J. Mod. Transport.

(2014) 22(2):104111
DOI 10.1007/s40534-014-0039-x

Finite element analysis of overlay incorporating stress absorbing

membrane interlayers against reflective cracking
O. M. Ogundipe N. H. Thom A. C. Collop

Received: 22 November 2013 / Revised: 26 February 2014 / Accepted: 5 March 2014 / Published online: 21 March 2014
The Author(s) 2014. This article is published with open access at Springerlink.com

Abstract A wheel tracking test was modelled to gain

better understanding of the deflection and stressstrain
distribution in an overlaid cracked pavements with and
without membrane interlayer (SAMI). For this purpose,
commercial finite element software Abaqus 6.7-1 was used.
Two different models were considered, one incorporating
stress absorbing membrane interlayers (SAMIs) and the
other without SAMI. In the study, full bond condition was
assumed for the boundaries between the layers, and a linear
elastic model was used for the analysis. The results show
that introduction of SAMI caused greater deflection of the
pavement. It is found that although with SAMIs, low
stiffness is required, a very low stiffness may yield undesirable results. The results show that the introduction of
SAMIs results in high strain concentration around the crack
region, whilst the strain in the overlay is smaller than the
values predicted in the models without SAMIs.
Keywords

Overlay
Interlayers
Crack
Strain
Stress

1 Introduction
Most of the pavement projects around the world today are
rehabilitations of existing road pavements (rigid and

O. M. Ogundipe (&)
Civil Engineering Department, Ekiti State University, Ado-Ekiti,
Nigeria
e-mail: [email protected]
N. H. Thom
NTEC, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK
A. C. Collop
Faculty of Technology, De-Montfort University, Leicester, UK

123

flexible). The common method adopted (overlaying) has

been plagued with the problem of reflective cracking. Engineers have battled the problem for years introducing various
measures, but the fight is far from being won. Cleveland et al.
[1] defined reflective cracking as the propagation of cracks
from the movement of the underlying pavement or base
course into and through the new overlay as a result of loadinduced and/or temperature induced stresses. Palacios et al.
[2] reported that cracks propagate to new overlays due to
vertical movement of the underlying pavement layer which
may be due to traffic loading, frost heave and consolidation
of the subgrade soils and/or the horizontal movement of the
pavement upper layers due to temperature changes.
This study assesses the contribution of some stress
absorbing membrane interlayers (SAMIs) on overlaid
pavement performance in delaying the offset of reflective
cracking using finite element analysis. SAMIs are designed
to dissipate energy by deforming horizontally or vertically;
therefore, allowing the movement (vertical/horizontal) of
the underlying pavement layers without causing large
tensile stresses in the asphalt overlay. As observed by Kim
and Buttlar [3], the primary benefit of a soft interlayer is to
reduce the longitudinal stresses in the overlay caused by
wheel load and/or thermal cycling.
In this study, a wheel tracking test was modelled to gain
better understanding of the deflection and stressstrain
distribution in overlaid cracked pavements with and without SAMIs. In the modelling, the propagation of the crack
was not considered; therefore, the modelling only gives the
deflection and stressstrain distribution before crack initiation. The materials stiffnesses were determined for the
finite element analysis. The modelling was done with a
commercial finite element programme Abaqus 6.7-1 [4].
Abaqus/Standard was implemented in Abaqus/CAE to
generate the models for the study.

