Journal of Power Sources: A.J. Fairweather, D.A. Stone, M.P. Foster
Journal of Power Sources: A.J. Fairweather, D.A. Stone, M.P. Foster
Journal of Power Sources: A.J. Fairweather, D.A. Stone, M.P. Foster
h i g h l i g h t s
< Comparative electrical performance of an ultra battery and a lead-acid battery is examined.
< A model is developed for the ultra battery which is veried experimentally.
< Comparisons are made to conventional lead-acid battery/supercapacitor parallel networks.
< Parallel network tests highlight the respective roles of the supercapacitor and battery.
< The work informs application of the ultra battery to transient charge/discharge applications.
a r t i c l e i n f o
a b s t r a c t
Article history:
Received 25 August 2012
Received in revised form
12 October 2012
Accepted 15 October 2012
Available online 8 November 2012
This paper examines the emerging technology of batteries incorporating carbon in the negative plate to
affect a parallel capacitance within the battery itself. Using a frequency domain approach in conjunction
with low frequency static tests and step responses an UltraBattery is examined. Initial examinations
using the Randles model lead to development of a modied model to better represent the battery
parameters. These ndings then expand the work to examine a similar conventional battery connected in
a parallel network with a supercapacitor bank, allowing comparisons to be made and performance
criteria to be established.
2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords:
Batteries
Supercapacitors
PRBS
Parameter estimation
Impedance spectroscopy
1. Introduction
Battery applications remain an area of rapid growth as transitions in motive power from fossil fuels to electricity continue. The
growth of hybrid and full-electric vehicles continues as nations
seek to meet internationally agreed emission targets. Battery
technologies and chemistries are in a phase of development which
reects these new applications, with many vehicle applications
adopting lithium chemistries as the standard for energy storage.
Lead-acid batteries do however have a role to play in the future of
storage technologies, being attractive in terms of a mature and well
understood recycling infrastructure, and generally impart a much
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (A.J. Fairweather),
[email protected] (D.A. Stone), [email protected] (M.P. Foster).
0378-7753/$ e see front matter 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2012.10.095
192
Nomenclature
c
C
CBulk
Cp
CSurface
I
K
Q
Rd
Ri
Rt
T
VEOD
VOCT
WCBulk
rated capacity, Ah
capacitance, F
bulk capacitive element of cell, F
Peukert capacity, Ah
double layer capacitance, F
current, A
Peukert coefcient, e
electrical charge, C
self-discharge resistance, U
series resistive element (Randles circuit), U
charge transfer resistance, U
time, s
end-of-discharge voltage, V
open-circuit-terminal voltage, V
energy stored within bulk capacitor, J
time constant, s
Discharge
charge
2PbSO4 2H2 O
(1)
Cp I k t
(2)
Ri
Rt
Ri
Rx
C Surface
Rt
Cx
C Bulk
Rd
WCBulk
1
Cbulk V 2
2
1
2
2
V0%SOC
Cbulk V100%SOC
2
(3)
(4)
And therefore,
CBulk Initial
(5)
CSurface
193
CBulk
Rd
194
Lead-Acid (CTX9)
UltraBattery (FTZ12)
13
12
11
10
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
Time (s)
Fig. 3 shows a 4-bit PRBS generator. For the work described here,
a software implementation of the PRBS is carried out.
300W Electronic
Load
(discharge tests)
VxI Intelligent
charger
Power 0V
Battery Voltage
13.5
Signal 0V
Lead-Acid (CTX9)
UltraBattery (FTZ12)
13
Battery Current
Battery
under test
Battery
Temperature sensor
PRBS generator
Data acquisition
12.5
12
11.5
11
10.5
10
9.5
9
Power 0V
Fig. 4. Test system block diagram, conventional lead-acid and UltraBattery tests.
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
Time (s)
Fig. 6. 1 C discharge, 20 C, both batteries.
1600
1800
195
14
UltraBattery (FTZ12)
Capacity ((Ah)
Capacitance (F)
20 C Test
Conventional (CTX9)
Ultra battery (FTZ12)
2451
3433
5.45
7.63
7561
10,586
1415
1588
3.14
3.5
e
e
Battery
20 C test
Conventional (CTX9)
Ultra battery (FTZ12)
13.75
13.5
13.25
13
12.75
12.5
0
10
15
Time (s)
20
25
30
14
Lead-Acid (CTX9)
13.75
13.5
13.25
13
Table 2
Two pulse battery test results.
12.75
C
12.5
0
10
15
Time (s)
20
25
30
Battery
Measured deviation
Conventional (CTX9)
Ultra battery (FTZ12)
250 mV
210 mV
196
C Surface
Randles model
PRBS response from battery
C Bulk
Rd
Impedance (ohms)
Ri
0.035
Rt
0.03
0.025
0.02
0.015
0.01
0.005 -2
10
-1
10
10
10
Frequency (Hz)
10
I
4.3. Test system description e parallel network PRBS tests
The test system used in the earlier tests was modied with the
addition of further input from a total of ve channels of measurement (Fig. 14). The channels consist of battery terminal voltage, an
offset measurement to determine any voltage dropped in the
system wiring, 3 channels of current measurement (capacitor
current, battery current and total current).
Ri
Rx
C Surface
Rt
Cx
Table 3
Randles parameters (from static tests).
