Master Basic Plumbing and Central Heating PDF

Master Basic Plumbing
and Central Heating

Roy Treloar
611627_Mast_Bas_Plumb_Book.indb 1 24/02/15 5:17 PM

This book is designed to provide information about some of
the basic principles and techniques of plumbing and central
heating. You are solely responsible for the way you view and
use the information in this book, and do so at your own risk.
The author and publisher are not responsible for any injuries to
person or damage to property that might occur due to using this
book or following the advice in it.

Master Basic
Plumbing
and Central
Heating
Roy Treloar

First published in Great Britain in 2008 by John Murray Learning. An Hachette UK
company.
Previously published as Teach Yourself Basic Plumbing and Central Heating.
First published in US in 2015 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
This edition published in 2015 by John Murray Learning
Copyright Roy Treloar 2008, 2010, 2015
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Contents
Meet the author ix
Introductionxi
The ten most common plumbing problems
Your safety checklist
1 The plumbing in your home 1
Incoming cold water supply
Cold supply inside the dwelling
The storage cistern
The toilet-flushing cistern
Hard and soft water
Water softeners and water conditioners
The above-ground drainage system
The below-ground drainage system
The equipotential earth bond
2 Hot water in your home 41
Gas installations
Oil installations
Flues and ventilation for gas- and oil-burning appliances
The hot water supply
Hot water storage systems
Direct systems of hot water supply
Indirect systems of hot water supply
Instantaneous systems of hot water supply
Thermal storage systems
Choosing a new domestic hot water supply
3 Domestic central heating 73
Types of central heating system
Radiant heating
Central heating using radiators
Micro-bore systems
Radiators and heat emitters
Radiator valves
The boiler
Heating controls
Protecting heating systems

4 Emergencies and contingency work 1 107
Turning off the water supply
Draining down the water supply
Draining down the central heating
A dripping tap
Water leaking from the body of a tap
Lack of water flow from a tap
Toilet will not flush
Water continuously discharges into the pan
Toilet or storage cistern overflowing
Toilet leaking when flushed
5 Emergencies and contingency work 2 147
Burst pipes
Noises from pipework
Hot water problems
Blockages in the waste-water pipework
Smell of gas or fumes
6 Plumbing processes 173
Corrosion
Pipework used for water supplies
Copper pipework and fittings
Bending copper tube
Plastic pipework and fittings
Specialist plumbing tools
Concealing your pipework
7 Ancillary works and maintenance 201
Employing a qualified professional
Gas or oil boiler maintenance
Gas fire maintenance
General plumbing maintenance
8 Undertaking small plumbing projects 213
Preparation and first principles
Installing a washing machine or dishwasher
Installing a water softener
Making a connection to the soil pipe
Installing an outside tap
Removing a radiator to decorate behind it
Repairing the water supply main
Replacing the water supply main
Installing a new storage cistern
Replacing a faulty immersion heater
vi

Insulating pipes against freezing
Installing guttering and rainwater pipes
Installing a new WC suite
Installing new sink, basin or bath taps
Installing a new sink, basin or bath
Installing a shower cubicle
Replacing a shower booster pump
Appendix 1: Legislation 257
Work requiring notification under local building control
Work to which Gas Regulations apply
Work to which Water Regulations apply
The professional plumber
Appendix 2: Glossary 265
Appendix 3: Taking it further 275
Further reading
Plumbing trade and professional bodies
Index277
Contents vii

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Meet the author
I was in the last generation of children to leave school at the age
of 15, in 1973. This makes me sound old, but no, Im still in my
50s. When I started out as a plumber in the 1970s, things in the
plumbing world seemed to stay the same for many years and
any changes were a slow, steady progression. We had to learn to
make joints to lead and cast-iron pipes, and they were skills that
made you feel a real specialist in your craft.
Since I first started teaching full time in 1985, it seems that
the world of plumbing has gone through a hyper leap. Today
the traditional skills are no longer required and things are put
together with great speed, using plastic pipes with push-fit joints
for all kinds of installation, including central heating pipework.
Legislation today takes a much more prominent position than
it did when I was last trading as a practising plumber. In the
old days, you could, within reason, do as you pleased to make
a system work. You could undertake all kinds of gas work, put
in whatever boiler you liked and make all sorts of drainage
alterations, as you saw fit. But today gas engineers must be
registered and can only undertake work in the areas in which
they have been assessed. New boilers must be energy-efficient
and their installation must be registered with the local authority,
which will also wish to know where you have altered pipework
within a building, and whether you have an unvented hot-water
system installed. It does not stop there: every time you alter
plumbing or electrical installations, approval may be required in
order to comply with the law.
So, while in some ways plumbing has become easier, in another
it has become very much harder if you want to trade. Along
with this is the fact that modern boilers invariably have a
limited lifespan because they have become so much more
technical due to the need for efficiency. Boilers in the old days
easily ran for 2040 years, but finding the right person to solve
a problem with a modern boiler is sometimes like trying to find
a needle in a haystack, so the boiler is all too often replaced
rather than repaired.
Meet the author ix

Undertaking plumbing yourself is quite possible to do, but
remember that you must abide by current legislation and that, if
you install a system incorrectly, it may only work for a limited
time. Take your time to fully appreciate how your system works
and, if in doubt, seek expert advice.
Roy Treloar

Introduction
This book has been written with the domestic homeowner
in mind. It identifies the plumbing systems in your home
and explains how to undertake some basic plumbing work
yourself. You might be considering the replacement of extensive
pipework, or perhaps youd just like to know what to do in an
emergency. In any case this book will give you insight into the
activities that a plumber might undertake should they be called
upon, and it provides you with clues about what they might
need to do and why. It will also provide you with key questions
to ask when seeking the services of a plumber.
Chapters 1 to 3 describe the plumbing of a typical home.
Chapter 1 describes the cold water supply: how it enters the
building from the street outside, travels through your house
and eventually drains from your property. Chapter 2 describes
the hot water supply and Chapter 3 shows you how the
heating works. As the book takes you around your home, it
identifies the main variations of plumbing systems found, and
shows you specific things to look out for in the design, thus
helping you to avoid the pitfalls and ensure a trouble-free
existence for your system.
Chapters 4 and 5 explain how to tackle simple repairs and find
out what action to take in an emergency. You will discover how
to deal with a collection of problems, from dripping taps and
overflowing cisterns to blocked sinks and toilets.
Further chapters go on to discuss plumbing practice: identifying
materials used, jointing methods and specialist plumbing tools.
This will help you understand how to complete some of the
work yourself. Larger plumbing and maintenance works that
you might consider are also discussed, designed to ensure
that you will be able to avoid an emergency call-out from a
plumber.
When faced with the prospect of doing some plumbing for
the first time, you may fear that tackling the work yourself
Introduction xi

will end with water pouring through the ceiling. This
does not need to be the case. Plumbing activities generally
follow simple basic principles that most people can follow.
Unfortunately, plumbing jargon can put some people off
before they start, so if youre faced with an unfamiliar term,
check the glossary at the back of this book, which might shed
light on the problem you are trying to solve, making it all
seem much clearer.
The book is limited in terms of what it can cover in depth, so
it must be understood that you should not attempt any work
that might put you at risk, for example when working with
the electrical supply to a particular component, such as the
pump or immersion heater. Chapters 5 and 8 do cover pumps
and heaters, but several fundamental aspects of electrical
safety are beyond the scope of this book and they must be
understood before you work on electrical supply systems
because otherwise you could put yourself or others at risk of
electrocution. The book discusses aspects of gas installation
but, again, if you dont absolutely know what you are doing, it
could prove fatal. Basically, if you are not fully competent, you
should leave well alone; if in doubt, call in an expert!
Some of the work you decide to have done or do yourself may
be subject to legislation, such as the current Building or Water
Regulations. When you call in a plumber, you assume that they
are competent and will work in compliance with these laws;
unfortunately this is not always the case. You are generally
none the wiser and possibly dont really care, just being happy
to see the job done, but I must point out that approval may be
required if youre considering works involving new additions to
your home. I recommend that you read Appendix 1 relating to
work affected by legislation.
This book aims to help you find the courage to tackle some
of the smaller jobs yourself, and you might surprise yourself
and gain enough confidence to tackle much bigger tasks in
the fullness of time. With the escalating cost of calling in a
plumber these days, you should get your money back on the
first successfully completed activity. I hope this book brings you
some happy plumbing results.
xii

The ten most common plumbing
problems
You will find out in more detail how to rectify these and other
plumbing problems in Chapters 4 and 5, but here is a quick-
fire guide to the causes of ten of the most common plumbing
problems.
1 Water flowing from an overflow pipe
This is the result of the water not closing off fully as it
enters the WC or storage cistern located in the roof space.
2 Dripping tap
This is often caused by a faulty washer, which fails to close
off the water.
3 WC will not flush
The most likely cause of this problem is the large
diaphragm washer being worn out.
4 Blocked sink
This is usually caused by the build-up of grime and debris
within the trap.
5 Blocked toilet
If someone flushes excessive paper or inappropriate items
down the pan, the outlet will become blocked.
6 Water supply wont turn off
Several valves within the pipework that are not operated
from one year to the next typically seize up and become
inoperable.
7 Water leaking from the body of a tap
This problem only occurs when water is flowing through
the pipe fitting in question. It is generally from that part of
the tap that allows the spindle or head to turn. The problem
is resolved by repacking a gland or replacing an O ring.
8 Banging/noisy pipework
There could be several reasons why you would encounter
noises from your pipework, from the pressure being too
high to insufficient room for the pipes to expand.
Introduction xiii

9 Water coming through the ceiling, pipe or appliance
Clearly, a leak always requires immediate attention. The
first thing would be to turn off the water so that you can
then tackle the leak, and you may also need to review the
plumbing processes: pipe connections and pipe jointing
methods (see Chapter 6).
10 Heating or hot water will not come on
This would suggest an electrical fault, which would be
beyond the remit of this book; you may need to consult a
specialist contractor. However, it is worth reviewing the
heating and hot water controls (see Chapter 3) and the
immersion heater, if used (see Chapter 8).
Your safety checklist

Listed here are things to check before you start any plumbing
work. It includes several points of safety aimed at ensuring
that you do not endanger yourself or anyone else as a result of
the activities you may undertake. Generally, safety is common
sense, but every day the hospitals are full of patients who failed
to observe these simple rules and started to do a job without
this additional thought process.
1 Are you able to complete the task successfully?
Go through the mental process of completing the task
in hand and the order in which you will tackle the job
from start to finish. Try to think of any pitfalls you may
encounter and how to overcome them.
2 Is approval required to complete the work?
Some specific tasks may need the approval of the local
authority. This fact is often overlooked so, for some
guidance, see Appendix 1: Legislation.
3 Have you all the tools and fittings you need to complete
the task?
Trying to do a project with inappropriate tools just leads
to annoyance and frustration. Specific fittings needed for
the completion of the task should also ideally be at hand,
to allow you to do the whole job without disruption. It is
xiv

frustrating to have to stop in the middle of a task in order
to go in search of tools or equipment.
4 Where applicable, have you turned off the water supply?
Chapter 4 discusses how to turn off the water supply and
possible pitfalls. With the water successfully turned off, you
then need to drain it from the system.
5 Where applicable, have you turned off the electrical supply?
If immersion heaters and boilers try to come on with the
water removed, they are likely to be damaged, so switch
these appliances or systems off. If you are replacing or
installing electrical items such as pumps, ensure that you
are competent to do so.
6 Have you removed all furniture and items that will get in
the way?
To prevent damage to furniture and other items, remove
them from the area or room where you will be working.
This will also avoid the frustration that might arise from
being unable to work comfortably. If you have to remove
floorboards to access pipes, take up sufficient boards but
not so many that replacing them becomes a bigger job than
it needs to be.
7 Have you put down dustsheets?
Any job involving removing floorboards or chasing walls
causes vast amounts of dust, so its essential to protect as
many surfaces as possible.
8 Are you wearing appropriate PPE?
PPE stands for personal protective equipment. This refers
to goggles, dust masks, gloves and boots, and any other
safety equipment for that matter. While you may think that
these items will get in the way of you working, they will
save more time in the long run and, more importantly, help
prevent injury. Hospitals are full of people who did not
bother to use some form of safety protection.
9 Do you need ladders and access equipment?
Sometimes you will need to work at an elevated position.
If this is the case, dont overreach and always aim to keep
Introduction xv

three points of contact with the access equipment (two feet
and one hand). Consider whether a platform may be more
appropriate to work on than a ladder. When working at
heights, take extra care and have someone else available to
provide additional support if need be.
10 Have you enough time to complete the job?
Last but not least, have you allowed sufficient time to
complete a specific job? Will the light be failing you as
the evening approaches? Working in the dark and under
artificial lighting with its cast shadows is much harder than
working in natural daylight. Will the shops still be open in
case you need a specific part that you overlooked or could
not get earlier?
xvi

The plumbing in
1
your home
In this chapter you will learn:
CC how the water supply arrives in your home
CC about the different types of water supply
CC about cold water storage
CC about WC systems
CC how water leaves the property.

This chapter looks at the plumbing systems in your home, from
the point where water is fed into the house and passes through
the pipework, to the point where the used and unwanted water
leaves the house via the drains.
Incoming cold water supply

The water pipe feeding into your home comes from a supply
pipe in the road, at a point just outside your property. There is
usually a water authority valve at this point, and it is here that
your responsibility for the water and pipework begins. The pipe
travels below ground at a minimum depth of 750 mm to ensure
that it is protected from damage and that the water will not freeze
if the temperature drops below freezing point (0C). The pipe then
passes into a pipe duct through the foundations and ground floor
into your home, terminating with a stopcock (tap). See Figure 1.1.
In newer buildings a water meter will be incorporated within this
supply pipe. This may be contained within a chamber outside,
keeping the meter below ground level, or within the building
itself, thereby allowing easier access for reading and maintenance.
There may also be a stopcock situated under the ground at the
boundary to your property, in addition to the one inside.
The pipe in the road from which this drinking water supply is
taken is usually referred to as the mains.
THE WATER SUPPLY PIPE

For the past 30 years or so, plastic (polyethylene) has been used
for the cold water pipe feeding your home. Today it is typically
blue and the standard diameter is 25 mm (equivalent to a
copper pipe of 22 mm diameter) and it is adequate to supply
several outlets at once. In the past, however, smaller-sized pipes
were used, including:
CC 20 mm plastic pipe either black or blue (equivalent to
15 mm copper pipe size)
CC 15 mm copper pipe
CC inch galvanized mild steel pipe
CC inch lead pipe.

750 mm minimum
otherwise pipe is
to be insulated
611627_Mast_Bas_Plumb_Book.indb 3
outside of building
boundary wall
meter just in or drain-off cock
outside the
boundary
stopcock
Figure 1.1 The cold water supply into a home

750 mm
1350 mm
pipe duct
stopcock and possibly
water meter
water supply pipe
in the road
1. The plumbing in your home

3
24/02/15 5:17 PM
These older pipes are regarded as too small for a modern
house because of the extra appliances used (washing machine,
showers, etc.) and extra toilets. The size can restrict the flow of
water and cause a loss of water flow at some outlets if several
appliances are opened at the same time. Unfortunately, there is
not a lot you can do with your existing supply pipe if its too
small, other than replacing it with a new pipe.
SUPPLY STOPCOCK (STOPTAP)

It is very important that you know the location of this valve;
after all, it supplies the water to the building, and turning it
off will stop the flow of water. This is essential in a situation
where water is leaking from pipework. Typical locations for the
stopcock inside the building are:
CC under the kitchen sink
CC in a downstairs toilet
CC under the stairs, in a cupboard
CC in the garage
CC in the basement
CC under a wooden floorboard, just inside the front door.
There may be an additional stopcock outside the building.

