage.

This may be relatively highly degradable but can still supply much
undegradable protein. For example, a ewe might consume 250 g
protein/day, of which 0.3 (75 g) would be undegraded and 0.85 x 75 =
64 g would be absorbed in the small intestine.

Nevertheless, wool growth in sheep is considerably increased by

protein supplements protected from rumen degradation such as
casein.

As would be anticipated, the most effective of such supplements are

those rich in the sulphur-containing amino acids.

Wool quality is influenced by the nutrition of the sheep. High levels of

nutrition increase the diameter of the fibres and it is significant that
the finer wools come from the nutritionally less favourable areas of
land.

Periods of starvation may cause an abrupt reduction in wool growth;

this leaves a week point in each fibre and is responsible for the fault in
fleeces with the self-explanatory name of break.

An early sign of copper deficiency in sheep is a loss of crimp or

waviness in wool; this is accompanied by a general deterioration in
quality, the wool losing its elasticity and its affinity for dyes.

NUTRIENT REQUIREMENT FOR WORK

Increased muscular activity results in nutrients being oxidised in the

system. All the organic constituents of feed are capable of being
oxidised and utilised as energy sources.

103

As long as supply is adequate, the working animal is to draw sources

of carbohydrates and fat to meet the energy need.

If the supply is inadequate, body fat will be drawn upon first and in
the last stage, the protein tissues may be broken down to furnish
energy for work as it is now accepted that the protein is not the
normal fuel of muscular work and that no protein catabolism or extra
wear and tear of tissues occurs during work.

Therefore, theoretically no extra protein is required to be supplied as

long as the ration provides sufficient carbohydrate and fat for extra
energy required for work.

From the stand point of an efficient ration for work, however, other
considerations appear more important than the question as to
whether the protein requirement is actually increased during work or
not.

During hard work, the need for energy may be almost doubled and
unless the protein content of the ration is simultaneously increased,
nutritive ratio becomes wide.

As a result efficiency of energy utilization will be poorer since

digestibility will be depressed by wide ratio and metabolic heat losses
will also be increased.

Naturally, therefore an efficient ration in all respects will demand

inclusion of additional protein along with energy for maintaining the
proper nutritive ratio (as in lactating animals having different fat
content mentioned earlier) for increased muscular activity although
the additional protein may not be specifically required for muscular
activity.

CHAPTER-20: BALANCED RATION AND ITS CHARACTERISTICS

Learning objectives
This chapter will give the learner an insight to understand the following:

balanced ration and its desirable characterstics.

BALANCED RATION AND ITS CHARACTERISTICS

Ration

A ration is the feed allowed for a given animal during a day of 24

hours.

The feed may be given at a time or in portions at intervals.

Balanced ration

104

A balanced ration is a ration, which provides the essential nutrients to

the animal in such proportion and amounts that are required for the
proper nourishment of the particular animal for 24 hours for various
physiological functions.

Desirable characterisitcs of a ration

Liberal feeding

The animal should be provided in plenty with all the requirements,

which are necessary for full milk production and maintenance of her
body.

There should also be some allowance made for what goes as a waste in
preparation and serving the feed to the cow.

It should not be mistaken for overfeeding.

It is doubly wasteful because it wastes feed and it also injures the

animals system.

Individual feeding

In order to obtain maximum profits, cows must be fed individually

according to the production and requirements instead of allowing the
same ration to each animal in the herd.

The ration should be properly balanced

With a correct and balanced ration a cow can get the best out of all
the constituents present in her feed resulting in production of milk at
cheaper cost.

In improperly balanced ration, much of the feed is wasted. What is

eaten by the cow is not important but what she digests is important.

Because the feed digested alone goes for milk production and
maintenance of the body. A balanced ration is thus more purposeful
and beneficial.

The ration must be palatable

Whatever feed given to an animal must be to its liking.

105

Evil

smelling,

mouldy,

musty,

spoiled

and

inferior

feeds

are

unpalatable and must not be given to the animals.

If some excellent feed is not good in taste, they should be improved by

special preparations like addition of salt or other feed additives.

Variety of feed in the ration

By combining many feeds in a ration, a better and balanced mixture of

proteins, vitamins and other nutrients are furnished than by
depending on only a few.

Variety of feeds in the ration makes it more palatable.

The ration should contain enough of mineral matter

Every litre of milk yielded by a cow contains a little more than 0.7% of
mineral matter.

If the amount of mineral matter in the ration is not sufficient to meet

the demand in the milk yield, the cow shall have to draw upon her
own body supplies or fall down in milk yield.

At the end of her lactation, the cow will be left as an extremely weak
animal and her milk yield in subsequent lactation will go down
considerably.

The ration should be fairly laxative

Constipation is often the cause of most of the digestive troubles.

It is, therefore, necessary to give such feeds, which are laxative in

character.

The ration should be fairly bulky

The stomach of cattle is very capacious and they do not feel satisfied
unless their bellies are properly filled up.

106

From the point of providing energy and heat generated values,

indigestible fibre is not of any great importance but it plays an
important role in giving a feeling of fullness to cattle.

If the bulk of the ration supplied is small, however rich it might be in

its nourishing constituents, cattle may fall a victim to the depraved
habits of eating earth, rags, dirty refuses, etc., for filling up stomachs.

The ration should contain sufficient green fodder

Green succulent fodders are of great importance in feeding of milch

animals because of their cooling and slightly laxative action.

They aid in the appetite and keep the animal in good condition.

Green fodders are bulky, easily digestible, laxative and contain enough
of necessary vitamins.

Leguminous green fodders are very rich in proteins.

Avoid sudden changes in the ration

Sudden changes are often the cause of many digestive troubles, the
more notable being Tympanitis, Impaction, etc.

All changes of the feed must be gradual and slow.

An animal system receiving a certain feed or a mixture of feeds gets

accustomed to it. It gets upset by sudden changes.

Maintain regularity in feeding

Cattle like other animals are creatures of habits and get so much used
to routine that marked changes may lead to restlessness.

107

As the feeding hour approaches, their glandular secretions become

active in anticipation of the meal.

Irregularity in milking and feeding tells very badly on the productive

powers of an animal.

The time of feeding should be evenly distributed so that the animals

are not kept too long without feed.

The feed must be properly prepared

The feed must be well prepared. Some feeds require special

preparations before administration in order to render them more
digestible and palatable.

Hard grains like gram, barley, wheat, maize, etc., should be ground
before feeding so that their mastication may become easy.

Coarse fodders like dry jowar, bajra and green fodders of these crops
should be chaffed before feeding.

Some dry fodders, such as bhusa of cereals and legumes should be

moistened.

Soaking of feeds like various types of cakes and cottonseed soften

them and makes them more palatable.

A ration should not be too bulky

If the ration is too bulky, the animal will fail to get all its nutrient
requirements.

Economy in labour and cost

The ultimate object of rearing animals is to make profits.

The cost of the feeds and the labour in feeding should be minimised to
an extent that economic efficiency is not affected.

108

CHAPTER-21: FEEDING OF CALVES AND HEIFERS

Learning objectives
This chapter will give the learner an insight to understand the following:

feeding colostrum in new born calves,

milk feeding in weaned calves,

milk feeding schedule,

feeding milk replacer to calves,

composition of milk replacer,

rate of replacing milk repalcer.

calf starter and

feeding dairy calves from three months to maturity.

FEEDING COLOSTRUM IN NEW BORN CALVES

Normally calves are allowed to suck colostrum or milk from the

mothers udder for a few moments to induce letdown of milk and later
they are separated from the mother, to facilitate the milk man to
physically milk the cow. At the end of the milking again the calf is
allowed to suck the residual milk from the udder, which may not be
sufficient to the calf.

But in organized farms, calves are separated and fed with measured
quantities of milk in buckets or pails.

The calves are trained to drink milk with its mouth turned upwards so
that the ingested milk flows directly into omasum and abomasums
through esophageal groove.

Colostrum

It should be given fresh as milked from the mother within two hours
and minimum for the first three days after birth.

It provides antibodies which are absorbed intact in the first few days of
the calfs life.

It should not be warmed since it will coagulate, due to the presence of

higher quantity of protein (17%) as against 3.5% in normal milk.

109

It contains immunoglobulins (IgM, IgG, IgA) which are essential for

new born calves and can pass through the intestinal membranes
freely during the first 12 hours of its life.

The immunoglobulins are absorbed in the body by the process of

pinocytosis.

It also contains anti-tryptic enzyme which may help in the protection

of whey protein from the proteolysis.

It is also rich in Vitamins (A,D and E) and minerals (Ca, Mg, Fe and
P).

It also has a laxative effect in removing muconium. The colostrum

should be fed at the rate of one tenth of body weight of the calves.

If dams colostrum is not available, two eggs may be mixed with milk
along with 30 ml castor oil and it can be given to the calves.

In addition, it is necessary to inject the calf with dams serum for

augmenting the antibody titer in the body, particularly the buffalo
calves.

Artificial colostrum
Components

Quantity

Warm water

275 ml

Raw egg

Castor oil

3 ML

Vitamin A

10,000 IU

Warm whole milk

525 ML

Aureomycin

80mg

Mix well and feed at 400C,which is sufficient for one meal,

The calf should be fed three times a day.
Whole milk is given from the fourth day onwards till it attains
three months of age.

From the 15th day of its age a small quantity of good hay, preferably a
legume hay, and a little calf starter may be offered.

Early introduction of solid feed helps in the rapid development of

rumen.

110

Practical consideration in feeding colostrum to new born calves:

The nourishment of the calf should be taken care of much before it is

born. That is why extra nutrients should be provided during the last
two months of gestation. The expectant dam should also be provided
with 15 to 20 kg of green fodder daily so that the colostrum secreted
will be rich in vitamin A. Vitamin A content of colostrum is normally
dependent on the type of ration given to the cow prior to parturition. If
green fodder was not offered, the calf should be given at least 10,000
IU of vitamin A in its first feed within a few hours after its birth.

For the next 7 days, the dosage may be reduced to 5000 IU per day.
Carotene cannot replace vitamin A in feeding infant calves, as they are
unable to convert carotene into vitamin A.

Thereafter, the dosage may be 1000-2000 IU daily, in case the cow is

not receiving any green fodder. If the cow is fed liberally with green
fodder, vitamin A supplementation can be stopped.

Practical Calf-Feeding Programme

111

The most critical period is

the first 2-3 wk of life, during
which

time

the

calfs

digestive system is immature

but developing rapidly with
regard to digestive secretions
and enzymatic activity.

With respect to the nutrient

requirements

of

the

calf,

three phases of development

related to digestive function
are recognized.
Liquid-feeding phase

All

or

essentially

nutrient

all

the

requirements

are

met by milk or milk replacer.

The quality of these feeds is
preserved

by

esophageal

functional

groove,

which

shunts liquid feeds directly to

the abomasum and so avoids
microbial break down in the
reticulo-rumen. This is the
non-ruminant

phase

from

birth to 21 days of age and

abomasum will be occupying
60

rumen

total
is

stomach

and

underdeveloped

and non-functional.
Transition phase

Liquid diet and starter both

contribute

to

meeting

the

nutrient requirements of the

calf. This is between 22 to
56-84
rumen

days

of

gradually

age.

The

develops

and becomes functional.

112

Ruminant phase

The calf derives its nutrients

from solid feeds primarily
through

microbial

fermentation in the reticulorumen. The rumen occupies

85 % of stomach capacity
and is fully functional and
the calf will be more than 84
days of age.
Under the village conditions, the
calf sucks milk from its mother's
udder as long as the latter is in
milk. Usually the calf is allowed to
suck for a few seconds only to
induce letdown of milk, and later a
little quantity of milk is left in the
udder after milking.
The allowance of milk to the
calf is mostly insufficient and
the calves fail to grow at a
proper rate whereas in all
well-organized farms, calves
are

separated

from

their

mother soon after parturition

(weaned) and then hand fed
with measured quantities of
milk in a bucket or pail.

The calf can be trained to

drink colostrum and later
milk from a pail with due
care.

It must be remembered that

calf's natural instinct is to
suck milk from its mother
with

its

mouth

turned

upwards so that the ingested

113

milk

flows

directly

into

omasum

and

abomasum

through

the

esophageal

groove.

In the liquid feeding phase,

the calves are fed fluid milk
or milk replacer. Immediately
after birth calves are fed

colostrum.
Importance of feeding colostrum:

Feeding

calves

the

correct

amount

of

high-quality

colostrum

immediately after birth is the single most important management

practice in calf nutrition
Definition
Colostrum is the thick, creamy, yellow secretion of the first milking collected
from the udder after calving. Secretions from the second to the eighth
milking (fifth day of lactation) are called transitional milk because the
composition gradually becomes similar to that of whole milk .
The feeding of colostrum is important for the following reasons

High antibody content

o The immunoglobulins protect the calf from infections since the
newborn calf has little or no reserve of antibodies (antibodies
cannot pass through the placental membranes). The protein
content of colostrum is 17% as against only 3.5% in ordinary
milk.
o A

major

portion

of

the

protein

in

colostrum

is

the

immunoglobulin. The immunoglobulins found in colostrum are

large proteins which when absorbed from the intestines protect
the calves against diseases.
o Three types of immunoglobulins (IgM, IgG, IgA) are found in
colostrum. IgG and IgM destroy antigens or micro-organisms
that have entered the blood (systemic infections). IgA, a third
type of antibody, protects the membranes that line many organs
against infection, especially the intestine, and prevents antigens
from entering the bloodstream.

114

o The concentration of antibodies in colostrum averages 6% (6

g/100 g of colostrum), but ranges from 2 to 23%. In contrast,
the concentration of antibodies in the milk is only 0.1%.

Source of nutrients: In addition to disease protection, colostrum is a

rich source of nutrients for survi val of the calf because the body
reserves of the calf gets exhausted with in hours with out any feed.

Source of hormones and growth factors: Increasing evidence shows that

colostrum also provides a number of hormones and growth factors
necessary to stimulate growth and development of the digestive tract
and other organ systems in the calf.

The high content of vitamins (A, D and E) and minerals (Ca, Mg, Fe,
and P) help the calf to resist infections. Vit.A in colostrum is very
important because the calf is born with very small reserves of this
vitamin

The laxative action of the colostrum helps the calf in evacuating the
accumulated faecal matter from its intestines. The faecal matter if not
excreted may undergo fermentation and release toxins, causing ill
health or even death

The three important considerations in Colostrum Feeding

Feed colostrum within one hour

after birth
o Colostrum is fed to calves
as soon after birth as
possible i.e. ideally within
30 minutes and certainly
within

hours

after

birth. Approximately 35
percent

of

ingested

immunoglobulins can be
absorbed when calves are
fed

colostrum

immediately after birth.

o The

intestinal

wall

permits the passage of

immunoglobulins at least
during the first 12 hours
after birth of calf.
115

o After that the gut closes

and

the

rate

of

absorption

of

immunoglobulins

may

decline to less than 5.

Feed colostrum at a rate of 12

percent to 15 percent of the
calfs

body

weight.

The

concentration

of

immunoglobulin G (IgG) needed

in the blood to protect the calf
from infectious diseases is 10
mg/ml of serum.

Use

high-quality

colostrum

percent.
Visual observation gives a good indication of colostrum quality
(amounts of antibodies). A thick, creamy colostrum is rich in
antibodies. In contrast, a thin, watery colostrum is likely to contain a
lower

antibody

concentration.

Concentration

of

antibodies

in

colostrum is influenced by numerous factors:

o Inadequate length of the dry period (less than four weeks),
premature calving, milking before calving and milk leakage
before

calving

lower

the

concentration

of

antibodies

in

colostrum
o The age of the cow: On the average, concentration of antibodies
is higher in older cows (>8%) than first-calf heifers (5-6%). In
addition, older cows produce colostrum with more diverse
antibody populations than younger cows because they have had
more time to build immunity to the diseases existing in the herd
o The breed of dairy cow: Holsteins have a lower antibody
concentration (6%) in their colostrum than other dairy breeds
such as Ayrshire, Brown Swiss, Guernsey and Jersey (8 to 9 %)
What to do if colostrum is in excess

Any surplus colostrum can be frozen and then thawed and carefully
warmed to 39C in warm water bath (45-50C) before feeding. If no
freezing facilities are, available colostrum can stay fresh for a couple of
days if it is cooled in a hygienic container.
116

Colostrum can be fermented with living lactic acid culture.

Fermented colostrum can be kept for at least a week and up to two

weeks if cooling facilities are available.

Add propionic acid to colostrum and preserve it .

MILK FEEDING IN WEANED CALVES

Weaning of calves within 4 days of birth is important because it is

essential to have exact data on dams milk production for future
selection and progeny testing.

After weaning, the calf is trained to drink milk from a pail either
through hollow pressure rubber tubing or a nipple.

Milk has a high nutritive value and should be given to calves after 4
days of age. Milk is a complete feed for calves.

The calf must receive sufficient milk during the first three months.

A minimum of 110 liters of whole milk should be fed over a period of

4-5 weeks along with a calf starter having good quality protein and low
fibre.

A minimum of 160 liters of whole milk upto the age of 7-10 weeks in
addition to colostrum is an alternative suggestion.

Economical feeding on restricted milk quantity slows rate of growth

which delays maturity age.

Milk should be given warmed to body temperature and preferably with

a trace mineral supplement to make up for its deficiency of Fe, Cu,
Mg, Mn and Zn.

117

Green fodder upto 100 g dry matter may be offered daily from the age
of 15 days onwards to provide a stimulus for the development of
rumen and as a source of carotene.

Feeding schedule for cattle and buffaloe calves using calf starter
Age of calf

Whole milk

Calf starter

1 3 days

Colostrum 10 15% A

little

Hay

by

rd

of body weight in 2 3 day

feedings
4 30 days

Whole

milk

@10% 100

BW in 2 feedings

500 Introduce the calf to

grams

a good quality hay

by 2nd week

31 45 days

Whole milk @ 7% 500

BW

45 60 days

700 Ad lib

g/day

Whole milk @ 5% 700 1000 Ad lib

BW

Beyond

g/day

60

Ad lib

Ad lib

days

MILK FEEDING SCHEDULE

Schedule 1
Colostrum (kg)

Milk (kg)

1/10 of body weight

Age in days
1-4

118

5-90

1/10 of body weight

A weight of 75 kg can be achieved at 3 months in cross breds weighing

31 kg at birth.

Schedule 2
Body

wt Age

(kg)

days

Upto 30

1-4

in Colostrum (kg)
1/10

of

Milk (kg)

body -

weight
Up to 30

5-90

1/10 of body weight

31-60

5-90

1/20 of body weight above 30

kg.

It is possible to raise cross bred calves with feeding schedule 2 from

26 kg birth weight to 54 kg at 3 months.

Schedule 3
Body wt (kg)

Age in days

Colostrum (kg)

Milk (kg)

Upto 30

1-4

1/10 of body weight

Up to 30

5-30

1/10 of body weight

25-30

31-60

1/15 of body weight

35-70

61-90

1/25 of body weight

FEEDING MILK REPLACER TO CALVES

Milk replacer is fed to calves as early as at 10 days of age to replace

milk from economic point of view.

Milk replacer should resemble milk more or less on broad chemical

composition especially in terms of protein quantity and quality,
aminoacid quantity and quality, fatty acids, minerals and vitamins.

It should have a biological value equivalent to that of milk, and the

ingredients used for preparing milk replacer should be low in crude
fibre and free from any antimetabolites.
119

In addition, milk replacer may contain butyric acid, citric acid and
some antibiotics as additives to stimulate growth and to build up
vitality and resistance against diseases.

The replacement of milk by milk replacer should be gradual to

facilitate its acceptance and to avoid a drop in growth rate.

COMPOSITION OF MILK REPLACER

Ingredients

Inclusion level (%)

Wheat

10

Fishmeal

12

Linseed meal

40

Milk

13

Cottonseed oil/ coconut oil

Citric acid

1.5

Molasses

10

Mineral mixture

Linseed oil

Butyric acid

0.3

Antibiotic mixture

0.3

Rovimix (A, B2, D3)

0.015

Milk replacers: Milk replacers are usually fed in gruel form, which is
gradually increased with a simultaneous decrease in the amount of
whole milk.

FEEDING SCHEDULE OF MILK REPLACER

Days Bodyweight

Colostrum
120

Milk

Milk replacer

1-5

(kg)

(kg)

(g)

1/10 of body -

wt
6-9

1/10 of body wt

10-

1/10 of body 50

13
14-

wt
-

1/10 of body 100

17
18-

wt
-

Less by kg

175

Less by 1 kg

250

Less by 1.5 kg

325

35

Less by 2 kg

375

40

Less by 2.5 kg

450

40

1.5 kg

450

45

1.5 kg

525

50

1.5 kg

600

55

1 kg

800

60

1 kg

900

65

1 kg

950

70

1 kg

1000

21
2225
2629
3033
3436

When the calf reaches one and half months of age milk is to be
reduced to 1 kg irrespective of weight.

CALF STARTER

It is a solid feed consisting of ground grains, oil cakes, animal protein

supplements

and

brans

fortified

121

with

vitamins,

minerals

and

antibiotic feed supplements. It should contain 23-26 % crude protein

and 75% Total Digestible Nutrients.

A calf needs a relatively large proportion of protein in its ration so as

to furnish the basic building blocks (aminoacids) for the rapid growth
of its tissues.

The proportion of protein in the ration should be less as the animal

grows older.

The quality of protein given to the calf depends on the age of the calf.
Since the rumen is not developed, the protein in the calf ration should
be of high biological value (till the rumen develops calves can be fed
with animal proteins also).

A standard calf starter is offered from 10th day of age to supplement

the nutrients when they are raised on limited milk intake.

About 20-25 % DCP should be supplied through an animal protein

source or skim milk powder for balancing the essential aminoacid
requirement of pre ruminant calves which are not able to synthesize
them due to their non functional rumino-reticulum.

Ingredients

II

III

IV

Crushed Maize

50

50

Crushed Barley

50

50

50

Groundnutcake/Til cake

20

20

20

20

20

Wheat bran/Rice bran

10

10

10

10

10

Fishmeal/Meat meal/Skim milk powder

20

20

20

20

20

To each 100 kg of above mixture, 5-10 kg of molasses, 10 g vitamin

supplement, 500 g salt, 2 kg mineral mixture and 20 g antibiotic
mixture should be mixed thoroughly.

122

FEEDING DAIRY CALVES FROM THREE MONTHS TO MATURITY

From third month onwards cultivated green forages like Bajra-Napier

grasses, sorghum fodder, guinea grasses etc can be given at the rate of
2 kg per day, and gradually increasing it to 5 to 10 kg at 6 months of
age. Green leguminous forages like lucerne or berseem should be
wilted in sun for 2 -3 hours before feeding it, to minimize bloat.
Similarly concentrate mixture is increased from 0.75kg at 4 th month to
1 kg at 5th month and 1.5 kg at 6 months of age.

After 6th month male and female calves are kept in separate paddocks
and maintained on high quality roughage rations plus minimum
concentrate so as to economize the maintenance cost.

Assuming a daily weight gain of 500 g from the 6 th to 24th month of

age, two kg concentrate mixture with 16% Digestible Crude Protein
and 70% Total Digestible Nutrients and 15 t0 20 kg of green fodder
should be provided to each calf.

The following feeding schedule should be followed for raising calves from 3
months to maturity.
Category

Concentrate(kg Roughage (kg)

)

Indigenous

1-2

cattle/buffaloes

Green

grass/maize

fodder-10

kg

or

Legumes 1-2.5 kg + Dry fodder -2 kg or

Green fodder 3 kg + Straw 2 kg

Crossbred

1.6 2.0

Green

grass/maize

fodder

or

alike

fodders 5 -10 kg upto 4 months and 1015 kg from 4-6 months.

123

From 6 - 12 months of age

Category

Concentrate

Roughage (kg)

(kg)
Indigenous

1-2

Green grass/maize fodder-15 to 20 Kg or 15 to

cattle/buffaloes

20 Kg of Legumes+ 5 Kg dry fodder or

Green fodder 5 kg + Straw 2 to 3 kg

Crossbred

2.0 2.5

Green grass/maize fodder or alike fodders -15

to20 kg

From 1 year to age at conception

Category

Concentrate

Roughage (kg)

(kg)
Indigenous

1 to 2

25 to 30 kg of green maize

cattle/buffaloes
Crossbred

fodder / or other grasses

1.5 to 2

30 to 35 kg of green maize
fodder / or other grasses

Importance of proper feeding of calves from weaning to breeding

The level of nutrition influences onset of puberty in cattle and

buffaloes. At this age, the individual feeding is discontinued.

The male and female calves are separated. The animals of same sex
are reared in small groups.

Proper feeding is necessary if heifers are to be prepared for breeding at

the right age.

124

Inadequate diet during this period of growth may reduce the milk
production potential when they start producing milk.

Care must also be taken not to allow heifers to become too fat. Heifers
that become fatty at this stage will not produce well during lactation,
besides fatness may lead to reproductive problems.

The animals should be supplied the required quantity of mineral

mixture and common salt. Under the situation when green fodder is
not available, the animals should receive vitamin A supplemented
concentrate mixture.

A diet deficient in energy, phosphorus or vitamin A may delay the

onset of oestrus.

The way a heifer is fed is very important as it can greatly affect:

o Age at first service
o Ability to conceive (to become pregnant)
o Age at first calving
o Lifetime milk production
o Length of productive life

In general terms, if an animal grows at a faster rate, it will reach

sexual maturity earlier. Puberty occurs at a particular live weight
rather than at a fixed age.

Puberty occurs when heifers weigh between 45 - 50% of mature body

weight and under good feeding and management they usually attain
45 - 50% of mature body weight at 13-15 months of age. Breeding
should occur when heifers reach 50-60% of mature body weight.

Growth rate should be sustained during pregnancy such that heifers

weigh 80-85% of mature body weight at first calving and are large
enough to calve without difficulty at about 20-24 months of age

Feeding from weaning to 6 months (50-100 kg body weight)

125

During this period the calves will weigh 50-100 kg and the average
gain in body weight at this age may be about 300-800 g per day
depending the nutrition of calves. The rumen of the dairy calf will be
fully developed.

Up to 4 months of age, calves depend on calf starters as their main

source of nutrients. By four months of age rumen of the calf is
sufficiently developed to convert the feeding program from a
concentrate to a forage based one.

Good quality forage (e.g. legume and / or grass hay) should be offered
free-choice to dairy calves up to 6 months of age along with 1-2 kg
concentrate mixture with 14-16 % CP depending on the quality of the
forage.

The average nutrient requirements of calves (50-100kg) as per NRC,

2001 recommendations:

Dry matter

2.5 % of live weight

Crude protein

17 %

TDN

75 %

Feeding schedule for calves between 50-100 kg live weights

Live

weight Green

grass

lugume Concentrate

(kg)

grass(kg/day)

(g/day)

50

3.0

400

60

4.0

500

70

5.0

550

80

6.0

600

90

7.0

700

100

8.0

800

mixture

Assumptions: Dry matter in green fodder = 25 %

Concentrate mixture contains 16-18 % CP and 70-75 % TDN if non

legume green grass is fed and 14-16 %CP and 70-75 % TDN if
legumes are fed

Feeding the pregnant heifer

How heifers are fed during this period can affect milk production during first
lactation. Rapid growth of foetus occurs during the last trimester of
pregnancy. Hence, the heifers should move from a steady growth rate after
126

breeding to a rapidly growing phase (1.7 to 2.0 lb/day gain) during the last
two to three months of pregnancy. The exact amount of grain to feed before
calving will depend on forage quality, size, and condition of the heifer.
During the last trimester of pregnancy heifers are fed 1.5 kg of a concentrate
mixture (14 %CP and 70% TDN) to supply about 200 g of CP and 1.0 kg
TDN to meet the requirements of rapidly growing fetus. The mature body
weight of elite buffaloes ranges from 450 to 650 kg. Similarly the adult body
weight of cows ranges from 300-600 kg or even higher in some breeds. Even
after conception, therefore, they continue to grow at the rate of 300-500%
depending upon the plane of nutrition to achieve mature body weight at
about second lactation. Therefore, they should be fed additionally for
months to achieve mature body weight for successive normal reproduction
cycle. Delayed growth in first and/or second lactation due to short supply of
dietary energy is often attributed to repeat breeding and other reproductive
disorders. Therefore, the pregnant heifers are also fed 20 % of maintenance
CP and TDN as extra allowance for their body growth.
The pregnant heifers should be provided more amount of good-quality forage
and less concentrates to prevent fat deposition. They should receive
adequate amount of carotene or vitamin A, as it is essential for maintenance
of placental epithelium and foetal growth (deficiency leads to still-birth with
hydrophalus). The vitamin A (alone in buffaloes) or vitamin A and carotene
(in cows), stored in the body of cow, are secreted through colostrum in larger
quantity. A reserve of this vitamin is thus essential. Since green fodders are
very good source of carotenes (precursor of vitamin A), they should be fed in
plenty. If green fodder /hay or silage is not available, synthetic vitamin A
must be supplied through concentrate mixture. The green fodder has also
laxative effect, which is helpful for pregnant animals.
Feeding of concentrate to heifers 2-3 weeks before calving to adapt rumen
microbes to the concentrates is the sound nutritional practice in certain
countries. The mineral mixture and common salt should also be supplied
adequately. They should get free access to drinking water.

127

CHAPTER-22: FEEDING OF MILCH COWS AND BUFFALOES

Learning objectives
This chapter will give the learner an insight to understand the following:

introduction,

dry matter, digestible crude protein, and total digestible nutrients for
cattle and buffaloes.

deeding milch animals and

model rations for cows and buffaloes with the available fodder and
concentrates.

INTRODUCTION

In the computation of ration for the cattle and buffaloes, the prime
consideration is to ascertain and to meet up the total requirement in
terms of :
o Dry matter,
o Digestible protein, i.e., DCP and
o Energy i.e., TDN for 24 hours

DRY MATTER (DM), DIGESTIBLE CRUDE PROTEIN (DCP) AND TOTAL

DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS (TDN) REQUIREMENTS FOR CATTLE AND
BUFFALOES

128

In the computation of ration for the cattle and buffaloes, the prime
consideration is to ascertain and to meet up the total requirement in
terms of, Dry matter (DM), Digestible crude protein (DCP), Total
digesible Energy (TDN), Minerals and Vitamins.

