Mechanical Working of Metals

By: PROF. ALLESON HERMAN V.
COREY
Sheet Metal Forming
Prof. Alleson Herman V. Corey

M. Sc. Polymer and Composites Engineering
CUM FRUCTO
Katholieke Universiteit Leuven (Belgium)
B. Sc. Mechanical Engineering
CUM LAUDE
Central Mindanao University (Philippines)
By: PROF. ALLESON HERMAN V. COREY
Introduction
Sheet Metal Forming produce different shapes at high

speed using flat metal sheet.
Flat metal sheet is shaped (formed) by stretching and shrinking

in 3 perpendicular directions (length, width, and height) on a flat
blank (shape guide).
Classification of Sheet Metal Forming base on formed

shape (by Sachs) :
Singly (single) curved parts metal sheet with single (one)

curve.
Introduction
Classification of Sheet Metal

Forming base on formed
shape (by Sachs) :
Contour (curve) flanged

(overhang or extension) parts
metals sheet with stretch (wide)
flange or shrink (contract)
flange.
Curved sections bended
metal sheet.
Introduction
Classification of Sheet Metal

Forming base on formed
shape (by Sachs) :
Deep recess (depression)

parts metal sheet in form
of cup and box with vertical
or sloping walls.
Shallow (not deep) recess
(depression) parts metal
sheet in dish shape, beaded
(rounded pattern), embossed
(slight raise in surface),
corrugated (wavy).
Introduction
Classification of Sheet Metal Forming base on amount of

bending or stretching (by Automotive Industry).
Severity (level) of bending or stretching done during sheet

metal forming process.
Classification of Sheet Metal Forming base on type of

operation :

Bending
Shearing
Introduction
Classification of Sheet
Metal Forming base on
type of operation :

Deep drawing
Stretching
Introduction
Difference between Bulk Metal Forming (forging, rolling,

extrusion, drawing) and Sheet Metal Forming.
Deformation.

Sheet Metal Forming tensile force acts along sheet plane.

Bulk Metal Forming hydrostatic (tri-axial) forces act on
workpiece (ingot, slab, billet, rod, wire, tube).
Compressive forces.
Sheet Metal Forming not applied along sheet plane.

Can cause buckling (bending), folding, wrinkling (small fold) of
sheet.
Reduction in thickness results to necking and failure.
Bulk Metal Forming applied to reduce thickness and increase
length of workpiece (ingot, slab, billet, rod, wire, tube).
Introduction
Difference between Bulk Metal Forming (forging, rolling,

extrusion, drawing) and Sheet Metal Forming.
Surface to thickness ratio.

Sheet Metal Forming high surface to thickness ratio of metal

sheet (large surface, small thickness).
Bulk Metal Forming low surface to thickness ratio of
workpiece (small surface, large thickness).
Forming Methods
Hand forming manual sheet metal forming method.

Press forming use mechanical or hydraulic press in sheet

metal forming.

Old sheet metal forming method.

Use to remove wrinkles (small folds) left by forming machines
on formed metal sheet.
Use in experimental work that needed few identical formed
metal sheet.
High production speed.

High production volume.
Mechanical Press energy is stored (in form of inertia in

motion) in rotating flywheel (metal wheel) and transferred by
rod to movable slide (do forming action) during downward
stroke of press.
Forming Methods
Mechanical Press

Hydraulic Press energy is stored (in form of pressure) in

hydraulic fluid (oil) and transferred by ram to movable slide
(do forming action) during downward stroke of press.

Quick acting (fast forming).

Short stroke (movement or travel distance).
Slow acting (slow forming).

Long stroke (movement or travel distance).
Classification of Press base on number of independently

operated slides (do forming action) :
Single Action Press has 1 slide (do forming action).

Operation is vertical direction (movement).
Double Action Press has 2 slides (do forming action).
Forming Methods
Classification of Press base on number of independently

operated slides (do forming action) :
Double Action Press

1st slide do forming of metal

sheet.
2nd slide do hold-down
(hold by clamping) of metal
sheet.
Prevent wrinkling (small folds)
of metal sheet during deep
drawing (ex. making cups).
Triple Action Press has 3 slides (do forming action).

2 slides above the die (shape guide).

1 slide below the die (shape guide).
Forming Methods
Basic tools in Press:

Punch convex (curve

outward) shape and mates
(partner) with die.
Die (shape guide) concave

(curve inward) shape.
Movable (adjustable) for

accurate alignment with die.
Fixed position.
Clamp holds metal sheet

during forming to avoid
wrinkling (small folds).
For double action press

done by 2nd slide (2nd action).
For single action press done
by springs or air cylinder
(provides clamp pressure).
Forming Methods
Progressive (continuous action)

Forming punch and die do
successive stages of sheet metal
forming.
Example progressive
(continuous action) piercing (make
hole) and blanking to make flat
washer.
Strip (metal sheet) is fed (supplied)

and moves forward continuously.
Hole is punched first, then blanking
follows.
During blanking, at the same time
another punching is done
continuous action.
Stripper plate prevent sheet
metal from separating from the die
during up stroke of punch.
Forming Methods
Compound die make several forming operations on metal

sheet in one stroke.

Transfer die sheet metal moves from one station to

another.

Complex die shape (expensive).

Slow forming speed due to many forming operations done
simultaneously (at same time) in one stroke.
Simple die shape (cheap).

Fast forming speed each station has a die to perform
specific forming operation.
Type of material die is made depends on:

Severity (level) of forming operation (bending, stretching).

Production volume needed (depends on service life of die).
Small production volume (only short service life) zinc-based

alloy, wood, epoxy resin (thermoset [polymer material] ).
Large production volume (long service life) tool steel.
Forming Methods
Press Brake single action press with very long narrow bed
(flat form).
For forming long and straight bends channels (c-shape

cross-section) , corrugated sheets.
Rubber hydro-forming (rubber forming) forming metal

sheet by pressing with rubber (or polyurethane) die.

Use in aircraft industry.

