Choral Excellence:
Tone, Text, Dynamic
Leadership
Shirlee Emmons
Constance Chase
Shirlee Emmons
Constance Chase
1 2006
3
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Preface
Each chapter opens with a table of contents for that chapter, showing the
major sections. Each chapter section commences with a short overview
of the subject. We have borrowed terms from the medical profession to
address the vocal skills and leadership issues.
Science boxes contain the scientific background for each assertion. Oc-
casionally, principles are illustrated with true anecdotes, called Science
in Application, also set apart in boxes.
Part I deals with technical vocal skills: what the skills are and why,
and how to teach choral singers to execute them. Part II addresses the
directors self-development: common leadership problems and solutions,
mental performance skills, and imagery, as well as rehearsal and practice
theory and techniques.
Using the index, the reader will find broad subjects, such as vowel
modification. Under the vowel modification index entry, the reader will
see an array of individual topics, as in the sample listing below:
Vowel modification
blend and,
chart for,
clarity of diction and,
the complete vowel modification charts,
corners,
exercises,
forte singing and,
frequency of vowels,
intonation and,
methods for teaching of,
the passaggio and,
First, our thanks to the scores of directors, singers, accompanists, and voice
teachers whose enthusiasm for the concept of this text encouraged us
during the years of its development.
We thank the voice students who brought to us their choral/vocal
challenges, as well as directors John Motley, Christopher Reynolds, and
David Anderson, who contributed their ideas about what directors want
and need to know. Our grateful appreciation to the singers in the choirs
of Constance Chase, with whom joyful and productive hours were and
are spent in rehearsal and performance.
We are obliged to the forty-two choral directors who responded to our
survey, The Choral Voice, in January 1998. Chief among those who shared
their noteworthy convictions were Peter Bagley, Richard Cox, the late Bruce
G. Lunkley, Edward Matthiessen, and the late William McIver. We were
enlightened by all who responded and are beholden to them for their input.
Our gratitude to three choral directors whose expertise and artistry
always inspire: Richard Cox, Patrick Gardner, and Robert Page. We are
doubly indebted to Pat for his generous gift of time and his sage, con-
structively critical eye.
Maribeth Anderson Payne provided generous initial editorial support
and guided us directly to Oxford University Press; we also owe thanks to
John Finney for an early reading, John Motley for a continual reading,
and to all three for cheerful support.
Our colleague, friend, and mentor, Alma Thomas, has gifted us with
a supplementary education on mental preparation and performance skills,
and, in addition, shared with us her extraordinary knowledge about group
dynamics. What we continue to learn from her makes us better perform-
ers and more sensitive teachers.
Our sincere thanks to Kim Robinson, our editor at Oxford, and to assis-
tant editor Eve Bachrach, both of whom edited with kindness and expertise
and guided us with discernment and with unwavering patience and sup-
port. Assistant editor Norman Hirschy earned our gratitude by guiding us
through the terrain of preproduction with enthusiasm and kindness.
We are gratified by the technical assistance and input of fellow musi-
cians Janelle Penn, Jackie Jones, Troy Messner, Erik Johanson, Mark
Rehnstrom, Emily Faxon, Lisa Bressler, Marka Young, and Joshua Fein.
To our husbands, Rollin Baldwin and Randall Chase, deep apprecia-
tion for unfailing sustenance and support of every kind. To our children
Hilary Baldwin and Joseph Guagliardo, and Alexander and Gregory
viii Acknowledgments
Chaseour love and appreciation for their very real assistance and for
matching our enthusiasm so genuinely with their own.
We are under deep obligation to the voice scientists and pedagogues
of recent decades. Owing to the work of the following twentieth- and
twenty-first-century voice scientists, we may now equip ourselves with
fact where supposition and intuition once governed:
Master flutist and renowned pedagogue Keith Underwood, whose
long dedication to discovering the essence of performance breath-
ing has expanded the technical skills of singers everywhere.
Berton Coffin, singer and voice teacher, and Pierre Delattre, acous-
tical phoneticist, who worked together in the Sound Laboratory
at the University of ColoradoBoulder and the Phonetics Labora-
tory at the University of CaliforniaSanta Barbara in the late 1950s.
Dr. Coffins curiosity about how his knowledge of aerodynamics
gained during military service in World War IIrelated to the
physical and acoustical events of singing spurred his interest, as
did his observation that not only register events but also vowel
colors on certain notes informed voice classification. Over time,
Dr. Coffin catalogued acoustic phonetics as related to pitch, align-
ing the optimal relationship between vibrator and resonator, re-
sulting in therapeutic and resonant singing. His findings are the
foundation of the vowel modification material in this text. The
Coffin techniques are widely and successfully employed in voice
studios and rehearsal halls throughout the country, and are with
increasing frequency hinted at in professional journals. If this text
clarifies the precepts for choral directors, and teaches their appli-
cation to choral singers, the authors will be very gratified.
William Vennard, who set down the complete mechanics of the
singing voice, first in 1949, and in four later editions. We esteem
his work and share the opinion expressed in his preface that the
knowledge of literal fact is the only justifiable basis for the use of
imagery and other indirect methods.
Ralph Appelman, whose utterly thorough interdisciplinary The
Science of Vocal Pedagogy is a landmark publication in that it in-
tegrates the physiological with the artistic events of singing.
The late James C. McKinney, whose excellent handbook, The Diag-
nosis and Correction of Vocal Faults, guided us in our belief that our
chosen material would indeed be relevant to choral directors and
could be presented in ways both practical and applicable to them.
The ongoing work of scientists and pedagogues such as Richard
Miller, Johan Sundberg, and Ingo Titze, which continues to edu-
cate us and to illuminate all.
And, finally, a toast to the spirit of Robert Shaw, whose passion was
ever to attain that place where song becomes spirit.
Contents
Introduction 3
Appendixes
Appendix 1 Vocal Health 291
1.1 Vocal Health Guidelines for Singers 291
1.2 Illness and Medications 293
1.3 Pharmacological Recommendations 302
Appendix 2 Stemples Vocal Function Exercises 307
Appendix 3 Performance Profile Chart 311
Appendix 4 Choral Tessituras (A Statement of the
American Academy of Teachers of Singing) 313
Appendix 5 Early Music and the Absence of Vibrato (A Statement
of the American Academy of Teachers of Singing) 317
Notes 321
Annotated Bibliography 325
Index 331
Prescriptions for
Choral Excellence
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Introduction
3
4 Introduction
Articulate, evocative language and the imagery that inspires it, in concert
with expressive conducting technique, are powerfully efficient tools.
In the sections that follow we will enlarge upon the choral directors
aforementioned areas of expertise. We will also introduce readers to
Consider this list of the myriad and diverse roles required of choral direc-
tors, some essential, others ancillary to the art of choral conducting:
It is these many and varied labors that generate those moments of choral
beauty and expressivity that all directors work for.
In the 1940s Arturo Toscanini and the NBC Symphony Orchestra en-
gaged the Robert Shaw professional Chorale to take part in their per-
formance of Verdis Aida. In the midst of one rehearsal the Italian
Introduction 5
conductor suddenly threw down his baton and walked off the stage
to his dressing room. Shaw followed him, believing that the maestro
was frustrated with the chorus. Is there something the singers can do
better? Shaw asked, very perturbed. No, said Toscanini, sadly and
wearily, its not your fault. Its just that I hear this sound in my head
of how I want it to be, but it never comes out that way. Sometimes its
me; sometimes its the soloists; sometimes its the orchestra. It just never
sounds exactly the way I hear it in my head.
Choral directors are in the business of shaping and building vocal instru-
ments by the very way in which they give instruction. For this reason, it
is imperative that choral directors understand the vocal techniques that
underlie the sound they wish their choirs to produce. Directors may wisely
choose an affect or an appropriate piece of imagery, but they should first
understand the process that leads that choice to musical fruition. Other-
wise, no matter how specific the instruction, how colorful or eloquent the
image, it may be ineffective.
An unfortunate situation that often occurs will serve as an example:
At face value, this approach may seem valid. However, it may also actu-
ally prevent the best version of the sound desired.
That instruction may hinder the realization of the tonal ideal in sev-
eral ways. First, singersespecially amateur singersoften fall back on
unsupported singing, a vocal tone that lacks core or focus, in their effort
to blend. Although a short-term blend problem is solved, expressive ca-
pabilities are eliminated. Without support, it is difficult to execute a legato
line, to deliver dynamic contrasts, register shifts, or melismas, among other
vocal skills. Second, there may be diligent singersparticularly those with
larger voiceswho, in their conscientious efforts to hold back the sound,
will introduce vocal tension. The companions of vocal tension are fatigue,
discomfort, tightness of tone quality, and sometimes poor intonation.
None of the above was intended by the director who said, Shhhh!
Blend! She might have congratulated the chorus on achieving a better
blend so quickly. But at what cost? At the cost of limiting the choir vo-
cally. Are there other courses of remedial action? There are many, depend-
ing upon the demands of the piece. These will be presented in part I. The
focus here is not on a specific question but rather on the process.
also possible that the expressive extravocal performing skills of the cho-
risters were enough to convince him that he had indeed heard a more
holy sound. Whatever meaning is taken from the anecdote, it clearly il-
lustrates a common frustration in the choral rehearsal:
The musical and linguistic problems are solved. Ideas about the text have
been clearly communicated. The imaginations of the singers have been
inspired verbally and by the directors expressive conducting technique.
Yet the director is still dissatisfied with the results. Clearly, the use of
musical solutions and imagery are not enough. Now is the time to think
vocally.
Using this kind of procedure for thinking vocally can open up many
new possibilities for leading the choir closer to achieving that ideal sound
that resides in the directors imagination.
Some would say that the traits of a leader are inherent, not acquired. Or
that leadership is purely a matter of exercising common sense, which one
either possesses or does not. Indeed, leadership is rooted in common sense.
Yet, just as gifted singers of innate ability may further develop their skills
and just as average, less naturally talented singers may improve theirs,
leaders can develop and expand leadership skills through practice and
increased knowledge.
By any criterion, directors and their choirs must be defined as leaders
and followers, whose relationship is subject to the psychological principles
of leadership excellence. Fortunate are those choral directors who are
taught early that musical expertise is not the sole measure of their profes-
sional skills. Trained to be highly sensitive to their responsibilities as lead-
ers, they take their positions of leadership seriously. The goal of part II is
to dispel the notion that such matters depend solely upon existing com-
mon sensealthough that ought never be discounted.
Part II further seeks to acquaint readers with tested solutions for lead-
ership problems. The selected leadership issues (chapter 6) present mate-
rial culled from the ever-continuing research into human interaction,
human thought/work processes, and human potential. The insights offered
include practical devices, which stem from the practical tools and empirical
Introduction 11
The reasoning set forth in the sections above prompts the authors to add
another item to the already daunting list of requisite areas of expertise
for the choral director: continued learning. Voice scientists have made and
continue to make huge strides in understanding the physical act of sing-
ing. The days are over when choral directors and voice teachers could
emerge from music school with a neat package of ideas to see them through
a career. Cherished notions about vocal pedagogy must give way to sci-
entifically established truths.
Increasingly, the results of scientific research disprove many of the old
chestnuts of vocalism. The eminent vocal scientist, singer, voice teacher,
and author Richard Miller enumerates some of the most prevalent in an
aptly titled article, The Flat-Earth School of Vocal Pedagogy. Here is a
short selection taken from his lengthier list:
It is the goal of this book to demystify the three large encompassing sub-
jects that comprise many of the roles of the choral director:
12 Introduction
vocal technique
the eliciting of good singing and reliable musicianship in rehearsal and
performance
leadership
If we have done our job well, not only will you benefit by reading and
re-reading its pages, but you will seek out new opportunities to learn, grow,
and bring new knowledge to your professional life as a choral director.
Part I
Prescriptions for
Choral Singing
1.1 Breathing 16
Breathing to Sing 17
Diaphragmatic Breathing and Other Flawed Concepts 18
How to Do It: What Is an Appoggio? 19
How to Do It: Training Your Singers to Use the Appoggio 20
Posture and What the Appoggio Does for Singers 23
1.2 Onset 26
15
16 Part I Prescriptions for Choral Singing
It is often said that with good breath management all vocal technicali-
ties are possible, and without it, nothing vocally satisfactory can hap-
pen. This statement is not altogether true, but is close enough to make
breath management extremely important. Any number of breathing
methods for singers have always been touted. In the twentieth century
it was common for the voice-teaching profession to accept some five or
six different breathing methods as equally valid. Dr. Wilbur Gould,
founder of the Voice Foundation, once stated that he had collected, by
discussing breath control with every professional singer who consulted
him, 226 breathing methods. Clearly the singers were describing their
perceptions of what they did. Indeed, researchers have concluded that
singers seldom describe their own breathing methods, however success-
ful, with anatomical accuracy.
With the increase in vocal research, however, and the newest ten-year
study on breathing for singers (19831993),1 the science of body mechan-
ics has isolated what might be termed the appoggio method as most
reliable and effective. The felicitous study of breathing for singing pub-
lished in 1993 completed the work pioneered by Proctor (1980) and Hixon
(1987). It put to rest the many fanciful versions of how singers breathe
efficiently that resulted from personal perceptions of kinesthetic feedback
handed down from teacher to student through the years. With this pub-
lication it became clear that the maintenance of the posture known as the
appoggio is the most important aspect of breathing for singing. It also
made clear that it is not a natural event, but must be trained. Thus the
modern study has validated the accuracy of the old singing masters ob-
servations about breath support requiring a noble posture, which were
made in the absence of scientific information.
Understandably, it might seem preferable that this text codify the
various vocal skills separately for organizational clarity, but it is literally
impossible to do so. Because technical singing skills are inextricably in-
terrelated, to foster correct, healthy singing technique we consider in this
chapter how breath relates to legato, onset, melisma singing, upper- and
lower-range pitches, tension, dynamics, vibrato, diction, and so on. Some
repetition of related material is inevitable and unavoidable.
1.1 Breathing
The Complaint
Because breathing is a natural function, why must breathing to sing be
taught?
Chapter 1 Breath Management 17
Discussion
Breathing to Sing
A baby takes his or her first breath with no tutoring; humans breathe for
the needs of life with no particular or conscious effort. We inhale when the
brain says that the body needs oxygen. We breathe while we sleep. The
system prefers to work automatically and needs no conscious controls.
Why then the mystery and the need for scientific research? Because
breathing for singing is another matter entirely. It requires conscious con-
trol that diminishes the spontaneity with which one breathes, a control
that must be learned. Although the efficacy of various theories about
breathing are difficult to test because of the complex interactions between
the thoracic and abdominal muscles, the recent advances in voice science
have clarified the issue.
Most requirements for singing air do not apply to air used for day-
to-day living. Ordinary persons have no particular need for a long
breath; they just breathe again when it runs out. Ordinary persons do not
need to have pressure behind the air; if they must shout, the abdominals
kick in automatically. Ordinary persons do not need to time the inhala-
tion; they just breathe when it is time to talk or when the air supply needs
replenishment. Not so for singers.
18 Part I Prescriptions for Choral Singing
Because the lungs are nonmuscular, they depend on the diaphragm and
the muscular movements of the chest, back, and abdomen during the act
of respiration. Thus, all breathing is indeed diaphragmatic, although con-
scious direct control cannot be exerted over the diaphragm.2 It is basi-
cally a passive muscle during singing.
If efforts to teach your singers a diaphragmatic method of support
brought less than the desired result, it was probably not your pedagogical
skills that were at fault. Singers do not know where the diaphragm is at any
given moment, because they cannot feel the diaphragm. Neither can they
exert any direct influence over it. Furthermore, the diaphragmatic approach
to breathing attempts to employ the diaphragm as a high-pressure piston,
which often results in vocal distortion of some sort, such as the infamous
vocal pushing, or the squeezing out of air by the end of the phrase. If
you added imaging, a tried-and-true system, into the pedagogical mix in order
to help them find their way, it probably did not change things appreciably.
Many singers believe wrongly that when they inhale, the bulge that
appears in the upper abdomen is the diaphragm. In reality, the bulge is
caused by the diaphragm, but it is not the diaphragm itself. Inhaling is an
active process that requires muscular contraction, but exhaling is passive,
due to relaxation of the diaphragm. This, too, is confusing to some sing-
ers: To think that the diaphragm is passive during singing is the converse
of a diaphragmatic image that many singers have, that of a pump tire-
lessly driving air upward toward the larynx. In fact, a better image is that
Chapter 1 Breath Management 19
The Science
1. The appoggio technique answers the physical facts of breathing.
Human beings live in a pressured atmosphere.
2. When the subglottic pressure falls lower than the atmospheric pres-
sure, reflexive physiological response causes one to inhale, and the
diaphragm descends.
20 Part I Prescriptions for Choral Singing
Teach the ideal position of the shoulders, ribs, and sternum using one or
more of these three methods:
1. Raise arms above the head. Lower the arms and shoulders, leav-
ing as is the ribs (expanded) and sternum (high). This is the ap-
poggio that should be kept at all times.
2. Pretend that the underside of each shoulder blade is fitted with a
magnet. Imagine the two magnets straining to touch each other.
The sternum then is high; the shoulders low, and the ribs out. This
is the ideal appoggio that should be maintained.
3. Vigorously slurp the air in, allowing the effort to make a loud
vulgar noise. This effort forces the ribs to make the requisite side-
ways movement to full expansion, with no concomitant raising of
the shoulders and no concern about the abdominals. It will seem
much like forcibly pulling liquid in through a straw. The noisy slurp
facilitates singers recognition of the correct rib action. Shortly after
learning the technique, the noise can be abandoned.
Some muscular fatigue may be experienced for about two weeks, just as
in learning a new athletic skill. You may wish to warn your singers about
this, but be sure to motivate them by reminding them that, once the skill
is under command, singing is actually less fatiguing. Remember that the
advantages of your singers learning to maintain an appoggio include vir-
tually every skill on a directors wish list.
Chapter 1 Breath Management 21
1. Put the index fingers under the bottom ribs, thumbs on the back.
2. Place the little fingers on the hip bones.
3. Pull in the air forcefully.
4. Feel the sideways movement in the area now spanned by the
fingers.
At first the singers may fear they have insufficient air supply, until they
see how very long the air lasts. At that time, the worry will disappear.
To use imaging in your teaching of breath management, you should
attend to the principles involved in this skill. Images do not take on a
special meaning until singers have executed the skill successfully and ex-
perienced more than once the sensation described by the imagery. Then
they can settle on a three-part image for what was just done:
22 Part I Prescriptions for Choral Singing
When the visual and auditory images are theirs, not yours, their execu-
tion will be more efficient. You can guide them to find an appropriate
image, but it is best that you not invent it for them.
Another aid to feeling how the muscles work during inhalation: Have
your singers sit bent over their separated legs with elbows resting on the
knees, then breathe. The expansion of the ribs and back is unmistakable
and not too difficult to recall when the loud slurping of air shows the way.
The Science
The eminent Richard Miller clarifies the function of the appoggio thus:
Breath management is the essential foundation for all skillful vocal-
ism. . . . Breath management for singing is best achieved by preserv-
ing a noble position that permits interplay among the muscles of the
upper chest, muscles of the ribcage area, and the muscles of the ante-
rolateral abdominal wall. . . . The internationally recognized appoggio
(from appoggiare, [It.], to lean against, to be in contact with) is a
breath-management coordination that must be learned if the singer is
to unite energy and freedom. . . .3
There are other long-lived breath management schemes that have
been discredited by the research of today. Among them are the
following:
Those who advise thrusting the stomach out are trying to achieve
a kind of strength, which objective is better served by the appoggio
that forces the abdominals to do the required movement. Those who
advise starting the tone with a spritz of air manage to remove upper
harmonic partials from the spectrum reducing all voices to one dimen-
sion of non-vibrant timbre.4
Chapter 1 Breath Management 23
The Complaint
If the singer has good posture already, is the appoggio necessary?
Discussion
Posture and What the Appoggio Does for Singers
A great vocal pedagogue, Ralph Appelman, once said that the singer who
seems to be doing absolutely nothing is, in reality, the one who is totally
aware of what each muscle in his body is doing at any moment, while the
one who seems to be adjusting his musculature constantly, does not. This
is particularly true of posture.
Choral directors may, with reason, be confused by the many basic ways
they have encountered that purport to train singers in good posture. It
may seem that, regardless of which method is employed, the singers aban-
don their good posture within minutes. Years of study, thought, and
24 Part I Prescriptions for Choral Singing
research have sought a fail-proof, truly superior way to teach this attribute.
Because most singing skills depend in large part on breath support, be-
cause the most effective and dependable breath support includes good
posture, and because good posture is an integral part of the recommended
appoggio position, your singers will profit greatly from the maintenance
of an appoggio. It is your best choice for long-term memory of the physi-
cal position for supported breath, easy vocal production, and generally
effective vocal results.
A choral directors wish list for his or her choristers would include
the same elements that professional singers strive for:
The Science
Voice scientist Johan Sundberg gives us some facts about pitch and
loudness as they relate to the appoggio:
In singing, variation of subglottal pressure is required not only
when loudness but also when pitch is changed. When we increase pitch,
we stretch the vocal folds. It seems that stretched vocal folds require
a higher driving pressure than laxer vocal folds. Thus, higher subglottal
pressures are needed for high pitches than for low pitches. [Singers]
have to tailor the subglottal pressure for every note, taking into con-
sideration both its loudness and its pitch. Thus, each new pitch has to
be welcomed by its own pressure in the respiratory apparatus. Given
the fact that pitches tend to change constantly and rather frequently
in music, we can imagine that the breathing system keeps its owner
busy during singing. . . .
As if this were not enough, there is a musically highly relevant
complicating effect of subglottal pressure. It affects the pitch: other
Chapter 1 Breath Management 25
things being equal, a raised subglottal pressure raises the pitch. This
means that an error in the subglottal pressure is manifested not only
as an error in loudness . . . but also as an error in pitch, which . . . may
be a disaster for a singer.5
The last word on the appoggio as a means to breath support comes
from another research study: rib cage activity was greater than ab-
dominal activity during the singing tasks for all but the unsupported
voice at medium pitch (emphasis added).6
Science in Application
Four college choirs from different parts of the country combined for
a national broadcast performance that required a prerecording. One
rehearsal period was allotted for the choirs to meet for the first time,
warm up, rehearse, and record. After several run-throughs of the piece,
the recording session began.
Loss of pitch was apparent within the first three notes, a descend-
ing arpeggio, and painfully obvious three-fourths of the way through,
when brass and percussion entered. Repeated attempts showed little
improvement. The seasoned arranger/conductor, accustomed to work-
ing with professionals in the television and film industry, was at a loss
to correct the problem.
One of the four directors suggested a short break from recording.
She taught the appoggio posture and energized singing in fifteen min-
utes, a measure of its efficacy. The pitch problems self-corrected and
the recording was successfully completed on schedule.
1.2 Onset
The word onset is a voice scientists term for the start of the tone. Its often-
used synonym, attack, is sometimes an unfortunate choice for singers that
tends toward self-fulfillment, particularly in amateurs. The onset, then,
is the initial intersection of the processes of breathing and singing.
In choral singing, certain breath management issues that will adversely
affect tone quality may reveal themselves in the choral entrances, or on-
sets. Setting aside consonants and their incumbent problems for purposes
of this discussion, cues indicating that poor breath-voice coordination is
present may include entrances on vowels marred by such imprecisions as
delay, blurting, inaccurate pitch, and instability of tone.
Chapter 1 Breath Management 27
The Complaint
Why do singers need a balanced onset?
Discussion
An often overlooked component of breath management is the efficiency
of the vocal folds themselves. During singing, the vocal folds regulate the
flow of the breath. In well-coordinated vocal fold action, the folds provide
28 Part I Prescriptions for Choral Singing
Exercise 1.1
Suspending the Breath (James McKinney)
Exercise 1.2
Strengthening the Onset (Richard Miller)
Build a chord that provides a pitch in comfortable range for each sec-
tion of the choir, such as basses on scale degree 1, tenors on 5, altos on
3, and sopranos on 8. Have the choir sing a pattern of four quarter notes
followed by a whole note, taking a breath between each note. Demon-
strate again the difference between healthy onset (start air only; do not
let the throat aid in the effort) and unhealthy onset (a glottal stroke or
[h]). Alternating between front and back vowels, ascend and descend
by half-steps, staying within a comfortable range for all sections.8
Exercise 1.3
Pulsating a Tone (Ralph Appelman)
Exercise 1.4
Introducing Staccato (Johan Sundberg)
Increase the technical demands of the onset exercises when your sing-
ers are ready for it. The example (Figure 1.2) takes the Appelman five-
note scale (now eliminating the repeated top note) and adds the element
of staccato. Teach the choir to sing a five-note scale, alternating be-
tween a front and back vowel, ascending and descending, followed
by a descending full-octave staccato arpeggio. According to Sundberg,
the element of staccato is useful, if employed appropriately, for train-
ing muscle memory.10
- - - ] [ - - - - - ]
[ - - - - - ]
[u - - - - - ]
Figure 1.1
[ ] [ ] [ [ ] - - ]
[e ] [o ] [e] [o] [o - - ]
Figure 1.2
The achievement of beauty and line are dependent upon legato, and the
achievement of legato is fully dependent upon proper breath management.
Extrapolating from the publications of todays vocal researchers, proper
breath management can be said to be dependent upon the appoggio. In-
deed, legato is air, with a secondary respectful salute to the felicitous input
of nondisruptive consonants.
At least 75 percent of the time, singers are performing music that
depends on legato mode. Staccato, marcato, martellato, and so on are
outside the normal, are not the mainstream effort. Although the positive
results of singing a legato line are many, that skill depends principally on
two vocal factors: air and consonants. The air must move at all times,
and the consonants must not stop it from moving. In principle this is
simple, but in practice it is more complex.
The Complaint
If the notes are connected and the phrase uninterrupted by a breath, isnt
that legato?
Chapter 1 Breath Management 31
Discussion
The Importance of Legato
Voice teachers insistence upon legato singing is not just a whim or a ca-
price. It is a fundamental principle of beautiful and healthy singing. In
the history of the art of teaching singing, there has literally never been a
knowledgeable vocal musician who disagreed with this principle. In vocal
pedagogy every effort is made to instill the habit of legato connections
from the first lesson. Basically, one cannot sing well or effectively with-
out legato.
The enthusiasm with which teachers and singers embrace this philoso-
phy of a legato singing mode must reflect an anticipation of great results.
What are they? First, legato singing produces beauty and continued vocal
32 Part I Prescriptions for Choral Singing
Manuel Garcia II, one of the most skillful voice teachers in history, set
down five possible types of vocal connections between notes:
The Complaint
Wont sliding or a lack of rhythmic precision result from too much legato?
with legato as their basic mode, they should be taught to execute it, first
by imparting a correct understanding of what constitutes legato. It is the
thinking that must be uniform in order that the execution be precise. This
requires that your singers know the difference between sliding and sing-
ing legato.
Discussion
How to Do It: Legato, Portamento, and Sliding
Slide: all pitches that lie within the skip between the two Fs are heard
equally well during the slide, which occupies the entire quarter note
value of the low F.
Portamento: all pitches that lie between the two Fs are heard equally
during the durational value of the last sixteen note of the low F.
Legato connection: no individual pitches that lie between the two Fs
are heard during the value of the last sixty-fourth note in which
the voice travels from the low F to the high F.
The appoggio position will equip your singers with stability of tone and
all the practical advantages of a greater air supply, although it delivers
not more air but rather a less wasteful expenditure of air, thus sidestep-
ping the problems of non-legato singing.
The never-faltering flow of air on which tone rides (legato) is contin-
gent on a strong mental ideal of forward movement. The singer must not
conceive of the vocal line (the air) as going up to the consonants, fermatas,
or dotted rhythms and out the other side to continue, but rather through
the consonants, through the entire duration of fermatas, through every
beat of long notes, and through dotted notes. An arm gesture of forward
movement is helpful. Any physical demonstration of continuous motion,
such as imitating the smooth, constant movement of a string players
bowing arm, may be useful. Singing the lines with lip trills will localize
the feeling of constant forward movement of the air.11 So will singing the
Chapter 1 Breath Management 35
2 2 2
4 4
4
8. Clear the floor of chairs so that there is ample space for movement.
Instruct singers in taking baby steps at a small pulse level, for ex-
ample, the eighth-note pulse. On your command, singers step off
in every direction, following individual paths, baby-stepping while
singing the phrase, pausing only at a rest or a breath, then step-
ping off again with the next phrase. That is, if there is airflow (sing-
ing), the body is moving in imitation of the flow. After initial
fun and chaos, the forward body movement induces continuous,
forward-moving breath flow. Other fortunate by-products of this
exercise are increased rhythmic awareness, acute listening and
watching, and a tighter ensemble.
One of the most difficult tasks facing a choral director is teaching sing-
ersthose who do not already have a flair for itto sing melismatic
passages with speed and clarity. The agility problem is twofold: The singers
must keep the tempo, but cannot sacrifice accuracy and clarity for speed.
Professional singers spend years achieving this ability, but directors have
no such amount of time at their disposal. Even so, vocal agility is a skill
that can be improved with the right kinds of practice. In this section, you
will find explanations of what can be done to achieve speed and articula-
tion in your singers agility singing and why. For practical specifics, see
the How to Do It sections.
The Complaint
Which of the general, basic vocal techniques are most important to fiora-
tura skills?
Chapter 1 Breath Management 37
the agility efforts, and speeding up the tempo. By the same token, vowel
modification (see p. 46) maintains for the singer the place of vocal ease
throughout the passage, thus aiding in all three requirements of fioratura
singing: clarity, speed, and reasonable beauty of tone.
Discussion
Traditional Study of Agility
Solo singers who wisely spend many years on completing velocity works
(such as the Marchesi, Garcia, or Bordogni methods, which include
every melody and rhythm known to man) recognize certain truths that
escape those who try to acquire agility skills by a shortcut. Here are some
of those facts:
Exercise 1.5
Sing up a scale of a ninth, as in Figure 1.6, and then down in a normal
fashion using []. Then sing up a nine-tone scale with an appoggio,
on the way down reiterating the appoggio. Make sure that the choris-
ters feel the difference when the appoggio is added. The lower notes
then feel stable.
Exercise 1.6
Sing a pattern of 123218531, as in Figure 1.7, first
singing normally using []. Then sing it again, pausing to add an
appoggio during beat 1 of bar 2 before going up to the octave. Feel
the difference in the support and the consequent easy high note. In
effect, extra compression is elicited early rather than on the way to
the high notethe unthinking, automatic execution normally em-
ployed by most amateur singers.
From Messiah:
No. 13. He led them through the deep, in all parts, as in Figure 1.8.
Beginning notes of an agility passage are the most difficult. A short
pattern like the one in Figure 1.8 is virtually over before it starts.
When the phrase as thro a wilderness appears, it contains a
group of four sixteenth notes preceded by an eighth note. The
answer to the problem of clear agility here is to make the pickup
eighth note strong and legato, leading strongly into the agility, thus
putting the energized air in motion before the sixteenth notes start.
In addition, if the [z] sound of the written [s] of the word as is
allowed to create a staccato note, then the singer is concerned with
getting the first two notes of the agility pattern going. Often those
first notes will not be clear or on time. The phrase should be ex-
ecuted as if the words were ae zthru wuh wilderness. Marking a
horizontal arrow that leads to the right above the notes reminds
singers of where their concentration should be. The directors body
language shows the singers that they should lean into the sixteenth
notes.
No. 27. And with the blast, in all parts, as in Figure 1.9. The word
blast is set with a quarter note followed by a group of four six-
teenths, of which the first is tied to the quarter, finishing with
42 Part I Prescriptions for Choral Singing
Alto/Tenor Bass
2 24
4
[ - - - - - - - ] [ - - - - - - ]
as thro' a wil-der-ness and with the blast of thy nos - trils
- ]
another quarter note. If the singers do not keep the air moving
through the quarter note (another arrow), then the second sixteenth
is late. Changing from a sostenuto to an agility pattern is a matter
of keeping the air moving energetically ahead.
As for the accenting of the first note of agility groups composed of three
or four notes, singers often end up aspirating the accented note, a very
unhealthy vocal practice. To repeat: Because the vocal fatigue is extreme,
singers cannot keep this practice up for long without slowing the tempo.
