Critical Theory

Journal of Consumer Research, Inc.
The Critical Imagination: Emancipatory Interests in Consumer Research

Author(s): Jeff B. Murray and Julie L. Ozanne
Source: Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 18, No. 2 (Sep., 1991), pp. 129-144
Published by: The University of Chicago Press
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The
Critical
Interests
Imagination:
in
Consumer
Emancipatory
Research
JEFF B. MURRAY
JULIE L. OZANNE*
Criticaltheory is presented as an interdisciplinaryapproach to seeking knowledge
about consumers. Criticaltheory holds that social problems often result from groups
in society being constrained by social structures and processes that they themselves
construct and maintain. Criticalresearch involves grasping both the intersubjective
understandings of the groups involved and the historical-empirical understanding
of the potentially constraining objective social conditions. Contradictions that are
discovered provide the stimuli for change. Through the process of critique and
dialogue, the critical researcher tries to help people imagine alternative social organizations that facilitate the development of human potential free from constraints.
Socially responsible investing is about selfexpression.. .. It's about extending one's

values and projecting them into the world,
and being able to make choices and see opportunities that are an expression of individual self-choice and awareness. . . . It's
about people having control over their lives.
[SILBY1988]
can be developed to facilitate social awareness and

change (Hirschman 1990).
The purpose of this article is to present a research
program called critical theory. This interdisciplinary
perspective is a systematic critique of social conditions
that aims to help people envision a better society. It
explicitly declares an emancipatory interest; that is, its
aim is to release constraints on human freedom and
potential. Since critical theory does not represent a single or unified approach, it cannot be described with a
single definition (Held 1980; Tar 1977). The term usually refers to the group of researchers that coalesced
around the Frankfurt Institute (Fuhrman and Snizek
1979/1980). Although critical theory has recently attracted attention in consumer research and marketing
(Firat, Dholakia, and Bagozzi 1987; Kilbourne 1987,
1989; Rogers 1987; Uusitalo 1989), no systematic presentation of its ideas exists in the literature.'
Critical theory is most easily introduced by comparing it to existing perspectives. Figure 1 presents a perceptual map of alternative approaches to seeking
knowledge in consumer research. This map positions
alternatives along two continua (Burrell and Morgan
1 an peopleconsumein waysthatexpresstheirsocial
values? Can they imagine a better world and then
enact this world through their individual consumption
activities? Surely this goal is possible. For instance, a
socially conscious investor might divest from firms that
have connections with South Africa and reinvest in
firms that hire minorities. Or a consumer might buy a
company's products, such as Ben and Jerry's ice cream,
that uses its profits to support social causes. An environmentally conscious consumer might reject products
packaged in polyurethane in favor of products packaged
in recyclable materials. Like consumers, consumer researchers have a role to play in making society better
by considering whether a program of consumer research
C
*Jeff B. Murray is assistant professor, Department of Marketing

and Transportation, College of Business Administration, University
of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR 72701. Julie L. Ozanne is assistant
professor, Department of Marketing, R.B. Pamplin College of Business, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg,
VA 24061. Both authors contributed equally to this article. This research was supported in part by the University of Arkansas's Faculty
Fund in Marketing and the R.B. Pamplin College of Business Summer
Research Fund. The authors are grateful for comments made by Anthony T. Cobb, Deborah Evers, Marvin Goldberg, Shelby D. Hunt,
Tom Jensen, Jonathan Johnson, Dave Kurtz, Robert A. Mittelstaedt,
John W. Schouten, Ruth A. Smith, Craig J. Thompson, Carolyn
Tripp, and the anonymous reviewers.
'Critical theory's short history in consumer research and marketing

began with Everett Rogers's fellows address at the 1986 Association
for Consumer Research (ACR) conference in Toronto. This speech
was followed by two other expositions of critical theory: a presentation
by Mark Poster published in the 1987 AMA Winter Educator's Proceedings (as transcribed by Venkatesh) and our special session on
critical theory at the 1989 American Marketing Association Winter
Educator's Conference. There is also a smattering of articles on critical
theory (e.g., Kilbourne 1987, 1989; Uusitalo 1989) and "calls" to
include critical theory in future research (e.g., Belk 1988; Sherry 1991).
We should acknowledge that critical theory, although new to consumer research, is applied in literary, historical, philosophic, and linguistic disciplines.
129
? 1991 by JOURNAL OF CONSUMER RESEARCH, Inc. * Vol. 18 0 September 1991
All rights reserved. 0093-5301/92/1802-0001$2.00

JOURNAL OF CONSUMER RESEARCH
130
FIGURE 1
PERCEPTUALMAP OF APPROACHES TO SEEKING
KNOWLEDGEIN CONSUMER RESEARCH
SUBJECTIVE
PHENOMENOLOGY
ETHNOGRAPHY N
\
HERMENEUTICS
SEMIOTICS
LITERARYCRITICISM1
CONFLICT
ORDER
CRITICALTHEORY
COGNITIVEPSYCHOLOGY
ROLE THEORY
STRUCTURALISM
EXCHANGETHEORY
BEHAVIORISM
OBJECTIVE
1979). The subjective-objective axis focuses on the fundamental assumptions made about the nature of reality.
Extreme subjectivism holds that social reality is constructed on the basis of the perceptions of individuals.
Extreme objectivism assumes that social reality exists
as a concrete objective entity, which is independent of
our perceptions (Burrell and Morgan 1979; Hudson and
Ozanne 1988; Morgan and Smircich 1980). The orderconflict axis focuses on views regarding social change,
which range from a regulation or "order" to a radical
change or "conflict" stance (Dahrendorf 1959; Dawe
1970; Lockwood 1956). The "order" approaches ask
why society tends to hold together rather than fall apart.
The "conflict" approaches ask how human beings may
be emancipated from the structures that limit and repress their development.
Consumer research is presently dominated by objective-order paradigms (cluster 1 in Fig. 1). Despite the
field's ongoing commitment to interdisciplinary research (Monroe 1990), most consumer research adopts
a psychological orientation that focuses on explaining
and predicting existing social behavior (Leong 1989).
Recently, however, some research has begun to emphasize a subjective-order orientation (cluster 2 in Fig.
1). Although this new research clearly enriches the field,
it generally just describes society. Like other current
research, it is not critical or visionary (Sherry 1991).
Critical theory (cluster 3) stresses both the subjective
and objective aspects of social reality but also seeks social change that will improve human life. Given the
important role that consumer research is often expected
to play in the areas of public policy, consumerism, and
societal welfare, a social change orientation is relevant
(Hirschman 1990).
Adopting a conflict orientation (i.e., seeking to free
people from constraining structures) encourages us to
recognize that knowledge is inescapably tied to interests
(Barnes and Mackenzie 1979). The issue becomes not
whether one can be apolitical in research, but rather
what political stance one takes. According to the critical
theorists, the very aim of social science needs to be