For making shallow (short) and stretch flange (extension or
overhang).
Cannot make shrink (contract) flange rubber cannot prevent
wrinkling (small folds).
Metal sheet slides on form blank (punch) during pressing.
SOLUTION place positioning pins to block sliding of metal

sheet.
Forming Methods
Rubber hydro-forming (rubber forming).

Guerin Process single action press with punch (form block)

and rubber pad (or polyurethane [polymer material] ) die.
Form block (punch) is

attached to bed (flat form).
Thick rubber pad (die) is
placed in the retainer box
of the upper platen of
press.
Metal sheet is placed over
the form block (punch).
Rubber pad (die) presses
(commonly 10 MPa) the
metal sheet on the form
block (punch).
Forming Methods
Rubber hydro-forming (rubber forming).

Verson-Wheelon Process single action press with punch

(form block) and rubber bag (or polyurethane [polymer
material] ) die.
Rubber bag is inject with high pressure fluid and is pressed to the
metal sheet on the form block (punch).
4 to 5 times forming pressure than Guerin Process.
Can form more complex and deep shapes.
Methods of bending or contour (shape) forming of metal

sheet :
3 Roll Bender produce cylindrical and conical shapes.
3 Roll Bender
Forming Methods
Methods of bending or contour

(shape) forming of metal sheet :
3 Roll Bender.
Use 3 rolls (3 point bending) to bend

metal sheet.
Non-uniform deformation along

length of metal sheet.
3 Roll Bender
Localized strain (deformation) at

midpoint (middle roll) of span
(between 1st and 3rd roll) limits
forming (bending).
4th roll at exit adjusts (increase or

decrease) curvature.
Wiper Type Bender uniform
deformation by pressing along
length of metal sheet.
Wiper Type
Bender
Forming Methods

Wiper Type Bender.

Simple Type metal sheet is

clamped on form block (die) and
hammered near the clamp while form
block slowly rotates.
Advance Type metal sheet is
clamped on form block (die) and
pressed (by hydraulic) by wiper rolls
(2 rolls) near the clamp against the
form block while form block slowly
rotates.
Wrap Forming uniform

deformation by applying tension
along length of metal sheet.
Wiper Type
Bender
Wrap Forming
Forming Methods

Wrap Forming.
Wrap Froming
Metal sheet is clamped on form block

(die) and pressed against the form
block by applying tension on metal
sheet while form block slowly rotates.
Example coiling of spring around
mandrel, stretch forming.
Methods of forming circular deep

recess (depression) and cones on
metal sheet :
Spinning metal sheet (initially flat

circular) is formed by pressing
against a rotating hemispherical
form block (die).
Spinning
Forming Methods

metal sheet :
Spinning.
Metal sheet is clamped against form

block (rotating at high speed) and a
small roller forms continuously the
metal sheet (no change in thickness)
against the form block (die).
For making cone cover for tank,
television cone, and cup.
Shear spinning (power spinning,

flow turning, or hydro-spinning)
metal sheet (initially flat circular)
formed by pressing on a rotating
conical form block (die).
Shear Spinning
Spinning
Forming Methods

metal sheet :
Shear spinning.
Metal sheet (initially flat circular) has

same diameter with conical form
block (die).
Metal sheet is clamped against form
block (rotating at high speed) and a
roller forms the metal sheet by
Shear Spinning
continuously sliding against the
conical form block (die).
Metal sheet change in thickness as
roller slides against the form block
0
(die).
t = metal sheet thickness, (m) 0 = initial
t = (t
)(sin )
= cone angle of form block, (degree)
Forming Methods

metal sheet :
Shear spinning.
For making rocket motor casing, and

missile nose cone.
Tube spinning reduction of tube

wall thickness by pressing a
spinning tool (small diameter rod)
against a rotating mandrel (big
diameter rod).
Spinning tool can be inside the tube

(mandrel is outside the tube) or
outside the tube (mandrel is inside
the tube).
Tube Spinning
Forming Methods
Methods of forming circular deep recess (depression) and

cones on metal sheet :
Explosive forming metal sheet covering the die cavity

(space) is deformed (formed) by shockwave from explosion.
Explosive and die cavity covered with metal sheet is set at right
gap (clearance) then placed under water.
Water amplifies the shockwave generated by detonation (blow up)
of explosive.
Explosive
Forming
Forming Methods
Methods of forming circular deep recess (depression) and

cones on metal sheet :
Explosive forming.
Shockwave (serves as frictionless punch) forms (deforms) the

metal covering the die.
Frictionless hydrostatic pressure (tri-axial force) from water creates
uniform deformation on metal sheet.
Explosive
Forming
Shearing and Blanking

Shearing separation of metal sheet by 2 blades moving in

opposite direction.
Blades penetrate into metal sheet surface and creates

indentation (depression).
Shearing

Shearing
Metal sheet deforms plastically and fractures at contact

points of blades.
Fracture (cracks) propagates (spreads) inward and separates
(cracks meet) the metal sheet.
Shearing

Shearing
Penetration depth of blades to produce shearing on metal sheet

depends on metal ductility.
Ductile metal = more depth to shear greater than metal sheet

thickness.
Brittle metal = less depth to shear less than metal sheet
thickness.
Shearing

Shearing
Clearance between blades important in shearing operation.

Proper (right amount) clearance cracks (fracture) initiate (starts)

at edges of each blade, then propagates (grow) until cracks meet
near thickness center.
Result to clean fracture (lesser distortion at sheared edge).
Less energy needed to shear the metal sheet.
Shearing

Shearing
Clearance between blades.

Insufficient (not enough or less) clearance.

Cracks do not meet result is ragged (rough) fracture.
More energy needed to shear the metal sheet result to more
metal must deform plastically.
Shearing

Shearing
Clearance between blades.

Excessive (too much) clearance.