Directors then wonder why the insidious slowing down takes place. If an
accent is notated, a fast upward stroke of the abdominals does it best.
Meanwhile, sing straight ahead (like the machine gun firing), not stop-
ping for single notes that are conspicuously above or below the median
pitch, but strengthening the appoggio to give the requisite compression
for all the notes.
Chapter 1 Breath Management 43
4
4
( - - - - - - -
- - - - - - -
Figure 1.10
No. 26. All we like sheep have gone astray, bars 6870 in the so-
prano part, the big tune identified by asterisks above the notes F,
E, D, C, B, A, D, B, G (Figure 1.11)
Once the singer has mentally established the big tune, the small pat-
terns between notes of the big tune are easy to conquer. Marking the
notes of the big tune and then singing only that tune enables a quicker
and more precise knowledge of the agility pattern of the smaller notes and
a better sense of the harmonies on which the big tune is based.
There is some conjecture that each singers optimal agility tempo is
related to his or her heart-beat tempo or mathematical variations on that
tempo. In a chorus, the individuals preferred tempo cannot sway the one
chosen by the director, but fast will eventually be easier than slow. Once
the tempo is so slow that the chorus is singing individual notes, it is no
longer, by definition, agility. It is cantabile or sostenutoa different thing
altogether.
Exercise 1.7
(borrowing from Richard Millers brilliant explanation)12
Soprano
* *
* *
* * * *
*
we have turn - - - - - - - - ed,
Figure 1.11
The approach, as in Figure 1.12, builds on Exercises 1.3 and 1.4 (p. 29)
and takes the singers step by step from broken to sostenuto agility sing-
ing. Once the singers skill in the balanced onset technique is extended to
repeating notes without an intervening breath, expand the exercise fur-
ther to the five-note scale. Both the chuckle and the extended onset ap-
proaches develop the fine laryngeal motor skills required to execute clear
articulation of all notes in a fioratura passage.
46 Part I Prescriptions for Choral Singing
Unis.
[e - ] [o - ] [e - - ] [o - - ] [e - ] [o - ] [e]
[i - ] [a - ] [ i - - ] [a - - ] [i - ] [a - ] [i]
Figure 1.12
We have turn - - - - - - - - ed,
[e] ] - - - - ] [ - - - ]
Figure 1.13
We have turn - - - - - - - - ed,
[e - ] - - - ] - - ] - ] [
Figure 1.14
matter of paying attention. One of the elements that always slows down
a melisma section is going through the passaggio badly, thus making dif-
ficulty on the high notes that lie above the passaggio. See p. 110 for proper
modifications for each section. Only the sopranos have the possibility of
avoiding the vowel modifications by the use of the silver [a], see p. 48.
From Messiah
No. 26. All we like sheep, bars 4345 for basses (Figure 1.13). The
bass line sits quite high and predominantly within the passaggio. The
necessary change from the majority of passaggio [U]s to the one in-
stance of the upper E [()] vowel is carefully placed on an even divi-
sion of the four sixteenth notes in order to aid the memory of when
to change. The C is also left on the [()] vowel for two reasons: (1) on
descending pitches correct passaggio notes are less important; (2) the
tempo is too fast to attempt to change back to [U] for one note. A line
such as this can effectively be practiced down an octave until the
maneuver is well routined, then returned to the upper octave.
From Messiah
No. 26. All we like sheep, bars 4143 for tenors (Figure 1.14). The
tenor line lies largely outside the passaggio with occasional forays into
passaggio notes, thus requiring an execution exactly the opposite of
the basses, but using the same rationale as that applied to the bass
melisma for the rhythmic divisions.
48 Part I Prescriptions for Choral Singing
of all their strength - - -, of
- - ] [e - ]
Figure 1.15
His yoke is ea - - - - - - - - - - - sy
[e - - - - - - ] - - - - -]
Figure 1.16
From Messiah
No. 21. His yoke is easy, bars 2325 in the alto part (Figure 1.16).
The first bar of melisma is sung in the midst of the lower passaggio,
therefore on the [e] vowel. As the melody descends out of the passaggio,
the mouth opens much wider, and the vowel changes to [E], both
of which results in more sound in this area where the alto is often
inaudible.
Exercise 1.8
Using the arpeggiated tune (Figure 1.17) of an octave and a half, sing-
ing up on a tonic chord and down on a dominant chord, have the so-
pranos sing it twice without a breath, the first time phrasing every two
notes together, and the second time, singing the notes staccato. Tongue
tip is on the lower lip, vowel is the Boston [a], cheeks are held high,
and upper teeth are showing. The ease with which high notes are thus
sung is immediately apparent.
Soprano
[a - - - - - - - - - - - - ]
Figure 1.17
bo - nae vo - lun - ta - - - - - - - -
[a
- - - tis
]
Figure 1.18
rapid and energy-draining strokes of the bicycle pedals in low gear), the
singer mentally shifts to a larger pulse (the longer, self-propelling stride
of a higher gear), powered by unflagging breath support.
Summary
To reiterate, the choral director does well to train the singers using the
various principles of fioratura expertise, until he or she sees which are
most productive for the chorus in the given situation.
When choral directors hold their initial auditions for purposes of classifi-
cation, they hear the range that each singer can manage under stress and,
sometimes, without the help of technical skills. In most cases, this is not
the actual range possessed by each singer; it is the bare minimum. In all
probability the singers have never had help in understanding how to open
up both high and low ranges.
In this section we consider the basic elements of high and low pitches
and how range and its use relate to breath.
The Complaint
Why is it so difficult for altos and basses to be heard in their low ranges?
I can understand tenors and sopranos being inaudible on pitches that are
too low for them, but why should the low voices not be audible?
unless the singers are too young. No young singers should be asked
to sing too loudly (or to sing in chest voice), and the repertoire
choices should reflect this fact. Caution demands that female sing-
ers of elementary or high-school age should not be asked for pure
chest. After that age, they may be taught both chest and chest mix.
2. Carrying power on low pitches is dependent upon the use of chest
voice and/or a good deal of compression in the airflow.
3. It is a fact that low notes do not carry as well as high pitches.
Therefore, even those real altos (some of the section will be
nonaltos who have been placed there because they are good musi-
cians) should ideally be capable of going into chest or not, always
excepting those who are too young.
4. Mature male voices naturally sing in chest up to the vicinity of
middle C (C4). Mature tenors lowest note is C 3. When singing
that low, they are at an extreme disadvantage.
5. A true bass voice, even in a college-age male, is relatively rare. On
extremely low notes, vocal fry is a possibility but should not be
made habitual.13
6. Evaluating the quantity of sound that the accompanying instru-
ments make and in what range they play compared to the voice
ranges helps make the decision as to how much technical aid is
necessary for each section. A vocally knowledgeable composer
generally does not write low pitches for forte singing over heavy
orchestration.
Discussion
Basic Requirements for Low-Range Singing
The choice to use chest voice is colored by the accurate observation that
true chest notes always sound crass, vulgar, and loud. Nevertheless, when
the low notes of the alto section are inaudible, chest voice holds the an-
swer, providing that the appoggio is maintained to keep the intonation
correct. Often basses especially, but also altos, harbor a mistaken belief
that all they have to do for low pitches is to relax. (It is common to react
to low notes by working less hard.) This explains the wobbly and woofy
low notes without concomitant carrying power that are sometimes heard
from those sections.
When descending to lower notes, almost any singer benefits from
determining to keep from collapsing the sternum and ribs. In the end, the
director should make the decision as to which modechest, or chest mixed
with headpresents the best solution, especially for altos. If the director
has trained the alto section to do both, it is then his or her prerogative to
opt for the one that satisfies the musical demands. When altos must re-
frain from going into chest, corners on the descending vowels will help to
avoid pure chest. Basses need simply raise their sternums and extend their
ribs, thereby eliciting more compression and thus more sound.
The Complaint
How can I improve the high notes that issue from my choir?
without respite, the more fatigue and tension set in, thus increasing the
difficulty and the shrillness even when they sing well. Note that singing
softly most of the time does not alleviate the fatigue and tension. The
appoggio position of the chest and sternum will do much to make the high
notes easier and less shrill, also contributing to a normal vibrato. The
appoggio position will also aid altos and basses.
Vowel modification will also make high notes easier, improving tone
quality as well. Deft use of consonants avoids their often deleterious ef-
fects upon high pitches. There is no need to question carrying power on
high pitches. Even badly sung high pitches carry (sometimes too well). It
is the nature of the vocal beast.
The Complaint
When I ask for greater dynamic extremes, I often notice a diminution of
tonal beauty, some unstable vibratos, and pitch problems.
Discussion
Dynamic Extremes and the Appoggio
The Science
Johan Sundberg adds some pertinent facts about how the appoggio
relates to pitch and loudness:
Subglottal pressure is determined by muscular forces, elasticity
forces, and gravitation. The phonatory function of the breathing ap-
paratus is to provide a subglottal pressure. Both in singing and speech
this pressure is adjusted according to the intended vocal loudness, but
in singing it has to be tailored also to pitch; higher pitches need higher
pressures than lower pitches. . . .
In singing, variation of subglottal pressure is required not only
when loudness but also pitch is changed. When we increase pitch, we
stretch the vocal folds. It seems that stretched vocal folds require a
higher driving pressure than laxer vocal folds. Thus, higher subglottal
pressures are needed for high pitches than for low pitches.14
Professional singers must wait until their basic techniques are solid
before they begin to work at the extreme dynamics through the usual
intensive training method for learning to do the messa di voce (crescendo,
decrescendo on one single note). Even so, one choral director attributes
much of her choirs improved tonal focus and expressive capabilities to
regular training and practice of the messa di voce.
A standard approach to training choral singers to regulate and expand
their dynamic capabilities is found in Exercise 1.9. This exercise balances
breath and tone, hones technical capability, and increases responsiveness to
the directors expressive requests. At each stage maintain intonation and stay
within the limits of the individual voice, that is, neither louder nor softer than
can be sung with beauty, the dynamic level relative to the individual voice.
Exercise 1.9
Extending the expressive capabilities of the voice via crescendo/decre-
scendo, based on breath management.
[mi me ma mo mu]
1 2 3 2 1
Figure 1.19
[mi ma mu]
1 3 1
Figure 1.20
unis.
[o - - - - - - ]
Figure 1.21
59
60 Part I Prescriptions for Choral Singing
Many of the troubles that plague choral directors in the area of diction
and intelligibility are caused by the honest conviction that their choris-
ters should sing as they talk. Aside from the fact that this is anatomically
impossible, there remain each singers problems with regional accents and
bad language habits in spoken English, which would probably yield a
diction that is, in any case, neither uniform nor clear.
The Complaint
What exactly is an acoustical vowel? Dont pure vowels ensure clarity?
will find a table showing the relative merits of speech vowels and acous-
tical vowels.
Discussion
The Cult of the Pure Vowel
The core of the vowelwhich itself is achieved by the size of the jaw
opening, the shape of the lips, and the position of the tongueis the core
of the pitch when that vowel is sung as opposed to spoken. Is there, then,
such a thing as a pure vowel? The answer given by Richard Miller is,
probably not: vowel purity is the optimum acoustical response for a given
vowel (emphasis added).1 Voice teacher and researcher Berton Coffin
believed that the bel canto devotees, who insist that the basis of their art
is pure vowels, really mean that they wish to have pure tone.
When considering the practice of singing only pure vowels, recog-
nize that, acoustically speaking, speech vowels are not necessarily pure.
In addition, because speech vowels vary considerably depending upon
regional accents, results are less than uniform. Moreover, those who really
understand the vowel issueacousticiansconsider a pure vowel to be
the one that delivers beauty, stable vibrato, resonance, and ease on that
particular pitch. Vocal pedagogue Virginia Morrow has this to say about
speech vowels: the requirements for singing far exceed the demands of
speech. Singing is not simply sustained speech spun out over wide-ranging
pitch fluctuations, except in the most simplistic and technically limited
vocal styles.2
The Science
Morrow elaborates on the specific nature of vowels. [There is] the
perceived vowel, taken from the IPA . . . used for precise identifica-
tion of the various vowel sounds. . . . The acoustical vowel [is] mea-
sured in terms of partials or formants, and judged to be mixed or
modified as it moves through a series of pitches. . . . Each vowel has a
quality which is unique to that particular vowel, a quality which names
the vowel or makes it what it is. The vowel core then, is the identify-
ing quality of a given vowel. It is also an acoustical phenomenon; i.e.,
when the vowel is identified precisely . . . resonance chambers of the
vocal instrument are immediately re-shaped (coupled) so that one hears
optimum amplification of the basic sound; one has more volume, and
potential for dynamic variation, and one has improved intonation and
greater ease of production.3
62 Part I Prescriptions for Choral Singing
Remember that one cannot sing as one speaks. It is not enough to heed
the frequent admonitions to just spit those consonants out, or to relax;
its just like speaking on pitch, or to sing on the consonants (Robert
Shaws immortal words).
Experiments have proven that each of the consonants b, d, f, h, s, t, v,
m, and z averages only .058 seconds in speech, but .108 in song. The semi-
vowels l, m, n, and r average .145 in speech, but .354 in song. Vowels
average .280 seconds in speech, but .797 in song. When bidden to pro-
nounce consonants just as if speaking, while singing notes in the high range
or in very loud / very soft dynamics, singers will execute the notes neither
comfortably nor well. In sum, the following paraphrase of Richard Millers
masterful discussion lists the reasons why speaking and singing cannot
be done in the same way.4
There are many reasons cited for ignoring the use of vowel modification
with choral singers, but the one by far most often employed is that it will
exacerbate the diction problem. Yet the acousticians evidence to the con-
trary is weighty: perceptibility studies have shown that above a certain
note in each voice category the listener cannot tell the difference, for ex-
ample, between one front vowel and another. This is partly because of
the limited capacity of the human ear to decipher vowels on high-pitched
sounds, and partly because the singing voice, functioning better with the
modified vowel, will produce a sound without the acoustical interference
that degrades listeners perception.
The Complaint
Wont vowel modification further lower perception of the text?
line and often the melody. Sopranos will respond better with the diction
when their vocal needs are met.
Discussion
Tone versus Diction
Why will the modified vowels in the register breaks and upper range
transmit the word to the audience better than speech vowels? Because acous-
tical interference caused by a speech vowel in the wrong place will not
allow the listener to intuit the vowel that could help them to understand
the word. See Acoustical Vowels versus Speech Vowels, pp. 6263. In addi-
tion, when the unmodified vowel is causing vocal difficulties, the amateur
singer cannot rise above the distress to clarify the diction. Bear in mind that
appreciation of vocal music depends far more on the lengthened vowel than
on the short and fleeting consonant, despite the fact that a word is gener-
ally unintelligible without clear final consonant(s). At the least, 50 percent
of intelligibility relies on recognition of vowels. Do not sell them short.
It is counterproductive to ask all members of a choir to sing the same
vowel color in all cases. Vowels are ratios of vowel resonances that vary
with voice classification. When a soprano sings [a], [A], or [] like a bass,
she feels choked and loses her top voice. When a bass attempts to sing
the same vowels with the color of a soprano, he constricts his throat in
such a manner that the tone becomes ugly and nonresonant. Pablo Casals
once said that every note of the cello has its own timbre. Surely it is the
same for the singing instrument. Great orchestras are built on the great
techniques of the individual. Why not great choirs?
It has been proven many times, theoretically and empirically, that lis-
teners better understand the words where modifications are in place
especially on high, loud, very high, or very low pitchesthan the words
where the vowels are unmodified, struggling against acoustical interfer-
ence that masks identifiable sounds. Pitches in and above the passaggio
will benefit immeasurably from modification of the vowels.
The Science
When vowels obey acoustical laws, they are differentiated more effi-
ciently. Consonants are also articulated more easily when they are ac-
companied by the sympathetic resonation of vowels to the harmonics
of sung pitch. Speech vowels occupy two cavities located on either side
of the hump of the tongue. Women sing approximately one octave
higher than men. Therefore the frequencies of their mouth cavities are
approximately 15 percent higher than the frequencies of men. Acous-
ticians have designated the high resonance of vowels occupying the
area in front of the tongue hump as R1. The R1 frequencies for vari-
ous vowels are
Science in Application
Two stories illustrate the practical results of vowel modification and
the tendency of some to believe that such a practice is misguided.
A soprano who had been away from her voice teacher for six
months was suddenly required to sing a new aria within a few days.
She elected to go to a coach rather than her voice teacher for help.
The coach, familiar with and disdainful of the voice teachers use of
vowel modifications, erupted in fury after the first time through the
aria. You are singing those dreadful vowels of Mme. X! And that is
why I didnt understand a single word. I want you to sing it again with
the exact words on the page. The soprano, aware that she had not
been singing Mme. Xs vowels but rather the ones on the page, pan-
icked a bit. Then she silently decided to do the proper modifications,
although she did not tell the coach what she was going to do. When
she had finished, the coach said with great satisfaction, There. You
see? Now I understood the words!
A baritone came to his voice lesson with a friend from Paris. The
baritone and the voice teacher spent an inordinate amount of time
changing the vowels on the notoriously high pitches of the Poulenc
piece he was singing. All the while the modifications were being dis-
cussed, the Frenchmans head was wagging negatively back and forth,
his face expressing disgust. Both the baritone and the voice teacher
assumed it was the usual case of French speakers not liking any changes
to their beloved language, but it was a concern with intelligibility.
When the baritone finally sang the piece through with the modifica-
tions, the Frenchman leapt to his feet, shouting, Ah, but now I under-
stand the words!
Chapter 2 Diction and Intelligibility 69
All common vowels, with some few exceptions, appear in every language,
but are sometimes spelled differently. The IPA denotes specific sounds
across linguistic barriers.
Diphthongs
Written in German
German Word IPA Executed French Equivalent
s y [i] with corners u, as in cru
Glck Y [I] with corners (does not exist in French)
schn [e] with corners eur, oeur as in coeur
Gtter [E] with corners eu, eux, oeu, as in yeux
Note: The word corners signifies that the corners of the lips should be protruding
forward.
Chapter 2 Diction and Intelligibility 71
Back Vowels
Neutral Vowels
[] as in about, upon
The tongue is at rest in the central part of the mouth cavity, with
the front of the tongue higher than [U] and lower than [i].
A part of the schwa species, usually occurring on an unstressed,
short syllable in English. Some authorities state that the []
appears in the French words le, je, de. Other experts prefer []
(E with corners) for the French vowel.
[] as in earth, curl, shirt, girl, verse
To keep this vowel pure, do not let it run into an American [r].
Sustain an [o]. Keeping the lips protruding and rounded, let the
tongue move toward the position for [E].
The result will be a sound like the last syllable of sugar.
Move rapidly back and forth between [o] and [E], moving only the
tongue. The resulting tongue position will be the [].
72 Part I Prescriptions for Choral Singing
[U] as in foot, book, push, und (Ger.), thoughtful, pleasure, could, cushion
Back of the tongue is raised, but lower than [u].
Sing [u] and drop the jaw, keeping the lips rounded.
When the tongue rises a bit, this will be the [U].
[] as in up, shut, numb, blood, trouble, among
Tongue central in the mouth, neither high nor low, tip on the lower
teeth, no rise in the back nor arch in the front, no rounding
unless [()], with corners, is requested.
Front Vowels
Sing [jE, jE, jE]. Tongue is up for [j], moving slightly back but not
descending on [E].
When corners of the lips are moved forward, the vowel becomes
[] as in German, Gtter or in French, yeux.
[] as in fat, ham, man, smash, anguish, laugh
Relax the jaw completely from [i] until the tongue arrives at the
low position of [].
Sing [jae, jae, jae]. Tongue is up for [j] and descends for [].
[a] as in Bostonian dialect park the car
This is the front [a], one of the nineteen American ahs. In French,
this vowel is called ah clair. The tongue blade pushes forward
and slightly higher than for other [a]s.
We are treated to many artificial rules about the tongue, these among
them: It should never move; it should be relaxed at all times; it should
remain flat in the mouth; it should never be thought about. Speaking
practically, it soon becomes clear that none of these strictures is valid.
The correct positions of the tongue, which are vowels, are instrumental
in producing precise intonation, blend, high and low range, intelligible
diction, and beauty.
The Complaint
Is the tongue really so important in nonprofessional singing?
Discussion
Tongue Positions and Tongue Tensions
True, we do often hear that the tongue should not move in order to pro-
duce even tone quality, that it should remain flat in the mouth and be
totally without tension to get a beautiful, warm tone, that it is counter-
productive for singers to think of it. But they also say that head voice
is important in the upper range, that on high notes intonation is crucial,
that clarity of diction is much needed. Front vowels like [i] or [e] cannot
be sung identifiably with a flat tongue, and the all-important head voice
cannot be added in the upper range when saddled with a tongue that does
not move from the position of the lower pitches.
Facts: A tongue position is a vowel; the tongue must move to create
and/or accommodate all vowels; the tongue cannot be totally without
tension and make a recognizable vowel. To sing an accurate vowel in a lan-
guage not your own or a vowel without a marked regional accent, of ne-
cessity you will think about the tongue position. In addition, high notes
depend in large part upon a higher, more forward tongue, and chest voice
low notes depend upon a lower, farther back vowel. The tongue must move.
Pay special attention to the four vowels required to produce most of
the modifications on the upper passaggio notes and higher pitches: [U],
[e], [()], and [E]. For specifics, see the IPA Vowel and Consonant Charts,
pp. 69 and 92, as well as Physical Properties of Vowels, p. 71.
Choral directors complain that even when all their singers attempt to sing
the same vowel, they still hear disparity. Regional accents will always
change vowels somewhat. Your singers should understand what the cor-
rect standard vowel pronunciation is, and that lyric diction, of necessity,
replaces speech-quality diction, no matter how erudite, for singing.
Chapter 2 Diction and Intelligibility 75
The Complaint
Must there be a choice between tone and diction?
Discussion
Tone and Diction: The History, the Present
The great William Vennard, singer, voice teacher, and scientist, bade us take
a brief look at music history for a greater understanding of the issue of sing-
ing versus diction.7 Voices and instruments were once treated equally. In the
76 Part I Prescriptions for Choral Singing
Singers and their directors seek diction that is as clear as speech. Truth-
fully, however, that diction will give only the illusion of being the same
as speech; in actuality it must be quite different. William Vennards fe-
licitous phrase explains: To sound natural will require studied arti-
fice.8 See pp. 7884 for suggestions of how to teach studied artifice
to your singers.
The study of vowels will give your singers a better tone, a more var-
ied choice of tone colors, and some intelligibility. The study of consonants
will give expressivity and intelligibility. To choose between the two will
deprive your choir of one or the other advantages.
78 Part I Prescriptions for Choral Singing
Even if singers have learned the IPA symbols for consonants in the sing-
ing languages, they have learned only the proper pronunciation. There is
no chart indicating the proper modification for consonants. Solutions to
these problems must be found on a case-by-case basis. Once the broad
principles of consonant modification are thoroughly understood, it is
simple to apply the proper solution to each question at issue.
The IPA is generally of more importance to the vowels than to the
consonants. Most problems of intelligibility are solved by knowing in what
way to execute the consonants. The correct IPA symbols for consonants
are perhaps of less use in the rehearsal setting than is the instruction and
training of their proper execution. Special training must be given for
foreign-language consonants that differ from English ones.
It is clear that consonants come in two varieties: with and without
pitch, that is, voiced and unvoiced. Those consonants that do not have
pitch are, effectively, not sound, but rather noise. As such, they do not
carry as well; for example, [f] will not carry as well as [l]; [f] cannot be
sung on a pitch; [l] can be.
The enunciation and pronunciation of consonants is not covered by
simply asking for good speech habits. Many amateur singers, even pro-
fessionals, do not have good speech habits. Particularly in English and
German (and to a lesser degree in the Romance languages), it is the final
consonant that carries the meaning to the listeners, not the initial conso-
nant. In Italian, French, and Latin, words most frequently end with vowel
sounds, which tend to clarify the preceding consonant. When words in
those Romance languages do not end in a vowel, the final consonant car-
ries the meaning, as in English and German.
Indicate to your singers exactly where you want the final consonant
to be sung and insist that they mark the music with the requested rhythm.
Marking scores to indicate the exact rhythmic moment where the final
consonants must occur, a favored technique of Robert Shaw, is a very
simple method for getting more efficiency for your efforts (Figures 2.1,
2.2). When all singers utter the consonant at the same rhythmic instant,
not only is noisy imprecision corrected, but the carrying power of that
consonant is increased tenfold.
The often-heard instruction Spit out those consonants! implies ten-
sion in the tongue. The price of tightening the tongue in preparation for the
consonant is not heightened clarity, but tension and fatigue. Similarly, the
practice of combining an initial consonant with subglottal pressure or ex-
ploding it after a damming of the breath will not increase audibility. Dam-
ming of the breath simply creates more peripheral noise, which has the effect
Chapter 2 Diction and Intelligibility 79
3 3
4 4
lea - d lea -
fee - l fee -
mee - t mee -
of masking the real sound of the consonant. Tensing the tongue inordinately
has the same effect: more noise, less articulation. (Note: This is not the same
issue as doubling a consonant on a low pitch before an upward skip in order
to defuse a consonant on the upper pitch. This particular execution, which
is accompanied by pharyngeal compression, produces a consonant that makes
very little noise but is recognizable to the listener.)
Regarding the forceful closing of the jaw for consonants (the spit-
ting out of consonants), one should remember that there are more con-
sonants needing tongue activity for clarity than there are those that close
the mouth and use lips, teeth and bottom lip, and so on. Therefore, clos-
ing the mouth is often not efficient. It is also a perilous option when the
pitches are high in the range.
Sopranos are most at risk. The problem of singing diction is most
acute among female singers, more prevalent in the classical styles, more
noticeable in large concert halls with long reverberation times, [and] in-
tolerable at high pitches, explains Ingo Titze. A devastating reality for
female singers is that on high pitches, above A5, the first resonance of
the vocal tract is almost never energized. This makes phoneme percep-
tion problematic. It is amazing that the verbal mess is transmitted as well
as it is.9 Thus, training the sopranos in consonant techniques is most
important for the director.
The conundrum posed by a desire to have good diction and sing well at
the same time has, first, the three-word answer described in Rule #1:
Under Rule #1, your singers learn how to wait to the last second of the
vowel and then pronounce the next consonant as fast and energetically
as possible. They learn not to let the tongue start inching toward the com-
ing consonant in advance, but only at the very moment of the indicated
beat. It is difficult to learn not to dwell on the consonant gesture or to
extend its length (both of which are exceptions to Rule #1, the norm) unless
bidden to do so by the conductor. To that end, the conductor could in-
vent a practice, or delegate such a practice to one of his assistants, that
features a tempo-keeping device (such as a metronome or the leaders
hands clapping). Clearly, the skill is the rapidity of the movement from
vowel to consonant and back again.
Exercise 2.1
Beating in a 60 to a quarter-note tempo and articulating the conso-
nant on the beat without changing the vowel in the process, use the
big, back vowels [a], [o], [] and one chosen consonant, first speak-
ing and then singing.
AaaahDaaahDaaahDaaahDaaah
OooooLooooLooooLooooLooooh
AwwwTawwwTawwwTawwwTawww
By allowing one section to work while the others listen, the non-
speakers can hear the bad outcome each time one person starts the
consonant imprecisely before or after the hands clap or the metronome
clicks. Insisting that the sound be energized and rapid will accomplish
Chapter 2 Diction and Intelligibility 81
the needed audibility without being behind the beat. Eventually com-
mence singing, rather than speaking, the exercise.
The American speech habit for [l] puts it farther back on the palate
than are the French and Italian [l]s. [l], too, should be in that same spot
just behind the upper teeth. In this way, it will be heard better and the
line will not be disturbed.
When practicing the skill, make sure that the mouths are not clos-
ing when practicing [d], [n], [l], and minimally closed when practicing
[t] and [r]. It is important that the singers learn to move the tongue
without closing the mouth. Using the vowel [A], an open-mouth vowel,
enables the leader to observe who is not divorcing the tongue from the
jaw opening.
Rule #2: Keep the tongue tip on the top of the bottom teeth, not on
the bottom of those teeth.
Keeping the tongue tip on the top of the bottom teeth gives the singer a
vocal position one-quarter inch higher and much further front. This seem-
ingly small difference will make for clearer consonants and more carry-
ing power with less force, therefore a more beautiful tone. Move the tongue
(but not, unwittingly, the jaw) to execute the consonant when necessary,
but return it to the top of the bottom teeth afterward. Use the exercise on
p. 80, with all sections practicing the swift return of the various conso-
nants on the beat.
Consult the following list that shows which consonants need the mouth
to close loosely or minimally and which do not. (For quicker reference,
phonetic terms such as fricative, palatal, and so on have been avoided,
adopting in their place descriptive phrases such as consonants that re-
quire only the action of the tongue, and so on). In the lists below, aster-
isks precede those that must close the jaw, however minimally.
Consonants requiring jaw closure are *s, *z, *ks, *sks, *, *, *,
*T, . See The IPA Consonant Chart (p. 92) for translations from
these IPA symbols.
Consonants requiring tongue action only are t, d, n, l, r, r, g, k, x, .
Consonants using the lips only are p, b, m, , w. With experiments,
you will see that these consonants can be executed by lips only,
no closing of the teeth.
Consonants using the teeth and lips are *v, *f, *pf. In order to use
teeth and lips, the jaw must close.
Chapter 2 Diction and Intelligibility 83
Learn how to snap the tongue rapidly and energetically to the proper area
of the palate, whenever possible without moving the jawwhich action
would of course change the vowel and thus the resonance and the beauty of
the tone. When the vowel preceding or following a consonant that must close
the jaw has required a large mouth opening, then the jaw must flop shut or
open for the next vowel, carrying the tongue with it. The tongue tip remains
on the cutting edge of the bottom teeth throughout the movement. Thus only
the jaw moves, carrying the tongue with it and flopping loosely up and down
swiftly. This loose flopping movement does away with the tensions acquired
by the tongue trying to reach the palate when the jaw is very open.
The size of the jaw opening required by the vowel has everything to do with
what kind of closure one ought to make for the consonant preceding or
following it. In general, the lower the pitch for a vowel that comes before
or after a consonant, the easier that note is to execute. The opposite is also
true; the higher the pitch for the vowel, the more difficult the consonant is
to sing. For the most part, on extremely high notes one has an option: to be
understood or to make a beautiful sound. In truth, in a moment defined by
a very high note, the word scarcely matters to the listener. The sheer sound
of the vocal tone itself carries that moment. Furthermore, it is the composer
who must anticipate the problem that will be caused by a word that has
been written on the high note. If the composer is well versed in writing for
the voice, he or she will emulate Mozart and Verdi, repeating that word
many times on lower pitches before setting the word on a high note, re-
serving the high note for tone, not import. This will free the singer to make
a glorious tone instead of a clear word.
the vowel preceding the consonant has a large opening (815), care must
be taken. A consonant preceding or following such a large vowel open-
ing cannot be closed completely without giving difficulty in sustaining the
tone. Therefore, the consonant must be fudged, and/or the jaw flopped
swiftly (see p. 83). There are two occasions when the consonants should
be fudged in aid of a better tone:
when the import of the musical moment is more vocal than textual,
usually at climaxes or in prolonged soft singing
when a nonplosive consonant (one other than g, k, p, b, t, or d) pre-
ceding a high note is presenting the section with vocal difficulty
Rule #5: Consider the consonants position in the word (that is, initial,
middle of the word, or final) before deciding how to handle it.
This rule requires a more extended discussion, which we will turn to next.
Exercise 2.2
The director chooses a vowel and a consonant. On one chord, all sec-
tions singing in a comfortable range, the director beats an empty 2/4
bar, cuing the choir to enter on beat 1 of bar 2. The choir silently
Chapter 2 Diction and Intelligibility 85
The final consonant of any word aids intelligibility more than a begin-
ning consonant. If you find this statement controversial, judge the conse-
quent clarity of diction after such reasoning is applied to consonant tasks.