questioned. For both positivists and interpretivists
(clusters 1 and 2 in Fig. 1), the use of scientific knowledge is regarded as external to the knowledge itself (Sewart 1978). This means that, after knowledge is produced, it is treated as neutral information that can be
applied in a variety of ways, depending on the interests
of the group applying the information. By separating
the knowledge (facts) from how it is used (interests),
conventional approaches rarely challenge the existing
system; they tend to preserve the status quo. For critical
theorists, on the other hand, who believe that science
is not an activity far removed from practical or moral
action, the connections between theory and application
are of central importance. Critical theory is a political
and moral social science, designed to change society for
the better (Fuhrman 1979).
In a consumer-research context, the output of critical
theory may be useful to academic, public, and private
interests. For the academic constituency, critical theory
provides a new approach that investigates those aspects
of consumer behavior that constrain some social groups
or that generate conflict. Examples include what
Hirschman (1990) calls the "dark side" of consumer
behavior (e.g., drug addiction, credit card abuse, excessive gambling, and prostitution). For the public constituency, critical theory provides a systematic approach
to revealing deception and its consequences. It also has
potential to generate social change strategies that may
prove useful to legislators and consumer-rights organizations. For the private constituency, critical theory
may provide a way to achieve competitive advantage
without contradicting the public interest. For example,
a New York organization called the Council on Economic Priorities sells a pamphlet called "Shopping for
a Better World" (Queenan 1989), a guide that makes
it possible for the consumer to find and support companies with responsible policies. As companies' policies
improve on such issues as the protection of the environment, animal testing, and treatment of women and
minorities, they receive a better rating and potentially
are able to capture a very profitable market segment.
From a critical perspective, this action is significant because it resolves the tension between public and private
interests.
This article is organized into four sections. First, a
brief overview of the history of critical theory is provided. Second, the goals and underlying philosophical
assumptions of critical theory are presented. Third, a
workbench, critical method is offered. Finally, potential
applications of critical theory for academics, public interest groups, and private interest groups are discussed.
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
The dynamic historical context in which critical theory arose has had an impact on the theorists and their
ideas. The Russian revolution that held such promise

131
THE CRITICALIMAGINATION
degenerated into Stalinism, and fascism and nazism

gained powerful footholds in Europe. The critical theorists, who were primarily middle-class, German-Jewish
intellectuals, were forced to flee their homes. Their
forced exile and subsequent isolation in the United
States gave them a common sense of purpose and led
them to construct an approach that was both scientific
and political-a
progressive and positive force in
changing society.
Critical theory developed out of two general periods.2
The first began in 1923 with the founding of the Institute
of Social Research (i.e., the Frankfurt School) and ended
50 years later with the death of Max Horkheimer. The
second period began with Jiirgen Habermas's remolding
of critical theory and continues to the present.
The Frankfurt School

The roots of critical theory lie in reinterpretations of
Marx the philosopher in the early 1920s by scholars
such as Georg Luk'acs, Karl Korsch, Antonio Gramsci,
and Karl Mannheim. Such scholars were interested in
recovering the original ideas of Marx before his ideas
were corrupted by attempts to adapt their meaning to
political circumstances (Feenberg 1981). These researchers were not members of the Institute of Social
Research, but their work influenced the development
of what would later be called critical theory. The Institute of Social Research was officially created in 1923.
Founded as an autonomous research organization, it
was formally affiliated with the University of Frankfurt.
Under the guidance of its first significant director, Carl
Griinberg, the institute remained officially independent
of all party affiliations (Held 1980), a circumstance that
contributed much to its achievements (Jay 1973).
In 1931, Horkheimer replaced Griinberg as director
of the institute (Tar 1977). Horkheimer, along with
Theodor Adorno, Leo Lowenthal, Herbert Marcuse,
and Friedrich Pollack, approached political economy
more philosophically. Specifically, they became united
in their commitment to explore the relationship between knowledge (theory) and action (practice). At
about the same time, four psychoanalysts became
members of the institute: Eric Fromm, Karl Landauer,
Heinrich Meng, and Frieda Fromm-Reichmann (Jay
1973). The psychoanalysts added an emphasis on reflection, dialogue, and emancipation (see the Appendix), concepts that eventually became useful in forming
critical theory's methodology. By exploring the relation
between the individual and society, they helped to link
the economic base and cultural superstructure. Al2A more expanded version of critical theory's history is available,
on request, from J.B.M. For detailed historical analyses of the Frank-
furt School see Lukacs,Marx, and the Sourcesof CriticalTheoryby

Andrew Feenberg (1981); The Dialectical Imagination by Martin Jay
(1973); Origin and Significanceof the FrankfurtSchool by Philip

Slater ( 1977); and The Frankfurt School by Zoltan Tar ( 1977).
though each of these individuals had a unique research

agenda, under Horkheimer's direction, general themes
and a body of work arose that were eventually referred
to as critical theory. The following themes represent a
summary of their works.
1. Research should focus on both a critique (see
the Appendix) of society (i.e., the structure of
authority and the emergence of mass culture;
Jay 1973) and the ways in which society is known
(i.e., positivism and interpretivism).
2. Criticism of science and society should be interdisciplinary. The boundaries between the social sciences fragment scholars and inevitably
blur their understanding of interconnections. A
combination of philosophical, structural, and
psychological perspectives is required to understand authority, mass culture, and science.
3. Orthodox Marxism should be rejected (Held
1980; Jay 1973; Tar 1977). Changes in social
context (i.e., the failure of Marxism in the Soviet
Union, the separation of ownership and control
of production, the emergence of the professional
managerial class, and the ability of capitalism
to absorb crises) had rendered this perspective
obsolete. The proletariat would not be the agent
of change. New mechanisms had to be found for
connecting theory to practice (praxis; see the
Appendix).
4. Research should emphasize the societal totality
(see the Appendix) (Held 1980; Sewart 1978). If
science is to participate in the process of social
development, facts cannot be separated from
values. The totality includes the social ends and
technical means.
5. Genuine knowledge (products of science) is the
most effective instrument for the emancipation
of humans (Comstock 1982). Science should focus on improving the quality of life for repressed
social groups. (Critical theorists did not agree
on how to defend the normative basis of critical
theory.)
As the Frankfurt School established its research program under Horkheimer, the Nazis assumed power and
the critical theorists were forced to flee Germany (Held
1980; Jay 1973; Tar 1977). By 1934, the group had
found a home at Columbia University. Feeling alienated
in the hub of the capitalist world, the members retreated
into their work. The next 16 years of cultural isolation
were their most productive.3
3See Jay (1973, pp. 355-370) for a comprehensive bibliography of
the institute's publications (note that this list is incomplete for Marcuse and Habermas). See Wolff and Moore (1967, pp. 427-433) for
a complete bibliography of Marcuse's works until 1967. See McCarthy
(1978, pp. 442-464) for a complete bibliography of Habermas's works
until 1981.

132
Their work continued until 1950 when the institute

was invited to return to Frankfurt. Returning as celebrities, Horkheimer and Adorno disseminated the
group's ideas to Europe. Marcuse and Fromm remained
in America and eventually became well known to
American social scientists. With the deaths of Adorno
in 1969 and Horkheimer in 1973, the Frankfurt School
ended its 50-year history. Critical theory had been so
dependent on these two men that, were it not for Adorno's student, Jiirgen Habermas, it, too, might have
passed from the scene.
Habermas
Although Habermas departed from the Frankfurt
School, his agenda can be considered an extension of
its work rather than a turn in a completely new direction
(Held 1980). Habermas focused on the two central
problems that exist in the work of the Frankfurt School.
First, how can theory be connected to political practice?
Second, how can we create knowledge that is historically
bound yet, at the same time, have an ahistorical (universal) basis for critique? The first question arose because the Frankfurt School rejected the proletariat as
the agent of revolutionary change. Consequently, they
were left with a theory that said what was wrong but
did not say who could make it better. Habermas attempted to reinvigorate critical theory politically by
giving it a new foundation in communication theory.
In providing a new foundation, he also helped address
the second problem of the Frankfurt School by providing a normative basis for critical theory (Dickens 1983;
Moon 1983; Roderick 1986).
Neither positivism nor interpretivism provided Habermas with a satisfactory conception of the relationship
between theory and practice. Habermas held that the
relationship between theory and practice is instrumental
in a positivist social science; that is, causal relationships
are discovered between variables and this information
is then used to manipulate and control the social world.
Tools (means) are provided, but no direction (end) is
given. In an interpretive social science, the relationship
between theory and practice is clarification; that is, the
forms of life that underlie behavior (e.g., social norms,
concepts, values, and beliefs) are discovered through
communication with informants, but this understanding is purely descriptive and provides no basis on which
to evaluate different forms of life and then advocate
one form rather than another.
Critical theory, Habermas claims, has an interest in
knowledge that will enable humans to achieve subsistence, self-determination, and autonomy. In other
words, humans have an emancipatory interest in
knowledge that enhances the possibility of freedom
(Habermas 1971; Sewart 1978). Therefore, in a critical
social science, the relationship between theory and
practice is a "critical" one; theory unmasks social contradictions, revealing how the social structure facilitates
and maintains these distortions. Through dialogue with