Cracks do not meet result is sharp projection (burr) of fracture
(greater distortion at sheared edge).
Dull (not pointed cornered) cutting edge of blade causes burr
(sharp projection).
Increase clearance = increase burr height allowable
clearance range is 2% to 10% of metal sheet thickness.
More ductile material = increase burr height.
Shearing

Shearing
Shearing Force (Fshear) force

needed to shear the metal sheet.
Making some inclination (bevel or shear

angle) on blade edge reduces shearing
force.
Since only small portion of blade edge
touches the metal sheet.
Shearing
Fshearing = 0.7hL( ult. )

h = metal sheet thickness, (m)
L = clearance length (cutting
length), (m)
ult. = metal sheet ultimate
stress, (N/m2 or Pa)

Blanking shearing
operation where metal sheet
inside the contour (shape
guide) is desired.
Punching (piercing [boring
hole] ) shearing operation
where metal sheet inside the
contour (shape guide) is
discarded (thrown away).
Notching indentation
(depression) on metal sheet
edge by punching.
Punching and Blanking

Parting simultaneous (at the same time) cutting along 2

or more lines.
Slitting sheared cut without removing any metal in the

metal sheet.
Creating only a deep indentation (depression).
Trimming finishing the formed parts to final size.

Cutting on several straight lines at the same time.
Secondary operation.
Removal of excess metal during shear cutting.
Removal of flash in forged workpiece.
Shaving removing a thin layer of metal in order to trim

sheared edges or make the corners square (corners are at
90O).

Fine Blanking making the edges smooth and square

(corners are at 90O).

Done in gears, cams, and levers.

Metal sheet is tightly locked in place (clamped) and sheared at
slow speed with very small clearance (1%).
Bending
Bending transforming a straight length into a curved

length.
Use in changing metal sheet into channel (c-shape crosssection), drum (cylinder), other bended shapes.
Bending Terms:
Bend Radius (R) concave (curved inward) curvature radius.

Inside radius (bend surface).
Bending Terms
Bending
Bending Terms:
Bend Allowance (B) allowed variation (tolerance) in

dimension due to springback (change in dimension bend
radius [R] and bend angle [] ).
Bend Angle (
) amount of curvature (in degree).
Bending Terms
Bending
Neutral Axis axis with no compression and no tension.

Strain (deformation) is proportion with distance from neutral

axis.
Compression (contraction) increases from neutral axis
moving towards bend surface (inside radius).
Tension (elongation) increases from neutral axis moving
away from bend surface (inside radius).
Bending
Neutral Axis (no compression, no tension) location in

bending.
Elastic Bending (bending metal sheet within elastic limit)

neutral axis is located half the metal sheet thickness.
Plastic Bending (bending metal sheet more than elastic limit)
neutral axis is located less than half of metal sheet thickness
near bend surface (inside radius).
Smaller bending radius (curvature radius) = greater thickness

reduction since most of thickness is in tension (base on
Bending Theory).
Bending
Bending Theory strain (deformation [tension and

compression] along thickness direction) increases as
curvature radius decreases.
Neglecting change in thickness neutral axis is located at half

of thickness.
Compression (contract) strain (compression) = tension (stretch)

strain (tension)
R =bending
tension = compression = ( 2R ) + 1
h
radius, (m)
h = metal sheet
Base on experiment, at smaller R values:
thickness, (m)
Tension (stretch) strain (
tension) value obtain in experiment is
greater than the value obtain from the formula.
Since neutral axis moves (shift) towards bending surface (inside
radius) plastic bending.
Compression (contract) strain (
compression) value obtain in
experiment is similar with value obtain from the formula.
Bending
Minimum Bend Radius (Rmin.) forming limit without

cracking (due to tensile stress) on metal sheet surface at
outer radius.
Expressed in terms of thickness multiple.

Low cold working (operating) temperature = less metal

flexibility = increase minimum bend radius (Rmin.).
Depends on kind of metal and bending geometry (shape).
3T bend radius is 3 times the metal sheet thickness.
Very ductile metal minimum bend radius (Rmin.) = 0 (can be

flattened).
Not less than 1 mm. minimum bend radius (Rmin.) to avoid

damaged on punch and die.
5T or higher minimum bend radius (Rmin.) for high
strength metal sheet.
Bending
Minimum Bend Radius (Rmin.) , (m)

Determined base on % cross-sectional area reduction

(Areduction) from tension test.
For Areduction < 0.2 neutral axis shift (move) can be neglected
(elastic bending).
R min. = h
([
1
2 A reduction ]
For Areduction > 0.2 neutral axis shift (move) not neglected
(plastic bending).
R min. = h
[1 A reduction ]
2
2[A reduction ][A reduction ]

Areduction = cross-sectional area reduction, (unitless)
Bending
Bi-axiality Ratio (
2 / 1)
transverse stress (along
width) to circumferential
stress (along bended length)
ratio.
Bi-axial stress occurs in

metal sheet since thin plate.
Reduces ductility (makes

material brittle).
Transverse stress (
2)
due to contraction (base on
poissons ratio) along width.
Circumferential stress (
1)
due to tensile and
compressive stress from the
neutral axis.

w = metal sheet width, (m)
= stress, (N/m2 or Pa)
2 = transverse 1 = circumferential
More forces acting at same time

on material = decrease in ductility.
Bending
Bi-axiality Ratio (
2 / 1)
Increase width to thickness

ratio (w / h) [wide, thin metal
sheet] = increase bi-axiality
2 / 1) = decrease
ratio (
bending strain (bending)
[deformation].
At width to thickness ratio

(w / h) = 8 maximum biaxiality ratio (
2 / 1) = 0.5.
Low width to thickness ratio

(w / h) pure tension along
bended length
(circumferential stress).
1 > 2

w = metal sheet width, (m)
= stress, (N/m2 or Pa)
Bending
Bi-axiality Ratio (
2 / 1)
0 = initial f = final
High width to thickness ratio (w / h)

Crack occur near center of metal sheet width when bending.

