788 Liberation

Radhakrishnan, S., The Principal Upanisads, London, 1953. Sutherland, S., L. Houlden, P. Clarke & F. Hardy, The
Reichenbach, B., The Law of Karma: A Philosophical Study, Worlds Religions, London, 1988.
London, 1990. Weiss, M. G., Caraka Sam hit on the Doctrine of Karma,
Sanderson, A, aivism and the Tantric Traditions, in: in: W. Doniger OFlaherty, ed., Karma and Rebirth in
S. Sutherland et al., eds., The World Religions, London, Classical Indian Traditions, 1980, 90115.
1988, 660704. Zaehner, R.C., Mysticism Sacred and Profane, Oxford, 1961.
Stevenson, I., Twenty Cases Suggestive of Reincarnation,
2
1974. Julius Lipner

Liberation. In Brills Encyclopedia of Hinduism. Vol. 2: Texts, Rituals, Arts, Concepts,

ed. Knut Axel Jacobsen, 788-792. Leiden: Brill Academic Publishers, 2010.

Liberation

In the Hindu tradition, the ultimate aim of reli- from which return to earthly life was inevitable.
gious striving and indeed of human life in The important question of whether liberation is
general is most commonly termed moksa, mean- possible prior to the death of the body is dealt with
ing freedom or liberation. Although corre- separately in the article on jvanmukti (living lib-
spondences are of course far from exact, the idea eration; jvanmukta).
occupies the place in Hindu thought that parallels
concepts of perfection, salvation, redemption,
freedom, and the like in other religious traditions. Moksa and the Brahmanical
While it is the most widely accepted term for the Tradition
final spiritual goal in Hinduism, it is not the only
term so used. Others, which will be mentioned in The concept of moksa as a release from bondage to
passing, include apavarga (cessation), nirvna ordinary existence first made its appearance in the
(extinction), duh khnta (the end of suffering), Upanisads, in what may be termed the late Vedic
kaivalya (isolation), and siddhi (perfection). period. It did not find expression in the earlier
From the Sanskrit root muc-, to release, to set Vedic corpus ( Vedas), where the outlook was
free, moksa and its feminine cognate and syn- generally more life affirming. The highest values
onym mukti convey the idea of liberation from the of Vedic Brahmanism, as later distilled in the con-
rounds of birth and rebirth (punarbhava) in the cept of the purusrthas or goals of human life
mundane world ( sam sra), along with the suf- ( purusa), centered in ritual; responsibility to
fering (duh kha) associated therewith. The indi- family, ancestors, and society; and general earthly
vidual who has attained this state of freedom is well-being. The postmortem goal was not moksa
referred to using the past participle form mukta, but svarga, a heavenly existence that was more or
the one who is liberated. All Hindus accept this less an extension of earthly life, but without its
basic definition in terms of liberation from as a defects.
starting point, but through history and across The idea of the radical transcendence of mun-
the spectrum of the various Hindu schools of dane existence that is represented by moksa arose
thought there is a wide divergence as to the pos- in part as an answer to concerns internal to Vedic
itive content of the moksa experience. The bulk of religion, especially anxiety about the possibility of
this article will be devoted to outlining these re-death ( punarmrtyu) after a postmortem
divergences, as represented in the ancient and period in the world of the ancestors. It is likely that
classical traditions of scripture and theology. there was also significant influence from the non-
While most schools of thought regard moksa as Brahmanical shamanic and ascetic cultures
the common destiny of all souls, a few, as we shall termed ramana (lit. striver), which eventually
see, teach that some are not fit for this goal. Finally, crystallized in the Jain, Buddhist, and Yoga tradi-
while the general view is that moksa, once attained, tions. The development of the discourse about
is permanent and eternal, at least one Hindu moksa paralleled the rise to religious conscious-
teacher, the 19th-century reformer Dayananda ness of the related concepts of karman and
Sarasvati, understood moksa as a temporary state, sam sra. These ideas were combined with a less
 Liberation 789
than optimistic evaluation of ordinary human cause of sam sra and moksa (vetU. 6.16; see also
existence in terms of the suffering (duh kha) seen MaiU. 6.20, 30, 34). In addition, there are numer-
to be endemic to sam sra, forming a complex that ous passages in which the idea of liberation from
became the common heritage of all Indic religions. sam sra is suggested by other, more metaphorical
Like the idea of moksa, the doctrines of karman expressions, for instance, not returning (BU.