Finite element analysis

2 Finite element formulation

Although asphalt behaves more like a viscoelastic material,
for simplicity, it was considered appropriate to use a linear
elastic model for the analysis. As observed by Sousa et al.
[5], two major factors are of particular interest in the
mechanical analysis of hot-mix asphalt: the material
characterisation method and its accuracy in reflecting the
material resistance to loading and the accuracy of mechanistic models to predict the pavement performance. Nesnas
and Nun [6] in their study of top-down reflection cracking
found that the linear elastic model was able to give
explanation for the field observation that the reflection
crack can initiate at the surface and propagate downwards.
Portillo [7] used the linear elastic software EVERSTRESS
and the finite element software Abaqus to predict the
pavement responses using linear elastic and visco-elastic
models. He found that the results from the linear elastic
analyses (EVERSTRESS) were similar to the measured
pavement response values, except for vertical pressures,
whilst the results from the visco-elastic finite element
model (FEM) were much smaller than the measured values.
His results for the linear elastic model in Abaqus were
similar to the ones from EVERSTRESS. He stated that the
problem with the visco-elastic modelling might be the
prony series parameters used for the analysis. Bekheet et al.
[8] modelled the in situ shear strength testing of asphalt
concrete pavements using linear elastic model in Abaqus
and found that the correlation between the field results and
each of the FEMs and the mathematical models was very
high (with correlation factor of 86 %). They stated that it
implied that the linear elastic approximation for the asphalt
pavement behaviour might be an acceptable approximation. Therefore, the linear elastic model was considered
appropriate for this study.

2.1 Wheel tracking test

The wheel tracking test is capable of generating the maximum shear stress and the maximum bending stress that
occur when a moving wheel is either slightly offset from or
directly over a crack, respectively. This produces mode I
and mode II cracking. The wheel tracking machine was
located in a temperature controlled room, which allows the
effect of temperature on SAMI performance to be studied.
The wheel tracker consists of a reciprocating table which
moves forwards and backwards with a frequency of 0.8 Hz
under the loaded wheel with a travel length of 225 mm.
The solid tyre fitted to the wheel has an outside diameter of
200 mm and width of 50 mm. The test replicates what
happens when a cracked pavement overlaid with and
without interlayers (SAMIs) is trafficked.

J. Mod. Transport. (2014) 22(2):104111

105

The specimens were manufactured in three layers for the

wheel cracking test, the base layer (simulating the existing
pavement) with a 10 mm notch (simulating the crack),
which was made of 10 mm asphalt concrete with 10/20
penetration grade bitumen, and the middle layer (where
present) was SAMI. The SAMIs considered in the modelling are proprietary SAMIs A and B and sand asphalt, and
the top layer (overlay) was also made of 10 mm asphalt
concrete but with 40/60 penetration grade bitumen. The
control specimens were made in two layers: the top layer
and the base layer. The specimen was placed on a 10 mm
rubber mat in a steel mould. It was loaded after clamping it
at the top and side at both ends to simulate pavement
continuity.
As mentioned earlier, a linear elastic material model was
adopted for the specimens. Therefore, the material properties required for the finite element modelling are the
elastic modulus, E and Poissons ratio, l. The elastic
modulus (stiffness) was determined using the indirect
tensile stiffness modulus (ITSM) test. The stiffness was
used directly because the temperatures are the same, and
wheel loading rate is close to the ITSM loading rate. The
properties of each of the layers at 10, 20 and 30 C are as
shown in Table 1. The parameters considered in the
modelling include the overlay and SAMI thicknesses and
the test temperature. The test temperature was considered
using the material properties obtained in the laboratory
tests at 10, 20 and 30 C for the modelling.
2.2 Model geometry
The models (with and without SAMIs) were developed to
investigate the performance of the SAMIs. The model
length and width are 404 and 50 mm, respectively. The
overall thicknesses considered in the model are 110, 120
and 130 mm. The combinations investigated are shown in
Table 2. They were investigated at 10, 20 and 30 C.
A 3-dimensional analysis was carried out. The load was
placed across the entire beam width of 50 mm. The layers
were simulated using an 8-node linear brick, reduced
integration element (C3D8R)the first order isoparametric
element. The C3D8R elements have only one integration
point, thereby, reducing the computational time without
any great effect on the result accuracy. Reduced integration
usually means that an integration scheme one order less
than the full scheme is used to integrate the element
internal forces and stiffness [4]. Typical 3-dimensional
structural models for the wheel tacking test for specimens
with 10 mm SAMIs and 60 mm overlay and control model
with 70 mm overlay are shown in Fig. 1. Cracks in an
existing pavement have been modelled using different
approaches by researchers. Wu and Harvey [9] modelled a
crack with empty spaces in the underlying layer; Minhoto