Wider metal sheet width = stronger transverse stress.
Edge crack occur if metal sheet edge is rough.
Roughness at edge behave as notch high stress concentration
at notch root causes cracking.
Polishing (smoothen) edge increases minimum bend radius
(Rmin.).
Springback (R0 / Rf) change in dimension (bend radius

and bend angle) after removal of pressure from forming
(shaping) tool.
R0 becomes Rf and 0 becomes
f due to springback.
Bending
Springback (R0 / Rf)

Due to elastic recovery after

deformation by bending.
y
Greater springback if
material has:

R0
Rf
Higher longitudinal (lateral)

to thickness ratio (L / h).
Higher yield stress
(
yield)material.
Lower elastic modulus (E).
Higher plastic deformation
(plastic).
( R 0 )( yield )material
Eh
tensile stress,
Elastic
recovery
strain,
plastic = 0.002
( R 0 )( yield )material
Eh
3 + 1
Bending
Springback (R0 / Rf)

Meaning of terms in the formula :

h = metal sheet thickness, (m) R = bend radius, (m)
E = metal sheet elastic modulus, (N/m2 or Pa)
(
yield)material = material (metal sheet) yield stress, (N/m2 or Pa)
Compensating springback:
Bend metal sheet to smaller bend radius (Ro) than required.

When metal sheet springback it has the required bend radius (Rf
= required radius).
Smaller bend radius (Ro) is calculated by trial and error using the
springback (R0 / Rf) equation.
Use high operating (working) temperature during forming to
lower material (metal sheet) yield stress (
yield)material metal
sheet become soft.
Bending
Bend Allowance (B) to consider springback (R0 / Rf).
B = ( 0 )(R 0 +
h
2
) = ( f )(R f + )
h
2
Conversion:
180O = radian
B = bend allowance, (m) = bend angle, (radian)
Bend Angle Ratio (Ks) [springback ratio].
Ks =
f
0
R0 +
Rf +
h
2
h
2
R = bend radius, (m) = bend angle, (radian)

Ks = bend angle ratio [springback ratio], (unitless)
Bending
Bending Force (Fbending).
Fbending
)material
(
tan
h
2 [R + 2 ]
Lh yield
Fbending = bending force, (N)

L = metal sheet length, (m) = bend angle, (degree)
(
Stretch Forming
Stretch Forming metal sheet is

stretch on form block (die) by
application of tensile force along
metal sheet plane together with
pushing of form block by ram.
Stretch metal do not spring back

(change in dimension) due to
uniform stress distribution on form
block (die).
Since ram pushes the form block.
Ductile material will have large

deformation due to tensile stress.
For making parts with large bending
radius (curvature radius).
Use in aircraft industry.
Stretch Forming
Operation
Stretch Forming
Difference between stretch

forming and wrap forming :
Wrap Forming constant

tensile stress at plastic
deformation is applied on metal
sheet while wrapping around the
form block.
Stretch Forming initially jaws
apply light tensile stress on
metal sheet then tensile stress is
increase to plastic deformation
by upward movement of form
block to finalize shape of metal
sheet.
Stretching is done in sheet
metal forming operations.
Wrap Forming
Stretch Forming
Operation
Stretch Forming
Equipments :
Form Block male die which

forms the metal sheet.
Metal sheet is formed by draping

(bending) around the form block.
Ram pushes (by hydraulic) the

form block in vertical direction
towards metal sheet.
Jaws grip (hold) metal sheet and
apply tension along metal sheet
plane.
Can pivot (turning movement) to

maintain tension along metal sheet
plane during upward movement of
form block (male die).
If fix position should grip large
part to avoid tearing the metal
sheet.
Stretch Forming
Operation
Stretch Forming
Diffuse Necking necking (thinning)

spreads throughout metal sheet.
Due to bi-axial tension on metal sheet.

Transverse stress (
2) [due to contraction] along
width spreads the necking.
In uni-axial tension necking (thinning) is located
in one spot (easily seen) local necking.
Not easily seen since necking spreads in wide

area of metal sheet.
Strain Gradient (d / dr) [difference in

deformation] in metal sheet during stretch
forming.
Non-uniform deformation (strain) at radial

(perpendicular) distance from applied force.
Stretch Forming

deformation] in metal sheet during stretch
forming.
( ) compressive
d
dr
= (r )(n )
(due to contraction base

on poissons ratio)
Base on strain gradient formula increase

strain hardening (n) = decrease strain
gradient (d / dr).
Non-uniform deformation creates highly

strained regions.
Highly strained regions strain hardened ahead
and transfers the load (applied forming force) to
other regions not yet strain hardened reduce
strain (deformation) gradient (difference).
THEREFORE Gradually increase applied force during stretching

forming to increase strain hardening but limit to avoid fracture.
Stretch Forming

deformation] in metal sheet during stretch forming.
d
dr
= (r )(n )
( ) compressive
(due to contraction base
on poissons ratio)

= strain, (unitless)
n = strain hardening constant, (unitless)
r = radial (perpendicular) distance from
applied force, (m)
Strain Rate Sensitivity ductile to brittle

behavior transition of material at increasing strain
rate.
Right strain rate results to diffuse necking.
Before
Drawing
Deep Drawing
Deep Drawing forming (shaping)

of metal sheet into cup shape.
Metal sheet (flat circular) is place

over the die and clamped by holddown ring to avoid wrinkling (small
folds) during deep drawing.
Metal sheet (blank) is pressed by
punch to pass into the die deep
drawing.
For making bathtub, shell case
(covering), automotive dash board
(between steering wheel and wind
shield).
After
Drawing
D = diameter R = radius p = punch

h = thickness d = die 0 = initial
Deep Drawing of Cylindrical Cup
Deep Drawing
Deformation (strain) of metal sheet

in different sections of deep drawn
cup :
At flange region metal sheet is

in radial tensile strain (deformation)
and circumferential compressive
strain (hoop deformation) due to
drawing (pulling) of punch into the
die (metal sheet thickens upon
entrance into the die).
At cup wall metal sheet is in
longitudinal tensile strain
(deformation) and circumferential
tensile strain (hoop deformation)
due to drawing (pulling) of punch
through the die (metal sheet starts
thinning).
Segment (portion)
of deep drawn cup.
Deep Drawing
Deformation (strain) of metal sheet

in different sections of deep drawn
cup :
At cup wall
If clearance (space) between

punch and die is less than metal
sheet thickness squeezing
(ironing) occurs.
Clearance should be 20% to 40%
greater than metal sheet
thickness.
Ironing operation (if needed) use
small clearance to reduce wall
thickness.
Segment (portion)
of deep drawn cup.
Deep Drawing
Deformation (strain) of metal sheet in

different sections of deep drawn cup :
At punch region metal sheet is in

bi-axial tensile strain (stretch
deformation) due to drawing of punch
(metal sheet becomes thinner).
Deep Drawing Force (Fdeep drawing)

punch force needed to produce a cup.
Punch apply deep drawing force on

cup bottom and spreads to cup wall.
Summation (adding together) of :
Ideal deformation force purely deep

drawing force to produce the cup.
Increases with punch stroke (travel
distance) due to strain hardening with
increasing strain.
Segment (portion)
of deep drawn cup.
Deep Drawing