and sam sra also found their earliest literary 6.2.15; ChU. 4.15.56); gaining victory over
expression in the Upanisads (BU. 4.4.37; KathU. repeated death (punarmrtyu; BU. 1.2.7); passing
3.78; vetU. 6.16; MaiU. 1.4). beyond sorrow, sin, and death (BU. 3.5.1; MuU.
Beyond the Upanisads, the doctrine of moksa 3.2.9); untying the knots of the heart (MuU. 2.2.9);
moved gradually toward wide acceptance in the being released from good and evil (BU. 4.4.23;
Hindu tradition, but never achieved a complete MuU. 3.1.3); and reaching the further shore
ascendency in relation to other religious goals. The (ChU. 7.26.2).
moksa ideal vied continually and most especially More positively, we read of going to brahman
with dharma ones duty toward ritual mainte- (BU. 4.4.6; KathU. 6.14), reaching the supreme
nance of the world for status as the primary aim light (param jyotih ; ChU. 8.12.3), becoming
of human life. Although the Dharmastras and immortal (amrta; BU. 4.4.7; KathU. 6.8), reach-
the Arthastra are aware of moksa as an ultimate ing the world of Brahm (brahmaloka; ChU.
horizon, they limit the purusrthas formally to the 8.4.1; 8.15.1), and so on. As these varied meta-
trivarga (triad) of dharma, artha, and kma. phors suggest, while there is general agreement
Likewise, the Rmyana and the Mahbhrata among the upanishadic teachers that this final
speak of the trivarga of human goals only, although release is a state of blissful freedom from earthly
the latter contains significant portions for exam- limitations, positive conceptions of the content of
ple, the Moksadharma in which the world-deny- the experience vary. We find accounts that suggest
ing moksa ethos eclipses the this-worldly triad of personal immortality (ChU. 8.12.3), having ones
purusrthas. The addition of moksa to the list of desires spontaneously fulfilled (ChU. 8.2.110;
purusrthas, forming the classical caturvarga 8.7.13; TaiU. 2.1, 3.10.5), reaching a state of com-
(quartet) of human goals, is a later development. plete desirelessness (BU. 4.4.7; MuU. 3.2.2; MaiU.
Among the ultra-orthodox Mmm sa theorists 6.30), attaining likeness to the supreme (MuU.
of ritual, intent as they were on the pursuit of 3.1.3), enjoying a heavenly paradise (ChU. 8.12.3;
dharma and the associated goal of svarga, the idea KausU. 1.35), attaining oneness with the divine
of moksa was not fully accepted until the time of person (purusam divyam; MuU. 3.2.8), merging
Kumrila and Prabhkara (7th cent. CE). Never- in brahman (ln brahmani; vetU. 1.7), or even
theless, by this time the moksa ideal had gained finding complete isolation from pleasure and pain
ground in other areas of Brahmanical culture to (kevalatva; MaiU. 6.21). In some cases, the souls
the extent that the schools of Vednta were retention of individual form, or even some kind of
speaking of it as the paramapurusrtha, the spiritual embodiment, is suggested (ChU. 7.26.2;
supreme goal of human life, as does ankara 8.12.3), while in others complete loss of individu-
(7th8th cents. CE) in his commentary on ality is clearly indicated (BU. 2.4.1214; 4.3.30;
Brahmastra 2.1.3. 4.4.6; ChU. 6.10.1; MuU. 3.2.89; PrU. 6.5).