The requirement on the quantity of dry matter depends on the body

weight of the animal and also with the nature of its production.

Cattle will generally eat daily 2.0 to 2.5 kg dry matter for every 100 kg
of live weight.

Buffaloes and crossbred animals are slightly heavy eaters and their
dry matter consumption varies from 2.5 to 3 kg daily per 100 kg body
weight.

All its requirements whether organic nutrients like carbohydrate,

protein and fat or minerals or vitamins should come from the total dry
matter that has to be allotted.

Dry matter
The dry matter allowance should be divided as follows:

129

Digestible Crude Protein (DCP) requirement

The DCP requirement for manitenance is 2.84 g /kg W0.75.

The DCP requirement per kg of 4% fat corrected milk is 132 g of

digestible nitrogen for 100 g of milk nitrogen.

In high yielders about 8% of the total protein requirement should be in

the form of 'bypass protein'.

During the last trimester of gestation an additional amount of 90 to

130 g of DCP have to be provided to cattle and buffaloes of 350 kg to
500 kg body weight.

Total digestible Nutrient (TDN) requirement

The energy requirements for maintenance are calculated using 122

kcal of ME /kg W0.75 (33.74 g TDN) for cattle and buffaloes.

The requirement for TDN per kg of 4% fat corrected milk is 1188 kcal
of ME (328 g TDN).

During the last trimester of gestation an additional amount of 1.0 to

1.1 kg TDN have to be provided to cattle and buffaloes of 350 kg to
500 kg body weight.

FEEDING MILCH ANIMALS

130

Daily nutrient requirements for maintenance, pregnancy and lactation for

cattle and buffaloes ( Ranjhan,S.K. 1998. Nutrient Requirements of
Livestock and Poultry,ICAR,New Delhi.)
For maintenance of mature Cows/Buffaloes.
Body

DC

ME

feed

(kg)

(g)

200

3.5

250
300

(kg)

Weight Dry

TD

Caroten

Vitamin

Mca N

kg

mg

1000 IU

150 6.0

1.7

21

4.0

170 7.2

2.0

10 9

26

11

4.5

200 8.4

2.4

12 1

32

13

37

15

42

17

48

19

53

21

58

23

64

26

0
350

5.0

230 9.4

2.7

14 1
1

400

5.5

250 10.8 3.0

17 1
3

450

6.0

280 12.4 3.4

18 1
4

500

6.5

300 13.2 3.7

20 1
5

550

7.0

330 14.4 4.0

21 1
6

600

7.5

350 15.5 4.2

22 1
7

For maintenance and pregnancy (last 2 months of gestation)

Body
(kg)

Weight Dry
feed
(kg)

DC
P
(g)

ME TDN
Mca kg
l

C
a
g

P
g

Caroten
e
mg

Vitamin
A
1000 IU

250

4.9

270 10.8 3.0

14 1
2

51

21

300

5.6

290 12.4 3.4

16 1
4

56

25

350

6.4

320 13.2 3.7

21 1
6

67

27

131

400

7.2

350 14.1 4.0

23 1
8

76

30

450

7.9

400 15.9 4.4

26 2
0

86

34

500

8.6

430 17.3 4.8

29 2
2

95

38

550

9.3

465 18.8 5.2

31 2
4

105

42

600

10.0

500 20.2 5.6

34 2
6

114

46

650

10.6

530 21.6 6.0

36 2
8

124

50

Feeding of milch animals

The nutrient requirement of a lactating cow /buffalo can be

conveniently

divided

into

two

parts,

viz.

requirement

for

maintenance and milk production. If the lactating animal is in first

and second lactation, extra allowance, is needed to take care of growth
and production.

Similarly pregnant animals are to be offered extra nutrients during

the last two months of gestation. The aim is that by the end of
gestation period the cows should not only gain their initial body
weight but also put on an extra 25 to 30 kg of body weight.This is
necessary to enable the animal to withstand the stress of parturition
and to maintain the persisitency of milk production during the
subsequent lactation period. The provision of extra nutrients should
be given in the form of concentrate mixture and not as forage because
roughages are not as efficient as concentrate in increasing the body
weight. The rest of the ration must contain sufficient gree feeds so
that the colostrum secreted after parturition should be rich in vitamin
A.

During the last 3 days prior to calving, the amount of concentrate

mixture should be reduced and a little warm bran is fed to keep the
animal in laxative condition before calving.

After parturition, the cow /buffalo should be given fresh warm water
and a mash consisting of 1 kg wheat bran, 1-1.5 kg ground/cooked
grains, 0.5 kg jaggery and 25 g each of common salt and mineral
132

mixture. This mash may be continued for 3 to 4 days after calving;

theafter, the regular feed is gradually introduced to the cow.

In feeding high-milk yielder, quality feed, ie., nutrient dense feed need
to be given. Ration should contain a minimum 25% DM from
forages.Forage should be of superior quality and 30 to 50% of this
should be from leguminous crops. Ration may be in the form of
complete feed. Frequency of feeding is three to four times a day. To
ensure proper nutrient intake, optimum roughage concentrate ratio
need to be maintained.

Nutrient requirement per kg of milk production

Fat %

DCP (g)

ME (Mcal)

TDN (kg)

Ca (g)

P (g)

3.0

40

0.97

0.270

2.5

1.8

4.0

45

1.13

0.315

2.7

2.0

5.0

51

1.28

0.370

2.9

2.2

6.0

57

1.36

0.410

3.1

2.4

7.0

63

1.54

0.460

3.3

2.6

8.0

69

1.80

0.510

3.5

2.8

9.0

75

2.06

0.500

3.7

3.0

10.0

81

2.16

0.600

3.9

3.2

11.0

85

2.34

0.650

4.1

3.4

MODEL RATIONS FOR COWS AND BUFFALOES WITH AVAILABLE

FODDER AND CONCENTRATES

Two alternatives could be easily considered depending on the

availability of green fodder.

If green leguminous fodder like berseem, lucerne or soobabul is

available, a combination of about 6 to 8 kg of leguminous green fodder
and 4 to 5 kg of paddy straw can easily meet the maintenance
requirement of animals.

The other alternative is to feed 1 kg of balanced concentrate mixture.

133

Ration for maintenance of a cow

Option

Feed

Green

Quantity (kg)
legume 6

Cereal straw
2

4 -5

Concentrate

mixture 1

Cereal straw

Ration for growing crossbred dairy heifers weighing 200 kg

Option

Feed

Green

Quantity (kg)
legume 8

Cereal straw
2

-10

2 -4

Concentrate

mixture 2.5

Cereal straw

4 -5

Ration for cow weighing about 400 kg and producing 5 kg of milk

Depending on the fodder availability, two options could be followed.

Option

Feed

Quantity (kg)

Green

legume 10

Green

cereals 20

Cereal straw
2

Concentrate

mixture 3.5

Cereal straw

7.0

134

Ration for cow weighing about 400 kg and producing 10 kg of milk

During the kharif season, it is possible in most areas, to get green

fodder with crops like maize, cowpea and subabul.

Azolla can be fed as a source of protein.It contains approximately 25%

crude protien on dry matter basis.

For cows producing 10 kg of milk, the following rations could be

followed.

option

Feed

Green

Quantity (kg)
legume 15
135

Green

cereals 25

Cereal

straw 2

Concentrate mixture

Concentrate mixture

7.5

Ration for cows weighing about 350 kg and producing 20 kg of milk

with 4.5% fat

Oat/Maize/Sorghum fodder 22 kg

Berseem or Lucerne 5 kg

Concentrate mixture 4.5 kg

Ration for cows weighing about 400 kg and producing 25 kg of milk

with 4.5% fat

Oat/Maize/Sorghum fodder 25 kg

Berseem or Lucerne 6 -8 kg

Concentrate mixture 9.0 kg

Thumb rule for feeding concentrates in cattle and buffaloes

In case of cattle, for every 1 kg of milk production, 0.4 kg of

concentrates should be given.

In case of buffaloes, for every 1 kg of milk production, 0.5 kg of

concentrates should be given.

CHAPTER-23: FEEDING OF HIGH YIELDING CATTLE AND BUFFALOES

Learning objectives
This chapter will give the learner an insight to understand the following:

feeding high yielding cows and buffaloes,

phase-1: Early lactation-0 to 70 days postpartum,

phase-2: Peak DN intake -2 to 20 weeks postpartum,

phase-3: Mid to late lactation-140 to 305 days postpartum,

phase -4: Dry period-60 to 14 days before parturition and

phase-5: Transition period-14 days before to parturition.

136

FEEDING HIGH YIELDING COWS/BUFFALOES

Feeding of milch animals during early lactation

The rate of milk letdown in

high yielders (producing above
15 kg of milk/day) in the first
six weeks of lactation, is so
high

that

the

secretion

of

nutrients into the milk exceeds

the rate of uptake of nutrients
from the digestive tract.

The

nutrient

deficit

is

compensated by the diversion

of nutrients from the body
reserves (mobilisation of body
fat and protein) resulting in
weight loss.Too large a loss in
body weight can prove harmful
and uneconomical.

The

appetite

of

the

animal

during the early lactation (upto

8 weeks) is reduced by 2 to 3
kg per day. So all the nutrients
needs of the animal are to be
provided within this appetite
limit.

It

is

difficult

to

nutrient

meet

the

requirements,

particularly
requirement

the
of

energy

such

high

yielders (more than 15 kg of

milk production per day in
cows and 12 kg milk yield per
day

in

normal

buffaloes)

through

concentrate

mixture

and fodder.

High energy diets are to be

formulated

and

challenge
137

feeding has to be adopted.

Adequate fibre (36% NDF in the

total

ration)

is

critical

for

maintenance of normal milk

fat. Usually, all such cows and
buffaloes

will

remain

under

negative energy balance during

first 5 months of lactation.
Challenge feeding

Challenge feeding starts two weeks before the expected date of calving
(Steaming up). Feeding concentrate mixture should be started initially
at 500 g per day and increase it gradually to a level of 500 -1000g per
100 kg body weight.

High milk producing animals are fed increasing quantitiy of feed

challenging them to produce at their maximum potential. This
challenge feeding will condition her digestive system for the increased
quantity of feed to provide sufficient nutrients to initiate lactation on a
higher plane. This effect has been found to have higher total milk yield
in the lactation.

In the light of advances made in the field of protein metabolism, the

protein requirements in ruminants are calculated based on rumen
protein degradability.

Mobilization of body reserves during early lactation can be prevented

by feeding high fat, high protein oilseeds such as cottonseed which
supply both protein and long chain fatty acids (LCAs) for post ruminal
digestion ( bypass protein and by pass fat).

Feeding Soybean to high yielding cows/buffaloes:

Soybean has to fed as both whole oil seed and solvent extracted
soybean meal to cows during lactation, more so during the first 3 to 5
months, to overcome the negative energy balance.

A milch cow was fed 6 kg of concentrate mixture (maize 40%, soybean

meal 30%, groundnut meal 10%, rice polish 10%, molasses 7%,
mineral mixture 3%), 1 kg of soybeans, 30 kg green fodder and
adlibitum wheat straw throughout the 10 months of lactation.

138

The cow yielded 4836 kg milk during the lactation period. It was
inferred that better milk yield persistency seemed to be as a result of
supplementing extra energy and additional protein from one kg whole
soybean.

Twenty Murrah buffaloes yielding 9.2 kg milk per day were used to
assess the usefulness of feeding full fat soybean on milk production
traits.

The study was conducted fro 11 weeks. Milk fat booster (MFB) was
prepared by mixing soybean 60%, soybean meal 30% and maize 10% (
CP -36% and EE -10%). Each animal was offered fat booster 2 kg,
cottonseed cake 1kg, maize- 2 kg and straw ad libitum.

The results showed an improvement in fat percent from 6.69 to 7.48

while there was not much difference in milk yield. Since most of the
high yielding cows and buffaloes are expected to be in negative energy
balance during first timester of lactation, the soybean feeding can be
advantageous to boost milk or milk fat percentage. (Source: S.P.Arora
and D.Bhosale" Future of feed industry in dairy sector in India"
Technical bulletin of American Soybean Association)

Some examples of concentrate mixtures

Ration 1
Groundnut cake

35

Wheat bran

20

Maize

15

Oat/Bajra/Sorghum

15

Gram chunnies

12

Mineral Mixture

Common Salt

Total

100

Ration 2
Mustard cake

20

Wheat bran

45

Green gram chunnies

32

139

Mineral Mixture

Common salt

Total

100

Ration 3
Tapioca chips

20

Groundnut cake

30

Gram chuni

22

Rice bran

25

Mineral mixture

Common Salt

Total

100

Ration 4
Groundnut cake

20

Rice bran

25

Wheat bran

10

Gram husk

27

Cotton seed cake

15

Mineral Mixture

Common Salt

Total

100

High yielding Dairy Cattle Nutrition

Cows yielding more than 20 kg/day and buffaloes yielding more than
15 kg per day are high yielding animals.

Nutrient requirements vary with the stage of lactation and gestation.

Five distinct feeding phases can be defined to attain optimum
production, reproduction and health of dairy cows:

140

Phase 1 : Early lactation1 to 70 days (peak milk production) after

calving (postpartum).

Phase 2 : Peak DM intake70 to 140 days (declining milk production)

postpartum.

Phase 3 : Mid- and late lactation140 to 305 days (declining milk

production) postpartum.

Phase 4 : Dry period60 to 14 days before the next lactation.

Phase 5 : Transition or close-up period14 days before to parturition.

PHASE 1: EARLY LACTATION - 0 TO 70 DAYS POSTPARTUM

The important features of this phase are,

Milk production increases rapidly during this period and the peak
milk production occurs at 6 to 8 weeks after calving.

Feed intake is not adequate because the appetite of the animal during
the early lactation (up to 8 weeks) is reduced by 2 to 3 kg per day. So
there will be shortfall in the intake of energy and protein needed for
high levels of milk production.

The protein will also be diverted for mammogenesis, body growth in

case of heifers and young animals, protein may also be diverted for
synthesis of lactose (milk sugar) .The animal loses body weight since it
mobilizes body tissues for sustaining milk production.

141

During this period, the cow could lose as much as 0.7 kg/day..
Because of reduced dry matter or feed intake, dietary energy is the
most limiting factor in milk production.

Feeding during this phase: The ration should contain :

Feed intake is the key factor in maintaining high milk production.

Cows should be encouraged to maximize their intake during early
lactation. Each additional kg of dry mater consumed can support 22.4 kg more milk. The roughages should be of high quality with not
more than 40-45 % NDF

Protein: A protein level of 13-14 % CP can support 20 kg milk in cows

and 15 kg in buffaloes. For those cows or buffaloes yielding more
milk, the ideal protein content of the ration should be 19 % with 3035 % RDP. A guideline is to feed 0.5 kg of a 34 to 50% protein
concentrates for every 5 kg of milk produced above 20 kg of milk.

A minimum level of fibre (17 to 18% Crude Fiber or 21 to 22% ADF or

28 percent NDF in the ration) is necessary because excessive levels of
concentrates (over 60 percent of the total DM) fed during early
lactation can cause acidosis and low milk fat percentage. To avoid any
digestive problems (e.g. acidosis, depressed intake), concentrates
should be added gradually at a rate of about 0.5 to 0.7 kg/day for the
first two weeks. Do not feed more than 2.5-3.5 kg of concentrates per
feeding.

The roughage should not be ground or pelleted but should be chopped

to a length of 2 inches or longer.

The energy content of the ration is increased by feeding of full-fat

oilseeds like cottonseed, sunflower seed and soybean . They are also
rich in TDN; thus their supplementation in the diet is useful for
meeting energy requirements of high yielding animals. Cottonseed is
the most popular amongst farmer and it also helps in increasing milk
fat.

The energy content of the ration can also be increased by using fats or
oil at 4% in the concentrate mixture or 0.5 kg / day.

Challenge Feeding

142

Feeding of concentrates should be started 2 weeks before calving, if no

concentrate is fed during the dry period. This helps in adaptation of
the rumen microbes with the grain/concentrate during the ensuing
lactation period when nutrient requirement cannot be met, especially
in high-yielding (more than 20 kg milk) cows without grain or
concentrates.

Generally, the animals are started with 1.5 to 2.0 kg concentrate

mixture (@0.3 to 0.5 % of body weight) on the date 2 weeks before
calving, followed by an increment of 0.3 to 0.5 kg daily, so that they
will be receiving about 1 kg concentrate mixture per 100 kg body
weight at calving. This is also called challenge or lead feeding, as it is
the practice of feeding higher levels of concentrate to challenge the
cow to reach her maximum milk production potential.

Other Feeding Strategies for High Producing dairy cattle during early
lactation

Cows usually eat after milking. So fresh feed should always be

available since high producing animals may eat up to 12 times in a
day

If concentrates are being fed separately from forages, they should be

fed several times a day.

Feeding

frequency: Increased

feeding

frequency

reduces

daily

variations in rumen pH and thus helps stabilizing the rumen

environment. The proper range and consistency of ruminal pH is
critical in fiber digestion.

Feeding sequence: If forage and concentrates are being fed separately,

forages should be fed first in the morning followed by a portion of
the concentrates.

PHASE 2. PEAK DM INTAKE - SECOND 10 WEEKS POSTPARTUM

During this phase the feed intake is near maximum and can supply
nutrient needs.

Cows should not be losing body weight, and are either maintaining
weight or slightly gaining weight

Animals are expected to take dry matter at 4 % of body weight .

Concentrate intake should not exceed 2.5 percent of the cow's body
weight and intake of good quality forage should be minimum 1.5
143

percent of the cow's body weight (DM basis) to maintain rumen

function and normal levels of milk fat.

Protein requirements during mid lactation are lower than in early

lactation. Therefore rations for dairy cows in mid-lactation should
contain 15-17% crude protein

To maximize nutrient intake:

Feed forages and grain several times a day.

If urea is included in the rations, limit urea to 100 g per cow per day.

PHASE 3.

MID

TO

LATE

LACTATION

- 140 TO 305 DAYS

POSTPARTUM

This phase will be the easiest to manage. Milk production is declining,

the cow is pregnant, and nutrient intake will easily be met or exceed
requirements.

Concentrate feeding should be at a level to meet milk production

requirements and the animals begin to replace body weight lost during
early lactation.

Young cows should receive additional nutrients for growth (20 percent
during 1st lactation and 10 % during 2nd lactation of the maintenance
requirement

Consider NPN as a source of supplemental protein.

PHASE 4. DRY PERIOD - 60 TO 14 DAYS BEFORE PARTURITION

The dry period is a critical phase of the lactation cycle to increase

milk yield during the following lactation and minimize metabolic
problems at or immediately following calving.

The reasons for the dry period

(a) Involution of the udder

The principal reason for the dry period is to allow the secretory tissue
of the udder to involute.
144

During this period, the secretory cells of udder actually break down
and are resorbed, and a new set of secretory cells is formed. This cell
renewal process takes approximately six weeks and, if a cow is allowed
no dry period at all, will result in a loss of milk of at least 30% in the
subsequent lactation.

(b) Foetal development

During the last eight weeks before calving the foetus gains almost 60%
of its birth weight, an overall rate of gain for the cow of about 0,75
kg/day.

At the very least, the cow must be fed for foetal growth.

(c ) Replenishment of body reserves

Mineral reserves are an entirely different matter to energy reserves.

The high-producing cow will have severely depleted her body reserves
of minerals, especially calcium and phosphorus, during her lactation.
These reserves can only be completely replenished when the cow is
dry.

Adequate mineral nutrition during the dry period is very important. If

the cow is very weak or underweight, the dry period helps her to
replenish body reserves and she may be fed to gain about 20-25 kg
body weight during the dry period.

(d) The length of the dry period

It is wise to aim for a dry period of eight weeks (56 days).

Rations should be formulated to specifically meet the nutrient

requirements of dry cows: body maintenance, fetal growth, and for
replacing any additional body weight not replaced during phase. P
regnant animals are to be offered extra nutrients during the last two
months of gestation.

The aim is that by the end of gestation period the cows should not
only gain their initial body weight but also put on an extra 25 to 30 kg
of body weight. This is necessary to enable the animal to withstand
the stress of parturition and to maintain the persistency of milk
production during the subsequent lactation period, The provision of
extra nutrients should be given in the form of concentrate mixture
and not as forage because roughages are not as efficient as
concentrates in increasing the body weight. The rest of the ration

145

must contain sufficient green feeds so that the colostrum secreted

after parturition should be rich in vitamin A.
o DM intake will be near 2 percent of the cow's body weight. A
minimum of 12 percent CP in the DM is recommended.
o Meet calcium and phosphorus needs, but avoid large excesses.
Calcium intakes of 60 to 80 grams and phosphorus intakes of
30 to 40 grams are sufficient for most cows.
o Avoid excess calcium and phosphorus intakes
o Dry cow rations above 0 .6 percent calcium and 0 .4 percent
phosphorus (DM basis) have substantially increased milk fever
problems.
o Provide adequate amounts of vitamin A, D, and E in rations to
improve calf survival and lower retained placenta and milk fever
problems.

Trace

minerals,

including

selenium

for

most

producers, should be adequately supplemented in dry cow diets.

o Change to a transition ration starting 2 weeks before calving .
During the last 3 days prior to calving, the amount of
concentrate mixture should be reduced and a little warm bran
is fed to keep the animal in laxative condition before calving.
PHASE 5. TRANSITION PERIOD - 14 DAYS BEFORE TO PARTURITION

The transition or close-up dry cow feeding program is critical to

adjusting dry cows to the lactation ration and preventing metabolic
problems. During the last 3 days prior to calving, the amount of
concentrate mixture should be reduced and a little warm bran is fed
to keep the animal in laxative condition before calving.

After parturition, the cow /buffalo should be given fresh warm water
and a mash consisting of 1 kg wheat bran, 1-1.5 kg ground grain, 0.5
kg jaggery and 25 g each of common salt and mineral mixture. This
mash may be continued for 3 to 4 days after calving; the regular feed
may be gradually introduced to the cow.

Some concentrate mixture, if not previously fed, should be fed starting

two weeks before freshening.

Introduction of concentrate mixture is necessary to begin changing

the rumen bacteria population over from an all-forage digestion
population to a mixed population of forage and grain digesters. Also,
addition of some ingredients used in the lactation ration during this
146

period minimizes the stress of ration changes after calving. Some

suggested management strategies during this period include:

Increase protein in the ration to between 14 and 15 percent of the

ration DM. Feeding some of this additional protein in the form of
undegradable protein may be beneficial in supplying amino acids for
fetal growth.

Summary of nutrient requirements of high yielding dairy cattle during

different phases of lactation
(a) Water requirements

Lactating

dairy

cows

need

6070

litres

of

water

each

day

for maintenance, plus an extra 45 litres for each litre of milk

produced.

Water requirements increase by 6 lts/day for every 4 0 C raise in air

temperatures. Lactating cows will drink 150 to 200 litres of water per
day in the summer months.

(b) Crude protein requirements

Stage of lactation

% CP in the ration

Early lactation

16 - 18 %

Mid lactation

14 - 16 %

Late lactation

12 - 14 %

Dry period

10 - 12 %

Undegradable or bypass protein (UIP) should be 35 to 40 percent of

the CP in early lactation and 30 to 35 percent of CP in late lactation.

(d) Crude Fibre requirements

(e) Energy in the ration
TDN

Early lactation 75 % of dietary DM

late lactation - 65 % of dietary DM

dry period - 55 % of dietary DM

(f) Nonfiber carbohydrates: 35 to 40 percent of the dietary DM.

(g) Fat

Maximum of 7 percent of the total ration DM with no more than 4

percent from supplemental fat..

147

Salt: 0.5 percent of the ration DM or 1 percent of the concentrate

mixture.

(i) Minera l

Approximately 1 percent of the grain mix should be a calciumphosphorus mineral.

(j) Urea

3 % of concentrate mixture or 1 percent of the total dry matter intake.

Vitamins: Supplemented A, D, and E in rations to meet requirements.

Ration form: Avoid too fine chopping of forages and concentrates

148

CHAPTER-24: LEVEL OF NUTRITION FOR REPRODUCTION IN COWS

AND FEEDING BREEDING BULLS AND WORKING BULLOCKS
Learning objectives
This chapter will give the learner an insight to understand the following:

level of nutrition and reproduction in cows,

feeding of breeding bulls and

feeding of working bullocks.

LEVEL OF NUTRITION AND REPRODUCTION IN COWS

The cow has a dry period of about 2 months but in practice it may be
longer.

During this period, cow should build up the body reserves, lost in
early lactation and will require nutrients to provide for the rapid
growth of the foetus which occur during the later stage of pregnancy
and for the regeneration of mammary tissue.

Low levels of protein and energy in the diets of cows and buffaloes are
liable to affect the reproductive system in a number of ways, such as
disturbing the oestrous cycle, prolonging postpartum anoestrous
period and increasing number of services per conception. The
mechanism of inhibitory action is on the hypothalamus affecting the
release of Leutinising Hormone (LH) releasing factor from anterior
pituitary.

149

In case, the energy requirement is met fully from time to time during
lactation, there may be further increase in milk production as well as
better persistency from such cows.

High protein diets are reported to be beneficial for higher milk

production and superior growth rate. It has been estimated that two
third of increase in milk yield is due to adequate protein and one-third
is a result of optimum energy in the rations.

FEEDING OF BREEDING BULL CALVES AND BULLS

Feeding of bull calves

Animals which are earmarked to be raised as future breeding sires,

should generally be kept on a liberal amount of milk for the first six
months or more of their life. Milk is also supplemented with calf
starter from two weeks of age onwards along with good quality hay.

S.No.

Age of bull calves

Quantity to be given ( kg)

Concentrate

Green fodder

Dry fodder

1.

6 to 12 months

2.5

5-7

Adlibitum

2.

1 to 2 years

3.0

7 -10

Adlibitum

Young males to be used for draft purpose should only be castrated at

12 to 15 months of age and their feeding schedules should be
identical to that of heifers. To economize the cost of feeding more green
fodder and hay can be fed ( upto 15 -20 kg /day ).

Feeding bulls in service

Breeding bulls are to be fed good quality fodders and concentrates to

keep them active. In addition the bulls should be regularly exercised
to keep it in prime condition.

Nutrient requirement of breeding bulls(Ranjhan,1998)

Live weight

DCP

TDN

ME

Ca

Carotene

Vitamin A

( kg )

kg

Mcal

mg

1000 IU

400

380

3.6

13.0

18

13

40

16

500

450

4.5

16.2

20

15

53

21

600

530

5.4

19.4

22

17

64

26

When berseem/lucerne/cowpea are available they can be fed along

with the straw or other good quality roughages like oats without any
150

concentrate. However, when straws form the basal ration, concentrate

are to be fed.

When non-leguminous green fodders, like oat, maize, sorghum, good

grazing etc, form the basal roughage there is no need to feed
concentrate mixture.

FEEDING OF WORKING BULLOCKS

When food supply is adequate, a working animal first draws upon the
carbohydrates and fats in the feed. If the supply is inadequate, the
body fat is used for the purpose and as a last resort muscles and
other protein tissues are used. Thus, as long as there is a sufficient
supply of carbohydrates in the feed, an ox at work needs no more
protein than required for maintenance except probably when the work
done is very hard.

When the animals are not working, they should be fed as per the
maintenance requirement. For light work, the animal should be fed
with 30 kg green maize and 10 kg cowpea. For heavy work, 10 kg
extra cowpea may be fed to take care of extra protein requirement.
When cultivated fodders are available 20 kg berseem/lucerne with 20
kg oats may be fed.

In addition 30 g of mineral mixture and 30 g of salt should be fed daily.

When wheat/paddy straw form the basal ration, then a concentrate

mixture containing 12% DCP and 75% TDN should be fed at the rate
of 1, 1.5, 2 and 2.5 kg respectively to 200, 300, 400 and 500 kg
animal along with ad libitum bhusa. For heavy work 2, 3, 4 and 5 kg
of concentrate mixture should be fed along with wheat straw. 2.5 kg
green fodder may be fed to satisfy the vitamin A requirement.

151

Alternative Feeding Schedule for working bullocks

Light work

Roughage: Ad libitum straw (6-10 kg)

Concentrate(12% DCP, 60% TDN): 1-2.5 kg/day

Medium work

Roughage: Ad libitum straw (6-10 kg)

Concentrate(12% DCP, 60% TDN): 1.5-4 kg/day

Heavy work

Roughage: Ad libitum straw (6-10 kg)

Concentrate(12% DCP, 60% TDN): 2-5 kg/day

152

CHAPTER-25: NUTRIENT REQUIREMENT OF SHEEP

Learning objectives
This chapter will give the learner an insight to understand the following:

introduction,

protein requirements,

energy or TDN requirements,

mineral and vitamin requirement of sheep and

dry matter requirement of sheep.

INTRODUCTION

Sheep rearing plays an important role in livelihood of large percentage

of small and marginal farmers and landless labourers especially in
arid, semi arid and hilly regions of India, where crop farming is
difficult and where naturally available feed resources are scarce.

Sheep in India are mostly maintained on natural vegetation and rarely

on concentrates and cultivated fodders.The annual growth rate of
2.0% for sheep is recorded in India.
153

There are 40 breeds of sheep in India (Decanni, Nellore, Mandya,

Madras Red, Muzaffarnagari,Marwari,Gaddi, Meicheri etc).

Exotic breeds of sheep are used for cross-breeding of local sheep to

improve mutton production potential were Dorset and Suffolk and for
wool production were Merino,etc.

The present sheep population in India is about 55 million.

The sheep are reared mostly for wool and meat however sheep skins
and manure are also obtained from sheep.

154

Hence to obtain more wool from sheep, care should be taken regarding
their balanced feeding on a scientific line.