Frictional force friction at hold-down ring (due to hold-down

pressure) and friction at die radius (inside die).
Increases to maximum value ahead of ideal deformation force and
ironing force.
Decreases with increasing punch stroke (travel distance) since
metal sheet area under hold-down ring decreases.
Deep Drawing


Ironing force force needed to reduce wall thickness (only

present if wall thickness reduction is required).
Occurs later when majority of metal sheet is moving inside the die
more squeezing of metal sheet between die wall and punch.
Deep Drawing
Deep Drawing Force (Fdeep

drawing)
Summation (adding
together) of :
Bending and unbending (restraighten) force force

needed to bend and unbend
the metal sheet (blank)
around the die radius.
([
][
Fdeep drawing = B + hD punch ln
D blank
D punch
][1.1][ ]
+ 2H
yield material
[ ] )(e )
D punch
D blank
Deep Drawing
Deep Drawing Force (Fdeep drawing) punch force needed

to produce a cup.
([
][

1
1st term bending and

unbending (re-straighten)
force needed to bend and
unbend the metal sheet (blank)
around die radius.
D blank
D punch
][1.1][ ]
+ 2H
yield material
[ ] )(e )
D punch
D blank
2nd term ideal deformation force needed to produce the

cup (purely deep drawing force).
3rd term friction force at hold-down ring (due to hold-down
pressure).
4th term friction force at die radius (inside surface of die).
blank metal sheet
Deep Drawing
Deep Drawing Force (Fdeep drawing) punch force needed

to produce a cup.
([
][
D blank
D punch
][1.1][ ]
+ 2H
yield material
[ ] )(e )
D punch
D blank
D = diameter, (m) = friction coefficient, (unitless)

h = wall thickness of drawn cup, (m) H = hold-down force, (N)
B = force needed to bend and unbend (re-straighten) the
blank (metal sheet), (unitless)
(
Deep Drawing
Deep Drawing considerations :

Die Radius 10 times metal sheet thickness.

Punch Radius small (sharp) radius leads to local thinning

and tearing at cup wall near cup bottom.
Clearance between punch and die 20% to 40% greater
than metal sheet thickness.
Hold-down Pressure 2% of the average of material (metal
sheet) yield stress (
yield)material and material (metal sheet)
ultimate stress (
ult.)material.
Minimize friction around die radius.
Minimize friction at hold-down ring (due to hold-down pressure).
Lubricate the inside surface of die to reduce friction during

deep drawing.
Deep Drawing
Deep Drawing Failure

Occurs by necking followed by

tearing of cup wall near cup bottom
(near punch end [tip] ).
Due to longitudinal (
1) and
circumferential (
2) tensile strain
(deformation) stretching
(longitudinal tensile strain) and
thinning (circumferential tensile strain).
Occurs on regions with less strain

hardening.
Material with good strain hardening

behavior (easily and evenly strain
harden) is applicable in deep drawing.
Segment (portion)
of deep drawn cup.
Deep Drawing
Deep Drawing Failure

Maximum deep drawing force to cause failure (Fdeep

drawing)max. on drawn cup :
(F
deep drawing max .
2 D punch h
3
)(
D = diameter, (m) h = wall thickness of drawn cup, (m)

(
ult.)material = material (metal sheet) ultimate stress, (N/m2 or Pa)
Minimizing deep drawing failure

(improve drawability).
Cup wall near cup bottom should touch

on pressurized rubber pad upon exit
from die.
Pressurized rubber pad grips (hold)

cap wall near cup bottom to strengthen.
ult. material
Segment
(portion)
of deep
drawn
cup.
Deep Drawing
1 longitudinal
tensile stress
Minimizing deep drawing failure (improve 2 circumferential

tensile stress
drawability).
Heating the flange region of metal sheet (part of

metal sheet entering the die) to soften.
Decreases tensile stress (longitudinal and

circumferential) on cup wall near cup bottom.
Best by crystallographic texture

(strengthening) proper orientation of atoms.

Done during creation (rolling) of metal sheet.

Tensile stress along surface of metal sheet.
Compressive stress at thickness center of metal
sheet.
Easily deforms (elongate) along metal sheet plane.
Less deformation along metal sheet thickness
high thickness thinning resistance (thinning
resistance along thickness).
Segment
(portion)
of deep
drawn
cup.
Deep Drawing
Strain Ratio (R) plastic strain () ratio of width (w) to

thickness (h) in a metal sheet (in absolute value).
Measures normal (90O) anisotropy difference in strain

property along thickness (90O to width) of metal sheet.
High strain ratio (R) = high thickness thinning resistance
(thinning resistance along thickness).
R=
R=
w
h
( )
= ln ( )
ALSO :
w
h
w
w + L
ln
RECALL :
wf
w0
hf
h0
true = ln
( )
Lf
L0
ln MN = ln M + ln N
( )
ln ( )
= ln ( )+ ln ( ) = ln ( )( )
ln
wf
w0
wf
w0
wf
w0
Lf
L0
w = width, (m) h = thickness, (m) L = length, (m)
wf
w0
Lf
L0
Deep Drawing
Strain Ratio (R)

After deep drawing of cup :

wf < wo
hf < ho
Lf > Lo
Average Strain Ratio (Rave.)

plastic strain ratio of metal sheet
taken at different angles (0O, 45O ,
90O) with respect to rolling (metal
sheet creation) direction.
R ave. =
R 0 + 2R 45 + R 90
4
R = strain ratio (in absolute value), (unitless)
Deep Drawing
Yield Locus and Strain Ratio (R) of deep drawn cup.