The Idea of Liberation in the Liberation in the Brahmastra

Upanisads The Upanisads, being visionary in content rather
than systematic, make no attempt to harmonize
In the early and middle Upanishads (c. 900 the various perspectives presented. The first record
500 BCE), we begin to see forms of the verb muc- we have of any such endeavor is the Brahmastra,
(BU. 4.2.1; ChU. 6.14.2; KathU. 6.8), other noun attributed to Bdaryana (3rd2nd cents. BCE).
formations such as vimoksa (BU. 4.13.1416), The third and fourth chapters of this work discuss
and, rarely, the feminine noun mukti (BU. 3.1.6) a number of upanishadic passages dealing with
used in senses evoking the later, formalized con- the postmortem state of brahman knowers and
ception of moksa. By the later Upanisads, the word reveal that, even at this relatively early stage in the
itself has attained the status of a technical term, for development of the Vednta, there were teachers
example, in the vetvataropanisad: He is the worthy of mention by name who had divergent views
790 Liberation
on the topic of moksa, to the extent that Bdaryana While there is general agreement that, once lib-
felt it necessary to seek a reconciliation. eration is attained, there is no return (anvrtti) to
The Brahmastra addresses several key ques- the mundane world (BrS. 4.4.22), Bdaryana
tions concerning the state of the liberated soul does suggest one interesting exception. Those
(mukta), the first and most obvious being the rela- muktas who have been appointed to certain
tion between the liberated soul and brahman. cosmic missions may retain their bodies, or take
There seems to have been general agreement that up new bodies, as long as their appointed missions
the mukta abided in a state without distinction last (BrS. 3.3.32). Commentators take this idea
(avibhga) from the ultimate (BrS. 4.4.4), though to refer to certain sages ( rsi s) such as
the word avibhga was vague enough to give later Apntaratamas, Vasisth a, and others who are
commentators much latitude. There was disagree- known in tradition for having assumed new bod-
ment, however, regarding the nature of the liber- ies at the behest of the Lord to carry out certain
ated soul itself. Is the soul in liberation to be divinely appointed tasks.
defined as pure consciousness (citi) only, or does
it posses other qualities? The author of the
Brahmastra wants to allow other brahman- Liberation in the Bhagavadgt
like attributes in addition to pure consciousness
(BrS. 4.4.57). Does the mukta, for example, enjoy Along with the Upanisads and the Brahmastra,
supernatural powers? Bdaryana suggests that the Bhagavadgt is one of the three primary
this is the case, but that these powers do not texts (prasthnatray) of the Vednta. Like the
encroach upon the functions of cosmic creation, Upanishads, the Bhagavadgt is not a systematic
sustenance, and so on, which are exclusive to brah- treatise. Indeed, it is something of a syncretic doc-
man (BrS. 4.4.1721). How should we read scrip- ument. While it clearly represents a stage in Hindu
tural passages that suggest that the desires thought at which the idea of sam sra is approach-
of the liberated are realized simply by willing (BrS. ing their full classical articulation, there is no sin-
4.4.89)? We must accept them. Are the liberated gle, definitively expressed view of liberation in the
somehow embodied? If so, may they enjoy more text. Rather, as in the earlier texts, there is ample
than one body? Bdaryana seems to believe that scope for both a nondualist and a theistic reading,
some kind of embodiment, and even multiple though it is easily arguable that the Bhagavadgt
embodiments, is possible but not necessary (BrS. tends more strongly toward a theistic conception.
4.4.1016). An additional question is the issue of The word moksa is used five times (BhG. 5.28;
whether certain liberated souls under certain con- 7.29; 13.34; 17.25; 18.30) in the text, with the ver-
ditions attain only the lower or effected (krya) bal forms (mukta etc.) appearing considerably
brahman the world of Brahm (brahmaloka) or more frequently. The text speaks of liberation
Hiranyagarbha instead of the supreme (para) from the body (BhG. 5.23), from old age and
brahman (BrS. 4.3.716). At least in ankaras death (BhG. 7.29), from subjection to rebirth
reading, the author of the Brahmastra allows for (BhG. 2.51), from evil (BhG. 4.16, 9.1), and espe-
this, which opens the door for a central debate cially from the bondage of karman (BhG. 9.28).
among later commentators: do the scriptural pas- The liberated soul crosses beyond my (BhG.