the social actor, the critical theorist seeks awareness of
alternative social structures so theory can be a force of
change in society. Critique, however, can only arise in
communicative action. It is in the domain of communication through the identification of the ideal
speech situation (see the Appendix) that Habermas attempts to defend the normative basis of critical theory
through the development of a theory of communicative
competence. Habermas continues to develop his theory,
but since this theory is instrumental to achieve the more
general goal of improving the quality of life, the details
will be discussed in the section on goals.
THE NORMATIVE STRUCTURE

OF CRITICAL THEORY
In this section, critical theory's guiding assumptions
and goals are discussed. Although the version of critical
theory that follows borrows heavily from the Frankfurt
School and Habermas, it is not intended to capture any
single critical theorist and can best be viewed as a generalization across a number of theorists (e.g., Adorno
1973; Habermas 197 1; Horkheimer 1972; Marcuse
1964).
First, ontological assumptions are discussed: the nature of reality and of social beings. Second, terminal
and instrumental goals are presented. Finally, epistemological assumptions are outlined, including the nature of the knowledge generated, the view of causality,
and the relationship the researcher has with the social
actor. Table 1 provides a summary of the assumptions
and goals of critical theory. The goals and assumptions
of positivism and interpretivism are also provided as a
point of reference.4
Ontological Assumptions
Nature of Reality. Critical theorists question the
extreme positions of interpretivists and positivists. For
example, because they believe that all knowledge about
the world is subjective, interpretivists overlook the material dimensions of reality; that is, once created, social
reality can influence individuals. Conversely, because
they believe that a single, objective reality exists, positivists forget that our social world is a historical product, that we are the architects of our social world.
According to Jay ( 1973, p. 54), critical theory focuses
on the "force field" or constant interplay between subject (meanings) and object (social structures). Thus,
reality is socially produced through social interaction.
4The term positivism is commonly used to refer to approaches that
strive to apply naturalscience methods to social phenomena(e.g.,

behaviorism,cognitive psychology,and systemstheory).Positivism
does not referto the logical positivism of the Vienna Circle. Interpretivismrefersto any approachthat stressesa socially constructed
realitythat must be interpreted(e.g., semiotics, hermeneutics,and
ethnomethodology).

133
TABLE1
A SUMMARY OF POSITIVISM, INTERPRETIVISM, AND CRITICAL THEORY

Positivism
Ontological assumptions:
Nature of reality
Interpretivism
Objective, tangible;
Single, ahistorical;
Fragmentable;
Divisible
Deterministic;
Reactive
Socially constructed;
Multiple;
Holistic;
Contextual
Voluntaristic;
Proactive;
"Explanation" via subsumption

under general laws, prediction
"Understanding"
interpretation
View of causality
Nomothetic;
Time-free;
Context-independent;
Value-free
Real causes exist
Idiographic;
Time-bound;
Context-dependent;
Value-laden
Multiple, simultaneous
Research relationship
Metaphor
Dualism, separation
Detached observer
Interactive, cooperative
Translator
Nature of social beings
Axiological assumptions:
Overriding goal
Epistemological assumptions:
Knowledge generated
Critical theory
"Force-field" between subject

and object
Dynamic;
Historical totality
Suspend judgment;
Emphasize human potential
via
"Emancipation" via social

organization that facilitates
reason, justice, and freedom
shaping
Forward-looking;
Imaginative;
Critical/unmasking;
Practical
Reflection, exposure of
constraints through
dialogue, reconstruction,
reflection, ....
Continuing dialogue
Liberator
NOTE.-This table was adapted from Hudson and Ozanne (1988, p. 509).
However, once constructed, it "acts back." Critical

theorists specifically point to and study the tensions or
inconsistencies between subject and object. These inconsistencies or contradictions are the source of change.
At any moment, contradictions provide the impetus
and direction for creating a better society: "The real
field of knowledge is not the given fact about things as
they are, but the critical evaluation of them as a prelude
to passing beyond their given form" (Marcuse 1969,
p. 145).
To elaborate, over time objective conditions of action
tend to contradict the intersubjective meanings attributed to them (Comstock 1982). In other words, reality
is enacted or socially produced, but in time these social
structures become stubborn, resist social change, and
thus become constraining. Unless reflection occurs, the
meanings people attribute to social structures change
more slowly than the structures themselves. Thus, reality-the meanings given to social structure and the objective structures-is inherently contradictory. For example, many consumers in the United States believe a
democratic ideology exists that allows free speech, individualism, and pluralism. As a consequence, they believe they exercise free will in their consumption
choices. However, the people who control mass production benefit by producing homogeneous products,
so the production technology constrains choices. The
interpretive understanding of the subject (that we freely
consume) is contradicted by the concrete social reality
(mass consumption). These contradictions or inconsis-
tencies between subject and object are salient for the

critical theorist. If people become aware that their ideas
about reality are not congruent with reality, this awareness may serve as an impetus for rational social development and change.
Nature of Social Beings. From a critical perspective,
humans are neither completely reactive (extreme positivism) nor completely proactive (extreme interpretivism). Social actors are able to affect their social world,
but this influence is mediated through the historical totality. To rephrase, because past social creations constrain us, we are not free-wheeling creators of our future.
Critical theorists nevertheless assume that humans have
the potential to become anything they wish since we
can never know the fundamental nature of humans.
Thus, when critical theorists reflect on the nature of
social beings, human potential becomes the measure of
all things (Fuhrman 1979).
Although reality can be considered a human product,
it is often created "behind the backs and against the
wills" of some individuals (Jay 1973, p. 49). People who
own and manage technology, finance capital, and the
communication and transportation infrastructure generally have more of an impact on the creation of reality
than does the average person. Furthermore, the more
powerful sectors may often reproduce society in a way
that solidifies their dominance. For example, about 60
percent of children's television commercials are for
food-related products and 70 percent of these ads are