Yield Locus points along yield ellipse curve.

Yield Ellipse Curve base on Von Mises yield criterion.

Von Mises yield criterion base on distortion of crystal
structures (disarrangement of atoms).
Plastic deformation (yielding) starts along ellipse curve.
Deep Drawing

At Flange Region shear stress (radial tensile stress [

1]
and circumferential compressive stress [
2] ).
For isotropic (uniform properties) metal (strain ratio, R = 1)

pure shear stress, load (deep drawing force) vector OB.
For crystallographic
textured (anisotropic) metal
(strain ratio, R > 1) pure
shear stress, load (deep
drawing force) vector OB.
Very small difference

in load vector length
similar shear
stress property.
Deep Drawing

At Cup Wall tensile stress (longitudinal tensile stress [

1]
and circumferential tensile stress [
2] ).
For isotropic (uniform properties) metal (strain ratio, R = 1)

plain strain tension, load (deep drawing force) vector OA.
For crystallographic
textured (anisotropic) metal
(strain ratio, R > 1) plain
strain tension, load (deep
drawing force) vector OA.
Big difference in load

vector length
higher plain strain
tension property.
Effect of crystallographic
strengthening (texture).
Higher drawability.
Deep Drawing
Drawability ratio of metal sheet (blank) diameter (Dblank)

to drawn cup diameter (equal to punch diameter, Dpunch).
Limiting Draw Ratio (LDR) largest metal sheet (blank)
diameter (Dblank) that can be drawn by punch (Dpunch) into
the die without failure.
LDR =
( )
D blank
D punch max.
D = diameter, (m)
=e
e = constant, (2.718)
= efficiency due to
friction losses, (unitless)
Bigger metal sheet (blank) diameter (Dblank) = longer height of

drawn cup.

If = 0.7 , LDR = 2 (50% reduction).

If = 1 (frictionless ductile metal) , LDR = 2.7 (63% reduction).
Small difference in LDR ductile metal is difficult to draw into
cup with longer height (much greater than bank diameter).
Deep Drawing
Relationship of Limiting Draw Ratio (LDR) to Average

Strain Ratio (Rave.) of metal sheet.
Discovered by Whitely.

Increase average strain ratio (Rave.) = increase limit draw ratio

(LDR).
Isotropic uniform
Harder metal = higher strain ratio (R) properties in all directions
(length, width, thickness).
Rave. = 3 (theoretical limit) for bcc.
R = 1 (isotropic) to 2 (crystallographic texture) for steel.
Deep Drawing
Example :
A tension test on a special deep drawing steel showed 30%

elongation in length and 16% decrease in width. If steel has
the same strain ratio (R) at 0O, 45O , 90O, what is the expected
limiting draw ratio (LDR)?
SOLUTION :
Solving for Lf / L0 base on 30% elongation :
Length elongation (+ ) =
Lf
L0
Lf L0
L0
Lf
L0
= [Length elongation (+ )] + 1 = [0.3] + 1 = 1.3

Solving for wf / w0 base on 16% decrease width :
Width decrease () =
wf w0
w0
wf
w0
Deep Drawing
Example :
SOLUTION :
Solving for wf / w0 base on 16% decrease width :
Width decrease ( ) =
wf
w0
wf w0
w0
wf
w0
= [Width decrease ( )] + 1 = [ 0.16] + 1 = 0.84

Solving for strain ration (R) :

wf
ln w
0
( )
R = ln ( )( ) =
wf
w0
Lf
L0
ln (0.84 )
ln (0.84 )(1.3 )
Solving for average strain ration (Rave.) :

Steel has the same strain ratio (R) at 0O, 45O , 90O
= 1.98
Deep Drawing
Example :
SOLUTION :
Solving for average strain ration (Rave.) :

THEREFORE R0 = R45 = R90 = R = 1.98
R ave. =
R 0 + 2R 45 + R 90
4
R + 2R + R
4
= R = 1.98
Using graph, expected limiting draw ratio (LDR) at Rave. = 1.98 :

THEREFORE limiting draw ratio (LDR) = 2.7 Answer
Deep Drawing
Reducing diameter and increasing height of drawn cup :

Done by re-drawing the already drawn cup successive or

by stage deep drawing.
Commonly 50% (80% very ductile metals) maximum
dimension reduction (reduce diameter, increase height)
attainable in re-drawing (2nd stage deep drawing).
Lesser reduction in re-drawing (2nd stage) than initial (1st stage)

drawing.
Due to higher friction in re-drawing.
2 times bending and unbending of metal.
strain hardening of metal.
More re-drawing stages = lesser reduction per re-drawing
stage due to strain hardening of metal.
SOLUTION Annealing (soften metal) between re-drawing
stage .
Deep Drawing
Types of Re-Drawing :
Direct (regular) Re-Drawing use flat

or tapered (gradually become smaller in
size) die.
Original outside surface of cup remains

the outside surface of re-drawn cup.
Using flat die :
1st drawn cup must have square (90O)
corner.
2 times bending and unbending (90O) of
metal high strain hardening occurs.
1st bending and unbending
between hold-down ring and die.
2nd bending and unbending
between punch and die.
High punch load (deep drawing force)
due to 90O bending and unbending.
Direct Re-Drawing
(flat die)
Deep Drawing
Direct (regular) Re-Drawing

Using tapered die :

1st drawn cup must have tapered
corner (good for ductile metal).
Not possible with all metals
due to buckling (bending)
DISADVANTAGE.
Thickness of hold-down ring
depends on reduction amount in
re-drawing DISADVANTAGE.
Affects amount of hold-down
pressure.
High hold-down pressure =
increase friction force =
increase thinning and necking
results to metal fracture.
Direct Re-Drawing
(tapered die)
Deep Drawing
Direct (regular) Re-Drawing

Using tapered die :