Comparitive feeding behaviour and digestive physiology in goats and

sheep. (Devendra,1989) .
S.No Characteristics

Goats

Sheep

.
1
2

Activity

Bipedal stance and walk Walk

Feeding pattern

shorter

longer distances

distances

Browser, more selective

Grazer,less
selective

Browse and tree leaves

Relished

Less relished

Variety in feeds

Preference greater

Preference lesser

Taste sensation

More discerning

Less discerning

Salivary secretion rate

Greater

Lesser

Recycling of urea in saliva

Greater

Lesser

Dry matter Intake for meat 3% of body weight

3%

of

body

of

body

weight
9

Dry

matter

Intake

for 4 - 6 % of body weight

lactation
10

Digestive

3%
weight

efficiency

with Higher

Less efficient

coarse roughages
11

Retention time

Longer

12

Water Intake /Unit Dry Lower

Shorter
Higher

matter Intake
13

Rumen

ammonia Higher

Less efficient

concentration
14

Water economy

More efficient

Less efficient

Water turnover rate

Lower

Higher

Nature of faeces

Less water

Relatively higher

Nature of urine

More concentrated

Less
concentrated

WATER AND DRY MATTER REQUIREMENT OF SHEEP

155

Water requirement of sheep

Plenty of fresh clean water should always be available.

Adult sheep on dry feed in winter may drink about 2 liters/head/day

and 3.5 - 4 liters during summer.

Water requirement increases during growth, gestation, lactation and

heat stress, when salt content of diet is more or when animals are
made to travel long distances.

Normally a sheep will drink approximate 2-3 liters of water for every
kg of dry feed consumed.

Sheep can tolerate salt content upto 1% in the drinking water.

Dry matter requirement of sheep

In general a adult sheep consumes 2.5 to 3% dry matter of their live

body weight under stall feeding and grazing conditions.

However for a satisfactory growth, lambs require DM of about 4-5% of

the body weight.

PROTEIN REQUIREMENTS FOR SHEEP

Since wool fibres i.e. keratin is composed almost entirely of protein,

sheep need a greater proportion of protein.

Sheep can convert NPN substances into good quality microbial protein
in rumen.

Methionine is first limiting amino acid in microbial protein.

When NPN substances like urea, biuret are used in sheep ration, the
Nitrogen : Sulphur ratio should be maintained as 10:1.

A level of 10% protein in ration is adequate for wool production.

156

The Nutritive ratio for lambs of body weight 50 kg or more should be

1:7 or 1:8, whereas in ewes and nursing lamb it should be 1:6.5.

Wool is very rich in cystine and methionine (sulphur containing amino

acid ).

The ordinary rations provide the required quantity of cystine and

methionine.

However if sheep are fed a ration unusually low in cystine, then

feeding of protein supplements high in cystine or methionine is
beneficial (Blood meal is rich in cystine).

The approximate daily DCP requirement for maintenance is 1/10th of

the TDN or 1 gm for every 1 kg of body weight.

This requirement increases by about 50% during pregnancy and 100%

during lactation and growth.

ENERGY OR TDN REQUIREMENT

An abundance of good roughage alone will supply sufficient TDN or

NE for breeding ewes upto about a month or six weeks before lambing.

In pregnant ewes a small amount of grain or other concentrate can be

fed for the growth and development of foetus.
157

During this period the capacity of the ewe to use roughage is

considerably reduced because of the space in the abdomen that is
occupied by the foetus and foetal membrane.

Milking ewes need a liberal supply of TDN therefore concentrate

allowance should be given in addition to roughages.

For fattening lambs also, additional concentrate mixture should be

given to satisfy their energy requirements.

The TDN requirement of lambs is higher than that of adult sheep

similarly the pregnant, lactating and breeding ewes require more
energy than non-pregnant and non lactating ewes.

As a thumb rule a non-pregnant, non-lactating ewe requires 10 gm

TDN per kg live body weight for maintenance and wool production.

This requirement will be 50% more during last 6 weeks of pregnancy

and 100% more during the first 10 weeks of lactation.

The energy deficiency may result in reproductive failure, poor growth

and loss in body weight and may ultimately lead to death.

Factors affecting energy requirements

Size, age, growth, pregnancy, lactation and their realtionship to

protein which must be supplied in adequate amounts.

Environment:- Temperature, Humidity and wind may increase or

decrease energy needs, depending upon relative values in relation to
the zone of thermal neutrality.

Shearing decreases insulation and may increase energy losses.

Stress of any kind appears to increase energy requirements.

Nutrient requirement for Maintenance of adult sheep ( SK Ranjhan,1998)

Live

Dry

Digestible

Total

Calciu

Phosphoru

weight

matter

Crude Protein

Digestible

(kg)

(g)

(g)

Nutrient

(g)

(g)

(g)
20

575

28

258

1.1

0.8

25

678

33

305

1.3

0.9

30

775

38

350

1.5

1.0

35

873

43

393

1.7

1.2

40

964

48

434

1.9

1.3

158

45

1055

53

475

2.3

1.5

50

1140

56

513

2.3

1.5

55

1225

60

551

2.4

1.6

60

1310

65

588

2.6

1.7

MINERALS AND VITAMINS REQUIREMENT OF SHEEP

Only 15 minerals are found essential for sheep.

Out of which 7 are major mineral i.e. Na, Cl, Ca, P, Mg, K & S.

Sodium chloride

Sheep consume more Sodium chloride per 100 kg body weight than
do cattle.

Under

any

managemental

practice

Sodium

chloride should

be

provided regularly.

Generally Sodium chloride is added at the rate of 0.5% in complete

ration or 1% in concentrate ration in sheep.

Calcium and Phosphorus

Sheep reared on good pasture or when 1/3 rd roughage is legume do

not suffer from calcium deficiency and therefore benefit of adding Ca
and P depends on the amount of these minerals supplied by feeds
they receive.

A phosphorus content of 0.16-0.19% in ration (an D.M. Basis) in

adequate for ewes during pregnancy.

159

In milch ewe it should be 0.23%, where as in fattening lambs 0.17.

If rations low in phosphorus is fed to pregnant ewes, abortion or weak

lambs occurs.

In fattening lambs, deficiency result in low gain, poor feed utilization

and depraved appetite.

In protein deficiency phosphorus supplements should be given.

Cobalt

Deficiency leads to anaemia, retarded growth, rough hair coat.

Drenches of about 1.0 mg cobalt chloride twice a week corrects
deficiency.

Copper

It is essential in melanin production. It is observed that Cu reserve of

the lamb can satisfy wool (Keratin) formation, upto 6 months of age
after that Cu supplementation is necessary.

Deficiency affects the quality and quantity of wool produced.

The wool looses its characteristic crimp, this condition is called as

"Stringy Wool" and the fibre resembles more like hair than wool.

Zinc

Clinical signs of zinc deficiency occurs in ram lamb manifested by

impaired testicular growth and complete stoppage of spermatogenesis.

160

Vitamins requirement for sheep

If sheep have plenty of good roughage including pasture during

growing season, all their vitamin needs are usually satisfied.

Pasture suitable for sheep is generally high in vitamin A value

(carotene content). Also they have considerable vitamin A storage in
body.

Generally vitamin D deficiency do not results, as they are generally

outdoors and exposed to sunlight for much of the time during grazing.
Field cured dry fodder supplies vitamin D.

The B complex vitamins are synthesized in the rumen by microbial

action.

Vitamin E requirement is usually met with normal ration, however

"Stiff lamb disease" can be prevented by vitamin E supplementation.

CHAPTER-26: FEEDING

OF

LAMBS,

GROWERS

AND

FATTENING

SHEEP
Learning objectives
This chapter will give the learner an insight to understand the following:

feeding of preweaned lambs from birth to 90 days of age,

feeding of growing lambs,

feeding of fattening rams and

feeding of breeding ram.

FEEDING OF PREWEANED LAMBS FROM BIRTH TO 90 DAYS OF AGE

The development of lambs in the first four months is faster than the
kids.

Doubling or tripling of the birth weights is reached much earlier in

lambs than by kids.

161

The most critical period in the life of a lamb is during first 48 hours. If
a lamb is unable to nurse within half an hour after birth, it should be
assisted to suckle to get the advantage of colostrum.

Creep feeding

Lambs upto 12 weeks of age, suckling the sheep should be

supplemented with creep ration which they start to consume at about
2 weeks of age.

Creep mixtures

Ingredients

II

III

Maize flour

67

50

30

Barley flour

17

Oat flour

37

Groundnut cake

10

10

10

Wheat bran

10

10

Rice polish

10

Fish meal

10

10

Meat meal

10

Mineral mixture

Sodium chloride

Along with creep mixture, adequate amount of Vit A supplement

should be given. At 90 days of age, about 300 g of creep mixture is
consumed by a lamb.

After

the

development

of

rumen,

good

quality

leguminous

fodder/hays, may be given.

The lambs should be allowed to suckle the dam twice daily and kept
separately where creep mixture, roughage, mineral mixture and water
are available at free choice.

Feeding of lambs from 10th day till weaning

After 10th day of age lambs should be fed good quality legume along
with concentrate mixture to about 50-100 gm/day along with salt and
mineral mixture.

162

It should be supplemented with vitamin mixture and antibiotic

preparation like tetracyclines.

Feeding schedule
Body

Concentrate

Roughage* (g Remarks

weight

mixture (g/day)

/day)

200

400

(kg)
12 -15

8 hours grazing can be

substituted in place of
roughages

16 -25

250

600

8 hours grazing can be

substituted in place of
roughages

26 -35

300

700

8 hours grazing can be

substituted in place of
roughages

Grasses such as Cenchrus species, Legumes pastures such as Stylo,

Sirato, Groundnut haulms, grass and legume mixture may also be
given.

It is better to keep the lambs in the stall for mutton production

specially in the monsoon period because the animals do not relish to
graze the wet grasses and are also prone to diseases. Free choice
mineral blocks are to be provided in the sheds. Cross bred sheep
attain 30 kg body weight by 6 months of age,while native breeds may
take 9 months.

FEEDING OF GROWING, FATTENING LAMBS AND BREEDING RAMS

When good quality fodders are available, the following concentrate

mixture can be used.

163

Ingredients

Parts

Wheat/Rice bran

40

Maize

25

Groundnut cake

32

Mineral mixture

Sodium chloride

The

above

mixture

should

be

fed

as

per

the

following

recommendations.

Body weight

Concentrate mixture /day

10-15 kg

50 gm

16-25 kg

100 gm

26-35 kg

150 gm

If the quality of fodder is not good then the concentrate mixture

should be given as 300g, 400g and 600 g respectively.

Feeding of fattening lambs

164

The feedings schedule for fattening lambs is dependent on the age and
weight

expected

at

the

time

of

marketing.

Generally

simple

concentrate mixture consisting of

o Cereal grains - 2 parts
o Bran - 1 part
o Oil cakes - 1 part

Supplemented with mineral mixture and vitamin mixture can be used.

This concentrate ration should be fed at the rate of 110-450 gm/day/

depending on the weight of ram to be fattened.

Feeding of breeding rams

Rams used for breeding purpose should not be too fatty, which may
influence rate of fertility and mating behavior.

If breeding ram is fatty, the allowance of concentrate mixture should

be stopped completely and ram should be fed on dry fodder.

This procedure should be followed for 8 weeks before ram is allowed to

mate with ewes.

Before 2 weeks of mating again normal feeding schedule is followed.

During summer months concentrate mixture consisting of

o crushed grams 2 parts
o Wheat bran 2 parts
o Sodium chloride 1 part, can be given.

During winter months crushed grams should be replaced by available

crushed oil seeds cakes.

CHAPTER-27: FEEDING OF ADULT SHEEP

Learning objectives
This chapter will give the learner an insight to understand the following:

feeding of pregnant ewes and ewes after lambing,

feeding of adult sheep and lactaing ewes,

flushing or feeding of breeding ewes and

feeding of sheep for wool and meat.

FEEDING OF PREGNANT EWES AND EWES AFTER LAMBING

Gestation period of ewes is about 143-151 days, on an average 147

days.

During the first half of gestation period the growth of foetus is not so
rapid and thus the maintenance requirement of nutrients can take
care of pregnancy during early half of gestation period. But a
precaution should be taken to avoid underfeeding during this period.
165

During later half of gestation period, the rate of growth of foetus

increases with the result increasing nutrients requirement for its
nourishment and thats why extra allowance of feed should be given
during this period. For this purpose following concentrate mixture can
be used.

Ingredients

Parts

Maize/Jowar/Bajra

30 parts

Groundnut oil cake

20 parts

Rice Bran

40 parts

Molasses

7 parts

Mineral Mixture

2 parts

Sodium chloride

1 part.

This concentrate mixture should be given to about 150-250 gm/day in

addition to 8-9 hrs of grazing on good pasture or grasses.

If grazing is not practiced, this concentrates mixture should be

supplemented with vitamin preparation @ of 25g/100 kg. of feed.

The excessive energy intake during last 6 weeks of gestation leads to

fattening which results in birth difficulty in single bearing ewes.
Whereas low energy intake can result in low birth weight with reduced
viability in lambs, perhaps pregnancy toxemia may result in ewes.

The advantage of extra allowances of feed given during the last half
gestation period are as below:
o It increases birth weight of lambs.
o It reduces number of weak or crippled lambs.
o It reduces chance of lambing paralysis which occurs just before
lambing.
o It increases milk of ewes and thereby avoids tendency for
disowning their own lambs.

Feeding ewes after lambing

Immediately after lambing the concentrate ration for ewes should be

reduced which may otherwise lead to conditions like swollen udder
and other udder complications.

166

During this period good quality hay, legume should be given along
with a little quantity of concentrates (about 50-100 gm).

FEEDING OF ADULT SHEEP AND LACTATING EWES

Feeding of adult sheep

The adult sheep should be allowed to graze free of choice on pasture

or grass land and should be supplemented with 100 gm of
concentrate mixture.

If legume or hay is available then concentrate mixture need not be

given.

When legumes are fed alone the chances of developing digestive

disturbance increases and so some dry fodder like straws should be
given along with legume fodder.

When sufficient pasture land is not available and straw is available

then feeding of straw along with 300-400gm of concentrate mixture
should be done.

Feeding of lactating ewes

During first 10 days after lambing legume hay may be fed.

After 10 days upto weaning 250 g of concentrate mixture may be

supplemented with good quality legume hay.

After 3 months, maintenance allowance is sufficient.

167

The requirements of energy and protein are higher during lactation.

Feeding during the first 4 weeks of lactation is critical and affects

lactational performance of the ewes and thereby growth and survival
of lamb.

Both energy and protein should be balanced in a diet of lactating ewe.

Therefore feeding of 800 g good legume hay or 100-g/day-concentrate

mixture for 75 days after lambing in addition to 8 hours of grazing is
recommend for feeding of lactating ewes.
o Fats: A minimum of 3% fat in sheep rations is essential.
o Salt licks containing important major and minor minerals are
kept in their shed as a free choice lick..

Composition of salt lick

Ingredient

Composition (%)

Rock salt

40

Sulphate of Ammonia

20

Dicalcium phosphate

20

Urea

10

Molasses

10

Salt is added at 0.5% to complete diet or 1% to the concentrate

mixture.

They consume more salt per unit of body weight than the cattle

In addition to the above information, the following on different

systems of rearing sheep and how to improve their nutrition may also
included

Systems of sheep rearing:

Extensive system

Intensive system

Semi-intensive system

Extensive system

In this system, the availability of energy throughout the year, in

particular from January to June and protein for more than half of the
year is less than the animal requirements.

Over grazing of the available grazing land and overstocking leads to

problems of soil erosion and land degradation. This leads to low
animal productivity. Sheep and goats weigh only 15-16 kg at 9-12
168

months of age, lower dressing percentage (35-40) and narrow

bone:meat ratio (1:3.5-4.0). The reproduction is also affected with
high mortality in lambs and kids.
Measures to improve productivity under Extensive system

Reseeding with more productive and nutritive grasses like Cenchrus

ciliaris, Lasiurus sindicus, Dicanthium annulatum

Intercropping legumes like cowpea, Dolichos lablab, Clitoria ternata ,

Stylosanthes hemata etc. with grasses like Cenchrus ciliaris will
increase biomass yield, palatability and the grass-legume mixture can
sustain 4-5 sheep/ha/annum.

Silvi-pasture: During the period from December-June, when the

grazing material from pasture lands becomes scarce and the quality
deteriorates, the fodder trees and bushes serve as valuable sources for
feeding sheep and goats. A three tier silvipasure having fodder trees
like Prosopis cineraria, Azhadirachta indica, Morus alba, Leucaena
leucocephala, gliricidia maculate, sesbania etc., fodder bushes like
Zizyphus nummularia and Dicrostachys mutans with ground cover of
grasses like Cenchrus ciliaris can be practices

Semi-intensive system

It is a combination of free range grazing and stall-feeding.

Integration of sheep rearing with arable cropping is also included

where either the sheep or goat are tethered or cut and carry system of
available fodder is employed.

The poor nutritive value of native pastures and crop residues makes it
necessary

to

improve

the

nutrient

intake

for

better

animal

performance.
o Free grazing on range land for 8-10 h / d and supplementation
with 1.5 to 2.0 % of body weight with concentrates allowed to
graze

on

available

supplemented

with

grazing

lands

legume

hays,

or

pasture

legume

leaf

lands
meal

and
or

concentrate mixture @ 1.5 t0 2.0 % of body weight till they

attain 25 to 30 kg finishing weight at 5 to 6 months of age.. For
example if a ram lamb weighs 20 kg, then the concentrate will
be 20 x 0.15 = 300 g or 20 x 0.02 = 400 g/ day
o Supplementation with concentrates has been shown to increase
dressing percentage, lambing and kidding percentage, increased

169

birth weight of lambs and kids and reduced mortality, and

increased wool yield.
o Optimum level of fodder trees and shrubs when used as
supplements should be about 30 to 50 % of the ration, on DM
basis.
o In addition to grazing the pregnant ewes/does during last 30
days of pregnancy and lactating ewes/does during first 60 days
of lactation be supplemented with 300g/h/d concentrate
mixture containing 12 % DCP and 65 % TDN to ensure 2.5 to
3.0 kg birth weights.
o To attain a weaning weight of 14 to 16 kg at 60 days of age, the
lambs/kids should be provided ad lib suckling, creep ration and
green/dry leguminous fodders during pre weaning period
Intensive system

The intensive system of sheep and goat production includes grazing on

highly developed pastures or complete stall feeding on cultivated fresh
or conserved fodders, crop residues and concentrates. Although goats
prefer to browse as compared to grazing, they are quite capable of
making efficient use of cultivated pastures for meat and milk
production similar to sheep.
o Stocking rates of 16 to 60 sheep or goats per hectare are feasible
depending on the type of grass, level of fertilization and
presence or absence of legumes and fodder trees.
o This system requires high labor and capital investment.
o Judicious use of available feed and fodder resources, crop
residues, agro-industrial byproducts is possible under this
system
o The energy expended for grazing/browsing can be conserved for
body weight gains
o Several studies have shown ADG (g) and feed efficiency (kg
DMI/kg gain) of 100-200 and 12-18, respectively in sheep and
goats under intensive system of management.
o This system is ideally suited to feed sheep and goats on
complete diets containing tree leaves, crop residues, improved
legume hays or grass hay and concentrates in the ratio of 50:50.

170

o In lambs maintained on complete diets, ADG of 100-150 g,

FCE,, 14-15, finishing body weight of 25 kg at 6 months and 30
kg at 9 months were attained.
o Several least cost feed formulations involving leguminous
fodders (cowpea, dolichos, clitoria), tree and shrub leaves
(khejri, ardu, pala), cheaper energy supplements (jowar, bajra,
etc) and low cost protein supplements (mustard cake, guar
meal, sunflower cake) have been developed for economic and
sustainable production.
I . Composition of creep ration

II.

Concentrate

mixture

for

(DCP 18-20 % and TDN 70-75%) supplementation of

weaners and adults
(DCP 12- 14 % and TDN 60-65 %)
Maize

20%

Maize

20%

Gram

20%

Gram chuni

32%

Groundnut cake

35%

Groundnut cake

15%

Wheat bran

23 %

Wheat bran

30 %

Mineral mixture

2.5 %

Mineral mixture

2.5 %

Common salt

0.5 %

Common salt

0.5 %

III. Complete diets based on crop residues (CP : 12-14 %, TDN : 60 - 65

%)

Crop residue : 25 %

( Sehima nervosum hay / Heteropogan contortus hay / Sorghum

straw / Maize stover / Bagasse / Sunflower straw / Cotton straw /
Groundnut hulls )

Groundnut haulms : 25 %

Maize grain : 18 %

Groundnut cake :12 %

Wheat bran : 17 %

Mineral mixture : 2 %

Salt : 1%

FLUSHING OR FEEDING OF BREEDING EWES, FEEDING OF SHEEP

FOR WOOL AND MEAT
Flushing or feeding of breeding ewes

171

Flushing is the special nutritional care for improving nutritional

status of ewes 3-4 weeks before mating by providing additional
concentrate mixture.

It is very much important to have better nutrition and body condition

before ewe is allowed to mate with ram.

The effect of flushing is more evident in ewes that were underfed.

Thus with flushing ewes have better body condition and will increase
fertility by way of increased incidence of oestrus and increased
ovulation rate.

The majority of sheep in arid and semi-arid regions are bred 2-3
weeks after the onset of rains as grazing conditions are improved by
this time.

To obtain increased lambing rate, breeding ewes should be given 250 g

concentrate mixture or 500 g of good quality hay/head/day 3-4 weeks
before breeding is addition to usual hours of grazing.

Feeding of sheep for wool and meat

Sheep are reared mostly on grazing and poor pastures where good
cropping is not possible either due to fertility of soil or due to
inadequate irrigation facility and also low rain fall, resulting in unable
to sustain the rainfed crops.

In cultivated areas, sheep flocks are grazed on fallow land and

stubbles left after harvesting of main crops.

Sheep are able to collect their feeds by close clipping and often they
follow cattle and buffaloes on the pasture with good herbage cover.

Young tender grass blades are liked by sheep, which they sort out
avoiding coarse and ripen parts of the plants.

Sheep grow at a much higher rate on the feeding of energy rich high
concentrate diet than the grazing alone.

Supplementation with concentrates after grazing is more economical

than intensive fattening.

Sheep have tremendous feeding capacity and voluntary DM intake

range from 2-5% of body weight.

Inadequate feeding and unbalanced feeding are the chronic limitations

of sheep rearing in most of the tropical countries.

172

CHAPTER-28: GOAT NUTRITION

Learning objectives
This chapter will give the learner an insight to understand the following:

introduction of goat nutrition,

feeding behaviour of goats and

water and dry matter requirement of goats.

INTRODUCTION

Goats are regarded as "Poor Man's Cow". In India total goat population
is about 121 millions, which is about 20% of total goat population in
the world.
173

In India about 1/3rd goat population is contributed by desi and

unrecognised breeds which have low potential for meat, milk and hair
production.

We have a scanty availability of pasture land, and lack in irrigation

facilities for nutritious fodder production.

Therefore careful attention is required to be given regarding feeding of

goats.

Common Feeds and fodders for goats

Tree

Leaves: Babul,

Neem,

Pipal,

Mango,

Prosopis,

Gliricidia,

Mulberry, Subabul, Banyan etc. These tree leaves are also called as
top feed.

Grasses: Cenchrus ciliaris, Cenchrus setigerus, Para, Guinea ,Napier

etc.

Legume pastures: Stylosanthes hamata, Stylo santhes scabra, Siratro,

butterfly pea, etc.

Legume fodders: Berseem, Lucerne, Cowpea, etc.

Cereal fodders: Maize, Jowar, Oats etc.

174

Dry feeds: Dry pods of babul (acacia), Prosopis juliflora, Rain tree,
Subabul; Cereal straw, legumes straws (groundnut haulms, gram
straw), gram husk and gram waste.

In addition a free choice lick of mineral mixture has to be kept in goats

shed.

FEEDING BEHAVIOR OF GOATS

Goats are considered to be the best converter of fibrous feed into good
quality meat called as 'Chevon'.

Goats have upper mobile lip and very prehensile tongue, which helps
them to graze on very short i.e. near to earth grasses and browsing on
plant leaves which are not usually eaten by other species of animals.

Goats are more or less susceptible to toxic plants than other species,
also they are less sensitive than cattle to the toxic effects of tannic
acid.

Goats refuses any kind of feed which has been soiled.

It has been observed that goats can distinguish between different

tastes however they have higher tolerance for bitter taste plants than
cattle.

They consume certain species of plants at definite stage of growth and

may reject them at other time.

Goats have high efficiency for utilization of cellulose.

As a result of metabolic reactions after feeding NH3 and TVFA are

produced in highest concentration in goats than other species of
animals, which is because of solubility of feed, digestibility, particle
size, amino acid composition of protein, presence of other nitrogenous
compounds and the level and nature of carbohydrates in diet.

In goats the BMR and Thyroxine production is higher than other

species, and that is why goats require somewhat greater maintenance
ration than sheep and cattle.
175

The nutrient conversion efficiency for milk production in goats ranges

between 45-71%.

They are easily tired off consuming the same fodder for longer
duration.

WATER AND DRY MATTER REQUIREMENT OF GOATS

The nutrient requirement of goats are influenced by breed, body

weight, age, lactation, pregnancy, breeding season, market choice,
environmental temperature etc.

Water requirement of goats

Goats should be provided with ad-libitum clean water.

On an average a adult goat drinks about 400-700 ml, water/day.

Environmental temperature, lactation level, amount of body fat, age,

water content of forage, exercise, salt and mineral content of ration
influences the total water intake.

Goats have the ability to conserve water by reducing losses in urine

and faeces.

They are sensitive and reluctant to drink from foul tasting water
sources than other species of animals, therefore taste of water also
affects water intake.

When there is water shortage, it reduces feed intake, reduced

performance and gradual starvation.

The mean DM, free water intake ratio for goats should be 1:1.2.

If hard water is given continuously, higher calcium and phosphorus

deficiency will cause male infertility.

Dry matter requirement of goats

The dry matter requirement depends on the type of breed.

In meat type goat breeds the dry matter intake is on an average 3-4%
of their live body weight.

While in milch type goats it is 5-7% of their live body weight.

The factors, which affect dry matter consumption or intake, are

availability of feeds, palatability, moisture content and amount of
fibrous material present is feed.

176

On an average an adult goat needs about 3kg dry matter/100 kg body

weight for maintenance, 3.5 to 4 kg for growth, 3-3.5 kg during
pregnancy, 3.5-5.5 kg for lactation and 2.5 to 3.5 kg for meat and hair
production.

177

CHAPTER-29: ENERGY,

PROTEIN,

MINERAL

AND

VITAMIN

REQUIREMENT OF GOATS
Learning objectives
This chapter will give the learner an insight to understand the following:

energy requirement,

protein requirement and

mineral and vitamin requirement of goats.

ENERGY REQUIREMENT

Energy plays an vital role is goat diets which affects the overall
productivity and utilization of other nutrients.

An average energy requirement for maintenance is 101 kcal ME/kg

W0.75/day.

While for pregnancy it is 180 kcal ME/kg W0.75/day.

The daily energy requirement for milk production is found to be 1220

kcal/ME/kg for 4% fat corrected milk (FCM).

In addition to this, energy is necessary for increased activity, type of

terrain, amount of vegetation on range and distance travelled for
grazing.

The stall fed goats with minimum activity, requires, basic maintenance
level in their diets, however for light activity, goats require 25% more
energy.

178

The goats grazing in hilly area needs an increase of about 50% over
and above maintenance requirements.

Energy requirement for growth have been found to be 7.25 kcal ME/g
of gain in body weight.

The diets deficient in energy causes growth retardation, delayed

puberty, decrease in fertility rate and also lowers milk production.

Prolonged energy deficiency in goats diet may loose the strength of

resistance to infections and parasitic diseases.

179

On the contrary excessive energy intake which leads to fat deposition

is known to reduce quality of goat skin.

Daily

Nutrient

Requirement

for

maintenance

of

adult

Goats (Ranjhan.S.K.1998)
Bod

Dry

Dry

Digestible

Total

Calciu

Phospho

matter

matter

crude

digestible

rus

(g)

(g)

weig Intake

(% body protein

Nutrient

ht

(g)

weight)

(g)

(g)

15

500

3.3

23

240

1.1

0.7

20

615

3.1

29

295

1.3

0.9

25

730

2.9

34

350

1.6

1.1

30

830

2.8

39

400

1.8

1.2

35

940

2.7

44

450

2.1

1.4

40

1040

2.6

48

500

2.3

1.5

45

1125

2.5

53

540

2.5

1.7

50

1230

2.4

57

590

2.7

1.8

55

1315

2.4

62

630

2.9

1.9

60

1410

2.3

66

675

3.1

2.1

(kg)

PROTEIN REQUIREMENT

180

For carrying out different physiological functions like growth,

pregnancy,

lactation,

and

maintenance,

proteins

are

required

essentially.

The daily average requirement of dietary proteins for maintenance is

20-30 g DCP/50 kg body weight and for milk production it is 60-70 g
DCP/kg of milk produced.

A minimum of 6% total proteins have to be provided otherwise fed

intake gets reduced which may result in reduced semen activity and
lowered feed efficiency.

Urea can replace part of protein in goats diet however urea should not
be added in lactating goats as it may cause toxicity.

In complete forage diet urea can replace 1/3rd of dietary proteins

while in concentrate ration it can replace 1/2 of the proteins in diet.

The digestive tract of goats needs an approximately 3 weeks period to

adapt to urea utilization efficiently.

An intake of 44 g urea/100 kg body weight at a single feeding results

in acute toxicity. Therefore the level of urea should be gradually
increased in the diet.

181

When urea is used to replace proteins in the diet care should be taken
to add sulphur so as to maintain Nitrogen Sulphur in ration at 10:1.

MINERAL AND VITAMINS REQUIREMENTS OF GOATS

Mineral requirement of goats:

Mineral deficiencies rarely occur in goats as the common feeds and

fodders used in goats feed provides adequate quantities of the
important minerals.

However some major minerals like sodium, chloride, calcium,

phosphorus and sulphur are met while feeding the goats.\

Sodium chloride should be included in the concentrate mixture at the

rate of 0.5%. Calcium requirement for maintenance is 4.7g/day while
for milk production it is 1.3 g/kg of milk produced.

Where as phosphorus requirement is 3.3g/day for a adult goat.

Provision of mineral licks/bricks in the shed is recommended to avoid
occurrence of any deficiency.