Those consonants that occur in the middle of the phrase are always
delayed until the very last moment and then attached to the next word as
swiftly and energetically as possible. When the next word begins with a
vowel, the final consonant of the preceding word should be plastered
right on to the next words initial vowel. Occasionally, placing the final
consonant of word 1 on the beginning vowel of word 2 will make a word
that was not intended, thus garbling the sense. In practice, the incidence
of such a result is rather low. If a new word is created, the initial vowel of
word 2 must of course begin with a glottal, setting aside the suggested
execution above. Example: one line from a duet by Henry Lawes with a
text by Isaac Walton, the famous fisherman, is: and angled and angled
and angled again. If executed with the [d] of and placed on the word
angled, the result will be an entirely different word, dangled, that totally
changes the meaning. This example will require a glottal separation at
the beginning of word 2.
When the next word begins with a consonant, the two consonants
should be separated by a small schwah.
Note the schwa []a very short uh sound without much character
inserted after each sounded consonant. Why do we do this? In English,
German, and Russian, languages that are notorious for having more con-
sonants per square inch than Italian, Spanish, or French, the real prob-
lem in deciphering sung words is that (given the obligatory legato) we
sometimes cannot tell where one word ends and the next begins. A schwa
sounded on pitch (when sung after consonants that have pitch, such as
[d], [b], [m], [l]) or unsounded (when sung after consonants that have no
pitch, such as [t], [p], [k], [f]), will separate the two words, such as a . . .
nd[]Bill. Without the schwa, the [d] is inaudible, making it anBill; it
86 Part I Prescriptions for Choral Singing
Note the unvoiced schwa between the [k] of took and the [th] that
begins the word their. There is no pitch, just barely audible air noise in
the schwa, but the space does the job: It makes the th audible, separating
the two words so that the listener can comprehend both. Note also the
diphthong that finishes the word time.
Remember: However strange and unnatural this feels and sounds, you
cannot judge its efficiency until listeners tell whether or not they have heard
the word. That is the proof. Even the Italians, who do not admit the ex-
istence of the vowel schwa, adopt schwas when singing in their own sup-
posedly schwa-free language. (For example, on the last page of Alfredos
Traviata aria, we have yet to hear an Italian tenor sing the words in cielo
without executing them in this way: in[]cielo.) To do this well, the schwa
must be executed as an extremely rapid [] or [] on pitch. On what pitch?
The pitch on which the preceding vowel was sung (in this case, the [i] of
in). The pitch will carry; a noise will not. Again, remember that the schwa
is of extremely short duration. It is not perceived by the listener as a schwa.
Rather, it allows the text to be understood. This recommended schwa bears
no relationship to the overly emphasized and lengthy uh of the pop or
rock singer.
So the rule holds: When the first word ends with a consonant or a
consonant cluster and the next word begins with a consonant or a cluster
(such as and strong), the task is to put a schwa between them on the pitch
of the last vowel of the first word (the [] of and) and to move rapidly
through the consonants at the beginning of the next word to the vowel of
that word (the [] of strong, a . . . nd[]stro . . . ng[]). On the other hand,
if the second word begins with a vowel (such as and I), then the final
consonant of the first word and is attached to the vowel of the second
word (a . . . ndI), unless it inadvertently creates another word. In this way
two important results are accomplished. We understand the words bet-
ter, and the vowel is elongated, not the consonant. Thus, the singing it-
self improves.
Chapter 2 Diction and Intelligibility 87
For the very last consonant in a phrase, the following principle must be in-
voked again. Especially in English and German, but also in Italian and French,
we do not fully understand any phrase until the last word has been uttered
or sung. This means that comprehensibility often hangs on the last word.
In order for the audience to understand the phrase, the singer must
sing a clear last word.
In order for the audience to understand the last word, the singer must
sing a very clear last consonant.
Singers often labor under the misapprehension that it is mainly the first
consonant in a word that must be attended to. Some directors pursue this
route, generally to little effect. A clear first consonant and first syllable
88 Part I Prescriptions for Choral Singing
4
4
Oh mia pa - tria si bel - la e per - du - ta!
)
4
4
Figure 2.3
aloneeven in a one-syllable worddoes not tell us what the word is. Only
the last consonant secures it. In addition, the schwa separating the first word
from the beginning consonant of the second word will make the second
word clear. Thus the same principles as articulated in the previous section,
apply here. If the final consonant has pitch ([d], [b], [m], [n], [z], etc.), it
should be followed by a tiny schwa on the pitch of the last note. If the final
consonant does not have pitch ([p], [t], [f], [s], [k], etc.), it will be necessary
to execute a triple-strength spurt of air to accompany the pitchless, unvoiced
consonant. Anything less will not carry. The last consonant is where the
command spit them out has some validity.
There are three methods for achieving ease (therefore better tone) on high
notes together with a reasonably clear consonant; see pp. 8384 for high
note attacks. (An attack is an onset. However, the speed that delivers the
sufficient air compression demanded by starting a tone on high pitches
seems better described in this case by the word attack rather than the
more serene word onset.)
1. When everyone is singing forte, using the same phrase that has been
repeated many times previously, as in a typical coda, let the sections who
are on really high notes virtually abandon the consonants, leaving the
enunciation tasks to the sections who are singing more reasonable pitches.
Chances are that such a musical moment will be a vocal event rather than
a text event. The sections singing in a lower tessitura will carry the text.
Not closing completely is a method that takes away the consonants physi-
cal difficulty and releases the vowel into ease and beauty. It is, of course,
a rhythmic problem. The fudged consonant must be done fast and pre-
cisely on the beat.
3. When the approach to the high note is by large skip and when the
consonant on that note is a plosive, as in Figures 2.4 and 2.5, teach your
singers to put the initial consonant on the previous lower note, singing
only the following vowel on the second, higher note. For example a skip
from Bb up to G, using the words Oh, God. Both the word Oh and the
[G] of God are sung on the Bb. This leaves only the [o] vowel of the word
God (or its modification) to be sung on the high note at exactly the right
moment. The two words will then be: ogg od. This technique works best
when the consonant is a plosive. Singing the consonant G on a lower note
is easy, and the singer will be happily amazed at how much better the upper
note is when the consonant has been left behind. Another example: On a
skip of Bb to G a sixth above, using the words to kiss, put the [k] of kiss
on the Bb during the note value for the Bb, arriving on the higher G with
only the vowel [i] of kiss, (or, if modifying correctly, [e] or [E], depend-
ing on the voice category), thus effectively transforming the words on the
two notes into tookk iss.
When the high note is written as an entrance with initial consonant(s)
beginning the word, such as Glory to God from Messiah, as in Figure
2.6, the same procedure can be followed. On the upbeat, close the [g], imag-
ining it to be on an octave below, but making no sound. On the downbeat,
release the [g] and put a swift [l] and the vowel on the intended pitch.
There is a further plus that accrues to the vocal tone when putting the
consonant on the preceding pitch or an imaginary low note before an
90 Part I Prescriptions for Choral Singing
3 3
4
4
O God to kiss
o gg - d tu kk e - ss
Glo - ry to God
lo - ry to God
upward skip. A plosive that is simply lengthened (but not pushed or tensed
with a strong tongue movement) will give higher pharyngeal pressure, thus
giving the higher note more chest content and, therefore, a stronger, richer
quality. The plosives[g] and [k], [t] and [d], [p] and [b]will give, when
simply lengthened and placed on the first note of two, a stronger, more
carrying tone. In contrast, the consonants [m] and [n], when lengthened,
will produce a tone lighter and more heady on the following tone. Con-
sider what result you would like to achieve and choose accordingly.
For the most part, singers are not equipped to do such precise move-
ments without training. Nevertheless, the sooner they commit to learn-
ing the requisite movements in the proper fashion, the sooner they can
hope to become skillful and productive choir singers. Tongues must be
trained to do the singers bidding. Teaching the technique as it is required
in the music, then always calling for correct execution, makes the task
less onerous and trains good habits. As architect Mies van der Rohe once
said, God is in the details.
Accommodate this fact into your rehearsing: Without doubt, context helps
listeners to understand the words. When one attends the theater, there is
no way that every single word is understood. Rather, one guesses success-
fully at some of them because one comprehends the context. In the broad
repertoire of choral texts, some poetry and prose is worded in an arcane
Chapter 2 Diction and Intelligibility 91
fashion and requires study to comprehend the meaning. This kind of study
time is not available to the audience, for the music is proceeding relent-
lessly. Some poetry is in accessible language and some is not. Adding in-
accessible text to bad diction will produce disappointing results. Moreover,
the audience will probably have problems understanding difficult poetry
even when it is sung with excellent diction. This problem is well under-
stood by composers of vocal music. It is one of the criteria influencing
how they choose the poetry to set.
[b], [p], [m] lips meet with pitch for [b] and [m], without pitch
for [p]
[t], [d], [n], [l], [r] tongue strikes the frontest part of the palate be-
tween top of upper teeth and alveolar arch for
all
[k], [g] tongue strikes halfway back in the palate for both;
[g] with pitch, [k] without
[w], [] lips approximate, with pitch for [w](with), with
blown air but no pitch for [](which)
[s], [z] tongue touches upper side teeth and palate, air is
blown across tongue tip with pitch for [z],
without pitch for [s]
[S], [Z] tongue touches upper side teeth and palate, air
blown across tongue with pitch for [Z], with-
out pitch for [S]
[f], [v] upper teeth touch lower lip, air blown through
with pitch for [v], without pitch for [f]
[n], [] for [n] tongue at the top of upper teeth; for []
(song) tongue touches palate and upper side
teeth; both have pitch
[], [] tongue strikes behind upper front teeth; [] (jam)
has pitch, [] (cheer) does not
[], [] tongue touches bottom of upper front teeth; []
(this) has pitch, [] (thin) does not
92
TABLE 2.2 The IPA Consonant Chart
Symbol Execution English German Italian French Latin Spanish
[b] close lips, explode back Bote balsamo bonbon beata beso
open; in Spanish, burst beginnen barbaro dbile nobis vaso
lips dont actually cabo
touch, close to a [v] cavo
[] form designated human ich gigante
vowel; blow over it Mdchen generale
(before
i or e)
[d] tongue tip wide just dog danke donna dinde dona dice
* behind upper front dead tide laudamus donde
teeth
[f] lower lip under fit fr, viel fatto femme filius fino
upper front teeth suffer Vater pifferi lof philosophus cofia
[g] tongue center gave geben gola galette ego gana
* strikes center of egg Orgel ragazza mgot gustus cigala
palate
[h] short puff of air hot Hund (silent) hyacinth (silent) (silent)
from diaphragm, hin [h]s sometimes
cords open silent in French)
[j] consonant [y] is [i] yet Jedermann ieri feuille Jesu vaya
* say [i] and move to yodel jung croyant calle
next vowel rapidly llamar
[Z] tongue center and usual Genie rouge
* sides up on palate pleasure journalist jour
[] tongue explodes just giovane gere
* from front palate germ raggio
[k] tongue center keep Knig cosi cas sancta, mihi, coca
explodes from cat Glck chi kiosque qui, chorus que, kilo
palate knack cacao nunc quiso
[l] narrow tongue tip lake lse lamento lupin lacrimosa bala
* touches behind low allein salone valise largura
upper front teeth alone
[] tongue moves from million agli
* [l] through [j] to value glocchi
next vowel
[m] lips together, my Mutter marmaro marche Maria mesa
* humming sound come Kamin timide Amen
[n] tongue tip touches now nieder notte nonne nil nube
* behind upper never nein tanto nest-ce non andar
front teeth in
[] tongue moves from onion ogni gagner agnus ao
* [n] through [j] to canyon magnam
next vowel
[] tongue center singing Ring
* touches front palate trinken
and hums
93
(continued)
94
Table 2.2 (Continued)
Symbol Execution English German Italian French Latin Spanish
[p] lips together, pet partei opulente polaire Pater poco
explode air with inspire It. less apritif caput Sp. less
no pitch forceful forceful
The German ch
There are two German consonants with which American choristers have
some trouble. They are both spelled with a ch after a vowel. Many are
the explanations of how singers should accomplish these consonants.
Following is the simplest and most efficient, therefore best for the wide
range of singing experience in choir singers. Place the tongue in the posi-
tion for the vowel that will precede (or follow, as in Mdchen) the ch
consonant, which is better written with the IPA symbols: [] (known as
the ich-laut) and [x] (known as the ach-laut). Then blow air over the
tongue without moving it from the vowel. [] is closer to the front, used
for front vowels; [x] is farther back, used for the others. They will happen
automatically when the correct vowel is adopted for the tongue position.
As Written As in the
in German Tongue Position German Words
ich [I] followed by [] dich, mich
ech, che [E] followed or preceded by [] blech, Mdchen
ach [A] followed by [x] ach, nach
och [] followed by [x] doch, stochern
uch [u] followed by [x] auch, ruchbar
The Complaint
Is requiring my singers to learn the IPA, another whole written language,
worthwhile for them and for me?
Discussion
Advantages of Learning the IPA
A testament to the usefulness of the IPA is the fact that it would be diffi-
cult to find any major musical institution whose vocal department does
not insist on the use of the IPA. Language awareness and accuracy of stan-
dard pronunciation are the usual reasons given for the adoption of the
IPA symbols in the study of singing.
Thinking phonetically, however, has other advantages for singers. It
centers their technical thoughts not on producing sound by various ideas
about the larynx, (such as opening the throat, making space in the
throat)most of which are counterproductive because there is no possi-
bility of exerting direct control over the larynxbut rather on the acous-
tical and resonation system, over which there can be substantial control.
This control makes possible the much-desired blend, which is ac-
tually each section singing the acoustical formation that is best for its note.
Consistently using this vowel posture basically creates control over the
vocal instrument.
vowels in the warm-up, and will have taught the singers to connect the
vowel to its IPA symbol at the same time. Thus the singers will be pre-
pared to mark their own individual scores as the director proceeds through
the text with them.
We recommend teaching the consonants in context, explaining gen-
eral rules and exceptions as each occurs. The singers, already familiar
with the vowel sounds and symbols, will quickly become adept at mark-
ing only those that are particularly difficult to remember, or require
special attention. The directors preparation has provided them with the
skills necessary to mark the score as needed. We recommend this method
for the ease of marking the score in rehearsal, the ease of reading a score
so marked, and for the independent skills it requires of the singers. A
text written fully in IPA, sound for sound, both consonants and vowels,
is visually busy, and, for the average chorister, off-putting in its com-
plex appearance. Therefore, encourage your singers to mark only the
consonants and vowels for which they need reminders. In so marking,
have them use a regular pencil for the foreign vowels or consonants
expressed in IPA, but a red pencil for the marking of modified vowels.
Another option is to mark the IPA for foreign vowels or consonants in
the staff immediately above or on top of the text, but to mark the modi-
fied vowels above the staff.
The liturgical Latin pronunciation incorporated here represents cur-
rent standard choral usage. It is an excellent place to begin teaching for-
eign languages to a choir that has not yet ventured beyond its own. A choir
that has mastered the IPA symbols and the sounds for these vowels is well
prepared to expand its diction skills into other languages (including
Austro-German or French forms of Latin, which may be preferred for
certain repertoire).
Sanctus
from the Ordinary of the Mass
Aktu A u
Sanctus, sanctus, sanctus
i u E t
Dominus Deus Sabaoth
E tS E
Pleni sunt coeli et terra gloria tua.
oz kS
Hosanna in excelsis
Chapter 2 Diction and Intelligibility 99
i i E E u u E
Hac in
hora sine mora corde pulsum tangite;
kw E u i E
quod per sortem sternit fortem, mecum omnes plangite!
101
102 Part I Prescriptions for Choral Singing
3.1 Beauty
Each musician has a personal definition for that elusive quality, beauty.
There are certain elements of tonal beauty that inhabitants of the Western
hemisphere honor, among them true intonation, free production, balanced
vibrato, and a clear, focused tone. These are the qualities that singers seek
to display, and they are closely connected to other technical skills. There-
fore, in this chapter, beauty will be connected with breathing, with vowel
modification, with diction, and so on, at the cost of some repetition.
THE COMPLAINT
Is a beautiful singing tone really important?
ticular piece of music is helpful to a director and well worth the effort to
clarify a personal aesthetic point of view.
DISCUSSION
Defining a Beautiful Tone
Tonal beauty is indeed in the ear of the beholder. Every person will have
an ideal tone, as does each culture. The Western hemispheres epitome of
tonal beauty is sharply at odds with the ideal of singing beauty generally
held by the countries of the East. For those who do insist that a singing
tone be beautiful in the Western manner, that beauty is characterized by
several components, some of which are listed below:
A lack of any of the above components would preclude beauty in the aver-
age vocal musicians mind. Couching the same list in the negative, we have:
When searching out underlying causes for tonal faults, each mutually
dependent factor will hold part of the key to tonal and intonation
improvement.
Science in Application
Some years ago, the national convention of the National Association
of Teachers of Singing featured an interesting experiment. Six hun-
dred voice teachers from all over the country were asked to listen to a
large number of small excerpts sung by various singers in differing
stages of development. They were asked to mark their score sheets with
one mark for beautiful and another mark for not beautiful. There
was no attempt to ferret out why the segments were beautiful or not
or what qualities were perceived as beautifuljust an immediate vis-
ceral reaction from voice professionals, who are known to disagree
with each other much of the time. The results were overwhelmingly
in agreement for each selection, proving that vocal beauty has cer-
tain common characteristics recognizable to those whose profession
voice trainingis ever conscious of beauty.
106 Part I Prescriptions for Choral Singing
The Complaint
Is it possible to get a beautiful tone from every singer in my choir? Can
all high notes, especially from the sopranos, be beautiful?
Consider what you want to hear each time high notes are being sung.
Beauty? Power and size? A softer, gentler tone? An electrifying pianis-
simo? Perhaps a more dramatic effect?
Discussion
Beauty and High Notes
The Complaint
What is a passaggio, and what should a choral director do about it?
108 Part I Prescriptions for Choral Singing
that serves choral directors need to be efficient in the use of their few
precious warm-up minutes.
Trouble with singers intonation and blend is often experienced in the
simplified areas described below. The following diagrams for each part
(Figures 3.13.5) encompass an area from one half step below the actual
passaggio to one half step above the actual passaggio. The actual
passaggios are the three bracketed half steps in the center of the area
outlined. These areas lead into, through, and out of the important pas-
saggios for the sections mentioned. Note that the passaggio vowels for
all sections mandate as their common characteristics smaller mouth open-
ings and vowels that sit well forward in the mouth. Thus the tonal bal-
ance between head and chest content changes for the better in a simple
but reliable fashion. As the altos descend and need to be more audible,
opening the mouth and letting the vowels sit slightly further back will
accomplish this. The correct modification of these five notes will solve
many vocal problems. For the entire span of the recommended modified
pitches, see the Complete Vowel Modification Chart, p. 127. (This text
uses the octave numbering system that starts at the far left of the piano
keyboard with C1, C2, C3. C4 is middle C. C6 is the soprano high C.)
The lower passaggio is usually of lesser importance to choral sopra-
nos. True mezzo sopranos singing alto have E5F 5 as their upper pas-
saggio and D4E 4 as their lower passaggio. Second sopranos and heavier
soprano voices have F5G5 as their upper passaggio and E 4F4 as their
lower passaggio.
Even though there are several types of tenors and baritones (lighter
and heavier), the fact that all men sing in chest voice up to the first note
of their respective passaggii makes choral male voices less problematic
than the female voices.
Discussion
Directors may find interesting a discussion of the various percentages of
head and chest that are, practically speaking, most efficient. First, a ca-
veat: The following figures are approximate and are intended to give a
general and functional understanding of the register system. They are not
meant to convey scientific certainty. In business, these numbers would be
called ballpark figures.
Since men sing in some type of heavier or lighter chest voice all the
way up to the vicinity of C4, their upper passaggio must move the voice
into a register that has a mix of 50 percent chest and 50 percent head
content somewhere around C4. This is the mix with which they go through
the passaggio and into high notes successfully. About four half steps above
110 Part I Prescriptions for Choral Singing
low upper
Soprano Alto passaggio Alto passaggio
9
9
e5 e6 e7
Tenor
their passaggios, male voices move into a 40/60 mix, and the tenor high
C (C5) is best accomplished in reinforced falsetto (not identical with true
falsetto).
The various registers of the female voice reveal a more complex pat-
tern of possibilities. The bottommost register is composed of 100 percent
chest voice. Next comes a register with a mix of about 75 percent chest
and 25 percent head content (commonly called chest mix), followed in
the lower passaggio by the same 50/50 mix that men use in their upper
passaggios. Preceding the upper passaggio is a register with approximately
40 percent chest content and 60 percent head content, an area where fe-
male voices frequently sing flat, caused by the difficulty in arriving at the
40/60 mix. The upper passaggio changes the balance to something like
25/75 chest/head mix. Above C6, high C, both the 25/75 register and the
flageolet register (5/95) can be used. Above E b 6, super whistle, which has
100 percent head content, must usually be invoked in order to access those
pitches.
tic falsetto practiced by a countertenor, and the loud, full tone of a trained
head voice with added resonance, commonly referred to as voix mixte.
Falsetto is characterized by a breathy, flutelike tone lacking in overtones.
Once the changes of the pubescent voice have been completed, the fal-
setto can be used to train high notes in young males.1
The safe use of chest voice in females is an issue of controversy. It is
probably best to avoid the chest voice with young females. It can be dif-
ficult for the choral director to know whether the voice has actually ma-
tured sufficiently to ask for chest voice. Furthermore, many young female
singers who have taken part in elementary or high school productions of
Broadway shows have already acquired the habit of imitating the mod-
ern music theater belt voice, to the advantage or disadvantage of their
vocal health. With clearly mature female voices, chest voice, either pure
or in a mix, can be taught in a safer manner.
The Complaint
When should a male be asked to use falsetto? When can a young male be
safely asked for a real (modal) tone?
singing exclusively in falsetto is harmful to the vocal cords due to its basic
inefficiency, which results in significant vibrato and intonation problems.
The decision of when to request falsetto from mature male singers is
up to the musical discretion of the choral director. When falsetto is used
extensively for pitches that could be sung in modal voice, the modal voice
will be robbed of some of its power.
Discussion
The Use of Falsetto in Adult Male Singers
Here are two helpful exercises for those few who have never found their
falsetto.2
Exercise 3.1
Sing the melody in Figure 3.6, which is based upon the overtone se-
ries, starting in the key for each type of voice (given below), and going
up by half steps, doing the entire tune on each of the vowels. The mouth
should be quite closed, 16 opening. The top note should be in fal-
setto, and the bottom two notes should be sung in modal voice. The
falsetto sensation is one of letting go of all controls except pitch. In-
deed, the pitches will waver in the beginning, until some skill has been
achieved. The difficulty of switching gears will eventually ease and the
exercise can be sung rapidly, which is recommended.
Tenor starts in the key of B (first note F#) and continues through
the key of E.
Chapter 3 Tone and Intonation 113
F
F
F
F F
F
u - - - - - ] u - - - -
- - - - - ] - - - -
- - - - - ] - - - -
- - - - - ] - - - -
e - - - - - ] e - - - -
- - - - - ] - - - -
e - - - -
Exercise 3.2
This exercise (shown in Figure 3.7) is sung exactly as in Exercise 3.1;
only the melody is different. The high note will be in falsetto, and the
lower two notes in modal voice. Use one vowel for each repetition, in
the same keys as indicated above.
passaggio. The passaggio notes must be sung with a smaller jaw opening,
a higher fronter, vowel, and often with rounded lips. This affords the voice
the opportunity to shift into a tone with more head content, or to cover.3
When the [e] passaggio vowel is executed properlyby resting the sides
of the tongue on the fourth upper tooth on both sides of the mouth and
keeping the tip against the top of the bottom teeththe high modal voice
generally opens up. The [e] vowel, tongue sides on the fourth tooth, is
almost foolproof when this is accurately done. The high front [e], resem-
bling the French aigu , is without doubt the most valuable vowel for tenors
in their upper range.
Another method is to start a tone in the falsetto voice, then develop it
into a modal tone by opening the jaw, moving the tongue forward, and
adding air. Both of these methods help the singer to feel the correct mus-
cular setup. Nothing takes the place of experiencing the feeling. Some male
voices cannot move from falsetto to modal voice without an obvious glitch.
A glitch is not important and need not be corrected.
Then, when singing the actual music, the vowel modifications through
the passaggio notes must be followed explicitly so that an incompatible
vowel does not betray the forward, slender position. For example, large
mouth openings and low, back tongues will play havoc with the passaggio
necessities. Therefore, sing no back vowelsno [a], no [], but sometimes
[o]on the passaggio notes in order that the passaggio remain slim to
protect entrance into the higher notes. Trust exclusively the [e] and [U]
for the passaggio until the feeling is captured. See the Complete Vowel
Modification Chart, p. 127.
The Complaint
Is chest voice singing really dangerous for young female singers? What
about chest mix?
Discussion
The Necessity for Adult Females to Access
Either Chest Voice or Chest Mix
Frequently, directors are at a loss when trying to coach their adult altos to
go into chest voice on low notes without eliciting horrendous glitches in
the process of changing registers. Teaching adult women the facility of ei-
ther going into chest register or not, at will and without glitches, is likely to
be a long-term project. Pure chest is much easier to access than is a chest/
head mixture. Chest voice is uniformly regarded as dangerous by many,
but the old master teachers were accustomed to teaching it. When more
sound is needed from the alto section on low notes, there is no way to avoid
dealing with chest voice. Although rather vulgar and ugly in sound, it will
be loud and carry well. Thus the aesthetics of the situation have a place in
the directors decision of whether to use chest or chest/head mix.
A possible solution is to find someone, either in the alto section or
from the outside, who can demonstrate the chest sound and the mixed
sound. Then have a sectional meeting in which you take the altos through
the chest exercises.
Exercise 3.3
With regard to developing chest voice for the adult female singers, try
the following exercises as a method. Start by singing up and down a
major third (doremiredo) from somewhere near low B 3 in the
low, back, wide vocal position, with a very open, deep [A] vowel, al-
lowing the tone to be spread and in vulgar chest voice. (Do not have
your singers go higher than F4.)
Once the chest tone is achieved, repeat the doremiredo tune,
but let the third note (mi) break into head voice with an obvious glitch,
as pop singers sometimes do. This will allow the altos to feel the la-
ryngeal difference between chest and head tones, the difference being
most observable on the fourth note (re) as they return to chest voice
on the way down the doremiredo pattern.
By doing the exercise above, they will identify the feeling of being
in chest voice, and what they must do to get this result (a large mouth
opening, a low, back tongue but tongue tip still on the lower teeth,
no corners, and a feeling of singing in a deep and wide position in the
back of the neck).
Then have them sing downward scales of an octave, beginning
around C5 or C 5 in a quiet subdued head voice, eventually finishing
as low as A3. As they sing down the octave scale, encourage them to
inject gradually the just-learned feeling of chest voice into the tone,
while still maintaining a front placement and without giving in totally
to the low, back, wide position. This will be the chest/head mix. In
essence, keeping the tone in an imaginary front-of-the-face position
will ensure that there be head content in the mix. Let them sing the
octave two different ways, one intending to end up in total chest, but
migrating to chest voice gradually; one intending to end up in a chest
mix, changing equally gradually. Soon they will be able to differenti-
ate the two techniques.
Finally, once they have learned the technique, indicate to your altos
the places where you want the low notes to be in chest voice, and where
you want them to be in a mix. It should then be your aesthetic choice.
Chapter 3 Tone and Intonation 117
The Complaint
Why should choral singers modify vowels? Is the task too complex for a
group?
relationship between the pitch (or tessitura) of a passage and the vowel(s).
Changing the mouth opening as well as the vowel is also a major way to
change the resonance of the singing. The influence of these factors should
not be underestimated. If you have ever experimented with any of these ele-
mentschanging the tongue position, the rounding or spreading of the lips,
or the size of the jaw opening of your singersyou will have noticed signifi-
cant changes to the tone, because you have used de facto modification.
Discussion
Why Modify Vowels?
Often choir directors believe it simpler to instruct their singers to use one
mouth and tongue shape for all vowels. Regarding such a method, world-
renowned vocal pedagogue Richard Miller states: pernicious is the tech-
nique of distorting all the vowels throughout the range by assuming some
one ideal mouth and pharynx posture through which all vowels must then
be produced.5 This is not a productive method.
Why then must vowels be modified, especially for louder, higher,
softer, or lower notes? The late vocal pedagogue Oren Brown answers,
It is impossible to maintain one vowel position at all pitches. Vowel
modification must be mastered to facilitate a smooth transition from low
to high and soft to loud. . . . As a basic rule, the louder or higher, softer
or lower a vowel is sung, the more it will migrate.6
It is entirely logical to believe that your choristers should sing the exact
vowel written by the composer. However, to do so is not natural to the
vocal instrument. When one hears a singer whose vocal resonance is even
and consistently good from note to notehigh or low, soft or loudthe
vowels are changing semitone by semitone, and the vocal tract is chang-
ing form constantly, whether or not the listener can sense it, whether or
not the singer takes note of it. This cannot be avoided. This is the way
the voice works. As Brown reminds us, Good singers, whether con-
sciously or not, depend on finding an easy adjustment for the pitch. This
will be a modification (emphasis added).7 Moreover, when choral di-
rectors ask their singers, for example, to sing [ee] but drop their jaws while
doing it, they too are modifying the vowel.
There is no disputing the fact that the modification of vowels inspires
much controversy. However, the conviction that modification is unneces-
sary is counterproductive to a directors aims. It is true that singers can sing
any note on any vowel, only limited by the physical boundaries of their range,
but some vowel forms will have constructive interaction with the vocal cords
and other vowel forms will have a diminishing acoustical interaction.
The Science
In the last forty years there have been many vocal researchers work-
ing on the issue of formant frequencies. Researcher Johan Sundberg
is particularly adept at presenting this complicated subject in laymans
terms, of which the following is our prcis.
Adjusting the shape of the vocal tract is the most common method
for tuning the formant frequencies.
must learn to vary the length of his tubing by use of fingering the valves on
that instrument, or the trombone by the use of the slide, for best tonal re-
sults the singer must be able to vary the effective length of his instrument
by the use of various vowel colors. These are formations of the vocal tract
caused by movements of the lips, tongue, depressor and/or elevator muscles
of the larynx, and action of the soft palate.9 Orthe vowel shapes.
The crux of the matter is this: Modifications persuade the resonator
(vowel) to work efficiently. When, vice versa, the resonator adjusts to
amplify the sung pitch, the vowels are, in that instant, automatically modi-
fied. This explains why singers experience vocal unease and difficulty when
asked to sing speech vowels in the more perilous parts of their ranges. If
vowel positions are kept in a fixed state rather than modified, the voice will
run into and out of resonance points, resulting in a sound that is at times
out of tune, harsh, unfocused, and unsteady in vibrato. Furthermore, it is a
truism that critics and audience members are more likely to point out bad
sound than they are to mention slight modifications of language values.
Inflexible language treatment tends to impair the musicality, expres-
siveness, and survival of voices. You will find these conclusions in the
Complete Vowel Modification Chart. With the aid of vowel modifica-
tion your singers will have fewer vocal problems, including intonation.
A reminder: Because female voices, especially sopranos, sing in a range
that is nearer to the resonance frequency of vowels, their singing will profit
from a greater use of modification. In addition, for acoustical reasons this
modifying will be visually evident: The word benedicimus sung on A4,
for example, will look just as it does when spoken; sung on A5, however,
the mouth opening will be quite large. Male voices, on the other hand,
are actually playing the pitch of vowels by overtones most of the time.
Therefore there tends to be less need for vowel modification, especially
below middle C4. Basic modification for men should be large-mouth
vowels on low notes, and rounded vowels (corners) toward closed vow-
els on the top, thus tending toward the much-desired cover.
The Complaint
How do I teach my singers to do this complex task called vowel modifi-
cation?
freedom of effort and better tonal quality increases the singers confidence,
motivates them to do the work, and gives them pride in the results.
Choir singers should have a knowledge of the IPA symbols. Without it,
modifications will be imprecise. With it, breathing, blend, intonation, reso-
nance, and intelligibility may be cogently addressed. The director should
acquire a facility with the IPA and some personal experience with modify-
ing, using his or her own voice. In addition, the director would do well to
score his copies of the choirs music with the proper modifications in ad-
vance of rehearsals and request the singers to mark their scores accordingly.
For teaching the entire IPA and vowel modification, here is a method.