C Bulk
Battery
Ri Rt
Conventional (CTX9)
Ultra battery (FTZ12)
31 mU
21.25 mU
10
Rd
0.035
Randles model
PRBS response from battery
Modified model
UltraBattery (FTZ12)
Impedance (ohms)
0.03
197
Randles model
0.025
CTX
FTZ
0.02
Ri (mU)
Rt (mU)
CSurface (F)
CBulk (F)
5.2
4.9
23
11.9
2
3
7561.3
10,586
0.015
Modied model
0.01
0.005
-2
10
-1
10
10
10
Frequency (Hz)
10
10
CTX
FTZ
Ri (mU)
Rt (mU)
CSurface (F)
CBulk (F)
Cx (F)
Rx (mU)
5.2
4.9
23
11.9
2
2.5
7561.3
10,586
10
100
6
6
Fig. 12. UltraBattery experimental response and simulation using modied model.
Table 5
Battery mass.
0.035
Randles model
PRBS response from battery
Modified model
Lead-Acid (CTX9)
Impedance (ohms)
0.03
Battery
Mass (kg)
Conventional (CTX9)
Ultra battery (FTZ12)
2.85
3.75
capacitor delivers the majority of the current, and over the course
of the plot this reduces as the capacitor discharges relative to the
battery voltage.
The corresponding results for the larger capacitor are presented
in Fig. 22. Battery current is almost negligible during this period.
Pulse by pulse voltage deviations (Fig. 23.) are less than 50% of
those seen with the smaller capacitor bank.
The battery/33 F begins a transition in the relative currents of
the network components at around 100 s. Fig. 24 shows that the
relative currents have started to move towards equalisation, indicating the chemical reactions within the battery have started to
proceed.
The corresponding transition for the battery/417 F bank occurs
around 800e900 S (Fig. 25), however the capacitor continues to
supply the bulk of the current beyond this time.
Later in the test (1000e1100 s, Fig. 26), the battery is now
supplying the bulk of the current for the 33 F network, whilst
charging the capacitor in the off period. However, the average level
of ripple current seen by the battery is still much reduced by the
addition of the capacitor.
The corresponding waveforms over the same test period for the
battery/417 F bank are shown in Fig. 27. The network has moved to
a pseudo steady state in terms of the respective current sharing, but
the effect of the larger capacitance remains apparent with the
lower battery ripple current observed.
The voltage responses during this time are shown in Fig. 28. The
ripple voltage of the two networks is further indicative of the role of
the capacitor in delivering current in transient load conditions.
4.5.2. Battery impedance (PRBS tests)
The test arrangement dictated that addition of the current
sensing elements for both the capacitor and battery introduced
0.025
Table 6
Capacitance values, supercapacitor banks.
0.02
0.015
0.01
0.005
10
10
10
10
Frequency (Hz)
10
10
Bank 1 charge
Bank 1 discharge
Q 658 C
C 47.0 F
Q 652 C
C 46.6 F
Bank 2 charge
Bank 2 discharge
Q 8960 C
C 601.3 F
Q 7152 C
C 510.86 F
198
300W Electronic
Load
(discharge tests)
VxI Inteligent
charger
Power 0V
Battery Voltage
Capacitor Current
Data acquisition
Battery Current
Battery
under test
Signal 0V
High speed load bank
Supercapacitor
bank
PRBS generator
Power 0V
5
Battery current
Capacitor current
4
3
2
1
0
-1
-2
Lead-Acid/33F
-3
200
400
600
Time (s)
800
1000
1200
Fig. 18. Relationship between battery and capacitor current over full test e bank 1.
4
Battery current
Capacitor current
3
2
1
0
-1
-2
Lead-Acid/417F
-3
0
200
400
600
Time (s)
800
1000
1200
Fig. 19. Relationship between battery and capacitor current over full test e bank 2.
14.5
Lead-Acid/33F
Lead-Acid/417F
14
13.5
13
12.5
12
200
400
600
Time (s)
800
1000
1200
Fig. 20. Terminal voltage of both parallel networks over the full test period.
5
Battery current
Capacitor current
Total test current
Lead-Acid/33F
Battery current
Capacitor current
Total test current
Lead-Acid/417F
-1
0
10
20
30
40
50
Time (s)
60
70
80
90
100
800
Fig. 21. Capacitor, battery and total test current, bank 1 (0e100 s).
830
840
850
Time (s)
860
870
880
890
900
3
2
1
Battery current
Capacitor current
Total test current
Lead-Acid/33F
820
Battery current
Capacitor current
Total test current
Lead-Acid/417F
810
Fig. 25. Discharge current with battery terminal voltage, bank 2 (800e900 s).
199
3
2
1
0
0
-1
10
20
30
40
50
Time (s)
60
70
80
90
-2
1000
100
1020
1030
1040
1050
Time (s)
1060
1070
1080
1090
1100
Fig. 26. Capacitor, battery and total test current, 1000e1100 s, bank 1.
14.5
4
14
13.5
13
Battery current
Capacitor current
Total test current
Lead-Acid/417F
Lead-Acid/33F
Lead-Acid/417F
1010
12.5
3
2
1
0
-1
-2
12
10
20
30
40
50
Time (s)
60
70
80
90
100
1000
1010
1020
1030
1040
1050
Time (s)
1060
1070
1080
1090
1100
5
Battery current
Capacitor current
Total test current
Lead-Acid/33F
3
2
1
0
-1
-2
100
Lead-Acid/33F
Lead-Acid/417F
12.45
12.4
12.35
12.3
12.25
12.2
12.15
110
120
130
140
150
Time (s)
160
170
180
190
Fig. 24. Capacitor, battery and total test current, 100e200 s, bank 1.
200
12.1
1000
1010
1020
1030
1040
1050
Time (s)
1060
1070
1080
1090
1100
200
Impedance (milliOhms)
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
-2
10
-1
10
10
10
Frequency (Hz)
10
10
201
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