Dont turn off this valve until you fully understand the
consequences of doing so (see Chapter 2).
Ideally, once the internal stopcock has been found, you should
tie a label to the operating handle, so that anyone needing to find
it in the future will know that this is the main water inlet to the
building (see Figure 1.2).
Remember this
In an emergency, turning off the incoming cold water supply stopcock
will eventually stop the water flowing from any water pipe, wherever it
is. This includes the pipework for the hot and cold water and the central
heating.

drain-off cock
MA
IN
VA SUP
identification label LV PLY
E
Figure 1.2 Supply stopcock with drain-off valve
Cold supply inside the dwelling

Once you have identified the incoming supply, look for a small
outlet valve, known as a drain-off cock, just after the stopcock
or incorporated within its design. This may be missing in older
buildings or in poorly installed systems. The drain-off cock
allows the cold water supply mains pipework to be drained,
for example for maintenance work or if youre going away for
a long time in winter. There is provision for a hose connection,
but generally, when the supply has been shut off, much of the
water can be drained out via the kitchen sink, so that only that
remaining in the pipe needs to be drained.
From the stopcock the pipe will run to the kitchen sink and
other outlets. The route will depend on the system design,
which will be one of the following:
CC direct cold water supply
CC indirect cold water supply
CC modified cold water supply.
The pipework usually runs beneath floors or through pipe

ducts, for example alongside the vertical soil or drainage stack
(the drainpipe taking waste water from the building) as it
passes up through the building. It may also be encased within
1. The plumbing in your home 5

the plaster wall. In all cases the actual pipe route is not a major
concern, provided that it is protected from unforeseen damage
and frost.
storage cistern
overflow
pipes cold feed to hot
water cylinder
WC cistern
wash basin
bath
service
valve
sink
drain-off cock
supply stopcock
Figure 1.3 A direct cold water supply system

DIRECT COLD WATER SUPPLY
If you have this system, all your cold water outlet points are
fed directly from the mains supply. These include all appliances
such as the sink, bath, basin and WC, plus any other outlets
to washing machines, dishwashers, or outside taps used for
watering the garden (see Figure 1.3). The cold supply may also
feed a hot water system such as an unvented domestic hot water
supply or combination boiler (see Chapter 2).
Key idea
In the direct system of cold water supply, all the cold taps are supplied
with water that has been supplied directly from the local authority water
supply mains pipe and therefore can be regarded as very safe to drink.
INDIRECT COLD WATER SUPPLY

In this system the only appliance fed directly from the mains
supply is the kitchen sink, plus a water softener if one is
incorporated within the property. Instead of feeding directly to
the other appliances, the supply feeds a water storage cistern,
usually found within the roof space (loft). All other outlet points
in the building are then fed from this storage cistern (Figure 1.4).
MODIFIED COLD WATER SUPPLY

This type of system is a combination of both the direct and
indirect supply systems. In other words, there may be several
outlets from the mains supply and several fed via a storage
cistern.
Prior to the 1980s most systems were of the indirect design.
These were intended to maintain a flow of water under the
worst possible conditions, for example when the supply was cut
off for some reason such as the water authority doing essential
repairs or in areas where there was an excessive drop in water
pressure at peak times. The local water authority may also have
imposed a specific requirement that the supply had to be of an
indirect design.
However, today, due to higher pressures and consumer demand
for combination boilers, unvented hot water supplies and

storage cistern
overflow
pipes cold feed to hot
water cylinder
service
valve
WC cistern
wash basin
bath
drain-off
cock sink
drain-off cock
supply stopcock
Figure 1.4 An indirect cold water supply system

guaranteed availability of drinking water, more and more
systems rely on direct mains supply pipework. Also, with the
direct system supplying both cold and hot supplies, there is no
need to have a cistern in the roof space or to extensively insulate
the pipework and cistern from freezing up in the winter.
It is important to note that, where all outlets are supplied via
the mains supply, the supply pipe must be of a sufficient size
(minimum 22 mm), otherwise, as mentioned earlier, some
outlets will be starved of water when several outlets are open at
the same time.
WHAT OUTLETS ARE FED DIRECTLY FROM THE SUPPLY MAIN?

Finding out which outlets are fed directly from the cold mains
supply pipe in your home is a simple process. First, turn off the
incoming stopcock (as explained above) and then go around to
all outlet points (taps) on the system to see which do not have
any water flow available when the tap is turned on. Likewise, to
find out if the toilet cistern is fed from the mains supply, flush
the toilet to see if it refills.
DRINKING WATER (POTABLE WATER)

It may surprise you to learn that, if designed and installed
correctly, all outlet points in modern systems, both hot and
cold, should be supplied with water fit for human consumption,
even where they are supplied via a cistern in the roof space.
When we look at the installation of the pipework and
appliances, you will learn that the water must be protected from
contamination at all costs. For example, Figure 1.5 shows that
a filter has been incorporated within the overflow and that the
cistern itself has a tight-fitting lid with all connections designed
to prevent anything getting in and contaminating it, such as
insects. Water that has been stored in a cistern is therefore
also regarded as safe to drink, and you must ensure, under all
circumstances, that it remains this way.
The storage cistern

Figures 1.3 and 1.4 show a cistern that contains a large volume
of water for the purpose of supplying hot or cold water
pipework not fed directly from the mains. Buildings in which

overflow to discharge at a
sleeved vent conspicuous position outside
insulation
against screened air vent
frost
25 mm
float-operated
valve filtered overflow
and warning pipe
mains
supply
insulation
30 mm 55 mm
fullway gatevalves or
quarter-turn ballvalve
cold vent
distribution cold feed to dhw from
pipe dhw
dhw = domestic hot water

Figure 1.5 A cold water feed and storage cistern
everything is fed directly from the cold mains water supply do

not have a storage cistern.
The water level inside the cistern is regulated by the use of a
float-operated valve, designed to close off the water supply
when the desired water level is reached. Should this valve fail to
operate, the water will continue to rise until the overflow pipe is
reached, at which point it will overflow, warning the occupants
of the building that something is wrong.
For the past 35 years or so, storage cisterns have been made of
plastic materials, but some very old galvanized cisterns can still
be found. Where this is the case, it may be worth considering
a replacement as it might have exceeded its expected lifespan.
10

All storage cisterns fitted since 1991 should be of a design that
incorporates a tight-fitting lid and filtered overflow to ensure
that even the smallest of insects cannot get in to contaminate
the water supply. Even the vent pipe from the hot water supply
(discussed later) passes through a rubber grommet in the lid.
Around all this is a snugly fitted insulation jacket, and all the
pipework to and from the cistern should be similarly insulated.
Older installations may not be protected to such a high standard
and, if an inadequate system is encountered (for example, with
a loose or flimsy lid), the water should be treated with caution
where it is used at cold or hot water outlets. If there is no lid
at all, this needs to be remedied immediately. Dead bats are
commonly found floating and rotting in unprotected cisterns.
The condition of the storage cistern needs to be inspected
occasionally to check that it is sound and protected. Ideally,
once a year, remember to check:
CC the filters in the overflow and lid, to ensure that they are not
blocked, for example with flies
CC the operation of the float-operated valve, to ensure that it is
closing properly.
Remember this
The water flowing from a tap that has been supplied directly from the
mains water supply in the street outside your home will generally be at
a much higher pressure than that which has been supplied from a water
storage cistern, often located in the roof space of your home.
THE FLOAT-OPERATED VALVE (BALLVALVE)

The float-operated valve found within the storage cistern is
generally of the same type as that found within a toilet cistern,
although many of the newer toilet cistern float-operated valves
are of a different design. The float-operated valve is often
simply called a ballvalve, taking its name from the large ball
attached to the lever arm, which floats on the surface of the
water. As the water inside the cistern rises and falls, so does
the float.

These valves work on the principle of leverage, in that, as the
water rises, the long arm lifts and forces a washer up against the
water supply inlet. Figure 1.6 shows the two main designs of
float-operated valve, the diaphragm valve and the Portsmouth
valve. The older type, the Portsmouth, can no longer be
installed as it contravenes current water supply regulations.
There are two main reasons for this:
1 Its inlet will be submerged at times when the valve is
overflowing. If you look closely at the two valve designs,
you will notice that the Portsmouth valve lets water into the
cistern from below the valve body, whereas the diaphragm
valve lets water into the cistern from above the valve body.
The advantage of discharging at the higher position is
that it alleviates the problem of the valve outlet becoming
submerged when the water level has risen in the cistern due
to a faulty valve, which can lead to it overflowing. When
the outlet is submerged in this way, it is possible that, under
certain conditions where a negative force is acting within
the mains supply pipe, water could by sucked back into the
supply, causing water contamination.
2 With the Portsmouth valve, in order to adjust the water level
in the cistern you must bend the lever arm as necessary. The
modern valve has an adjusting screw to make the appropriate
adjustment to the water level in the cistern.
If you need to replace the float-operated valve for any reason,
it is essential to replace it with the modern diaphragm type.
Repair work on these valves is discussed in Chapter 2.
HEAD PRESSURE AND FLOW

Finally, we also need to consider the water pressure and volume
of water flow that can be expected from the pipe supplying the
water to the storage cistern.
Pressure is the force of the water. Water pressure can be
created by:
CC a pump
CC a storage cistern positioned high above the water outlets.
12

Note how the water enters the cistern
above the valve, thus ensuring that an
air gap is maintained.
screw
seating to adjust
water level
As the water rises it lifts the float,
which transmits the force to the
washer, closing off the supply.
washer lever arm

split pin
diaphragm ballvalve
piston float
Portsmouth ballvalve
(no longer permitted)
Figure 1.6 Float-operated valves (ballvalves)
Flow is the volume or amount of water passing through a pipe.

Water flow is dependent on the pipe size. A pipe 22 mm in
diameter will clearly allow a greater flow of water than one of
5 mm in diameter and consequently will fill up a container, such
as a bath, much more quickly.
The cold water supply feeding your home will be supplied
typically via a pump located at the water treatment works. This
creates a pressure within your supply pipe of up to around 3 bar
(300 kN/m2). However, when water has been stored in a cistern
in your home, possibly located in the loft or roof space, its
pressure is no longer influenced by the cold water mains supply
but is now dependent on the position of the cistern relative to
the taps. The pressure is considerably lower than that in the
water mains supply pipe. For example, where a shower takes
its water from a storage cistern, there might be only a 2-metre
head of water, in which case the water pressure will be so low
that taking a shower is not practicable. The term head refers to
the position of the free water level in the system above the point

where it is being drawn off. In the following example, the water
in the cistern is 2 metres above the shower.
There is a simple calculation that can be completed to find out
the pressure created by an elevated cistern. This is:
the head of water in metres 10
So, where the head is only 2 metres, the pressure will be:
2 10 = 20 kN/m2
This is about one-fifth of a bar in pressure (100 kN/m2 = 1 bar),
and therefore far less than that expected from the mains
supply pipe.
From this we can see that a storage cistern should be located
as high as possible within a building. Also, the pipe from the
storage cistern needs to be a minimum diameter of 22 mm and,
where several outlets are to be maintained, either the pipe may
need to be increased to 28 mm or a second outlet may need to
be taken from the cistern. Failure to observe these simple rules
will mean that appliances are very slow to fill.
The toilet-flushing cistern

The flushing cisterns used with toilets have undergone several
changes over the past 15 years. The water supplied to the
cistern is controlled by a float-operated valve. Most of these
valves are of a similar design to those used in the cold water
storage cistern (Figure 1.6). There are some different designs of
valve, but these are beyond the scope of this book.
Prior to 1993, a 9-litre (2-gallon) flush was employed, and
it had been like this since the toilet was first designed over
100 years ago. However, in order to try to conserve water, this
quantity was reduced first to 7.5 litres and then to a maximum
of 6 litres, as per current regulations.
In order to discharge this water from the cistern into the toilet pan,
a device is used that closes when the required volume has been
discharged. Toilet cisterns traditionally worked using a siphonic
device (see below), but today there is another design consisting of
a valve that is lifted to allow the contents to flow as necessary.
14

FLUSHING CISTERN OPERATED BY SIPHONIC ACTION
Siphonic action occurs where water is removed from a container,
without mechanical aid, up and over a tube in the form of an
upside-down letter J. The long leg joins to the flush pipe and
the short leg is open to the water inside the cistern. If the air is
removed from the tube, a partial vacuum is created. This action, in
the case of the flushing cistern, is triggered by the large diaphragm
washer being lifted, which discharges a quantity of water over
the top of the J-shaped siphon bend. As the water drops down
through the flush pipe to the outlet, it takes with it some of the
air contained within it, thus creating a partial vacuum. With the
partial vacuum formed, gravity acts upon the surface of the water,
pushing down and forcing the water up into the J-shaped siphon
tube. As it reaches the top of the upturned bend it simply drops
down to the outlet to be discharged into the pan, via the flush
pipe. This action continues until the air can get back into the tube
to break the vacuum and restore normal pressure. Water will
continue to discharge until the water level has dropped inside the
cistern to that of the base of the siphon. The initial action of lifting
the diaphragm washer is instigated by the operation of the lever
arm on the side of the cistern. See Figure 1.7.
3 4
2
5
8 7
1 lid 5 operating arm

2 overflow 6 siphon
3 float-operated valve 7 diaphragm washer
4 water supply inlet 8 flush pipe
Figure 1.7 Flushing cistern operated by siphonic action

Key idea
If an overflow pipe outside your home is discharging water, it suggests
that a float-operated valve (ballvalve) is not closing off the water supply
and the water level is continuously feeding the cistern from which the
water is flowing.
VALVE-TYPE FLUSHING CISTERN

Several designs of valved flushing cistern have been developed
within the past few years. The one shown in Figure 1.8 works
by allowing for a dual flush. A dual flush offers:
CC a reduced flush for the purpose of removing urine from the
toilet pan
CC a full 6-litre flush where there are solids to be removed.
Two buttons are housed within the cistern lid, one button
with a shorter rod attached to it than the other. When the
larger button, with the longer rod, is pressed, it lifts the
valve sufficiently to engage into a latch and is held up by a
small float. Water now flows from the cistern and the latch
only releases as the water level drops, taking the float with
it. When the smaller button is pressed, the smaller rod does
not lift the valve sufficiently to engage with the latch, so the
valve is only raised for a short period while the button is held
down. A linking cable operates a lever to lift the valve from
its seating initially.
Note that a separate overflow pipe is not run from valved
flushing cisterns because, if the water level rose due to the water
inlet failing to close, it would overflow down through a central
core within the valve, from the cistern and into the toilet pan.
Hard and soft water

Water is generally classified as being either hard or soft. This
classification relates to the impurities that the water contains
and is indicated as a measure of the number of hydrogen ions
(acidic) or hydroxyl ions (alkaline) present in a sample of
16

2
1
3
8
4
1 lid 5 float which holds valve up

2 push-button control to provide full 6-litre flush
3 cable to operate valve 6 flush pipe
4 float-operated valve 7 flushing valve

8 central overflow
Figure 1.8 Flushing cistern operated by flushing valve
water. This is known as the potential of hydrogen value (pH

value):
pH value of water
12 3 45 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1314
soft (acidic) (alkaline) hard
neutral
Hard water contains calcium carbonate and/or calcium and

magnesium sulfate which basically means limestone in one
form or another whereas soft water does not. This limestone
has dissolved in the water because water is a natural solvent.
The hardness of water can be further classified as:
CC permanently hard (contains dissolved rock such as calcium
or magnesium sulfate)
CC temporarily hard (contains dissolved rock such as calcium
carbonate).