Vitamins requirement of goat

The goats are generally allowed 5-6 hours grazing which takes care of
their of vitamin A and vitamin D requirements.

Therefore vitamin A and vitamin D deficiency rarely occurs in goats.

However for stall fed goats these two vitamins should be necessarily
supplied in their diet.

The vitamin E and vitamin K requirements are satisfied from the

browse, hence no additional care is needed in this regard.

Vitamin B complex are not dietary essential as it is synthesized by

ruminal micro-organisms.

However this vitamin should be included in diets of very young kids

nursing their dams and when diet is suddenly changed.
182

In goats vitamin C is synthesized in body tissues in adequate

quantities.

CHAPTER-30: FEEDING OF DIFFERENT CATEGORIES OF GOATS

Learning objectives
183

This chapter will give the learner an insight to understand the following:

starter or creep ration,

grower ration,

finisher ration,

feeding of replacement stock and

feeding of dry goats.

STARTER OR CREEP RATION

From birth up to 3rd day, the kids are given mothers milk i.e.
colostrum. After 3rd day the quantity of milk to be given to kids is
reduced to about 100 ml/day.

Along with mothers milk, green tender grasses, pasture or some

legume fodders like lucerne, berseem, cowpea are fed.

Expected body weight after 7 days is between 1-5 kg.

There after creep feed is given, which contains 14-18% DCP and 6570% TDN.

Creep feed
1

Maize

60

Groundnut oil cake

20

Fish meal

10

Wheat bran

07

Mineral mixture

02

Sodium chloride

01

Gram Chunnies

20

Maize

22
184

Groundnut oil cake

35

Wheat bran

20

Mineral mixture

2.5

Sodium chloride

0.5

During 7 days - 40th days of age 4-5 times feeding is done and from
40-60 days 3 times creep feeding is done.

At the end of 60 days i.e. weaning age the body weight of young one
between 3-4 times more than the birth weight i.e. ranging to about 710 kg.

GROWER RATION

After weaning period, the goats are turned to grower ration containing
9-10% DCP and 60-65% TDN.

The grower period is of one year duration during this period goat
attains about 1/3rd of its natural body weight.

Thus expected body weight at the completion of 1 year is 18-20 kg.

Grower ration
Maize

50

Wheat bran

30

Groundnut oil cake

10

Molasses

07

Mineral mixture

02

Sodium chloride

01

185

186

FINISHER RATION

The finishing period of goat, depends upon the market tendency, so as

to sell it at different body weights.

Generally goats are marketed at the average body weight of 20-30 kg.

During finishing period the rate of growth is very low and that's why
the maintenance ration satisfies the nutrient requirement.

The DCP content of finisher ration is 5-6% and TDN 60-65%.

Finisher ration

Maize

15

Jowar

15

Groundnut oil cake

20

Wheat bran

40

Molasses

07

Mineral mixture

02

Sodium chloride

01

When fatty carcasses are needed for selling, roughage should form 2025% of total dry matter requirement, where as for lean meat
production roughages should form 30-40% of total dry matter
requirement.

For producing fatty carcasses, high-energy cereal grains should be

included in the concentrate mixture.
187

FEEDING OF REPLACEMENT STOCK

Most of the male and female kids are selected for breeding purpose;
those are called as replacement stock.

Feeding of such stock is adjusted so as to reach the sexual maturity

and desirable body weight at 1 year of age.

The desirable body weight at one year for smaller breeds is 15-18 kg.
Where as for larger breeds it is 20-25 kg.

188

When sufficient good quality pasture is available for grazing, no

supplementary feeding with concentrates is desirable, where as
during lean period about 250-500 g of concentrate mixture with 1012% DCP and 68-70% TDN should be given to replacement stock.

The concentrate mixture should be necessarily supplemented with

mineral mixture or otherwise mineral licks should be provided in
shed.

FEEDING OF DRY GOATS

For the non-lactating i.e. dry goats, if sufficient grazing facilities are
available, the maintenance requirements get satisfied by 8-9 hours of
grazing on good quality pasture.

However, during shortage of pasture, 200 g of concentrate mixture

with 5-6% DCP and 55-60% TDN should be fed.

For milch type dry goats 30% of dry matter should be fulfilled by
concentrate mixture.

189

CHAPTER-31: FEEDING OF PREGNANT, LACTATING GOATS, BUCKS,

PASHMINIA AND ANGORA GOATS
Learning objectives
This chapter will give the learner an insight to understand the following:

feeding of pregnant does,

feeding of lactating goats and bucks and

feeding of Pashmina and Angora goats.

FEEDING OF PREGNANT DOES

When doe is pregnant, a great care is needed regarding feeding

specially during last one third period of gestation as this is the active
period of total development and nearly about 70-80% gain in foetus
mass in achieved during this period.

190

Requirement of protein, calcium and phosphorus are increased during

this period.

Daily Nutrient Requirements of Pregnant Does (Ranjhan .S.K. 1998)

Body

Dry

Dry

Digestib Totla

Weight(

matter

matter ( le Crude digestible

kg)

Intake ( % body Protein

Nutrients

g)

weight)

(g)

(g)

15

700

4.7

42

20

865

4.3

25

1025

30

Calcium Phosphoru
(g)

s(g)

385

2.1

1.4

52

475

2.6

1.7

4.1

62

564

3.1

2.1

1170

3.9

71

645

3.5

2.3

35

1320

3.8

80

725

4.0

2.7

40

1460

3.6

88

802

4.4

2.9

45

1590

3.5

96

875

4.8

3.2

50

1725

3.4

104

984

5.2

3.5

55

1850

3.4

112

1018

5.5

3.7

60

1975

3.6

120

1086

5.9

3.9

Therefore a ration containing 12.5% DCP and about 55-60% TDN

should be given to about 300-500 g, however for pregnant but
lactating goats 300-400 g of concentrate mixture/kg of milk produced
should be given in addition to maintenance amount of 150 g/day.

A free choice mineral licks should be made available.

191

Nutrient requirement of growing kids

Male kids
Daily gain (g)

DMI (% B.Wt

DCP(%)

TDN(%)

50

3.4

6.5

63

100

4.25

6.5

63

150

5.2

6.5

63

FEEDING OF LACTATING GOATS AND BUCKS

Feeding of lactating goats

For an adult doe in lactation about 400 g of concentrate mixture must

be given for every liter of milk produced and over and above that 150 g
should be added for maintenance.

A concentrate mixture for lactating goats should contain about 9-10%

DCP and 60-65% TDN.

Daily Nutrient Requirements of Lactating Does (Ranjhan.S.K. 1998)

Body

Milk

Dry

Dry

Digestible

Total

Calcium(g

Phosphorus(g

weight Yield(kg) matter

matter(%

Crude

Digestible

(kg)

body

Protein(g)

Nutrients(g)

Intake(g)

weight)

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

0.5

865

4.3

51

468

4.3

2.9

1.0

1185

5.9

74

640

5.9

3.9

0.5

968

3.9

56

523

4.8

3.2

1.0

1290

5.2

79

695

6.4

4.3

0.5

1060

3.5

61

573

5.3

3.5

1.0

1380

4.6

84

745

6.9

4.6

0.5

1155

3.3

66

623

5.8

3.9

1.0

1470

4.2

89

795

7.3

4.9

0.5

1245

3.1

70

673

6.2

4.1

1.0

1565

3.9

93

845

7.8

5.2

0.5

1320

2.9

75

713

6.6

4.4

1.0

1640

3.6

98

885

8.2

5.3

0.5

1410

2.8

79

763

7.0

4.7

192

55

60

1.0

1730

3.5

102

935

8.6

5.7

0.5

1490

2.7

84

803

7.4

4.9

1.0

1805

3.3

107

975

9.0

6.0

0.5

1570

2.6

88

848

7.8

5.2

1.0

1890

3.1

111

1020

9.4

6.3

It should be necessarily supplemented with mineral mixture of

standard quality.

Balanced ration for lactating goats

Maize

12 parts

Dal Chuni

35 parts

Wheat bran

30 parts

Groundnut oil cake

5 parts

Molasses

4 parts

Mineral mixture

2 parts

Sodium chloride

1 part

193

Feeding of bucks

They require about 3-3.5% concentrate mixture of total body weight.

Average breeding bucks need 500 g to 1 kg concentrate and yearlings

about 250 g.

FEEDING OF PASHMINA AND ANGORA GOATS

The pashmina and Angora goat breeds are well known for their quality
hair production.

The pashmina breed is found in Uttarakhand region of U.P. and Leh

region of Kashmir.

The hairs on their body are called as Pashmina fibres which is used
for preparation of famous shawls of Kashmir.

On an average Pashmina goat produces 112 g pashmina fibres in a

year.

It is observed that castrated males produces more pashma fibres. Also

females produces more fibres than males.

The fibre production is affected by feed intake, conversion efficiency

and rate of Nitrogen retention.

A Angora breed of goat, native of Turkisthan is known for its long,

lustrous fleece called Mohair.
194

A 2-3 clips per annum yields about 2 kg Mohair. Mohair is used for
the manufacturing of blankets, fabrics, rugs, etc. presently

For Pashmina fibre and Mohair production the protein and energy
content of the ration should be high.

Their native tract is a hilly area which justifies more energy

requirement for grazing.

Also trace minerals like Cu, Zn, should also be provided in the diet in
the required quantity.

195

CHAPTER-32: USE OF NPN COMPOUNDS IN RUMINANTS

Learning objectives
This chapter will give the learner an insight to understand the following:

urea,

urea mixed in concentrates and liquid supplements and

urea added to dry roughages and silages.

UREA MIXED IN CONCENTRATES AND LIQUID SUPPLEMENTS

In view of the acute shortage of starchy food (cereal grains) and oil
cakes, it may be desirable that urea may be used in the concentrate
mixture.

It may be used upto 1% of concentrate mixture in ruminants only.

It is a NPN substance which can be better utilised by rumen microbes.

But easily available carbohydrate (starch) source must be incorporated
in ruminant ration for efficient microbial protein synthesis.

Molasses can be used as starch source upto 8 -10 % in concentrate

mixture.

Urea mixed in concentrate feeds

Most of the urea fed to growing and lactating dairy cattle is

incorporated into the concentrate portion of the ration.

Generally speaking, urea is not used in amounts higher than 3% of

the total concentrate fed or 1% of the total dry matter in the ration to
avoid urea toxicity.

The maximum safe limit is 136g of urea per animal over 260kg body
weight.

Urea mixed in liquid supplements

196

It is a homogenous mixture in the liquid molasses along with vitamins

and minerals.

Normally it is prepared by completely dissolving 2.5 parts of urea in

equal amount of water.

The mixture is fortified with Vitablend AD3 at the rate of 25 g per 100
kg of liquid feed.

Common salt at the rate of 1 part and mineral mixture at the rate of 2
parts are sprinkled over 92 parts of sugarcane molasses (2.5 parts of
urea, 2.5 parts of water 1 part of salt + 2 parts of mineral mixture +
92 parts of molasses).

Uromol

Solution of urea (Uromol), containing molasses as the energy source

and

carrying

variable

amount

of

mineral

and

vitamin

supplementation are also in use.

Like the blocks they contain 5-6% urea and about 25% sugar and are
supplied in special feeders in which the animal licks a ball floating in
the solution the animal thus has no direct access to the solution.
Where urea is included in the concentrate diet thorough mixing is
essential to prevent localised concentrations which may have toxic
effects.

197

CHAPTER-33: UREA MOLASSES MINERAL BLOCK AND POULTRY

MANURE AS A FEED FOR RUMINANTS
Learning objectives
This chapter will give the learner an insight to understand the following:

urea molasses mineral block,

factors for optimum use of urea,

urea toxicity,

biuret and

poultry manure as a feed for ruminants.

UREA MOLASSES MINERAL BLOCK

Urea can be fed in several forms. It may be included in solid blocks

which also provides vitamin and mineral supplementation and
contains a readily available source of energy, usually starch.

Specifications for Urea Molasses Mineral Blocks

The National Dairy Development board (NDDB), Anand has developed

Urea molasses mineral blocks which contain molasses 45%, Urea
15%, Mineral mixture 15%, Salt 8%, Calcite powder 4%, bentonite 3%
and cotton seed meal 10% with the following specifications.

Characterisitcs

Requirement

Moisture (%), Max

3.5

Crude Protein (%), Min

58.0

Crude Fibre (%), Max

2.0
198

Total Ash (%), Max

34.0

Acid Insoluble ash (%), Max

3.0

Calcium (%), Max

4.0

Phosphorus (%), Min

1.5

Sulphur (%), Min

1.0

Urea (%), Max

15.0

Note: The values for characteristcs 2 to 9 are on moisture free basis.

Animals are allowed free access to the blocks. Intake being restricted
by the blocks having to be licked and by their high salt content.

If there is some danger of excessive urea intakes, remove the block

crumble or there be readily available source of water allowing the
animal to cope with the high salt intakes.

Advantages of Urea Molasses Mineral Blocks (UMMB)

Ingredients are easliy available in almost all parts of Indian and its
preparation is very easy and cheaper than conventional sources of
protein (Oil cakes)

Density of UMMB is much higher than the ingredients, which

facilitates long distance transportation, at a cheaper rate.

199

UMMB blocks are suitable for supplementing dry fodder based diets
for sustainability of ruminants during droughts and floods.

UMMB licks are hard enough to control gradual intake limited to

about 700 g in adult bovines and 800 -1000 g in growing bovines of
about 200 kg body weights.

Precaution to be followed while feeding UMMB

UMMB should not have more than 10% moisture and should be stored
at a dry place protected from rodents. It should be offered to the
animal in the dry manger and wetting should be prevented. Under
moisture conditions it may become soft to facilitate swallowing.

FACTORS FOR OPTIMUM USE OF UREA

Mix urea thoroughly along with other ingredients.

Feed urea only to mature cattle, buffalo, sheep, goat and never to
mono gastrics.

Provide a readily available energy source, such as molasses or cereal

grains.

Supply adequate and balanced levels of minerals.

Achieve a Nitrogen Sulphur ratio not wider than 15:1.

Include adequate salt for palatability.

Provide proper levels of Vitamins particularly Vit A.

Accustom animals gradually to urea containing feeds (over a period of

5-7 days).

UREA TOXICITY

When urea is fed at excessive levels, large amounts of ammonia are

liberated in the rumen.

Eventually, the pH of the ruminal fluid increases, thus facilitating the

passage of ammonia across the rumen wall.

If the levels of ammonia absorbed are greater than the capacity of the
liver to convert ammonia to urea, ammonia accumulates in the blood
which when exceeds 1 mg per 100 ml in cattle; the animal is under
toxic condition.

Symptoms of ammonia toxicity may include tetany, dyspnoea, bloat,

excessive salivation, ataxia, convulsions and bellowing.

The common treatment consists of drenching 20-40 liters of cold

water.

Another way of curing is by drenching 4 liters of dilute acetic acids

along with cold water.
200

BIURET

Biuret is produced by heating urea. It is a colourless, crystalline

compound with the following formula.
NH2-Co-NH-Co-NH2

It contains 40.8% nitrogen, equivalent to 255% of crude protein.

Biuret is utilised by ruminants, but a considerable period of
adaptation is required.

Adaptation is speeded by inoculation with rumen liquor from an

adapted rumen. The nitrogen of biuret is not as efficiently utilised as
that of urea and it is very much more expensive.

It has the considerable advantage that it is non-toxic even at levels

very much higher than those likely to be found in foods.

POULTRY MANURES AS A FEED FOR RUMINANTS

Despite

aesthetic

objections,

dried

poultry

excreta

have

been

successfully used for ruminants.

Poultry manures vary considerably in composition, depending upon

their origins. That from cage layers has a lower fibre content than
broiler litter, which has a base of the groundnut hulls, rice husk, or
saw dust used as bedding.

Both the types of manures have high ash content, particularly that of
layers, usually about 280 g /kg DM.

Digestilibilty is low and the ME value is 7.5 MJ/kg DM. Protein

content vary from 250 350 g/kg DM with a digestibility of 0.65. Most
of the nitrogen (600 g/kg) is present as non-protein compounds,
mostly urates, which must first be converted into urea and then
ammonia in order to be utilised by the animal.

The conversion of urea is usually a slow process and wastage and the
danger of toxicity are both less than with foods containing urea itself.

201

Layer wastes are excellent sources of Calcium (about 65 g/kg DM) but
the ratio of calcium to phosphorus is rather wide at 3:1; broiler litters
have less calcium with ratios closer to 1:1.

Dietary inclusion rates of up to 250 kg /tons have been used for dairy
cows and up to 400 kg/t for fattening cattle and have supported very
acceptible levels of performance. Thus dairy cows given 110 kg per
tonne of diet to replace half of the soya bean meal of a control diet
yielded 20 kg milk, the same as the control, but gained only 0.58
kg/day compared with 0.95 kg/day for the controls.

With fattening steers, concentrate diets containing wastes have

supported gains of the order of 1 kg/day, but it has been estimated
that for each inclusion of 100 kg excreta per tonne of diet, liveweight
gains are reduced by about 40 g/ kg.

One of the major constraints in the use of poultry wastes in animal

diets has been the fear of health hazards arising from the presence of
pathogens such as Salmonella and the presence of pesticide and drug
residues.

The heat treatment involved in drying and the ensiling procedures

used for storing the materials appear to offer satisfactory control of
pathogens, and pesticides have not proved to be a problem.

Drug residues may be a hazard but this can be overcome by having a

withdrawl period of three weeks before slaughter.

The best method of treating poultry wastes for use as animal foods is
by sun drying, ensiling either alone, or with forages have all proved
satisfactory.

202

203

EXERCISE 1: MEASUREMENT

OF

DIGESTIBILTY

BY

IN

VIVO

METHODS - DIRECT METHOD

OBJECTIVES AND METHODS OF CONDUCTING DIGESTION TRIALS IN
RUMINANTS
Objective

The digestibility of dry matter and nutrients in feedstuff is determined

by conducting digestion trial.

The digestibility of nutrient is used for calculation of the

o Digestibility of Crude Protein (DCP)
o Total

Digestible

Nutrients

(TDN)

adding

the amount

which is calculated by

in
of

feedstuff,
digestible

crude protein, digestible carbohydrate (crude fibre and nitrogen

free extract) and (2.25 x digestible ether extract)
Methods

In vivo Methods
o Direct Method
o Indirect

By difference

By using indicator/marker

Semi in vivo (In sacco) method

In vitro method

IN

VIVO

METHOD OF

DETERMINING

DIGESTIBILITY

-DIRECT

METHOD

Digestibility of the nutrient is determined by conducting digestion trial

in live animals, involving measurement of nutrient consumed and
voided.

Materials Required
1. Experimental animals

The experimental animals should be of similar breed, type, size or

weight, same sex,age and healthy .

Males are preferred over females because it is easy to collect faeces

and urine separately in males.

Minimum of four animals are required for conducting the trial.

2. Animal Weighing balance

204

A 1000 kg capacity weighing scale is required to weigh the animals

before and after conducting the experiment with large ruminats and a
100 kg balance for small ruminants.

3. Metabolic stall or crate

Metabolic crate is specially designed stall or pen for experimental

animal to house in controlled condition during experimental period.

It is designed to permit the collection of faeces and urine separately.

The feed box is attached to the front and constructed in such a way to
prevent scattering.

In absence of any metabolic stall or crate, ordinary barn may be

adapted to use for digestion experiment with minor modification in
relation to manger and faeces collection arrangement.

4. Weighing balance

1, 5, 25 kg capacity for weighing feed, fodder and faeces.

5. Buckets or tubs with covers: for collection of faeces

6. Plastic bottles

Of 2.5 litre capacity (or) buckets of 20 litre capacity are required for
urine collection ( metabolism trial) in case of small or large
ruminants,respectively.

7. Measuring cylinders

Required to measure water intake and urine output.

8. Polythene smaple bags

Required to aliquot faecal samples in dep frezer.

Procedure
1. Collection of test feed

Adequate amount of test feed should be available for feeding the

animals throughout the thr trial period.

In case of fodder, ensure regular supply at a particular stage of growth

throughout the trial period.

2. Preliminary/Adjustment period

It is essential that the collection period of a digestion trial be preceded

by a preliminary period of 10- 12 days for ruminants.

In this period, test feed is given in the same weighed amount daily as
in the collection period.

205

The purpose of this period is to remove all the residues of previous

feeding regime in the digestive tract and establish a uniform passage
rate of faeces as related to feed intake.

Recording of feed consumption and residual feed (both in the preliminary

and collection period)

Weighed quantity of feed is offered for the accuracy of digestion trial.

Residual feed should be as minimum as possible, for achieving this

feed intake, the pre-experimental feeding period should be regularized
in such a way that very little or nothing is left as residual feed.

Residual feed if any left out during experimental period should be

collected and pooled for further analyses.

The nutrient content of the feed offered and residue left out should be
determined to ascertain the accurate amount of nutrient intake.

The residue feed is often higher in moisture (due to spill over saliva),
ash, fiber content and low in protein and NFE.

3.Collection period

This is the actual experimental period. In this period accurate

recording of feed offered, residue left out and faeces and urine voided
should be done.

The length of the collection period depends upon the species. In

general, 710 days for ruminant .

Preparation of faeces sample

Faeces from individual animal should be collected without any loss

and weighed and then sampled for analyses.

In cattle, 5 % aliquot is used as a sample for further analyses.

In sheep or small animals all portion or major portion (50%) of the
faeces may be stored in cans or polythene bags or wide mouth airtight
glass jar and stored in refrigeration condition until the end of the
collection period.

At the end of the collection period, samples collected in each day are
mixed thoroughly for each animal and composite sample representing
the faeces for the entire period is taken for analyses.

From the aliquot, two samples should be taken, one for crude protein
(CP) estimation and other for dry matter (DM) and other nutrient
analyses.

206

Faeces for crude protein (CP) estimation should be preserved with 5ml
of 3% H2SO4.

4. Body weight recording

The experimental animals are weighed consecutively for 3 days just

before the collection period at a fixed time in the morning before
feeding and watering.

The average body weight of the animal for 3 days will be considered as
the initial body weight of the animal.

The same procedure of weighing is repeated at the end of collection

period to get the final body weight of the animal.

5. Recording of feed intake

The time at which feed is offered is to be fixed during the preliminary

period (for example say 8 a.m). During the collection period,weighed
amount of feed will be offered every day at the same time (8.a.m).
Simultaneously, a representative sample of feed offered is preserved in
the laboratory for the determination of dry matter and other proximate
nutrients.

6. Recording of residual feed

Weight of residual feed is to be recorded on the next day (at 8.a.m.)

and processed in a similar manner as in the case of feed offered.

7. Recording of faeces voided

Faeces voided during a period of 24 h is collected,weighed and

processed for preserving aliquots for nitrogen and dry matter
determination. The aliquot of faeces to be taken for preservation will
depend on the total quantity of faeces voided per day and it may range
from 1/100 to 1/1000 part for nitrogen analysis and stored in a deep
freeze in labeled polythene sample bags. At the end of collection
period,the daily pooled samples are to be defrosted and aliquot taken
for nitrogen analysis.
207

8. Recoding of urine excreted

Urine excreted during 24 h period should be collected quantitatively

and aliquot of 1/100th part is preserved in glass bottles by adding
concentrate Sulphuric acid for nitrogen analysis and another 1/100th
part is preserved in glass bottles by keeping in deep freezer for mineral
estimations.

Calculation of Digestibility

Eg. If the digestibility coefficient of protein in soybean meal is 75 %

and the protein content is 45% . The digestible crude protein content
of soyabean meal is 45 x 75 /100= 33.75 %.

Similarly digestibility of other nutrients are also calculated and the

Total Digestible Nutrient (TDN) is calculated as follows.

Calculation of Total Digestible Nutrients (TDN)

TDN (%) = % DCP + (% DEE x 2.25) + % DCF + % DNFE.

RECORDING OF DATA OBTAINED DURING A DIGESTION TRIAL
1. Recording of green fodder intake (Animal no. 1)
Day

Fodder

Fodder

Fodder

offered (kg)

residue (kg)

intake (kg)

1st

25

1.0

24.0

2nd

25

2.0

23.0

3rd

25

1.5

23.5

4th

25

1.5

23.5

5th

25

1.0

24.0

6th

25

1.5

23.5

7th

25

2.0

23.0

Mean

1.5

23.5

2. Recording of DM estimation in feed (Animal no. 1)

208

Da

Wt.

tray

of Wt. of fodder Total

(g)

weight Dried

(g)

weight DM

(g)

(g)

(g)
1st

150

D
M
(%)

50

200

163.0

13.

26

0
2nd 150

50

200

161.5

11.

23

5
3rd 150

50

200

162.5

12.

25

5
4th 150

50

200

162.5

12.

25

5
5th 150

50

200

162.0

12.

24

0
6th 150

50

200

161.0

11.

22

0
7th 150

50

200

161.5

11.

23

5
Mean

24

3. Recording of DM estimation in feed residue (Animal no. 1)

Day

Wt. of tray

Wt. of

Total

Dried

DM

DM

(g)

residue (g)

Wt.

Wt.

(g)

(%)

(g)

(g)

1st

100

50

150

113.0

13.0

26

2nd

100

50

150

114.0

14.0

28

3rd

100

50

150

112.0

12.0

24

4th

100

50

150

112.5

12.5

25

5th

100

50

150

113.5

13.5

27

6th

100

50

150

114.5

14.5

29

7th

100

50

150

111.5

11.5

23

26
4. Recording of DM estimation in faeces voided (Animal no. 1)
209

Da

Faeces

Wt.

voided

tray

(kg)

(g)

12

100

1st

of Aliquot

taken Total

(g)

120

Dried

DM

wt.

wt.

(g)

(g)

(g)

220

133.6

(%)
33.

28

6
2nd 9

100

90

190

128.8

28.

32

8
3rd 11

100

110

210

130.8

30.

28

8
4th 11

100

110

210

131.9

31.

29

9
5th 10

100

100

200

130.0

30.

30

0
6th 8

100

80

180

125.6

25.

32

6
7th 9

100

90

190

127.9

27.

31

9
Mean 10

30

Note:

During the collection period of a digestion trial, the DM content in

feed offered, feed left over and faeces voided will be estimated
separately for each animal every day for all the 7 days.

However, for analysis of other nutrients, the samples of feed offered,

feed left over and faeces voided every day will be pooled separately for
each animal and from these pooled samples, a small quantity of fresh
sample is preserved for N estimation and the remaining pooled
samples are dried, powdered and stored for further analysis.

EXERCISE
1. A cow weighing 400 kg and yielding 10 litres of milk with 4% fat
has consumed 40 kg green fodder having a DM content of 20% and
excreted on an average 20 kg of faeces with a DM content of 15%.
Calculate the amount of Dm digested and the digestibility coefficient
of dry matter?

210

2. A buffalo has consumed 30 kg of green fodder having a CP contenet of

1.6% and excreted on an average 20 kg of faeces with a CP contenet of
0.9%.Calculate the digestibilty coefficient of CP of the green fodder?
3. A sheep consumed 0.95 kg of cowpea hay (moisture 11%) and voided
1.25 kg of faeces (moisture 60 %). Calculate the dry matter (DM)
digestibility of hay.CP of hay and faeces are 9.4 % and 8.5 % on
DMB respectively. Calculate the digestibility of CP of the cowpea hay.
4. In a digestion trial, a steer was fed with 7 kg of hay and excreted 13
kg of faeces (As such basis). The daily intake and excretion of
proximate composition of hay is given below. Calculate the percentage
of digestibility coefficient of the nutrients and TDN
Daily values (g)
Hay

Faeces

Water (g)

634

10487

N (g)

172

50

CF (g

2000

1101

EE (g)

133

93

TA (g)

560

235

211

EXERCISE 2: MEASUREMENT

OF

DIGESTIBILTY

BY

IN

VIVO

METHODS - INDIRECT METHOD

INDIRECT METHOD - DIGESTIBILITY BY DIFFERENCE
Aim
To determine the digestibility co-efficient of nutrients present in concentrate
feedstuffs (like grain, cake, bran etc).
Principle
In this method, two digestion trials are conducted; first with maintenance
type of fodder and the second trial by feeding test concentrate feed along
with maintenance type of fodder. Assuming that the digestibility coefficients
of nutrients in maintenance type of fodder remain the same as was
determined in the first trial, the digestibility coefficients of nutrients present
in concentrate feed are determined by subtracting the amount of undigested
nutrients in maintenance type of fodder from the total undigested nutrients
voided in faeces in the second trial.
Requirements

Test concentrate feedstuff

Maintenance type of fodder

Experimental animals

All the apparatus required for conducting a digestion trial.

Procedure

First step is to conduct a digestion trial using maintenance type of

fodder and to calculate the digestibility coefficients of all the nutrients
(or nutrient in question) present in the fodder.

Conduct a second digestion trial by feeding the concentrate feed (for

which the digestibility has to be determined) along with maintenance
type of fodder (for which the digestibility of nutrients had been
previously determined).

While conducting the second digestion trial, record the amount of

maintenance type of fodder and concentrate feed consumed by the
212

animal /day and also record the total quantity of faeces excreted by
the animal per day.

Based on the data available from the second digestion trial, calculate
the nutrient intake through maintenance type of fodder, nutrient
intake through concentrate feed and the total nutrient voided in the
faeces by the animal.

Based on the data available from the first digestion trial and assuming
that the digestibility of nutrients of the maintenance type of fodder
remains the same during the second trial, calculate the nutrient
voided in faeces through maintenance type of fodder in the second
trial.

Subtract

the

amount

of

nutrient

voided

in

faeces

through

maintenance type of fodder from the total quantity of nutrient voided

in faeces in the second trial so as to get the quantity of nutrient voided
in faeces through concentrate feed.

Calculate the digestibility coefficients of all the proximate nutrients in

the concentrate feed by using the formula
Nutrient intake Nutrient outgo

Digestibility co-efficient = ------------------------------------------------ X 100

Nutrient intake

From the first trial, it was found that maize fodder had 60%
digestibility for DM and 65% for CP. In the second trial, 25 kg of green
maize and 1 kg of GNC were fed to the animal. The animal excreted on
an average 22 kg of faeces. The following was the composition of green
maize, GNC and faeces.