123

106

O. M. Ogundipe et al.

Table 1 Layer properties

Materials

Properties
E (MPa), (l) at 10 C

E (MPa), (l) at 20 C

E (MPa), (l) at 30 C

10 mm AC (40/60)

10,035 (0.25)

3,899 (0.35)

1,098 (0.45)

10 mm AC (10/20)

15,435 (0.25)

9,591 (0.35)

5,008 (0.45)

Proprietary SAMI A

8,548 (0.25)

2,725 (0.35)

635 (0.45)

Proprietary SAMI B

7,564 (0.25)

2,444 (0.35)

510 (0.45)

635 (0.25)

209 (0.35)

118 (0.45)

Sand asphalt
Crack

1 (0.35)

Rubber
Steel

6.45 (0.49)
209,000 (0.3)

E stiffness, l Poissons ratio

Table 2 Combinations investigated
Layer thickness (mm)

C1

C2

C3

C4

C5 (control)

C6 (control)

C7 (control)

Overlay

40

40

60

60

60

70

80

SAMI
Base

20
30

30
30

10
30

20
30

30

30

30

Rubber

10

10

10

10

10

10

10

Steel

10

10

10

10

10

10

10

Total

110

120

120

130

110

120

130

C combination

et al. [10] modelled cracks using elements without stiffness

in their study of reflective cracking behaviour for traffic
and temperature effects. Pais and Pereira [11] modelled
cracks as a void with a negligible stiffness of 1 MPa. Also,
Dave et al. [12] and Baek and Al-Qadi [13] modelled
cracks using a cohesive zone model. In this study, the crack
was modelled by assigning a low material stiffness to the
elements (see Table 1).
The mesh density that is appropriate for the study was
determined by checking different mesh densities. A density
that saves time without affecting the accuracy of the results
was selected. Therefore, the specimens with 20 mm SAMI
and 40 mm overlay and control specimens with 60 mm
overlay were modelled with 31,200 elements, whilst the
specimens with 30 mm SAMI and 40 mm overlay, 10 mm
SAMI and 60 mm overlay and control specimens with
70 mm overlay were modelled with 33,600 elements.
Lastly, the specimens with 20 mm SAMI and 60 mm
overlay and control specimens with 80 mm overlay were
modelled with 37,200 elements.
2.3 Material properties
In the ITSM, a load pulse is applied to the vertical diameter
of the specimen positioned centrally between the upper and
the lower platens, and the resultant peak transient

123

deformation along the horizontal diameter was measured.

The method uses cylindrical specimens cored from the field
or slabs in the laboratory. In this case, the cores were cut
from slab produced in the laboratory. These cores are usually
150 or 100 mm in diameter and has thickness between 30
and 80 mm. Input parameters include target horizontal
deformation, load rise time, Poissons ratio, test temperature, specimen thickness and diameter. The test was carried
out in accordance with DD 213: 1993 [14]. For this study, the
test conditions were as follows: sample diameter: 100 mm;
sample thickness: 40 4 mm; Target rise time:
124 4 ms and Mean horizontal deformation: 5 2 lm.
The results of the ITSM test (Table 1) show that the
stiffness of the mixtures decreased with increasing temperature. Also, all the SAMI mixtures have lower stiffness
than the overlay mixture (10 mm asphalt concrete with
40/60 penetration grade bitumen). The sand asphalt with
very low stiffness was chosen to evaluate an extreme case,
different from the two proprietary SAMIs A and B.
The rubber mat was used in the wheel tracking test to
simulate an elastic foundation and induce bending stress.
The stiffness of the rubber mat was determined by conducting a compression test using the MAND axial testing
machine. The stress rate was 100 N/s, and the diameter of
load bearing plates (top and bottom) (mm) was 150 mm.
The rubber stiffness was calculated as 6.45 MPa.