The limestone in permanently hard water cannot be removed
without water-softening treatment. Temporary hardness,
however, occurs where the rainwater has fallen onto calcium
carbonate. This is a different form of limestone and will only
dissolve if the water also contains carbon dioxide, acquired
as the water fell as rain. Boiling the water can remove the
temporary hardness because the carbon dioxide escapes from
the water, but boiling will have no effect on permanently
hard water.
Soft water, on the other hand, does not contain any dissolved
limestone. It is more acidic or aggressive as a solvent, and will
soon destroy metals, in particular any lead used in a plumbing
system. Soft water feels different from hard water and is more
pleasant to wash in; it is also much easier to obtain a lather
when using soap in soft water, and it takes longer to rinse the
soap away. Hard water is also distinguishable by the scum
that forms on the surface of the water and around sanitary
appliances, and by the limescale that forms around taps and in
the toilet bowl.
LIMESCALE
You can see limescale at the outlet points of both hot and
cold taps in hard-water areas. In a nutshell, it is caused by
temporarily hard water. However, a more in-depth explanation
is appropriate here.
When it rains, the water falling from the sky is enriched with
carbon dioxide (CO2), trapping it within its molecular structure.
This water falls to earth and percolates through the ground on
its way to the rivers and reservoirs. If it flows through limestone
during this journey, the CO2 in the water causes the limestone
to dissolve and, as a result, the limestone is carried in the water
(Figure 1.9). When the CO2 escapes from the water, such as
by rapid shaking movements or by heating the water to above
60C, the limestone will not remain dissolved, as it was the CO2
that maintained this condition. Consequently, the limestone
comes out of the water and collects within the system as solid
limestone (limescale). It is found around tap heads because
the water collects here as it leaves the spout and, as the water
evaporates, the solid limescale is left behind.
18

clouds H2O (water)
CO2 O2 CO2
dust dust and gases
dust O2 added to rainfall
SO2 CO2
rainwater falls to the ground as a

weak and dirty acidic solution
example ground conditions
moorland sandstone salt limestone and chalk

(CO2 added) (CO2 retained) (calcium (calcium carbonate)
sulfate) CO2 used up to
dissolve limestone
permanently temporarily
very soft water soft water
hard water hard water
(acidic) (acidic)
(alkaline) (alkaline)
Figure 1.9 The formation of soft and hard water
Limescale can also collect, unseen, inside your pipework,

accumulating around heating elements and heat-exchanger
coils, causing long-term damage and affecting heat-up times. It
can drastically reduce the rate of water flow through any pipes
in which it collects (Figure 1.10). To prevent this, it is essential
Figure 1.10 Limescale build-up in a pipe, reducing its diameter

to store the water at a temperature no higher than 60C, as
above this temperature the CO2 can more easily escape from
the water.
Key idea
Hard water contains limestone or calcium salts carried in solution, which
as a result reduces the effectiveness of soap in forming a good lather
when washing. Soft water contains no such salts and therefore you need
much less soap when undertaking washing activities.
Water softeners and water conditioners

You can prevent limescale from forming by using water softeners
and conditioners.
WATER SOFTENERS
A water softener is a device designed to remove all the calcium
and magnesium ions from the water. Basically, the water is
passed through a bed of a special chemical called zeolite, or
through very small plastic beads covered with sodium ions, and
as a result, the calcium and magnesium are given up. However,
the zeolite bed eventually becomes exhausted to the point where
it stops softening the water. It is then time to regenerate the
bed material with sodium ions. This is achieved by passing a
salt solution (sodium chloride) through the softener to displace
all the calcium and magnesium and recharge it with sodium
ions. The regeneration process flushes out all the unwanted
products into a drain. The process of regeneration is completed
automatically, timed to take place during the early hours of the
morning; during this period no softening takes place and hard
water will be supplied if a tap is turned on. A water softener is
the only device that removes the calcium and magnesium from
the water (see Figure 8.2).
WATER CONDITIONERS
A water conditioner is not a water softener but a device that
reconditions the small dissolved particles of limestone, referred
to as calcium salts, held in suspension in the water so that they
do not readily stick together to form noticeable limescale. If you
20

viewed untreated hard water under a microscope, the calcium
salts would appear star-shaped, with jagged edges. It is in this
form that they stick together. The water conditioner aims to take
off these jagged edges so that they cannot easily bind together,
and instead they simply flow through the system (Figure 1.11).
There are two basic types of water conditioner. First there are
chemical water conditioners, which use crystals that dissolve in
water and bind to the star-shaped salts, sticking in the crevices
and jagged edges and having the effect of rounding off the
sharp points. The other type of water conditioner passes a small
electric current of a few milliamps across the flow of water.
This current alters the shape of the calcium salts, changing them
to a smoother and more rounded shape. This current is often
produced by a magnet, although other methods can be used.
Key idea
A water conditioner does not soften the water; it just alters the structure
of the calcium salts held in suspension within the water to prevent them
readily sticking together and to the surfaces of the pipework.
calcium salts of
untreated water
cold to services
bind together to
form noticeable cold feed
limestone to hot water
supply
chemical water
magnetic conditioner
water (base unscrews
conditioner to replace
rising main chemicals when
necessary)
calcium salts after

calcium salts
treatment with
after treatment
chemicals
with electric current
Figure 1.11 Water conditioners

The above-ground drainage system
The first thing water does as it goes down the plughole is to pass
around a series of bends that form a small trap of water. There
are different types of trap (Figure 1.12). You can see the trap by
looking into your toilet pan or beneath the kitchen sink. Why is
the trap there? It is not there to catch your wedding ring should
it come off your finger although it could prove useful in such a
circumstance. Its purpose is to provide a pocket of water between
the outside air and the foul air of the drain and sewer. This air is
not only foul-smelling but may also contain methane gas, which
could prove hazardous. Another purpose of the trap is to prevent
any vermin that may be in the drain from entering the building.
This trap is the start of the house waste-water system.
Remember this
The trap or U-bend located beneath the basin or sink is designed to hold a
quantity of water, thereby forming a seal to prevent odours and dangerous
gases entering your home from the underground drainage system.
Gravity causes the water to flow from the trap along pipes that
run down to adjoin the vertical discharge stack, referred to as
the soil and vent pipe, and from here all the various waste pipes
converge to take the fluid to the drainage system below ground.
Obviously, the pipe must always be laid to fall in the direction of
the water flow and the pipe must never, under any circumstances,
be run uphill as water simply will not drain from the pipe.
depth of
water seal
p trap
running trap bottle trap s trap

Figure 1.12 Types of trap
22

basin
32 mm
bidet
32 mm
bath
40 mm
shower 50 mm parallel junction

40 mm to avoid crossflow
sink washing machine
40 mm and dishwasher
40 mm
WC typically 450 mm long radius bend

100 mm min
Figure 1.13 A typical primary ventilated stack (single-stack) system
The system illustrated in Figure 1.13 is generally referred to

as the single-stack system, although it is also given the fancy
title of primary ventilated stack system. This system has been
installed in homes now for more than 60 years.
Since many houses are much more than 60 years old, there are
systems in existence, such as that shown in Figure 1.14, that
have a separate waste-water discharge stack and foul-water
stack. It is not until the pipes reach the ground-level drain
that they join together. When major refurbishment to these
antiquated systems is undertaken, the plumber will update the
system and install a single-stack system.
Plastic pipework is used for modern systems. This will be either
of a type that can simply be pushed together or of a type where
the joints are made using special solvent weld cement, which
bonds the pipe to the fitting. The pipe diameters are shown in
Figure 1.13. The lengths of the pipes from the mains stack should
not exceed the distances listed in Table 1.1, otherwise you may
experience problems with self-siphonage, explained below. It

objectionable
smells
soil stack
hopper head
waste stack
trapped gully
inspection chamber
Figure 1.14 The older system of separate waste stack and soil stack
should also be noted that the flow of water passing horizontally

to the vertical stack has been run to a minimal fall usually not
exceeding a drop of between 18 mm and 90 mm per metre run
of pipe. Exceeding this gradient could also create self-siphonage
problems and can increase the problems of leaving any solid
contents behind as the water rushes rapidly down the pipe.
Pipe size (mm) Maximum length (m)

32 1.7
40 3.0
50 4.0
100 6.0
Table 1.1 Maximum lengths for discharge pipes
WATER SIPHONAGE FROM THE TRAP

Water being siphoned from a trap is recognized by a gurgling
sound coming from the appliance as air tries to enter the waste
system in order to maintain the equilibrium of air pressure
from inside the pipe to that of the surrounding atmosphere.
Figure 1.15 shows the two types of siphonage:
CC Self-siphonage is caused as the water flows through the pipe,
forming a plug of water, causing a vacuum to be formed,
sucking with it the water from the trap.
24

atmospheric
negative pressure () pressure
+
plug of water
hydraulic
jump
negative self-siphonage
pressure ()
plug of water
induced siphonage
Figure 1.15 Water siphonage from the trap
CC Induced siphonage occurs when no water has been discharged.

It is caused by the installer joining two waste pipes together
so that, as the water of one appliance flows past the branch
connection of the other, the air is drawn from the pipe.
Where continued problems are encountered with siphonage, it is
possible to fit alternative types of device (Figure 1.16):
CC a resealing trap, which incorporates a non-return valve
CC a special trapless (self-sealing) waste valve (sold under the

manufacturers trade name of HepvO), which contains a
special synthetic seal (instead of the traditional water seal)
that closes in the absence of water to seal off the pipe.
valve lifts should there be a

negative pressure within the pipe
()
synthetic seal opens as
water flows through
the valve
self-sealing resealing
waste valve bottle trap
Figure 1.16 Alternative trap designs

AIR ADMITTANCE VALVES
Another device sometimes used to overcome problems with
siphonage is an air admittance valve (Figure 1.17). This is
basically like a big non-return valve that allows air to go into
the drainage system but prevents air (potentially foul-smelling)
from coming out. So where a negative pressure exists inside the
drainage system, this valve opens in preference to the water
being sucked from the trap.
Air admittance valves can be purchased in a whole range
of sizes, and sometimes the main discharge stack itself is
terminated with an air admittance valve, possibly found within
the roof space. This fitting is generally used where there are two
soil stacks within the same building or where there are several
buildings in close proximity. It overcomes the need to run
the highest point of the discharge stack out through the roof,
avoiding additional work to the roof tiles and ensuring that
rainwater cannot enter the building.
An air admittance valve must be fitted above the spill-over level
of the appliance (the highest possible water level of the nearest
suitable locations
rubber for an air
washer admittance
valve
WC
+
negative positive
pressure soil pressure
pipe sink
valve open valve closed
soil pipe
Figure 1.17 An air admittance valve
26

adjacent appliance), otherwise, if there is a blockage in the pipe,
this fitting will be subject to a backup of water and the valve is
unlikely to remain watertight.
Where these valves are in exposed locations, such as in the loft,
they need to be insulated to ensure that they do not freeze up,
as there is often a considerable amount of condensation within
the pipe.
ACCESS POINTS
All good drainage systems should have a means of access for
internal inspection of the pipe, which is particularly useful when
there is a blockage. Sometimes a large access point is positioned
to the end of a small vertical section of 100 mm diameter
discharge pipe, used as an alternative to the air admittance valve
for an additional ground-floor toilet within the property. This
method is acceptable provided that the pipe lengths are not
excessive and, in all cases, no further than 6 m from a ventilated
drain, otherwise additional pressure fluctuation problems will
be created within this section of pipe (Figure 1.18).
As with the air admittance valve, this access point must be
installed above the spill-over level of the appliance. If it is not
and there is a blockage to deal with, when it is opened the foul
water will discharge all over the floor.
Remember this
If at any time you need to open an access point, you must consider what
might lie behind it! If water is there at a time of blockage which may be
the reason for opening this access point in the first place it is likely to
flow uncontrollably, at surprisingly high pressure, on to you and the floor
where you are standing.
PUMPED SANITATION AND DRAINAGE SYSTEMS

For many years now, there has been the opportunity to locate a
drainage point for the purpose of removing water from basins,
shower units and even from WC pan connections, from more

access point
100 mm
discharge
stack
6.0 m maximum
to ventilated
drain
Figure 1.18 An access point
or less anywhere within a typical house. These systems use what

is called a macerator pump. This is basically a small holding
tank, with the additional facility to macerate (chop up) any solid
matter within, which, when full of water, operates a pump to lift
the water contents up or along a small pipe (typically no bigger
than 22 mm) to discharge into a drainage stack (Figure 1.19).
The manufacturers data sheets should be sought for the various
designs but typically the water could be elevated vertically by
4 metres, and horizontally the water could be discharged up to
50 metres.
If one of these units is installed, it is a requirement that the
property also has a conventional gravity system of drainage
from a WC, otherwise, if the power to the building is off due to
a power cut, you would be without a toilet.
THE WATER CLOSET (WC)

The term water closet technically refers to the room in which
a toilet pan is found. But when talking of the WC, one is
generally referring to the complete package of toilet cistern and
attached pan.
28

unswitched fused
electrical supply
22 mm
discharge
pipe
any vertical
rise must
precede a
horizontal run
drain valve
drain valve
300 mm macerator
maximum
waste connection
from bath or basin
Figure 1.19 A pumped sanitation system
The WC suite has undergone several design changes over

the past few years. Today, the Water Regulations limit the
volume of water flushed down a newly installed toilet pan to a
maximum of 6 litres, yet not many years ago this volume was
9 litres. Most toilets installed these days are of the wash-down
type, which basically means that they rely on the discharging
water flow to remove the contents from the pan (Figure 1.20).
Occasionally, siphonic WC pans will be found. These were
installed quite extensively during the 1970s but are becoming
quite rare these days as people update their homes. The siphonic
pan, however, had one advantage over the wash-down pan in
that it had the additional siphonic action to assist the removal
of the pans contents. It basically worked by lowering the air
pressure from the pocket of air trapped between the two traps.
This was achieved by allowing the flushing water to pass over
a pressure-reducing fitting, which created a negative pressure
and sucked out the air between the two traps of water. With
the partial vacuum created, the water and its contents in the

supply pipe overflow
ballfloat
cistern
siphon
pressure-
flush pipe reducing
fitting
wash-down pan double-trap close-coupled

siphonic WC suite
Figure 1.20 WC installations
upper bowl of the pan were sucked out by siphonic action. The
high cost of their manufacture is possibly the reason for their
disappearance.
The below-ground drainage system

Once the foul and waste water has reached ground level, it
is conveyed to the house drain, which removes it from the
property to meet up with the public sewer; or the water may be
collected in a septic tank or cesspit.
THE SEPTIC TANK

This is a private sewage disposal system used in some rural areas
(Figure 1.21). Basically, all the foul and waste water is collected
within a large double-compartment chamber, traditionally made
of brickwork or concrete, although nowadays generally made
from plastic. From here the water overflows through an irrigation
trench to filter slowly into the ground away from the property.
These systems rely on a scum forming on top of the liquid,
which in so doing allows anaerobic bacteria to decompose
most of the solids. Because not all the solids are broken down,
30

inspection ground
cover level
outlet
inlet
scum
formed irrigation
on the trench
surface
baffle
Figure 1.21 A septic tank
it is necessary to have the vessel emptied annually to remove

the accumulation of the excess sludge that will not decompose.
Failure to do so may lead to a blockage in the system.
THE CESSPOOL (CESSPIT)