Method 3
Once the IPA is learned, teach your singers how to apply the passaggio
modifications in context. From the perfect fifth slide exercise of
Method 1, they learned how to use only [U] and [e] on the passaggio
124 Part I Prescriptions for Choral Singing
Discussion
We readily acknowledge that there are many ways to accomplish habits
of modification. Generally speaking, singers can eventually be guided to
find the optimal resonance of each vowel for themselves. This quest is
regularly pursued by voice teachers using any number of indirect or non-
specific approaches. It is a much lengthier process. The modification charts
presented here offer a direct, specific, and fact-based approach. The cor-
rect vowel creates correct registrationa more efficient process. There is
another advantage to using vowel modification, aside from the already
stated results: blend, ease, intelligibility, resonance, and so on. As Rich-
ard Miller says, the use of the IPA symbols requires the choral singer to
view so-called voice production more in acoustic than laryngeal terms.
Such concentration removes attention from the laryngeal vibrator, over
which no local control is possible, and directs attention to the resonation
system, over which there is considerable actual control.10 In other words,
once your choir singers have experienced and become habituated to the
use of modifications and the IPA symbols with which to mark them in
their music, they will find it progressively simpler to intuit optimal reso-
nance and ease.
The Complaint
Having opted for modified vowels in place of the written vowels, wont
this interfere with blend and diminish the intelligibility of the words?
self. This unmodified vowel is often fraught with physical difficulties and
resultant lack of clarity. With experimentation, both the director and the
singers can be persuaded that this is true. The consonants, on the other
hand, must be executed by all the singers at the same exact moment and
in the same way. This method of enunciation, together with the correctly
modified vowels, will produce a clarity of diction that is totally satisfac-
tory. See Demystifying Consonants, p. 75.
Singers will always try to find the best modification for their difficult
notes, whether or not they call it that. You do them a favor when you
encourage them to search for that modification, or, better, teach them
what the modifications should be. They will return the favor in the form
of a better tone.
When blend is accomplished by reducing the choirs sound to the low-
est common denominator in vocal resonance, this will actually cause vocal
faults, especially among developing singers or amateurs, undercutting the
desired results.
let the full chorus sing the passage, all sections executing conso-
nants together and each section modifying vowels as necessary.
6. The outcome of this experiment should underscore the value of
harmonic pronunciation. Teach the modifications to your singers;
its benefits are especially advantageous to those singers who have
little natural resonance. Blend will come more easily by teaching
the nonresonant voices to have more, not by asking the resonant
voices to hold back. If choristers follow index cards indicating the
proper vowels for each section that have been prepared and dis-
tributed, lesser voices will achieve more resonance.
Discussion
Does Vowel Modification Destroy Blend
and Clarity of Diction?
sing a vowel that is incompatible with the sung pitch, thus more difficult
to execute, if the listener cannot even tell that you are singing it?
Science in Application
As undergraduates in the music department of a western university
were preparing to perform in their yearly opera production, former
fears about audibility and clear diction were stirred up. The complaints
were the usual ones: It would be just the same as last year; the young
voices were no match for the orchestra; the text was completely unin-
telligible. Using the new sound system to boost the singers voices led
only to amplified booms.
Then one of the resident voice teachers recalled vocal researcher
Johan Sundbergs words about audibility and how to enhance it. If all
that is heard from the singer over the orchestra is the singers formant
range from 2000 to 4000 Hz, why not use the new sophisticated sound
system to boost only that range of frequencies? Immediately, the voices
could be heard, and beautifully. If boosting the singers formant fre-
quency made such a difference in the balance, why not add another boost
to the Hz consonant/diction spectrum that lies between 7000 and 8000?
Again the result was miraculous. Especially advantageous was the
fact that boosting only the relevant frequencies took away the listen-
ers annoyance at the obvious tonal interference produced by the usual
amplification methods.
Recommended Reading
Apfelstadt et al., 2003, pp. 2532
Simonson, 1992, pp. 103122
Lines 1 and 2 under each note give the best vowelsthe most reso-
nant, least disruptivefor that pitch in that voice category. Bear-
ing in mind that jaw size will vary with individual singers, line 3
gives the suggested (individually proportional) mouth openings,
based on the following scale:
128 Part I Prescriptions for Choral Singing
Most choral sopranos, young or old, are lyric sopranos. The upper pas-
saggio of spintos and dramatic sopranos, although virtually unimportant
in choral singing, is one-half step lower, whereas that of coloratura so-
pranos is one-half step higher.
At D5 the human ear can no longer distinguish between two front
vowels, or two back vowels. The reason for this phenomenon is the same
as that for why sopranos diction will never be as clear as that of the lower
voices unless their vowels are modified at this point of their scale. The
sopranos high pitches have fewer overtones, hence less intelligibility with-
out modification.
The passaggio that most defines alto duties is the low passaggio, some-
where between C 4 and F4, depending on whether the singer is a mezzo,
heavy soprano, or real alto. When the melody ascends through the lower
passaggio, it is sensible to use the small openings indicated. They will add
head voice to the tone and make the higher notes easier. When the melody
Chapter 3 Tone and Intonation 129
goes down through the passaggio, or when more sound is required, the
larger openings are preferable. The larger opening induces more chest
content into the tone and gives more sound.
Since choral altos rarely sing much above E 5, knowledge of their upper
passaggio (E 5 to F5) is usually unimportant to their choral duties. How-
ever, directors of high-school- and college-age women who do not study
voiceand thus rely on the choral director for instructionowe it to
these singers to teach them access to their higher range. All singers de-
serve to know the full extent of their vocal abilities. More important,
nearly every alto section contains singers who are not true altos. They
may simply be good musicians whose reading skills augment the sec-
tion. Or they may be true sopranos as yet unskilled in traversing the
passaggio to the upper range. Including the alto section in the warm-up
exercises that carry each section through their respective passaggios will
benefit these women.
130 Part I Prescriptions for Choral Singing
Men sing in chest voice until they reach their passaggios, at which time the
tone must shift into a mixture of chest and head voice in order to access the
high notes that lie above the passaggio. Below the passaggio virtually any vowel
can be sung. The tenor passaggio occurs on E 4, E , and F. Note that paren-
theses around a vowel symbol mean to add protruding lips to those vowels
that do not have them naturally, such as [o] and [U]. When descending
through the passaggio to lower notes, the substitute vowels are not so im-
portant as when ascending to higher notes. On those rare occasions, the best
high C5 vowel for tenors is [ae]. Note that corners come off the [()] at A.
Below the passaggio, basses and baritones can sing virtually any vowel.
Through and above the passaggio it is best to sing the vowels indicated.
When descending through the passaggio, substitutions are not so impor-
tant as when ascending.
The use of [] with protruding lip corners to substitute in the upper range
for all back vowels (a, o, u, ) and the use of [E] to substitute in the upper
range for all front vowels (i, I, e, ) will provide vocal ease and better
intelligibility. Neutral vowels are substituted for back vowels because the
low tongue position of the back vowels (except for [u]) makes high notes
more difficult to execute. Ascending through the passaggio, [e] substitutes
for all front vowels and [U] for all back vowels, making an ascent to higher
notes easier. Remember: these modifications serve all singing languages;
and the listener cannot distinguish between one vowel and another from
each series (front, back, neutral) in the upper passaggioand in the upper
range, the listener cannot even distinguish between back vowels and neu-
tral vowels.
Singers and conductors might prefer to think of forte and piano in a very
basic way: to sing forte, send more air and use more energy; to sing piano,
send less air and use less energy. This simplistic view does not always bring
Chapter 3 Tone and Intonation 131
the desired results. Sending more air with more energy can make for pushed
singing and strident tone. Sending less air with less energy can easily pro-
duce pressed, cracked, or off-pitch notes. The use of vowel modification
and correct mouth openings is less dangerous and more productive.
The Complaint
What does it matter how my chorus sings forte or piano?
Discussion
How to Do It: Teaching Reliable Methods
for Producing Forte and Piano
Forte Singing
High notes and passaggio notes are most vulnerable to wrong vowels.
When forte is requested on those notes, the singers should use exclusively
those vowels presented in the Complete Vowel Modification Chart, pay-
ing special attention to the size of the mouth openings and the corners
(rounded lips) or lack thereof, as listed. Singers instinctual decisions as
to the best openings are seldom totally right. Many will tend to widen
the lips and draw them back, which is counterproductive. A singer who
keeps a large mouth opening all the time will be wrong about 50 percent
of the time. A singer who keeps a small mouth opening all the time will
also be wrong about 50 percent of the time. The trick is to know when to
open a little or a lot. These openings are clearly marked in the chart and
are proportional to the individual singers mouth size. A mouth opening
marked 1 will be so small as to admit only a sheet of paper between the
teeth; the 5 opening is measured by inserting the thumb, held with the
nail vertical, between the teeth. A 15 mouth is the largest possible open-
ing, and is used only above high C (C6) by sopranos and below G2 by
basses.
Chapter 3 Tone and Intonation 133
Piano Singing
Regarding piano singing, one has a choice. Holding air back to elicit piano,
the usual method, presents the possibility that one might remove too much
air, which will stop the tone or make it unstable. To remove just the right
amount, particularly on an occasion when illness, fatigue, or allergies have
masked the condition of the cords or when performance stress is high, pre-
sents difficulties. Piano singing on high notes is a perilous maneuver at any
time, and singers are only too aware of how iffy this is. The common
individual method of dealing with such difficulty is surreptitiously to stop
singing, with predictable results for the choral sound. Confidence is at a
low ebb, which makes the maneuver even harder. Using vowel modifica-
tion to achieve the piano has two advantages: first, one need not remove
air at all; second, one knows exactly where to put the tongue, exactly how
far to open the mouth, and exactly how the lips should be placed. There is
no guesswork, no mental crossing of the fingers. If these details are learned
precisely, the result will be exactly as expected.
The piano vowels are three: one, [I], for all front vowels; one, [Y], for
the lip-rounded umlaut and French vowels; and one, [], for all back and
neutral vowels.
For front vowels and lip-rounded vowels such as umlauts, use [I] with-
out corners as in lift, or with corners [Y] as in Lft (German). The
mouth opening should be from 1 to 4 only, recalling that a 5 mouth
is as big as the thumbnail placed up and down between the teeth,
and that therefore jaw openings 1 to 4 will be smaller than this.
For back and neutral vowels, use []. This is a complex vowel to
explain. It is an [U] without rounded lips or in a neutral relaxed
position. It could also be described as the nonvowel that actress
Lucille Ball used as a groan in I Love Lucy whenever she was
caught doing something her husband had forbidden. Picture her
face: The space between her teeth was very small (between 1 and
4); her tongue stuck out slightly between her teeth, lips not pro-
truding, but relaxed.12
Using these three vowels for piano singing makes singers feel as though
they were ventriloquists. Indeed, that is an easy way to accommodate
piano singing: Keep the mouth opening very small like a ventriloquists,
but sing with normal air. The resulting sound will be soft, effected by an
automatic register change.
134 Part I Prescriptions for Choral Singing
It may take some time to persuade singers to shut their mouths for piano.
It seems to them that opening the mouth would help more, but it does not,
except for those who were initially gifted with this ability, or those whose
voices are so small that it is not a problemin short, those who are confi-
dent that they can do it and do it well. Those who are not always worry a
great deal about singing softly. To find a method that works without fail
does wonders for their confidence and eventually for their sound.
Summary
Not only does holding all voices back to the level of the least vibrant voice
in the group diminish the sound it is also actively unfair to and dangerous
for the larger, resonant voices. The noted voice pedagogue Dale Moore,
whose studio has produced many fine singers and teachers, had this to
say when he served as national president of the National Association of
Teachers of Singing: I would rather have a soprano of potentially operatic
caliber serving as part of a cheerleading squad than have her singing in a
group where the tonal ideal for a soprano is the sound of a tired English
choirboy.13 Paul Kiesgen, eminent teacher of voice and vocal pedagogy,
echoes Moore: Loud singing with inadequate vocal technique can be harm-
ful. . . . Poorly produced soft singing, however, can be equally harmful. . . .
For most voice students, soft singing is the last skill mastered and one of the
most difficult to acquire.14 In addition, the result of improperly produced
soft singing is often perilously close to pushing. Often, too, this adopted co-
ordination for soft singing leads to the same faulty coordination being used
in all circumstances, because singers have been convinced that their sound
is loud and ugly. Add to this the fact that most amateur singers spend more
time in choral rehearsals than they do singing as soloists, and you have a
dangerous situation, one that also denies the choral director the results he
or she expects to get. Yes, the more resonant voices will project over the
nonresonant. This is why the better solution is to raise up the less resonant
voices until all voices are projecting resonance. This will make the forte blend
as available as a pianissimo one.
sarily. The next step is to understand what will give carrying power to a
relatively small voiceor to a large voice as well. Just as a flabby three-
hundred-pound man is not stronger than a one-hundred-eighty-pound man
who works out, a big voice can be large but flabby and a small voice can
be slender but focused and carry well.
The Complaint
How can I get more sound from my singers?
Discussion
More Resonance from Your Singers
How many huge, resonant, dramatic voices can a choral director expect
to be given each year? In the professional singers world, such voices num-
ber perhaps one in thirty. It is probably more realistic for the director to
prepare to give his or her normal voices greater power than to hope for
more big voices, who might present the director with blend problems, in
any case. The secret to getting what appears to be more sound out of
average voices lies to a great extent in the tongue positions, mouth open-
ings, and support.
On average, the choral conductor wants more sound on those occa-
sions when the group is singing with an orchestra, not with piano or organ,
or even a cappella. The writings of the many fine vocal research teams in
the United States and abroad have made it evident that one particular
overtone, when present in the singing tone, will permit that tone to be
heard through the sound of the orchestra instrumentsvery few of which
can play in the vicinity of 3000 Hz. The human ear distinguishes this
overtone, the overtone of ring, approximately 2750 Hz, from a group
of other tones, making the listener hear the tone that contains it as
louder than a tone without it. Carrying power thus relies on the ability
to employ the vowels in a way that will produce 2750 Hz in the tone.
Even those who sing a ringing tone often believe that they just think it
in the right placement, when they are actuallyalbeit unconsciously
changing the tongue positions.
1. Other elements being equal, a forward vowel will carry better than
a back vowel; front vowels include [i], [I], [e], [E], and [ae].
2. Back vowels can be encouraged to move further front than their
natural place, that is, closer to the front of the mouth; for example,
the [a] spoken in Boston is much closer to the teeth than the []
one hears down South.
3. Maintaining the tongue tip on top of the bottom teeth for all vowels
will keep the tongue in a more forward position at all times.
Chapter 3 Tone and Intonation 137
4. Modify the vowels in the passaggio and above to include 2750 Hz.
5. The high-pitched [A] vowels should be modified because a real [A]
is progressively less useful as the pitches rise.
6. All passaggio pitches should be sung more narrowly: that is, front
tongue position, smallish mouth, protruding lipsone or all of
these.
7. Professional male singers can be observed modifying first toward
[o] and then toward [u] as the pitches rise, as Caruso advised.
Women will do almost the same: protruding their lips and dimin-
ishing the mouth size through the passaggio, then opening above it.
8. With one method or another, air support should be strong.
Professional singers who have a ringing tone will often refer to the
result as singing in the mask. By that term they mean the buzz that they
feel on the bridge of the nose and across the cheeksthe mask. We re-
mind you that this buzz is the result of keeping the 2750 frequency present
as much of the time as possible. In order to be blessed with the masky
feeling, adopt the above methods.
The Complaint
What exactly are vibratos, tremolos, bleats, and wobbles?
wobble, on the other hand, is the result of faulty vocal production and
resultant tensions.
When a vibrato is neither too slow nor too fast, neither too wide nor
too narrow, then the listener hears as the intended pitch one that is ex-
actly halfway between the two outside pitches. Under these circumstances,
and barring any other technical difficulties, it will be a just intonation.
To blame the existence of a vibrato for its disturbing qualities is to assign
blame to the wrong element. A faulty vibrato is the result of other fail-
uresusually breath, tension, or vowel formationnot the cause.
Attempting to control the vibrato in singers addresses the issue from
the least healthy standpoint. Few singers are capable of controlling vibrato
without evoking more tension. This is demonstrated in the long, held tones
of rock singers and some of todays Broadway singers, who make a point
of removing vibrato. Ultimately, the larynx can no longer sustain the ten-
sion of a long-held straight tone, and we often hear the introduction of
vibrato near the conclusion. The pattern of a straight tone evolving into
a wide tremolo is a familiar one with these singers, to the extent that it is
now considered by many a stylistic trait to be imitated.
Singing softly makes it seem that there is less vibrato, but in fact it is
not so. The vibrato is actually the same; it just isnt as apparent when the
tone is softer. This is not a real solution.
Younger voices naturally have less vibrato, and, of course, they have
a genderless, immature sound that many prefer. Nevertheless, it is unnatu-
ral for adults to make a vibratoless sound. Asking adults to remove vi-
brato is as perilous as asking children to add it.
Discussion
Orchestral conductors tend not to address vibrato as a direct issue with
the players as often as some choral directors do with their singers. Occa-
sionally orchestra conductors might request narrow vibrato or no vibrato
for a particular effect, indicating when to return to natural tone quality.
They might ask string players for more vibrato in an expansive melodic
line or perhaps as an expressive gesture, such as making an accent more
with vibrato than with the bow. In other cases, the orchestral conductor
might address instead the specific desired affect, such as more diminu-
endo or crystal clarity at a cadence. The well-trained professionals are
trusted to, and prefer to, make the technical adjustments required by the
conductors aesthetic vision, and they are relied on to be sensible in the
use of vibrato overall. Professional players possess finely developed en-
semble skills; otherwise an obtrusive vibrato would eventually result in
their losing employment.
Differences also exist between instrumentalists and singers regarding
production of vibrato. String players effect vibrato by means of hand move-
ment, often following an admonition to make it sing. Wind players ef-
fect vibrato primarily by means of airflow. The flutist, for example, whose
instrument possesses a fairly limited actual dynamic range, can create the
impression of greater dynamic range through skillful use of vibrato. By
speeding the rate of air flowand accommodating the increased air flow
with embouchure and jaw adjustments so as to maintain pitch accuracy
the resulting faster-spinning vibrato enhances the impression of a crescendo.
Conversely, controlling the air to make a diminuendowith the concomi-
tant embouchure and jaw adjustments required to maintain pitchand
slowing, then stopping the vibrato as the tone fades, increases the effect of
the decrescendo. Piano seems softer, forte seems louder, and the gradation
of movement between the two levels seems more dramatic.
It is different for singers. The amount and rate of air passing through
the larynx is but one component of tone production. There is the all-
important matter of pitch. Instrumentalists change pitch by moving fin-
gers or hands. To be sure, wind players also effect pitch-related changes
in the pharynx, the embouchure, and breathing mechanism, but the vital
element of producing a specific pitch lies in an external action.
Not so for singers. The essence of producing pitch occurs in the vocal
folds. The frequency of the pitch determines how much inherent tension
the vocal folds must sustain. Other factorsbreath, support, the vowel
140 Part I Prescriptions for Choral Singing
(which is effectively the shape made by the tongue, teeth, jaw, and lips)
enhance, or complicate the effort. For this reason vibrato is a natural com-
ponent of well-produced vocal tone. Vibrato occurs spontaneously in free
vocal production. Its organic purpose is to alleviate the concomitant strain
placed upon the laryngeal musculature that occurs when pitch is healthily
sustainedand more so when pitch is faultily sustained, hence the offend-
ing tremolo, bleat, or wobble. The ubiquitous pattern cited earlierstraight
tone evolving into a wide tremolooccurs most often among rock, pop,
and some Broadway singers. As the late eminent collaborative pianist and
author Stanley Sonntag observed, this phenomenon would have originated
as a physical response to poor technique, but has become a stylistic trait to
be imitated. As these singers advance in their careers, we hear the resulting
deterioration, loss of range, lowered tessitura, inability to sustain long notes,
increasingly wide tremolo, and raspy or nasal tone quality.
For some directors the vibratoless tone is an aesthetic choice. In those
cases it can be achieved most safely when singers introduce as much head
voice content into the tone as possible. This effort is made more or less
difficult by requirements of pitch and/or dynamics. Immediate vocal fa-
tigue and resulting damage, however, may in this way be avoided. Even
so, a debilitation of vocal capability occurs over time when senza vibrato
singing is the norm rather than the exception, particularly in larger voices.
A familiar presence in the voice studio is that of professional and
nonprofessional choristers who seek a remedy for physical strain and loss
of vocal capability brought on by extended senza vibrato singing. The
professional singer can learn to accommodate the request by singing as
much in head voice as is possible, and by taking frequent breaths to re-
lease the strain on the musculature. Nevertheless, he or she continues the
practice of extended vibratoless singing over the long term at the peril of
diminishing vocal capabilities.
The nonprofessional singer has less technical skill available and is far
more dependent upon direction from the conductor for his or her vocal
healththus our firm belief that healthier singing results when choral di-
rectors limit how long and how often they require senza vibrato singing. If
vibrato is problematic, directors should address the problem from the stand-
point of the effect they desire, not by manipulating the vibrato itself.
Understandably, choral directors want blend and worry that vibrato
will ruin it. Vibrato, however, is not the same as tremolo or wobble. When
vibrato creates a problem of ensemble or blend, the remedies that may be
applied to faulty vocal production or to placement of singers within the
ensemble (see pp. 15457) will be useful. Where individual ensemble skill
is lacking, inculcating an awareness of the differences between perform-
ing as soloist and as ensemble member is in order.
Chapter 3 Tone and Intonation 141
When the vibrato pulsations are slower than five per second, the human
ear picks them up as separate and unpleasant pitches, commonly referred
to as a wobble. Such a wobble can be caused by muscle fatigue, emo-
tional tension, or excessive contractions of the intrinsic laryngeal muscles.
When vibrato pulsations number more than eight per second, being heard
as a group of tones rather than one, another type of unpleasant sound
like a bleat or tremolo is produced, caused by too much pressure on the
vocal folds, the result of the larynx alternately resisting and releasing
the excessive breath pressure. Rigidly true intonation without any vi-
brato is uninteresting and intolerable to many.15
The Science
Metfessel, a contributor to Carl E. Seashores original study, had this
to say: Most singers cannot sing a tone that would have any sem-
blance of desirability without using the vibrato. . . . They have not dis-
tinguished timbre from sonance, rather interpreting the vibrato effect
as tone quality.16
Dr. Friedrich Brodnitz, a leading New York otolaryngologist of
the fifties, agreed: A well-trained voice exhibits always a certain
amount of vibrato that gives changes, both in pitch and volume. By
vibrato we understand small rhythmical changes in pitch and volume.
These oscillations are more noticeable in forte than in piano. . . . If
the wavering becomes excessiveup to twelve times per secondit
is called tremolo.17
Nor do later scientific authorities disagree with Seashores earlier
findings: Appelman (1967), Large and Iwata (1971), Vennard and
Hirano (1971), Hirano, Y. Yoshida, T. Yoshida, and Tateishi (1985),
Horii (1989), and Kelly (1995) all consider a vibrato of from five to
eight regular pulsations per second to be that of a good singer. They
are in agreement that pulsations slower than that (called a wobble)
are picked up by the human ear as separate pitches and unpleasant,
142 Part I Prescriptions for Choral Singing
and that a rate of more than eight pulsations per second is too fast,
producing an equally unattractive sound (called a bleat or tremolo).
2. Do they clearly indicate that there was or was not vibrato in the
vocal tone? Or whether some singers used it and others did not? Do they
indicate whether some singers may have used it part of the time for spe-
cific music and eschewed it in other music? Do we now understand ex-
actly what was meant by the terms they used at that time? (Present-
day voice teachers have considerable difficulty agreeing on exactly
what constitutes a wobble, or tremolo, or even the desirable degree of vi-
brato.) Do we know exactly what Tosi meant by his treatise of 1723 (Ob-
servations on the Florid Song, or Sentiments of the Ancient and Modern
Singers, trans. into English by Galliard, 1742)? Both sides of the vibrato
controversy have used this work as evidence: One group cites it as proof
that early singers used vibrato; the other group, that they did not.
3. What does the music itself really tell us? We know that the use of
the voice changed significantly in Rossinis day after the tenor Dupr dem-
onstrated the possibility of the high C (C5) in full voice rather than fal-
setto. Could there have been a significant change at some earlier point
between the early music we are discussing and that of, say, the Baroque?
4. Does the range used preclude the use of any particular type of tone?
How about the tessitura of solo parts and the tessitura of ensemble parts?
It is possible that some of the dissonances used were sung without vibrato
for the sake of clarity and pitch accuracy. Was a distinction made between
the tone adopted by soloists and by ensemble singers?
some of our recent and present solo singers do? Were there in fact profes-
sional singers in the current sense at all?
All of the above questions seem relevant to the subject of singing early
music and of possible vocal abuse in relation to that effort. Choir direc-
tors should know that, across the profession, voice teachers are very con-
cerned about the vocal debilitation that occurs in their students who sing
nothing but early music in groups that shun vibrato. For further infor-
mation, see appendix 5, Early Music and the Absence of Vibrato, a
statement issued by the prestigious American Academy of Teachers of
Singing in response to this issue. The assertion of questionable tonal pref-
erences, or rehearsal procedures and performance practices that compro-
mise a singers vocal health and natural function are the concern of every
teacher and director.
A final word about the belief that early music was sung without vi-
brato should come from two distinguished musicologists, the late Dennis
Stevens and G. Moens-Haenen. Stevens, in answer to a question as to
whether early singers in fact did strip all vibrato out of their sound, said,
No they didnt, and there are actual proofs. People thought that the
vibrato was a very lovely addition to the voice. Those sixteenth-
century pieces . . . say quite clearly that they should have a touch of
vibrato.18 In his article for The New Grove Dictionary of Music On-
line, Moens-Haenen has this to say: During the sixteenth to eigh-
teen centuries, vibrato was supposed to be small. According to some
baroque treatises, a vocal sound without vibrato was an ornament, which
suggests that a well trained baroque voice normally used minimal
vibrato.19
The Science
As long ago as the 1930s Carl E. Seashore initiated a study of the
vibrato. Until only very recently, when the issue was raised again by
researcherswithout conclusions as yetthe results have stood as
a hallmark. Seashores definition of a vibrato is the traditionally ac-
cepted one: A good vibrato is a pulsation of pitch, usually accom-
panied by synchronous pulsations of loudness and timbre, of such
extent and rate as to give a pleasing flexibility, tenderness, and
richness to the tone.20 Several important points were revealed in
the Seashore study, among which were these, roughly extracted from
that study:21
defects of rate,
defects of extent, or
defects of breath energy.
Defects of Rate
Rates can be too fast or too slow. Rates faster than five to seven or eight
times per second are generally judged to be unacceptable, as are rates
slower than five times per second. When a vocal muscle tenses for too
long and is not allowed to relax, it will begin to quiver and the singer will
eventually develop an uncontrolled tremor in the tongue, jaw, larynx,
abdominal muscles, and rib and chest muscles. If the quiver is fast, the
vibrato will be fast, nervous, and insecure. Quivering in the larger muscles
of the body takes longer to begin to develop. Therefore the vibrato will
come in slow wavesa wobbleproducing insecurity in the pitch and a
tendency toward being too loud. Forcing the chin down against the lar-
ynx will change the vibrato rate for the worse, making it erratic and/or
irregular.
Defects of Extent
The aberrations rising from unbalanced breath energy are probably the
most objectionable. Slow vibratos can be instigated by trying to pro-
duce a bigger sound than the voice is sized for, or by supplying too little
support to a large voice, or by the larynx alternately resisting and re-
leasing the excessive breath pressure. For example, forcing of the chin
146 Part I Prescriptions for Choral Singing
against the larynx will make the vibrato change extent unpredictably
and inconsistently.
In your choristers who sing with objectionable vibrato you may observe
signs of trembling or clenched jaws, a quivering larynx, veins standing
out in the neck, chins pressing down onto the larynx, bad posture, or sing-
ing that is consistently too loud. All the above are tension-related vibrato
problems, which arise because some particular muscle is being kept under
too much tension for too long. A tremor is the result. Attempting to sing
with a bigger sound than the voice can support, or supplying insufficient
air to a genuinely big voice can produce either a straight tone or a bleat,
both of which are caused by tension. Help your singers with relaxation
of the laryngeal area, the tongue, and jaw. See the relaxation techniques
and exercises on pp. 27173. A training program in posture and breath
support will help.
The director should be checking for both excessive tension and un-
balanced support. The location of the various quivers is a clue. Audible
but not visible vibrato faults indicate that the cause is in the larynx or the
support mechanism. Most vocal authorities would vote for breath sup-
port as the likely culprit. Yet the bleat, for example, has more than one
cause:
The cause of a straight tone is tension in the larynx or the tonal model
held by the chorister. Perhaps that singer was told at some time that his or
her tone was too shaky, with the result that the singer is holding some
musculature. Maintaining the appoggio and adhering to the ideal empty
throat should help to alleviate the problem. The slow, wide vibratoa
wobbleis typically more troublesome for the choral director. The culprit,
in addition to the absence of an appoggio, is lack of physical and vocal
exercise. Bending and stretching exercises are recommended during the
warm-up period and in private. This particularly helps the older singers.
Chapter 3 Tone and Intonation 147
Going through the passaggio well assures the proper amount of head
content in the upper range and presents an alternate method for achiev-
ing a vibrato acceptable to those conductors who favor very little. In the
lower range, smaller mouths and forward vowels will make head content
available. If the dynamic level must be loud, however, the jaw opening
will have to be larger, which makes head content more difficult to find.
Objectionable vibratos are frequently evident in older singers. Nonpro-
fessional choral singers, especially those who are older, should be singing
ten or fifteen minutes a dayin the car, the shower, while cleaning the
house or washing the carany time that presents itself. Rehearsal once
or twice a week is not enough to keep the vocal mechanism spry and
responsive. The director should make a public statement about how
he or she would like the singers to behave in this regard, and acquaint all
the singers with these facts: They should sing ten or fifteen minutes each
day, but singing too much and too loud in rehearsal or performance is
debilitating.
In sum, balanced support and released tension are major factors in
alleviating the vibrato problems of your singers.
The Complaint
How does the appoggio position steady the vibrato?
Discussion
The Appoggio and a Stable Vibrato
The Science
Two eminent vocal pedagogues and researchers supply the reasons for
relying upon the appoggio for help with objectionable vibratos, that
is, reasons for holding the rib cage high and expanded so that con-
tinuing thrust from the abdominals will give a steady tone:
The assurance with which Appelman makes his 1967 statement above
should not cause us to ignore the complexity of the task facing the singer
who is attempting to keep an optimal vibrato rate through the vicissi-
tudes of
These are not simple tasks, and they are not made easier by doing them
as a group. Each of the tasks influences the rate and extent of the vibrato.
Each of the tasks is made easier by the maintenance of the appoggio, which
generates vocal stability in many ways.
The Science
The ordinary and extraordinary tasks for which a singer is often re-
sponsible present a variety of problems that impinge upon the desired
stability of the vibrato.
1. The extent of the vibrato decreases when rapid pitch changes take
place. If the vibrato frequency could be matched to the rate of pitch
change in an agility passage, this difficulty could be avoided, but
that would ask that the director choose his or her tempo with that
principle in mind. This may well be why some directors intuitively
ask for senza vibrato in melismas. However, requiring straight tone
induces vocal tension. Better to allow the vibrato extent to decrease
of its own accord.
2. Jazz singers commonly change from straight tones to vibrato
by altering vibrato extent. See p. 145 for definitions of rate and
extent.
3. Sustained, slow-moving music accepts more vibrato than fast-
moving music.
4. Middle Eastern music asks that the vibrato extent be reduced even
further in order to distinguish between melody and vibrato.
5. Whatever we perceive, neither the straight tone nor the vibrato tone
is rock steady, although they are both steadier than a tremolo.
150 Part I Prescriptions for Choral Singing
3.9 Blend
The issue of blend is a constant thorn in the sides of choral directors. How
might the effect of one voice sticking out in a section be lessened? There
are many answers: positioning of the singers; upgrading the resonance of
weaker voices; teaching the singers to use forte without lack of ease and
focus; training all singers in vowel modification and the appoggio.