J. Mod. Transport. (2014) 22(2):104111

Finite element analysis

107

60 mm
overlay
70 mm overlay

10 mm
SAMI

40
4

m
m

30 mm
base layer

30 mm

base layer
10 mm
rubber mat

50
mm

10 mm
rubber mat
10 mm crack

10 mm crack
10 mm steel

10 mm steel

(a)

(b)

30-mm-thick proprietary SAMI B with 40 mm overlay

PB30O40

10-mm-thick sand asphalt with 60 mm overlay

SA10O60

10-mm-thick proprietary SAMI A with 60 mm overlay

PA10O60

10-mm-thick proprietary SAMI B with 60 mm overlay

80 mm overlay (control)

PB10O60
O80

20-mm-thick sand asphalt with 60 mm overlay

SA20O60

20-mm-thick proprietary SAMI A with 60 mm overlay

PA20O60

20-mm-thick proprietary SAMI B with 60 mm overlay

PB20O60

PB20O40

PA30O40

PA20O60

SA30O40

30-mm-thick proprietary SAMI A with 40 mm overlay

O80

30-mm-thick sand asphalt with 40 mm overlay

0.00
SA20O60

O70

PB10O60

PB20O40

70 mm overlay (control)

PA10O60

20-mm-thick proprietary SAMI B with 40 mm overlay

0.02
PB30O40

PA20O40

SA10O60

20-mm-thick proprietary SAMI A with 40 mm overlay

0.04

PA30O40

SA20O40

SA30O40

20-mm-thick sand asphalt with 40 mm overlay

0.06

O70

O60

PB20O40

60 mm overlay (control)

30 C

20 C

0.08

PA20O40

Reference

SA20O40

Name

10 C

0.10

O60

Table 3 Models reference

Absolute displacement (mm)

Fig. 1 Typical models. a 10 mm SAMI and 60 mm overlay. b 70 mm overlay (control)

Models

Fig. 2 Absolute displacement of models

symmetry. Fixed boundary condition was applied to the

steel base and the ends of the models. The fixed boundary
condition (encastre) constrains the model movement, i.e.
the displacement and rotation in x, y and z directions. Full
bond condition (compatibility of stresses and strains) was
assumed for contact modelling.

2.4 Loading and boundary conditions and contact

modelling
3 Results and analysis
A distributed load of 2.4 kN (1.1 MPa) was chosen for the
modelling. The load was applied on the whole width
(50 mm) of the beam over a length of 45 mm. It was
applied at two different locations on the overlay. The first
location was 90 mm away from the centre of the crack,
termed edge load, and the second location was applied
directly above the simulated crack, termed centre load.
Only one side of the model was considered because of

J. Mod. Transport. (2014) 22(2):104111

The models references are shown in Table 3. The results

for the overlay were taken 20 mm from the bottom of the
overlay. For the models with 10, 20 and 30 mm SAMIs,
20 mm from the bottom of the overlay is equivalent to 30,
40 and 50 mm from the bottom of the overlay in their
respective control specimens. Readings for the crack region
were taken 4 mm above the crack top. The predicted strain