This is simply a watertight container that is used to collect and
store waste and foul water from the property (see Figure 1.22).
Cesspools are used where no mains drainage has been
connected to the property and there is insufficient provision for
a septic tank. The tank will need to be emptied, ideally before it
is full, by a contractor, for proper disposal.
Remember this
The septic tank differs from a cesspit in that the contents of a cesspit
need to be removed as soon as the vessel begins to fill up, whereas with a
septic tank the water is deliberately allowed to overflow from the vessel
to discharge into an irrigation trench.
SURFACE WATER
In addition to the water that flows into the drains from the
various sanitary appliances in the home, water is also collected

100 m vent
fresh air inlet

3m
min.
inspection
cover
ground level
inlet
Figure 1.22 Cesspool design
from the gutters, rainwater pipes and large paved areas; this is
generally referred to as surface water. If the drain is serviced by a
septic tank or cesspool, it will require an additional, separately run
drain for the purpose of collecting the surface water because, if
this water is allowed to flow into these holding tanks, it will cause
them to fill too rapidly. In these cases, the surface water might be
collected and run into a drainage ditch, river or soakaway.
The soakaway is simply a large hole filled with rubble, into
which the drainpipe runs. The water collects here and gradually
drains into the surrounding ground (Figure 1.23).
CONNECTIONS TO PUBLIC DRAINAGE SYSTEMS

If the foul-water drain is connected to a public sewer, the
surface water may be collected within the same pipe and they
run off from the property together. This is referred to as a
combined system of drainage. Whether a combined system of
drainage is used will depend very much upon the local authority
that treats all the water. As a consequence, some areas have
separate systems of drainage, in which the surface water is run
into its own specific pipe.
32

large broken impervious membrane
hardcore to prevent soil dropping
or clinker from above
surface-
water drain
water draining
into ground
Figure 1.23 Soakaway design
When making any new connection to a drainage system, it

is essential to confirm the type of drainage system you have.
Failure to do so could result in contamination of the local
watercourse if you inadvertently discharge foul water into a
surface-water drain.
In addition to the systems identified in Figure 1.24, there is a
slight variation that can be found where an occasional surface-
water connection is a long way from the surface-water drain,
or there is some difficulty in getting past the drainage pipe of
a foul-water drain. In such a situation it is possible that this
one-off connection can be discharged into the foul-water drain.
If this is done, the system is referred to as partially separate;
however, it must be understood that no cross-connection can be
made the other way around, i.e. the foul water must never be
allowed to connect to the surface-water drain.
Where a separate system of drainage is employed, the
connections of the pipes to the surface-water drain do not have
to include a trap. However, all connections made to the foul-
water drain, be it surface water or waste water, must be trapped.

RWP rain water pipe
SVP soil and vent pipe
FWG foul-water gully
boundary
foul- and surface-water sewer

FWG SVP RWP
FWG
RWP
a) combined system
inspection chambers
FWG SVP RWP to public sewer,

septic tank or
cesspool
FWG
RWP
RWP
to public drain,
drainage ditch
or soakaway
b) separate system
Figure 1.24 Connections to public drainage systems
If you look carefully at Figure 1.24, you will see foul-water

gullies (fwg). These are traps at ground level, 100 mm in
diameter, i.e. the same size as the house drain, into which smaller
pipes have been run. Prior to the 1970s these traps were left
34

open, with a small brick course around the opening and a grate
above the water level; nowadays the pipes entering these gullies
are discharged below the ground surface into a side inlet pipe,
and an access cover is secured at ground level (Figure 1.25).
The soil and vent pipe connected to the drain is not trapped.
However, all appliances connected to this pipe are themselves
trapped. This pipe allows the free passage of air into and out
of the drain, thereby maintaining equal air pressures within the
drain and outside it. Air flowing through the drain also assists
in drying out any solid matter left behind during flushing; as it
dries it shrinks and is more easily flushed away during the next
discharge of water.
GUTTERS AND RAINWATER PIPES

This is the last part of the plumbing system the outside
plumbing and the only part that, if it were to leak, would
make little difference. The guttering consists of a simple channel
at the base of a roof to catch the run-off of water. From here the
water runs to the outlet and falls down the rainwater pipe to the
surface drainage system below (Figure 1.26). Forty years ago
metal was used to make this last part of the plumbing system
but, like so many things today, plastic has long since replaced
these older traditional materials.
The equipotential earth bond

Look at your gas meter or incoming water supply, and you may
see a green-and-yellow wire connected to the pipe. This is called
a protective equipotential earth bond connection.
Wherever a water, a gas or an oil pipeline comes into or passes
out from a building, there is the potential for stray electrical
currents, resulting from faulty electrical equipment, to pass
through as they flow down to earth. This can be dangerous for
anyone touching the metal pipework itself. To ensure that these
stray currents can flow safely to earth via a specifically designed
electrical route, an equipotential bonding wire of 10 mm2
minimum size is attached to the pipe at the point of entry/exit
of the building and this in turn is connected to the main earth
terminal at the consumer unit (Figure 1.27).

soil pipe taking foul
and waste water from
the first floor
ground level
long radius bend
manhole cover kitchen

sink
waste
pipes
manhole trapped gully

Figure 1.25 Connection of the above-ground drainage into the below-ground
drainage system
stopend
outlet
gutter
bracket
offset
pipe brackets
rainwater
pipe
bracket
stopend
shoe
Figure 1.26 Gutters and rainwater pipes
36

consumer unit bonding clamp to be within 600 mm
of the meter or gas entry point into
the building and before any T joint
NP
main
earthing label
terminal
house
earthing equipotential
conductor bonding
conductor label
10 mm2
minimum
oil supply gas supply
label
water supply
Figure 1.27 Equipotential bonding to all services entering the building
In addition to the bonding wires making a connection to the

incoming services, there should be additional supplementary
equipotential bonding wires linking together all the metalwork
within wet areas, such as the bathroom. This will ensure that
everything within that zone is at the same electrical potential,
which is designed to prevent users receiving an electric shock.
On a point of safety, you should never disconnect these bonding
wires without making sure that it is safe to do so. This may
require the services of a qualified electrician for advice. See
more about bonding in Chapter 6.
Key idea
The protective equipotential earth bond may save your life in the event
of an earth fault to the electrical system. Look at your gas meter and/or
water supply inlet for the green-and-yellow cable connected to the pipe
at this point. If it is not there, you would be well advised to have your
electrical system inspected for safety by a qualified electrician.

! Focus points
1 Turning off the incoming water supply stopcock will eventually stop
water running from any pipe within the building. Check that this
stopcock works; if it does not, get it repaired you may need it in an
emergency.
2 The cold water from an indirect system of cold water supply is
taken from a cold water storage cistern, usually located in the roof
space. To quickly turn off the cold water from this cistern, look for a
valve on the exit pipe from the cistern, located near the bottom or
simply place a cork or similar bung into the outlet pipe from the
cistern.
3 With the incoming water supply stopcock turned off, you can see
which cold taps cease to flow when opened, thereby confirming
which outlets are fed directly from the water supply mains.
4 Should an overflow pipe which is seen to pass out though the
building be discharging water, it means that the float-operated valve
(ballvalve), located in a toilet or a roof-space water cistern, is failing
to close off the water and needs to be inspected and repaired.
5 In hard water areas, limescale can be a problem and more soap is
required to produce a good lather when washing.
6 Passing the water through a water conditioner does not soften
the water; rather it reshapes the water-suspended calcium to help
prevent it sticking together and to the surfaces it makes contact
with. A water softener actually removes the calcium from the water.
7 The water trap located beneath appliances such as baths, basins and
sinks, and as seen looking into the WC pan, is designed to prevent
any methane gas and smells of the house drains and sewer entering
the building.
8 The length of the waste discharge pipe from the sanitary appliance
to the main vertical discharge pipe or drain should not be too long,
in order to prevent the water being sucked from the trap due to
siphonage.
9 In a combined drainage system, all water is discharged into the
same drainage pipe. However, in the separate drainage system, the
water from the sanitary appliances, such as sinks, baths and toilets,
is discharged into a foul-water drain and rainwater from the roof and
surrounding land is discharged into a surface-water drain.
38

10 A septic tank is a private sewer that allows foul water to be
discharged into the surrounding subsoil. A cesspit is a chamber
designed to collect water from the house drains to be collected for
removal by a contractor. A soakaway is a hole, usually filled with
rubble, into which rainwater systems discharge water, which then
slowly soaks away into the ground.
Next step
Now you know how the cold water is supplied
to your home, how cold water systems differ in
design and how water is distributed to various
appliances, how drainage systems work and how
excess water is removed from the property. With
the cold water system in place, the next chapter
reviews how the hot water is likewise linked to
the system.

2
Hot water in
your home
CC about the various fuels used to heat water
CC about hot water supply systems
CC about hot water storage systems
CC how boilers differ.
41

Gas installations
Many homes in the UK have a gas supply for the purpose of
heating and cooking. The gas supply may be fed directly from
pipes coming from the street outside your home and enter via
a gas meter. Alternatively, you may buy your gas in bulk in a
liquefied form and store it outside in a special holding tank
until it is required, when it is drawn off automatically as it is
converted to its gaseous form. These two methods of gas supply
are essentially the same to you, the consumer: you open a pipe
and gas comes out.
The two gas types are:
CC natural gas fed directly from a pipe in the street
CC liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) supplied in gas cylinders or

bulk-purchased.
Both types of gas burn in the presence of oxygen, producing a blue
flame. They both have a distinctive smell not a true property of
the gas but a stenching agent added at the production plant, so
that it is easy to recognize should there be a leak.
The two gases have slightly different characteristics. One of the
key differences is the way that they react on leaving the pipe.
Natural gas is lighter than air, so it will rise upwards and be
readily dispersed into the environment. LPG, on the other hand,
is heavier than air and sinks down towards the ground and so
is not as easily dispersed, often gathering in low-lying pockets
such as basements. LPG gas leaking from a pipe drops around
your feet and is less easily smelled, which results in it rapidly
accumulating undetected.
The gas pipework for a natural gas installation is fed through
a gas meter, purely for billing purposes. Obviously, this is not
required when the gas is bulk-purchased.
It is important to note the location of the emergency control
valve at the point of entry to the building. This should be
accessible at all times so that, if required, the supply can be shut
off very quickly. From this point the gas pipe is run to all the
appliances requiring a gas supply (Figure 2.1).
42

Within a gas appliance, the gas is regulated and passed
through a fine injector in order to allow the correct proportion
of gas and air to mix within the combustion chamber where
the fuel is burned. The appliance has many safety measures to
ensure that gas will not flow through the appliance until it is
required and that it can be burned safely. Due to the potential
danger of incorrectly installed gas fittings, the installation
of pipework and the provision for its use fall under very
strict regulations. It is not illegal to work on your own gas
installation pipework or appliances on a DIY basis, but unless
you are absolutely certain of what you are doing you would
be ill advised to touch anything. Gas installers are trained
and assessed to ensure their competency to carry out gas
installation work; when any gas work is carried out within
your home you must ask to see the engineers gas registration
card, identifying what areas of gas work they are allowed to
undertake (see Appendix 1: Legislation).
cooker
boiler
15 mm fire
22 mm
A 15 mm
22 mm
meter
emergency control valve

to close off the supply
Figure 2.1 Layout of a typical gas installation
2. Hot water in your home 43

Remember this
Never employ someone to undertake any form of gas service,
installation or repair in your home without first confirming that the
operative is registered with the Gas Safe Register. Your safety and the
validity of your home insurance may depend upon it if something
does go wrong. Confirm an operatives Gas Safe Register details by
phoning 0800 408 5500.
A leak from a water-filled installation can cause a great deal

of damage but it rarely poses any real danger. On the other
hand, a gas leak within a property is highly dangerous. When
gas is burned, it is converted to water vapour and carbon
dioxide, both of which are harmless gases, being present in the
atmosphere and within the air we breathe. However, if for some
reason insufficient oxygen is available in the air used for the
combustion process, incomplete combustion can occur and as a
result carbon monoxide is produced.
CARBON MONOXIDE (CO)

Every year, carbon monoxide gas poisoning claims the lives
of around 30 people in the UK. The fuels we burn including
coal, wood, oil and gas are hydrocarbons, which are made up
of hydrogen and carbon in various proportions. Both of these
elements can burn in the presence of oxygen and, if completely
consumed, are converted to harmless carbon dioxide (CO2)
and water vapour (H2O). However, if insufficient oxygen is
available to support the combustion process, carbon monoxide
(CO) may be produced because the carbon is not fully
converted to CO2.
Carbon monoxide does not have an odour and therefore cannot
easily be detected. An appliance can discharge small quantities
of this combustion product into the home without detection.
Look at Table 2.1. It lists the common symptoms of carbon
monoxide poisoning that are often simply attributed to stress
or tiredness from overwork. If in doubt, have your fuel-burning
appliances checked.
Warning: Very small proportions of carbon monoxide in a
room can prove fatal very quickly.
44

Percentage of CO Symptoms/effects in adults
in the air
Less than 0.01 Slight headache after 12 hours
0.010.02 Mild headache plus feeling sick and dizzy after 23 hours
0.020.05 Strong headache, palpitations and sickness within 12 hours
0.050.15 Severe headache and sickness within half an hour
0.150.3 Severe headache and sickness within 10 minutes;
convulsions and possible death after 15 minutes
0.30.6 Severe symptoms within 12 minutes and death within
15 minutes
1 or more Immediate symptoms and death within 13 minutes
Table 2.1 Typical effects of carbon monoxide (CO) poisoning
Remember this
Carbon monoxide (CO) gas is the result of incomplete combustion. Fuel
requires oxygen to burn, and if insufficient oxygen is reaching the fuel,
combustion will still occur but the fuel will not be completely consumed
and CO will be given off. Where an appliance has an air supply via a grille,
do not block it.
Oil installations
Some households in rural locations use oil as their source of fuel.
The oil is supplied to the premises in bulk and stored in a large
oil tank. Tanks today are generally made of plastic; if you order
a plastic tank to replace a traditional steel one, make sure there
is adequate provision to support the entire surface area of its
base, otherwise it may buckle and eventually split. Where the oil
tank is close to a building, it needs to be of the bunded type.
This means that there is a tank within a tank so that, should a
leak develop, the outer tank will contain the oil spillage.
An oil pipeline is run from the oil tank directly to the appliance
(Figure 2.2). Oil is generally only used as a fuel for boilers or
sometimes for a large range cooker. Along this pipeline several
controls will be found, including an isolation valve, a filter and
a fire valve.