sages referring to the mukta as embodied and pos- 7.14), ever again to be reborn (BhG. 4.9; 5.17;
sessed of desire, powers, and other celestial 8.1516) and attains positively immortality
attributes and experiences pertain only to those (amrtatva; BhG. 2.15; 13.12; 14.20), peace (nti;
who have attained the lower brahman, or do they BhG. 2.71), the highest perfection (sam siddhim
teach that the highest state might include such paramm; BhG. 8.15), the supreme bliss (atyantam
experiences? The distinction between the supreme sukham; BhG. 6.28), and the eternal, immutable
and the lower brahman as goals for liberated souls state (vatam avyayam padam; BhG. 18.56).
also opens the door for the conceptualization of The Bhagavadgt describes the sage as fit for
what ankara calls kramamukti, stepwise or grad- becoming brahman (BhG. 18.53), as established in
ual liberation. The Brahmastra (4.3.1011) refer- brahman (5.1920), or even as having become
ring perhaps to Mundakopanisad 3.2.6 suggests brahman (brahmabhta; BhG. 5.24; 6.27; 18.54).
that those who have attained the world of Brahm Krsn a promises that, at death, the sage will attain
attain full liberation along with Brahm when, at brahman or the nirvna that is brahman (BhG.
the end of cosmic cycle, the world is dissolved. 4.3031; 5.6; 5.2426; 8.24; 13.30). Brahman is
 Liberation 791
defined, as in the Upanisads, as the imperishable ness (cit) in moksa, since it is for them part of the
(aksara; BhG. 8.3). souls inalienable nature; for the Nyya-Vaiseika
While these passages have given comfort to and the Mmm s, consciousness also is denied in
commentators who sought a nondualist, transthe- liberation, being an adventitious attribute of the
istic reading of the text, there are verses that have jva.
just as readily provided support for a final theistic The various schools of Vednta base their vision
import. Krsn a himself is identified with the on the Upanisads and thus do offer, in various
supreme brahman (param brahma; BhG. 10.12) modalities, participation in a reality beyond and
and the unexcelled goal (anuttamam gatim; BhG. higher than the individual self. All emphasize,
7.18). The liberated sage attains the supreme moreover, that moksa is not merely the end of suf-
divine person (param purusam divyam; BhG. 8.7 fering but also a positive experience of the highest
10). Indeed, over and over again, Krsn a proclaims bliss (paramnanda). Among these, the Advaita
that the liberated soul will come to, attain, or enter Vednta offers a transtheistic, nondualist concep-
into him (BhG. 4.9; 7.23; 8.7, 1516; 9.25, 28, 34; tion of liberation. It is transtheistic in the sense
10.10; 11.5455; 12.8; 18.55, 65, 68), his being that the moksa experience in Advaita entails iden-
(madbhvam; BhG. 4.10; 8.5; 13.18), or his supreme tity with the attributeless ( nirguna) brahman,
abode (dhma paramam mama; BhG. 15.6). conceived of as a reality that transcends, yet does
not negate, the attribute-full (saguna), or theistic,
aspect of the ultimate. The conception, if not com-
Moksa in the Various Schools monsensical, is fairly simple. In ankaras words,
moksa is brahman (brahmabhva ca moksah ;
As Hindu religious literature developed in the BrSBh. 1.1.4). It is not a question of an individual
classical period, a rich variety of conceptualiza- tman becoming, or as is often said merging
tions of moksa arose, corresponding to various into brahman. Moksa occurs with the realization
theological/philosophical traditions, which each that the single self (tman), which is present uni-
in its own way interpreted the suggestive ambi- formly in all beings as their inmost consciousness,
guity of scripture. Space does not permit a detailed is and has always been nothing other than brah-
analysis, but one may roughly divide these visions man. Although the reward of this nondualist real-
into (a) nontheistic or pluralist/isolationist, ization is supreme bliss (paramnanda), the cost
(b) transtheistic nondualist, and (c) theistic. is dear: the postmortem state termed videha-
The nontheistic, pluralist conceptions of moksa mukti, or disembodied liberation is one in
can be found among the Hindu daranas (philo- which, with rare exceptions (as at BrS. 3.3.32, dis-
sophical schools) Nyya, Vaiseika, Mmm s, cussed above), all traces of the muktas former
and Sm khya-Yoga ( Sm khya; Ptajala Yoga). individuality is dissolved.