134
for foods with high sugar content. Experimental studies

suggest that exposure to ads for either wholesome foods
or sugared foods influenced the children's choices toward those respective foods. But, healthy foods are
rarely advertised during children's television hours
(Goldberg and Gorn 1983). The manufacturers of sugared foods have created a social production process that
serves their interests but not the interests of parents and
children. Similarly, while the U.S. government bans
some harmful products to protect its citizens, it does
not ban manufacturers from dumping these products
overseas (e.g., Dalkon Shield, Depo-Provera, Tristreated children's garments, and chemical pesticides
such as leptophos; Dowie 1979). Although dumping
these products on other countries is in the interest of
the companies (i.e., profit maximization) and the
United States, it is not in the interests of unsuspecting
foreign consumers. This focus on interests is important
because critical theorists insist on the political nature
of science and society.
Axiological Assumptions
Terminal Goals. Consistent with its ontology, critical theory begins with two value judgments (Marcuse
1964, p. X). First, human life is worth living. Second,
human life can be improved. According to Jay (1973),
critical theory is one more attempt to bring the Greek
political experience (democratic free speech) together
with Greek philosophy (reason). Thus, the terminal goal
for critical theory is a form of social organization that
makes possible freedom, justice, and reason.
Instrumental Goals. Habermas's theory of communicative competence suggests those goals that may
be instrumental in achieving the terminal goal. His theory addresses discourse (through an analysis of speech
acts) as well as the normative structure of speech that
allows individuals to communicate. Habermas states
that a rational consensus can be reached only if there
is a "symmetrical distribution of chances to select and
employ speech acts" (McCarthy 1978, p. 306). General
symmetry (see the Appendix) refers to a situation in
which all people have an equal opportunity to engage
in discourse unconstrained by authority, tradition, or
dogma. This condition of symmetrical free speech is
Habermas's ideal speech situation. In addition to the
ideal speech situation, all participants must have the
same chance to employ constantive, regulative, and
representative speech acts (see the Appendix). This requirement ensures that no assertion will be exempt from
critique, no single participant will gain privilege, and
the participants will be truthful so that their inner natures will become transparent to others.
Habermas's identification of an ideal speech situation
provides the grounds for the critique of distorted communication (see the Appendix). Distorted communication reproduces those belief systems that "could not
be validated if subjected to rational discourse" (Schroyer
1973, p. 163). Because of unacknowledged social forces

in the self-formation process, humans may not be cognizant of distorted communication. Criticism reconstructs a communicative competence that, in turn, leads
to a rational consensus. Thus, the ideal speech situation
anticipates an ideal social structure that makes possible
freedom, justice, and reason. Like any other axiology,
its instrumental utility lies in its ability to serve as a
guide or as a critical standard from which actual discourse can be evaluated.
One example is the Calvert Social Investment Fund
that provides investment opportunities that are consistent with socially responsible values. Wayne Silby,
founder of Calvert, suggests that "you can be proactive
and stand up for what you believe, and take care of
your family at the same time" (Silby 1988, p. 28). To
advise on investment decisions, the Social Investment
Fund has created an advisory council composed of 11
people who categorize companies as socially responsible
or irresponsible. These people represent a variety of external constituencies and progressive social movements
(e.g., environmental groups, education, health, labor,
and so on). Thus, Calvert gives voice not only to the
people who control capital but also to those who will
be affected by the investments. This example approximates an ideal speech situation; if all groups have an
equal opportunity to present their interests and if all
participants present their cases openly and honestly, a
rational consensus regarding the social impact of investment strategies can be reached. Since all participants
have equal power, the social organization of communication prevents decisions made on the basis of greed,
tradition, dogma, authority, or coercion. Although the
practical problems of striving toward the ideal speech
situation are immense, Habermas's theory of communicative competence serves as a critical standard.
Epistemological Assumptions
Knowledge Generated. The kind of knowledge that
is legitimized as "scientific" varies a great deal depending on the approach. Positivists, who focus on revealing
underlying regularities, generally do not question social
reality. Social structures are reified (see the Appendix);
they are treated as objects, independent of the social
actors who created them. People are alienated from their
creations and are unable to see themselves as actors
capable of changing those social structures that make
up society. Interpretivists also tend to reinforce the status quo. They take a nonjudgmental stance, which assumes that all groups and cultures are equal. Consequently, they offer no way to envision a better society
(Fuhrman and Snizek 1979/1980). Over time, both of
these approaches to social science generate knowledge
that becomes an integral part of the existing society
instead of a means of critique and renewal (Landmann
1977).
Critical theorists, on the other hand, first form an
understanding of the present historical formation, then

135
strive to move beyond this understanding to reveal avenues of change that are imminent in the present order.
Changes will be possible if contradictions are revealed
between the interpretive understanding of the subject
and the historical-empirical conditions of the object
(Comstock 1982). In this way, the knowledge generated
by critical theory is forward-looking (recall Marcuse's
second value judgment, that human life can be improved), imaginative (according to Adorno, one must
not only see the old in the new, but also the new in the
old), critical and unmasking (Habermas suggests that
ways of communicating or social structures that contradict general symmetry need to be revealed), and
practical (according to Horkheimer, critical theory mediates theory and practice).
An excellent example of "critical" knowledge is
Friere's ( 1986) work on teaching illiterate adults in Latin
America. According to Friere, a historical-empirical
understanding of the educational system reveals a
"banking concept" of education: an "all-knowing"
teacher deposits knowledge into the students who are
empty vessels. Those students who meekly accept the
knowledge are the "better" students. Such an educational system is oppressive because it does not teach
students to inquire actively about the world. It produces
a passive population that serves the interests of the existing social order. Here, the status quo needs individuals to accept and adapt to the existing conditions rather
than to change the oppressive conditions. Within this
system, students are blind to the educational interest
and inaccurately see themselves as acting freely.
Friere (1986) suggests that education should be a
"problem-posing" activity that can overcome the
teacher-student contradiction by making both individuals simultaneously teacher and student. Only then can
the individuals see themselves as conscious beings able
to act and change the world. "'Inproblem-posing education, men develop their power to perceive critically
the way they exist in the world with which and in which
they find themselves; they come to see the world not as
a static reality, but as a reality in process, in transformation" (pp. 70-71). Social actors transform their
world first through reflection and then through action.
Thus, Friere's problem-posing approach is critical, forward-looking, imaginative, and practical.
View of Causality. Social actors are influenced by
constraining social structures; however, this influence
is mediated by the actors' meanings and understandings.
Prediction may be possible if these meanings are stable
(Comstock 1982). This view of causality is motivated
by and illustrates critical theory's ontology. Humans
are confined by social structures, which are real, independent, and measurable (determinism). At the same
time, they are the architects of these social structures
(voluntarism). Furthermore, these causes and effects can
only be understood relative to the historical totality
from which they emerged. A critical theorist might
identify social pressure as the immediate cause of an

individual's giving up cigarettes, for example. The decision to stop smoking must be understood as a response
not only to the individual's own perceptions and motivations, but also to general trends in society toward
health consciousness, the demarketing of cigarettes, the
publication of new medical information, and so on.
It is the inconsistencies between subjective understandings and historical-empirical conditions that directly underlie the critical theorists' view of causality.
This view is rooted in their theory of social change.
They propose that through reflection, participants are
able to identify constraints on general symmetry. These
"constraints" are in the forms of distorted communication, contradictions between meanings and social
conditions, contradictions between values and motives
of different stakeholder groups, authority, dogma, tradition, bounded rationality, myth, rules, and so on.
Dialogue or critical discourse exposes constraints to
those groups who are constrained. In time, this exposure
may lead to social tension and reform. This reconstruction permits a nearer approximation to the ideal speech
situation. The new organization will facilitate critique
since discourse is freer and more open. Reflection must,
nevertheless, remain an ongoing process.
For example, the first point of the marketing code of
ethics states, "I acknowledge my accountability to society as a whole as well as to the organization for which
I work." On reflection, it becomes clear that a contradiction may exist between economic and social efficiency. Clearly, under some circumstances this code is
not applied (e.g., in the marketing of cigarettes).
Through dialogue, the contradictions may be exposed
and new forms of social organization may develop. In
fact, it is this very tension between the well-being of the
consumer and society and that of the manager and organization that has motivated some consumer researchers to distance themselves from the interests of
marketers and create consumer research as a separate
field (see, e.g., Belk 1986).
Research Relationship. From a critical perspective,
one cannot separate the social organization of knowledge production from the knowledge itself. Scientists
are involved in the creation of social conditions; thus,
their research is influenced by political action and vice
versa (Comstock 1982; Sewart 1978). The researcher
cannot be divided into two beings: a nonpolitical, scientific theorizer and a political, philosophical participator (who votes in political elections, speaks out at
city council meetings, works on policy in academic
committees, etc.).
Critical theory holds that, because scientific theorizing is inseparable from political action, the researcher
should take into account who benefits from the research.
Research should be emancipatory, designed not only
to reveal empirical and interpretive understanding but
also to free social actors who are constrained. Re-