123

O. M. Ogundipe et al.
1.5
0.035
0.030
0.025
0.020
0.015
0.010
0.005
0.000

10 C

20 C

30 C

10 C

Strain
PA20O60

PB20O40

PA20O60

PB20O40

O80
O80

SA20O60

PB10O60

SA20O60

PA10O60

PB10O60

20 C

30 C

400
300
200
100

SA10O60

PB30O40

PA30O40

SA30O40

O70

PB20O40

PA20O40

SA20O40

O60

0
100

Models

Fig. 5 Strain in the overlay

was obtained as the difference in values when the load was

placed at the centre directly above the crack top and at the
edge (90 mm from the centre). The results of the stress
were predicted when the load was placed at the centre.
3.1 Displacement
The predicted absolute and relative displacements at 10, 20
and 30 C are shown in Figs. 2 and 3. It can be seen from
the figures that there are more absolute and relative displacements in the specimens with SAMIs than the control
sections without SAMI. Also, the models with lower SAMI
thickness have less displacement. The results show that the

123

PB20O40

SA20O60

PA20O60

O80

PB10O60

PA10O60

PB30O40

SA10O60

PA30O40

O70

SA30O40

absolute and relative displacements of the specimens

increase with temperature. The reason for the increased
displacements in the specimens with SAMIs is because of
the introduction of a layer with lower stiffness between the
overlay and the existing pavement.

PA10O60

SA10O60

PB30O40

PA30O40

30 C

Fig. 4 Strain in the crack region

10 C

PB20O40

Fig. 6 Longitudinal stress in the crack region at 10, 20 and 30 C

Models

500

PA20O40

Models

20 C

SA30O40

PB20O40

PA20O40

O60

SA20O40

O70

10 C

300
200
100
0
100
200
300
400
500

SA20O40

0.5

O60

PB20O40

PA20O60

SA20O60

O80

PB10O60

PA10O60

PB30O40

SA10O60

PA30O40

O70

SA30O40

PB20O40

PA20O40

O60

0.00

Fig. 3 Relative displacement of models

Strain

30 C

0.5

Models

Strain

20 C

1.00

SA20O40

Relative displacement (mm)

108

3.2 Strain
The strains in the crack region (4 mm above the crack top)
and in the overlay at 10, 20 and 30 C are shown in Figs. 4
and 5. Figure 4 shows that the strains around the crack
region in the specimens with SAMIs are greater than the
strains in the models with no SAMIs. High strain concentration occurs around the crack region of the models with
SAMIs. This is thought to be because of the increased
displacement that accompanied the introduction of SAMIs
of low stiffness and the ability of the SAMIs to deform in
response to the movement of the underlying cracked layer.
Also, the figure indicates that at 30 C less strain was
predicted in the crack region of the models with SAMIs
than those without SAMI with the exception of the specimens with sand asphalt, which were in compression.
Figure 5 shows the strain predicted at the bottom of the
overlay for both control specimens and those with SAMIs.
The figure indicates that the strains at the bottom of the
overlay are lower in the specimens with SAMIs than those
without SAMIs, except the specimens with sand asphalt as
SAMI, which have greater strain than the control. However, at 30 C, the results are mixed. This is probably due
to the high load magnitude and temperature. Whilst high
strain concentration exists around the crack region in the
models with SAMIs, the lower strains in the overlay indicate that the SAMIs are able to isolate the overlay from the
strain concentration. Moreover, since greater strains were
predicted in the overlay of models with sand asphalt as
SAMIs, it shows that they might not be able to retard
reflective cracking. The predicted strains increase with
increasing temperature. This indicates that performance
reduces as temperature increases.

J. Mod. Transport. (2014) 22(2):104111

Finite element analysis

2.0

109

10 C

20 C

3.3 Stress

30 C

Strain

1.5
1.0
0.5

Models

Fig. 7 Longitudinal stress in the overlay at 10, 20 and 30 C

PB20O40

PA20O60

SA20O60

O80

PB10O60

PA10O60

SA10O60

PB30O40

PA30O40

SA30O40

O70

PB20O40

PA20O40

SA20O40

O60

0.0

Figure 6 shows the tensile stresses predicted in the crack

region of the models with SAMIs are smaller than those
without SAMI. The models having sand asphalt as SAMI
are in compression.
Also, Fig. 7 shows that the tensile stresses predicted in
the overlay of the models with proprietary SAMIs A and B
are smaller than those predicted in the overlay of their
respective control specimens, whilst for the models with
sand asphalt as SAMI, the tensile stresses predicted in the