The fire valve is designed to close off the oil line in the event of
a fire. Today these valves are installed outside, at the point of
entry to the building, but in the past simple valves were installed
within the appliance itself.
inlet connection
vent
oil tank sight gauge
filter sensor
plastic oil tanks must
be fully supported at
the base
stopvalve fire valve stopvalve

Figure 2.2 An oil line to a boiler
Oil needs to be atomized into a fine spray or vapour in

order to burn: plunge a flame into a tank of oil and it will be
extinguished. Modern boilers use a pressure jet burner, which
forces the oil out through a fine nozzle, where it is atomized
and ignited within the combustion chamber of the boiler
(Figure 2.3).
A cooker may also use this method or it may employ what is
termed a pot burner. This allows the fuel to flow slowly, driven
by gravity, into a tray at the base of the burner. Here, the
vapour is ignited and the flame passes up through the pot where
it is mixed with the air supply to produce a safe, stable flame.
Flues and ventilation for gas- and

oil-burning appliances
Oil-burning appliances and many gas-burning appliances
require the by-products of their combustion to be expelled
to the external environment. This is achieved by way of a
flue pipe, which could be one of several different designs (see
46

flue
flow water ways of

connection heat exchanger
surround the
combustion
chamber
baffle plates
passage of
flue products
return
connection lockout button
combustion pressure jet burner

chamber insulation
Figure 2.3 An oil boiler installation
Chapter 3). Air needs to be supplied in order to remove these

by-products from the premises, otherwise the system will not
work satisfactorily.
The installation of both gas and oil supply and the fluing and
ventilation necessary for these systems is a very specialist subject
and further reading is recommended for those with a particular
interest in this area (see Appendix 3: Taking it further).
Unfortunately, all too often the flue system or air supply
requirement for appliances burning these fuels is not seen as as
important as the actual gas or oil supply pipework itself. Both
these appliances can produce carbon monoxide (see above),
which can be a silent killer in our homes.

The hot water supply
The design of your hot water supply will depend on the location
and age of your building. There are many variations in system
design (Figure 2.4). The most common of these are:
CC a gas or electric single-point water heater found above the
sink or basin
CC a gas multipoint water heater that serves all the hot water
outlets
CC a boiler used to store hot water within a cylinder; this system
may also serve the central heating
CC a combination boiler to provide both central heating and hot
water instantaneously
CC a thermal storage system (by far the least common).
These systems are classified as being either:

CC storage (vented or unvented)
CC instantaneous (combination boiler, multipoint, single-point

or thermal storage).
Hot water supply
Instantaneous Storage
Single Multi Combination Thermal Vented Unvented

point point point storage
direct indirect direct indirect
Figure 2.4 Types of domestic hot water system
Hot water storage systems

Domestic hot water is stored in an enclosed vessel, which is
most likely to be a cylinder, suitably insulated to keep the
48

heated water warm. This vessel is found typically in an airing
cupboard. The water is heated either directly or indirectly.
The installation of modern domestic hot water systems is
controlled by legislation, which is particularly rigorous with
regard to energy efficiency. If you want a new gas or oil boiler
to use with a hot water cylinder, you cannot just install any
old appliance. It must conform to the standards laid down in
the Building Regulations, which are administered by the local
authority. Consequently, when a boiler or cylinder is replaced,
the local authority may wish to be notified in order to ensure
that it complies with current standards.
Storage cylinders have developed and become more efficient
over the years. Older cylinders:
CC required a cylinder jacket to be tied around them in order
to keep as much heat as possible from being lost to the
surrounding space. They were usually installed in a cupboard,
which stayed warm and dry and thus provided an ideal storage
area for airing clothes. However, in this modern age of energy
efficiency, they have been identified as using fuel inefficiently
CC had 12 turns in the internal pipe coil that made up the
heat exchanger. This led to a very slow heat transference rate
and increased the time taken to heat the water in the cylinder
as it passed from the primary heating circuit.
Modern cylinders:
CC are foam-lagged at the manufacturing stage
CC have at least 56 turns in the heat exchanger, increasing heat

transference times.
It is also possible to purchase high-performance cylinders
that have a bank of many coils passing through the cylinder,
allowing for even faster heat-up times (Figure 2.5).
If you have an old style of boiler, it may be worth considering
replacing it with a new one next time it needs any repair or
maintenance work. This will reduce the time it takes to warm
up the water and will in turn save money and provide better
fuel efficiency.

a b
Figure 2.5 (a) A normal cylinder heat exchanger coil; (b) a high-performance
cylinder heat exchanger coil
WATER TEMPERATURE
The temperature of the hot water is set by the installer and
should be adjusted to meet the needs of the end user. The
temperature within a stored hot water cylinder should be
adjusted to no higher than 60C at the top of the cylinder. If it is
set higher than this, the water may scald the user and limescale
deposits may also form in hard-water areas. Equally, the water
should not be stored at a temperature much below this as the
growth of Legionella bacteria may occur.
PREVENTING LEGIONELLA
Legionella the bacterium that causes legionnaires disease is
rarely a problem in domestic homes. The bacteria are killed
off above 60C and will not survive long at this temperature.
However, they can survive within the temperature range of
2045C. Legionella can be dangerous to humans and is
transmitted when water is in a misty or vapour form, so areas
50

around boosted shower outlet sprays could be vulnerable if
the water is maintained at too low a temperature. The best
alternative, where cooler water temperatures are required, is to
store the water at 60C and then use a blending/mixing valve,
which mixes the hot water with a quantity of cold water to
reduce the temperature to the desired level.
Direct systems of hot water supply

As the name suggests, direct systems include those in which
the water is heated directly, such as by an immersion heater or
by a boiler located some distance from the hot water storage
cylinder. The heated water is transferred to the cylinder by
gravity circulation (see Figure 2.6) via two pipes referred to as
the primary flow and primary return. Where the water is heated
in a boiler, it is invariably quite hot and limescale build-up will
occur inside the primary pipework in hard-water areas. Most
direct systems are now quite antiquated and only the oldest
houses will still have such a system. The immersion heater,
however, is still quite commonplace and makes an ideal backup
when incorporated within the cylinder of an indirect system of
hot water supply.
THE IMMERSION HEATER

This is effectively a large heating element, like those found
inside a kettle (Figure 2.7). When the immersion heater is
switched on, the element heats up and remains on until the
thermostat senses that the water temperature has reached its
desired level or until the power is switched off. As mentioned
earlier, the water should be stored no higher than 60C;
this level is set by adjusting the dial on the head of the
thermostat. Where the immersion heater is fitted within an
unvented hot water cylinder, it will also require a high-limit
cut-out thermostat set to operate (cut out) at 90C. All new
and replacement immersion heaters will include, as standard,
this independent non-self-resetting over-temperature safety
cut-out device to prevent the water in the cylinder from
overheating.

storage cistern vented system shown in which the
water is heated via either a boiler or
an electric immersion heater
switched
fused outlet
20 amp
heatproof
flex
wash
bath basin
drain-off
cock immersion
heater
element
boiler
sink
drain-off cock
drain-off cock
Figure 2.6 A direct system of hot water supply
switched fused thermostat

outlet
21 amp
heatproof
60 70
50
80
40
20
flex
10
L
cable
clamp N
earth
thermostat
heater
element
3 kW terminals
heater
element top view
drain-off cock
domestic hot water storage cylinder
Figure 2.7 An immersion heater
52

Key idea
The immersion heater is generally found in a hot water cylinder as a
backup to the boiler as a means of heating water to be drawn off at
the taps.
GRAVITY CIRCULATION
The hot water from the boiler (see Figure 2.8) is transferred to
the cylinder by natural gravity circulation. That is, hot water
rises up the primary flow and is displaced by the column of
descending cooler water within the primary return. This system
is found in a large number of older properties, but it is slow:
the water in the cylinder can take up to two hours to heat up.
Modern systems use a circulating pump to push this water
around the circuit rapidly, allowing heat-up times of around
30 minutes or sometimes even less (see Chapter 3 for examples
of fully pumped central heating systems).
Indirect systems of hot water supply

If you have a hot water cylinder in your home, there is a good
chance that it is part of an indirect system. With this type of
system there are no problems with hard water scaling up the
pipes, and central heating water can also be taken from the
water heated within the boiler.
Indirect systems of hot water supply have a heat-exchanger coil
inside the hot water cylinder. This is, in effect, a pipe run in
a series of loops inside the cylinder of water. Hot water from
a boiler passes through this pipe and the hot water flowing
through the pipe coil in turn heats up the water in the cylinder.
Thus the water is heated directly within the boiler, as in the
direct system referred to as the primary hot water and
indirectly via the pipe coil within the cylinder referred to as
the secondary hot water or domestic hot water (dhw).
Indirect systems may be either vented or unvented. Vented
systems are those in which the cold water is taken from a cold
water feed cistern, usually found in the roof space; unvented
systems are fed with cold water directly from the cold supply

cold supply
mains
f & e cistern
cold-feed 22 mm
cistern
vent
2228 mm
cold feed
heat
wash exchanger
bath basin
28 mm (size of pipes
going to and from the
22 mm 15 mm boiler/hot storage
hot storage vessel)
22 mm vessel
primary
flow
pump c.h.
15 mm flow
sink
boiler
primary c.h.
return return
drain-off cock
c.h. = central heating

f & e = feed and expansion
Figure 2.8 An indirect system of hot water supply
mains pipe. As can be seen in the vented system in Figure 2.8,

there are two separate cisterns within the roof space or loft.
One is the cold water feed cistern, designed to supply water
54

to the cylinder, and the other is a feed and expansion (f & e)
cistern. (Figure 2.10 shows examples of unvented systems.)
VENTED SYSTEMS
In a vented system the f & e cistern ensures that the water in
the boiler and heating system, where applicable, does not mix
with the water used for the domestic hot water. There are two
specific reasons for this separation, which are:
CC to combat the problem of limescale build-up
CC to reduce the amount of atmospheric corrosion.
In domestic hot water pipework, water is constantly passing

through the system and this constant flow of oxygenated water
contains a quantity of dissolved limescale. However, Figure 2.8
shows that the water entering the boiler and heating system
via the f & e cistern which is heated to far above 60C is
never emptied unless it is drained out for maintenance purposes.
Limescale build-up is eliminated because, once the water has
been heated, no more limescale will be generated.
Also, after a short period of heating the water and moving it
around the system with a circulating pump, all the air will have
been expelled from the system. It is this air, in particular the oxygen
in it, that causes the corrosion of iron, from which the boiler and
radiators are invariably made, so losing this air prevents them from
rusting. (Corrosion is looked at in more depth in Chapter 6.)
CC The water level within the f & e cistern

The water level within the f & e cistern is adjusted low down
inside this cistern, just above the outlet. As the water within the
system heats up, it expands, rises back up the cold-feed pipe
and is taken up into this cistern. If, during the installation of
these cisterns, the water level is adjusted too high, the water,
when heated, will expand and rise to a point where it will drip
from the overflow pipe. Upon cooling, more water will re-
enter the cistern via the float-operated valve and the process
of overflowing will be repeated continually. This will result in
fresh oxygenated and calcium-laden (limescale-forming) water
continually being added to the system.

CC The open vent
You may be wondering why a pipe with an open end
terminates above the water level within the cistern. Why is
the vent pipe needed? First, it allows air in and out of the
system during filling or draining down. You will notice that
in Figure 2.8 the water enters low down in the cylinder, near
the bottom, and the hot water is drawn off from the top.
If there were no vent pipe, there would be a very large air
pocket above the water, which would prevent the water from
filling the system. Also, when draining out the water from the
system, the vent pipe allows air to enter, which makes it easier
to remove the water.
The second purpose of the vent pipe is as a safety measure,
ensuring that the system always remains at a pressure
compatible with that of the atmosphere and allowing any
pressure generated within the system to escape. A build-up of
pressure could result from the cold feed to the system being
blocked, as might happen if it freezes in winter or if debris
accumulates inside the base of the storage vessel.
CC Hot water distribution

If you look again at the example of stored hot water supply
(see Figure 2.8), you will notice that the hot water is drawn
off from the top of the cylinder. The reason for designing the
pipework in this way and taking the water from the top of
the cylinder is that this is where the hottest water is found,
because hot water naturally rises to the highest point. The
cold water flows in at the base of the cylinder and pushes the
hot water out when a tap is opened. If the cold water were
supplied at the top of the cylinder, it would mix with the hot
water and cool it down.
Some cylinders are designed with the cold pipe connected at
the top, which would appear to contradict this argument but,
in fact, if you could see inside the cylinder, you would notice
that the pipe extends inside the vessel right down to the base.
(Figure 2.16 shows an example of this dipped cold feed, as it
is called.)
56

CC Water expansion
When water is heated, it expands by approximately 4 per cent
from cold to 100C. (Above 100C, at atmospheric pressure,
it changes to steam and its volume immediately expands
1,600 times.) For safety reasons, the expansion of the water
must be allowed for in the design of the storage cistern.
If you have an open-vented system, it will be under the
influence of atmospheric pressure and as the water slowly heats
up it will expand and be pushed back up through the cold-
feed pipe into the cold-feed cistern that supplies the system.
As mentioned above, if the cold feed becomes blocked, the
expanding water will be forced to travel up the open vent pipe
and discharge into the cistern, thereby preventing a pressure
build-up within the system.
Imagine the possible danger if both the cold feed and the vent
pipe became frozen up and blocked. If the water were to heat
up and expand, this expansion could not be accommodated
and, as a result, the cylinder might split at the seams or even
explode, hence the need to ensure that pipework is suitably
insulated.
CC Single-feed system of indirect hot water supply

This type of hot water supply system is no longer installed
today, but many such systems were installed during the 1960s.
This system uses a special indirect cylinder, which can fill the
domestic hot water system as well as the boiler circuit with
water, the latter of which also serves a limited number of
radiators (Figure 2.9). The design of this system falls outside
the scope of this book, but it is mentioned here because, as
there is no separate f & e cistern in the roof space, without this
information you might think, when faced with such a system,
that it is a direct hot water system. The primary water and
secondary domestic hot water are separated by a trapped air
pocket within the specially designed hot water heat exchanger.
The clue to knowing if you have this system in your home is to
look on the side of the cylinder for the Primatic brand name.
Also, the single cold water storage cistern found in a loft with

this system will serve several steel panel radiators, which it will
not do if a direct system of domestic hot water is being used.
stop
valve
primatic cylinder
stop
valve
cold feed heat exchanger with air

pocket separating the
central heating water from
wash the domestic hot water
bath basin
primary
flow
pipework
to central
heating
sink
boiler
primary
return
drain-off cock
Figure 2.9 A single-feed system of indirect hot water supply
UNVENTED SYSTEMS
Many homes built today incorporate an unvented system of hot
water supply. It has the advantage of:
CC having a stored supply of potable hot water
CC maintaining a good flow rate to the various outlet points
CC being at water supply mains pressure
CC freeing up roof space, which aids the design of modern roof

structures.
This type of system has only been permitted since 1985 and,
as a result, is generally only found in newer developments or
houses that have been refurbished. It is essential to note that the
58

minimum size of the supply pipe to these systems is 22 mm
if it is any smaller, you will not get the flow rate expected
compared to that of a vented system with its larger pipe sizes.
New homes are constructed with this larger mains supply pipe,
thereby generally posing no problems; existing properties,
however, may only have a 15 mm inlet cold water mains supply,
which will be inadequate to serve all the hot and cold outlets
within the property.
The installation of these systems falls within the requirements of
the Building Regulations, as administered by the local authority,
so the installation and maintenance of the systems must be
undertaken only by approved operatives. This means that the
installer will have taken and passed an assessment course aimed
specifically at the design and safety of these systems.
Looking at the two systems shown in Figure 2.10, you will see
that there are several controls in addition to those found on the
more traditional systems (Figures 2.6 and 2.8). Two systems
have been illustrated because one design uses a sealed expansion
vessel to take up the expanding water, whereas the other uses an
air pocket, located inside the cylinder with a floating baffle.
The following notes provide a brief outline of the controls
found on an unvented system, purely for interest and
identification but, as stated above, remember that these systems
must be installed and serviced only by qualified personnel.
Should you have such a system and require work to be done
on these controls, remember to ask the operatives to show you
an approval certificate or card, otherwise your house insurance
may not be valid should something go wrong, as these systems
can explode if not looked after properly.
CC Components of the unvented system