136
TABLE2
APPROACHES TO RESEARCH
THREE METHODOLOGICAL
Research process
Initialstage
Data collection stage:

General structure
Standard datagathering techniques

Sample evaluative criteria
Positivism
Interpretivism
Criticaltheory
Review of existing literature to

identify a gap
Development of an a priori
conceptual framework
Identificationof a general
phenomenon of interest
Phenomenon's boundaries are
left open and undelineated
Identificationof a concrete
practical problem
Identificationof all groups
involved with this problem
Empiricallytestable hypotheses
are derived from the
conceptual framework
"Bracketing" of prior
conceptions
Hypotheses are tested in a fixed

design
Immersion in a natural setting for

an extended time period
Data are gathered
Design, questions, and sampling

strategies evolve as
phenomenon is studied
Strict adherence to scientific

protocol
Reliance on the human

instrument for generating
"thick description"
Statistical analysis of data to

yield an explanation
Content or textual analysis to

yield an interpretation
The interpretive step:

construction of an
intersubjective
understanding of each group
The historical-empiricalstep:
examination of the historical
development of any relevant
social structures or
processes
The dialectical step: search for
contradictions between the
intersubjective
understanding and the
objective social conditions
The awareness step: discuss
alternative ways of seeing
their situation with the
repressed group(s)
The praxis step: participate in a
theoretically grounded
program of action to change
social conditions
Laboratory experiment
Large-scale survey
Participant observation
In-depth interviews
In-depth interviews
Historical analysis
Validityand reliability
Length of immersion and

creation of thick description
Improvement of quality of life
searchers should move beyond mere observation of

subjects or participation in the informants' social reality
and attempt through dialogue to reveal constraints,
thereby motivating informants to engage in conscious
political action (praxis). Simply put, the purpose of
critical research is to make life better for the social actor.
Thus, the relationship between the critical theorist and
the social actor is one that is based on a continuing
dialogue or critical discourse (Comstock 1982; Jay 1973;
McCarthy 1978). Metaphorically, the critical theorist
is a "liberator" seeking through dialogue to make social
actors aware of oppressive structures, a first step on the
road to social change.
In the next section, a workbench methodology is presented for critical theory. On the basis of aforementioned goals and assumptions, a research method is
proposed that seeks to improve human life.
A METHOD FOR CRITICAL

CONSUMER RESEARCH
In this section, one possible approach to critical research is suggested. In Table 2, this approach is pre-
sented and contrasted with positivist and interpretivist

approaches. (For a more thorough discussion of the
conventional approaches in Table 2, see Bruyn 1966;
Calder, Phillips, and Tybout 1981; Geertz 1973;
Hirschman 1986, 1989; Hudson and Ozanne 1988;
Hunt 1983; Keat and Urry 1975; Kerlinger 1973; Lincoln and Guba 1985.) Since a critical research method
is new in marketing, we will discuss this method in detail
and provide a concrete example. The discussion of the
critical research process is organized into three stages:
the initial stage, the data collection stage, and the evaluation stage.
Initial Stage
Critical research explores concrete, practical problems in everyday life (e.g., recycling of waste, dumping
of dangerous products in Third World countries, advertising to children, etc.). It is the ongoing, daily struggles of real men and women that interests the critical
researcher, not abstraction. In the initial stage of research, a practical problem is selected, then all groups
and individuals who are affected by the circumstances
surrounding the problem are identified.

137
One example of the selection of a practical problem

is the safety of minivans. A number of groups are involved in this problem: potential and actual consumers,
foreign and domestic automotive manufacturers, and
the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration
(NHTSA).
Data Collection Stage

Data collection in critical research is broken down
into five steps (see Table 2). This data-gathering approach builds on and extends the work of Comstock
(1982).
The Interpretive Step. From a critical perspective,
social problems result from contradictory interests and
differences in power. This situation leads to social
structures and processes that are constraining to some
groups and beneficial to others. The first step in a critical
research process is to develop an interpretive understanding of each stakeholder's worldview since people's
behavior can only be understood in light of their specific
interests. This understanding of individual and shared
meaning is developed through dialogue between the researcher and the social actors. Researchers are successful
to the extent that they come to see and talk about the
world as the social actors do. Their understanding arises
within and is tied to the concrete, social, historical context. Therefore, it is appropriate to have interviews and
dialogue with the individuals and groups in the natural
setting. By grasping the social actors' view of the world
(i.e., their motives, perceptions, interests, and intentions), the researcher hopes to understand social action.
In many ways, this understanding is similar to the understanding interpretivists seek; however, the critical
researcher regards understanding as just the first step
toward identifying opportunities for change and social
action.
In studying the safety of minivans, the researcher
would develop an intersubjective understanding of each
relevant group. Consumers should be interviewed to
find out why they want a minivan, what are their perceptions of minivans, what are their safety considerations, and how the vehicle would be used. Representatives of the manufacturers should be interviewed
regarding their business objectives, their view of the
consumers' needs and wants, their rationale for excluding certain safety features, and their plans for future
models. The governmental group (NHTSA) should also
be interviewed to find out its safety criteria, its classification of minivans as multipurpose vehicles, and its
view of consumers and the automotive industry.
The Historical-Empirical Step. Social reality includes not only the intersubjective understandings of
the social actors (i.e., the subject) but also the material
forces that may constrain social action (i.e., the object).
Thus, the second step in the critical research process is
to grasp the historical-empirical development of any
relevant social structures and processes that have determined or constrained the intersubjective understandings. Past empirical studies are reviewed and new
empirical studies may be conducted to grasp the social
and historical construction of existing conditions. In
other words, an attempt is made to understand the concrete context in which the ideas of social actors have
developed. It is only when social actors see that their
own social conditions were constructed in the past that
they are able to realize that they create their own future
structures. This realization is an essential step toward
freedom and change.
To grasp the concrete, material, sociohistorical conditions regarding minivan safety, the researcher should
review all empirical studies done by the automotive industry, the NHTSA, consultants, academics, and independent organizations such as Common Cause. The
researcher should also construct a historical record of
automotive safety standards. Care should be taken to
note any underlying interests that may have shaped
these constructions. For example, studying the genesis
and evolution of the NHTSA, the researcher might examine the interests of any external groups who were or
are now involved with the agency. The researcher might
consult automotive manufacturers' literature or advertising for the minivan and all public statements by the
NHTSA and automotive industry representatives. In
doing this, the researcher tries to grasp the socially constructed reality that exists separately from and influences the perceptions of the social actors. Once the social actors themselves understand the objective social
conditions, they may be able to change them.
The Dialectical Step. In step three, the output from
the previous two steps is combined into a single analysis.
By comparing the social actors' intersubjective understanding to the historical-empirical conditions, the researcher looks for inconsistencies or contradictions that
may have arisen because intersubjective understandings
evolve slowly and sometimes become inconsistent with
objective social conditions. By taking a critical, dialectical (see the Appendix) approach, the researcher attempts to understand the inconsistencies between the
objective social conditions and the intersubjective
meanings. Here, it is the difference between the subject
and object that is of interest. The revealed contradictions are elaborated, and any group that is constrained
by the contradiction is identified.
Returning to the minivan example, interviews with
consumers might reveal that they buy a minivan such
as the popular Chrysler Dodge Caravan because it is a
convenient and safe family car. The perception of safety
might be reinforced by Chrysler's advertising that
stresses safety (i.e., air bags and antilock brakes), even
though minivans lack the standard safety features required by law for all passenger vehicles. The historicalempirical research would reveal that the NHTSA has
allowed manufacturers to classify minivans as multi-