2 times bending and unbending
(< 90O) of metal minimal strain
hardening occurs.
between hold-down ring
and die.
Low punch load (deep drawing
force) due to < 90O bending
and unbending.
Direct Re-Drawing
(tapered die)
Deep Drawing
Indirect (reverse) Re-Drawing

use flat die.
Original outside surface of cup

becomes the inside surface of redrawn cup.
Minimal wrinkling (small folds) due
to close-fitting of cup around die
radius.
No limitation in hold-down ring
thickness.
High punch load (deep drawing
Indirect Re-Drawing (flat die)
force) due to 90O bending and
unbending.
Deep Drawing
Indirect (reverse) Re-Drawing

use flat die.
2 times bending and unbending

(90O) of metal high strain
hardening occurs.
between hold-down ring and die.
Indirect Re-Drawing (flat die)
Classification of Re-Drawing base on operation :

Ironing reduction in wall thickness due to small clearance

Small clearance between punch and die causes radial

compressive stress (reduce wall thickness).
Deep Drawing
Classification of Re-Drawing base on operation :

Sinking no reduction in wall thickness.

Clearance between punch and die 20% to 40% greater than

metal sheet thickness.
Tensile stress due to drawing (pulling) of punch.
Circumferential compressive stress due to die.
Forming Limit Criteria

Deep Drawing Test evaluates

(estimate) the formability (drawability)
of metal sheet.
Test the bi-axial stretching (horizontal

deformation) and deep drawing
(vertical deformation) of metal sheet.
Metal sheet is deep drawn until
fracture.
Expressed in terms of limit draw ratio
(LDR).
Types of Deep Drawing Test :

Swift Flat Cup Test use cup (circular

cross-section) shape punch in drawing.
Purely drawing (vertical deformation)

horizontal stretching (bi-axial stretching)
is limited due to fixed radius of cup
(circular cross-section) shape punch.
Swift Flat Cup Test

Types of Deep Drawing Test :

Olsen and Erichsen Test use ball

(spherical) shape punch in drawing.
Purely bi-axial stretching (horizontal

deformation) vertical stretching
(drawing) is limited to radius of ball
shape punch.
Olsen and Erichsen Test
Fukui Test use conical cup (circular

cross-section, radius varies) shape
Fukui Test
punch in drawing.
Drawing (vertical deformation) and biaxial stretching (horizontal

deformation) since punch is
cylindrical shape (produces drawing)
and conical (varying radius) cup shape
(produces bi-axial stretching).

Keeler-Goodwin Forming
Limit Diagram (FLD)
Tension-Tension Region
Keeler failure curve.
Tension-Compression
Region Goodwin failure
curve.
Failure strain above failure
curve.
Safe strain below failure
curve.
Example:
Point A is failure above

failure curve.
Point B is safe below
failure curve (say adjusting
die radius).
Keeler-Goodwin
Forming Limit Diagram

Limit Diagram (FLD)
Metal sheet is marked (by

electrochemical
[electroplating] ) with grid of
circles.
Keeler-Goodwin

Limit Diagram (FLD)
Circles deform into ellipse

during deep drawing of metal
sheet.
Major and minor axis of
ellipse correspond to 2 strain
(deformation) directions
during deep drawing.
Strain (deformation) is
measured by % length
change of major and minor
axis (diameter) with respect
to original circle diameter.
Result is compared to KeelerGoodwin Form Limit Diagram.
Keeler-Goodwin

Keeler-Goodwin Form Limit Diagram (FLD)

Example :
A grid of 2.5 mm. diameter circles is electro-etched on a steel

sheet. After forming (deep drawing) into a complex shape the
grid of circles located in the critical strain region were distorted
into ellipse with 4.5 mm. major diameter and 2 mm. minor
diameter. Is the critical region safe or in failure?
SOLUTION :
Solving for 1 base on major diameter (axis) :
1 =
4.5 2.5
2.5
x 100% = 80%
Solving for 2 base on minor diameter (axis) :
2 =
2 2.5
2.5
x 100% = 20%
( ) = compression

Keeler-Goodwin Form Limit

Diagram (FLD)
Example :
SOLUTION :
Using Keeler-Goodwin
(FLD) at 1 = 80% and 2 =
20% as coordinates :
THEREFORE critical
region is in FAILURE
Answer
Keeler-Goodwin

Stretch-Draw Shape Analysis

Several metal sheets is subjected to Olsen and Erichsen Test

(stretching) and Swift Flat Cup Test (drawing) under different
deep drawing strain (deformation) conditions.
Deep drawn part from metal sheet is cut into simple shapes.
% draw (w / t) and % stretch (w / R) is calculated base on
dimensions of simple shapes.
Results are plot on a graph to create the Formability
(drawability) Chart.
t = thickness w = width
R = die (or form block) radius
Formability (drawability) Chart

base on Linear (uniform)
Stretch Forming Process

Stretch-Draw Shape Analysis

t = thickness w = width
R = die radius
Can be applied on other forming process (instead of Olsen

and Erichsen Test and Swift Flat Cup Test) and following the
same procedure.
Use in aerospace manufacturing process:

Dimpling (indenting) making depression on metal sheet surface.

Rubber forming (rubber hydro-forming)
Brake forming (wiper type bending)
Linear (uniform) stretch forming
Bending (3 roll bending)
Joggling (hammering)
Spinning (wrapping)
Formability (drawability) Chart

base on Linear (uniform)
Stretch Forming Process

Computer-Aided Analysis
Analyzes if metal sheet can be formed base on designed

shape.
Analyzes base on Forming Limit Diagram (FLD).

FLD curve can be from experiment or calculated.
Analyzes location of critical strains using Finite Element
Analysis program.
Defects in Formed Parts

Defects in formed metal sheet :

Cracks (on surface or at edge).

Thinning (necking) or buckling (bending) and wrinkling (small

folds) in compressive stress regions.

Due to excessive deep drawing force applied.

Due to fast deep drawing (high strain [deformation] rate).
Excessive bend radius (R) small bending radius.
Excessive deep drawing strain (vertical deformation) causes

thinning.
Excessive bend radius (R) causes thinning in bended sections.
Failure to maintain dimensional accuracy.