%Nutrient

Green Maize

GNC

Faeces

% DM

20

90

10

% CP

1.4

42

1.2

Solution
1. Calculation of DMI through Green maize:
Amount of green maize consumed = 25 kg
DM content in green maize = 20 %
Amount of DM consumed through green maize = 25 x 20 / 100 = 5 kg.
2. Calculation of DMI through GNC:
Amount of GNC consumed = 1 kg
213

DM content in GNC = 90 %
Amount of DM consumed through GNC = 1 x 90 / 100 = 0.9 kg
3. Calculation of DM excreted in faeces:
Amount of faeces excreted = 22 kg
DM content in faeces = 10 %
Amount of DM excreted through faeces = 22 x 10 / 100 = 2.2 kg
4. Calculation of DM excreted in faeces through green maize:
Based on first trial, dig. co-eff. Of DM of green maize = 60 %
ie. Un-digestibility of DM of green maize = 100 60 = 40 %
Amount of DM consumed through green maize = 5 kg
Assuming that the digestibility co-efficient of DM remains the same,
Amount of DM excreted in faeces through green maize = 5 x 40 / 100 = 2 kg
5. Calculation of DM excreted in faeces through GNC:
Total DM excreted in faeces = 2.2 kg
DM excreted through green maize = 2.0 kg
DM excreted in faeces through GNC = 2.2 2.0 = 0.2 kg
6. Calculation of amount of DM digested from GNC:
DMI through GNC = 0.9 kg
DM excreted through GNC = 0.2 kg
DM digested from GNC = 0.9 0.2 = 0.7 kg
7. Calculation of digestibility coefficient of DM of GNC:
DM intake DM outgo
Dig. coefficient of DM = ------------------------------------ x 100
DM intake
= {(0.9 0.2) / 0.9)} x 100
= 77.77 %
EXERCISE

Calculate the Digestibility coefficient of CP of GNC from the above

example.

From the first trial, it was found that maize fodder has 60 %
digestibility for DM, 62 % for CP, 55 % for EE, 56% for CF and 65 %
for NFE.

In the second trial, 25 kg of green maize and 1 kg of GNC were fed the
animal. The animal excreted on an average 20 kg of faeces. The following
was the composition of green maize, GNC and faeces on dry matter basis.
% Nutrient

Green maize

214

GNC

Faeces

DM

25

90

15

CP

7.2

42

EE

1.8

7.9

CF

30.8

8.9

29.5

NFE

51.6

36.4

42.3

Calculate the digestibility coefficients of CP, EE, CF and NFE of GNC?

INDICATOR METHOD

It is an indirect method of estimation of digestibility in grazing

animals.

The digestibility of a nutrient is calculated by estimating the

concentration of the indicator/marker in feed and faeces and that of
the nutrient in the feed and faeces without quantitative collection of
total faeces and measuring feed consumption. The formula for
estimation of digestibility is given below.

DM intake of grazing animal can be measured if internal and external

indicators are used in the digestion trial.

Exercise
1. The indicator % and the nutrient % in feed and faeces are as follows.
Calculate the digestibility of nutrient in the feed.
Trial 1

Trial 2

% indicator in feed

1.1

1.8

% indicator in faeces

2.45

4.2

% nutrient in feed

20

25

% nutrient in faeces

15

15

215

2. A grazing animal was fed 2 g of Cr 2O3 in a capsule per day. Find out the
forage intake and its DM digestibility. The data is as follows
% composition
DM

Lignin

Cr2O3

(Internal Indicator)

(External Indicator)

Forage

20

0.05

Faeces

15

0.10

0.1

Answer
Daily dry matter voided in faeces (g/day)
Amount of Cr2O3 fed daily

= ------------------------------------------- = --------- = 2000 g

g of Cr2O3 per g of faeces

0.001
0.05

15

DM dige.coe.of forage = 100 - { 100 x ----------- x -------- }

0.10

20

= 100 -37.5
= 62.5
DM voided
DM intake = ------------------------------- x 100
% of DM indigestibility
2000
= --------- x 100 = 5333 g
37.5
5333
Fresh forage intake = ---------- x 100
20
= 26.665 g/day = 26.665 kg/day.
Courtesy: Applied

Nutrition

for

Livestock,Poultry,Pets,Rabbits

and

Laboratory animals,Second Edition, by D.V.Reddy 2009.

MEASUREMENT OF PASTURE CONSUMPTION AND ITS DIGESTIBILTY
Aim
1. To determine the amount of pasture consumed by the animal on
range.
2. To determine the digestibility of the feed consumed by the animal on
range.
216

Requirements
1. Experimental animals on range
2. External indicator (chromic oxide)
3. Internal indicator (lignin)
Procedure
First method
Example
Amount of DM voided in faeces in 24 h = 2500 g
Digestibility of DM determined = 50 %
100 g DMI resulted in 50 g DM excretion in faeces
g of DM consumed for excretion of 2500 g of DM in faeces
= 2500 x 100 / 50 = 5000 g.
Second method
In this method, the DMI is determined by using an indicator. This indicator
can be a natural indicator (present in feed) like lignin or an external
indicator (mixed with feed) like chromic oxide (or) chromic oxide (green).

In this method, there is no need for harnessing the animal with faecal
bags for quantitative collection of faeces.

In such cases, a grazing animal is fed a measured amount of an

external indicator and grab samples (these are small samples of faeces
removed from the rectum manually or collected at random from the
pasture at various times during the day) of faeces are collected
subsequently.

The total faecal DM output (g) can be determined by use of external

indicator as shown in the formula given below.
External indicator fed (g)

217

Faecal

DM

output

(g)

-------------------------------------------------------------- x 100
% external indicator in faeces grab
sample DM
Note:

The DM consumed (g/day) can be determined by use of internal

indicator as shown in the formula given below.
{Units of internal indicator {g of DM in
per g of dry faeces} x faeces per day}

DM consumption (g/d) = ------------------------------------------------------------{Units of internal indicator per g DM of forage}

The DM consumed (g / d) can also be determined from DM digestibility by
use of internal indicator as shown below.
%
feed

indicator

in

% nutrient in faeces
DM digestibility = 100 {100 x -----------------------------x

-----------------------------}
%
faeces

indicator

in

% nutrient in feed
Indigestibility of DM = {100 Digestibility of DM}
DM in faeces (g)
DM consumed (g/d) = ---------------------------------- x 100
% indigestibility of DM

Example:
a. Fed 10 g chromic oxide per day
b. Feed contained 13 % lignin (DMD)
c. Faeces contained 1.15 % chromic oxide (DMB)
22.6 % lignin (DMB)
Solution:
1. Calculation of DM voided in faeces (g/d):
External indicator fed (g)
Faecal DM output (g) = ------------------------------------------------------------ x
100
% external indicator in faeces grab sample DM
= (10 / 1.15) x 100
= 870 g
218

2. Calculation of DM consumed per day:

{Units of internal indicator {g of DM in
per g of dry faeces} x faeces per day}
DM consumption (g/d) = -----------------------------------------------------------{Units of internal indicator per g DM of forage}
= (22.6 / 13) x 870
= 1513 g
3. Calculation of DM digestibility:
% indicator in feed

% nutrient

in faeces
DM

digestibility

100

{100

------------------------------x

--------------------------------}
%

indicator

in

faeces

nutrient in feed
13

100

= 100 {100 x -------x-------}

22.6

100

4. Calculation of indigestibility of DM:

Indigestibility of DM = {100 Digestibility of DM}
= 100 42.5 = 57.5 %
5. Calculation of DM consumed based on the indigestibility of feed:
DM in faeces (g)
DM consumed (g/d) = ------------------------------- x 100
% indigestibility of DM
= (870 / 57.5) x 100
= 1513 g.
Exercise
1. Calculate the DMI, DM digestibility and CP digestibility in an animal
maintained on range conditions by using the following data.
a. Fed - 10 g chromic oxide per day
b. Feed contained - 14 % Lignin (DMB)
12 % Protein (DMB)
c. Faeces contained 1.5 % Chromic oxide (DMB)
18 % Lignin (DMB)
9 % Protein (DMB)

219

42.5 %: Calculate the DM intake and DM digestibility of an animal

maintained on range conditions by using the following data. Grab samples
should be taken from each animal to keep error below 5 % and chromic
oxide should be fed for atleast 10 days before the start of sampling. Faeces
bags (if necessary) method: In this method, the animals are harnessed with
faeces bags. An animal on range has voided 2500 g DM in faeces in 24 h.
The digestibility of DM of pasture on range determined separately was 50 %.
Calculate the amount of DM consumed by that animal.

The DM voided can be determined by collecting the total faeces in the

faecal bags.

Simultaneously, the DM digestibility of the fodder available on range

for grazing is determined by feeding the fodder to the animals in
metabolism stalls.

If the DM digestibility of the feedstuff as well as the DM voided in

faeces are known, the DM consumed can be determined.

MEASUREMENT OF DIGESTIBILITY BY IN VITRO METHOD (TILLEY

AND TERRY METHOD)
Aim

To find out the digestibility of given feed sample by in vitro method.

Principle
Apparatus
1. Conical Flask, 100 ml
2. Water bath
3. Cork with Bunsen valve
4. Filter paper / Crucible
5. Oven
6. Carbon dioxide gas
Reagents
i) Phosphate-carbonate buffer (Mc Dougall, 1948)
NaHCO
Na
KCl

0.57 g

NaCl

0.47 g

MgSO
CaCl

Mix the above chemicals except CaCl

220

2 in 800 ml distilled water in 1 litre volumetric flask, stir to dissolve

and make the volume to one litre. Just before use, add CaCl2, Keep at
39oC and pass CO2through the solution.

ii) 6 N HCL

Add 530.3 ml concentrated HCl in 400 ml distilled water and make

the volume to one litre after cooling the solution.

iii) Pepsin powder (1:3000)

Procedure
1. Take 0.50 g finely ground (particle size<1mm) sample in 100 ml
conical flask / tube.
2. Add 40 ml CO
3. Pass CO
4. Incubate the flask / tube at 39
5. After 48 h of incubation, add 2 ml 6 N HCl and 0.1 g pepsin powder.
6. Incubate the tubes for another 24 h.
7. Filter the contents through filter paper (No. 54) or sintered crucible
(G1).
8. Dry the residue at 100
9. Run parallel blank with phosphate-carbonate buffer and rumen liquor
without feed sample.
10.

2 saturated phosphate-carbonate buffer and 10 ml strained

rumen liquor.2 through the contents for 10 seconds and put a stopper
(cork fitted with Bunsen valve) on the flask / tube immediately. oC
with periodic shaking. oC overnight and weigh.
Calculation
DM disappearance = Wt. of sample (Wt. of residue of test Wt. of residue
of blank)
DM disappearance
DM digestibility (%) = --------------------------------- x 100
Wt. of sample (DM basis)
Precautions

Collection of rumen liquor a. Feed normal diet twice daily for about
seven days to the donor animal.
o Draw homogenous rumen liquor samples from different parts of
rumen.
o Filter rumen liquor through four layers of muslin cloth.

221

o Carry rumen liquor to the laboratory in an insulated jug with

temperature maintained at 39

Rumen liquor should be collected three hours of post feeding.

The animal should not be given water between one and three hours
post feeding.

0C. 3

9.80 g 2HPO42 H2O

0.12 g2

7.00g4.2H2O

0.04 g

The in vitro digestibility of feeds for ruminants can be measured by

fermenting them with rumen liquor and then treating with pepsin. This is
also known as two stage in vitro method. During the first stage, finely
ground sample of feed is incubated for 48 h with buffered rumen liquor in a
tube under anaerobic conditions. In the second stage, the microbial
activities are stopped by acidifying with HCl to pH 2.0 and then digested by
incubating with pepsin for another 24 h., the insoluble residue is filtered off,
dried and ignited, and its organic matter is subtracted from the feed to
obtain digestible organic matte
EXERCISE 3: CALCULATION OF NUTRITIVE VALUE OF FEEDS
DIGESTIBLE

CRUDE

PROTEIN

(DCP)

and

TOTAL

DIGESTIBLE

NUTRIENT (TDN)
Digestible crude protein

To find out the digestible crude protein (DCP) content of a

feed,multiply the digestibilty coefficient of the crude protein with the
crude protein content of the feedstuff.

DCP= Digestibilty Co-efficient x CP

Where, CP represents crude protein content of the feed.
Total Digestible Nutrients

It is a measure of apparent digestible energy, but it is expressed in

units of weight or per cent rather than energy per se. It is the most
widely used expression of energy system in the 20th century.
Digestibility coefficients are used to compute the TDN: Digestible ether
extract is multiplied by 2.25 since its energy is 2.25 times of
carbohydrates.
TDN = DCP + DCF + DNFE + (DEE x 2.25)

Percentage Digestible nutrient is calculated as follows:

222

Eg. If the digestibility coefficient of protein in soyabean meal is 75 %

and the protein content is 45%. The digestible crude protein content of
soybean meal is 45 x 75/100 = 33.75 %.

Example calculation of total digestible nutrients (TDN) and DCP

*Factors used to put on a carbohydrate-equvalent basis.
1 kg TDN = 4.4 Mcal DE or 4400 Kcal DE
ME = DE X 82 / 100 (ruminants)
Using the above example, TDN content of a feed = 66.2%
DE content of the feed = 4400 x 66.2 /100 = 2913 Kcal
ME content of the feed = 2913 x 82/100 = 2389 Kcal (ruminants)
Total digestible nutrients (TDN)

Total digestible nutrients (TDN), indicates the relative energy value of

feed to an animal.

Calculation of Total Digestible Nutrients (TDN)

TDN (%) = % DCP + % DCF + % DNFE + (% DEE x 2.25).

Nutrients

Percentage value

Digestibe crude potein

4.28 %

Digestible crude fiber

9.55%

Digestible N-free extract

29.90%

Digestile crude fat x 2.25 (1.10 x 2.25)

2.48%

Total

46.21% (TDN)

Feeds listed and grouped according to their percentage of TDN for

cattle - As fed basis

Group.A. Primarily the pure fats and other high fat feeds, plus certain other
feeds of generally high digestibility.
Feed stuffs

TDN value (%)

Hydrolysed animal fat

223.0

Soybean oil

194.0

Corn oil

172.8

Peanut kernels

131.0

Cotton seed

88.0

Soya bean seeds

83.0

Group.B. Mostly low- fiber grains and grain by-products.

223

Feed stuffs

TDN value (%)

Dried brewers grain

81.0

Corn gluten meal

78.0

Sorghum (Jowar) grain

78.0

Wheat grain

78.0

Corn (Maize) grain

77.0

44% Soyabean meal

75.0

41% solvent extracted cotton seed meal

70.0

Peanut meal

71.0

Group.C.Largely the more fibrous grains and by-products and concentrates.

Feed stuffs

TDN value (%)

Soyabean hulls

70.0

Copra meal

68.0

36% cottonseed meal

67.0

Dried alfalfa leaves

64.0

Rapeseed meal

63.0

Rice bran

63.0

Wheat bran

63.0

Beet molasses

61.0

Wheat middlings

61.0

Sunflower meal

60.0

Group.D. Predominantly the hays, hay meals, straws, hulls corn cobs,corn
stover and cane molasses.
Feed stuffs

TDN value (%)

Poultry manure

59.0

Oats hay

56.0

Dehydrated alfalfa meal

55.0

Cow pea hay

53.0

Alfalfa hay

52.0
224

Millets hay

51.0

Peanut hay

50.0

Oat straw

47.0

Ground corn cobs

45.0

Cotton seed hulls

41.0

Cane molasses

54.0

Exercise

Calculate the digestibility coefficients of the nutrients with given data

and

also

calculate

the

TDN.

A bullock consumed 10 kg of hay per day. Over the experimental

period, the animal excreted 15 kg of wet faeces per day. The per cent
chemical composition of hay and faeces were as follows:
Hay

Faeces

Moisture

70

Crude protein

6.5

1.8

Ether extract

2.5

0.8

Crude fibre

27.5

8.5

Total ash

10.5

18

Calculate the DCP and TDN of the feed with given data:
Chemical composition (%)

Digestibility (%)

Crude protein

8.6

60

Ether extract

2.5

60

Crude fibre

11.6

50

NFE

42.5

58

DCP = 6.5
STARCH EQUIVALENT
Definition

Starch equivalent is the number of kilograms of starch that would be

required to produce the same amount of fat as that of 100 kg of feed.

eg:- When we say starch equivalent of groundnut cake is 74 kg, it

means that 100 kg of the groundnut cake, can produce as much
225

animal fat as 74 kg of pure starch, when fed in addition to

maintenance ration. In other words 100 kg of groundnut cake
contains as much net or productive energy as 74 kg of the starch.

The starch equivalent (SE) is essentially the same as net energy of the
feedstuffs since both expressions aim at stating the productive value
of the feed. The only difference being that, net energy is expressed as
calories and starch equivalent is expressed in terms of starch,which is
regarded to be a source of net energy to the animal.

Calculation of Starch equivalent

Kellner has given starch equivalent factor for one kg of digestible

nutrients.
One

kg

of

digestible Starch

nutrient

factor

Carbohydrate

1.00

Fibre

1.00

Protein

0.94

Fat from Roughages

1.91

Fat from Cereals

2.12

Fat from oil cakes

2.40

equivalent

The correction factor for concentrate is known as Value number or

Golden number and it is 0.98 and the correction factor for roughages is
known as crude fibre correction factor.

E.g.
o Calculate the S.E of Barley with following digestible
nutrients.

Digestible protein

5.6

Digestible ether extractive 1.2

Digestible fibre

2.5

Digestible NFE

60.5

o Multiply the digestible nutrients by respective starch

equivalent factor. Totaling of this will give the starch
equivalent of Barley as shown here.
Digestible protein
Digestible ether extractive
Digestible crude fibre

5.6 x 0.94
1.2 x 2.12
2.5 x 1
226

= 5.26
= 2.4
= 2.5

Digestible NFE

60.5 x 1

= 60.5
_____
70.80
_____
o 70.80 is known as calculated SE( uncorrected SE value).
The corrected SE is obtained after the application of the
correction factor. ie. 70.80 x 0.98 = 69.38

For Roughages

In case of roughages, deductions are to be made from calculated

starch equivalent value to obtain the actual SE. For each % of crude
fibre in the material, the calculated SE is less by 0.58.
Eg: Calculate the S.E. of oat straw with 30% crude fibre:

Digestible protein
Digestible

0.5

x= 0.47

0.94
ether
0.3

x= 0.57

extractive
Digestible fibre
Digestible NFE

1.91
18.5 x 1 = 18.50
20.0 x 1 = 20.00
_____
39.54
____
Crude fibre content is 30 %

Crude fibre correction is 30 x 0.58 = 17.4

Calculated starch equivalent

Correction factor

Actual starch equivalent

39.54-17.40 = 22.14

Exercise
1

Calculate the starch equivalent of an oil cake.

Digestible protein
= 40.6
Digestible fat
= 5.8
Digestible NFE
= 18.5
Digestible fibre
= 0.16
Calculate the starch equivalent of hay
Digestible protein
= 1.2
Digestible fat
= 0.6
Digestible NFE
= 25.8
Digestible fibre
= 13.6
Note : Crude fibre content is 26.8
Calculate the starch equivalent of Maize
Digestible protein
= 7.6
227

= 39.54
= 17.40

Digestible

ether=

extract
Digestible NFE
=
Digestible fibre
=
NUTRITIVE VALUE OF FEEDS

1.2
61.5
2.0

1) An indication of nutritive value of a feed is its digestibility of dry

matter(%). Feeds and fodders can be classified as shown below based
on their digestibility.
Above 70% = good
60-70% = moderate
40-60% = low
Less than 40% = very low
2) Nutritive ratio (NR): It is the ratio of the digestible protein to the sum of
digestible carbohydrates and fat, the latter being multiplied by 2.25. It is
also called albuminoid ratio. It is computed in recognition of the fact that
protein serves some special functions in the animal body, which cannot be
performed by the digestible nonprotein nutrients present in the TDN. Feeds
richer in protein have narrow nutritive ratios while feeds poor in protein
content have wide nutritive ratio. It is usualto consider that rations with
wide nutritive ratio (1:9) are suitable for idle horses and cattle; a medium
ratio (1:6) for early fattening, lactation, working animals, etc. and a narrow
ratio (1:0.7) for young stock.
Example 1. Calculate NR of groundnut cake using the following data :
DCP = 42 ; DEE = 6
DCF=l ; DNFE = 14.5
NR

= DEE x 2.25 + DNFE + DCF

DCP

=
1

= 29

(6

2.25)

14.5

0.7
42

42

A narrow ratio of 1 : 0.7, since groundnut cake is a protein supplement

Example 2: Calculate NR of maize grain:
Maize has 82% TDN and 7% DCP.
NR = TDN - DCP
DCP

= 82-7 = 75 = 10.7
7

7
228

A wide nutritive of 1:10.7. It means that for each kg of DCP, maize

contains 1.07 kg digestible nonprotein nutrients
EXERCISE 4: NUTRIENTS

REQUIREMENT

FOR

MAINTENANCE

IN

CATTLE AND BUFFALOES

WHAT IS NUTRIENT REQUIREMENT?

Nutrient requirement is a statement of what animals on an average

requires for a particular function.

Whereas the nutrient allowance is greater than the nutrient

requirements as it includes margin of safety.

The margin of safety is given to take care of the variations in

requirement between individual animals.

Nutrient requirement may be calculated for

Two purpose
o For maintenance
o For production purposes. (milk, meat, wool, egg, work etc.)

Maintenance

The maintenance ration is that which takes care of the needs of

animals at rest to carry out the basic essential processes of life
such as breathing and circulation of blood, without either gain
or loss of weight.

Production

Nutrient supplied to the animal over and above its maintenance

requirement

is

available

for

production

(growth,

milk

production, reproduction and work.)

CALCULATION OF BODY WEIGHT

Where it is not possible to weigh the animals the body weight can be
calculated by using Shaeffer's formula.

For Cattle
= LG2

W
300

W = Body weight in pounds

L = Length of the animal in inches. It is from the point of the pin

bone and the shoulder.

G = Girth in inches. It is the circumference measured just

behind the point of elbow.

The body weight can be converted to kg by the formula 1kg = 2.2 pounds.
229

Would you like to try with our programme?, then, Click here LG
measurement ; Click here pearson square rev
For Buffaloes
W

= GL
Y

W = Weight of the animal in seers.

1 seer is equal to 0.93 kgs.

G = Girth of the animal in inches.

L = Length of the animal in inches.

Y = is a constant.

When G is below 65, Y is 9.0

When G is between 65 to 80, Y is 8.5

When G is above 80, Y is 8.0.

METABOLIC BODY WEIGHT

Metabolic body weight (W0.75)

Body weight to the power of 0.75.

This is calculated by using Logarithm tables or a calculator.

Using Logarithm tables

Logarithm value

2.6021 x 0.75 = 1.9516

89.44

Antilogarithm value }
for metabolic body
weight
Using a calculator

Body weight to the power of 3 and press the square root key twice, you
will get the metabolic body weight.

Eg. 400 x 400 x 400 = 64000000 8000 89.44

DRY MATTER ,ENERGY,PROTEIN AND WATER REQUIREMENT FOR

DIFFERENT FUNCTIONS

The total quantity of dry matter the animal can consume per day
should be known, so that we can compute the ration in a manner that
the entire quantity of the nutrients required is present in the dry
matter, the animal is able to consume.

Cattle will generally consume 2.0 to 2.5 kg. of dry matter per 100 kg.
body weight.

230

Buffaloes, crossbred animals and heavy yielders consume 2.5 to 3.0

kg dry matter per 100 kg body weight.

In mid lactation (10-29 weeks) DM intake has to be increased by 1.7

kg/day.

In late lactation (30 weeks onwards) DM intake has to be increased by

4.1 kg / day.

In early lactation, the probable DMI may be up to 18 % less than mid

lactation.

DM Requirments of cattle and buffaloes

Function

Cattle

Buffaloes

Maintenance

64.35 g / kg mbwt

62 g/ kgmbw

Growth

5.0 G/ GRAM GAIN

5.0 g/ g gain

Lactation

450 G/ KG 4 % FCM

524 G / KG 6 % FCM

Pregnancy

1.5-2.0% b.wt +

1.5-2.0% b.wt +

(1) 20 % of maintenance 20 % of maintenance extra

extra

during

1st during 1st pregnancy

pregnancy

10 % of maintenance extra

(2) 10 % of maintenance during 2nd

extra during 2nd

pregnancy

pregnancy
Breeding bulls

1.5-2.0% bwt

Working

2.0, 2.5 and 3.0% for light, 2.0, 2.5 and 3.0% for light,

animals

medium and heavy works

Calves

1.5-2.0% bwt
medium and heavy works

(1-3 35-45 g/ metabolic weight

35-45 g/ metabolic weight

(3- 65-80 g/ metabolic weight

65-80 g/ metabolic weight

months)
Calves
6months)
Energy requirements
Function

Cattle

Buffaloes

Maintenance 37 g TDN / KG MBT

35-40 g TDN / KG MBT

Growth

2.0 G TDN / G GROWTH

2.70 G TDN / G GROWTH

Lactation

231

Maintenance 37 g TDN / KG MBT

35 g TDN / KG MBT

TDN=406.32 G/ KG 6 % FCM

or

% TDN=325 G/ KG 4 % FCM

FCM
Pregnancy

20 % of maintenance extra 20 % of maintenance extra

during 1st pregnancy

during 1st pregnancy

10 % of maintenance extra 10 % of maintenance extra

during 2nd pregnancy

during 2nd Pregnancy

1.0

kg

TDN

during

last 1.0

kg

TDN

during

trimester of pregnancy

trimester of pregnancy

GROWTH

2.70 g TDN / g GROWTH

2.0 g TDN / g GROWTH

Breeding

41.0 g TDN/kg MW

41.0 g TDN/kg MW

2.4 Mcal ME/kg B.wt/

2.4 Mcal ME/kg B.wt/hr

last

bulls
Working

Potein requirments

The protein in practical diet supply some dietary protein that escapes
rumen fermentation and this protein plus the microbial protein
produced from supplemental NPN may be enough to produce 20 kg 4
% FCM / day

Similarly, the protein in practical diets that meet the CP or DCP

requirements plus energy may be enough to supply enough amino
acids for 700 g growth / day

6% FCM (kg) = 0.308 M (kg) + 11.54 F (kg)

4% FCM (kg) = 0.4 M (kg) + 15 F (kg)

Function

Cattle

Buffaloes

Growth
Maintenance

2.75 g DCP or 5.5 g CP / kg 2.75 g DCP/ kg MW or 5.5 g

MW

growth

CP / kg MW

0.41 g DCP or 0.75 g CP per 0.23 g DCP or 0.33 g CP per g

g gain

gain

2.75 g DCP/ kg MW OR

3.1 g DCP/ kg MW OR

5.5 g CP / kg MW

5.5 g CP / kg MW

lactation
Maintenance

232

growth

0.41 g DCP or 0.75 g CP per 0.23 g DCP or 0.33 CP per g

g gain

Milk

gain

(6% 57.0 g DCP or 90 g CP per 55.0 g DCP or 90 g CP per kg

FCM)

kg 4 % FCM

6 % FCM

Breeding

7.5 g CP/ kg MBWT

Working

2.4 Mcal ME/kg B.wt/hr

Water

Lactating dairy cows in the tropics require 60 to 70 L of water per day

for maintenance, plus an extra 4 to 5 L for each litre of milk produced.

Water requirements rise with air temperature. An increase of 4C will

increase water requirements by 6 to 7 L/d.

High yielding milking cows can drink 150 to 200 L water/d during the
hot season.

NUTRIENTS REQUIREMENT FOR MAINTENANCE

0.75

TDN requirement = 34 g TDN/Kg W

DCP requirement = 2.84 g DCP/Kg W

0.75

Calcium and Phosphorus requirement

Animals weighing 250 to 400 kg of body weight the requirement of

Calcium is 25 g; and the Phosphorus requirement is 17 g per day .

Above 400 kg of body weight the requirement of Calcium is 31 g ; and

phosphorus requirement is 23 g per day .

Energy and Protein requirements for maintenance

Data on maintenance requirement of energy were obtained by using

short term trials in which the dry, non-producing animals of same sex
and body weight were fasted, kept in thermo-neutral environment and
their heat production was determined (fasting metabolism). The
fasting metabolism gives an estimate about the minimum quantity of
net energy that must be supplied to the animals to keep energy
equilibrium. This has been estimated both by direct and indirect
calorimetry. Most of the work on energy requirement in India was
conducted using indirect calorimetry.

Lot

of work has been

conducted on energy requirement

for

maintenance of dry animal where the energy requirement is reported

to be 61 to 104 k cal / kg W
233

Data on protein requirements were generated by using factorial

method, where endogenous urinary nitrogen (EUN) and metabolic
faecal nitrogen (MFN) are estimated to assess protein requirements
(Kehar, 1944). The EUN excretion in Indian cattle was reported to be
0.02g/kg b.wt. The EUN excretion is proportional to body size (W)

Lot of work has been conducted to determine the protein requirement

for maintenance. Most of the workers have followed factorial methods
but lately 35 regression models suggested by Moe et al. (1970-71) have
been used to calculate protein requirements. These reports indicate
that the DCP requirement for maintenance ranges from 1.97 to 4.21
g/kg metabolic body size. The requirement of 2.48 g/kg W

Daily nutrient requirement for maintenance of mature cows/buffaloes.

Body

DC

ME

feed

(kg)

(g)

200

3.5

250
300

(kg)

Weight Dry

TD

Caroten

Vitamin

Mca N

kg

mg

1000 IU

150 6.0

1.7

21

4.0

170 7.2

2.0

10 9

26

11

4.5

200 8.4

2.4

12 1

32

13

37

15

42

17

48

19

53

21

58

23

64

26

0
350

5.0

230 9.4

2.7

14 1
1

400

5.5

250 10.8 3.0

17 1
3

450

6.0

280 12.4 3.4

18 1
4

500

6.5

300 13.2 3.7

20 1
5

550

7.0

330 14.4 4.0

21 1
6

600

7.5

350 15.5 4.2

234

22 1

7
(Source: Nutrient requirements of Livestock and Poultry by S.K.Ranjhan)
0.75

and maintenance requirement during lactation to be 113 to 160 k cal / kg

W0.75. On going through the data, the requirement proposed by Sen et al.
(1978) and Ranjhan (1980) have been taken to calculate the energy
requirement for maintenance i.e. 122 k cal of ME/ kg W0.75 for both cattle
and buffaloes.