138
purpose vehicles. Automotive manufacturers have

stated publicly that this classification allows the manufacturer to produce vans with lower emissions standards, but lower emissions standards need not entail
lower safety standards. Clearly, the government is looking out for the interests of the manufacturer rather than
those of the consumer, its principal constituency (Consumer Reports 1990). Consequently, consumers buy
vehicles that they incorrectly believe to be safe.
The Awareness Step. In step four, the critical researcher hopes to engage the social actors in dialogue
to help them see their current situation differently, open
up alternative ways of acting, and initiate programs of
action. Although the researcher can reveal alternative
paths, the social actors must freely chart their own
course. While researchers can foster awareness in a variety of ways, an obvious approach is through some type
of educational program (using dialogue). However,
other strategies could prove equally, if not more, effective in making people aware and willing to get involved:
essays, plays, novels, movies, and satires (e.g., Doonesbury), to name a few. In the minivan example, researchers might achieve awareness through news releases to various media. By presenting the contradiction
publicly, the researcher strives to generate dialogue. Or,
the researcher could contact and encourage consumer
activists to help educate consumers about the poor
safety level of minivans.
The Praxis Step. As a final step in the research process, the researcher participates in a theoretically
grounded program of action that is designed to change
social conditions and create a better society. For a critical theorist, application is the ultimate test of a proposition. Having identified a contradiction, the theorist
must envision new unconstraining social conditions and
try to bring them into existence through political action.
In this case, the theorist might rally public support for
changing the NHTSA classification of minivans.
Evaluation
All research is evaluated on the basis of criteria that
are determined by the approach used (see Table 2), so
critical consumer research must be evaluated by its own
criteria. In the initial stage of research, the problems
must be evaluated as to whether they are concrete and
practical and of interest to real people. For each of the
five steps in the data collection process, evaluative criteria also exist (see Exhibit 1). In the interpretive step,
the researcher must form an understanding based on
the perceptions of all the people involved. During this
stage, the researcher may use evaluative criteria appropriate for interpretive research, such as those proposed
by Hudson and Ozanne ( 1988, p. 5 15) and McCracken
(1988, p. 50). In the historical-empirical step, the theorist must understand how social conditions are historically grounded. Here, if methods such as surveys
are used, then traditional evaluative criteria such as validity and reliability could be considered. In the dialectical step, the researcher must identify all contradictions
as well as all injured parties. In the awareness step, the
researcher must engage the social actor in dialogue to
achieve an understanding of existing social conditions.
Finally, in the praxis step, the researcher considers
whether life has improved for constrained social groups.
Quality empirical work is a penultimate goal that is
necessary but not sufficient to reach the ultimate goal
of making society better.
APPLICATIONS TO CONSUMER
RESEARCH
Because critical theory focuses primarily on bringing
about social change, it is an applied, practical science.
It is not, however, applied in the same way as positivism
and interpretivism; application is much more integral
to critical theory. Since praxis is the ultimate test of a
proposition, application is an essential part of the research method. In the case of critical theory, it is the
scientist, not the practitioner, who first decides how his/
her research will be used. All applications focus on underlying interests, specifically the conflict resulting from
contradictory interests. Since researchers cannot produce neutral knowledge, all applications should explicitly reveal who benefits from the social construction of
contradictory interests. Finally, the scientist assumes
the perspective of those groups who do not benefit from
contradictory interests because critical theory is an
emancipatory science aimed at improving life for those
who are constrained.
Although all applications in critical theory share these
similarities, critical theory has different uses depending
on the constituency. Following the AMA Task Force
( 1988), we propose that three general constituencies can
benefit from critical theory and its methodology: academic constituents, public interest constituents, and
private interest constituents.
Academic Constituents
The academic constituency takes a leadership role in
defining what is known in consumer research (AMA
Task Force 1988). Its primary function is to produce
and disseminate new knowledge. Since critical knowledge entails praxis, it is best disseminated through a
critical problem-solving approach to teaching, such as
the one used by Friere ( 1986). Such an approach would
empower students while training them in an applied
field such as consumer research. In producing new
knowledge, critical methodology systematically focuses
on some form of conflict between groups (e.g., alcohol
and drug consumption, advertising to children, consumer education, deceptive advertising, materialism,
older and low-income consumers, and public/not-forprofit marketing, to name a few). This conflict orien-

139
1
EXHIBIT
EVALUATIVECRITERIAFOR EACH DATA COLLECTIONSTEP
Evaluative criteria
Data collection step

1. Interpretivestep
Were all relevant social groups identified?

Did the researcher's understanding evolve as more was learned?
Did the researcher see the situation in the same way as the social actors (using their language and concepts)?
Is the understanding based on the meanings and values of the people who are involved?
Are the intersubjective understandings grounded historically?
Did the researcher employ a dialogical, hermeneutical method?
Is the account coherent and complete?
2. Historical-empiricalstep
Are all relevant social processes and structures identified?

Have all relevant empirical studies been examined? Were new studies initiated to fill in any gaps?
Is the understanding of the social conditions historically grounded?
Has the analysis focused on the historical totality?
Is the social constructedness of reality transparent?
3. Dialectical step
Do we understand the dynamic relationship between the social conditions and the intersubjective
understandings?
Are the interests of the various groups known?
Are all contradictions and internal inconsistencies identified?
Are the intersubjective understandings linked to the social conditions that maintain them?
Are the injured groups identified?
4. Awareness step
Do the social actors see their current situation accurately?

Are social actors aware of unrecognized social constraints and do they see how the conditions came to exist?
Is awareness achieved through dialogue?
Are the social actors involved?
Are new alternative courses of action presented?
Do social actors see themselves as capable of positive action?
Do the social actors choose their course of action?
5. Praxis step
Has the contradiction been resolved?

Are the participants' subjective images formed into objective structures?
Are social conditions changed to be less constraining?
Is the political action effective? Is life made better?
Is some ongoing program initiated to continue the critical process?
tation is a new way to look at phenomena. It can reveal,

for instance, that certain types of consumption (e.g.,
fanatic, obsessive-compulsive, commodity fetish, and
deep involvement) may result from alienation or anomie. These types of consumption may be a means of
coping with or withdrawing from a conflictual society.
Finally, given the varied interests in consumer research, the academic community could benefit from
critique by a free-floating critical intelligentsia (Mannheim 1936). That is, as a field, we could benefit from a
group unattached to external constituencies who would
offer critiques of those groups that control or influence
consumption behavior. At present, this role is generally
filled by people outside of consumer research, such as
by people like Stuart Ewen, the author of Captains of
Consciousness (1976). Widely read in sociology programs, this book presents a critical analysis of advertising and the social roots of the consumer culture. The
fact that this book is unknown to most students of consumer behavior is evidence that consumer research lacks
a critical component. As Ewen points out, marketing
strategies often lead to distorted communication and
the frustration of human potential. If critical theory
were more widely used by consumer researchers, outsiders would not have to critique our field.
Public Interest Constituents

The public interest constituency includes those public
policy makers, special interest groups, and consumers
who are concerned about the general well-being of society. An important interest of these constituents is to
expose the social dysfunctions of marketing strategies
in order to motivate regulation and change. Critical research methodology can obviously facilitate the
achievement of these goals.
A public interest group might implement the fivestep research process as follows. They would first develop an interpretive understanding since many issues
of social dysfunction depend on the perceptions of consumers. For instance, the Federal Trade Commission
considers practices deceptive if consumers are misled
(Cohen 1989). To show that there is a problem with
deceptive labeling or unfair competition, the public interest group must show that the consumer was deceived
by distorted information disseminated by the company.