The Complaint
Is it possible to get a consistently satisfactory blend from my choir?
Often directors are more satisfied with blend when the dynamic level
is piano than when it is forte. Relying upon piano singing much of the
time from your voices can be injurious to their vocal health, and an in-
jured human voice cannot always be restored to health. In addition, con-
stant piano singing leads to the loss of vibrant tone. When singers are then
asked for a real forte, it might be impossible for them to deliver it.
Unstable vibratos come in for their share of the blame for lack of blend.
However, an unacceptable vibrato is very often caused by lack of an
appoggio and/or singing an inappropriate vowel, or even a flawed onset
not by the dynamic level at which the pitch is being sung.
Singers poor hearing is sometimes singled out as contributing to blend
problems. Although it is seldom the actual cause, it remains a possibility.
Clearly, how well the other singers are heard can influence what each
individual does with regard to blend. The various ways of grouping your
singers will influence their capacity for listening.
the use of the appoggio position for breathing (see pp. 2023)
habitually keeping the tongue on top of the bottom teeth
improving the onset and thus the tonal core (see pp. 2729)
using vowel modifications for ease and better resonance (see pp. 122
24)
Discussion
A Satisfactory Blend
When referring to lack of blend, the primary complaint is that some par-
ticular singer can be heard as an individual voice. Two basic methods could
help to achieve a better blend from your singers:
The first is clearly the preferable method, but demanding of the director.
The resonant voices will always project over the nonresonant. Asking them
to undersing in order to blend is a more onerous task for the singers, tir-
ing and potentially vocally dangerous if made habitual. The necessity for
152 Part I Prescriptions for Choral Singing
resonance does not mean that the dynamic level must be forte at all times.
To the contrary, young voices in particular should not be asked to sing
too loud or too long. The voice works optimally when resonance is present
at a mezzo-forte level, and when an appoggio position (expanded ribs and
high sternum) is supporting the tone.
The eminent choral director Robert Page, who sees to it that his cho-
risters use vowel modification by means of acoustic vowels, has said, I
dont believe in blend. Good singing is good singing. Period. In other
words, blend is a problem only where good vocalism does not reside.
Christopher Raynes, choral conductor, voice teacher, and opera director
at Boise State University, whose splendid and amusing essay, Blend, has
inspired an eminently practical viewpoint on that subject, believes that
the word blend is simply a catchall for a wide variety of problems that
are likely to arise in a choral situation. Ideally, he would like each singer
in a given choir to sing with his or her best production.
Raynes identifies four categories of problems that can be associated
with, or contribute to poor blend:
These are the main reasons choirs are taken to task for blenditis.
And the greatest of these is vowel.26
What happens to the singer whom the choral director singles out to
chastise for the sin of having a distinctive and resonant tone that obliter-
ates the tone produced by others? Raynes contributes this scenario as an
answer: Igor, I can hear you above everyone else, and I dont want to!
Igor, humiliated, promptly begins to sing with an unsupported whisper
that blends perfectly with the less than impressive output in his section.
The result: No one is singing with optimal vocal production, and no one
is contributing to the choirs best tone.
What exactly do choral directors fear about letting everyone sing with
his or her best tone, the process recommended by every vocal professional?
They fear that anarchy will take over. It may initially. But with some work
and technical improvement, the result would serve the vocal needs of the
singers, construct a choral tone of beauty capable of dynamic variety, and
satisfy the goals and desires of the choral director.
It is absolutely possible to achieve the ideals inherent in the word blend,
but this does require that directors find adequate time to give some techni-
cal vocal training to singers, that directors equip themselves with technical
knowledge, and that consideration be given to the physical arrangement of
the singers in both performance and rehearsal, about which more follows.
In sum, after tonal necessities have been resolved, reassess the positioning,
keeping in mind voice sizes and quality of musicianship.
The Complaint
I am satisfied with the voices in my choir, but less than satisfied with the
resulting tone.
Discussion
Positioning and Choral Tone
When the strongest voices are dispersed throughout the section, their
effect on the aggregate tone is diluted, and those who stand in front are
heard by the audience as a solo effort. In a sense, the effect of their sing-
ing gift is wasted. As for the best musicians, when they are dispersed
throughout the section, they influence the largest number of singers for
the good by shoring up their accuracy and raising their confidencepar-
ticularly important during the rehearsal period.
In one section of the choir at a time, have each member sing alone a short
phrasejust enough to hear the individual timbre. Pull any two members
with similar tone quality, that is, with larger or smaller voices, softer-
focused or bright, forward-focused voices, and so on. Have them sing the
phrase together; then trade places. One position will immediately sound
more unified and more resonant than the other. Add a third person and
try each combination. Again, one placement will immediately sound the
most homogeneous and resonant. This technique has been pioneered and
championed by pedagogue Rodney Eichenberger. It is adopted by every-
one who observes its effect firsthand.
According to the size of the section and its placement on risers in per-
formance, continue until you have a full row you are satisfied with, or
continue to form small cells of, say, three to five singers, each of which
pleases you. If intonation is a problem, place two who sing well in tune
together with weaker singers on either side. Avoid putting those with poor
intonation or weak vocal technique together, according to author/direc-
tor Jean Bartle. Place them on either side of better singers. If height and
visual presentation require consideration, apply the concepts to singers
of similar height. Then group the cells variously, keeping larger-voice
groups at the backor, if height is too disparate, behind smaller-voiced
groups of similar height. The tone quality of the section will change as
you shift cells. Choose what pleases you, whether in general or with a
specific work or effect in mind.
One choir director works this process as the penultimate session of an
early season team-building weekend. Two sections work on positioning
while the other two are on recreational break. Because the effect
of positioning is dramatic, interest among the singers is keen. The task is
engaging, and enthusiastic participation ensues. Those being positioned will
often comment, It feels better this way, or I hear better the other way.
The comments usually confirm the preferences of the listeners.
156 Part I Prescriptions for Choral Singing
Not every singer is present for every performance. Church choirs are es-
pecially prone to changes in personnel. One director is frequently called
upon to provide subsets of the full chorus for last-minute high-profile
events. Under changing circumstances, repositioning the singers who are
present for the task at hand is particularly advantageous. Take the mindset
of an organist, who must rework registration of his or her repertoire ac-
cording to each organ, each hall. Achieving the desired artistic result is
dependent upon judicious registration choices using the pipes and ranks
at hand. For a chorus, make the most of the available singing personnel
by positioning them for maximum effect.
Have the section leaders maintain seating charts, update any changes,
and provide you with copies. Ad hoc changes are sometimes necessary. A
master chart makes it easy to restore standard positioning when circum-
stances allow.
Science in Application
For many years the original Robert Shaw Chorale performed on an
annual Christmas Eve midnight broadcast with the CBS Symphony.
One year Shaw had an unbreakable engagement out of New York and
left the CBS program in the hands of his assistant, William Jonson.
Jonson placed in the front row one of the sopranos, whose powerful
voice usually caused Shaw to relegate her to the back row. Thirty
minutes after arriving at her apartment following the radio show, she
received a phone call. Shaws voice said, The front row, eh? He had
an infallible ear for balance and knew every voice under his command.
A salient issue too often overlooked when discussing blend is vowel modi-
fication. A fact that may be difficult for choral directors to accept is this:
For acoustical reasons, a better blend will be gained when all sections are
Chapter 3 Tone and Intonation 157
not bidden to sing the same vowel in all cases. A lack of blend often oc-
curs precisely because, for example, the basses should not be singing [i]
when the tenors should.
Breath management is another very important element that surfaces
in a discussion of solving blend. Conquering the physical attributes of
the appoggio and singing constantly in the appoggio position (expanded
ribs and high sternum) bestows on all singers, regardless of their techni-
cal prowess, the capacity to control each dynamic level, even though a
mezzo-forte level is the one at which good vocal production is most eas-
ily maintained.
Similarly, improving each singers tonal corethat is, training a focused
toneallows for blend despite differences in timbre. Substituting unformed,
undersupported singing for the sake of blend results instead in bland,
an unexpressive choral tone. Bringing all of the singers to their best, focused,
and supported singing makes vibrant, expressive tone possible.
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Chapter 4
The Individual Singer
Inevitably, choral directors face the dilemma posed by loyal but aging choir
members, especially when they begin to lose their vocal skills. When di-
rectors acquire some knowledge about the physical effects of aging on
singing, they can help their choristers sing well and longer.
The topic of older singers, though not lengthy, presents yet another
opportunity for directors to exert a positive influence on their singers. It
is, of course, even more important that directors of young singers be
knowledgeable about the physical elements influencing young voices,
concerning which there is much more to say. The great responsibility of
training young voices carries with it the possibility of imposing danger to
their vocal mechanisms. Concrete information on the subject decreases
the risk of damage and ensures healthy development.
THE COMPLAINT
What is the directors responsibility toward his or her older singers?
159
160 Part I Prescriptions for Choral Singing
Vocal Longevity
Attend to the process of healthy voicing.
Follow a vocal hygiene protocol.
Warm-up adequately/exercise the voice.
Strive for optimum health.2
Chapter 4 The Individual Singer 161
Discussion
The Problems of Older Singers Voices
Why do athletes reach their peak performance level in their teens or early
twenties, when singers reach their greatest ability in their thirties and
maintain this level for years? The answer is that singing depends on effi-
ciency, coordination, and precision, whereas athletic endeavors are often
related to strength. The aging process, beginning in the thirties, might
actually work to the singers advantage by giving more stability to the
framework of the vocal cords, resulting in vibratory patterns that are more
periodic and smooth.3
Of the many symptoms of aging beyond sixty years that everyone
experiences, singers are especially vulnerable to these:
The Science
The eminent otolaryngologist Dr. Robert Sataloff and a group of his
colleagues have published a valuable compendium of facts concern-
ing the aging voice:
Chapter 4 The Individual Singer 163
The Complaint
How can a director be sure that young voices are being treated properly?
164 Part I Prescriptions for Choral Singing
7. Do not ask children to sing very softly much of the time, for any
reason.
8. Do not expect young singers to sing for long periods of time. Give
them frequent breaks.
Discussion
How to Do It: Some Advice from Experts on Younger Voices
A great voice teacher with much experience teaching younger people, Pearl
Shinn Wormhoudt, has this to say about the ways in which the young voice
is special:
Their ears should be good enough to detect what the child singer is
doing wrong.
They should understand the vocal instrument.
They should understand the physical and mental issues of the age level.
They should set vocal and musical standards for the children.
166 Part I Prescriptions for Choral Singing
The Science
The larynx of both the male and female singer continues to mutate
after puberty. The female larynx does so less radically. By fourteen
years of age, females have a greater vocal stability as well as more
general maturity than males. Vocal pedagogue and researcher Rich-
ard Miller offers three basic principles for singing through adoles-
cent changes, which he considers to be all right as long as the singer
does not feel actual discomfort vocally. They are that the singer
should
Chapter 4 The Individual Singer 167
Musical parameters are not the only criteria for choosing repertoire for
younger voicesa heavy responsibility. Vocal health must be part of the
choral directors decision making. Less is probably always better than more
168 Part I Prescriptions for Choral Singing
for young choirs, except for the debilitating process of adopting a uni-
form pianissimo for all their singing. Smaller range and less time singing
forte are good guidelines.
In choosing repertoire,
make it your task to know the vocal status of all the singers;
consider which pieces will build, not tear down young voices;
choose music that suits the voices at hand, rather than make the voices
fit the music;
consider how much loud singing is required;
research the ideal singing range of the age level of the singers;
when attempting to answer their desire to perform music theater and
pop music, consider the tessitura, range, dynamic levels, and length
of time they will be in use.
The Complaint
Why and how should I initiate private sessions with an individual singer?
Any individual vocal problem that affects the total choral sound
should be addressed. If general instruction given in the choral rehearsal
does not produce improvement, the director should work with the singer
individually.
Discussion
Singling Out Individuals for Special Instruction
Once you are a choral director who addresses vocal issues in the rehearsal,
you can expect that some singers will bring to you questions about their
own voices. Consider these an opportune path to an improved choir.
Model good tone or demonstrate with your own voice faulty tone exag-
geratedly, remembering that young singers notion of good vocal tone has
170 Part I Prescriptions for Choral Singing
been formed by a steady barrage of pop and rock music. Increase their
perception of their own technique. Regardless of your own training,
whether singer or instrumentalist, your willingness and ability to use your
own voice confidently and competently encourages self-confidence in the
singers. It is possible to create a productive, cooperative atmosphere in
which attention to individual voices is normal and in which singers feel
free to address vocal problems. Higher levels of individual self-awareness
coupled with confidence in your instruction only serve to improve the
choir.
Occasions may arise when the director should initiate an individual
session. Do so without trepidation. Even the least talented choir member
desires to sing well and with self-confidence. Among the great pleasures
of choral singing is the sense that one is contributing to the general high
level of performance. Having created an atmosphere where singers feel
comfortable with your casual but effective individual sessions, youll dis-
cover that amateur singers enjoy improving their skills and appreciate
discovering more about their voices.
bre and register shifts (passaggios). Regularly singing outside ones tes-
situra is both debilitating to vocal quality and capable of causing varying
degrees of real damage to the mechanism itself.
You may find it advantageous to repeat the brief session once or twice.
Or, you may discover larger vocal issues that need to be addressed. In the
latter case, suggest that if the singer is interested, he or she could cer-
tainly benefit from further work with you, or with another qualified voice
teacher. Directors are sometimes unnecessarily hesitant to suggest voice
work to amateur singers, fearing the singers will feel themselves criticized.
Experience demonstrates the opposite, that amateur singers often respond
with enthusiasm to the idea that their voices can improve and their direc-
tor is willing to help them.
Hypofunctional Breathing
refresh the appoggio position (see pp. 1922). Induce physical involve-
ment that is fluid, resilient, and balanced. Take care to monitor the sing-
ers responseshyperfunction occurs all too easily.
Hyperfunctional Breathing
They should be guided to stop exerting too much effort in the upper
abdominals. When they remove the familiar sensation of tension, how-
ever, it makes them feel that they are doing too little. Often it helps to
encourage them to sing as though they were singing to a baby.
Ironically, some singers are virtually crippled by the belief that sup-
port is everything. James McKinney reminds us that efficient tone is basic
for efficient breath control.12 Actually, laryngeal efficiency can super-
sede support issues, but if a singer believes that support is the universal
answer, he or she tends to ignore other singing systems. What should
happen is the following:
Hypophonation
recting the laryngeal muscles to act a certain way is not possible. This
closure must be done by indirect means:
In one helpful method, the choral director can instruct his or her singers
to prepare to hum. The mere thought of humming will bring the cords
together, and this can be trained into a reflex action. The onset exercises
on pp. 2829 will train the adequate and efficient closure of the glottis
for those who have lost the natural gesture.
Hyperphonation
Parenthetically, this last fact is a good indication of why asking for ex-
tended vibratoless singing in early music or any other kind will produce
vocal problems. Common causes of hyperphonation given by McKinney
are the following:
posture
breath management
warming up the voice properly to ensure healthy singing
diction
vowel modification
recognizing common problems of hypo- and hyperfunction
These may signal varying degrees of real damage to the mechanism itself.
Chapter 4 The Individual Singer 175
The Complaint
Auditions are rushed and nervous-making. Im not certain I learn what I
need to know about a singer.
Discussion
Auditioning voices for the new season brings a whirl of activity: enlisting
help with recruiting, scheduling, and preparing orientation materials (re-
hearsal/performance schedules and your expectations of the singers),
holding auditions, making the decisions, and, finally, notifying auditioners
of the outcome. Its a time of expectation, marked by anticipation of the
concert season ahead, and the new voices and personalities that will join
returning members to make the years experience different from any other.
The directors primary concern for the audition itself is how best to ascer-
tain the singers vocal and musical abilities within a very limited time, and
how to use that information to the choirs best advantage. The more knowl-
edge the director has of each choir memberthe voice, its strengths and
Chapter 4 The Individual Singer 177
voices of your choir members and to obtain the best choral tone pos-
sible, it is essential that you be able to make an on-the-spot evaluation of
considerable accuracy. As many as possible of the traditional criteria
range, tessitura, timbre, and transition pointswill need assessment.14
Note that as many criteria as possible are taken into account in clas-
sifying the voice. A light or dark timbre does not necessarily indicate a
high or low voice part. An extended range does not indicate that a male
may be classified as either baritone or tenor. Tessitura must be consid-
ered. In what part of the range can the singer dwell comfortably? Where
is the voice at ease for long periods, not accounting for the occasional
extreme high or low note? A good rule of thumb is to designate a warm-
up range of a minor third higher than the usable range.
Evaluating timbre and tessitura of the voice occurs throughout the
audition. Taking those traits into account, along with range and location
of the upper passaggio (register shift, transition point, break), will deter-
mine the classification. By design, the audition form does not ask the singer
to indicate a voice part, allowing the director to listen without precon-
ception. The law of averages dictates that there will be more baritones
than true basses or tenors. There will be fewer actual altos than one might
expect. Some will be sopranos who never learned to negotiate the
passaggio to access their high notes. Still others will be sopranos who are
deemed altos because their reading skills or strong voices are needed in
that section. Some will be mezzo-sopranos. Mezzos, wherever possible in
the choral setting, should be allowed to switch between alto and soprano
parts, according to the tessitura of the piece.
The Science
Difficulties in classifying are sometimes complicated by untrained voices
with minimal range, an excellent reason for not using range alone as an
indicator. Research is underway into classifying by timbre. Since the
color of the voice depends upon the unique vibratory pattern of the vocal
cords of each singer as well as the distinct resonatory properties of that
individuals vocal tract, it may one day be possible to determine voice
classification by means of the formant frequencies in a voice.
tone quality and intonation. Look and listen for faults of breath manage-
ment, tension, nasality or breathiness in the tone, and so on.
Next, ascertain range and upper passaggio by having the auditioner
sing Happy Birthday as you move him or her through various keys.
Because the upper passaggio has a greater effect on choral singing and
its location is a critical factor in classifying the voice, this is an impor-
tant step. Start in a key that allows most voices to reach the octave span
comfortably.
Male Voices
Start in the key of E (range: B 2B 3). If the high and low notes are easy,
the singer is probably a baritone or bass. Move down by whole or half
steps until the lowest note disappears, and mark the low range on the
audition form. Then go to F major (range: C3C4) and move up by whole
or half steps. A male voice untrained in negotiating the passaggio will
typically flip into falsetto at the register shift. Having sung up the range
at full voice to impress the director, the larynx has no choice but to shift
into the falsetto gear to continue its ascent. For basses and baritones, this
will occur in the vicinity of C4 and D4. Notate on the audition sheet the
first pitch at which that event occurs. Continue moving up by whole or
half steps to discover the usable upper limit of the range and mark the
sheet accordingly.
If, in the starting key of E , the low note is weak or nonexistent, the
singer is probably a tenor. Go to the key of A (range E 3E 4), and move
by half or whole steps to locate the passaggio, which generally occurs on
or near E 4 in the tenor voice. Mark the audition sheet and note also the
lower and upper limits.
Female Voices
Start women in the key of A (range: E 4E 5). If the upper note is weak,
move down by whole or half steps to determine the limits of the lower
range. Then go to A major (range: E4E5), where the alto upper passaggio
will probably reveal itself. In most sopranos the upper passaggio will occur
at F 5.
Because the untrained female voice displays less contrast at the upper
passaggio than does the untrained male voice between its modal and fal-
setto registers, it may be more challenging to pinpoint the female passag-
gio. The male falsetto register is devoid of chest register content, marking
a dramatic difference in tone quality. The female head voice, however,
retains a variable percentage of chest register content, sometimes making
180 Part I Prescriptions for Choral Singing
If the passaggio is not clearly revealed via the birthday song process, have
the singer perform a slide with the suspected passaggio pitch as the upper
note of a perfect fifth interval. Hear the slide first on [], then on [U].
When the [U] vowel is properly executed on the passaggio note, the pitch
will feel easier to the singer and will sound easier and better focused than
the []the smaller, fronter vowel [U] inviting more head content into
the tone, thus enabling a smooth shift through the passaggio. Experiment
with both vowels on pitches just above and below until you hear that
youve found the transition point. Continue up by whole or half steps to
identify the usable upper limit of the range.
With experience, you will develop an ear that moves the process quickly.
Third, test tonal memory with several examples of pitch sequences of
increasing difficulty. Play the sequences in the singers easy range. The
difficulty of the examples should be relative to the general skill level of
the choir. An excellent discriminator is the succession of four whole steps
the first five notes of the whole tone scalefor example, unexpectedly
raising the fourth and fifth degrees of the diatonic scale to a pentatonic
scale.
Mark the example numbers on the audition form with a check or a
slash, indicating correct or incorrect recall. Check and slash marks require
similar hand motion. Avoid the X, easily inferable by the singer from the
hand motion or sound of the pen against paper, thus avoiding a disheart-
ening observation by the auditioner. With more experienced singers, go
directly to the most difficult examples, or move to one or more short
phrases containing melodic leaps and strong rhythms, so as to keep it
interesting and challenging. If less experienced singers are adequately
challenged by the pitch sequences, omit the phrases and move directly to
sight-reading. Leave unmarked the sequences or phrases you did not test.
Fourth, select several examples of sight-reading material at different
levels of difficulty, four to eight measures in length. Present the singer with
an excerpt appropriate to the skill level you have assessed thus far. Play
the starting pitch and allow a few moments for the singer to look it over.
Use the time to record your observations about tessitura, tone quality,
intonation, and other notable attributes. Indicate any deficiencies and
whether they may be improved through your work in rehearsal. An ex-
cellent reader with great pitch but breathy tone, for example, may be
Chapter 4 The Individual Singer 181
INTONATION ___________________________________________________
PITCH SEQUENCES 1 2 3 4
PHRASES 1 2
SIGHT-READING 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
S1 S2 A1 A2 T1 T2 Baritone Bass
The chapters of part I have provided thus far ample exercises for establish-
ing correct technique in all components of the singing process. Frequently
we have advocated taking a few minutes of the warm-up time to teach, train,
or refresh a skill. Here we address the warm-up, how and why to structure
it, and we include a number of additional exercises. The comprehensive
issues are the integration of the requisite skills for singing, and the prepara-
tion of singers to best advantage for the situation at hand.
There are some who posit that choral singers actually have little need to
warm up, that the music itself will train requisite skills, and that only the
greater vocal demands placed upon soloists require a warm-up. Still others
183
184 Part I Prescriptions for Choral Singing
many choir singers are amateurs, not professionals, and the probability
is low that they will find time to so. The choral warm-up should provide
not only for the stretching of the vocal muscles but also for the vocal
mechanisms changeover from speaking to singing. The warm-up also
benefits the rehearsal or performance in a very practical way. Choral sing-
ers often arrive directly from the office, or even the kitchen. The prob-
lems of ordinary living may be uppermost in their minds. The warm-up
serves to transfer attention from life problems to the kind of concentra-
tion and other mental skills needed for rehearsal. For a productive re-
hearsal to take place, the singers must put aside distractions and join in a
community effort aimed at doing justice to the music.
In a 1948 letter to the original Collegiate Chorale, explaining the
beautiful tone achieved by another chorus he was conducting, Robert Shaw
said, it has built its tone with two rehearsals per week by consistently
elaborate warm-up sessions and the most intense attention to tuning
(emphasis added).2 It is evident that Shaw depended upon a warm-up
period for many types of good results.
The larger questions here are
Science in Application
A college choir composed of nonmusic-major students performed
jointly with a prestigious amateur choir in a major New York City
concert venue. A ringer from the amateur choir, a professional
singer performing in concert with the group, approached the college
director post-performance. I am astonished at these college sing-
ers, he said. Their breathing, their singing, their diction is so pro-
fessional. As I stood among them, I kept wondering, Who trains
these singers?
Perhaps the telling aspect of this real-life anecdote is not that the
college students performed so well but that the professional singer won-
dered how and by whom they could possibly have been trained. The
answer did not occur to him: the choral director.
186 Part I Prescriptions for Choral Singing
As a director, you must take a position on teaching vocal skills and let
that decision color the content of your warm-up period.
The changeover from talking to singing requires a physical tuning up
of the thirty-nine pairs of muscles inside the larynx, the fifteen pair out-
side the larynx, and the thirty-six or more muscles of the breathing mecha-
nism. All must be functional for the singer to respond effectively to the
directors requests.
A celebrated voice teacher and highly experienced choral conductor,
Robert C. White, Jr., expresses his opinion on improving choristers vocal
abilities:
Science in Application
In a letter to the Collegiate Chorale, Robert Shaw wrote:
Id like to say after the fact my thanks for the intensity of last
nights rehearsal. We accomplished a great deal in a very short
time. . . . The music, of course, was not difficult, but it required
extreme agility and flexibility. Thanks.
At the same time I feel rather ashamed about the tenseness
of the rehearsalmy fault, not yours. Im terribly anxious for
us to become a really professional instrument, and that calls
for a lot of high-grade habits: the habit of absolute intonation,
of putting each tone in its one and only relation to key and
chordwhich calls for a terrific conscious effortthe habit of
reading ahead of the music dynamic indications, tempo marks,
188 Part I Prescriptions for Choral Singing
Walk in place, keeping balls of the feet in one place, pumping the
arms.
Hang arms loosely at the side; shake the hands.
Bounce lightly up and down on balls of the feet.
Rock the knees gently.
Messa di Voce
(to balance breath and tone, to increase expressivity in response to
directors needs)
unis.
The small mouth [] will successfully deliver a piano sound and the
rounded [] will deliver a forte sound, but the air will remain
constant, the appoggio very strong throughout, allowing the
mouth openings and the vowels to do the work. (For a detailed
discussion of executing the vowel [], see p. 133.) For words writ-
ten with front vowels, shift from [I] to [e] to [E] and back again.
Exercising on the messa di voce trains the singers in the skills
needed to replace the habit of removing or overblowing air.
They should be trained to
keep the appoggio constant;
focus keenly on pitch;
vary the jaw openings; and
vary the vowels as determined by the director.
Extending Range
1. Passaggio notes into head voice
unis.
lip trill lip trill
Figure 5.3
unis.
[a - - - - - - - - - ]
Figure 5.4
b. The donkey glide, so named because its two vowels [i] [] re-
mind one of a donkey noise. Glide down a descending perfect
fifth on [i], modifying this vowel as shown in the modification
charts on pp. 129 and 131, ending on [].
c. Staccato arpeggio patterns as in Figure 5.5.
Agility
(to prepare the voice for energized melismatic singing)
1. The chuckle method for agility (see pp. 4445 for details)
Diction
(to train vowels and consonants systematically over time)
[o ]
]
]
Figure 5.5
2 2
4 4
2 2
4 4
[u ] [i i ]
[o ] [ ]
[ ] [e a e ]
Note that in Figure 5.8 the final consonants on the words red,
cup, big, and book are rhymically notated together with the added
(voiced or unvoiced) schwahs, as are the interior consonants between
words.
Chapter 5 The Warm-Up and Training Period 195
4
4
4
4
re - d re - d
bi - g bi - g
Figure 5.8
Summary
Posture
Reciprocal observation by choir members
[e] above. Both [U] and [e] will transfer the register into head voice,
needed for high notes (Figure 5.9).
Starting pitches for other voice types is shown in Figure 5.10.
2. Preparing the choir to spot-rehearse any modifications required
by the repertoire with passages in or above the passaggio.
Accomplish this by these means:
Intonation
(See also Pianist and Partner, p. 206)
]
e e e ]
Figure 5.9
High Bass
Alto Tenor I Tenor II Baritone Baritone Bass
Figure 5.10
Diction
When time is available, train more specific diction skills, such as any
or all of the following. See also Demystifying Consonants, p. 75.
Legato
To rely on rhythmic accuracy, especially as regards placement of con-
sonants, is to accomplish a tone-improving legato. The main principle
is move the air at all times, including during long notes, fermatas, slow-
moving tempos, and other challenging maneuvers, such as large me-
lodic skips. See also Legato and Breathing, p. 30.
It can be extremely effective and time saving to adapt any of the exercise
concepts from the regular warm-up to a specific technique the choir needs
to improve. Simply select the vowel or consonant, melodic or rhythmic
pattern, phrase that needs more legato, and so on, which needs to be
worked on, and adjust the exercise accordingly. Once correctly executed,
put the skill immediately back into context. For example:
202 Part I Prescriptions for Choral Singing
Train the [e] (closed e) used in German, French, Italian, and some
forms of Latin diction, but less often in English diction, except as
a modification in the passaggio.
Used the second balanced onset exercise, p. 29.
Sing the exercise on this series of vowels: [i], [e], [E], [e], [i].
Give brief reminders about tongue position and aural cues for the vowel
sounds, such as meet for [i], chaos for [e], pet for [E]. Move quickly
to singing a portion of repertoire requiring the closed [e] vowel.
A rather slow piece with long phrases from a choirs permanent rep-
ertoire begins on the word hail. The entrance has often been less than
satisfactory. The director trains the choir to begin a slow nose inhala-
tion when she raises her hands to indicate they are about to start. On
the upbeat they continue the inhalation through the mouth, forming
the first vowel, [e]. As her hand moves down toward the ictus, they
release into the [h]; on the ictus, the vowel. In this case, extending the
initial, unvoiced consonant improves intelligibility.
Summary
Virtually any and all of the vocal, musical, and linguistic skills discussed
in part I can be approached and improvement effected during the warm-
up. Remain aware of the integrated nature of vocal technical skills so that
every factor contributing to a problem spot is addressed.
Such detailed work, costing only a few seconds if put immediately into
context, solves the problem and refines the singers threshold of aware-
ness. Over time your singers will have the high-grade habits you expect.
You will have trained them, one skill at a time, in the warm-up.
Despite the best of plans, situations arise where warm-up time is mini-
mal and under pressure. In such cases, the following four-step plan will
provide the best achievable results in the shortest time possible.
when the singing voice is in full use exists because the thirty-nine pairs of
muscles inside the larynx, the fifteen pair outside the larynx, and the thirty-
six muscles of the breathing mechanism are going full bore. At rehearsals
end they need to wind down gradually.
Cooling down is best accomplished by going from large to small in all
respects:
Cool down the chorus by closing the rehearsal with the following:
Practically speaking, most choir singers are not cooled down by the
director before departing the rehearsal. Nevertheless, it is good vocal hy-
giene to do so. There are situations where cooling down is a real necessity:
As the singers at the beginning of the rehearsal had to make the transi-
tion from voices used for general living into voices used for singing, they
now do well to return their highly energized singing muscles to the low
pitch of nonsinging life. Talking on a voice that has been functioning at
high singing energy for a few hours is extremely dangerous. Since the
talking is most typically done, as we have stated, in a range an octave below
where the singing has taken place, the result of talking on the warmed-up
singing voice is debilitating in the extreme. Remember that talking on that
warmed-up voice is what makes singers believe they are hoarse. What they
actually need is a cool-down before trying to converse in a normal speak-
ing voice. In other words, if a soloist would cool down under comparable
circumstances, so should the chorus.
206 Part I Prescriptions for Choral Singing
1. The vocal melodic line is dependent upon sustaining the tone with
the breath.
2. The vocal melodic line is dependent upon the singer audiating the
pitch (hearing it in the minds ear) before singing it.
Too often choral directors rely upon the accompanist to plunk out
the notes as a means of teaching parts. They may view this as necessary.
In the end, however, it is counterproductive.
Sustaining the tone with the breath is the basis of a legato singing line. The
piano sustains tone only by use of the damper pedal. That fundamental
difference between the two instruments, voice and piano, means that un-
Chapter 5 The Warm-Up and Training Period 207
skilled use of the piano in a choral rehearsal is more hindrance than help.
Singers, amateurs especially, will invariably echo the percussive effect of
the note-pounding technique. The musical line is lost to unsupported, non-
legato singing. Both tone and diction suffer when consonants are carelessly
tagged to the end of the preceding vowel, clipping syllables in unconscious
imitation of pounded notes. The asset acquired by singing on the vowel
through the entire pulse, linking final consonants to the next syllable, is lost.
The musical line becomes a march as the singers pound from note to note
in imitation of well-intentioned, but misguided emphatic playing.