). The MFN values determined in Indian cattle were

0.75

0.35g/100 g DMI and in buffaloes were 0.34g/100 g DMI. 0.75 as proposed

by Sen et al. (1978) and Ranjhan (1980, 1991) has been used for calculating
the DCP requirement for maintenance.
EXERCISE 5: FEEDING OF CALVES AND HEIFERS
NUTIRENTS REQUIREMENT FOR GROWTH
Nutrient requirements for growing calves may be divided into 2 phases.
a. Pre-ruminant growth period

The nutrients required for pre-ruminant growth have been reported by

Ranjhan (1972) and were adopted by ICAR (1998).

i.e. before the rumen is anatomically and physiologically developed.

b. Post-ruminant growth period

Vast data was available on growing zebu cattle, buffaloes and

crossbred animals on different planes of nutrition from which nutrient
requirements pertaining to protein and energy have been calculated.
For minerals and vitamins, the requirements have been derived from
NRC (1988) for a specific growth rate. The requirements have been
given for growth rates of 550 and 600 g per day.

Nutrient requirements of preruminant cattle and buffalo calves (ICAR, 1998)

235

Age

B.wt

Daily

DCP

TDN

ME

Ca

Vit. A

Vit. D

(days)

(kg)

Gain (g)

(g)

(kg)

(Mcal)

(g)

(g)

100IU

IU

0-15

25

200

80

0.40

1.5

2.5 1.5 1.5

200

16-30

30

300

90

0.50

1.7

3.0 2.0 1.5

250

31-60

40

300

125

0.80

2.4

3.5 2.5 1.7

250

61-90

50

350

150

1.00

3.6

4.0 3.8 2.0

300

Nutrient requirements for growing calves (cattle) (ICAR, 1998)

ie. after the rumen has been developed.
(kg)

Growth

DM

DCP

TDN

ME

Ca P

B.wt

rate (g)

(kg)

(g)

(kg)

(Mcal)

(g)

(g) (mg)

100IU

70

550

2.1

255

1.4

5.0

600

2.3

260

1.5

5.4

550

2.4

260

1.5

5.4

600

2.5

270

1.6

5.8

550

2.8

270

2.1

7.6

10

10

600

3.0

280

2.2

7.9

10

10

550

3.2

280

2.3

8.3

14

11 11

600

3.7

290

2.4

8.6

14

11 11

550

3.7

290

2.5

9.0

14

11 16

600

4.2

300

2.6

9.4

14

11 16

550

4.2

300

2.7

9.7

15

12 16

600

4.7

320

2.8

10.1

15

12 16

550

4.7

310

2.9

10.4

15

12 18

600

5.2

320

3.0

10.8

15

12 18

550

5.2

320

3.1

11.2

16

13 22

600

5.7

330

3.2

11.5

16

13 22

550

5.7

330

3.3

11.9

18

14 24

10

600

6.2

340

3.4

12.2

18

14 24

10

550

6.2

340

3.5

12.6

20

16 28

12

600

6.7

350

3.6

13.0

20

16 28

12

550

6.7

350

3.7

13.3

20

16 30

13

600

7.2

360

3.8

13.7

20

16 30

13

80
100
120
140
160
180
200
220
240
260

236

Carotene

Vit.A

FEEDING OF CALVES UPTO 3 MONTHS

Age of calf
1st 3 days

Whole milk (g)

2,500

Skim-milk (g) Calf-starter*

Good-quality hay

(g)

(g)

300

(Colostrum)
4th to 7th 2,500
day
2nd Week

3,000

100

3rd Week

3,250

300

500

4th Week

3,000

400

600

5th Week

1,500

1,000

500

700

6th Week

2,500

650

750

7th Week

2,000

800

850

8th Week

1,750

1,000

1,000

9th Week

1,250

1,200

1,100

(Up

to

60th day)
10th Week

1,300

1,200

11th Week

1,400

1,300

12th Week

1,500

1,500

13th Week

2,000

2,000

* Composition of calf-starter

Calf Starter

Crushed Maize/Sorghum /Cumbu -50 parts

237

Groundnut-cake/Soya extractions -30 parts

Wheat bran /Rice bran- 8 parts

Fish-meal/dried skim-milk -10 parts

Mineral mixture- 2 parts

To 100 kg of the above mixture, the following may be added:

o Molasses - 5-10 % according to availability.
o Vitamin AB2D3EK - 10g/100kg
o Salt - 0.5 percent
o Antibotics - 20 g/100kg

NUTRIENT

(%

of

DM)

SPECIFICATION

OF

CALF

STARTER

AND NUTRIENT REQUIREMENT OF HEIFERS.

Nutrient

Amount required

DCP

18.0

TDN

80.0

Fat

3.0

ME ( Mcal/ kg DM)

3.11

Ca

0.60

0.40

Vitamin A (IU/ kg)

2,200

Vitamin D (IU/kg)

300

Vitamin E (IU/kg)

25

Daily Nutrient requirement of growing heifer calves

Live Weight(kg)

Daily gain(g)

DM (kg)

DCP (g)

TDN (kg)

Ca(g)

P (g)

20

100

--

56

0.44

1.1

0.8

25

150

70

0.54

1.5

1.1

35

250

0.85

100

0.74

2.5

1.5

50

400

1.50

140

1.02

3.8

2.1

75

450

2.25

175

1.31

5.4

3.2

Age

Nutrient Requirements of Pre-ruminant Calves

Body

Daily

DCP TDN

Weight

gain (g (g)

(kg)
238

ME

Ca

Vit.

Vit

(Mcal/kg)

(g)

(g)

(kg)

25

200

80

0.40

to 30

200

90

to 40

300

to 50

350

Birth
to

(IU)

(IU)

1.5

2.5 1.5 150

200

0.50

1.7

3.0 2.0 150

250

125

0.80

2.4

3.5 2.5 170

250

150

1.00

3.6

4.0 3.8 200

360

15

days
15
30
days
31
60
days
60
90
days
Calcium and Phosphorus requirement of growing cattle (Growth 500

g/day)
Age

Body

Daily

Weight

gain (g (g)

(kg)

25

200

80

0.40

to 30

200

90

to 40

300

to 50

350

Birth
to

DCP TDN

ME

Ca

Vit.

Vit

(Mcal/kg)

(g)

(g)

(IU)

(IU)

1.5

2.5 1.5 150

200

0.50

1.7

3.0 2.0 150

250

125

0.80

2.4

3.5 2.5 170

250

150

1.00

3.6

4.0 3.8 200

360

(kg)

15

days
15
30
days
31
60
days
60
90
days
EXERCISE-6: NUTRIENT REQUIREMENT FOR LACTATION, WORK AND
REPRODUCTION

239

NUTRIENT

REQUIREMENT

FOR

LACTATION

IN

CATTLE

AND

BUFFALOES
Energy and protein requirements for lactation

In practical feeding many factors like level of intake, proportion of

concentrate to roughage and the quality of roughage, physical form of
the ration (grinding, pelleting etc.) will affect the energy requirement.
The requirement proposed by Sen (1978) and Ranjhan et al (1982,
1991) of 1,188 kcal of ME per kg of 4% fat corrected milk was taken to
calculate the energy requirement of dairy cattle and buffaloes.

The requirement of 132 g digestible nitrogen per 100 g of milk nitrogen

proposed by Sen (1978) and Ranjhan (1980, 1992) was taken to
calculate the DCP requirement.

Nutrient requirements per Kg of milk production (ICAR, 1998)

% fat

DCP

TDN

ME

Ca

(g)

(kg)

(Mcal)

(g)

(g)

3.0

40

0.270

0.97

2.5

1.8

4.0

45

0.315

1.13

2.7

2.0

5.0

51

0.370

1.28

2.9

2.2

6.0

57

0.410

1.36

3.1

2.4

7.0

63

0.460

1.54

3.3

2.6

8.0

69

0.510

1.80

3.5

2.8

9.0

75

0.500

2.06

3.7

3.0

10.0

81

0.600

2.16

3.9

3.2

11.0

85

0.700

2.34

3.4

3.4

TDN requirement
240

330 g TDN/kg fat corrected milk.

Fat correction of milk (FCM) per Kg is 0.4 + 0.15F, where F is % of fat

in milk.

ME requirement

Gross energy of one Kg of fat corrected milk is 750 kcal of energy = NE

requirement per Kg FCM

Efficiency of ME of feed to NE for Milk production = 62 %

ME requirement per Kg FCM

=

750 x 100
-------------

62
= 1200 Kcal

Efficiency of conversion of DE to ME = 82 %
1200 x 100
DE requirement per Kg FCM = --------------82
= 1460 Kcal
DCP requirement

The protein content of milk can be calculated by using the following

formula.

Percentage of protein = 1.9 + 0.4F, where F is percentage of fat.

Then the DCP requirement is calculated by assuming that the

Biological value of microbial protein in Cattle as 70%
o Eg. The DCP requirement of 1 kg of milk with 5% fat
o Percentage of protein = 1.9 + (0.4 x 5) = 3.9 % or 39 g in 1 kg.
o Quantity of DCP required is (39 / 70) x 100 = 55.7 or 56 g of
DCP for 1 kg of milk with 5% fat.

Mineral requirement for milk production

2.8 g Calcium and 2.0 g phosphorus should be provided per kg of milk

produced.

NUTRIENT REQUIREMENT FOR PREGNANCY

Energy and protein requirements for pregnancy

No systematic work on nutrient requirements for pregnancy has been

done in India. Therefore, the requirements recommended by NRC
(1988) have been adopted for feeding pregnant cattle and buffaloes till
such time when Indian values for feeding of pregnant animals are
available.

Requirements for maintenance and pregnancy (last 2 months) (ICAR, 1998)

241

(Kg)

Dry

DCP

TDN

ME

Ca

Carotene

Vit.A

B. Wt

Feed

(g)

(Kg)

(Mcal)

(g)

(g)

(mg)

100 IU

(Kg)
250

4.9

270

3.0

10.8

14

12

51

21

300

5.6

290

3.4

12.4

16

14

56

25

350

6.4

320

3.7

13.2

21

16

67

27

400

7.2

350

4.0

14.1

23

18

76

30

450

7.9

400

4.4

15.9

26

20

86

34

500

8.6

430

4.8

17.3

29

22

95

38

550

9.3

465

5.2

18.8

31

24

105

42

600

10.0

500

5.6

20.2

34

26

114

46

650

10.6

530

6.0

21.6

36

28

124

50

700

11.3

550

6.3

22.7

39

30

133

53

750

12.0

600

6.7

24.2

42

32

143

57

800

12.6

630

7.1

25.6

44

34

152

(Source : Nutrient requirement for Livestock and Poultry by S.K.Ranjhan)

NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS FOR BREEDING BULLS

When bulls have properly developed, they are normally fed on

maintenance requirement.

Overfeeding should be avoided as it leads to excessive fattening which

lowers the libido.

No systematic work on nutrient requirements of breeding bulls had

been conducted in the country. However, the requirements proposed
by Ranjhan (1980) adopted from NRC (1971) have been adopted by
ICAR (1998).

242

Nutrients required for breeding bulls per head per day

B. wt

DCP

SE

TDN

Ca

(kg)

(kg)

(kg)

(kg)

(g)

(g)

400

0.38

2.7

3.6

500

0.45

3.4

4.5

11

11

600

0.53

4.2

5.4

13

13

NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS FOR WORKING BULLOCKS

Work production normally does not involve extra protein over the
maintenance. The requirement of nutrients for bullocks for work
production is comparatively lower than for fast moving horses.

For bullocks, the work has been categorized into 2 types

o Normal work working for 4 h of ploughing or 6 h of carting
o Heavy work - working for 6 h of ploughing or 8 h of carting

Nutrient requirements for working animals / head / day

The nutrient requirements of bullocks for different types of work

proposed by Sen (1978) and Ranjhan (1980, 1991) have been adopted
by ICAR (1998).

B. wt

Normal work

Heavy work

(kg)

DCP (kg) TDN (kg)

DCP (kg) TDN (kg)

200

0.24

2.0

0.25

2.7

300

0.33

3.1

0.42

4.0

400

0.45

4.0

0.57

4.8

243

500

0.56

4.9

0.71

6.4

600

0.66

5.8

0.84

7.2

EXERCISE

In general, while calculating the nutrient requirements of dairy cattle

and buffaloes for maintenance and milk production the following
standards are followed
Maintenance

Milk

production

(g/per kg W0.75)

(g/litre fat corrected milk)

TDN

34

330

DCP

2.84

55

Calculate the nutrient requirements for a cow weighing 400 kg and

yielding 10 kg. of milk with 5 % fat

The Metabolic body weight = 400

0.75

= 89.44.

Calculation of dry matter requirement:

Dry matter requirement for a crossbred heavy yielder is 2.5 to 3.0 % of

its body weight.

For an animal weighing 400 kg.

400 x

2.5

400 x

Dry matter requirement =

------------------ = 10 kgs

-----------------

3
or

12

100

kgs

100

The dry matter requirement = 10 to 12 kgs.

Partitioning of dry matter
1/3

of

DM

from

concentrate.

10 X 1/3 = 3.3 kg. } 3 to 4 kg Dry matter from concentrate.

12 X 1/3 = 4.0 kg }
7 to 8 kg. from Roughage. --- 1/3 from green roughage = 2 to 3 kg.
2/3 from dry roughage = 4 to 5 kg.
TDN requirement

244

For maintenance
For milk production
FCM
1 kg of milk with 5% fat
For 10kg.
Therefore 11.5 kg X 330g
Total TDN required
For Maintenance
For Lactation
Total

= 34 g X 89.44 = 3040 g.
= 330 g TDN / Kg. FCM (Fat corrected milk)
= 0.4 + 0.15 F
0.4 + (0.15 X 5) = 1.15
= 1.15 kg. of milk with 4 % fat.
= 11.5 kg (FCM)
= 3795 g.
= 3040 g
= 3795 g
= 6835 g

DCP requirement
For maintenance
For milk production
DCP required
60 g for one kg. milk.
Total DCP required
Maintenance
Lactation
Total

= 2.84 g X 89.44 = 254 g.

= Percentage of protein = 1.9 + 0.4 F
= 1.9 + (0.4 x 5) = 3.9
6.0 g/100g.
= 600 g DCP/10kg Milk.
= 254 g
= 600 g
= 854 g

Computation of ration
Requirement : DM = 10-12 kg ; DCP = 854 g ; TDN = 6835 g

245

Ingredients

Quantity as fed

Quantity on DM basis

DCP

Groundnut Cake

1.1kg

1kg

460g 790g

Cotton seed

2.2kg

2kg

250g 1780g

Tapioca Thippi

1.1kg

1kg

15g

830g

Bengal gram husk

1.1kg

1kg

600g

Green grass

10 kg

2.5kg

100g 1500g

Paddy straw

3.3 kg

3.0kg

10.5kg

825g 6850g

TDN

1350g

To the concentrate part add 2 % mineral mixture and 1 % Sodium

chloride.

If grass is not included in the ration Vitamin A (10,000 IU) should be

supplemented. 1mg of carotene = 400 IU of Vitamin A.

Exercise
1. Calculate the nutrient requirements of a cow weighing 350 kg yielding
20 kg of milk per day with 4 % butter fat?
2. Calculate the nutrient requirements of a buffalo weighing 500 kg
yielding 15 kg of milk per day with 7 % butter fat?
3. Find out the nutrient requirements of a cow weighing 400 kg and in
advanced stage of pregnancy?
4. Find out the nutrient requirements of a growing buffalo calf weighing
100 kg and growing @ 550 g / day?
5. Find out the nutrient requirements for a pair of bullocks each
weighing about 600 kg and ploughing for 6 hr a day?
EXERCISE 7: NUTRIENT COMPOSITION OF UNCONVENTIONAL FEEDS
AND TREE LEAVES AS A FEED FOR RUMINANTS
6. NUTRIENT COMPOSITION OF UNCONVENTIONAL FEEDS
S. No. UNCONVENTIONAL FEEDS CP % DCP % TDN % ME (Kcal/kg)
1

Corn cobs

3.5

43

1500

Sugarcane tops

6.4

2.7

45

1600

Banana stem

3.3

40

Coffee husk

10.0

3.4

42

1500

Brewary grains

19.2

246

Groundnut husk

6.7

0.9

24.0

850

Tamarind seed

15.4

5.3

60.0

2200

Tapioca waste

4.9

2.0

65.0

2300

Bagasse

2.5

45

10

Acacia pods

14.0

10.5

73

2600

11

Water hyacinth

40

12

Chicken excreta

33.6

23.1

13

Silk worm pupae meal

65.6

14

Gram chuni

15

Mango seed kernel

8.5

6.1

70

2500

TREE LEAVES
CP %

DCP %

TDN %

ACACIA

11.0

50

ALBIZIA LEBBECK

21.0

12

50

ARTO CARPUS

12.8

50

FICUS sp

9.13

3-5

50

BANANA LEAVES

9.5

0-2

40 - 50

BANANA STEM

2.8

BANANA TUBER

8.7

SESBANIA sp

37

20

50

LEUCAENA sp

30

17

50

ZIZYPHUS sp

11

50

247

EXERCISE 8: BIS SPECIFICATIONS FOR COMPOUNDED FEEDS FOR

RUMINANTS
BIS specifications for compounded feeds for cattle
S.No.

Characteristic Requirement
248

Type 1

Type 2

Moisture (max)

11

11

Crude protein (min)

22

20

Crude fat (min)

3.0

2.5

Crude fibre (max)

12

Acid insoluble ash (max)

3.0

4.0

BIS SPCIFICATIONS (%) FOR MINERAL MIXTURES FOR CATTLE

S.No. Characteristic

Requirement

(percent by mass)

with salt without salt

Moisture, (max)

Calcium, (min)

22

28

Phosphorus, (min)

12

Magnesium (min)

6.5

Salt (chlorine as Nacl) (min)

22

Iron, (min)

0.4

0.50

Iodine (as KI), (min)

0.02

0.03

Copper, (min)

0.06

0.08

Manganese, (min)

0.1

0.12

10

Cobalt, (min)

0.01

0.012

11

Fluorine, (max)

0.05

0.04

12

Zinc,(min)

0.3

0.38

13

Sulphur (max)

0.4

0.5

14

Acid Insoluble ash, (Max)

2.5

15

Spores of Bacillus anthracis,clostridium sp

NIL

NIL

NUTRITV VALUE OF FEEDS AND FODDER FOR RUMINANTS (% ON DM

BASIS)
DM CP

DCP

TDN

Ca

NON LEGUME-GREEN FORAGES

NAPIER GRASS

20

6.0

2.5

44.0

0.50

0.68

PARA GRASS

20

8.0

4.5

59.0

0.28

0.16

249

GUINEA GRASS
CYANADON

20

6.0

3.0

51.0

0.39

0.16

DACTYLON 20

5.5

2.5

45.0

0.36

0.10

(Arugam pul in tamil)

SORGHUM

20

10.0 2.5

50.0

0.27

0.24

MAIZE

20

5.5

3.5

60.0

0.56

0.11

OATS

20

10.0 4.5

60.0

0.33

0.17

BARLEY

20

7.0

59.0

0.47

0.18

COWPEA

20

20.0 12.5

59.0

1.47

0.30

LUCERNE

20

22.0 13.5

59.0

1.5

0.25

SOOBABUL

20

28.0 14.0

55.0

1.6

0.1

SESBANIA (AGATHI)

20

30.0 15.0

52.0

1.6

0.1

PADDY STRAW

90

3.8

45

0.22

0.08

WHEAT STRAW

90

2.9

0.3

48

0.3

0.16

SORGHUM STRAW

90

3.0

1.5

56

0.5

0.5

RAGI STRAW

90

1.5

0.3

52

0.39

0.20

SORGHUM HAY

90

5.6

2.5

51

0.26

0.24

BARLEY HAY

90

10

57

0.47

0.18

OAT HAY

90

2.5

60

0.33

0.17

GROUND NUT HAULMS

90

20.5 12

49

1.89

0.26

LUCERNE HAY

90

30.0 16.5

55

2.2

0.2

COWPEA

90

20.6 10.5

50

1.47

0.30

BAJRA

90

10.7 4.5

85.0

0.01

0.44

SORGHUM

90

10.8 7.5

85.0

0.11

0.41

4.5

LEGUME-GREEN FORAGE

STRAWS

HAY

CONCENTRATES
CEREAL GRAINS

250

MAIZE

90

7.5

88.0

0.02

0.29

VEGETABLE PROTEIN SOURCES

COCONUT OIL CAKE

90

25.0 20.0

72.0

0.2

0.5

COTTON SEED CAKE

90

40.5 32.0

72.0

0.10

0.62

GRAM

90

22.8 20.0

74.0

0.27

0.28

SOYA BEAN MEAL

90

45.8 40.0

72.0

0.23

0.54

GROUND NUT CAKE

90

47.3 42.0

70.0

0.16

0.54

SEASAME CAKE

90

47.8 38.0

70.0

2.12

1.26

WHEAT BRAN

90

14

67.0

0.13

1.05

RICE BRAN

90

13.3 8.5

60.0

0.05

1.64

0.09

1.35

CEREAL BYPRODUCTS
10.5

GRAM HUSK

90

3.6

55

1.06

0.04

MOLASSES

70

3.2

1.5

75.0

0.48

0.06

Maize stover

90

3.6

0.5

55

--

--

Sorghum stover

90

4.3

0.5

55

--

--

Millet

90

3.3

0.3 to 0.7

55

--

--

Average

90

3.7

0.5

55

--

--

Black gram straw

90

10.1 5.5

58

--

--

Cow pea straw

90

8.1

5.5

58

--

--

Green gram straw

90

10.1 6.0

58

--

--

Average

90

10.1 5.8

58

--

--

Stovers

Pulse straws

EXERCISE 9: FEEDING OF SHEEP

Sheep can thrive on extremely wide variety of climatic conditions and

utilize most adverse type of vegetations.

In India nearly 20% of the area is covered by forest which provides

pasture for raising sheep.
251

However, during dry season the pastures cannot sustain production

so that supplementation of concentrate mixture or legume fodder has
to be provided.

When fed in stall, sheep consume 2.5 - 3.0 kg of DM/head/day from

good quality roughages.

They may consume 15% more dry matter on pasture than when fed in
stall with the same feed. Sheep need comparatively greater proportion
of protein because of wool fibres (composed of proteins).

The minerals like salt, Ca, P and Cu are dietary essential in adequate
quantity to prevent any deficiency.

Normally lambs start to consume some supplemental feed at about 2

weeks of age.

After the rumen development, good quality leguminous green fodder or

hays such as cowpea, lucerne, berseem, subabul etc may be made
available to the lambs.

Early supplementation of solid food helps in the early development of

the rumen.

NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS FOR GROWING LAMBS

Growth

A growth rate up to 200 g/day has been obtained in some

experiments. Hence, the data was tabulated up to growth rate of 200
g/day.

The weaning weight of lambs varies from 10 to 25 kg depending upon

the breed and feeding regimen during pre-weaning period. Therefore,
the growth requirements have been given for lambs ranging in body
weight from 10 to 30 kg.

Daily nutrient requirement of growing lambs (ICAR,1998)

252

B.W

Kg

Daily

DM

DM as

W0.7

Gain

(g)

(kg)

(g)

10

5.6

50

300

DC
of P

Energy Energy

Ca P

TDN (g ME

(g) (g)

b.wt.

(g)

(MCal)

3.0

32

195

0.54

1.

1.0

5
100

340

3.4

37

220

0.72

1.

1.1

7
150

385

3.8

42

250

0.90

1.

1.3

9
15

50

450

3.0

48

290

0.81

2.

1.5

2
100

510

3.4

55

330

1.08

2.

1.7

5
150

580

3.9

60

375

1.35

2.

1.9

9
200

690

4.6

75

450

1.62

3.

2.3

4
20

9.5

50
100

600
680

3.0

55

3.4

63

360
410

1.08
1.44

3.

2.0

3.

2.3

4
150

830

4.1

77

500

1.80

4.

2.8

1
200

100

5.0

92

600

2.16

0
25

50

750

5.

3.3

0
3.0

65

450

1.35

3.

2.5

7
100

850

3.4

73

510

1.80

4.

2.8

2
150

104

4.2

89

625

2.25

0
200

125

5.

3.5

2
5.0

107 750
253

2.71

6.

4.2

0
30

12.8

50

900

2
3.0

74

520

1.62

4.

3.0

5
100

103

3.4

86

600

2.16

5
150

129
155

3.4

2
4.3

107 750

2.71

0
200

5.
6.

4.3

4
5.2

128 900

3.25

7.

5.2

(Source : Nutrient requirement of Livestock and Poultry by S.K.Ranjhan)

NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS FOR MAINTENANCE OF ADULT SHEEP
Maintenance

Many experiments have shown that in sheep, consumption of 31 35

g of DCP / 30 kg body weight would show a positive balance and this
comes to an intake of 2.73 g DCP / kg W

Daily nutrient requirements for maintenance of adult sheep (ICAR, 1998)

B.W

Kg

DM

DM as % of DC

Energy

Energ

Ca P

W0.75

(g)

b.wt

TDN

(g) (g)

(g)

(g)

ME

(Kg)

(M

254

Cal)
20

9.5

25
30

678
12.8

35
40

575

775
875

15.9

45

964
105

2.8

28

2.7

33

2.6

38

2.5

43

2.4

48

2.3

53

258

0.93

305

1.10

350

1.26

393

1.42

434

1.56

475

1.85

5
50

18.8

114

2.3

56

513

1.85

0
55

122

2.2

60

551

1.99

5
60

21.6

131

2.2

65

588

2.12

1.

0.

1.

0.

1.

1.

1.

1.

1.

1.

2.

1.

2.

1.

2.

1.

2.

1.

(Source : Nutrient requirements of Livestock and Poultry by S.K.Ranjhan)

0.75. This figure has been taken for calculation of requirements for
maintenance. In calculating the energy requirements for maintenance, 350 g
of TDN for 30 kg b.wt has been taken as adequate. This comes to 27.3 g / kg
W0.75 or 98 kcal ME / kg W0.75 (ICAR, 1998).
PREGNANCY AND LACTATION

Pregnancy requirements are relevant to last 6 weeks of pregnancy and

lactation requirements are relevant to first 2 months of the lactation.

During the third month of lactation, the prescribed requirements

could be reduced by 25%.

The

lactation

approximately

requirements
twice

during

the requirements

the

first

are

for maintenance at the

corresponding body weight.

Daily nutrient requirement of pregnant ewes (ICAR,1998)

255

months

B.Wt (Kg) Kg W0.75 DM

(g)
25
30

12.8

35
40

15.9

45
50

18.8

55
60

21.6

DM as % DCP Energy Energy

of b.wt

Ca P

(g)

TDN (g) ME (MCal) (g)

(g)

1120 4.5

80

580

2.10

3.4 2.4

1280 4.3

90

665

2.40

3.8 2.7

1440 4.1

105

750

2.71

4.3 3.1

1590 4.0

115

827

2.98

5.2 3.7

1740 3.9

135

903

3.53

5.6 4.0

1880 3.8

135

978

3.53

5.6 4.3

2020 3.7

145

1050

3.97

6.1 4.3

2160 3.6

155

1021

4.04

6.5 4.6

(Source : Nutrient requirement of livestock and Poultry by S.K.Ranjhan)

Nutrient requirement of lactating ewes (ICAR,1998)
B.Wt (Kg) Kg W0.75 DM
(g)

DM as % DC

Energy Energy

of b.wt

TDN (g) ME (MCal) (g)

(g)

Ca

(g)
25

123

4.9

95

665

2.40

6.1

4.1

4.7

108 760

2.74

7.0

4.7

4.5

120 855

3.08

7.9

5.3

4.4

135 945

3.41

8.7

5.8

4.2

150 1030

4.72

9.5

6.3

4.1

160 1120

4.04

10.

6.9

0
30

12.8

141
0

35

158
0

40

15.9

175
0

45

191
0

50

18.8

207
0

55

222

3
4.0

170 1200

4.33

0
60

21.6

237

11.

7.4

1
3.9

185 1280

4.62

11.
8

256

7.9

(Source : Nutrient requirement of livestock and Poultry by S.K.Ranjhan)

REPRODUCTION

Although, no specific information is available on the nutrient

requirements of sheep for male and female reproduction, there is
evidence that deficiency of one or more nutrients in the diets may
affect reproduction. It is recommended that breeding ewes could be
provided 50% more nutrients over the maintenance requirements at
different weights.

Ewes require extra nutrients to bring them to flush and therefore

should be provided approximately 25% extra nutrients over and above
their maintenance needs. Flushing can be done for about a month
and it is effective only, when the ewes are undernourished during preflushing period. In well nourished ewes additional flushing has no
specific advantage.

NUTRIENT REQUIREMENT FOR WOOL PRODUCTION

Wool production

Because of special importance of sulphur for wool production, specific

experiments have been conducted on sulphur requirements. These
requirements for wool production have been derived from data on
experiments conducted at CSWRI, Avikanagar.

Daily nutrient requirements of sheep for wool production (ICAR, 1998)

257

B.Wt (kg) Kg
20

DM

9.5

3.1

330

730
870

12.8

3.5

1000 3.3
1100 3.1

15.9

1230 3.1
1350 3.0

18.8

1470 2.9

55
60

TDN (g) ME (Mcal) (g) (g) (g)

45
50

Ca P

% of b.wt (g)

35
40

DCP Energy Energy

W0.75 (g)

25
30

DM

1580 2.9
21.6

1680 2.8

40
47
54
60
67
73
80
85
90

1.19

390

1.41

450

1.62

500

1.80

555

2.00

610

2.20

660

2.38

710

2.56

755

2.72

1.

1.

1.

1.

2.

1.

2.

1.

2.

1.

2.

1.

2.

1.