140
The public constituents must systematically develop a

subjective understanding of the consumer to demonstrate that the consumer believes in a nonexistent
reality.
In step two, the public interest group needs to support
objective product claims with historical-empirical substantiation. For the public constituents to be successful,
it is essential that they systematically explore, discover,
and present information on the objective reality. Product claims of health benefits might be supported by
controlled laboratory studies, for instance.
In step three, the dialectical step, public constituents
could determine the degree of distortion by examining
the distance between the subject (the intersubjective
understanding) and the object (the historical-empirical
conditions). They should also study the group that is
benefiting from this divergence so as to elucidate their
motives. If the contradiction between subjective and
objective realities was socially constructed by the company (e.g., the marketing strategy is based on distorted
communication) and if this contradiction has had a
coercive influence (e.g., consumers were induced to
purchase goods and services that they would not normally purchase), then the company could be held liable.
Of course the company could also use critical methodology in preparing their defense. Perhaps they can
demonstrate that no contradiction exists, that the contradiction was not produced by their actions, or that
the contradiction is not coercive. If the contradiction
existed before the company began its marketing strategy, for instance, this specific corporation should probably not be held accountable.
In taking the awareness step, these constituents could
disseminate to legislators information on the coercive
influence of the contradiction and on the company's
role in producing it. Praxis, in this context, would take
the form of legislation or some other action that would
resolve the contradiction.
Private Interest Constituents

The private interest constituency includes practitioners, executives, and marketers. Traditionally, the role
of these people is to bring goods and services to the
market in such a way that customers are satisfied and
organizations achieve their objectives (AMA Task Force
1988). Unfortunately, many companies injure the larger
public while satisfying their customers and reaching
their economic objectives (e.g., profit maximization or
maximization of shareholder wealth; e.g., Coase 1960;
Katz 1960). In these cases, a contradiction arises between the private interest (economic efficiency) and the
public interest (social efficiency).
Critical theory can be useful to practitioners. Private
interest groups could examine their practices to see if
they harm or help the public. Harmful practices should
be examined and replaced by practices that resolve
contradictions between private and public interests. In-
formation can be disseminated to consumers showing

that the company does not contribute to the production
of contradictions between social and economic efficiency. In other words, disseminated information could
focus on the positive social impact of the company's
product and marketing strategy. If a company is able
to demonstrate that the social impact of its product,
use, and disposition is socially responsible, the product
gains value. This information could differentiate the
firm's product from the competition's. For example,
when Starkist places the phrase "Dolphin Safe" on its
label, it is in effect relabeling its competition as "Dolphin Unsafe." By disseminating information on its
harvesting process, the firm both gains a competitive
advantage and acts in the public interest. In such cases,
praxis resolves contradictions between social and economic efficiency.
Marketing from this perspective is education (the
awareness step). The marketing concept is expanded to
consider not only what consumers want from a product,
but also what they want from the company marketing
the product. Of course, companies may still maximize
their interests at the expense of the public good, but
this strategy will open the gate for entrepreneurs. The
Body Shop, TenderCare diapers, and Patagonia are examples of companies that have obtained relative competitive advantage by emphasizing social responsibility.
The Body Shop is a cosmetics company based in
Britain that currently operates in 37 countries (Burlington 1990, p. 34). Its marketing strategy is based on
educating its customers regarding (1) the contradictions
between social and economic efficiency that are produced by the cosmetics industry (i.e., animal testing,
pollution, negative social psychological influences, such
as an unrealistic norm of beauty, and deceptions, such
as instant rejuvenation) and (2) how its product and
marketing strategy do not contribute to the social construction of these contradictions. This strategy has captured a market segment that perceives clear-conscience
products as having added value. Consumers receive
utility not only from the product but from investing in
a social vision. If other companies want to remain competitive, they may have to follow suit. In this context,
critical marketing creates a new playing field in which
companies compete to be the most socially responsible.
As the competition intensifies, society wins; public and
private interests become one.
Another clear-conscience product is RMED International's degradable diaper, TenderCare. These diapers
are made of a plastic that uses cornstarch to bond conventional plastic polymers. In theory the product degrades as the cornstarch is attacked by microorganisms
in the soil. Although these diapers are more expensive
than the competitors', sales increased sevenfold in 1989.
The company appeals to and reinforces its clientele's
social values with the slogan "change the world one
diaper at a time" (Wills 1990, p. 32).

141
A third example is Yvon Chouinard's Patagonia.

Chouinard states that the business goals of Patagonia
are (1) to make money, (2) to give money away, (3) to
be creative, (4) to have pride, (5) to avoid hassles, and
(6) to have fun (Hawken 1987). Patagonia distributes
part of its profit to nonprofit organizations and charities,
empowers its employees, uses honest and direct marketing strategies, uses recyclable and biodegradable
materials whenever possible, and supports progressive
social movements.
Critical theory also has applications in the retail domain. For example, in response to customers' concerns
about the products it was selling, Wal-Mart Stores, Inc.,
organized a "signing project" designed to disseminate
information about socially responsible companies. WalMart keeps track of product improvements and passes
this information on to the consumer. A sign under Mr.
Coffee coffee filters reads, for example, "Wal-Mart
commends Mr. Coffee, Inc., for sharing in our environmental commitment; coffee filters: dioxin has been
eliminated from the manufacturing process, due to a
process called oxygen delignification." Mr. Coffee's
competitors do not have these signs (at this time), implying that dioxin exists in the manufacture of their
filters. These signs add social value to the retail environment-when one shops at Wal-Mart one has the
information needed to make socially responsible
choices.
One of the most important applications of critical
theory for the private sector may be coalitions of private
companies and progressive social groups, whose purpose
is to unfitethe public and private interests. For example,
the Coalition for Environmentally Responsible Economics (CERES) has constructed their own set of environmental guidelines called the Valdez Principles. The
coalition consists of 14 environmental groups and 325
members of the Social Investment Forum, a national
trade association of money managers, brokers, bankers,
analysts, and other socially concerned investors. The
Valdez Principles cover a broad range of environmental
topics: wildlife habitat protection, wilderness and biodiversity preservation, safe disposal of wastes, use of
safe and sustainable energy sources, and improvements
in energy efficiency (Ohnuma 1990). To date, the coalition has invited more than 3,000 major corporations
to subscribe to and follow these principles. Backing up
the invitation are endorsements from investment groups
that control $150 billion: the Social Investment Forum,
the Interfaith Center for Corporate Responsibility, and
government offices that control the pension funds of
New York City and the state of California. According
to Joan Bavara (cochair of CERES), the Valdez Principles are "structured to reward responsible corporate
actions with significant investment dollars, and potentially to withdraw dollars from irresponsible corporations" (Ohnuma 1990, p. 24). In summary, by applying
critical theory, private companies may be able to acquire
a competitive advantage and improve society at the