Fig. 8 Longitudinal stress contour plots. a 80 mm overlay (control). b 20 mm sand asphalt with 60 mm overlay. c 20 mm SAMI A with 60 mm
overlay. d 20 mm SAMI B with 60 mm overlay

J. Mod. Transport. (2014) 22(2):104111

123

110

overlay are greater than those for the specimens without

SAMI in most cases. The contour plots of the longitudinal
stresses for the control specimen with 80-mm-thick overlay, 20 mm sand asphalt and 60 mm overlay, 20 mm
proprietary SAMIs A and B and 60 mm overlay with the
load placed at the centre directly above the crack top are
shown in Fig. 8. The potential of SAMIs to relieve stress in
the overlay can be seen in the contour plots.

4 Discussion
This study aims to give understanding of the performance
of SAMIs using finite element analysis. It has to be said
that the conditions adopted for the modelling such as
assuming linear elastic behaviour for all the materials, full
bonding condition and non consideration of fracture
mechanics are far from reality in a typical overlaid cracked
pavement incorporating SAMIs. However, previous studies
have shown that the linear model could give reasonable
approximation of pavement responses.
The finite element analysis shows that when SAMIs
were used, greater displacements were predicted. Also,
models with greater SAMIs thickness had greater displacements. This is expected in a real pavement, as introduction of SAMIs affects the bending stiffness of the
pavement. Ordinarily, it is expected that in a normal
pavement, the more the displacement (deflection), the less
the life of such pavement. However, in this case,
researchers have shown that greater deflection recorded
does not necessarily imply lesser life. Ogundipe et al. [15]
and Elseifi [16] showed in their study that despite the
greater deflection recorded in specimens with SAMIs, they
withstood more wheel load repetitions (more life) before
failure compared to those without SAMIs.
It was also found from the models results that greater
strain concentration occurs around the crack region in the
specimen with SAMIs than those without SAMI. Debondt
[17] stated that the strain concentration occurred because of
the movement of the underlying cracked pavement. Also,
this could be because of the low stiffness of the SAMI,
which allows it to flex (vertically or horizontal) in response
to the movement of the different sides of the cracked
pavement. This phenomenon also contributes to the
increase in the deflection and in turns the strain concentration around the crack region.
However, the strains/stresses predicted in the overlay
were less than those without SAMIs. This implies that the
SAMIs somehow reduce the strain transferred to the
overlay as a result of the movement of the underlying
cracked layer. The introduction of the SAMIs that flex in
response to the movement of the underlying layers

123

O. M. Ogundipe et al.

dissipates the energy that would have been transferred to

the overlay.
The strains predicted around the crack region in the
models with sand asphalt were in compression, whilst it
was found that the stresses/strains in the overlay were
mostly greater that those predicted in the control. This is
thought to be because of the very low stiffness of the SAMI
and the poor fatigue properties (not reported here). This
raises question about the stiffness value that is acceptable
for mixtures to be used as SAMIs.
Ogundipe [18] found in his wheel tracking test that the
same sand asphalt reported here was mostly ineffective in
retarding crack growth. Lastly, the finite element results
showed that deflection, strains and stresses predicted
increases with increasing temperature.

5 Conclusions
The results show that when SAMIs are introduced in
cracked pavements to retard reflective cracking, greater
deflection of the pavement occurs. This is due to the
reduced bending stiffness of the pavement caused by the
introduction of SAMIs of lower stiffness than the overlay
between the overlay and the existing pavement. Also, the
finite element analysis shows that the models with greater
SAMI thickness have greater deflection. Again, it was
found that when SAMIs are introduced, greater strain
concentration exists around the crack region; however, they
are able to isolate the overlay from the strain concentration.
Lastly, the finite element analysis shows that although
SAMIs are required to have low stiffness, a very low stiffness
may give undesirable results. As, it was observed in this study,
the sand asphalt having stiffness of 118, 209 and 635 MPa at
10, 20 and 30 C resulted in increased strain in the overlay.
Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the
Creative Commons Attribution License which permits any use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original
author(s) and the source are credited.