Unvented systems of hot water supply have the following
components, illustrated in Figures 2.11, 2.12 and 2.13.
CC Strainer
This is designed to ensure that no grit or dirt within the pipeline

can travel along the pipe and cause a control installed further
downstream to become ineffective.

check valve
sealed expansion vessel

stop valve
pressure-relief valve
strainer
pressure- tundish and air gap
mains reducing
water valve
supply
temperature-
relief valve
to cold taps
to hot taps
drain-off
drain-off cock
cock high-temperature
cut out
a) system using a sealed expansion vessel

(showing the water heated within a boiler)
combined pressure and

floating baffle temperature relief valve
tundish and air gap

pressure-
reducing discharge pipe
check
valve valve
immersion heater with

high-temperature cut-out
device
mains to hot taps
water
to cold taps
supply
b) system incorporating an air pocket
(showing the water heated by an immersion heater)
Figure 2.10 Unvented systems of domestic hot water supply
60

CC Pressure-reducing valve
This is a special control that prevents excess mains pressures

from entering the hot water storage vessel. The hot water storage
vessels themselves are quite robust but will not withstand the
highest water pressures sometimes experienced within the mains
supply. This control usually restricts the pressure to a maximum
of 3 bar. In order to ensure equal pressures in both hot and cold
supplies, such as when mixer taps are incorporated, the cold
water is sometimes branched off after this control valve, (see
Figure 2.10). Alternatively, a second pressure-reducing valve will
be required on the cold-supply pipework.
CC Check valve
This valve is basically a non-return valve that has been

incorporated to prevent the heated water expanding back
along the pipework. (It is a Water Regulations requirement
that no water is allowed to flow in a direction opposite to that
intended.)
spring
spring
gauze
strainer pressure-reducing check valve

valve
Figure 2.11 The components of an unvented system
CC Sealed expansion vessel
This unit is designed to take up the expanding water into a

large rubber bag contained within an airtight vessel. As water
is heated it expands and flows into the bag. This causes the air
surrounding the bag to become pressurized; when the water
cools, the air pressure forces the water back out into the system.
Some systems do not use a sealed expansion vessel but take up
the expanding water within an air pocket inside the top of the
cylinder.

point to check
and charge up rubber bag
the pressure containing the
expanding water
air compressed due to bag

filling up with expanded water
As the water cools, the air

pressure forces the water out
(system heated of the bag back into the system.
therefore bag
shown full)
Figure 2.12 A sealed expansion vessel
CC High-temperature cut-out thermostat
This is basically a second thermostat in addition to the normal

thermostat. This control will turn off the supply when the
temperature within the system rises to 90C. Should this control
be activated, you will need to reset the device manually.
CC Pressure-relief valve
This is a special control valve designed to open, allowing water

to discharge from the system into a drain, should the pressure
rise to such a point that damage to the storage vessel might
result.
CC Temperature-relief valve
This is another special control valve that is designed to open

if the high-temperature cut-out device fails to work. It allows
the water to discharge from the system safely into a drain if
the temperature rises to around 95C, at which point it would
become dangerous. With the high pressures that might be
generated within the system due to heating water, the boiling
point is increased and, if the temperature were to get any hotter
than this, uncontrollable steam could discharge from this
control rather than controllable water.
62

Sometimes the pressure-relief and temperature-relief valves are
incorporated within the same control valve. In both cases any
water discharging from them is conveyed to the drain via an
air gap and a funnelled tundish (a container with holes in the
bottom). The air gap is maintained to ensure that the drain
pipework cannot make contact with the potable hot water
supply pipework.
Key idea
Unvented systems take their water supply directly from the mains cold
water supply that is fed into the house from the street outside. The water
therefore generally has a good pressure and is safe to drink.
test lever test lever
to discharge
pipe
temperature-
pressure- sensing probe combined pressure-
relief valve expands if and temperature-
water too hot relief valve
Figure 2.13 Pressure- and temperature-relief valves
Instantaneous systems of
hot water supply
The storage systems discussed above work well, and a good
flow rate of water from the taps can be expected from a
correctly sized system. However, in the case of unvented systems
for homes with many occupants or older properties with a small
inlet supply pipe which might be just 15 mm in diameter
an instantaneous system may be the only choice where a
connection to the cold mains supply pipe is made. This has very
much been the traditional system of domestic hot water supply.

Older properties without heating systems often have an
instantaneous system of hot water supply. They may have a
centrally installed multipoint water heater or several single-
point water heaters found at the appliances where the water
is required (see Figure 2.14). These heaters may be electrically
operated or gas fuelled.
Many homes have upgraded from the multipoint system by
installing a combination boiler (often called a combi boiler
for short) to supply hot water and central heating. These
units heat water as it is required, rather than storing it at
high temperatures, and also provide hot water for heating
purposes.
The biggest drawback with the instantaneous water heater
is the fact that the water can be heated at only a limited rate
and, as a result, the flow rate from the outlet tap is invariably
slower than that expected from a storage system. The layout
of the pipework to the various appliances is, however, the
same (see Figure 2.15).
water heater
cold tap
cold
supply
Figure 2.14 Localized single-point instantaneous hot water heater at the point
of use
64

wash
bath basin
combination boiler
or multipoint
sink
additional central
heating flow and
return if a
combination
boiler is used
drain-off cock
cold mains supply
Figure 2.15 A centralized system of instantaneous domestic hot water using a
combination boiler or multipoint
Remember this
A combination boiler saves on running costs because it only heats the
water you need. It heats hot water that can be pumped around a heating
circuit to warm the house or it directly heats up water to be drawn off
at the taps. Be aware, however, that while it is heating the water for the
taps it is not heating the house, so it is not ideal if your home has many
occupants, all drawing off water.
Thermal storage systems

These hot water supply systems were introduced in about
1985 as an alternative to the unvented storage system, having
a supply of hot water at mains pressure without all the
necessary safety controls required for an unvented system.
They are, in effect, a system of instantaneous hot water supply,
taking their water directly from the mains. The difference
between this and the unvented system is that this does not
store hot water for domestic draw-off purposes. Unvented

systems are classified as such because they contain a stored
volume of water in excess of 15 litres.
Figure 2.16 shows the storage cylinder full of hot water, but
this water is not used to supply the taps, unlike all the other
storage systems previously described; it is used only to supply
the heating circuit and warm the radiators.
In the hot water cylinder there is a pipe coil heat exchanger
with many loops. If a hot water tap is turned on, water will
flow directly from the water mains through this coil, which
causes the water to heat up rapidly, taking its heat from the
cylinder full of hot water. This water then passes through a
blending/mixing valve which allows a percentage of cold water
to mix with it if necessary, thereby cooling it to the desired
temperature, as it may have become too hot when passing
through the cylinder heat exchanger.
This system is by far the least common, but it is found in
some homes. As with all systems that take their supply
f & e cistern
overflow
adjustable
thermostatic
pump mixing valve
boiler expansion
chamber to hot
taps
dipped
cold feed
flow and to cold
return to c.h. taps
pump
cold mains supply

Figure 2.16 Thermal storage system of domestic hot water supply
66

directly from the mains, it is essential that a sufficiently large
water mains supply pipe is available to prevent water flow
problems. A similar system, which is essentially a variation on
this design, has the hot storage cylinder contained within the
boiler case as one big unit, referred to as a combined primary
storage unit (CPSU).
HOT DISTRIBUTION PIPEWORK

Whether the centralized domestic hot water system is of the
storage or instantaneous type, the water must flow around the
building in pipes of appropriate size, reducing down in size to
the smaller pipes that serve the various outlet points. A pipe of
minimum diameter 22 mm needs to be used to supply a bath.
As with the cold water pipework, a drain-off cock is located at
the lowest point of the hot water pipework in order to facilitate
draining down if necessary.
Choosing a new hot water supply

What is better, a combination boiler or a regular boiler with
a storage cylinder? This is a question you will ask yourself
when considering a new hot water supply. Each system has its
own merits, and when designing a system you should weigh
up the pros and cons in order to choose what is best for you.
Some of the merits and pitfalls of each system are discussed
below.
COMBINATION (COMBI) BOILER

A combination boiler heats up water for domestic use,
providing hot water for the taps and for the central heating
system. The installation of combination boilers currently makes
up 60 per cent of market sales and therefore deserves the first
consideration. However, it will not always be the best choice. It
has the following advantages:
CC It is easily installed and is the cheaper option.
CC It only heats the water as and when it is required.

CC It does not require a storage cylinder or cistern in the roof
space.
CC It uses water fresh from the mains for the hot supply to the
taps.
CC The water will be at a good pressure for showers.
CC It provides water for central heating.
These are all good points, but this system also has disadvantages
that are often overlooked. These include:
CC a poor flow rate from the taps where the pipe size to the
house is inadequate
CC no boiler operation for the central heating when it is being
used to heat the hot water
CC no backup supply of hot water if either the power or the
water supply is turned off.
Lets look more closely at these disadvantages. First, if the pipe
entering your property is only 15 mm in diameter, you just
might be expecting too much from the pipe. Homes today often
have dishwashers, washing machines, outside taps, numerous
toilets and bathrooms. You cannot possibly expect this one pipe
to feed all of these outlet points at once. It is unlikely that they
would all be in operation at the same time, but several may well
be, and therefore something will be starved of water and the
flow rate will drop dramatically. For two people living together
this size may just be adequate, but where there are more people
living in the same home, this system is unsuitable unless you are
prepared to put up with the problems of poor flow, bearing in
mind that the boiler may not even operate if the flow rate drops
below a certain level, as many require a minimum flow of water
passing through the boiler.
Second, a combination boiler is a priority system, which means
that, when it is providing the hot water to the hot taps and
other outlets, it does not supply the heating system. In other
words, the boiler gives priority to the domestic hot water when
in operation; it does not do both heating and hot water at the
same time. So, for example, in a home with, say, six people,
68

every time the bath or shower is being run, or the washing
machine requires hot water, or any hot tap is opened, the
heating will not be on. As a result, you may find the radiators
getting cooler on occasion.
Finally, the flow rate of water from the taps is less than that of a
storage system. Systems fed from a storage cylinder seem to gush
water through the taps when compared with the instantaneous
systems, which need a little time to heat the water as it flows
through the heater. Some combination boilers with very high
heat outputs have combated this problem to a certain degree,
but it must be understood that the bigger the boiler output,
the bigger the gas supply pipe needs to be, if this is the fuel
used to feed the boiler. Bearing this in mind, is the gas supply
pipe feeding your house sufficiently large? Some of the larger
combination boilers require a gas pipe of 2832 mm in diameter.
REGULAR BOILER AND HOT WATER STORAGE CYLINDER

The advantages of having a stored vented domestic hot water
supply are generally the opposite of the problems of the combi
boiler. These advantages include the following:
CC The water flow out of the taps will be good (this is not to be
confused with pressure, as previously described).
CC The central heating is independent of the hot water (i.e. this
is not a priority system).
CC The kilowatt rating or output size of the boiler does not need
to be as high.
CC There will still be a limited backup supply of hot water if the
water mains supply is turned off.
The points above relate to a vented storage system. If an
unvented system is installed, a large supply from the mains is
still required to combat poor flow conditions (minimum 25 mm
polyethylene pipe). The disadvantages of the storage system are
the opposite of the advantages of the combination boiler:
CC More pipework is required for installation, therefore it is
more expensive to install.

CC Water is heated for domestic hot water purposes even if it is
not being used, so it can be more expensive to run.
CC Additional space is required for the storage cylinder and the
cold water cistern.
CC If the cold storage cistern is not high enough, very poor
pressures may be experienced at outlet points, particularly
shower outlets, so additional shower boosters may be
required.
Key idea
The term regular boiler refers to a boiler that does not directly heat up
the domestic hot water as well as the hot water used for the heating
central heating circuit.
So, in conclusion, if there are only two or three people living

in the property, the minimum pipe diameter is 22 mm and the
occupants are prepared to wait a minute or two longer to run
their bath, then a combination boiler might be a suitable system.
Money will be saved on installation and on running costs.
However, where several occupants inhabit the home, creating
a greater demand for hot water, it might be worth finding the
space to incorporate a regular boiler and hot storage cylinder,
preferably unvented, thereby ensuring good flow and pressure
to all outlet points without disrupting the central heating
demand. Of course, this is dependent on the mains supply pipe
being big enough, otherwise a vented system of stored hot water
should be used.
70

! Focus points
1 When having any gas work undertaken, always ask to see the gas
installers Gas Safe Register ID card, looking on the back of the card
to see in what area of gas work the operative has been tested.
2 The smallest quantity of carbon monoxide in the atmosphere can
prove fatal within a relatively short period so, if you suspect any gas
appliance to be faulty, have it checked immediately by an expert and
have the appliance serviced annually as a matter of course.
3 Oil generally needs to be pressurized into a fine spray to be ignited
because the liquid itself will not ignite; it is only as a fine mist or
vapour that it is combustible.
4 To ensure that Legionella bacteria will not grow, possibly causing
a problem where power showers or water sprays are generated,
never store domestic hot water within a hot water cylinder below a
temperature of 60C.
5 A hot water cylinder with many coils, referred to as a high-
performance cylinder, heats water for domestic use much more
quickly than a cylinder that only has a few turns of heat exchanger
coil within it.
6 If your building has a hot water cylinder for storing hot water, look
for a valve on the supply pipe to the cylinder. This valve is used to
turn off the supply if necessary, so check that it works. If it does not,
get it repaired; you may need it in an emergency.
7 When the water supply to a hot water storage cylinder is turned off,
remember that, although no water flows from the taps, water still
remains inside the cylinder itself.
8 An unvented domestic hot water supply system takes its water
supply directly from the cold water mains supply and therefore has a
good pressure as well as being potable safe to drink.
9 An immersion heater is an alternative method of heating water for
domestic use; it is like a big kettle element inside the hot water cylinder.
10 Combination boilers and multipoints do not utilize a hot water
storage cylinder as they only heat up the water as and when it is
required.