same time.
CONCLUSIONS
The purpose of this article is to introduce critical theory to consumer research. A research method based on
critical theory's history, assumptions, and goals was
presented and potential applications were suggested.
Before summarizing critical theory's contributions,
three limitations should be discussed.
The first limitation is the problem of implementation:
critical consumer research is deeply involving. The fivestep research process requires that one not only form a
subjective and objective understanding, but also a program of action. Such an enterprise probably cannot be
accomplished in a single study and might require involvement with groups outside of academia. Such research requires a longer research horizon and a deeper
commitment to the substantive problem. Although the
problem of implementation does not reveal a flaw with
critical theory, given existing tenure and promotion
policies, the number of researchers who can afford to
engage in critical consumer research may be limited.
The second and third limitations are more fundamental to critical theory, so fundamental that they have
become key research questions for contemporary critical theorists. The second problem is rooted in the critical theorists' claim that all knowledge is historical. If
this is so, how can a researcher step out of this historicity
and offer a critique of society by a transcendent rational
standard? It is difficult to defend the existence of historical knowledge while at the same time suggesting that
an ahistorical basis for critique exists. Each member of
the Frankfurt School, including Habermas, has wrestled
with this issue. Although we recognize the problem, we
choose to align with Habermas and his notion of an
ideal speech situation. Here a rational consensus is anticipated providing access to a rational anchor for critique (e.g., human rights, freedom, liberty, and justice).
The third problem involves how one moves from abstract theory to concrete social change. In the applications section, we suggest that perhaps a free-floating
critical intelligentsia could help resolve this problem of
agency. Of course, such a group could only be successful
to the extent that they were autonomous yet also able
to communicate with progressive forces in society and
those who were constrained. Given the complex nature
of higher education, achieving this autonomy would be
difficult to say the least. Ties to funding institutions are
inevitable, publication outlets are institutionally controlled, and the dominant associations exert a powerful
influence. Nevertheless, this issue of agency cuts to the
heart of critical theory. It can be summarized by the
following question: How can consumer researchers
deepen public consciousness about acquisition, consumption, and disposition in a way that transforms society for the better? Although our five-step research

142
process is designed to connect theory and action, the

pragmatic problems involved in actually connecting
with and changing society are indeed great.
Despite these problems, a critical theory of consumer
research has much to offer. Although all social theories
are ideological, critical theory differs from other approaches by explicitly acknowledging its emancipatory
interest. Critical theory seeks to free people from all
forms of domination. It attempts to envision new forms
of rational social organization. By providing a concrete
method for doing critical consumer research, researchers will be better equipped to investigate broader issues
of societal welfare.
Although social criticism is inescapably negative, one
way to make researchers more fully aware of their potential for changing the world is through critique. "In
a world so full of wondrous things, both natural and
humanly created, there is much to engage us-both as
consumers and as consumer researchers. In a world so
sharply delineated between the consumption of haves
and have-nots, there is much to concern us. And in a
world so full of high level consumption, but so empty
of human fulfillment, there is much to challenge us"
(Belk 1987, p. 1). Critical theory challenges researchers
to move beyond critique, to envision a life free from
constraints, and to build a society that embodies this
image.
APPENDIX
Glossary of Terms
Constantivespeechacts (e.g., asserting, reporting, explaining, contesting) mark the distinction between being
and illusion. Here there is an inherent obligation to
return to the source of experience in which the speaker
grounds the claim. If this grounding does not dispel
doubt, then the problematic truth claim becomes the
subject of theoretical and methodological discourse
(McCarthy 1978, p. 285).
Critiquehas both a negative and positive interpretation (Connerton 1976): reflection on a system of constraints that are humanly produced (negative) and the
rational reconstruction of the conditions that make
language, cognition, and action possible (positive).
Dialogue is a sharing of experience that results in a
more and more refined and clarified interpretation. According to Leifer (1986), dialogue can be understood
in terms of three phases: (1) preliminary dialogue-a
sharing of individual opinions about the phenomena;
(2) transitional dialogue-further discussion and examination of the experience that leads to newer, more
immediate understanding of the issue in question and
may be tied to group or individual interests; (3) fundamental dialogue-further discussion that leads to a
building on previous themes and an interweaving of
these themes as they are further illuminated by the data;
it is out of this dialogue that a collective understanding
emerges.
Dialectics is the systematic analysis of the tension or

interconnections between opposites (Bhasker 1983). In
this article, this means systematically understanding the
inconsistencies, tensions, or contradictions between
subject and object.
Distorted communication is communication that reproduces those belief systems that "could not be validated if subjected to rational discourse" (Schroyer 1973,
p. 163). Examples of distorted communication are lies,
myth, dogma, and coerced consensus.
Emancipation is the elimination of -impediments to
human freedom. Marx ties emancipation directly to the
idea of self-determination (Lukes 1983).
General symmetry refers to a situation in which all
stakeholders have an equal and unrestrained opportunity to engage in discourse (McCarthy 1978).
Ideal speech situation is a situation of symmetrical
free speech in which all participants have an equal
chance to employ constantive, regulative, and representative speech acts (McCarthy 1978).
Praxis is the free, universal, and creative activity
through which humans create and shape their historical
human world and themselves (Petrovic 1983a). The
term is often used to describe practical knowledge
(bringing theory and action together) that is constructive
and life enhancing.
Reification is the objectification of abstractions. For
example, reification occurs when researchers develop
the concept "attitudes," then treat this concept as
though it behaves according to the laws of the physical
world (Petrovic 1983b).
Reflection is the thoughtful and deliberate examination of underlying assumptions, motives, values, or
intentions of groups and individuals (Fuhrman 1984).
Or it can be an examination of the underlying assumptions and the social context that ground a theory or
method.
Regulative speech acts (e.g., requests, warnings, recommendations, advice) mark the distinction between
what is and what ought to be. Here there is an inherent
obligation to return to the normative context from
which the speaker justifies the claim. If this justification
does not dispel doubt then the validity of the underlying
norm is called into question (McCarthy 1978, p. 285).
Representative speech acts (e.g., reveal, expose, admit,
express) in conjunction with intentional verbs (e.g., acts
of belief, hope, fear, desire) mark the distinction between the real self and appearances. Here there is an
inherent obligation to be truthful when revealing inner
nature (McCarthy 1978, p. 285-286).
Totality encompasses everything that has come before; thus, the totality is the complete set of dynamic
interrelationships that make up a concrete historical
period, including imagined ends. According to Meszaros (1983, p. 480), the totality is the "structured and
historically determined overall complex." From a critical perspective, individual and group actions (e.g.,

143
consumption) need to be understoodin the context of

the totality.
[ReceivedDecember1990. Revised February1991.]
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Journal of Consumer Research, Inc.

The Critical Imagination: Emancipatory Interests in Consumer Research

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Socially responsible investing is about selfexpression.. .. It's about extending one's

can be developed to facilitate social awareness and

*Jeff B. Murray is assistant professor, Department of Marketing

'Critical theory's short history in consumer research and marketing

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JOURNAL OF CONSUMER RESEARCH

theorists, the very aim of social science needs to be

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degenerated into Stalinism, and fascism and nazism

The Frankfurt School

furt School see Lukacs,Marx, and the Sourcesof CriticalTheoryby

(1973); Origin and Significanceof the FrankfurtSchool by Philip

though each of these individuals had a unique research

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JOURNAL OF CONSUMER RESEARCH

Their work continued until 1950 when the institute

and maintains these distortions. Through dialogue with

THE NORMATIVE STRUCTURE

strive to apply naturalscience methods to social phenomena(e.g.,

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A SUMMARY OF POSITIVISM, INTERPRETIVISM, AND CRITICAL THEORY

"Explanation" via subsumption

Nature of social beings

"Force-field" between subject

"Emancipation" via social

However, once constructed, it "acts back." Critical

tencies between subject and object are salient for the

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JOURNAL OF CONSUMER RESEARCH

for foods with high sugar content. Experimental studies

1973, p. 163). Because of unacknowledged social forces

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identify social pressure as the immediate cause of an

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JOURNAL OF CONSUMER RESEARCH

Data collection stage:

Standard datagathering techniques

Review of existing literature to

Hypotheses are tested in a fixed

Immersion in a natural setting for

Data are gathered

Design, questions, and sampling

Strict adherence to scientific

Reliance on the human

Statistical analysis of data to

Content or textual analysis to

The interpretive step:

Length of immersion and

Improvement of quality of life

searchers should move beyond mere observation of

A METHOD FOR CRITICAL

sented and contrasted with positivist and interpretivist

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One example of the selection of a practical problem

Data Collection Stage

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