All of these recognize an infinite multiplicity of Theistic expressions of the Vednta tradition are
spiritual selves ( tman, purusa, jva). At the primarily Vaisna va in orientation. These include
same time, none allows in moksa any participa- the theologies of Rmnuja (11th12th cents.),
tion in a higher reality beyond the self. Rather, the Madhva (13th cent.), Vallabha (15th16th cents.),
vision involves a cessation or removal (apavarga) and Rpa Gosvmin and Jva Gosvmin (16th
of connection with the suffering of the world and cent.). Speaking generally, they accept a multiplic-
an isolation (kaivalya) in the individual self s ity of spiritual selves (tman, jva), which may in
essential nature. Among these traditions, only the moksa attain a state of eternal, blissful commu-
later Nyya and the Yoga of Patajali offer a con- nion (but not identity) with the deity. This occurs
ception of god. The conception is minimalist, in a heavenly realm (Vaikunth a, Goloka) that
however, and moksa as perfect isolation in transcends sam sra, images of which are drawn
the self tman does not for them involve from the Upanisads (e.g. KausU. 1.35) and, espe-
any sort of communion or identity with god. The cially, the Purnas (e.g. BhgP. 3.15). It is signifi-
primary appeal of the moksa ideal in these tradi- cant that in these traditions moksa is not entirely a
tions is a negative one: the guarantee of the per- disembodied state. The mukta enjoys a spiritual
manent and complete cessation of suffering body (aprkrtadeha, siddhadeha, vaikunth amrti,
(duh khnta, tyantikaduh kanivrtti). There is no and so on) composed of pure being (uddhasattva).
positive experience of bliss, since in none of these A number of the Vaisna va preceptors accept the
systems is bliss accepted as part of the souls essen- idea of differing degrees of relationship with the
tial nature. In Sm khya-Yoga there is conscious- deity in moksa: residence in the same realm
792 Liberation
(slokya), partaking in divine attributes (srsti ), bhakti traditions, though for somewhat different
proximity to god (smpya), enjoying a divine reasons a tendency to devalue moksa. In this
form (srpya), and union (syujya or ekatva; case, it is in favor of siddhi, a complete perfection
BhgP. 3.29.13). As this scheme suggests, it is not of consciousness in which the world is not aban-
necessarily the case that all liberated souls enjoy doned but rather transfigured. The conception of
the same degree of felicity. For Madhva, souls are reality is dynamic and capable of sustaining para-
qualitatively distinct (svarpabheda), and there is dox to the extent that the siddha, the perfected
a gradation of bliss (nandatratamya) in moksa, or accomplished saint, despite a close or even
according to their worthiness. Madhva also is complete identification with the deity, retains a
notable for his teaching that some souls (the functional individuality. The siddha, indeed, is
nityasam srin sor nityabaddhas) are destined to often understood to have achieved a state of per-
remain in the rounds of birth and rebirth forever, sonal immortality that holds beyond the death of
never to attain moksa, while others (tamoyogya, the earthly body. This immortality involves a yogi-
those fit for darkness) will slide toward an even- cally engendered spiritual body (divyadeha,
tual eternity in hell. While not expressed so starkly, jnadeha), an idea already mentioned in connec-
similar ideas may be found in the Nimbrka and tion with Vaisna vism. It allows for the siddhas
Vallabha traditions. Finally, it should be noted that continued, felt presence and power in the world
Krsn a traditions, following the Bhgavatapurna after the saints physical passing, a concept of wide
(7.8.42; 11.14.4), deemphasize the value of moksa currency among the followers of any number of
in preference to bhakti, which they designate as guru-centered traditions within Hinduism.
the fifth goal of life (pacamapurusrtha). They
see bhakti as a supremely blissful end in itself, not
merely a means to liberation. Bibliography
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