The pianist produces a pitch by striking a key. The singer accurately pro-
duces a pitch only by first audiating the pitch. Audiation is to hearing what
visualization is to seeing. We visualize by seeing in the minds eye; we
audiate by hearing in the minds ear. To illustrate peer audiation, think
of the times an accompanist provides starting pitches, only for it to re-
quire a second or two for the chorus to settle into those pitches. This is
because some singers heard the pitch but did not audiate it before sing-
ing. (Those familiar with Robert Shaws warm-ups can testify to his skillful
use of such audiation.) The choristers skill at audiation can be readily
improved by a conductors good rehearsal technique. Teaching parts by
note-pounding reduces a choir to rote memorization at the expense of
improving aural skillsnot to mention reading skills.
It is a relatively easy matter to impress the importance of audiation
upon the choir. First, dont accept poor entrances. Second, if it appears
that poor entrances are caused by lack of skill rather than carelessness,
build the skill over time with a few seconds of exercise in the warm-up.
Start with random unison pitches, played briefly, then sung by the choir.
Progress to a chord. Once each section is sure of its place in the chord,
shift keys randomly, playing the chord briefly, then having the choir sing
it. In fairly short order the choir will learn to hear quickly, that is, to
audiate automatically. The audiation/subvocalization (silent singing) ac-
tivities of choral pedagogues Eric A. Johnson and Edward Klonoski that
follow provide further suggestions for developing the skill of audiation.
After audiating the first pitch, singers must have the skill of knowing
where the next, and the next, and the next pitches lie in the voice. They
develop this level of audiation, which for singers is also sight-reading skill,
in three ways. The first is intervallic sight-singing, knowing the intervals
by sight and sound. The second is by recognizing the harmonic direction
of the line. The third is by a singers eventually well-honed kinesthetic sense
of the pitch area. With practice, integration of the three skills becomes
fluent and often intuitive, producing good readers and improved intona-
tion. One can probably attribute the high skills of European choirs at least
partially to the fact that, there, chorus pitches are not prompted by a piano
but by a pitch pipe, thus increasing the audiation responsibilities of the
singers.
Warm-Ups
Rehearsals
The single most effective contribution the accompanist can make to the
rehearsal of a pieceassuming correct notes and rhythmsis to play
musically and artistically at all times. When playing a part is required
this practice ideally being kept to absolute minimumit should always
be played as a musical line. Even when only a short snippet is required, it
should still be played with linear direction.
The written accompaniment itself should be treated for what it is, a
component of the compositional wholenot a camouflage for choral
blemishes. Artistic and sensitive playing brings beauty and life to the piece.
It also models real music making for the singers. The accompanist now
plays as a chamber musician in a trio of conductor, chorus, and piano.
An excellent accompanist is a person of high value. By virtue of skilled
playing, the accompanist is the choral directors partner in training the
voices, ears, and musical sensibilities of the choristers. Not every conduc-
tor is so fortunate as to work with a fine pianist. Every conductor can, how-
ever, train the available pianist to be a more effective choral accompanist.
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Part II
Prescriptions for
Self-Development
Preparation, Development,
and Execution Skills
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Chapter 6
Some Practical Solutions to Leadership Issues
The Complaint
Sometimes a choir seems completely out of sorts with itself. Whatever the
underlying stresses, they affect the rehearsal, making it difficult to accom-
plish goals.
213
214 Part II Prescriptions for Self-Development
Discussion
Even a rudimentary understanding of the stages of group formation helps
reduce frustration for choral directors and enables them to work
productively at every stage. Groups are dynamic entities; that is, they
are constantly evolving. If directors view their choirs as static and un-
changing, performance will decline over time. If directors view their
choirs as too changeable to meet higher expectationsfor example,
inconsistent in attention or attendancepotential will be underrealized.
Although general traits of a choir may remain fairly constant, there
is an underlying process through which all groups pass, the under-
standing of which enables directors to make each stage as productive as
possible.
Well-established social theory holds that groups pass through four
developmental stages:
forming
storming
norming
performing
Missing out on any one of the stages means that the group will under-
perform. Therefore, learning to recognize and manage each one is an
important responsibility of the director/leader. Skillful guidance of the
group from one stage to the next results in the strongest teamwork, that
is, the best performance. However, the entire group may not proceed
through the stages together, particularly if there are subgroups within the
whole, such as the sections within a choir. Choral directors should there-
fore develop astute observational skills in order to guide the process wher-
ever it is in transition.
Forming is the initial coming together of a group to accomplish a cer-
tain goal, whether it be a task goal or a social goal. This stage consists of
members making their way into the group, discovering what it is like,
whether or not they feel welcome. The director plays a large role in mak-
ing each member feel that he or she belongs. As members shed initial reti-
cence and begin to assert individual attitudes and habits in the group
situation, some degree of conflict will inevitably arise.
Chapter 6 Some Practical Solutions to Leadership Issues 215
Many choirs have a great sense of unity, purpose, and fellowship. Is this
the result of a fortuitous combination of personalities, or the charisma of
the director? Does group cohesion have an effect on performance?
The Complaint
The singers are generally cooperative but lack a sense of purpose as a
group. Some are eager for challenge; others must be coaxed.
Discussion
Consider the variety of choirs and directors to be observed:
The Complaint
The directors leadership style is personally well suited. There are peri-
ods, however, when the choir does not respond as well as needed. What
can be done to improve these periods of frustration?
Discussion
Understanding basic principles of leadership is important for choral di-
rectors, for without doubt they are leaders. Most choral directors possess
certain innate leadership qualities, otherwise the prospect of group lead-
ing as a career would be so daunting as to override the love of choral rep-
ertoire, a desire to perform, or other compelling factors. Certainly a strong
ego, at least regarding ones own musical abilities and artistic choices, is
a component of the directors personality. Indeed, are not conductors born
thinking, Id do it differently, when sitting under anothers baton? In-
nate skills and a strong musical ego, however, are insufficient to keep a
choir performing consistently well.
Prototypical leaders (see pp. 23637) fall into six general catego-
ries: the command-deference leader, the social club leader, the circum-
spect leader, the benevolent leader, the expedient leader, and the team
leader. Most people naturally, by virtue of personality, fall fairly closely
within one of the prototypes. Each category tends toward certain pri-
orities, which in turn lead to tendencies of attitude and action. Any
prototype might achieve positive results in a given situation. However,
it is the team leader who will prove the most consistently successful
choral director.
Why the team leader? Team leaders exhibit equal concern for people
and results. Team leaders place a high value on motivating members to
reach the highest levels of accomplishment. Team leaders also place a
high value on two key traits: becoming more knowledgeable and being
flexible.
Insanity has been popularly defined as repeating the same action over and
over again, expecting different results. How often do directors come dan-
gerously close to the definition, hoping for different results? Team lead-
ers exhibit flexibility in their ability to plan work processes well suited to
the task at hand, to the choir, and to themselves. Flexible choral direc-
tors need high technical expertise. Expertise in the principles of leader-
ship should also be high. Being a flexible director does not mean working
to the lowest common denominator, compromising your standards, or
lowering your expectations. It means mastering the art of surveying the
available resources. It means drawing up, then executing plans for the
desired structuresolidly and efficiently upon that particular site. This
is how real performance is achieved.
Flexibility may seem an incongruous goal in the choral arena. After
all, a choral directors goal is to get the members of each section to sing
the same notes, at the same time, at the same dynamic level, ad infini-
tum. Stringent conformity is regularly required. However, a flexible ap-
proach to teaching and encouraging those matters of technical skill
will improve the choirs performance in the technical areas. The more
conformist and dictatorial a director, the farther down the performance
will drop. The required skill is to bring singers just to the point where
they must conform, and then leave it. The following diagram illus-
trates the dynamic nature of both conformity (compliance) and flexibil-
ity (give and take), and the importance of maintaining an appropriate
balance.1
Chapter 6 Some Practical Solutions to Leadership Issues 221
conformity
too little = chaos
too much = stifled performance
flexibility
too little = truculent, uncommitted performers
too much = chaos
The Complaint
Dealing with the array of personalities in the choir is consuming as much
energy as the musical duties.
Discussion
The very definition of leadership implies the presence of followers. What is
a choral director without a choir to lead? Having come to terms with com-
mon characteristics of groups, choral directors should also remember that
groups are composed of individual persons. The tendencies of individual
persons, when they are called upon to follow (as in a choir), will always
affect the group. Understanding that there are common types of followers,
and that each impacts a group differently, sharpens insight and helps di-
rectors develop strategies for working with all types of followers.
Although far less researched than leadership, the study of followership
has yielded valuable information for leaders. Researcher Robert Kelley
approached the subject from the standpoint of followers as collaborators,
rather than as mere opposites of leaders.3 Since choral singing is a collabo-
rative effort, his approach is well suited to the needs of choral directors.
Kelley categorized five styles of followers: alienated, conformist, pragma-
tist, passive, and exemplary.4 Clearly, the most effective followers are those
who fall under the exemplary style. Examining the most effective cate-
gory more closely reinforces the principle of working to recognized strengths.
Exemplary followers in the choir are a strength whose traits choral direc-
tors should learn to recognize and utilize.
The most salient characteristic of exemplary followers is their consis-
tency in working toward the common good. Others view them as consis-
tent in their attributes, which typically include being independent,
innovative, creative, and willing to stand up to superiors.5 Their will-
Chapter 6 Some Practical Solutions to Leadership Issues 223
The Complaint
A new tenor contributes a beautiful voice and excellent musical skills. His
abilities are needed and appreciated. Unfortunately, he also exhibits a con-
descending attitude that detracts from his positive contribution to the group.
224 Part II Prescriptions for Self-Development
3. Keep foremost in mind the goal: a choir that works well together
toward its common goal.
4. Analyze the conflict dispassionately and determine the factual issues.
5. Once the issues themselves appear resolvable, determine what
emotional factors might aggravate resolution.9
6. Prepare to act, based upon the goal of guiding the choir through
storming to performing.
Discussion
The situation cited in the Complaint offers a commonplace example of
conflict between one singer and an unknown number of others. If the
offending tenor were a member of an athletic team, the coach would say
without hesitation, Conform to the play or you are out. A similar rep-
rimand from a choral director, if made openly in rehearsal, would have a
debilitating effect upon the chorus. The adage Praise publicly, criticize
privately holds a measure of validity. It becomes more valuable to the
conflict-managing choral director when edited slightly: Praise publicly;
deal with conflict privately.
In this case, speak first and separately with several individuals. A pri-
vate chat with the section and social leaders should be along the lines of,
Ive noticed such and such. . . . Is there something going on? Id hate to
speak to him if theres something I should know. The conversation should
yield valuable information. Some possibilities are
annoyance with the singers comments and impatience with the di-
rector for allowing it to continue are spreading through the choir.
some singers recognize that he is overly insecure about being the only
new member, and they are already planning steps to make him feel
more included and relaxed.
even recognizing his insecurity, members are too annoyed by his be-
havior to take conciliatory measures.
someone knows that he has undue stress in another part of his life,
with that pressure releasing itself inappropriately in rehearsal.
In the first case, the director must go to the individual and diplomati-
cally state the case: that the singers comments are causing a problem. Firm
diplomacy allows room for the singer to realize the impact of his actions
without such discomfort that he feels he must leave the group. While guard-
ing against embarrassment, it firmly establishes that there is no tolerance
for further behavior of such kind. An iron hand in a velvet glove allows the
singer to save face and makes the point clear: The director is sure that the
226 Part II Prescriptions for Self-Development
At any given time, choirs usually have several areas that need improve-
ment. Tackling them all simultaneously may be frustrating and discour-
aging. By what means, then, can directors effect the greatest improvement
in their choirs ability in the shortest amount of time?
The Complaint
A choir is scheduled to perform in a district church choir festival in two
months. It rehearses only seventy-five minutes each week and must also
meet the requirements of weekly services. How can the director maximize
the possibility of a strong festival performance given the short rehearsal
time available?
3. Study the chart to select the two skills/techniques that will effect
the greatest improvement in the available time.
4. Set rehearsal and performance goals accordingly. Measure progress
by completing new performance profiles at regular intervals.
5. Explain the plan to the choir. Describe the expectations and the
work plan. Provide regular feedback, calling attention in detail to
the progress made.
Discussion
When asked, any director can readily recite a list of a choirs shortcom-
ings, the awareness of which would make it possible to plan for improve-
ment. Unless, however, awareness of shortcomings is coupled with
awareness of the choirs strengths, the knowledge may work to disadvan-
tage. In thinking that there is simply too much to be improved, a director
may set too few, if any goals, perhaps limiting expectations to the sole
achievement of correct rhythms and pitches. Another director may set too
many goals in the zealous effort to conquer every shortcoming, inadvert-
ently discouraging or overwhelming the choir. In neither case does a
directors knowledge of the choirs shortcomings work to its benefit.
A process for streamlining the plan for improvement is found by pos-
ing the question: How can I make the greatest impact on my choirs
ability in the shortest amount of time? Nowhere is the need to do so
greater than when an under-performing choir faces a challenge. And, in-
deed, the same skills that produce the greatest impact in the shortest
amount of time are also the skills with which a director can effect the
choirs continued improvement over the long term.
Consider the sample situation from the Complaint above. In addition
to regular weekly service responsibilities, which are challenge enough, the
choir is two months from a festival performance. It is clear that much needs
to be accomplished in a restricted amount of time. The greatest challenge
is where to begin.
First, choose a festival selection that the choir has already performed
successfully. This will facilitate a confident performance and free up pre-
cious rehearsal minutes for technical polishing, for exploring the mean-
ing and interpretation of the piece, and for performance-mode practice.
Selecting a new piece too close to the performance date means that most
rehearsal time will be spent solely on technical skills, guaranteeing a per-
functory performance.
Next, focus efforts on the one or two skills which, at the moment, will
effect the greatest improvement in the performance of that piece. Attempt-
ing too many goals leads to scattered efforts with scattered results. Attempt-
Chapter 6 Some Practical Solutions to Leadership Issues 229
1. Identify the qualities you want to hear on this piece. Draw upon a
performance of it that you especially admirea recording or the
memory of a concertor upon how you hear it ideally in your
minds ear.
2. Use a line graph like the following sample. It will reveal exactly
where the choir stands on a given piece.
3. Write down, very specifically, the performance qualities that should
be consistent for the performance you seek. List them down the
left side of the line graph. Now indicate on the graph a current
assessment, on a scale of 1 to 10, of the choirs skill in regard to
each quality. Any quality ranked below 7 indicates that improve-
ment is needed.
The sample chart in Table 6.1 indicates that, at present, the choirs
lowest level skill is phrasing, followed closely by expressivity and legato.
Other qualities requiring improvement are dynamics, tone quality, agil-
ity, mental focus, and ensemble. Borderline skills are pitch accuracy, part
independence, intonation, balance, posture, and breath management. At
70 percent or higher are rhythmic diction, vowels, eye contact with di-
rector, and entrances and releases.
The task now is to select no more than two skills on which to focus.
Study the chart to determine which skills might influence others and com-
pare how the choir rates in the related skills. For example, excellent eye
230 Part II Prescriptions for Self-Development
Quality Assessment
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Score Preparation: Pitch accuracy =================
Part independence =================
Rhythmic diction =======================
Vowels ======================
Intonation =================
Phrasing =======
Dynamics =============
Balance ===================
Expressivity =========
Vocal Technique: Posture ===================
Breath
management =====================
Tone Quality ==============
Legato =========
Agility ==============
Ensemble Skill: Eye contact with
director =========================
Mental focus ==============
Entrances and
releases =========================
Ensemble =========
Elements to Be Worked On
1.______________________________ 3.________________________________
2. ______________________________ 4.________________________________
Note: This table is adapted for choral use from Shirlee Emmons and Alma Thomas, Power Per-
formance for Singers (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), and is used by permission.
contact with the director probably influences the choirs excellent at-
tacks and releases. Could it not also be cultivated to influence phrasing
and ensemble, rated among the lowest? Examine similar relationships
and choose two skills or qualities that, if improved, would reap great
benefits in the two short months allotted: breath management and mental
focus.
Chapter 6 Some Practical Solutions to Leadership Issues 231
The basic organization, typology, and some material of chapter 7 have been ex-
tracted from Hughes et al., 1996, and are adapted to serve the needs of choral direc-
tors and choral singers. Additional material has been extracted from notes taken during
several long conferences in March 2000 with Alma Thomas, British performance psy-
chologist and coauthor with Shirlee Emmons of Power Performance for Singers (New
York: Oxford University Press, 1998).
233
234 Part II Prescriptions for Self-Development
they also possess mental toughness, which allows them to maintain their
vision of excellence when some question their mandate. Fourth, these
directors articulate the goals that will implement this vision.
In their role as mentors/teachers who give and receive feedback, di-
rectors oversee the groups development. Further, directors/leaders should
know how to achieve cohesion within their sectional groups as well as
the entire choir, how to deal with the emergence of task subleaders and
social subleaders in each section, how to effect a shared experience for
the members of their choirs, because that will produce outstanding per-
formance. To facilitate these elements, directors should possess high-level
conflict-management skills. Understanding the individuals who stand
before them and knowing how groups actually function will help choral
directors to be more effective leaders.
Based on the kinds of leaders they want to be, most conductors and
directors would appreciate an assessment of their leadership skills. To
properly assess skills, leaders must look at their qualities, behaviors, and
ultimately at effectiveness. They should first judge their own various lead-
ership qualities:
charismatic potential
speaking skills
command of influence tactics
intelligence level
personality traits
experience level
then the question becomes how to change these behaviors. There are sev-
eral ways. Leaders/directors can
Motivation
Only lately has the role of follower been studied very much. Highly ef-
fective followers contribute a great deal to the directors reputation as
a good leader, but misconceptions limit our understanding of followers
themselves. Successes and failures of singing organizations are often un-
fairly attributed to leaders when the real reason for them may be the
followers. For example, when the chorus performs well, the conductor
may be given all the credit for having trained them well. Just as leaders
are more visible than followers, directors are more visible than the cho-
Chapter 7 Leadership Theory for Reference 241
risters. Thus, the ways that leaders differ is recognized more clearly than
the ways in which choristers differ.
Because attention does not often fall on followers/choristers, it is a
common misjudgment to think of them as a group of homogeneous in-
dividuals. Yet each choristers education, technical expertise, and per-
sonality traits may affect the relationship between that singer and other
choristers as well as the relationship between that singer and the leader.
The directors effectiveness as a leader may depend on the match
between his or her personality and that of the choristers. For example,
choristers who believe that they have no personal influence may pre-
fer an organized, authoritarian type of leadership, but the director
might believe in democratic leadership. Or, conversely, choristers
who believe that they are masters of their own fate may prefer a demo-
cratic type of leadership, but the director might be a strong, structured
leader.
they believe that they must cope with a leader who expects his or
her followers to behave that way.
Archetypical choristers are seen by everyone as independent, creative,
courageous in standing up for themselves. They know how to get
along with their fellow choristers and the leader. The best ones do
not take advantage of the group or focus solely on their own rights,
but rather acknowledge that they and the group have mutual re-
sponsibilities and interests. Directors should try, when feasible, to
choose choristers who have these characteristics and should try to
encourage such behavior.
In short, it can be useful for the director to observe his or her choris-
ters as dominant or submissive, friendly or unfriendly, accepting or unac-
cepting of authority.
Choristers as a Group
Directors need to understand that choristers as a group are not just the sum
total of their accumulated characteristics. A group is defined as two or
more persons who interact with one another in such a way that each per-
son influences and is influenced by each other person.4 Viewing a group
of choristers in this way is important because it stresses the shared influ-
ence between the director and the choristers, the fact that choristers inter-
act with and influence each other, and the fact that each chorister belongs
to a number of different groups. Thus eight individuals waiting in line to
get into a movie would not be a group, but eight people planning a church
picnic would be. This definition also reminds us that everyone belongs to a
number of different groups. People tend to identify less with organizations
to which they belong than with groups to which they belong. (Thus an alto
would tend to identify more with the alto section than with the whole choir.)
Choir size affects the directors behavioral style. The group size is an
important issue for these reasons:
1. As groups become larger, cliques (that is, subgroups who share the
same goals, values, and expectations) are more likely to develop.
Directors need to identify and deal with cliques within their sec-
tions, because conflicts within sections are often a result of cliques
having opposing values.
2. The size of the group can affect a directors behavioral style: lead-
ers with a large chorus tend to pay less attention to individuals,
Chapter 7 Leadership Theory for Reference 243
The size of the group will also determine the nature of the work. The nature
and preferences of the leader in relation to the skills, strengths, and pref-
erences of the group (amateur or professional among other characteris-
tics) ought to be compatible. If their strengths butt up against the directors
preferences, there will never be a successful group. The leader will either
have to change or leave. It is the directors job to work to the strengths of
his singers. If he ignores their strengths and works solely to his own pref-
erences, only destructive emotions will be created; frustration, anger, and
fear will develop. This is not the fault of the singers. This is the directors
job; it cannot be avoided or ignored. He or she requires the skills to make
the sections and the entire choir work.
There are four distinct stages of development to any group, especially
musical groups:
Forming
Courteous interactions
Becoming acquainted with fellow members
Absence of trust
Rejection of emerging potential subleaders caused by negative
characteristics
Storming
Conflicts within the sections
Elevated emotions
Changes in status as contenders for subleader struggle to find
supporters
Norming
Clear choice of a subleader
Development of group norms and cohesiveness
Performing
Interdependence of group members and focus on the performance
of group tasks
244 Part II Prescriptions for Self-Development
Group norms govern those behaviors that the group perceives as im-
portant. These group norms are informal rules adopted by groups to regu-
late group member behaviors. Although seldom written down or openly
discussed, they still have a strong influence on behavior because people
are good at reading social cues that call attention to the norms.
The things the director wants from his or her choristers, although many
and varied (including shared goals, ability to concentrate, musical and
vocal skills, positive attitude, and so on), can be summed up by the use of
the word cohesiveness. The director wants singers to agree on the central
values and the clear-cut identity of the organization. When the director
wants to determine the extent of the sectional cohesiveness, there is a two-
stage process. First, the director asks individuals to indicate to whom in
the section they go for technical or personal advice, whom they like, with
whom they spend time, and whom they avoid. Second, the director tabu-
lates individual responses to create a chart that provides a useful way to
summarize group interactions and relationships of power. (It should be
Chapter 7 Leadership Theory for Reference 245
noted that seating arrangements often affect the degree of mutual inter-
action and reciprocal influence within groups; for example, facing for-
ward rather than in circles worsens the communication. In performance,
nothing can be done about this fact, but rehearsals offer a time during
which experiments can be made with circular seating.)
Cohesion is the element that attracts members to the choir, promotes
the desire to remain a member, and persuades members to be active within
the organization. As such, it could scarcely be more important to the
director.
A very cohesive group interacts within itself and influences its mem-
bers greatly. It may have more stable attencance and a lower turnover
(vital issues to the director), thus delivering a stronger performance. Never-
theless, a highly cohesive but unskilled group is still an unskilled group
that will be surpressed by a less cohesive but more skilled group. This
factor relates back directly to both the musical expertise and the leader-
ship ability of the director.
Sometimes members of a highly cohesive group can become so con-
cerned with striving for unanimity that they suppress dissent and critical
thinking. The leader should be willing to listen to criticisms of his or her
own ideas and create a climate of open inquiry through his or her own
impartiality and objectivity. Despite the difficulties, the development of
a cohesive group is still probably better than the alternative.
Both teams and groups exhibit mutual interaction and shared influence.
Yet teams generally have a stronger sense of identity than do groups.
Teams have common goals and tasks; groups may not have the same
consensus about goals. Teams tend to have more task interdependence
than do groups. In sum, the difference is perhaps only a matter of degree.
A team could be considered a highly specialized group. Given the high
recognition of common goals and tasks that a choir has, as well as the
interdependence on each other that choir members have, and the strong
sense of identity that sections of a choir have, a choir could easily be pre-
sumed to be a team.
An effective choral team
has a director who spends a large amount of time planning and orga-
nizing to make optimal use of resources, to assess the technical
skills of members, to select new members with the necessary vocal
and musical skills, and to improve the necessary technical skills of
the existing members;
is guided by a director who finds facilities and outside resources to
help his or her team.
1. Does the chorus know what its vocal and musical tasks are? Are
the tasks consistent with the mission? Are the tasks meaningful to
the singers? Is the chorus given feedback about the achievement of
the goals?
2. Is the collective membership of the chorus up to the tasks that need
be performed? Are there too few or too many members? Are the
members sufficiently knowledgeable and skilled to perform well? Are
members sufficiently mature and skilled to work together and avoid
conflicts? Are they able to communicate or relate to each other?
3. Does the group share a set of norms that will foster their working
as a team? Have these norms been explained, instituted, and rein-
forced by the director? Do these norms support the overall mis-
sion of the choral organization?
4. Has the director created an atmosphere in which he or she can use
authority in a flexible, nonrigid manner? Has the director raised
the technical skill level to sufficient competence to allow the group
to comply with demands of the performance conditions? Can the
directors authority change to match the demands of a situation?
These demands and constraints can cause role conflict and ambiguity for
the director.
Because of the variety of situations in which directors find themselves,
it would be helpful for them to have an abstract scheme for conceptual-
izing situations. Such a scheme would be one step in knowing how to
identify what might be the most critical factor in any instance: (1) the task,
(2) the organization, and (3) the environment. Some researchers have
assessed the strong effect that tasks have on director behaviors. Others
have concluded that the external environment and the situation have an
influence on the ways that directors act.
1. The labeling of tasks as boring or challenging does not reveal what
aspects might have caused a particular reaction. It would be more pro-
ductive for the director to move from subjective reactions to a more ob-
jective analysis. For example, choristers vary in their ability to handle
structured tasks (those for which there is a known procedure) and un-
structured tasks (those for which there are many possible procedures, none
better than the others). Choristers with a high tolerance for stress may
handle unstructured tasks easily. It is easier for a director to give instruc-
tion in structured tasks, but that is not necessarily the most helpful thing
to do. Choristers need help when they do not know how to achieve the
desired outcome. They may welcome being trained in their specific music
and vocal skills by the director.
Singing in a chorus requires many different skills: mechanical, cogni-
tive, and physical. Thus singing in a chorus is more enjoyable than, for
example, a filing job in an office, which demands a low variety of skills.
Choral singing is satisfying because it has visible and audible outcomes
to the completion of the tasks, and because individuals have some con-
trol over what is done and how it is done. A chorister is content and
satisfied to the degree that he or she receives feedback about how the
coordinated and synchronized musical/vocal tasks were accomplished
(how the performance went).
248 Part II Prescriptions for Self-Development
Several cognitive theories deal with clarifying the conscious thought pro-
cesses that people use when they decide how hard to work. Leaders do
well when they clarify the relationship between the level of effort and the
Chapter 7 Leadership Theory for Reference 249
Goal Setting
When the chorus perceives that their director has legitimate author-
ity, expresses confidence in them, provides clear standards for their per-
formances, and accompanies the goals with constant feedback on their
progress, then the director can expect high performance levels.
Conflict
Principles of Practice
Choral directors, indeed all musicians, have invested long hours of their
lives practicing something, whether it be piano, voice, conducting, vio-
lin, trumpet, or all of the above. All musicians were trained in technique
253
254 Part II Prescriptions for Self-Development
How does the choral director know what techniques, what strategies are
the right ones, except by experience? Learning only by experience takes
time. Adopting selected techniques from the new research on practice,
which follows, will be immensely useful when one does not have years of
experience.
A psychological analysis of practice methods answers salient questions:
Which type of practice is most effective when performance is imminent?
What type of rehearsal produces the best long-term development and
retention? Which type of practice best prepares for performance? What
type of practice is best for young choristers?
the execution of one particular skill, such as, the two different
ways of using the consonant when making big skips to a high
note.
Overlearning (P-O)
Definition: Continued practice of a skill after it has been learned, hence
overlearning.
A Practical Example
Research has proved that there are but two quality times in a practice
periodthe beginning and the end. These are the moments of highest
retention. Therefore choir directors should conceive of the rehearsal as a
number of short practice periods, rather than as a long stretch. Dividing
the rehearsal into smaller increments creates more beginnings and ends
within the allotted time. In the long run, this procedure increases quality
time, thus better retention.
Chapter 8 Practice and Imagery 257
8.2 Memorizing
Although choral singers most often perform with music in hand, there
are occasions when a memorized performance is preferred or required.
Memorization is expedited when the principles and strategies of memo-
rizing are understood.
The human mind remembers almost everything that happens to it, but
sometimes cannot literally re-call that information. It is rare, however,
that human beings forget information altogether. Remembering is not a
haphazard process; efficiency of retrieval depends on the efficiency of the
whole system. Your singers memories can be enhanced when you know
which learning methods suit them best.
These are the four stages of memory:
When rushed, tired, frustrated, angry, or feeling put upon, singers will
not receive the information efficiently. Thus, new memorizing tasks should
be initiated when they are beset by neither pressure nor haste.
To make encoding as efficient as possible directors should help the
singers to
Retrieval is easier when the previous steps have been well accom-
plished. Other helpful methods are to
The minute the technical details of the music, the vocalism, and the
linguistics are under control, start performance mode rehearsal. Instruct
your singers
After the first performance, the director appraises it and, listing the
good results first, speaks about what kind of spirit, musicality, and personal
involvement shone through; the moments that were particularly moving,
and the expression, the legato, and the tone quality that were admirable.
The director then speaks about what did not go particularly well, what
was incorrect, what musical problems arose, where the singers did not
follow direction, and where, specifically, the vocalism left something to
be desired.
Three performances are done in the same fashion, after which that
piece is abandoned for a time. When the director returns to the first piece,
he or she explains what needs be adjusted to raise the technical standard.
There are only two reasons for details to go wrong, particularly those that
went wrong every time:
The difficult spots are then improved either by means of a better solu-
tion or more efficient routining, until the choir executes automatically.
At that time, performance mode rehearsal resumes until the choir is at
ease with both technical requirements and their dedication to the per-
formance itself.
Singers, professional or not, are loath to divert their attention from
technical skills. It is difficult to accept that, once those motor skills are
routined and automatic, the body executes them better if they are not the
focus of the performers attention. Motor skills, when under control, are
Chapter 8 Practice and Imagery 261
stored in the brain as an entity, as, for example, riding a bicycle. When
one first learns to ride a bicycle as a child, the process is very predictable.
The father runs alongside the two-wheeler with training wheels, holding
on to his child, helping to steer and balance. The child is learning three
skills: pedaling, balancing, and steering. Eventually the training wheels
come off, the father departs, and the child does all three things at once.
In the aggregate they are called riding a bicycle. When the child be-
comes an adult who has not been on a bicycle for fifteen years, it is pos-
sible to hop on and ride, steering, balancing, and pedaling all at once
without thinking about the individual skills. In the brain is lodged an entity
labeled riding a bicycle.
It is the same with musical skills, which also are motor skills. They
comprise many different elements, each learned separately, but each be-
coming part of the whole skill that resides in the brain as one entity, such
as, singing softly, or singing fast.
In sum, performance mode, while seldom concerned about singular
skills, should be practiced and practiced a lot. In this way the technical
difficulties are all but thrown away, a very difficult thing for singers to
do. We all recognize the difference between a choir that sings well and
one that also performs well. There is a kind of rehearsal that ensures per-
formance skill and freedom. That is performance mode rehearsal, and it
brings with it great performances.
A case can be made for improving the dramatic and interpretive skills of
choral singers, if the director accepts the challenge and will allow time to
accomplish it. It is the privilege and task of the director, not the choris-
ters, to make interpretive decisions. Yet the chorus is the directors in-
strument. When they are asked to share the interpretive vision and to be
the means of implementing it, then those of their dramatic skills that are
acceptable in a choral situation ought to be raised to a high level.
What is the significance of this fact? That all interpretive elements must
be executed with regard to tempos and rhythmic durations. Singers are
word/body instruments whose responses must take place in specific rhyth-
mic places defined by the music and the words. Ideas, facial expressions,
262 Part II Prescriptions for Self-Development
perhaps body movementsall these must be allied with the musical mo-
ment. Done too early or too late, they are meaningless because they are
unrecognizable to the audience.