Next step
In this chapter you learned how cold water is
heated and distributed to various appliances,
about different heating methods and hot water
storage and supply systems, and about how to
choose the most suitable type of boiler. The next
chapter looks at domestic central heating systems
and how the hot water is often linked to the
heating system.
72

Domestic central
3
heating
CC about the different types of central
heating
CC about central heating boilers
CC about central heating controls
CC how to protect heating systems.
73

Types of central heating system
There is a variety of different methods of domestic central
heating, including:
CC electric storage heaters
CC warm-air heating
CC underfloor heating (radiant heating)
CC water-filled radiators (see Figure 3.1).
Water-filled radiators are by far the most common system and

therefore will be the main focus of this chapter. Of the others:
CC electric storage heaters use cheap-rate electricity at night to
warm up heat-retaining blocks, designed to release their heat
slowly throughout the day
CC warm-air heating consists of a network of ducting to
distribute preheated warm air around the home
CC underfloor heating uses either heated electric cables or water-
filled pipe coils to warm up the structure of a building.
Underfloor heating is often installed in new buildings instead of
the more traditional radiator system. Underfloor heating, often
referred to as radiant heating, merits a review of its design in
order to understand how it works effectively, compared with
water-filled radiator systems.
Central heating
these
systems
dry systems wet systems may be
vented or
unvented
(sealed)
electric warm air radiators radiant

heating
(under
floor)
electric storage small micro
boiler heaters bore bore
Figure 3.1 Types of central heating system
74

Radiant heating
Radiant heating uses infrared heat rays that do not warm up the
air through which they pass but the structure upon which they
fall. In other words, radiant heating does not directly increase
the temperature of the air in a room; instead, it warms up the
structure of the building.
When a person enters a room, their body tries to become
the same temperature as the surrounding structure and, as
a consequence, if the building is cooler than you are, your
body loses infrared heat as it tries to even out the temperature
difference. If, however, the structure of the building is warm, no
heat will be lost from your body in this way. As a consequence,
the ambient temperature of the room can in fact be cooler than
your body and the building as the air temperature does not
unduly affect your body temperature.
Coils filled with water are laid within the floors (see Figure 3.2)
and, if they are left on long enough at a temperature of around
40C, they will emit sufficient radiant heat to slowly warm
up all the surfaces and solids within a room to a temperature
compatible to that of the human body around 33C.
Key idea
Radiant heating differs from central heating systems that use radiators
in that the building is heated to a point where infrared heat is not lost
from the human body. Radiators rely on convection currents to circulate
warm air around the room.
The advantages of having a radiant heating system include:

CC cooler room temperatures, which create a sense of freshness
CC less transference of dust and airborne bacteria caused by the

effects of convection currents
CC very low water temperatures resulting in greater efficiency
from the boiler typically around 90 per cent (efficiency is
explained later in this chapter).
3. Domestic central heating 75

boiler
heating pipes
damp-proof 30mm floor

membrane foil heating pipes screed
insulation
oversite concrete
solid floor heating coil

Figure 3.2 A radiant (underfloor) heating system
Traditionally, UK homeowners put on their heating for only

a few hours in the morning and a few hours in the evening.
This limited amount of time is rarely sufficient to warm the
whole building and, as a result, higher flow temperatures are
used to warm the structure. This creates a certain amount of
discomfort underfoot due to the elevated water temperature
in the underfloor pipes, and also reduces the efficiency of the
boiler. For a radiant system to work really well, long periods of
low-temperature water heating are required.
The other major disadvantage of this system is the problems
created if the pipe coil leaks. Fortunately, leaks are quite rare,
but it can prove very costly to find the leak and make the repair.
Central heating using radiators

Unlike underfloor heating, traditional water-filled radiators
warm up the air surrounding the large metal surface of the
radiator. It is this warming of the air that creates convection
76

currents within the room. Convection currents are the flow
of warm air around the room, caused by the hot air rising
as it expands and becomes lighter, and the cooler, heavier
air falling to replace the void the cycle continuing until the
room is warm.
The pipe layout of this sort of central heating system can be of
several designs, although around 95 per cent of all domestic
heating systems using radiators use what is called the two-pipe
system i.e. there are just two pipes leaving the boiler. These
two pipes, the flow and the return as they are called, travel
around the house to the various radiators. At each radiator
a tee connection is made to a pipe that branches off to feed a
valve, usually found at one end of the radiator. The two pipes
terminate at the final radiator.
Key idea
Radiators aim to warm up a large surface where the air in close contact is
heated and, as a consequence, expands and circulates around the room as
a series of convection currents raising the air temperature in the process.
For the past 50 years or so, central heating systems have used
a circulating pump to circulate the water around them. Very
rarely, in older properties, gravity circulation systems can still
be found (see Chapter 2). Sometimes these systems use solid fuel
(wood or coal) and unlike gas- or oil-burning appliances
since you cannot simply switch off the flame, a radiator or
two is incorporated as a heat leak from the boiler, allowing
heat to escape naturally from the boiler by gravity circulation.
However, these systems are now quite antiquated and ought
generally to be replaced.
Other central heating designs, such as the one-pipe circuit or the
reversed return system, can also be found but, due to their rarity
in the domestic home, they fall outside the scope of this book
and have been omitted to avoid confusion. See Appendix 3:
Taking it further, for further reading on these systems.
The water to the system shown in Figure 3.3 is supplied via a
feed and expansion (f & e) cistern found in the roof space (see

Chapter 2). This type of design is referred to as a vented system.
However, if the water has been fed directly from the cold
supply mains via a special filling point, the system is referred
to as a sealed heating system and is not under the influence of
atmospheric pressure.
Note also that the boiler is used to heat up the domestic hot
water. In the system shown, a circulating pump is only used
to force the water around the heating circuit. The water in the
hot water cylinder circulates due to the effects of gravity (i.e.
convection currents, where the lighter hot water rises and heavier
cold water sinks, as discussed in Chapter 2). This design does not
comply with current Building Regulations but may, nevertheless,
be the system you have. Modern systems use a circulating pump
for both the heating and hot water to provide a more efficient
system (a fully pumped system), as shown in Figures 3.4 and 3.8.
The installation of a modern central heating system fuelled by
either gas or oil must comply with the latest Building Regulations.
Systems that were installed prior to the current laws do not need
to be updated but, if you replace your boiler at some time in the
future, you will need to upgrade your system as appropriate.
f & e cistern Branch/sub circuits are

simply cut into the main
vent flow and return pipework.
cold feed
domestic upstairs central

hot water heating circuits
if required pump
System shown with gravity primaries. This is no

longer acceptable for new gas and oil installations.
Figure 3.3 The two-pipe system of central heating
78

SEALED HEATING SYSTEMS (CLOSED SYSTEMS)
A sealed heating system is one that, once it has been filled
up usually via a temporary cold mains connection has the
temporary hose connection removed and the system is closed
off. The water is now trapped within the system and so it is not
under the influence of atmospheric pressure (see Figure 3.4).
Combination boilers are installed as sealed systems. They are
designed with a temporary mains water filling connection
(Figure 3.5) to the central heating water and a permanent cold
water mains supply for the domestic hot water draw-off. The
temporary filling connection is disconnected from the water
supply because:
CC it is a Water Regulations requirement
CC chemicals may be added to the central heating pipework and,

if these are drawn back into the mains water supply, it would
lead to contamination.
Remember this
The sealed system is a central heating system that does not have an f & e
cistern in the roof space. The water filling the system comes directly from
the mains cold water supply. The temporary hose connection must be
disconnected from the supply in order to comply with the regulations and
not left connected with the valve simply turned off, as often happens.
CC How are sealed systems different from vented or

open systems?
The water in a sealed system is trapped within a closed circuit
and is therefore not subject to the influences of atmospheric
pressure. The expansion of the water, due to it being heated, is
accommodated within a sealed expansion vessel. This expanding
water creates additional pressures within the system and causes
it to rise in excess of 1 bar pressure. In fact, these systems are
invariably slightly pressurized, as a manufacturers requirement
is to fill to a typical pressure of 1.5 bar. As the pressure increases
within the system so does the temperature at which the water
boils. This could be dangerous if excessive pressures develop, so
safety controls need to be included at the time of installation.

These safety controls are:
CC a temperature cut-off device, designed to shut down the
appliance if the temperature exceeds 90C
CC a pressure-relief valve (safety valve), which can open to relieve
the pressure from within the system if it becomes too great.
domestic hot
water cylinder
high-temperature
cut-out device
automatic
air-release
pressure valve
pressure- gauge
relief valve
temporary pump
filling hose
motorized
sealed valves
expansion
vessel
Figure 3.4 A sealed heating system
double
isolation check
valve valve
mains water
supply blanked central heating system
off blanked off
hose disconnected
Figure 3.5 A temporary filling hose
80

THE SEALED EXPANSION VESSEL
In the case of vented systems of central heating, the water
expansion resulting from the heating process is accommodated
within the f & e cistern. Sealed systems, however, do not have
this cistern open to the atmosphere, so the expanding water
is taken up within a sealed expansion vessel, a special steel
container often found within the boiler casing itself.
The vessel contains a rubber diaphragm that separates it into
two compartments. One side is filled with air to a pressure equal
to that of the water in the system when it is cold; on the other
side the system allows water to flow in and out as necessary.
As the water heats up it expands and enters the vessel, pressing
against the diaphragm and squeezing the air on the other side
of the diaphragm into a smaller space, thus causing the pressure
to increase. When the system cools, the increased air pressure
forces the water back out into the system (see Figure 3.6). This
expansion vessel is of a different design from that used for a
system of unvented domestic hot water, where a rubber bag is
used to contain the expanding water (see Figure 2.12).
FULLY PUMPED SYSTEMS AND THE LOCATION OF THE PUMP

In a fully pumped system the circulating pump creates pressure
within the pipework. It creates a positive, or pushing, force as
the water is thrown forward from the pump and a negative, or
sucking, force as it is drawn back into the pump when it returns
from its journey around the system.
air pressure test point increased pressure

due to expanding expansion
water of water
diaphragm
connection
to system
system cold system heated up

Figure 3.6 The operation of a sealed expansion vessel

In the case of a sealed system (see Figure 3.4), the pump is often
incorporated within the boiler, installed on the pipe as it leaves
the boiler. Because a sealed system is not subject to atmospheric
pressure, half the system is subject to positive pressure and half
to negative pressure. The pressure gradually reduces from the
pushing force to zero, and the suction slowly gets stronger as
the water returns to the pump. As a consequence, provided that
there are no leaks, air cannot be drawn into the system.
This is not the case with an open-vented system. Figure 3.7
illustrates the principle that the cold feed enters the system at the
point where the influence of the pump changes from positive to
negative pressure. This point is referred to as the neutral point.
Figure 3.7(a) shows the system working well the pump
is creating positive pressure (above atmospheric pressure)
around the whole system, which ensures that there are no
micro-leaks (very small openings allowing the passage of
air but not water) that will allow air to be drawn into the
system. In this same system (see Figure 3.7a), if the pump
were installed the other way round it would create a negative
pressure throughout (below atmospheric pressure). This
would work fine, but air could be drawn in, for example,
through radiator valve gland nuts, where the spindle turns
(a typical micro-leak). Therefore, to ensure a good design,
always aim to get a positive pressure.
150 mm
maximum
+
+ + + + + +
N N N
+ + + +
+ +
(a) Location of pump to (b) Water will be (c) Air will be sucked
give positive pressure. pumped over the in via the vent.
open vent.
Figure 3.7 The principles of correct pump location
82

Remember this
If the central heating pump is incorrectly located, air will be drawn into
the circulatory pipework, which will in turn lead to all sorts of problems
including the corrosion of the steel radiators.
However, in the system shown in Figure 3.7(b), the open vent

pipe is under a positive pressure and therefore will allow a
quantity of water to discharge into the f & e cistern, subject
to the head pressure created by the pump, and in so doing will
oxygenate the water.
In the system shown in Figure 3.7(c), the open vent is subject to
the negative pressure of the pump, so air will be drawn into the
circulatory pipework. This configuration is often overlooked,
as it is not easy to spot. You can identify it by submerging the
open vent in a cup of water if it is sucking air into the system,
it will suck the water up from the cup.
It is not only inconvenient when air is drawn into your
installation, causing radiators to fill with air and preventing
them from working correctly, but it is also slowly but surely
corroding your system from within as the oxygen in the air,
mixed with water, causes the iron radiators to corrode and rust.
Key idea
With an open-vented, fully pumped system, it is vital to check that the
open vent connection is within 150 mm of where the cold feed joins the
circulatory pipework.
THE AIR SEPARATOR

Heating installers sometimes incorporate an air separator into
the pipework to serve as the collection point for the cold feed
and open vent pipe (Figure 3.8). This fitting ensures that the
required close grouping of the cold feed and vent is maintained
and also creates a situation where the water becomes shaken
and turbulent as it flows through the fitting. This helps the
air molecules in the water to dissipate and escape by forming
bubbles and rising up out of the system through the open vent.

f & e cistern
air separator installed
pump
motorized
valves
c.h. flow and return boiler
fully pumped system using an air separator
cold feed vent
flow from boiler

flow to system
three tapping air separator

(the cold feed is introduced within 150 mm of vent)
Figure 3.8 Using an air separator
Micro-bore systems
Micro-bore is the name given to a central heating design that
uses very narrow water pipes. At first sight, the pipe layout may
look rather different from the two-pipe system but, in fact, it
still follows the same basic design principles. The illustration
of the micro-bore system in Figure 3.9 shows that a flow-and-
return connection has been run from the boiler to each radiator.
The main difference between micro-bore systems and the usual
systems using 22 mm and 15 mm pipework is that, instead of
using tee joints at the connection to each radiator, a manifold
is employed, from which several branch connections are made.
(Figure 3.9 shows another variation on the theme of central
heating design: the micro-bore system has been run from a
combination boiler.)
Radiators and heat emitters

There are many different types of radiator, including modern
fancy-shaped towel rails, skirting heaters, panel radiators,
84

linear flow manifold
combination
boiler
to domestic 22 mm flow return

hot water
cold mains
water
610 mm branch pipes
branch manifold
Figure 3.9 A micro-bore heating system
convector heaters, and old-fashioned cast-iron sectional column

radiators (see Figure 3.10). Whatever type they are, they all
basically do the same job of warming the room in which they
are installed. They warm the air in close contact with the
radiator, and convection currents then circulate the warmed air
around the room, as discussed earlier. Some designs are more
effective than others: for example, convector heaters incorporate
metal fins to help distribute the heat from the radiator to the air.
Manufacturers indicate the heat distribution from a particular
heater as its kilowatt output; the higher the kilowatt output,
the greater the rate at which heat can be emitted. This must be
considered when fitting heaters: it would be useless to install
a radiator that is too small for a room because the occupants
would feel insufficiently warm. Similarly, a radiator that was
too large would occupy more wall space than necessary and

cast-iron
column radiator
fan convector heater
panel radiator
wheel head lockshield

valve or TRV valve convector radiator
(back view)
air vent fins heated removable

by conduction front panel
skirting convector heater

Figure 3.10 Radiator and heater types
86

also make the overall heating system less efficient. The room
might warm up more quickly, but the amount of fuel needed
to heat up the larger volume of water within the radiator
would increase.
The size of heater for a particular room can be calculated
using special tables and calculations, but these are beyond the
scope of this book. The process is not, however, particularly
complicated and, if you are interested in learning more, see the
reading suggestions in Appendix 3: Taking it further.
Radiator valves
A control valve will be fitted to each end of your radiator.
CC One is designed to open and close the radiator as required.
CC The other, called a lockshield valve, is non-adjustable and

will have a plastic dome-shaped cap.
These are shown in Figure 3.11. The first valve, used to open
and close the radiator, may be a simple plastic-headed on/
off control valve or a thermostatic radiator valve (TRV). For
many years the heating system installer would choose whether
or not to use a manual valve or a TRV, but current Building
Regulations dictate the use of TRVs. The only radiators that can
be fitted with a manual valve are those connected to radiators in
rooms with a room thermostat.
The TRV automatically closes off the water supply to the
radiator when the room has reached the desired temperature
and therefore saves on fuel by avoiding continuously supplying
heat to a sufficiently heated room.
The purpose of the lockshield valve at the other end of the
radiator is to control the amount of water flowing through the
radiator. It is identical to the manual on/off valve at the other
end, except that the plastic head does not have an internal
square socket to fit over the turning spindle of the valve. The
installer would have pre-adjusted this valve with a spanner
when balancing the system at the time of installation.

temperature-
heat adjusting
head wheel gland
sensor
head nut
bellows
chamber packing
pressure
pin
valve
valve
union tail to
connect into
heat emitter
thermostatic radiator valve (TRV) manual radiator valve

Figure 3.11 Radiator valves
If you have a micro-bore system, sometimes both valves are

found at one end. This is achieved by utilizing an internal tube
in the radiator to distribute the water flow as necessary, as
shown in Figure 3.12.
BALANCING THE SYSTEM