Due to springback change in dimension after removal of

forming pressure.


Separation of cup bottom from cup (deep drawing).

Radial cracks at flange (cup edge) during re-drawing (deep

drawing).
Due to thinning (necking) at cup wall near cup bottom.

SOLUTION 1 Use large diameter punch.
SOLUTION 2 Reduce punch load.
Due to insufficient ductility of metal during circumferential

shrinking upon entrance to die.
Because of strain hardening of metal after first deep drawing.
SOLUTION Annealing (reduce strain hardening, soften metal)
before re-drawing.
Wrinkling (small folds) at flange (cup edge) during deep

drawing.
Due to buckling (bending) of metal sheet because of high

circumferential compressive stress upon entrance to die.


Wrinkling (small folds) at flange (cup edge) during deep

drawing.
Larger blank (undeformed metal sheet) diameter = higher punch

load = higher circumferential compressive stress inside die =
more wrinkling (small folds) due to buckling.
SOLUTION Use sufficient (right amount) hold-down pressure
to prevent buckling.
Orange peel on surface of formed part.

Occurs on regions with more deformation during forming.

Due to large grain size of metal sheet.
Large grain size deforms individually in regions with high
deformation and stands out (show up).
SOLUTION Use metal sheet with fine grain size so that grains
deform together as a whole.
Since grains are fine they cannot be seen if they stands out.


Stretcher strains (worms) surface defect on formed low carbon

steel sheet.

Flame-like pattern of depression on surface.

Appear on plane with maximum shear stress, then spread and join
together to produce a rough surface.
Stretcher Strain



steel sheet.
Due to non-inform deformation which results to yield point

elongation.
Some part of steel sheet has strained (deformed) more (point B)
while other part has strained (deformed) less (point A).
Stretcher Strain



steel sheet.
Stretcher strain increases with increasing deformation until the

entire sheet surface is covered and the strain is equal to point B.
SOLUTION Reduce sheet thickness (1/2% to 2%) by temper
rolling (rolling at annealing temperature).
Stretcher Strain



steel sheet.
SOLUTION Do not store (cool down) the steel sheet after

temper rolling to avoid strain aging (causes yield point elongation
to re-appear during deformation).
Earing (wavy edge) on top of deep

drawn cup.

Ears formed can be 2, 4, or 6.

SOLUTION Remove by trimming
the top of cup.
Due to planar anisotropy (
R)
Directionality of mechanical
properties (due to crystallographic
orientation) along metal sheet
plane produce during rolling.


Earing (wavy edge) on top of deep drawn cup.

Due to planar anisotropy (

R)
Mechanical Fibering alignment of 2nd phase metal in a metal
alloy along strain (deformation) direction.
Mechanical Fibering has small effect on formability while
Crystallographic Orientation (alignment of atoms deformation
direction) has large effect on formability.
Planar anisotropy (
R) difference in strain (deformation)
property (plastic strain ratio) along the metal sheet plane taken at
different angles (0O, 45O , 90O) with respect to rolling (metal sheet
creation) direction.
R 0 + R 90 2R 45
R =
( )
ln ( )
R = ln ( ) = ln ( )( )
ln
wf
w0
hf
h0
wf
w0
wf
w0
Lf
L0
2
R = strain ratio (in absolute value),
(unitless)
w = width, (m) h = thickness, (m)
L = length, (m)

Mechanical Working of Metals

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Mechanical Working of Metals

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What are the different classifications of sheet metal forming based on formed shape?

What are the different classifications of sheet metal forming based on formed shape?

What are the different classifications of sheet metal forming based on amount of bending or stretching?

What are the different classifications of sheet metal forming based on amount of bending or stretching?

By: PROF. ALLESON HERMAN V.

Sheet Metal Forming

Prof. Alleson Herman V. Corey

By: PROF. ALLESON HERMAN V. COREY

Sheet Metal Forming produce different shapes at high

Flat metal sheet is shaped (formed) by stretching and shrinking

Classification of Sheet Metal Forming base on formed

Singly (single) curved parts metal sheet with single (one)

By: PROF. ALLESON HERMAN V. COREY

Classification of Sheet Metal

Contour (curve) flanged

By: PROF. ALLESON HERMAN V. COREY

Classification of Sheet Metal

Deep recess (depression)

By: PROF. ALLESON HERMAN V. COREY

Classification of Sheet Metal Forming base on amount of

Severity (level) of bending or stretching done during sheet

Classification of Sheet Metal Forming base on type of

By: PROF. ALLESON HERMAN V. COREY

By: PROF. ALLESON HERMAN V. COREY

Difference between Bulk Metal Forming (forging, rolling,

Sheet Metal Forming tensile force acts along sheet plane.

Sheet Metal Forming not applied along sheet plane.

By: PROF. ALLESON HERMAN V. COREY

Difference between Bulk Metal Forming (forging, rolling,

Surface to thickness ratio.

Sheet Metal Forming high surface to thickness ratio of metal

By: PROF. ALLESON HERMAN V. COREY

Hand forming manual sheet metal forming method.

Press forming use mechanical or hydraulic press in sheet

Old sheet metal forming method.

High production speed.

Mechanical Press energy is stored (in form of inertia in

By: PROF. ALLESON HERMAN V. COREY

Hydraulic Press energy is stored (in form of pressure) in

Quick acting (fast forming).

Slow acting (slow forming).

Classification of Press base on number of independently

Single Action Press has 1 slide (do forming action).

Operation is vertical direction (movement).

Double Action Press has 2 slides (do forming action).

By: PROF. ALLESON HERMAN V. COREY

Classification of Press base on number of independently

Double Action Press

1st slide do forming of metal

Triple Action Press has 3 slides (do forming action).

2 slides above the die (shape guide).

By: PROF. ALLESON HERMAN V. COREY

Basic tools in Press:

Punch convex (curve

Die (shape guide) concave

Movable (adjustable) for

Clamp holds metal sheet

For double action press

By: PROF. ALLESON HERMAN V. COREY