3.

2.

3.

2.

1.7
2.1
2.4
2.6
2.9
3.2
3.5
3.8
4.0

( Source : Nutrient requirement of livestock and poultry - by S.K.Ranjhan)

EXERCISE
1. Indicate

the

nutrient

requirements

and

formulate

rations

for

lambs with 18 % DCP and 70 % TDN,weighing

o 10kg
o 20kg
o 30kg
o and growing at the rate of 100g per day
2. Indicate the nutrient requirements and formulate ration for a sheep
weighing 30 kg.
3. Formulate a ration for a ewe weighing 40 kg and in advanced stage of
pregnancy using locally available feedstuffs?
4. Suggest a ration for a lactating ewe weighing 45 kg under intensive
system of rearing?
258

EXERCISE-10: FEEDING OF GOATS

Mostly the goats are kept with the sheep in mixed flocks where sheep
graze the grass and goats browse the shrubs and do not compete for
feed.

The dry matter intake varies according to the energy density of the
diet and the physical character of the roughage, with a mean of 70
g/kg metabolic weight or 3 - 3.5 % of the body weight.

The goats usually prefer tree leaves, small branches, weeds, herbs etc
in the natural grazing conditions, but they also consume cultivated
fodder like berseem, lucerne, cowpea, subabul, grasses, hays and
silage under stall fed conditions.

Normally about 70 - 80 % of DM intake consists of the leaves of

shrubs and bushes.

Depending upon the vegetation, goats are able to secure their

nutritional needs by grazing/browsing and the ecological environment
has a greater role to govern the feeding habits of goats.

During the last quarter of pregnancy in addition to grazing, about 250

g of concentrate mixture will be needed to balance the nutritional
requirement.

The goats produce between 300-400g of milk daily, which is just

sufficient for the twin kids with no supplement of concentrate.

However, good milch breeds like Barbari, Jamunapari, Beetal etc may
produce around 1.0-1.5 kg of milk/day which can be used for human
259

consumption after supplying the requirements of kids. The kids start

nibbling the grasses as early as 15 days of age.

Goats generally relish green leaves and pods of shrubs and trees such
as Acacia.

Tree leaves such as Agathi, Soobabul, Gliricidia, Neem and vegetable

wastes are commonly used for feeding of goats.

NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS OF KIDS

The requirements for growth have been given for body weights ranging
from 10 to 25 kg for three different rates of growth. These
requirements are based on feedlot experiments conducted at different
centers. Growth rates up to 150 g/day has been obtained in kids
under feedlot conditions.

260

Daily nutrient requirements of growing kids (ICAR,1998)

B.Wt(kg Kg

Average

DM

DM as DC

Energ

Energy

Ca P

daily

(g)

ME

(g) (g)

0.75

gain

of

(g)

TDN

(MCal)

261

b.Wt
10

5.6

50
100
150

15

50
100
150

20

9.5

50
100
150

25

50
100
150

380
510
635
510
645
785
640
790
985
760
915
107

3.8
5.1
6.3
3.4
4.3
5.2
3.2
3.9
4.9
3.0
3.7
4.3

(g)
27
37
47
33
43
53
39
49
59
44
54
64

265
355
445
330
420
510
385
475
590
440
530
620

0.96
1.28
1.60
1.19
1.51
1.84
1.39
1.71
2.13
1.59
1.91
2.24

2.

1.

2.

1.

3.

2.

2.

1.

3.

2.

4.

2.

3.

2.

4.

2.

5.

3.

3.

2.

4.

3.

5.

3.

(Source: Nutrient requirements of Livestock and Poultry by S.K. Ranjhan)

NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS FOR MAINTENANCE OF GOATS
Maintenance

Adult body weight of goats may vary from 15 to 45 kg in different

breeds. There are also does and bucks that weigh up to 60 kg.

Nutrient requirements for maintenance of adult goats are, therefore,

given for body weights ranging from 15 to 60 kg.

262

On an average, the TDN and DCP requirements for maintenance are

30 g and 3.0 g/w

Nutrient requirements of Livestock and Poultry by S.K. Ranjhan)

Daily nutrient requirements for maintenance of adult goats (ICAR,
1998)
B.Wt(kg)

Kg

DM

DM as %

DCP Energy

Energy

Ca

W 0.75 (g)

of b.wt

(g)

TDN (g)

ME (Mcal)

(g)

(g)

15

500

3.3

23

240

0.86

1.1 0.7

20

9.5

615

3.1

29

295

1.07

1.3 0.9

25

730

2.9

34

350

1.26

1.6 1.1

30

12.8

830

2.8

39

400

1.45

1.8 1.2

35

940

2.7

44

450

1.62

2.1 1.4

40

15.9

1040 2.6

48

500

1.79

2.3 1.5

45

1125 2.5

53

540

1.96

2.5 1.7

50

18.8

1230 2.4

57

590

2.12

2.7 1.8

55

1315 2.4

62

630

2.28

2.9 1.9

60

21.6

1410 2.3

66

675

2.43

3.1 2.1

263

(Source: 0.75 (ICAR, 1998).

NUTRIENT REQUIREMENT FOR PREGNANCY IN GOATS
Pregnancy

Since adult body weight as indicated already varies from 15 to 60 kg,

the requirements for pregnant does are also given for body weights
ranging from 15 to 60 kg.

Daily nutrient requirement of pregnant does (ICAR,1998)

B.Wt(Kg)

Kg

DM

DM as %

DCP Energy

W 0.75 (g)

of b.wt

(g)

15

700

4.7

20

9.5

865

25

Energy

Ca

TDN (g) ME (Mcal)

(g)

(g)

42

385

1.38

2.1 1.4

4.3

52

475

1.72

2.6 1.7

1025 4.1

62

564

2.03

3.1 2.1

30

12.8

1170 3.9

71

645

2.33

3.5 2.3

35

1320 3.8

80

725

2.62

40

15.9

1460 3.6

88

802

2.89

4.4 2.9

45

1590 3.5

96

875

3.16

4.8 3.2

50

18.8

1725 3.4

104

984

3.42

5.2 3.5

55

1850 3.4

112

1018

3.67

5.5 3.7

60

21.6

1975 3.6

120

1086

3.92

5.9 3.9

2.7

(Source: Nutrient requirements of Livestock and Poultry by S.K.Ranjhan)

NUTRIENT REQUIREMENT FOR LACTATION IN GOATS
Lactation

The requirements have been given on a production level of 0.5 to 1.0

kg/day.

264

The nutrient requirements should be provided according to the milk

production potential of the goats.

The recommended lactation requirements include the maintenance

requirement at different body weights.

On an average the lactation requirement is 345 g TDN and 45 g DCP

per kg of 4% FCM over and above the maintenance requirement.

Daily nutrient requirement of lactating does (ICAR,1998)

B.W

Kg

Milk

DM

DM

W0.7

Yield

(g)

(Kg)

(kg)

20

9.5

0.5
1.0

865
118

as DC

Energy Energy

Ca P

TDN (g ME

(g) (g)

of b.wt.

(g)

(MCal)

4.3

51

468

1.69

5.9

74

640

2.31

5
25

0.5
1.0

968
129

3.9

56

5.2

79

523
695

1.89
2.41

0
30

12.8

0.5

106

3.5

61

573

2.07

0
1.0

138

4.6

84

745

2.69

0
35

0.5

115

3.3

66
265

623

2.25

4.

2.

5.

3.

4.

3.

6.

4.

5.

3.

6.

4.

5.

3.

5
1.0

147

4.2

89

795

2.87

0
40

15.9

0.5

124

3.1

70

673

2.43

5
1.0

156

3.9

93

845

3.05

5
45

0.5

132

2.9

75

713

2.57

0
1.0

164

3.6

98

885

3.19

0
50

18.8

0.5

141

2.8

79

763

2.75

0
1.0

173

3.5

102 935

3.32

0
55

0.5

149

2.7

84

803

2.90

0
1.0

180

3.3

107 975

3.52

5
60

21.6

0.5

157

2.6

88

848

3.06

0
1.0

189

3.1

111 1020

3.68

7.

4.

6.

4.

7.

5.

6.

4.

8.

5.

7.

4.

8.

5.

7.

4.

9.

6.

7.

5.

9.

6.

( Source: Nutrient requirement of Livestock and Poultry by S.K.Ranjhan)

COMPOSITION (%) OF THE VARIOUS CREEP MIXTURES FOR KIDS
Composition of the various creep mixtures for kids
1

Maize

40

20

15

25

30

Barley/Oats (+)

23

45

40

40

40

30

Groundnut cake (++)

20

20

20

20

22

10

10

Fish meal

10

10

10

10

10

10

10

266

Molasses

10

20

10

Wheat bran (+++)

12

Mineral mixture

Salt

D.C.P

18

17

17

17

17

12

12

T.D.N

78

77

75

71

70

72

70

Calculated values

po

* To the 100kg of above creep mixture, add 150g Terramycin

-5/Aurofac or any antibitic feed supplement; 25g vitablend/Rovimix
(vitamin premixes) or one tea spoonful of shark liver oil per kid per
day.

(+) Barley, oats can be replaced by Sorghum,Rice broken,Bajra,Ragi on

isocaloric basis

(++) Groundnut cake can be replaced by linseed cake, sesame

cake, Coconutcake, mustard cake or Cotton seed cake on equinitrogen
basis.

(+++) Rice bran, chunnies can replace wheat bran.

COMPOSITION OF CONCENTRATE MIXTURES FOR GROWING GOATS

Composition of concentrate mixtures for growing goats
1

Maize (+)

50

50

30

12

Dal chunnies (++)

30

35

Bajra/Ragi

50

20

Gingelly cake

25

Rice Bran

30

42

20

30

30

32

Coconut cake

15

Ground Nut cake

10

25

20

Tapioca chips

Molasses

Mineral mixture

267

Salt

(+) Maize can be substituted with sorghum and rice polishings.

(++) Dal chunnies can be replaced with leguminous seeds like peas,
gram, cowpea etc.

STALL FEEDING OF GOATS

The animals are not able to meet their nutritional requirements by

browsing the poor quality vegetation.

Therefore stall-feeding is essential, to meet the nutrients.

The kids should be provided creep mixture and good quality fodder
from 15 days of age.

For growing kids, a complete ration containing 9-10 % DCP and 62-64
% TDN with 25 % DM from good quality roughage can meet the
requirements.
268

Castrated male kids are specially raised for chevon production.

Generally 1/3 of body weight is achieved during the finishing period.

During this period, a complete ration providing 5-6 % DCP and 60-65
% TDN is quite satisfactory.

EXERCISE
1. Indicate the nutrient requirements and formulate ration with legume
fodder for kids weighing
o 15kg
o 20kg
o growing @ of 50g per day
2. Indicate the nutrient requirements and formulate ration for a goat
weighing 40 kg for maintenance.
3. Formulate a creep mixture for 50 kids. Feeding @100 g/day with 18 %
DCP and 75% TDN using locally available feedstuffs.
4. Formulate a ration for a lactating doe weighing 55 kg and yielding 1
kg of milk and reared under intensive system?
5. Suggest an ideal ration for a pregnant doe weighing 50 kg and
maintained under intensive system?
EXERCISE 11: FORMULATION OF RATION FOR LIVESTOCK DURING
SCARCITY PERIODS
Introduction

Livestock producers generally have three main options for meeting the
nutrient requirements of animals during drought or fodder scarcity
periods.
o

Use of agro-industrial byproducts and unconventional feeds to

ensure that the animals have adequate energy, protein,
vitamins, and minerals.

269

o Reduce the nutrient requirements of the animal to a point

where the requirements can be met with available feeds.
o Reductions in stocking rate.

AGRO INDUSTRIAL BY PRODUCTS AS A FEED FOR LIVESTOCK

These could form a part of livestock feeding system during scarcity

period like drought, flood, tsunami and other natural calamities.
These products can be classified based on

I Nutrient content

Energy rich : Molasses block, Tapioca, Palm fruit, Palm kernel,

Protein rich : fish wastes, meat meal, blood meal, pulse husk, animal
origin waste,

Mineral rich : Bone meal, Sea weeds

Miscellaneous : Brewery waste, Fruit industry waste

II Byproducts from specific industries

Fibrous crop residues : Paddy straw, Wheat straw, Barley straw, Pulse
straw, Husks,

Sugar industry byproducts : Sugar cane tops, Bagasse, Molasses,

Press mud, Condensed molasses soluble/ dried yeast sludge

Byproducts from forest (fodder tree leaves) : leaves from Bamboo,

White oak, Banyan, Babul, Flame of forest, Gliricidia, Subabul,
Tamarind, Jack, Neem, Tapoica, Vagai ,

Non edible and other minor oil cakes eg. Salseed meal, Mahua cake,
Neem cake, Rubber seed cake, Tobacco seed cake

Meat processing factory waste eg. Meat meal, Bone meal, Blood meal ,

Animal Organic Waste eg. Poultry litter, Caged layer manure, Cattle
manure.
270

Fruit and vegetable factory byproducts : Mango seed kernel or cake,

Pineapple waste, Banana, Citrus peels, Dried cocoa pod husk, Oil
palm press fibre, Palm oil sludge and cake, Tomato and Potato
processing wastes,

Marine waste and its byproducts eg. Fish waste, Frog meal, Prawn
waste

Aquatic plants eg. Algae, Lotus, Water hyacinth, Sea weed.

Miscellaneous byproducts eg. Acacia pods, Brewery waste, Coffee

waste, Date stone, Maize gluten feed, Oak kernel, Silk worm pupae
meal, Tea industries waste, Tapioca waste, Tamarind seed hulls

SUPPLEMENTAL FEEDING DURING DROUGHT PERIODS

Energy

Drought conditions, energy may be the most limiting nutrient for

grazing animals.

Hay, grain, and crop processing byproducts such as molasses can be

used.

Low quality forages can be processed suitably to increase their

digestibility.

Protein

Pastures under drought conditions may be deficient in protein.

271

This can be corrected by providing supplemental crude protein in the

form of soybean meal, sunflower meal, safflower meal, ground nut oil
cake or NPN sources.

Minerals

The same salt and mineral mixture should be provided during drought
as during normal conditions.

However, during drought, phosphorus supplementation is even more

critical.

A mixture of 50 percent trace mineralized salt and 50 percent

dicalcium phosphate supplied free choice to the herd will meet the
phosphorus requirement.

The salt mixture should be placed close to stock watering locations.

Vitamin A

Lack of vitamin A may become a problem when animals are grazed on

drought-affected pastures during the summer.

Vitamin A is lacking in forages growing under drought conditions.

Animals should receive vitamin A supplements.

o Available crop residues such as straws, stovers, and other
byproducts of crop production can be used for stretching tight
feed supplies during drought conditions.
o Top feed resources such as tree leaves, pods, bark etc play an
important role during drought conditions.

REDUCING NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS OF THE HERD

Lactation represents the greatest nutrient demand for animals during

a production cycle.

Lactation increases demand for energy, protein, and other nutrients.

One of the simplest ways to reduce nutrient requirements is to wean

the young ones.

This practice can cut nutrient requirements by one-third to one-half

depending on milk production of the animal.

Early weaned animals can achieve adequate rates of growth if given

access to a high quality ration.

Dry animals will eat less than lactating animals further reducing
demand on feed.

By removing the nutrient requirements for lactation, growth and

reproduction will receive a greater proportion of the nutrients
available.
272

Drylot Feeding

If pasture conditions are extremely poor, producers may consider

feeding animals in drylot. This may be more cost effective than
supplementation.

TRADITIONAL

METHODS

OF

FEEDING

LIVESTOCK

DURING

SCARCITY
Traditional methods of feeding include,

Use of by-products of commercial crops such as oil seed crops, grams

etc as well as drought resistant vegetation in combination with NPN
source of nitrogen and molasses as source of energy for meeting the
immediate nutritional requirements.

Certain varieties of tree leaves and extractions of inedible oil seeds can
be used to meet the essential requirements of intact protein in
ruminants. This proved to be successful during drought in many parts
of India.

Large scale feeding of bagasse and molasses in combination with urea

and mineral supplements without any toxic effects. Some of the daily
ration schedules that have been successfully tried are given below.

i. Ration for an adult non-producing cattle (50-300 kg body wt.) fed

twice a week

Bagasse - 2.0 kg

Molasses - 0.4 kg

Sugarcane tops - 8.0 kg (chopped)

Urea - 22 g

Common salt - 30 g

Sterilized bone meal- 20 g

or mineral mixture

Trace element mix - 0.5 g

Note: ii. Ration for a growing animal (50-150 kg body wt.) fed twice a
week

Bagasse - 2.0 kg

Molasses - 0.8 kg

Sugarcane tops - 3.0 kg (chopped)

Urea - 40 g

Common salt - 20 g

Sterilized bone meal- 20 g

273

or mineral mixture

Trace element mix - 0.5 g

In case of non-availability of tops, the ration should be fortified with 5,000

IU of vit.A and replacing the tops with forest grass hay or any other available
crop residues in surrounding areas of drought affected zones.65
Procedure for treating Bagasse with Urea-Molasses

Bales of bagasse are spread in layers of 15 20 cm thickness.

Note:

This process can be repeated using dry tree leaves, coarse forest
grasses and such other materials available in areas of short supply
instead of bagasse.
o Urea and molasses are mixed in empty drums. Approximately,
33 % of water is added to reduce dustiness of material.
o The urea-molasses mixture is sprayed over the bagasse, which
is turned frequently to ensure proper mixing and soaking.
o For spraying urea molasses mixture, watering can should be
used.

UREA MOLASSES LIQUID AND BLOCK FEED

Other systems of feeding
i. Liquid urea-molasses feeding

Liquid molasses containing 2 to 3 % uniformly mixed urea and

fortified with minerals and vitamins is referred to as liquid feed. The
principle of urea - molasses liquid feed preparation lies in the
homogenous mixing of urea in liquid molasses.

a. The most practical and least toxic urea-molasses liquid feed contains

Sugarcane molasses - 92.0

Urea - 2.5

Fresh water - 2.5

Mineral mixture - 2.0

Common salt - 1.0

The mixture is fortified with vitablend (vitamins A & D)

Urea is completely dissolved in water and poured gradually into the

tank containing molasses with simultaneous mixing using a wooden
stirrer.

Powdered salt and mineral mixture are sprinkled over the molasses
while stirring to ensure uniform distribution of all the additives in the
liquid molasses.
274

Special attention is required for the uniform mixing of urea solution.

During winter season, the viscosity of molasses increases and hence,

heating of the urea-molasses mixture is essential for thorough mixing.

This undiluted urea-molasses liquid feed containing 65 % and more

dry matter can be safely stored for long periods.

3) @ 25g/100kg.66 Procedure for preparing Urea-Molasses Liquid Feed:

b. Another combination of urea-molasses liquid feed

Molasses - 83 %

Urea - 2 %

Phosphoric acid - 2 %

Salt - 2 %

Mineral mixture - 1 %

Bypass protein - 10 %

(Cotton seed cake or Fish meal)

Precautions to be followed while feeding liquid urea-molasses diets

It is desired to supplement the liquid molasses diet to certain

minimum quantity of roughages to maintain bulk.

It is advisable to introduce liquid feed gradually in the ration in about

10 to 15 days.

Fresh drinking water should be made available at all times for the
animals on liquid diet.

It is good to provide mineral mixture or mineral licks free of choice in

a separate container.

ii. Uro-mol Brick feeding

The

National

Dairy

Development

Board

(NDDB)

has

started

manufacturing urea-molasses blocks.

The production and utilization of urea molasses blocks assumes an

increasingly important role in drought prone areas.
275

When licked by the ruminant animals, the urea-molasses blocks

provide nitrogen to micro-organisms in the rumen and in turn improve
digestion of the straw, which is fed during disastrous conditions.

These blocks are available commercially in packed condition so that

they can be transported to the areas of necessity easily.

Composition of urea-molasses mineral block

Molasses - 45 %

Urea - 15 %

Mineral mixture - 15 %

Salt - 8 %

Calcite powder - 4 %

Bentonite / guar gum - 3 %

Any vegetable oil cake - 10 %

Procedure for preparing Urea-Molasses mineral block

Binder is added to the cake and the mixture is poured into the block
molds and allowed to cool.

Apart from cake, bran or some roughage source can also be

incorporated to prepare complete feed blocks for feeding of ruminant
livestock in drought prone areas.

At present, de-wormer included medicated blocks are commercially

available for feeding to small ruminants.

iii. Uromin lick

This "uromin" lick also called "Pashu Chaat" contains besides urea,
molasses and minerals, certain fillers like de-oiled rice bran, maida (sieved
flour), mustard cake, common salt and a feed binder (bentonite or guar
gum).

Molasses - 30

Urea - 10

Deoiled mustard cake - 10

Deoiled rice bran - 10

276

Common salt - 10

Mineral mixture - 15

Maida(sieved flour) - 15

Bentonite / guar gum - 03

Procedure for preparing uromin lick

First, molasses and urea are heated together in a round iron utensil for
about half an hour.

By doing so, urea and molasses are converted into uromol, where urea
N bound with sugars of molasses is used efficiently by the rumen
system.

Now, all the other ingredients (premix) are mixed with uromol while it
is hot to prevent lump formation.

The whole mixture is then pressed in the dye of a uromin lick making
machine, preferably with the help of a hydraulic jack at a pressure of
10 tons psi.

A hard uromin lick is ready in 20 30 minutes depending upon the

atmospheric temperature.

This brick shaped uromin lick will weigh around 3 kg and can be
sealed in a polythene envelope for future use.

Exercise

1. Identify the feedstuffs that are available in your area that can be
best utilized for feeding livestock during scarcity and disastrous
conditions and give their nutritive value?

2. Give details of some commercially available urea-molasses blocks

for feeding of livestock?

Composition of Uromin Lick

Molasses, urea, mineral mixture, salt and calcite powder are mixed
with thorough stirring and boiling.

EXERCISE 12: PHYSCIAL AND CHEMICAL TREATMENT OF CROP

RESIDUES
Crop residues and their processing methods to improve their nutritive
value

The leftover portion of the crop after the main crop is harvested for
human consumption is called as crop residues.

Crop residues may be grouped under the following headings

Straw

Stovers

Aerial

portion
277

of Others

other crops

Wheat

Maize

Soyabean

Corn cobs

Paddy

Sorghu

Groundnut

Bagasse

Oats

Sunflower

Groundnut

Barley

hull

Millets

Nutritional quality of crop residues

Low in crude protein, calcium, carotene and available energy.

High in cell wall constituents, lignin and silica

Reduced palatability low voluntary intake

Low digestibility of dry matter and bioavailability of energy

Bulky in nature

Processing methods to improve nutritive value

Physical

Chemical

Biological

Combination

Soaking

Acid treatment

SCP production

Physico

Grinding

Alkali treatment

Use

Steam

Use

of

other

of

chemicals- organisms
278

cellulolytic chemical
Karnal process

pressure

ozone,H2O2

Mushroom Growth

Explosion
Irradiation
Pelletting
PHYSICAL TREATMENT
Soaking

Chopped straw is soaked in water overnight.

Softens the straw leading to increased intake.

Disadvantage is mould growth.

Chaffing

Decreasing particle size.

Increases surface area for action of rumen microbes and hence

increase digestibility.

Grinding

Particle size reduced still further. (0.1 to 0.3 cm).

Disadvantage is that it increases rumen flow rate, decreases retention

time in the rumen leading to decreased production of acetate causing
a condition of low milk fat syndrome.

Steam pressure

Straw treated with Steam at pressure of 21.1 kg/cm 2 for 10 to 30

seconds.

Causes rupture of lignocelluosic bonds to a certain extent and makes

cellulose available for microbial action.

Explosion

Chopped or ground straw is treated with steam at pressure of 22.5

kg/cm2 for two minutes and pressure is suddenly released.
279

Causes rupture of lignocelluosic bonds to a certain extent and makes

cellulose available for microbial action.

Irradiation

Straw is treated with irradiation. Causes rupture of ligno celluosic

bonds and makes cellulose available for microbial action.

Pelleting

Particle size reduced to 0.1 to 0.3 cm and pelleted through 1-2 cm die.

Retention time in the rumen increases .

CHEMICAL TREATMENT
Alkali treatment

Straw is treated with NaOH, NH 4OH, CaOH, KOH and Urea. When
straw is exposed to the alkali the ester linkages between lignin and
cellulose/hemicellulose

are

hydrolysed

causing

the

cellulose/

hemicellulose to be available for digestion by microbes.

NaOH TREATMENT
Beckman process (German method)

Straw is soaked for 1-2 days in dilute solution of NaOH (15-30 g /

litre), washed to remove excess alkali and fed to the animals.

Dry method

Straw is chopped and sprayed with NaOH 300g/ litre (170 litre /
tonne of straw)

AMMONIA TREATMENT

Anhydrous form or concentrated solution is used 30 to 35 kg/ tonne

of straw.

Straw is stacked, ammonia solution is sprayed over the straw, kept

covered for 20 days and then fed to the animals.

This method not only increases the digestibility of the straw but also
increases the nitrogen content of it.

Disadvantage

On opening the stack, most of the ammonia is lost by volatilization.

Sometimes there is formation of toxic imidazoles from reactions

between ammonia and sugars leading to dementia (Bovine bonkers)

UREA ENRICHED PADDY STRAW

Materials required

Paddy straw - 100 kg.

Urea - 4 kg.
280

Water - 65 litres

Spinkler

Procedure

To enrich 100 kg of paddy straw

o Dissolve 4 kg urea in 65 litres of water
o Spread a polythene sheet/Gunny bag on the floor. Initially
spread 5 kg of paddy straw in layers.
o Using the sprinkler, sprinkle the prepared urea solution over
the paddy straw ensuing that all the paddy straw is wet by it.
o Similarly spread another layer of paddy straw over the first layer
and repeat the sprinkling of urea solution.
o Repeat the spreading and sprinkling for the entire 100 kg of
paddy straw and heap it and cover the straw with polythene
sheets to prevent the escape of ammonia liberated from urea.
This step facilitates the breakage of lignocellulose bond by
ammonia thereby releasing cellulose from lingin bondage for
digestion and utilisation.
o After 21 days the urea treated paddy straw is ready for feeding .

The urea enriched paddy straw, may be left in the open for 10 minutes
prior to feeding in order to remove the pungent odour of ammonia.

BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT OF STRAW

Karnal process

Technology developed at NDRI, Karnal. Straw treated with 4% urea at

moisture level of 60%.

Stacked in a silo pit under cover for 30 days.

A temporary loose brick structure is constructed.

Thin layer of urea treated straw is spread evenly in this structure.

A solution of the following composition is prepared.

60g superphosphate, 60g calcium oxide dissolved in 8 litre water.

281

Sprinkled over the urea treated straw.

Inoculated with 3% coprinus fimeratius culture.

Allowed to remain for 5 days then used for feeding.

Main advantage of this process is that urea a NPN compound is

converted into microbial protein and degradation of lignin.

EXERCISE

Explain how the nutritive value of paddy straw can be enhanced by a

practically applicable method.

EXERCISE 13: IDENTIFICATION OF DIFFERENT FEEDSTUFFS

FORAGES FOR FEEDING LIVESTOCK
I. Non-Legume fodder crops

Jonna or Jowar (Sorghum bicolor)

Bajra ( Pennisetum americanum)

Maize ( Zea mays)

Guinea grass ( Panicum maximum)

Napier grass or Elephant grass ( Pennisetum purpureum)

Hybrid Napier

NB-21
282

Rhodes grass ( Chloris gayana)

Para grass or Buffalo grass or Water grass (Brachiara mutica)

Anjan Grass ( Cenchrus ciliaris)

II. Legume fodder crops

Berseem (Trifolium alexandrium)

Lucerne (Medicago sativa)

Cowpea ( Vigna anguculata)

283

Pillipesara (Phaseolus trilobus)

Sun hemp ( Crotalaria juncea)

Horse gram ( Marcotyloma uniflorum)

Stylo ( Stylosanthes scabra)

CEREAL GRAINS AND BY-PRODUCTS

I. Commonly used cereal grains

Oats (Avena sativa)

Barley ( Hordeum vulgare)

Wheat ( Triticum sativum)

Maize (Zea mays)

Bajra ( Pennisetum americanum)

Ragi (Eleusine coracana)

Jowar ( Andropogan sorghum)

Korra ( Setaria italica)

Variga (Panicum milacium)

Broken Rice ( Oryza Sativa)

284

II. Commonly used cereal grain by-products

Rice bran

Wheat bran

De-oiled rice bran

Rice polish

OIL CAKES AND ANIMAL PROTEIN MEALS

Commonly used oil cakes

Groundnut cake (Arachis hypogaea)

Gingilly oil cake / Til cake / Sesame cake ( Sesamum indicum)

Cottonseed cake ( Gossypium hirsutum)

Coconut cake (Cocos nucifera)

Mustard seed cake (Brassica juncea)

Sunflower cake (Helianthus annuus)

Soya bean meal or Soya bean deoiled cake (Glycine max)

Safflower cake ( Carthamus tinctorius)

Commonly used animal protein meals

Fish meal

Meat meal

Blood meal

Liver residue meal

Bone meal

PULSES AND AGRO INDUSTRIAL BY PRODUCTS

Commonly used pulse processing by products

Green gram chunni

Black gram chunni

Cow pea chunni

Red gram chunni

Commonly used agro-industrial by products

Mango seed kernel

Mahua cake

Maize gluten feed

Tapioca waste

Neem cake

Rubber seed cake

Tamarind seeds

Sugarcane bagasse
285

Exercise

Students are requested to examine all these feedstuffs, differentiate

one

from

the

other

and

study

their

characteristic

features

thoroughly?
EXERCISE 14: PRINCIPLES OF FEED COMPOUNDING AND MIXING
AIM AND REQUIREMENTS FOR COMPOUNDING OF FEED
Aim

To formulate the feed mixture of desired protein content.

To adjust the protein content of the concentrate mixture for developing

a good ration.

To blend feeds together into a mixture containing a definite % of TDN.

Requirements

Feed samples

Table of nutrients composition

Weighing balance

Grinding machine (hammer mill / Disintegrator)

Feed mixer (Horizontal / Vertical)

Shovel

Gunny bags

Buckets and scoop

PEARSON SQUARE METHOD

I. Pearson square method

Draw a pearsons square for determining the proportions (or) ratio of

feeds to be mixed.