When music includes words, its meaning is restricted to some degree. Words
limit interpretive possibilities for choral music, but they also fill out and
enhance its meaning. Instrumentalists, having no text, are trained to look
for musical meaning, which is unrestricted. Their music is usually fully open
to interpretation unless it is clearly programmatic. When a choral text is in
a foreign language, the meaning is distanced by one degree, increasing inter-
pretive difficulty. In popular music everything can be changed by the indi-
vidual performer: tempo, melody, dynamics, keysand meaning. Serious
music, on the other hand, is not so freely tampered with, except in degree:
how much ritard, how fast an allegro, how soft the piano, and so on.
Although form and content of poetry and music exist independently,
they nevertheless function concurrently. Specific musical elements of pitch,
rhythm, volume, or harmony have been traditionally used by composers
to word paint to convey emotional states and specific concepts such as
direction, types of motion, light and darkness, water, and many others.
Donald Ivey reminds us: if the emotion aroused by the music is compat-
ible with the emotion aroused by the poetry, the images have been syn-
thesized and the expressive experience is complete.2
To persuade singers to pay close attention to poetry and poet, many
directors mandate a separate study of the poem apart from the music, and,
when performing, they present their interpretation of the text. This is
admirable but omits one essential factor from consideration and from its
part in the discovery of meaning. The meaning of the words is framed by
the music that the composer chose to express the words. For example, it
is not so important to the interpreter what Michelangelo himself meant
by his words or what the interpreter thought Michelangelo meant, but
what Liszt thought Michelangelo meant. That is to say, the music that
Liszt composed reflected his convictions about Michelangelos real mean-
ing. And where are those convictions displayed? In the music, which is
the true subtext of the poetry. Hugo Wolf, discovering that a poem that
inspired him had been previously set by another composer, went ahead
with the project only if he were convinced that the previous composer had
not done the poem justice.
With regard to choral music, it is directors who must come to per-
sonal conclusions about the meaning of the choral pieces before they lead
Chapter 8 Practice and Imagery 263
MEANING
=
Beliefs, values (people, places, issues, objects, colors, culture, etc.)
+
Knowledge (which brings about conceptualization)
+
Responses (reactions to the beliefs and values, exploration of ways to
put them to use)
+
Experience (experiments, playing with the beliefs and values until they
are felt within)
+
Synthesis (planning, practice, routine until synthesized
through repetition)
=
MEANING
=
PERFORMANCE
Once directors achieve a clear vision of the piece, it remains for them
to give the singers the technical means by which to accomplish the vision.
After the requisite technical vocal and musical skills are in place, imagery
is of help in enhancing the performance. There are some meaningful vari-
ables when considering interpretive questions. One example is presented
by baroque music, in which the text becomes less and less important once
the exposition has concluded, at which time the basic idea begins to be
examined from a musical viewpoint. The expression, as a baroque piece
goes on, depends more on musical means and depends less on meaning of
text. The directors expertise at recognizing a text event, a vocal event,
and a musical event will often be an important part of their interpretive
creativity.
The Science
Researcher Johann Sundberg has applied his talents to the subject of
vocal expression:
Perhaps the most important facet of perception of voice is ex-
pression. Surprisingly, we can, from listening to a voice, perceive a
264 Part II Prescriptions for Self-Development
All the understanding directors have labored to find will mean nothing unless
the audience can see and hear their beliefs about the meaning. The four basic
elements that transmit meaning to an audience are musical, vocal, linguis-
tic, and dramatic. When all four elements unmistakably carry the same
message (the directors interpretive decisions), then audience understand-
ing and appreciation is heightened. Making the audience see meaning de-
pends for the most part on choristers facial responses that lead to vocal
expression. These responses will be clear to the audience when the choris-
ters have improved their imagery skills. Making listeners hear the directors
point of view relies on tone quality, expressivity and clarity of diction, not
to mention all the musical decisions: when the ritard starts, how long it lasts,
when breaths are taken, the various tempos, dynamic levels, and so on. In
a choral situation, the dramatic elements, which exist in addition to the
musical development, often depend upon the imagery skills of the choral
singers. These can be improved by imagery exercises; see p. 265.
Singers who develop strong imagery skills hold the key to performing
in the moment. Being sensitized to the experience of the music in the
moment results in a physical presence that almost palpably communicates
to the audience. Faces, eyes, and bodies come alive to the expressive ele-
ments of the music. Energy capable of expressing any manner of dramatic
intent pours forth, carrying with it meaning and emotional content.
What Is Imagery?
For those directors with interest and time available for expanding their
singers skills in imaging, a sample exercise is offered. Because imagery is
concerned with all the senses, many are surprised to learn how vividly
they use senses other than visualization, especially those singers who are
unaccustomed to this kind of mental exercise.
266 Part II Prescriptions for Self-Development
The small amount of time devoted to imagery work (no more than two
or three minutes) should commence with eyes closed and body relaxed. A
goal should be set by the director, perhaps one suggested by that days re-
hearsal repertoire. An example: We are going to work on imaging a
Thanksgiving dinner. The time is about two hours before dinner will be
ready. The location is Grandmas house, as tradition dictates. The direc-
tor should ask guiding questions that spark the imagination of the singers:
The feelings will be more vivid if the image is kept in the present:
Let the choir members speak out to describe their response as they have
success imaging.
Chapter 8 Practice and Imagery 267
Once the imaging skills of your singers have grown, practice the im-
agery based on the subject of the music you are preparing for performance
soon. Guide them to the interpretation you have decided upon. Enjoy their
response.
Other than the elevation of interpretative responses, imagery can be
used to solidify technical skills. Using internal imagery, let your singers
close their eyes and see themselves singing a certain phrase that has given
troublemodification correct (they see the mouth in the proper shape and
size; they feel the tongue doing the proper vowel), appoggio in position
(they image the vigorous inhalation and the chest high, ribs expanded),
melody and rhythm accurate (they hear the tune).
Imagery affects the way you function physically. Whereas verbal lan-
guage simply represents the life of the senses, imagery uses the lan-
guage of the body. For example, as you imagine yourself moving, the
groups of muscles involved in that action will move on a subliminal
level.
Imagery helps accelerate your learning process. When you image
a new technical skill or part of a new piece of music, the appropriate
nerve impulses and pathways are used in the same way they would be
used in the actual performance. The brain does not distinguish between
your imaging the new skill and your actually executing it. In both
activities, the information received by the brain is exactly the same!
Therefore, if you combine the mental skill of imagery with the actual
physical practice, you will accelerate the rate at which you learn.
Imagery uses a language understood by the body. . . . Directing is
a physical skill. The signals received by the body are best received in
a language the body understands. Body sensations such as feeling, sight,
hearing, smell, taste, distinguishing color and movement, and so forth,
are the main vocabulary of this language.5
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Chapter 9
Mental Skills
Some readers may find it curious that a book on choral directing should
include a program of building mental skills. The decision to include this
material sprang from the phenomenon called peak performance. Openly
or guardedly, most performers hope for a peak performance whenever
they walk on stage.
269
270 Part II Prescriptions for Self-Development
Can one train for peak performance? As a choral conductor, you are no
different from an elite athlete. An athletes peak performance is the out-
come of physical, technical, and mental factors, and so is yours. Mind
and body cannot be separated in peak performance, which exhibits the
strength of the mind-body link. In it, what one thinks is echoed by what
one does. There is, of course, no substitute for complete mastery of tech-
nical skillsstick technique, an informed ear, effective leadership, and
so on. However, the higher the level of physical and technical skills, the
more important the mental aspects of performance become. For example,
during the Olympics, every competitor has high technical and physical
skills. That is why Olympic athletes readily admit that mental skills alone
make the difference between the winners and losers in those contests. As
Mark Spitz said in Montreal, after winning seven gold medals: At this
level of physical skill, the difference between winning and losing is
99 percent psychological. The great golfer Jack Nicklaus said, Mental
preparation is the single most critical element in peak performance (em-
phasis added).
As a conductor, you would be wise to direct a focus to the mental side
of performance that is equal to your usual concern with the physical/tech-
nical side. Eventually there comes a point in every performance when the
technical and physical skills are as good as they can be, when little more
can be done to improve those skills before the performance. At this level
of preparation, the mental aspects of your performance will make the
difference, in the rehearsal period and during the performance. One can-
not order up a peak performance, but one can create a climate in which
it might happen. Similarly, the mental toughness required of elite perfor-
mance is not a gift; it can be learned and it requires practice. These rea-
sons prompt the inclusion of a brief section on the most important mental
skills.
The following sections discuss individual mental skills intended as
guidance for choral conductors. However, as readers scrutinize the at-
Chapter 9 Mental Skills 271
tributes of each skill and the suggestions for their practice and improve-
ment, they should glean constructive concepts that can be passed on to
their choristers, when they believe them useful for that purpose.
Self-awareness of your body is the first step toward feeling relaxed; it also
sets the stage for important mental preparation. Replacing bad habits in
the body with good ones is just as crucial for a choral director as for an
elite athlete. Become bodily aware as you conduct your rehearsals. Gain
some insight into the mind-body relationship. See what effect the body is
having on your performance. Following are two exercises that will help.
how it feels. How well are you organizing your movements without see-
ing? Repeat again, eyes open, and again, eyes closed. Become aware of
exactly how you do the movement, creating a kinesthetic catalog.
You can acquire the ability to deal with tension in your performing life
through breathing. Have you noticed what happens to your breathing
when you are trying too hard, or are nervous or angry? The fast, shallow
breathing is a version of the fight or flight syndrome. Result: You are
a less effective conductor. When it occurs, the best step is to focus on your
own breathing. During performance, a high-pressure time, the mind often
runs ahead of the body. A deliberate return to normal breathing rhythm
allows you to relax physically and mentally.
Under pressure, remember to breathe. Keep the technique as simple
as possible. Focus solely on the breathing. Tune in to your own breathing
pattern. Allow the breath to execute a complete cycle. Take time for a
complete inhalation. Five or six mindful breaths will return your focus
and control. While breathing, think positive thoughts: I am in control. I
feel good. I can take my time.
Inhale deeply through your nose to the count of 5. Exhale through the
mouth to the count of 10. During the exhalation, focus on imagining
yourself and your choir performing well, beginning precisely, making
clean, tonally secure entrances, and so on. This type of breathing is termed
ratio, because the length of the exhalation doubles that of the inhalation:
for example, 3:6, 4:8, 5:10, 6:12. Ratio breathing combines relaxation
and concentration. On the exhalation, you can focus on anything that
helps you feel good and reduces any anxiety. This technique can be used
effectively before and during performance.
Another way to maintain relaxation is to scan your body for tension and
then release it. First, recognize how certain areas of your body feel when
they are tense. Deliberately tense your hands. Form a clenched fist. Know
what that tension feels like; then allow it to melt away. Release it, then
Chapter 9 Mental Skills 273
breathe carefully and deeply, fully in and out. This is the feeling you want
to recognize and be able to recreate, the sensation of freedom when the
muscles are relaxed.
Scan the body for the area of tension. Focus on it; release the tension;
allow yourself to refocus on the freedom within the muscles. Repeat this
exercise for the parts of the body that affect your conducting. When you
excel at this skill, you will be able to release tension from any part of the
body at will, even during performance.
Summary
Judging solely by the vast number of books and articles written on this
subject, one must acknowledge the importance of goal setting. Analysis
of high achievers invariably reveals persons who excel at goal setting.
Indeed, when one establishes goals, that process
There are two types of goals: subjective and objective. A subjective goal is
both personal and general, such as to do the best that I can. Missing
here is the knowledge of how good the best will be, what must be better,
when it must be better, how it will be improved, and so on. An objective
goal provides a clear target for which to aim, such as to learn the Italian
diction by Thursday. It is preferable to learn how to set and fulfill objec-
tive goals.
Both outcome goals and performance goals are objective, but outcome
goals are those generally beyond the control of either the director or the
singers. Unfulfilled outcome goals (for example, We just must get asked
back again) lead to anxiety or frustration, to a slump, and, more impor-
tant, to demotivation. Performance goals are those that define what the
director and the choir plan to achieve (for example, We will sing this
7/8 piece with accurate rhythms, but also with ease and enjoyment). Pro-
cess goals define how to attain the stated objectives (for example, At each
rehearsal we will practice speaking and tapping this piece for a total of
four minutes in two two-minute batches before singing, so that we can
sing it accurately while making music). These goals are firmly within the
directors control and are associated with less anxiety and a higher level
of performance from the singers.
Chapter 9 Mental Skills 275
The starting point (and the essence of successful goal setting) is an ac-
curate assessment of the choirs skill level at the present moment, gained
by directors asking the right questions of themselves. An efficient way
to do this is by performance profiling, which can particularize the choirs
real strengths as well as pinpoint areas that need work. Goals are set
accordingly. Once you have evaluated the choirs present level of per-
formance, set targets and design a goal-setting program, making sure
to include the choir as a partner in the plan. Table 9.1 is a linear per-
formance profile with sample choral performance qualities entered. A
similar profile, with different parameters, will be found on p. 230. Per-
formance profiles can be done for general musicianship, vocal skills,
mental skills, specific musical pieces, or all of the above. A blank pro-
file will be found in appendix 3.
A Helpful Acronym
SMARTER is an acronym that helps sort out the process of effective goal
setting. The principles allied with SMARTER have been identified from
research and practice. They will remind directors of the basic principles
and particularize their appreciation of whether or not the goal setting is
working successfully.
Assessment
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Music up/eyes on conductor ======================
Mental focus/performance mode =================
Engagement with music ====================
Appoggio posture ==================
Focused, supported tone =================
Balance ======================
Intonation ===============
Rhythmic accuracy ========================
Fluid jaw movement =====================
Consonants, initial, middle, final ======================
Elements to Be Worked On
1. Mental
______________________________
focus in performance mode 3. Appoggio
_______________________________
posture
2. Focused,
______________________________
supported tone 4. Intonation
_______________________________
Note: This table is adapted for choral use from Shirlee Emmons and Alma Thomas, Power
Performance for Singers (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), and is used by
permission.
Setting goals of many different kinds holds great importance in choir di-
rectors quest for better performances from their choirs.
Chapter 9 Mental Skills 277
Throughout the many advisories about how to build and maintain per-
forming confidence, one recommendation remains basic and constant.
You can be only what you think you are. You are the director you be-
lieve yourself to be. A second admonition is equally important: stay in
control of that over which you have control. Let go of those factors over
which you have no control. Ask of each factor: Is this under my con-
trol? If the answer is no, leave it. If the answer is yes, remember it and
act upon it.
Self-Talk
For every event that occurs, you experience your own personal percep-
tion of it. That perception leads to self-talk, then feelings, both of which
determine behavior. Consider the following scenario.
Exercise 9.3
Make a list of the typically negative things you say to yourself during
rehearsals and performances. Reword them in a positive form. The
opening words are most important. For example, change
Chapter 9 Mental Skills 279
I cant . . . to . . . I can
If only . . . to . . . When
I find it very difficult to . . . to . . . My challenge is to
I worry about . . . to . . . I will be OK because
Practice affirmation skills so that you can replace a negative
thought with a positive one before it damages your performance.
How many times has someone said to you as you prepare to step
onstage and join your choir, Enjoy! It is, however, not easy to enjoy
performance if you are worried, upset, or negative about it or some part
of your personal life. Nevertheless, enjoying is a crucial part of confidence.
Most of the time enjoyment and confidence go hand in hand. In fact, it is
difficult to feel positive about your performance if you are not actually
enjoying it. Try to enjoy your rehearsals as well. Enjoy the feeling of con-
ducting well. Enjoy the fruits of your rehearsal labors. Walk and talk in a
positive way. Enjoy the challenge of conducting even when you believe it
is not going well. Practice enjoying. The more you practice, the easier it
will become. Take note of how you managed to energize yourself on a
day that was not so good, and use that knowledge to repeat it another
time. Not every session can be splendid, but most of them can be good
when you focus on enjoyment.
For further help, see the section on refocusing contained in the sec-
tions on concentration and distractions, p. 280 and p. 299.
It is within your power to increase your self-confidence, but it takes
practice.
Control only the controllables.
Know what and who you are.
Awareness Exercises
Exercise 9.4
Check the following list of symptoms to see which you exhibit. Not
all somatic symptoms are negative. The number and degree of symp-
toms can be too high or too low, according to your own ideal arousal
level. However, the presence of physical symptoms together with
mental symptoms may indicate a level of arousal gone too high. Then
you will need to lower the level.
Exercise 9.5
Think back to an ideal performance, one in which you and the choir
performed very well. This performance represents your ideal arousal
zone. Recall how you felt and everything you did before the perfor-
mance: the travel arrangements, the time of arrival, the kind of
warm-up, and so on. Note all the details that can be remembered.
Detailed analysis will also offer an idea of how you reached the ideal
level.
Imagery Exercise
Exercise 9.6
Recall your ideal performance (as in Exercise 9.5) and watch yourself
in imagination conducting as well as you can. Infuse the image with
as much sensory detail as possible. This is a very effective way to re-
duce mental anxiety. If repeated often, it becomes a reminder of how
it feels to perform really wellfuel for the performer.
Reducing mental anxiety can also be accomplished by imaging
scenes that produce great calm and relaxation, such as running water,
a favorite bucolic setting, and so on.
Breathing Exercises
Breathing exercises are proven anxiety reducers. They bring the physical
symptoms of anxiety under control and, even more important, alleviate
or calm the mental symptoms.
Exercise 9.7
Inhale evenly through the nose, taking several long, deep breaths. Then
exhale to the same count through the mouth. While exhaling, focus
on your relaxed hands. Repeat the process, but this time focus on re-
laxed shoulders, jaw, or neck.
Exercise 9.8
Ratio breathing, also found on p. 272, combines relaxation and con-
centration. The length of the exhalation should always be double that
of the inhalation. Before performance, inhale deeply through your nose
to the count of five. Exhale through the mouth to the count of ten.
During exhalation direct the focus to visualizing the performance going
well.
Exercise 9.9
1. Do a short physical workout like running in place. This raises the
heartbeat.
2. Play music that energizes you or lifts your spirit.
3. Repeat strong verbal cues to lift the energy:
This is tough music; I love it when it is hard to handle!
I thrive on pressure. Lets go!
Im ready. Let it come!
Relaxed Focus
Theoretically, once you have trained your body and nervous system to
conduct a piece, you should be able to find a relaxed focus at will. How-
ever, when this proves difficult, the fault usually lies in a lack of focus or
a misplaced focus. Not only must you practice so that you can perform
your conducting skills flawlessly without much thinking but you also have
the challenge of freeing the body and mind to connect totally with what
you are trying to achieve. This demands a relaxed focus; this does not
indicate a lack of intensity, but a mind that is clear of irrelevant thoughts
and a body that is free from the wrong kind of tension. A relaxed focus
during the music feels more like being than doing.
A relaxed focus between movements or between pieces includes:
The ability to relax and to recover, however short the time. Relax your
muscles, lower your heartbeat through breathing, and recover from
any emotional turmoil.
The ability to become aroused and full of energy in preparation for the
next piece, no matter what the situation. Generate positive energy.
The ability to image and plan what you are going to do next and how
you intend to do it. Imagine what you want to do. Focus on posi-
tive information only. Recall that the body can only do what the
brain is thinking. If your thoughts are negative, the body will fol-
low through. If your thoughts are positive, the body will do those
positive things. You can afford only positive thoughts.
286 Part II Prescriptions for Self-Development
A relaxed focus denotes a body at ease but ready, and a mind calm
but focused. However widely your concentration may vary in intensity
and duration, a relaxed focus keeps you alert and relaxed throughout.
Exercise 9.10
Sit quietly and allow yourself to relax. Focus on one thing in the room.
Anything will do: a flower, a texture, a color, a piece of fruit, your hand.
Take in all the details. Observe how unique it is. Absorb yourself in it.
Exercise 9.11
Sit quietly and allow yourself to relax. Become aware of the whole
room, train compartment, or office in which you are sitting. Take in
all the details you can see without moving your head. Now switch your
focus to an object very close to you. Focus on the one object. Take in
all of its details. Do this until the other objects in the background are
blurred. Connect very intensely with the object you have chosen.
Exercise 9.12
Switch the external focus on an object to an internal focus on your-
self, your thoughts, your feelings, your emotions. The ability to switch
focus is a vital skill for performers; it is, in fact, crucial. Do not get
bogged down in a middle zone; be focused either internally or exter-
nally and aware of what you are doing. Staying with a wrong focus (a
distraction, for example) invites the performance to sink out of sight.
If you can switch, it means two important skills: that you recognize
the need to refocus or change focus and that you have the ability to
do so. You can practice this switching skill anywhere: walking in the
park, in a restaurant, even in an office.
Exercise 9.13
Relax. Focus your attention on a particular thought. Any will do. Let
your mind and thoughts wander. Then refocus on the original thought.
Exercise 9.14
When you feel distracted, practice clearing the distraction from your
mind by zooming in on a chosen focus. Nothing else is important.
Chapter 9 Mental Skills 287
Exercise 9.15
Stand quietly. Relax. Think about a particular piece you are working
on. Imagine how you will cue your singers to make that very first all-
important entrance. Feel it; see it in the correct sequence. Note how
good it sounds. Clear your mind. Now conduct the first entrance natu-
rally and automatically.
Exercise 9.16
Relax. Prepare yourself to put the past and the future out of your mind
while focusing on one phrase. Then remember how you managed this
focus. Practice it every day.
Exercise 9.17
Relax. Focus on your body. Determine where tension lies and what
feels good. Switch to a particular piece and focus on conducting it very
well. Switch back to your body. Check it out. Is there tension? Are
there good feelings? Switch back to your piece. Practice this every day,
changing the selection regularly.
Exercise 9.18
Use cue words or triggers to keep your focus on the task at hand. Some
cue words: slow, smooth, glide, zap. Some triggers: clench a fist; stamp
a foot; take a small step.
lem should divert your focus, you will need a plan. Such detailed prepa-
ration gives a feeling of security, of confidence, and of being in control.
Youve got it all covered.
Closely allied with the concentration and focus control, along with adapt-
ing to what is happening in performance and then refocusing while under
pressure, is the issue of distractions. Clearly, performers differ in their
concentration style. Performances themselves differ in the demands they
place on ones concentration. Concentration problems usually occur,
however, because of inappropriate attentional focus, or what might be
referred to as giving in to a distraction.
Avoid throat clearing and other odd vocal noises. Throat clearing
should not be done more than twice a day. Instead, try a hard
swallow (two fingers on the Adams apple, apply light pressure,
291
292 Appendix 1 Vocal Health
Hormonal Problems
Occupational Hazards
Most choral singers earn their living outside of the performing arts. Some
of these jobs are actually injurious to the voice and vocal health. They
include
Smoking bans are felicitous for singers and others who are bothered
by smoke. Restaurants and offices that are free of smoke make it pos-
sible for singers, who must depend on part-time employment of that kind,
to elect table-waiting and computer temping. Occupations that require
constant use of the voice remain totally debilitating and should be avoided
by singers.
Singers live in a different world than other human beings. A cold is a di-
saster; allergies are much more than a nuisance. Even the fear that these
health conditions might materialize at inopportune times is enough to
294 Appendix 1 Vocal Health
trigger problems. Having some idea of how to cope with these common
issues makes a big difference in singers ever-vulnerable confidence levels.
The following suggestions were advanced by the first otolaryngologist to
become renowned for his research into the medical and psychological
problems experienced by singersDr. Van Lawrence.1 Some of these
suggestions, although lacking empirical evidence, are still embraced by
singers because of their need to do something about colds and allergies,
their mortal enemies.
Is this a scenario that strikes dread into your heart? It is three weeks be-
fore the big Christmas concert. You have spent the entire fall preparing
an extensive program of important and difficult music. A cold passes
through the choir, decimating your forces. Each rehearsal is attended by
different healthy singers and missed by different singers whom the cold
has laid low. No one is quite sure whether what is going around is a cold
or the flu. You wonder why your singers always get a cold just when a
performance is coming. You wonder whether singers with a cold should
come to the rehearsal and risk infecting others. Clearly, if you could teach
your singers to sidestep just one cold per winter season, your life would
be much easier.
Coughs, headaches, sore throats, and runny noses are hallmarks of
both colds and the flu. Colds start slowly; the flu hits all at once and is
accompanied by muscle aches, chills, and a high fever. Only two or three
strains of viruses cause flu each year; colds are caused by hundreds of
different viruses.
Think of the cold infection as an iceberg. At the bottom is exposure
but no infection because the virus is washed out of your nose. The next
level is infection but no symptoms, because, although the virus is in your
nose, although it replicates and infects you, although you generate anti-
bodies, white blood cells throw it out, so you dont even know youve had
a cold. The next level is mild symptoms: the virus is in the nose, but your
only symptom might be a dry throat. You still dont know that youve
had it. At the top of the iceberg are severe symptoms. The virus gets in
the nose and the symptoms knock you out.
Most colds are picked up at home, where there is close personal con-
tact. A cold is actually quite difficult to catch. The virus must get inside
the human nose. It travels mainly by touch. Fingers become contaminated
by touching communal objects, such as doorknobs, that have been touched
by someone with an infection. Then its easy to pass the virus on from
Appendix 1 Vocal Health 295
fingers into your nose or into your eyes, which drain into the nose. Colds
are not airborne.
It is suggested that severe symptoms are triggered by stress. Stress
depresses the immune system. It increases the release of steroid hormones
and dampens the immune responses. This is why your singers often get
colds just when they do not want them. If they keep the symptoms mild,
it wont matter how many colds they have.
Here are some suggestions for handling colds. Make them known to
your people. It could make a difference.
What to do before you get a cold: Prime your immune system into the
peak of health. Take one of the substances that stimulate the im-
mune system and increases the number of circulating white blood
cells. Many singers have found that eating unsociable amounts of
garlic (an antiviral) is helpful. Even if eating garlic simply makes
the singer believe that it is doing some good, it might be worth it.
Exercise in a nonstressful waya daily walk is enough to send the
white blood cells into circulation. As medical studies on the effi-
cacy of herbal remedies continue, singers must keep abreast of the
research results. Medical thinking changes often.
What to do when you get the first signs of a cold: Wait until tomor-
row and see how far up the iceberg the virus has climbed. Or try
sucking zinc lozenges (might help; cant hurt). Forget vitamin C
(see p. 297). Stay positive.
What to do tomorrow if the symptoms are severe: Take painkillers
ibuprofen, acetaminophen, not aspirinin dosages prescribed on
pack. Although long-term use of nasal decongestant sprays can be
addicting, for one or two days use a spray morning or evening to
help relieve your swollen blood vessels. Along with it, drink copi-
ous amounts of water to ease drying of the vocal tract. Drink hot
lemon and honey all day for soothing effect; it will not cure. Nor
will chicken soup (although it feels good), but putting jalapeo
peppers in it might promote airway secretions that will treat your
sore throat and cough. Eat curry for the same reason. Do stress-
free exercise. Go to work. Go to the rehearsal. Remain relentlessly
positive.
What to do when your kids bring their colds home: Treat your home
like a sterile unit for a week. Wash your hands and your childrens
hands often. Force yourself and the children not to rub eyes or
touch noses with unwashed fingers. Stay positive.
What to do when you travel by air: Pack hand sanitizers. Use them
every five minutes. To aid your effort to restrict touching your eyes
296 Appendix 1 Vocal Health
or nose, thereby passing germs along, treat the toilet door handle
as though it were radioactive, also the headsets. If someone is
hacking and sneezing a few rows ahead of you, remind yourself
that the air on planes circulates from top to bottom of the cabin,
out through the floor, not from end to end. Dont rub your tired
eyes. Dont touch your nose. Stay positive.
Home Remedies
hydration
hydration
hydration
while they were in the capsules. When NASA increased the cabin hu-
midity to 40 percent, virus propagation was interfered with and astro-
nauts caught fewer colds.) In addition, monitor your body water levels
by paying close attention to urine color. As long as what your kidney
produces is the color of tap water, you can be certain that you are ade-
quately hydrated.
If possible, go straight to bed. Physical rest and emotional rest are basic
in early stages. Using rest properly should at least reduce the severity of
the inflection, even if it does not block it completely. This is not the time
to stay awake until 3:00 or 4:00 a.m.
In addition, many singers have found that keeping an upbeat frame
of mind will lessen the capacity to catch someone elses cold. It has also
become apparent that viral reproduction is inhibited by small increases
in temperature. Thus, it is a good idea to induce a mild temperature ele-
vation and sweat a bit in a sauna.
Megadoses of vitamin C are mildly antihistaminic in effect. Thus,
they do dry secretions up a bit and will be helpful when allergies present.
If you have not been eating well, vitamin C will improve your general
physical condition. Other than this, vitamin C will do nothing for your
cold.
Consider the gentle and cautious use of over-the-counter prepara-
tions. If you are genuinely in the early stages of respiratory infection and
your nose is pouring hot water and your eyes are red-rimmed and weepy,
the cautious and judicious use of antihistamines, four milligrams, is prob-
ably not a bad idea for controlling the messiness of these early stages
of a cold. If you totally stop the flow of secretion you will prolong
the duration of the infection, as you will if you decongest the nose as
well.
Working out the virus as speedily as possible requires the wetness and
the blockage. But congested noses are miserable to live with. Therefore,
short-term use of an oral decongestant is very helpful. If you have a blood
pressure problem or a tendency to be sleepless with coffee, such a medi-
cation after lunch and during the afternoon is not a good idea. Finally,
the judicious and cautious use of a mild nosedrop, such as pediatric-
strength Neosynephrine (1/4 percent) for the first few days will not do ir-
reparable damage and may permit you to go to sleep. Remember that
prolonged usesome say more than three consecutive daysof nasal
decongestants can be addicting.
If you turn up a temperature elevation of more than 2/10 or 3/10 of a
degree above the normal reading, there may be more involved than just
a simple cold. Under these circumstances, help is recommended. Get to
a doctor.
298 Appendix 1 Vocal Health
good. A recipe for a good gargle is one half teaspoon of table salt, one
half teaspoon of baking soda, one half teaspoon of white Karo syrup, all
mixed into eight ounces of warm water. Use liberally. Sugar or a sweet
taste in the mouth promotes, for most people, salivation and an increase
in mucous flow and mucous production.
Laryngeal congestion in the morning, especially with singers, is most
likely to suggest reflux as opposed to allergies or an incipient cold. A dis-
cussion of reflux follows later in this appendix. Be very careful about throat
lozenges or throat sprays that contain a local anesthetic. Dulling your
sensory input from throat wall, tongue base, and soft palate can be bad
news. If you are using or are going to use the voice for singing or acting,
and your sensory input for throat wall pressure is reduced, or your aware-
ness of the tongue base location is fuzzy, it is possible that you could
overblow the instrument, or at least misuse it. Nonanesthetic sprays and
lozenges are all right. If they do provoke salivary flow and mucous secre-
tion, then they will help. Flooding the nose is helpful for very few nasal
conditions, even if the solution is precisely prepared to an exact degree of
salinity. You might injure the delicate cellular linings and impede the cili-
ary action that accomplishes the clearing of the very mucous cover that
lines the entire vocal and respiratory tract.
General Malaise
I feel bad all over. This is often the harbinger of viral illness or an in-
fectious process of some kind. Go to bed and rest. Cancel all voluntary
activities. Simply rest and wait until the story works itself out: The bad
feeling disappears, or rash appears, or diarrhea and nausea begin. Do you
really have a fever? Beware frequent use of aspirin. It increases capillary
fragility and interferes with blood coagulation, predisposing you to vocal
fold hemorrhage and its sequelae.
If you keep wet and hydrated, rested, and up, and if you eat a good
diet and regularly get eight hours of sleep, you probably wont need home
remedies.
good breath support and almost all singers of advanced age are afflicted
with the disease. GERD causes the tissue around the arytenoids to swell
up. When the singer tries to put the cords together for high notes, it is not
possible to do so.
Identified by its acronym, GERD is not life-threatening but it is a threat
to vocal health. It is a condition in which some of the stomach acid leaks
out of the stomach and into the esophagus and throat. When this acid
irritates the throat, it also can irritate the vocal-cord area. This can cause
the symptoms listed above, even muscle spasms in the throat. Reflux usu-
ally occurs at night when the person is sleeping. When we sleep, the stom-
ach muscles and the esophagus relax and open slightly. This can allow
some of the stomach acid to travel from the stomach to the esophagus
and irritate the back of the throat where the vocal cords sit.