References
1. Cleveland GS, Button JW, Lytton RL (2002) Geosynthetic in
flexible and rigid pavement overlay. Texas Transport Institute,
Texas A&M University System. Report 1777-1
2. Palacios C, Chehab GR, Chaignon F, Thompson M (2008)
Evaluation of fibre reinforced bituminous interlayers for pavement preservation. Proceedings of 6th international RILEM
conference, Chicago, 721729
3. Kim J, Buttlar WG (2002) Analysis of reflective crack control
system involving reinforcing grid over base-isolating interlayer
mixture. J Transp Eng 128:375384. doi:10.1061/(ASCE)0733947X(2002)128:4(375)

J. Mod. Transport. (2014) 22(2):104111

Finite element analysis

4. Abaqus Theory Manual (2007) Dassault Systemes, Waltham
5. Sousa J, Pais J, Saim R, Way G, Stubstad R, Development of a
mechanistic overlay design method based on reflective cracking
concepts. Final report for Rubber Pavements Association, Consulpav International
6. Nesnas, Nunn (2004) A model for top-down reflection cracking in
composite pavements. Proceedings of 5th international RILEM
conference, Limoges
7. Portillo MM (2008) Measured and theoretical response of perpetual pavement structures. MSc Thesis, University of Texas,
Arlington
8. Bekheet W, Hassan Y, Abd El Halim AO (2001) Modelling
in situ shear strength testing of asphalt concrete pavements using
finite element method. Can J Civ Eng 28:541544
9. Wu RZ, Harvey JT (2008) Evaluation of reflective cracking
performance of asphalt mixes with asphalt rubber binder using
HVS tests and non-local continuum damage mechanics. Proceedings of 6th international RILEM conference, Chicago, 312
10. Minhoto MJC, Pais JC, Pereira PAA (2008) Reflective cracking
behaviour for traffic and temperature effects. Proceedings of 6th
international RILEM conference, Chicago, 551561
11. Pais JC, Pereira PAA (2000) Predictions of existing reflective
cracking potential of flexible pavements. Proceedings of 4th
international RILEM conference, Ontario, 155164
12. Dave EV, Braham AF, Buttlar WG, Paulino GH, Zofka A (2008)
Integration of laboratory testing, field performance data and

J. Mod. Transport. (2014) 22(2):104111

111

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

numerical simulations for the study of low-temperature cracking.

Proceedings of 6th international RILEM conference, Chicago,
369378
Baek J, Al-Qadi (2008) Mechanism of overlay reinforcement to
retard reflective cracking under vehicular loading. Proceedings of
6th international RILEM conference, Chicago, 563573
BSI (1993) Method for determination of the indirect tensile
stiffness modulus of bituminous mixture. British Standard Institution, London (DD 213:1993)
Ogundipe OM, Thom N, Collop A (2013) Investigation of crack
resistance potential of stress absorbing membrane interlayers
(SAMIs) under traffic loading. Construction and building materials, vol 38. Elseveir, Amsterdam, pp 658666
Elseifi MA (2003) Performance quantification of interlayer systems in flexible pavements using finite element analysis, instrument response and non destructive testing. PhD Thesis, Virginia
Polytechnic Institute, State University
A.H. Debondt (1999) Anti reflective cracking design of (reinforced) asphaltic overlays. PhD Thesis, Delft University of
Technology, Netherlands
Ogundipe OM (2011) Mechanical behaviour of stress absorbing
membrane interlayers. PhD Thesis, University of Nottingham,
Nottingham

123