Partition the feeds as high protein and low protein feeds.

Place the percentage of crude / digestible crude protein desired in the

center of the pearsons square.

Place the average percentage of crude / digestible crude protein

present in high protein feeds on the left side upper corner of this
square.

Place the average percentage of crude / digestible crude protein

present in low protein feeds on the left side lower corner of this
square.

Take about the diagonal lines in the square.

286

Draw the difference between the figures on the left hand sides and the
center figure and place these on the right hand corners of the square,
in the direction of diagonal lines.

The figures obtained on the right hand side corners are the parts or
proportions in which ratio the given feeds should be mixed to obtain
the mixture of desired CP/DCP percentage.

Pass the feeds to be mixed through grinder and then mix the ground
feeds in horizontal / vertical mixer.

Fill the gunny bags using the shovel (or) directly fill it from the mixer.

Label the feed mixture along with the weight neatly, clearly and
legibly.

Note

Prepare 100 kg concentrate mixture containing 18 % DCP using maize

grain, wheat bran and linseed cake consisting of 10, 12 and 30 %
DCP, respectively.

Solution
Average DCP of low protein feeds = Maize + Wheat bran / 2
= 10 +12 / 2 = 11%.
DCP content of high protein feed (linseed cake) = 30%

ie.
100 kg should contain ? parts of linseed cake
= 100 x 7 / 19 = 36.84 kg (or) 37 kg49
Therefore,

Amount of low protein feeds = 100 37 = 63 kg.

This should be distributed among the low protein feeds equally.

Hence, amount of maize = 63 / 2 = 31.5 parts.

Therefore, amount of wheat bran required = 31.5 parts.

287

Verification
Feedstuff

Parts

% DCP supplied

Linseed cake

37.0

37 x 30 /100 = 11.1

Maize

31.5

31.5 x 10 /100 = 3.15

Wheat bran

31.5

31.5 x 12 / 100 = 3.78

Total

100

18.03 %

19 kg of mixture will contain 7 parts of linseed cake

Example

Minerals consisting of bone meal and common salt may also be added
in required quantity before grinding and mixing.

ALGEBRAIC METHOD

Divide the ingredients into two groups ie. Low protein group and high
protein group depending on their protein content.

Calculate the average protein content of each group, if there is more

than one feed ingredient.

Assume that X represents the amount of low protein feeds and Y

represents the amount of high protein feeds present in 100 kg of
concentrate mixture. That means,

X + Y = 100 ---------- (1)

Note:
X + Y = 97 -----------(1)

For example, assume that

Average CP/DCP content of low protein group is 8 %

This means, 100 kg of feed will contain 8 kg CP/DCP
Therefore, the amount of CP/DCP supplied through X kg will be
= X * 8 / 100 = 0.08 X kg.50
b. Average CP/DCP content of high protein group is 40 %
This means, 100 kg of feed will contain 40 kg CP/DCP
Therefore, the amount of CP/DCP supplied through Y kg will be
= Y * 40 / 100 = 0.40Y kg.
c. However, the amount of CP/DCP being supplied through low and high
protein feeds should be equal to the desired protein level (say 18%). So,
0.08 X + 0.40 Y = 18 --------------- (2)

Calculate the value of X and Y from the above two equations.

288

Now, X and Y representing the amount of low and high protein feeds
should be divided equally, depending on the number of ingredients in
each group.

Check whether the calculated proportion of each ingredient when

mixed together is supplying the desired CP/DCP content or not.

In case, the amount of mineral mixture and salt to be included in the ration
are fixed say 2 and 1% respectively, then this fixed proportion of 3% should
be subtracted from the total quantity of conc. Mixture. In such case
Example

Prepare 100 kg concentrate mixture containing 18 % DCP using maize

grain, wheat bran and linseed cake consisting of 10, 12 and 30 % DCP
respectively.

Solution
Let
Average DCP content of low protein group = 10 + 12 / 2 = 11 %
Average DCP content of high protein group = 30 %
Assume that X represents the amount of low protein feeds and Y
represents the amount of high protein feeds present in 100 kg of concentrate
mixture. That means,
X + Y = 100 ---------- (1)
Average DCP content of low protein group is 11 %
This means, 100 kg of feed will contain 11 kg DCP
Therefore, the amount of DCP supplied through X kg will be
= X * 11 / 100 = 0.11X.51
Average DCP content of high protein group is 30%
This means, 100 kg of feed will contain 30 kg DCP
Therefore, the amount of DCP supplied through Y kg will be
= Y * 30 / 100 = 0.30Y.
c. However, the amount of DCP being supplied through low and high protein
feeds should be equal to the desired protein level (say 18 %).
So,
0.11X + 0.30Y = 18 ---------------(2)
Multiplying equation (1) by 0.3 we get
0.3X + 0.3Y = 30 ----------(3)
Subtracting equation (3) from (2)
0.11X + 0.30Y = 18---------------(2)
0.3X + 0.3Y = 30 --------------(3)
289

0.19X = 12
or X = 12 / 0.19 = 63.16 or 63 parts
and Y = 100 63 = 37 parts.
Therefore,
No. of parts of maize = 63 / 2 = 31.5
No. of parts of wheat bran = 63 31.5 = 31.5
No. of parts of linseed cake = 37
Verification

Maize

and wheat

bran represent low

protein

group and

linseed

cake represent high protein group.

Feedstuff

Parts

% DCP supplied

Linseed cake

37.0

37 x 30 /100 = 11.10

Maize

31.5

31.5 x 10 /100 = 3.15

Wheat bran

31.5

31.5 x 12 / 100 = 3.78

Total

100

18.03

EXERCISE

Prepare a dairy special concentrate mixture with 18 % DCP using

locally available feed ingredients. Include urea (1 %), mineral mixture
(2 %) and salt (1 %)?

Prepare a concentrate mixture with 16 % DCP using maize, jowar,

wheat bran and soybean meal?

Prepare a concentrate mixture with 13 % DCP using locally available

feedstuffs for formulating maintenance ration to a dry animal?

Prepare a calf starter with 20 % DCP for feeding calves using locally
available feed stuffs?

EXCERCISE 15: FORMULATION

OF

RATION

FOR

CATTLE

BUFFALOES

Nutritive value of common roughages (on as fed basis)

Feedstuff

DM

DCP

TDN

Cereal straws

90

40

Legume straws

90

53

Cereal hays

88

51

Dry roughages

290

AND

Legume hays

88

10

60

25

14

25

16

20

12

Green roughages
Cereal fodders
(Maize, Jowar etc.)
Green grasses
(NB-21, Para etc.)
Legume fodders

291

NUTRITIVE VALUE OF COMMON CENCENTRATE FEEDSTUFFS

Nutritive value of common concentrate feedstuffs (on as fed basis)

Feedstuff

CP

DCP

TDN

Maize

9.0

7.4

84.9

Jowar

9.0

8.0

75.0

Wheat

13.2

10.2

79.2

292

DORB

12.0

6.0

66.0

Wheat bran

14.0

10.0

68.0

Gram husk

6.0

0.5

55.0

Gram chuni

6-8

60.0

Tapioca waste

4.0

2.0

64.0

Molasses

4.8

1.0

54.0

GNC (exp)

45.0

42.0

71.0

GNC (ext)

52.0

46.0

70.0

Til cake (ext)

47.8

38.0

78.0

Sunflower cake (ext)

33.0

23.0

71.0

Cottonseed cake (decort)

39.0

32.8

72.5

Cottonseed cake (undecort)

39.0

18.0

70.0

Coconut cake (ext)

24.0

19.0

81.0

Mustard cake (ext)

36.0

27.0

74.0

Soybean meal (ext)

45.8

42.0

78.0

Fish meal

50.0

45.0

65.0

Meat meal

50.0

45.0

70.0

COMMONLY

USED

INGREDIENTS THEIR ADULTERANTS

AND

CONTAMINANTS
Feed Ingredient

Checks to be made for

Common

Mycotoxin

adulterants

ANFs

Occurrence
Maize

Bajra

Freshness, Colour, Size, Moisture, Cobs

Aflatoxin, Citrinin

Heat, Mouldy odor, Weevils, Pesticide and Cob dust,

Cyclopiazonic

- Thiram

Acid

Sand

Bulk density 0.725 to 0.775 kg/litre

Ochratoxin

Freshness, Colour, Size, Moisture, Certified seed

T2.toxin,

Heat,

Zeralenone

Weeds,

Sand

and

Silica, contamination,

Pesticide - Thiram

Sand

Bulk density 0.72 to 0.76 kg/litre

293

NSPs

Sorghum

Freshness, Colour, Size, Moisture, Certified seed

T2.toxin,

Heat, Sand

Contamination,

Zeralenone

Pesticide Thiram ,

Sand

Sterigmatocystin

Bulk density 0.70 to O.77kg/litre

Ragi

Freshness, Colour, Size, Sand

Tannins, NSPs
Sand

NSPs, Mycotoxins

Freshness, Colour, Mouldy odour,

Sand, Bran,

Aflatoxin,

Sand, husk, Rancid odour

husk

Ochratoxin

Freshness, Mouldy odour, Sand,

Weed seeds,

Aflatoxins,

husk, weed seeds

husk, Sand

Ochratoxin,

Bulk density 0.70 to 0.75 kg/litre

Rice

Bulk density 0.70 to 0.775 kg/litre

Wheat

Bulk density 0.70 to 0.77 kg/litre

Soybean

NSPs

Freshness, Moisture, Clumps,

Sand & Silica

Aflatoxins,

Odour, Colour, Mould Growth,

Hulls (Fiber)

Trypsin

Bulk density 0.52 to 0.57 kg/litre

Inhibitors
Emerging toxins,
NSPs

Groundnut

Freshness, Moisture, Colour, Heat,

Hulls (Fibre)

Potential feed for

Cake

Odour, Clumps, Mould growth

Sand, Other

Aflatoxins,

Bulk density 0.65 to 0.70 kg/litre

Cheaper oil seeds infestation,

Ochratoxin

Sunflower

Freshness, Moisture, Heat, Odour,

Hulls (fibre)

Ochratoxin,

Meal

Rancidity, Clumps, Mould growth

Sand

Aflatoxin

Bulk density 0.50 to 0.53 kg/litre

Bl,

T2

toxin,

NSPs
Rapeseed

Moisture, Heat, Clumps,

Hulls (fibre)

Aflatoxin Bl,

Meal

Mould growth

Sand

Glucosinolates
Gizerosine

Bulk density 0.65 to 0.675 kg/litre

Dry Fish/

Moisture, Oil, Sand, Other marine

Sand, Urea

Fish Meal

products

Salt, Other

Bulk density 0.725 to 0.775 kg/litre

Marine products

Rice Bran

Moisture, Heat, Smell, Roughness,

Sand Husk,

- Deoiled

Clumps

Fibre, Saw dust

Bulk density 0.35 to 0.40 kg/litre

294

Aflatoxin

Rice Polish

Calcite

Moisture, Rancidity, Coarseness,

Rice bran

Aflatoxin

Oiliness, Odour

Husk, Saw dust,

Bulk density 0.4 to 0.42 kg/litre

Sand

Moisture, Colour, Coarseness

Sand,
Magnesium

DCP

Moisture, Colour, Odour

Sand,

(Dicalcium

Fluorine

Phosphate)
Mineral Mixture

Moisture, Colour, Odour

Sand,
Magnesium

Meat and Bone

Moisture, Odour, Colour

Sand,

Meal

Leather Biogenic amines

meal

Microbial
contamination

Shell Grit

Colour, Uniformity

Sand

FORMULATION OF LEAST COST RATION

Definition

A least cost ration incorporates all the available feedstuffs having good
nutritive value and being available at a reasonable low cost.

It can also be defined as an economic ration for animal production

(dairy, beef, sheep, goats, poultry etc.) that provides nutrients in
balanced proportion with lowest possible cost per kg or 100 kg.

It is the ration containing all essential nutrients that are needed to

meet

the

requirements

of

the

animal

(growth,

maintenance,

production, reproduction, work etc.) without affecting quality and with

least cost.
Aim

To minimize the cost of ration while meeting the nutrient requirements

of animals without affecting their productivity.

Advantages

Incorporation of non-conventional feedstuffs is easy.

The speed and accuracy of the linear programming by computer saves

time and labour.

As the programme is flexible, inclusion of feed ingredients as per

availability and quality can be made quickly.

Gives more productive efficiency with least cost.

295

Increases profitability of the livestock farm.

Farmer can also afford to make use of it more effectively because it is

cheaper in nature.

Procedure

List all the available feeds, fodders and other available ingredients.

Enlist the components of each ingredient

Feed the computer with the cost of all available feed ingredients.

Give instructions to the computer for the type of ration desired

depending upon the requirements of animal (growth, maintenance,
production, reproduction, work or starter, grower, layer etc; high
energy, high protein, low energy, low protein etc.)

Give instructions to the computer regarding the amount of feed

ingredients (for example say DM of 20 kg or DCP of 1.5 kg). Similarly,
amount of certain feed ingredients in the ration can be fixed like fish
meal (say 10 %) and mineral mixture (say 2 %).

Now, the computer will take the least cost feed ingredients for
formulating least cost ration.

It is a linear programme based model that includes the following

stepwise approach: i e. Proximate values (DM and nutritive value i.e. CP
/ DCP and TDN / ME).

Limitations of computer based model

Certain constraints need to be imposed on ingredients (maximum and

minimum levels) or otherwise, it may take all low cost ingredients with
poor nutritive value. Such a ration would not result in high milk
production at least cost and hence, milk production may get adversely
affected.

Computer can not encounter the toxic material in the ingredients.

Computer will not count the additive effect of feeds.

Computer

can

not

judge

the

digestibility

and

palatability

of

ingredients. It may be a least cost ration, but with poor palatability.

Needs skill and good programming.

FORMULATION OF RATIONS FOR CATTLE AND BUFFALOES FOR

DIFFERENT FUNCTIONS
Aim

To formulate rations for cattle and buffaloes for different functions.

Requirements

296

Information about the type of animal, body wt., physiological status

etc.

Feeding standards (commonly followed is ICAR, 1998)

Feedstuffs to be used with their nutritive values.

Procedure

Find out the total requirements of the animal in terms of DM, DCP
and TDN depending upon the physiological status (pregnancy,
lactation, growth, work

By trial and error method, find out the amount of green and dry
fodder that should be offered to meet the nutrient requirements of the
animal taking into consideration their availability.

Calculate the amount of DM, DCP and TDN supplied through green
and dry fodder.

Now, subtract the amount of nutrients supplied through green and

dry fodder from the total requirements of the animal to find out the
balance of nutrients to be supplied through concentrates.

Finally, calculate the amount of concentrate mixture to be offered to

the animal to meet the balance of nutrients. etc., from the feeding
standards (ICAR, 1998).

Note:
Example

Formulate a ration for a buffalo weighing 500 kg yielding 10 kg of

milk/day with 7 % butterfat and in Generally, rations are first
formulated for one nutrient (say DCP) and then, the other nutrients
(say TDN) are checked to see whether the feedstuffs used will meet the
requirement or whether alternative feeds need to be included in the
ration. 43 1st lactation using the following feedstuffs.

Feedstuff

DM

DCP

TDN

NB-21 fodder

25

>16

Paddy straw

90

40

Concentrate mixture

90

16

70

Solution
1. Calculation of nutrient requirements of the animal
Requirements

DM(kg)

DCP(kg)

TDN (kg)

For maintenance

12.5 - 15.0

0.30

3.70

297

For production

0.63

4.60

0.06

0.74

0.99

9.04

(10kg with 7% fat)

Growth allowance
(20 % - 1 st lactation)
Total requirements

2. Finding out the amount of nutrients supplied by green and dry fodder
Feedstuff

Amount on

DCP(kg)

Fresh basis

Dry basis

NB-21 fodder

20

5.0

0.2

Paddy straw

5.4

0.0

Total quantity

26

10.4

0.2

TDN (kg)

3. Balance of nutrients to be supplied thru concentrate mixture supplied

thru
DM(kg)

DCP (kg)

TDN (kg)

Total requirement

15.0

0.99

9.04

Green & dry fodder

10.4

0.20

5.60

To be supplied thru conc.

4.60

0.79

3.44

4. Amount of concentrate mixture required to meet the DCP requirement

Amount of DCP to be supplied thru concentrates = 0.79 kg
Amount of DCP present in the concentrate mix = 16 %
0.79
No. of kg of concentrate mixture = ------ x 100 = 4.9375 kg.
16
5. Amount of TDN supplied through concentrate mixture
Amount of TDN present in the concentrate mix = 70 %
Amount of concentrate mixture to be offered = 4.9375 kg
4.9375
Amount of TDN supplied thru conc. mix = --------- x 70 = 3.456 kg
100
6. Verification
Nutrients supplied

DM

DCP

TDN

through

(kg)

(kg)

(kg)

298

NB-21 green fodder

5.00

0.20

3.200

Paddy straw

5.40

0.00

2.400

Concentrate mixture

4.44

0.79

3.456

Total

14.84

0.99

9.056

Actual requirement

12.5 15.0

0.99

9.040

EXERCISE 16: FORMULATIONS OF MINERAL MIXTURES

BIS SPECIFICATIONS FOR MINERAL MIXTURES

Minerals play an important role in livestock production.

The mineral deficiencies can be overcome by feeding mineral mixtures

to the animals. These mineral mixtures can be mixed in the
concentrate feeds and can be fed to the animals.

The BIS has specified the composition of mineral mixtures of different

livestock and poultry.

BIS specifications for Mineral Mixtures

Characteristics

Cattle

Sheep & Goat

Poultry

Moisture Max. (%)

Calcium Min. (%)

16

30

30

Phosphorous Min. (%)

14

Magnesium Min. (%)

0.4

299

Sulphur Min. (%)

1.4

0.13

Salt Min. (%)

22

Zinc Min. (%)

0.3

0.2

0.4

Iron Min. (%)

0.3

0.55

2000 ppm

Iodine Min. (%)

0.02

0.35

0.01

Copper Min. (%)

0.078

0.03

500 ppm

Manganese Min. (%)

0.1

0.08

Cobalt Min. (%)

0.009

0.008

Fluorine Max. 9%)

0.05

0.03

0.05

Total ash Max. (%)

75 82

78 85

AIA Max. (%)

ICAR MINERAL MIXTURE COMPOSITION

The Indian Council of Agricultural Research has recommended the

following mineral mixture containing sodium chloride which can be
mixed at 3 % level in the compounded feeds.

Mineral mixture composition as per ICAR, 1998

Ingredients

Per cent

Di-calcium phosphate

55.0

Sodium Chloride

30.0

Calcium carbonate

11.0

Magnesium carbonate

3.0

Ferrous sulphate

3.0

Copper sulphate

0.5

Manganese di-oxide

0.08

Cobalt chloride

0.06

Potassium iodide

0.01

Zinc sulphate

0.26

Total percent

100

SOURCES OF MAJOR MINERALS

300

Mineral

Mineral Source

Per cent

Calcium

Calcium Carbonate

38 - 40

Ground limestone

33 - 37

Oyster shell grit

38

Calcite powder

38

Steamed Bone Meal

23 - 36

Meat and Bone meal

4 - 14

Fish Meal

2 - 14

Phosphorous

Phosphoric acid

23.7

De-fluorinated phosphate

18

Mono-calcium phosphate

21

Di-calcium phosphate

18.5

Steamed Bone Meal

8 - 14

Meat and Bone meal

2-7

Fish Meal

2-7

Rock Phosphate

Potassium

Potassium Carbonate

55

Potassium Chloride

50.5

Potassium Sulfate

41

Sulfur

Ammonium Sulfate

Calcium Sulfate Di-hydrate

Magnesium

24
17

Magnesium Oxide

Magnesium Chloride

52 - 59
20

SOURCES OF MINOR MINERALS

Mineral

Source

Per cent

Cobalt

Cobalt Carbonate

46

Cobalt Sulfate (Monohydrate)

33

Cobalt Sulfate (Heptahydrate)

21
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Iron

Ferrous Carbonate

40

Ferrous Sulfate (Monohydrate)

30

Ferrous Sulfate (Heptahydrate)

21

Zinc

Zinc Oxide

Zinc Sulfate (Monohydrate)

Copper

72
36

Cupric Oxide

75

Copper Sulfate

25

Copper Carbonate

55

Iodine

Calcium Iodate

Potassium Iodate
Manganese

69
Manganese Oxide

Manganese Sulfate (Monohydrate)

Selenium

64

60
28.5

Sodium Selenite

45

Exercise: Students are advised to make a note of the composition of mineral

mixtures fed to animals in the college dairy farm.
EXERCISE 17: VISIT TO FEED PLANT,DAIRY FARM AND SHEEP FARM
Introduction to feed processing in feed mill

The

technology

of

feed

processing

has

undergone

substantial

improvement in recent years.

It was only sixty years ago that feedstuffs were mixed on the
warehouse floor by the use of a shovel.

Feed processing has progressed from the simple mixing of several

ingredients by hand to mechanical mixing, to continuous mixing, and
now to computer controlled mixing and pelleting.

However, the basic concept of mixing ingredients together to result in

a nutritionally balanced feed, has remained unchanged.

To accomplish the mixing of different ingredients, grinding these

ingredients to similar particle sizes, and then putting them together in
a single unit, requires a considerable amount of specialized equipment
and technical expertise.

Some feed plants are designed for specific functions, such as making
poultry feeds exclusively; others are designed for producing a variety
of feeds.
302

Regardless of the specific purpose of a feed plant, material flow follows

a basic pattern

RECEIVING OF RAW MATERIALS

The first operation in the feed processing plant involves the receiving
of raw materials into the plant premises.

Feed ingredients arrive in gunny bags, or other small containers and

in bulk.

Ingredients in gunny bags are checked physically for moisture,

contamination, smell and for soundness of the material.

Ingredients must then be stored in a dry location with proper

protection from rodent and insect infestation.

Sacked stocks are then rotated regularly to minimize moldiness,

product degradation, and insect infestation.

Bulk ingredients are handled according to their physical form. Liquid

ingredients, such as oils and molasses, are generally stored in bulk
tanks.

Proper storage temperature is maintained and the filter screens are

checked periodically.

Solid bulk ingredients such as grains, oil meals, etc., are cleaned with
a scalper to remove foreign material prior to storage in bins.

Bin temperatures are monitored to prevent heating due to grain

respiration.

In the feed manufacturing process, evaluation of the feed ingredients

is important for achieving consistent quality.

If the quality of the ingredient can be assessed before it is unloaded

from the truck, it would save both trouble and money. There are
different types of evaluations.

PROCESSING OF CONCENTRATE FEED

Material flow during processing includes:

o Particle size reduction
o Premixing
o Mixing
o Pelleting and
o Packing

Coarse ingredients pass over a permanent magnet, which removes

tramp metal, and then through a hammer mill, which reduces particle
size to the desired screen analysis.
303

Ground material is monitored periodically to ensure size uniformity

and to help detect wear of hammer mill screen and hammers.

The ground material is then routed to ingredient holding bins.

There are two mixing operations in feed milling.

One is for the mixing of micro-nutrients; the operation is generally

termed pre-mixing.

The other mixing operation involves the actual blending of all

components of the diet.

Micro-nutrients, such as vitamins and trace minerals, are accurately

weighed with carrier material which has a density approximating that
of the predominant micro-ingredient.

The materials are then mixed in a batch mixer or cone mixer for a
period of time specified by the equipment manufacturer to ensure
homogeneity.

The premix is finally routed to the premix holding bin.

Ration mixing begins when augers are set in motion to deliver; the
correct amounts of each ingredient including the premix, according to
the formula, into the mixer.

Where manual changing of the mixer is done, ingredients are weighed

out in sacks or hopper carts.

The mixing period is according to the equipment manufacturer's

specifications, but final mix is checked periodically with a tracer to
ensure homogeneity of the mix.

If the mixed diet is to undergo pelleting, it is routed to the pelleting

bin.

Mixed feed mash for pelleting is first conditioned with steam in the
steam conditioner section of the pellet mill, after which it enters the
die where it is finally extruded.

Freshly extruded pellets are hot and contain excess moisture which is
removed during passage through the cooler.

Fines are then screened from the cooled pelleted feed and returned for
repeating.

Fish oil, if added, is now applied prior to the routing of the finished
pellets into the packer bins.

FEED PROCESSING
Various steps involved in Feed compounding

304

Selection of locally available ingredients based on price and nutrient

density.

Quality check of raw materials.

Formulation of balanced ration

Weighing the ingredients according to formulation.

Processing such as Grinding, flaking, etc.

Uniform mixing.

Quality check of processed feed

Packing and storage of mash feed.

Further processing for preparation of other forms of feed (pelletting,

crumbling etc.)

Purposes of feed processing:

To alter the physical form or particle size.

To prevent spoilage

To isolate specific parts of a seed or plant

To improve palatability

To inactivate toxins or anti nutritional factors .

Grinding

Grinding is the first and important processing method.

Advantages of grinding

The particle size reduction, increases the surface area exposed to

enzymes, resulting in better digestion.

Grinding helps mixing of ingredients and prevents segregation

Pelleting can be done only if the feed is ground uniformly

Selectivity of feeds is not possible by the animal and so the nutrient

intake will the optimum

Palatability is improved

Feed intake is increased

Improves digestibility

Improves growth rate

Improves feed efficiency

Consumers like uniformly ground feed

Grinding of some ingredients contributes to ease to handling.

Types of grinding

Coarse - sieve size 3/8, 4 and 8

Medium - sieve size 14 and 28

Fine - sieve size 48 and 100.

305

Types of mills

Hammer mill Impaction

Attrition or Buer mill cutting, crushing and shearing

Roller mill cutting, crushing and shearing

Hammer mill

It is commonly used for particle size reduction of

o Grains
o Oil cakes
o Forages

PELLETED FEED
Pelleted feed

Compressed and moulded feed/feed ingredients formed by extruding

through a die.

Principle

Under high temperature and pressure, feed becomes a dense heavy

mass.When feed mash is conditioned with the help of steam, the feed
306

become plasticied, so that it can be moulded into definite shape when

pressed against a die.

On reduction of moisture due to drying and cooling, feed becomes

pelleted.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF PELLETING

Advantages of pelleting

Reduces wastage.

Improves palatability.

Increases the density of feed: less storage space.

Transportation:- Saves cost on transportation. Eg. Grass can be

transported at 2 tons/lorry. The cost of transportation of grass is
more than the cost of grass.

By pelleting, density is reduced to six times. Hence six times more

fodder can be transported and cost of transporting is also less.

Pelleting is more useful to process the by-products.

Digestibility is increased by pelleting:

o Gelatinization, heat, pressing increases the digestibility .
o It breaks the binding of cellulose and lignin so enzymes act on
cellulose more easily and more cellulose is digested.
o Free cellulose material is more hydrolysed by cellulase than
when it is found with lignin.

More uniform feed: Hence there is no question of segregation.

There is no selection on the part of the animal.

Some waste material can also be incorporated effectively.

There will be sterilization of the feed.

Food passage time is reduced in the animal.

Disadvantages of pelleting

Cost involved is more

Non-availability of machinery and equipment.

INDIGENOUS PELLET FEED PROCESSING PLANT

307

Pellet Binders

Natural : Molasses, fat

Artificial : Bentonite

VISIT TO A DAIRY FARM/SHEEP FARM

Aim

Name of the dairy farm

Location of the farm

Owner of the farm

Distance from nearest town or market

Farm section

Total area of the farm

o Area under fodder cultivation
o Area under roads and buildings
o Area under ponds or lakes etc (if any)
o Unused land available
o Grazing land available to the animals

Type of soil
308

Source of water supply

Crops grown in the farm

o Type of crop Seasonal / Perennial
o Average land under each crop
o Season of sowing and harvesting of each crop
o Yield / acre (crop wise)

Pastures grown
o Kind of pasture Permanent / Temporary

Natural / Cultivated

o Area under each pasture variety

o Irrigation facility Y / N
o Manure application Y / N

Method of conservation of fodder

o Hay Y / N
o Silage Y / N

Method of preservation of grain / feed ingredients

Concentrate mixture used in the farm

o Manufactured by farm / purchased
o Cost per kg
o Ingredient composition

Cattle section

Kind of animals Cattle / buffalo

Breeds maintained in the farm

Total strength of the farm

o Dry animals

Pregnant

Non-pregnant

o Milch animals
o Bulls
o Heifers
o Calves
o Work animals

Average milk yield

o Wet average
o Herd average

Average yield of butter fat / kg milk

Feeding schedule followed in the farm

309

o Time of offering concentrates

o Average quantity of concentrate fed

Pregnant animal

Milch animal

Breeding bull

Growing animal

o Amount of green fodder fed / animal

o Amount of dry fodder fed / animal

If animals are allowed for grazing Y / N

o Duration of grazing
o Types of grasses / pastures available for grazing
o No. of days in a year during which grazing is available

Milk disposal
o Sold to co-operative unions
o Sold to private consumers
o Cost of production of milk / kg
o Sale price of milk / kg

Any other information: Sheep / Goat section

o Kind of animals Sheep / Goats
o Breeds maintained in the farm
o Total strength of the farm

Rams / Bucks

Ewes / Does

Pregnant

Non-pregnant

Lambs / Kids

Male

Female

Feeding schedule followed in the farm

o Grazing / Stall fed
o Time of offering concentrates
o Average quantity of concentrate fed

Pregnant ewes / Does

Breeding Rams / Bucks

Adult sheep / Doe

Lambs / Kids
310

o If stall fed, green fodder fed:dry fodder fed

If animals are allowed for grazing

o Duration of grazing
o Types of grasses / pastures available for grazing
o No. of days in a year during which grazing is available:82

Method of marketing
o Sold on live weight basis
o Whether meat outlets maintained
o Cost of production / kg
o Sale price of mutton / kg
o Sold to middle man or in market place (shandy)
o Particulars of nearby market place (shandy)

Any other information

o To familiarize with different systems of feeding followed in a
dairy farm / Sheep farm. (Note: Students should go round the
farm to gather the information for filling the questionnaire given
below).

311