Although it is often mistaken for a sore throat, asthma, or a respira-
tory illness, the symptoms are
If you do have a hiatal hernia, do not eat at any time close to going to
bed.
However, it is not necessary to have a hiatal hernia to develop reflux.
Because singers perform at night, they like to eat afterward and then go
Appendix 1 Vocal Health 301
to bed. If your stomach is full and you lie down, you will get reflux. Gas
and stomach acid will seep back up onto the vocal cords, and you will
feel as if you are choking and you may have a bitter taste in your mouth.
This is because the cords or the arytenoids are in spasm.
Helpful Remedies
1. Physicians prescribe the use of medicines like Axid, Prilosec, Pepcid,
and Zantac. (Some counsel against the use of Tagamet.) Over-the-
counter antacids like Tums, Rolaids, Maalox, or Mylanta are also
useful; taking two tablespoons of Maalox or Mylanta before bed-
time can be helpful.
2. Changing the diet is a must.
Learn to eat more, smaller meals during the day, rather than one
or two big meals.
Do not eat during the two hours before going to bed or lying down.
Avoid smoking or tobacco, caffeine, and alcohol.
Avoid chocolate, mints, nuts.
Avoid ice cream, because it is fatty.
Carbohydrates are fine because they can be digested rapidly.
Limit dairy product consumption, especially late at night.
Limit spicy, fried, or high-acid foods, especially late at night.
Drink at least eight eight-ounce glasses of water each day.
Avoid foods that cause heartburn or indigestion, such as tomatoes.
3. Changing behavior and environment has a major effect.
Sleep with the head elevated.
Place blocks under the head of your bed or purchase a wedge pil-
low. Most people experience a reduction of symptoms if the
bed is elevated six to twelve inches, or if a foam wedge is sub-
stituted for a pillow. The larynx must be higher than stomach
level.
Dont sleep on your right side. That favors reflux and causes
symptoms.
Do not wear clothing that is tight around the waist. This encour-
ages reflux.
Do not eat two or three hours before going to bed at night.
Reduce stress. Exercise regularly.
Do not exercise or lift heavy items immediately after eating.
Antihistamines
In mucosal surfaces there are cells that mediate infectious and traumatic
inflammation (even that caused by smoking). When a person has such an
inflammation, the body releases certain chemicals, one of which is hista-
mine, an inflammatory chemical, which is an acute response. Once hista-
mine is released, it cannot be stopped, but antihistamines prevent its effects
by blocking the bodys receptors. There are other chemicals released, as
well, but they are slower acting. The slower-acting chemicals respond
better to steroids than to antihistamines.
Antihistamines are best taken orally, and early on, because histamines
effects come early in illness. Antihistamines usual properties include se-
dation, although now some are available that do not sedate.
Decongestants
All three of these drugs have adrenalinlike properties. Their side ef-
fects include dryness, tremor, or rapid heartbeat.
Decongestant/Antihistamine Combinations
Corticosteroids
The vocal cords have a poor lymphatic supply, and the fluids in body tis-
sues are governed by the lymphatics. Thus if one gets fluid in the spaces
between the muscle fibers of the vocal cords it is hard to remove. Steroids
help to get rid of some of the proteins that bind the fluid there; this gets
fluid out of your cords and your nose. Diuretics will not do this job. The
best bet is a topical or systemic corticosteroid.
If the cords are sore and inflamed, steroids will make them feel bet-
ter, but there are disadvantages to their use as well. After taking steroids,
a singers voice does not seem normal, even though singing is exceedingly
comfortable and easy.
Steroids affect the entire body. They are normally produced by the
adrenal glands, which secrete more steroids in the daytime (when you need
them) than at night. This is part of the reason why patients complain of
more discomfort at night. If the patient takes steroids from outside, such
as pills, the body knows that it contains too many steroids and shuts down
the adrenal glands. Then the body is living on outside steroids, which is
304 Appendix 1 Vocal Health
called steroid dependence. The results can include arthritis and joint pain;
efforts to stop dependence can lead to water-weight gain and withdrawal
symptoms. Because of the danger of steroid dependence, steroids should
not be taken more than once every three months
There are topical steroids and systemic steroids, each of which has its
advantages and disadvantages.
Topical Corticosteroids
Systemic Corticosteroids
Systemic steroids have an effect on the entire body. They reduce edemal
fluid and can be used for arthritis, hoarseness, rhinitis, or any type of
swelling. Systemic steroids affect not just the cords themselves but also
address inflammation and edema fluid in the intrinsic muscles of the lar-
ynx, which control the cord and arytenoid movements.
These drugs are good for a quick bailout, never for a chronic vocal-
cord problem. They can be used as a last-ditch helper if a big performance
is coming up, although the singing range might be lower even though the
patient is on the medication, because the cords have edema.
Appendix 1 Vocal Health 305
When to use systemic steroids, then? During the fall weed season you
may have an acute allergy reaction. You will release histamine, so there
is a need for an antihistamine. If inflammation builds up, take a steroid
briefly to get rid of it.
Topical Vasoconstrictors
These include Afrin and Neosynephrine, which are all right for
most people, even singers. All give very quick relief from nasal con-
gestion, but use must be short-term (not for more than three days).
After three days there will be a rebound effect: The blood vessels get
tired and just stop constricting. The rebound will last for three or four
days. You may have a hemorrhage of the vocal cords, because the vocal
cords have poor lymphatics. A hemorrhage can create scar tissue, which
will interfere with adduction of the cords. The rebound effect could also
affect one cord, giving aperiodical vibration.
It is possible to use steroid spray and elevate the bed at night so that
there is no fluid in the head that swells the nasal passages, then use a
decongestant during the day.
Adrenergenics (Stimulants)
Mucolytics
Diuretics: Lasix, Hydrodiuril, and Dyazide. All three dry the vocal
cords.
Beta blockers: Inderal and Tenormin. Beta blockers block the ef-
fects of the sympathetic system, and can be positive for singers at
times: for example, stage fright with tremor can be helped.
Nonsteroid Anti-inflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs): Ibuprofen, Aspi-
rin, Ansaid, and Feldene, etc. These drugs thin the blood; one aspi-
rin will thin the blood for a week. If the patient is singing hard while
taking these drugs, he or she could risk a vocal-cord hemorrhage.
The Aspirin Triad consists of sensitivity to aspirin, nasal pol-
yps, and asthma. A patient with any of these three conditions
cannot take any of these drugs.
Tylenol will reduce fever and reduce pain but is not anti-inflam-
matory.
Cough preparations: Opiates, Dextromethorphan, and Tessalon.
Codeine dampens the cough reflex. A cough traumatizes the cords.
Suppress that cough!
Tessalon and Xylocaine are used in surgery to knock out cough
reflex. This is generally worth doing for a singer, since cough-
ing does such damage to the cords.
You can also use an expectorant.
Cromolyn Sodium: Intal and Nasalcrom. These drugs are inhaled
and are used for allergies. They keep the tissues from releasing
histamine.
Appendix 2
Stemples Vocal Function Exercises
The goals of physiologic vocal therapy are to modify and improve laryn-
geal muscle strength, tone, balance, and stamina. The practitioners seek
to improve the balance among these processes: (1) laryngeal muscle ef-
fort, (2) respiratory effort and control, (3) supraglottic modification of
laryngeal tone, and (4) attention to the health of mucus membranes, that
is, in terms of hydration and reflux disease. Of the various orientations
of vocal therapy, physiologic therapy in these exercises is the only one
based on knowledge of vocal function evaluated through objective voice
assessment including acoustic, aerodynamic, and stroboscopic analyses.
Question: of what use could such exercises be to choral conductors?
Answer: they can encourage their singers to do them daily, since comple-
tion of these exercises takes such a short time. They will improve the
vocalism of untrained singers because they actually improve vocal func-
tion. They are also useful to directors who seek to improve and maintain
their own vocal function. Directors do a great deal of speaking, some-
times over the full sound of the choir, a vocally debilitating practice. Bear
in mind, however, that the results will come over a long term, not swiftly.
Although devised some time ago by a speech therapist, they are now widely
put to use by otolaryngologists. They can also be used for cooling the
system down after rehearsals or performances.
307
308 Appendix 2 Stemples Vocal Function Exercises
On all the exercises the tone should be monitored for voice breaks,
wavering, and breathiness. All exercises should be done as softly as pos-
sible. Because it is more difficult to produce soft tones, the vocal subsystems
will receive a better workout than if louder tones were sung. Extreme care
should be taken to sing a forward tone that lacks laryngeal tension, using
just the efficiency of the cord vibrations. Vowels should be postured before
inhalation. An easy, not breathy, onset should be encouraged.
Maximum phonation time increases as efficiency of vocal-fold vibra-
tion improves. The time does not increase because of supposedly improved
lung capacity. Even aerobic exercise does not improve lung capacity.
It is, rather, the efficiency of oxygen exchange with the circulatory sys-
tem that increases the time, thus giving the singer a sense of more air.
Singers are encouraged to make a graph on which to mark times from
each exercise and the progress attained. Because of normal daily variabil-
ity, singers should not compare today with tomorrow, and so on. Weekly
comparisons are better. The estimated time of completion for the program
is six to eight weeks.
Each exercise is to be done two times in a row, the series done two
times per day. No artistry is required, just bare function; for example, one
does not have to sing low pitches to work on muscles that permit a singer
to access low notes.
herself to have more range, the glide may be continued without voice.
The folds will continue to stretch. Do not lateralize the lips. Go up to
the highest note and stop.
Gliding forces the use of all the laryngeal muscles, stretches the vocal
folds, encourages systematic, slow engagement of the cricothyroid muscles.
Glides improve muscular control and flexibility.
Some singers experience minor laryngeal aching for the first day or
two of the program. It is similar to a muscle ache that might occur with
any new muscular exercise. It will soon subside. Singers are encouraged
to continue the program through the discomfort.
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Appendix 3
Performance Profile Chart
Elements to Be Worked On
1. ______________________________ 3. _______________________________
2. ______________________________ 4. _______________________________
Note: This table is adapted for choral use from Shirlee Emmons and Alma Thomas, Power Per-
formance for Singers (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), and is used by permission.
311
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Appendix 4
Choral Tessituras (A Statement of the
American Academy of Teachers of Singing)
2. that the safest and best range and the safest and best tessitura2 for
the various voices are as follows:
313
314 Appendix 4 Choral Tessituras
Range Tessitura
( )
Soprano I ()
Soprano II
(Mezzo)
( )
Alto Upper:
( )
Lower:
( )
Tenor I ()
()
Tenor II ()
Baritone
()
Bass () Upper:
Lower:
Figure A4.1
4. That the easiest volume for singers in the upper half of the range is
best vocalized mezzo forte, and that successful piano and pianissimo sing-
ing are more difficult and require training and guidance.
It must be repeatedand emphasizedthat the above beliefs refer to
choral singing by amateurs. Directors will find in the groups individual
voices of greater range than the ones cited above, but such individual cases
cannot be considered as the standard in estimating the safe range and
tessitura for the average voice.
Appendix 4 Choral Tessituras 315
317
318 Appendix 5 Early Music and the Absence of Vibrato
Did early writers describe in unmistakable terms the sounds they ad-
mired and those they disliked?
Did the ranges used preclude or promote the use of any particular type
of tone?
Was a distinction made between a soloist and an ensemble singer?
Do we have any reliable information on the vocal longevity of the
singers of the period?
Did they go on singing well into their later years, as some of our re-
cent and present singers do?
The historical paper trail, recordings that reach toward authenticity, and
such local organizations as impinge on our consciousness and may
320 Appendix 5 Early Music and the Absence of Vibrato
Introduction
1. Emmons and Thomas, 1998, pp. 161176. In Power Performance for Sing-
ers, coauthors voice teacher Shirlee Emmons and performance enhancement consult-
ant Alma Thomas apply this research to the singers art. Adapted from their work, the
same concepts may be applied to the choral directors art.
2. Miller, 1987a, p. 17.
Chapter 1
1. Sundberg, 1993.
2. Miller, 2000b, p. 38.
3. Miller, 2000b, p. 32.
4. Quotes in the final paragraph have been excerpted from the original manu-
script of Miller, Training Soprano Voices. They were deleted prior to publication.
5. Sundberg, 1993, pp. 67.
6. Griffin et al., 1995, p. 50. Reprinted with permission from The Voice
Foundation.
7. Adapted for choral use from McKinney, 1994, pp. 7879.
8. Adapted for choral use from Miller, 1986, pp. 411.
9. Adapted for choral use from Appelman, 1967, pp. 1323.
10. Adapted for choral use from Sundberg, 1987, pp. 3548, 5763.
11. A lip trill is executed by blowing air through vibrating, protruded lips while sing-
ing accurate pitches. Except for the pitch frequency, the sound is very like that of little
boys playing with their toy cars and making engine noises. Singers who find it difficult to
lip trill at first may try the following aids: (1) inhale through the mouth; exhale a short
burst of air through loose lips, imitating a horse whinnying; (2) lick the lips before com-
mencing the trill; (3) with teeth and lips shut, place index fingers at the corners of the lips
and push against the teeth while blowing air. If these fail, tongue trills sometimes suffice.
12. Miller, 2000a, pp. 2728.
13. Vocal fry is the lowest phonational register, occupying the frequency range
below the modal or normal register. It has a characteristic popping, frying, or rattling
sound which is capable of very little variation of timbre. Its main use is to supply very
low notes which are not available in the modal voice. . . . Excessive use of the fry can
result in vocal problems. McKinney, 1994, p. 95.
14. Sundberg, 1993, pp. 4, 7.
Chapter 2
1. Miller, 1992, p. 20.
2. Morrow, 1988, p. 24.
3. Morrow, 1988, p. 24.
4. Miller, 1992, p. 20.
5. Coffin, 1987, p. 4.
6. Coffin, 1987, p. 56.
7. Vennard, 1967, pp. 163167.
8. Vennard, 1967, pp. 163167.
9. Titze, 1982, p. 37.
10. Miller, 1992, p. 20.
321
322 Notes
Chapter 3
1. Hanson, 1987, p. 10.
2. Coffin, 1980, pp. 115, 117.
3. Cover is a term colloquially used to describe the contained (nonbellowed) sound
of male high notes in and above the upper passaggio, when men go into sufficient head
resonance in their upper ranges. Miller (1989, p. 14) gives us a more meticulous defi-
nition: Cover is best described as a process of conscious equalization of the ascend-
ing scale through vowel modification so as to diminish register demarcations, not to
exaggerate them.
4. Coffin, 1980, p. xi.
5. Miller, 1989, p. 17.
6. Brown, 1996, p. 109.
7. Brown, 1996, p. 109.
8. Sundberg, 1988.
9. Coffin, 1987, p. 50.
10. Miller, 1991, p. 27.
11. Miller, 1991, p. 28.
12. Haasemann and Jordan (1991) suggest that, for this vowel, the singer encour-
age the tongue to push forward almost to an [l] consonant to find the correct position.
This suggestion appears to work effectively for young singers.
13. Moore, 1990, p. 3.
14. Kiesgen, 1997, p. 29.
15. Bunch, 1993, p. 75.
16. Metfessel, 1932, p. 18.
17. Brodnitz, 1953, p. 84.
18. Sirbaugh, 2004, p. 299.
19. Moens-Haenen, 2003.
20. Seashore, 1938, p. 12.
21. Seashore, 1938, pp. 1013, 3052.
22. Appelman, 1967, p. 25.
23. Bunch, 1993, p. 54.
24. Appelman, 1967, p. 23.
25. Titze, 1994, p. 291.
26. Raynes, 1999.
Chapter 4
1. Boone, 1997, p. 161. Reproduced with permission from The Voice Foundation.
2. Harvey, 1997, p. 150. Reproduced with permission from The Voice Foundation.
3. Extracted from Harvey, 1997, p. 145. Reproduced with permission from The
Voice Foundation.
4. Extracted from Gregg, 1997, p. 166. Reproduced with permission from The
Voice Foundation.
5. Extracted from Gregg, 1997, p. 168. Reproduced with permission from The
Voice Foundation.
6. Sataloff et al., 1997, pp. 156158. Reproduced with permission from The Voice
Foundation.
7. Sabol et al., 1995, p. 35. Reproduced with permission from The Voice
Foundation.
8. Wormhoudt, 1993, p. 111.
9. Miller, 2000b, p. 29.
10. Miller, 2000b, p. 30.
Notes 323
11. Spiegel et al, 1997, pp. 138139. Reproduced with permission from The Voice
Foundation.
12. McKinney, 1994, p. 115.
13. McKinney, 1994, p. 82.
14. McKinney, 1994, p. 89.
Chapter 5
1. It is not uncommon for singers to mistake the warmed-up condition of their
voices for hoarseness. If the hoarseness goes away after thirty minutes, then the
problem is that they sang for a long time in a range much higher than their speaking
range. As soon as the cords relaxa warm drink will helpthey will see that they
were not hoarse; they just could not phonate easily in a range lower than that in which
they were singing. Thus this symptom affects sopranos and tenors more than the lower
voices.
2. Robert Shaw, personal communication to the Collegiate Chorale, April 6, 1948.
3. White, 1978, p. 39.
4. Alma Thomas, personal communication to Constance Chase, May 14, 2000.
5. Personal communication from Robert Shaw to Shirlee Emmons, October 8,
1946.
6. These exercises are borrowed from Stemples Vocal Function Exercises, ap-
pendix 2.
7. A caution: nasal consonants (e.g., ng [] or humming) can be detrimental when
overused. Lip trills or tongue trills provide a useful alternative when trying to pro-
mote sensations of forward placement. Extended humming of vocalise patterns can
cause inefficient muscular habits such as tongue retraction, unless proper placement
of tongue is deployed by the director. Lip trills and tongue trills can help establish a
steady airflow rate and a balance between air flow and pressure while encouraging
forward placement and ease.
8. Johnson and Klonoski, 2003, p. 38. Permission to reprint granted by Choral
Journal.
9. Johnson and Klonoski, 2003, p. 37. Permission to reprint granted by Choral
Journal.
Chapter 6
1. Private communication with Alma Thomas.
2. Private communication with Alma Thomas.
3. Hughes et al., 1996, pp. 321326.
4. Hughes et al., 1996, pp. 324325.
5. Hughes et al., 1996, p. 325.
6. Private communication with Alma Thomas.
7. Heller, 1998, p. 35. Reproduced by permission of Penguin Books, Ltd.
8. Private communication with Alma Thomas.
9. Heller, 1999, p. 37.
10. Adapted for choral use from Emmons and Thomas, 1998, pp. 8188.
Chapter 7
1. Kanfer, 1990, p. 76.
2. Maslow, 1954.
3. Tolman, 1932.
4. Shaw, 1981.
324 Notes
Chapter 8
1. This material has been extracted from Power Performance for Singers by Shirlee
Emmons and Alma Thomas (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), and is used
by permission.
2. Ivey quoted in Friedberg, 1984, p. 16.
3. Emmons and Thomas, 1998, pp. 198199.
4. Extracted from Sundberg, 1994, pp. 120, 121. Reprinted with permission from
The Voice Foundation.
5. Drawn from Emmons and Thomas, 1998, p. 162.
Appendix 1
1. Lawrence, 1985. Reprinted with permission from NATS Journal.
Appendix 4
1. The American Academy of Teachers of Singing was established in 1922, its
original goal being to establish much-needed ethical rules of conduct for voice teach-
ers. The first cadre of members was comprised of the most able and principled mem-
bers of the profession at that time. Since then, the Academy and its forty members has
continued to uphold the standards on which it was originally founded. At the present
time, its influence can be measured in the existence of the National Association of
Teachers of Singing, a large and inclusive body, whose earliest presidents were found-
ing Academy members. NATS, with the Academy, now stands guard over the ethics
and ever-expanding research knowledge of the profession. The Academy publishes its
own papers on its Web site: www.americanacademyofteachersofsinging.org, and they
are available to interested parties upon writing to the Publications Officer, Robert
Gartside, at 20 Loring Rd., Lexington, MA 0242116945. As each new paper, writ-
ten and approved by the entire membership, is completed, it is published in the Jour-
nal of Singing, a publication of the NATS organization.
2. The tessitura limitations do not prohibit the composer or arranger from writ-
ing for the full range of the voice. If composers and arrangers will keep within the
suggested range and favor the recommended tessitura, voices will be protected, and
the choral music will be more effectively performed.
Appendix 5
1. On the American Academy of Teachers of Singing, see note 1 to appendix 4.
This Academy statement was first published in The NATS Journal in 1994 and is re-
produced with their permission.
Annotated Bibliography
Apfelstadt, Hilary, Loretta Robinson, and Marc Taylor. 2003. Building Bridges between
Choral Conductors, Voice Teachers, and Students. Choral Journal 44:2, pp. 2532.
Appelman, D. Ralph. 1967. The Science of Vocal Pedagogy. Bloomington: Indiana
University Press.
An exceedingly thorough text of the vocal mechanism and science of singing. The
chapter on phonation defines the action of the laryngeal structure, cartilage, and
muscle, in detail and, importantly, in clear, understandable language. In chapter
9, Appelman advances a theory of basic vowels (formants are charted) and qual-
ity alternates (a modification in which frequency and intensity are not controlled).
This articulated theory is the forerunner of much research that continues today.
The text is well balanced upon the concept that scholarly knowledge or great
performance skills alone are not enough (p. 8).
Baken, R. J., and Robert F. Orlikoff. 1987. The Effect of Articulation on Fundamen-
tal Frequency in Singing and Speakers. Journal of Voice 1:1, pp. 6876.
Boone, Daniel R. 1997. The Singing/Acting Voice in the Mature Adult. Journal of
Voice 11:2, pp. 161164.
Brodnitz, Friedrich S. 1953. Keep Your Voice Healthy. New York: Harper Row.
Brown, Oren. 1996. Discover Your Voice. San Diego: Singular Publishing Group.
Bunch, Meribeth. 1993. Dynamics of the Singing Voice. 2nd ed. Vienna: Springer-
Verlag.
Dr. Bunch has long been known for her command of vocal science, and her book
reflects that broad knowledge in her highly condensed, pragmatic discussions of
posture and breathing, phonation, resonation and vocal quality, and articulation.
Other chapters in this physically slim but intellectually thorough book reflect also
her strong interest in artistry, the psychological aspects of teaching and learning,
coordination between the skills demanded of a singer, and the singer of the fu-
ture. She notes the great advances in vocal science, and, to professionals in the
field, she makes a strong argument in favor of steering a course between attempts
to describe something sensory by the use of imagery and sign-language alone
and the use of obscure terminology [favored by] medical science to describe such
a sensory skill.
Chase, Constance. 2004. Using the Warm-up to Improve Choral Tone and Breath
Management: Exercises for Balanced Onset. Unpublished paper.
Coffin, Berton. 1980. Overtones of Bel Canto. Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press.
. 1987. Coffins Sounds of Singing: Principles and Applications of Vocal Tech-
niques with Chromatic Vowel Chart. 5th rev. ed. Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press.
Dr. Coffin explains the results of research in the field of acoustic phonetics and
how the research applies to singing. He thoroughly addresses registers, agility,
diction, and breath, stating first the traditional approach, then presenting the re-
sults of research that either confirm, discard, or expand on tradition.
Stated perhaps too simply: the fundamental issues of breath, resonance, and
phonation may be addressed concurrently from an acoustical standpoint. Coffin
has translated formant frequencies into musical notation, jaw openings, and pho-
netics. Because vowelswhich form the changing shape of the vocal tract by move-
ment of tongue, jaw, and lipshave measurable pitch, it is possible, via harmonic
pronunciation, to bring the laws of vibration and resonance into concord. When
that occurs, breath management is also enhanced.
325
326 Annotated Bibliography
Dehning, William. 2003. Chorus Confidential: Decoding the Secrets of the Choral Art.
France: Pavane.
Dickau, David C., and Allan Robert Petker. 1990. Choral Questions and Answers.
Vol. 3. Cheshire, U.K.: Intrada.
Emmons, Shirlee, and Alma Thomas. 1998. Power Performance for Singers. New York:
Oxford University Press.
Dr. Emmons, a voice teacher, and Dr. Thomas, a performance psychologist, have
described how to achieve concrete, demonstrable performing excellence, teaching
the reader superior management of the cognitive part of the performing equation.
Each of the required mental skills is discussed in depth. The proven psychological
tenets of performance itself, the ideal performance state, pre-performance prepa-
ration, and post-performance evaluation are presented in highly pragmatic detail.
Friedberg, Ruth. 1984. American Art Song and American Poetry. Vol. 1. Metuchen,
N.J.: Scarecrow Press.
Garretson, Robert L. 1993. Conducting Choral Music. 8th ed. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.:
Prentice Hall.
Gregg, Jean Westerman. 1997. The Singing/Acting Mature AdultSinging Instruc-
tion Perspective. Journal of Voice 11:2, pp. 165170.
Griffin, Barbara, Peak Woo, Raymond Colton, Janina Jasper, and David Brewer. 1995.
Physiological Characteristics of the Supported Singing Voice, A Preliminary
Study. Journal of Voice 9:1, pp. 4556.
Haaseman, Frauke, and James M. Jordan. 1991. Group Vocal Techniques. Chapel
Hill, N.C.: Hinshaw.
This excellent and well-organized text presents a very good accommodation for
amateur singers. It shares our opinions on several points: (1) amateurs need some
education by the director; (2) amateurs need real vocal answers and not a lot of
theory; (3) vocal technical skills are best learned by amateurs when they relate to
repertoire. Their Foundational Method List of vocal techniques to be taught to
choirs organizes the material, which includes many exercises, planning guides, and
less in-depth information.
Hanson, Lloyd W. 1987. A Survey of Research on Vocal Falsetto. NATS Journal,
January/February, pp. 913.
Harvey, Pamela Lynn. 1997. The Young Adult Patient. Journal of Voice 11:2, pp.
144152.
Heller, Robert. 1998. Managing Teams. New York: DK Publishing.
. 1999. Learning to Lead. New York: DK Publishing.
Hirano, M., Y. Yoshida, T. Yoshida, and O. Tateishi. 1985. Strobofiberscopic video
recording of vocal fold vibration. Annual Otolaryngological and Rhinological
Laryngology, 94, pp. 588590.
Hixon, Thomas. 1987. Respiratory Function in Speech and Song. London: Taylor and
Francis.
Horii, Yoshiyuki. 1989. Acoustic Analysis of Vocal Vibrato: A Theoretical Interpre-
tation of Data. Journal of Voice, 3:1, pp. 3643.
Hughes, Richard L., Robert C. Ginnet, and Gordon J. Curphy. 1996. Leadership:
Enhancing the Lessons of Experience. Chicago: Irwin.
Indik, Lawrence R. 2001. Consonant Feedback in Singing. Journal of Singing 57:4
March/April, pp. 1519.
Johnson, Eric A., and Edward Klonoski. 2003. Connecting the Inner Ear and the
Voice. Choral Journal 3:44, pp. 3540.
Jordan, James. 1996. Evoking Sound: Fundamentals of Choral Conducting and Re-
hearsing. Chicago: GIA Publications.
Kanfer, R. 1990. Motivation Theory in Industrial and Organizational Psychology.
In Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, ed. M. D. Dunnette
Annotated Bibliography 327
Morrow, Virginia. 1988. The Significance of Recognititon of the Vowel Core in the
Teaching of Singing and in Voice Rehabilitation. NATS Journal, January/Febru-
ary, pp. 2430.
Proctor, D. 1980. Breathing, Speech, and Song. New York: Springer Verlag.
Raynes, Christopher. 1999. Blend. Unpublished paper.
Robinson, Russell, and Jay Althouse. 1995. The Complete Choral Warm-up Book: A
Sourcebook for Choral Conductors. VanNuys, Cal.: Alfred.
Sabol, Julianna Wrycza, Linda Lee, and Joseph C. Stemple. 1995. The Value of
Vocal Function Exercises in the Practice Regimen of Singers. Journal of Voice,
9:1, pp. 2736.
Sataloff, Robert T., Deborah Caputo Rosen, Mary Hawkshaw, and Joseph R. Spiegel.
1997. The Aging Adult Voice, Journal of Voice 11:2, pp. 156160.
Seashore, Carl. 1938. Psychology of Music. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Shaw, M. 1981. Group Dynamics: The Psychology of Small Group Dynamics, 3rd
ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Simonson, Donald. 1992. Harmonic Relationships between Sung Pitch, the First Vowel
Formant and the Singing Formant: A Study in Enhancing Acoustical Efficiency in
Singing, Voice (London: British Voice Association) 1, pp. 103124.
Sirbaugh, Nora. 2004. The Vocal Print. Journal of Singing 60:3, January/February,
pp. 297300.
Skelton, Kevin D. 2001. Vibrato and Voice: The Choral Singer, Choral Journal 44:7,
pp. 4754.
Smith, Brenda, and Robert Thayer Sataloff. 1999. Choral Pedagogy. San Diego:
Singular.
Brenda Smith conveys here many of the tenets put forth in Group Vocal Tech-
niques in addition to her own insights and exercises. Having worked closely with
Wilhelm Ehmann and Frauke Haasemann for many years, her knowledge of
their work is extensive. Dr. Sataloff contributes chapters on anatomy and physi-
ology, medical care of voice disorders, and performing arts medicine. Included
is Richard Millers Historical Overview of Vocal Pedagogy, an excellent
summary.
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Adult Voice. Journal of Voice 11:2, pp. 138143.
Sundberg, Johan. 1987. The Science of the Singing Voice. DeKalb: Northern Illinois
University Press.
Sundbergs contribution to the vocal science literature brings together for discus-
sion research from wide-ranging fields of scientific endeavor. The anatomy and
functioning of the human voice is fully explored. The chapter The Choral Voice
presents the subject from the technical-scientific perspective, addressing such top-
ics as the similarity of phonation frequencies among choral singers. The chapters
Speech, Song, and Emotion and A Rhapsody on Perception are of interest
because they report objective scientific data relative to topics that nonscientists
customarily discuss from a subjective point of view.
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pp. 1119, 31.
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Syer, John, and Christopher Connolly. 1984. Sporting Body, Sporting Mind. London:
Cambridge University Press.
Titze, Ingo R. 1982. Why Is the Verbal Message Less Intelligible in Singing than in
Speech? NATS Bulletin, January/February, p. 37.
. 1994. Principles of Voice Production. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall.
Annotated Bibliography 329
A complex text from a leading current voice scientist. Dr. Titzes own preface states,
The first six chapters are formidable (p. xiv). A threefold approach to making
the concepts understandable is adopted: the written word, scientific or mathemati-
cal formula, and graphic illustration. Sample chapters include Biomechanics of
Laryngeal Tissue and Vocal Fold Oscillation. Written as a text for the study
of voice science or speech-language pathology, it is also of use to professionals in
any field related to the mechanisms of voice and speech production.
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Vennard, William. 1967. Singing: The Mechanism and the Technic. Rev. ed. New York:
Carl Fischer.
Vennards book is a classic vocal pedagogy source. Chapter topics include acous-
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nation. The chapter on breathing is particularly helpful due to its clarity and
comprehensiveness. Each paragraph is numbered for easy access, making for an
exceptionally useful index. A thirty-page thesaurus presents terminology used in
general science, acoustics, vibration, properties of tone, essentials of a musical in-
strument, musical instruments, resonance, physiology of breathing and of the lar-
ynx, and of resonance, registration, resonance imagery, phonetics, neurology,
psychology, pedagogy, research, and voice classification.
Vennard, W., and M. Hirano. 1971. Varieties of Voice Production. NATS Bulle-
tin 27, pp. 2630.
Webb, Guy B. 1993. Up Front! Becoming the Complete Choral Conductor. Boston:
E. C. Schirmer.
White, Robert C., Jr. 1978. Stop Voice Abuse! Music Educators Journal 63:2,
pp. 3842.
Wormhoudt, Pearl Shinn. 1993. Building the Voice as an Instrument. Oscaloosa, Iowa:
Micro-Media Services.
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Index
331
332 Index
Neutral vowels
how to execute, 7172 Range
assessing in the audition, 177180
extending in the warm-up, 192193
Older singers, 159163 Registers, 108112, 114. See also Chest
Onset voice, Falsetto
balanced onset, 2728 Relaxation techniques, 272273
definition of, 26 Resonance, 136137
334 Index