In order to ensure that the first radiator on the heating circuit
does not take all the hot water flow from the boiler due to
the water taking the shortest route through this first heater
rather than going around the whole system the lockshield
valve is partially closed. By having this valve open by, say, only
half a turn, most of the water is forced to continue along the
heating circuit to the next radiator. Further radiator lockshield
valves are also adjusted as required, to force the flow of water
throughout the whole system.
WHICH IS THE FIRST AND WHICH IS THE LAST RADIATOR

IN THE SYSTEM?
Basically, when you turn on the heat source of a cold system,
the first radiator to get hot is the one nearest the boiler, and it
will have the shortest circuit. The second one to heat up will be
the next radiator along and so on, throughout the system.
88

internal distribution tube
Figure 3.12 Micro-bore connections at one end of a radiator
Remember this
If you ever need to turn off the lockshield valve with a spanner, for example
when removing the radiator for decorating purposes, remember to count
the number of turns to close the valve, so that when you re-open this valve
you open it by the same number of turns. If you forget to do this, you
may find that some radiators on your system fail to reach their desired
temperature because you have affected the balancing of the system.
AIR IN THE SYSTEM AND AIR VENTS

Before water enters the central heating system for the first time,
air will be inside it. As water enters the system of pipework, air
will be trapped in high pockets and, if left there, will prevent the
system from operating correctly. Small openings into which air-
release valves have been installed are used to expel air from any
high points such as the tops of radiators.
The installer of the system will aim to run the pipework in such
a way as to avoid trapping air. Where this is unavoidable, an
automatic air-release valve can be inserted in the pipeline. This
device contains a small float with a valve attached to its top
end. If water is present, the float rises and the valve blocks up

the outlet; if there is no water within, the float drops and opens
its outlet point or vent hole (see Figure 3.13).
In addition to letting air out of the pipework and radiators, it
is also necessary to open any air-release points when the system
is being drained down, otherwise it will take forever to empty
because air needs to enter the system in order to facilitate the
removal of the water.
cap to seal
off valve
air outlet vent
washer
inlet

Figure 3.13 An automatic air-release valve
The boiler
What about the heat source for the system? In its most
fundamental form, this is simply a metal box that is surrounded
by a fire. In fact, the first heating systems were just this, a metal
box referred to as a back boiler, found within the fireplace of
the lounge. Surprisingly, there are a few still out there in some
older properties.
90

Key idea
A boiler is the appliance used to heat water for the purpose of supplying
a central heating system and hot water to taps. The term boiler is
not ideal, however, because the water never actually boils inside the
appliance if it did, there would be something seriously wrong.
Boilers today are fully automatic devices that turn up the heat
as necessary and, with the exception of solid fuel systems,
completely turn off when not required. The water is just heated
until the required temperature is achieved, as set by its built-in
thermostat, and then the heat source turns off. The fuels that
could be used for the boiler include:
CC solid fuel, including coal, wood and straw
CC electricity
CC gas
CC oil.
Electric boilers are quite rare and so they fall beyond the scope of
this book. The remaining fuel types, however, have been used in
boilers for many years, and the design of the boiler has developed
into a very efficient appliance, unlike those of yesteryear.
Solid fuel has limitations in its design, and because these boilers
tend to be more labour-intensive i.e. you need to load the fuel
and empty the ash they are not very popular and account for
around only 0.5 per cent of all installations. Around 92 per cent
of installations use gas and the rest use oil.
Due to developments over the years, there are many different
boiler designs from many different manufacturers, with a never-
ending list of models applicable to the particular designs. But
fundamentally they all fall into one of four basic types:
CC natural draught open-flued
CC forced draught open-flued (fan-assisted)
CC natural draught room-sealed
CC forced draught room-sealed (fan-assisted).

air taken
from
room
natural draught
air taken room-sealed
from appliance
room forced draught
open-flued
appliance
natural draught
open-flued appliance
forced draught room-sealed appliances

Figure 3.14 Boiler designs
92

Essentially, these names relate to the method by which air is
supplied to the boiler:
CC Natural draught or forced draught indicates whether or not
the appliance has a fan incorporated to assist in the removal
of the combustion products to the outside.
CC Open-flued boilers take their air from within the room where
the boiler is located.
CC Room-sealed means that the air is taken into the boiler from
outside the building.
Figure 3.14 illustrates these four designs.
The boiler in your home will be of one of these designs. For
example:
CC If you have a back boiler situated behind a gas fire in the
living room, you have a natural draught open-flued boiler.
CC If you have a large free-standing boiler in your kitchen, with
a flue pipe coming from the top, travelling into a chimney or
passing through a pipe to discharge up above the roof, again
this is likely to be a natural draught open-flued boiler.
Both of these types take their air from the room in which they
are installed, and this air is replaced via an air vent from the
outside.
If your boiler has a terminal fitting flush with the wall, it is most
likely to be a room-sealed appliance.
CC If this terminal is quite large, it will be of the natural draught
type.
CC If it is smaller, say about 100 mm in diameter, it will be fan
assisted.
These boilers do not take the air required for the combustion
process from the room, but directly from outside.
There are many variations of boiler design, where the location
of the fan or the route of the flue pipe which may be vertically
through a roof or horizontally out through the wall may vary,
but they all fall within one of the four basic types listed above.

In addition to the basic boiler designs, boilers are further
classified into four generic types:
CC non-condensing regular boiler
CC non-condensing combination boiler
CC condensing regular boiler
CC condensing combination boiler.
The differences between regular boilers and combination boilers

have already been discussed in Chapter 2, but a new term is
used here: condensing.
CONDENSING BOILERS
A condensing boiler is designed to take as much heat from
the fuel and combustion products as possible and, as a result,
is much more efficient. It is sometimes referred to as a high-
efficiency boiler.
All domestic boilers installed prior to 1988 were designed in
such a way that no consideration was given to the heat contained
within the combustion products discharged from the boiler. If
you were to take a thermometer and measure the temperature of
the flue gases as they left the terminal, you would get a reading
of something like 160C. This is clearly a waste of heat and
therefore of fuel. The condensing boiler is designed so that these
combustion products are cooled to as low a temperature as
possible, thereby using as much of their heat energy as possible.
For the traditional central heating system using radiators, this
flue temperature would be somewhere around 80C. This
temperature could be reduced even further to, say, 4550C
where a radiant underfloor heating system was installed (as
discussed earlier). Where the appliance reduces the flue products
down to a temperature of less than 54C i.e. the dewpoint of
water the water produced as part of the combustion process
condenses and collects within the boiler and is subsequently
drained from the appliance.
These boilers, when in operation, especially when it is cold
outside, are easily identified by the water vapour discharging as
a mist, referred to as a plume, from the boiler terminal.
94

How do these boilers extract all this extra heat? Basically, the
boiler has a larger and more tightly grouped heat exchanger or,
in some designs, such as the one illustrated in Figure 3.15, it has
a second heat exchanger through which the flue products pass.
The heat exchanger is the part that contains the central heating
water over which the hot products of combustion pass.
HIGH-EFFICIENCY (HE) BOILERS

The boiler designs that work to the highest standard are of
the forced draught room-sealed type. A modern boiler has
electronic ignition and a highly efficient heat exchanger, making
it far superior to the old cast-iron boilers installed 30 years ago
that operated on gas with a permanent pilot flame acting as the
ignition source for the boiler. These old boilers might be operating
at about only 5060 per cent efficiency, whereas modern boilers
may be operating at efficiencies of over 90 per cent.
discharged flue
gases at a low
temperature
(typically less
than 54C)
flow water
connection
air intake
first
heat second
exchanger heat
exchanger
return water
burner connection
condensate forming
air inside the boiler
supply
condensate
trap
forced
draught
gas burner discharge pipe run
gas supply to drain or soakaway
Figure 3.15 Internal view of a condensing boiler

When talking of efficiencies, one is effectively talking about the
running cost. For example, for every 100 spent on fuel, if your
boiler is only 55 per cent efficient, you will be getting only 55
worth of heat, and 45 would simply be going up the chimney.
But where your boiler is 90 per cent efficient, you will be getting
90 worth of heat for every 100 spent.
It is because older boiler designs waste fuel in this way that
current regulations no longer permit them to be installed. If you
need a new boiler, the chances are, with a few exceptions, that
the heating installer will be bound by law to install a boiler with
an efficiency of 86 per cent or higher.
Heating controls
In your home you may or may not have all of the controls
listed below; in fact, you may have no more than a switch to
turn the power on to the boiler and pump. However, the design
of a modern central heating system will use a whole range of
controls for increased efficiency. One requirement of the current
Building Regulations for all new and replacement systems
using gas or oil as the fuel source is to have a minimum of the
following controls:
1 A full programmer or an independent time switch for heating
and hot water
2 A room thermostat, providing boiler interlock
3 A cylinder thermostat (where applicable), providing boiler
interlock
4 TRVs on all radiators, except in rooms containing a room
thermostat
5 An automatic bypass valve (if necessary)
These controls all serve to reduce the amount of fuel required to
heat the water, thereby increasing the efficiency of the system. In
other words, they save fuel. If you need to undertake any major
renewal work in your home, such as replacing the boiler, your
system controls will also need to be upgraded as necessary and
include all the controls listed above.
96

With the exception of the TRVs previously identified, what do
each of the remaining controls do?
THE PROGRAMMER
This is, in effect, a fancy clock. It allows the heating to come
on at specific times as set by the occupant of the building.
Modern installations require the use of what is referred to as a
full programmer. This basically means that the heating circuit(s)
and domestic hot water circuit can be controlled independently,
allowing separate time settings for heating and hot water.
Earlier designs of programmers did not have this independence,
for example:
CC mini-programmers allowed heating and hot water to be on
together, or hot water only (but not heating only)
CC standard programmers allowed heating and hot water to be
on on their own, but used the same time settings.
These older time controllers will need to be replaced if the boiler
is replaced, to comply with the current Building Regulations.
THE ROOM THERMOSTAT

A room thermostat is a device that senses the temperature of the
room. When the temperature set by the occupant is reached, an
electrical contact is broken inside the thermostat to switch off
the electrical supply to the pump or motorized valve found
on the pipe serving the heating circuit. With no electrical supply,
the water ceases to be pumped around the circuit.
Key idea
Most thermostats use a bimetallic strip, which in turn is connected to a
switch. A bimetallic strip is two metal strips bonded together, each with
different expansion rates, one high and one low. As the strip heats up, it is
forced to bend as a result of these different expansion rates; as the metal
bends, it breaks the switch contacts.
The room thermostat is normally positioned on a living room

wall, at a typical height of about 1.5 metres but not in a
position where it will be affected by draughts or by heat from

the sun shining through a window. The thermostat should
not be located in a room with an additional heater, such as an
electric or gas fire the hall might be a good alternative.
It is essential that the room selected for the thermostat does
not have a TRV fitted to the radiator within the room because,
if the TRV closes, the room thermostat will fail to reach its
operating temperature, and the heating will be on constantly.
The idea of incorporating a room thermostat is to close off the
heating circuit when the desired temperature has been reached
in the living room. If the room thermostat is off, provided that
the cylinder thermostat is not activated, the boiler and pump
will be turned off, thereby saving fuel.
Some older systems may not have a room thermostat and just
have TRVs fitted to the radiators to control the flow. These
systems will need to be upgraded when the boiler is next replaced.
THE CYLINDER THERMOSTAT

The cylinder thermostat is a device fixed to the side of the hot
water cylinder, about one-third up from the base. It is set by the
installer to be activated when the top of the hot water cylinder
has reached a temperature of around 60C. As with the room
thermostat, when the desired temperature is achieved, the
electrical contact is broken inside the unit, which switches off
the electrical supply to the motorized valve on the pipe circuit to
the cylinder heat exchanger coil.
Older systems may not have a cylinder thermostat a situation
that will need to be rectified when the boiler or cylinder is next
replaced, to bring the system into line with the regulations now
in force.
BOILER INTERLOCK
Boiler interlock is when the boiler is linked with the thermostat
system so that the boiler will only ignite if heat is required by
either the domestic hot water or the central heating system, as
regulated by the cylinder and room thermostats respectively.
Older systems did not always have a room or cylinder
thermostat. For example, central heating systems were often
designed only with TRVs fitted to the radiators, and gravity
98

circulation of hot water to the cylinder from the boiler was
allowed to continue until the boiler thermostat was satisfied.
Sometimes, to prevent the domestic hot water becoming too
hot, a mechanical thermostat was installed in the return pipe
to close off the flow of water in the circuit, and the boiler
thermostat was the only control for switching the boiler on or
off. Invariably it continued to heat up and cool down, night
and day, as the boiler slowly lost its heat to the surrounding
atmosphere. This is referred to as short cycling and is clearly
a drastic waste of heat and fuel, and this is what boiler
interlock prevents.
Systems without boiler interlock need to be upgraded when
major work is undertaken on the system, such as when
replacing the boiler. Where you only intend to replace the
hot water cylinder, you must include a cylinder thermostat to
operate a motorized valve to close off the circuit and switch off
the boiler, but you do not need to upgrade the central heating
controls. However, if you replace the boiler, both the cylinder
thermostat and the room thermostat must be provided, thereby
providing total boiler interlock.
THE AUTOMATIC BYPASS VALVE

This device is a valve fitted in a pipeline, which opens
automatically to allow water to pass. These valves may be
incorporated in the pipe circuit for several reasons, such as
because the boiler has a pump-overrun facility. This facility is
needed in systems where the pump must continue running for a
time after the boiler has switched off in order to allow the heat
within the boiler to dissipate and for it to cool down sufficiently,
thereby preventing heat damage to the boiler itself.
If the motorized valves of the central heating circuit and
domestic hot water circuit are open, they will allow the water
to flow, but where these are closed, due to the temperatures of
their circuits being satisfied, there will be nowhere for the water
to flow. As a result, pressure will build up within the flow pipe
from the boiler and this will press against the spring-assisted
valve of the automatic bypass to force the valve to open. Some
boilers come with a pre-installed automatic bypass.

Prior to the automatic bypass, the plumber would have installed
a slightly opened manually set lockshield valve, but this method
is no longer permitted to serve this function because it can
reduce the efficiency of the system.
MOTORIZED VALVES
Older central heating systems will not have these controls because,
prior to the 1980s, systems generally were installed as shown in
Figure 3.3. These older systems either had TRVs fitted to all but
one radiator on the system to control the room temperature, or
a room thermostat was used to control the heating requirements,
which switched off the pump when the temperature within the
room where the thermostat was located reached the required level.
The temperature of the domestic hot water was generally only
regulated by the boiler thermostat. These earlier systems, of which
many thousands are still in existence, are far less efficient than the
modern well-designed systems that use a motorized valve to close
off the water supply to a particular circuit.
Closing off the motorized valve by way of the electrical power
supply, from the room or cylinder thermostat as appropriate,
provides a situation where the boiler is prevented from firing
unnecessarily. The boiler of the modern system cannot fire
unless either the room or cylinder thermostat is calling for heat,
because it is these controls that send the power supply to feed a
motorized valve.
Remember this
A motorized valve is a valve that automatically opens a waterway when it
is supplied with an electrical supply. This allows the power to continue to
the boiler and pump, to circulate a supply of hot water.
The motorized valve itself consists of a small motor positioned

on top of a housing, inside which a ball-shaped valve is moved
by the motor, opening or closing the route through which the
central heating or domestic hot water can pass. The two basic
designs of motorized valve are shown in Figure 3.16. They are:
CC two-port (zone valve)
CC three-port (either mid-position or diverter valve).
100

two-port valve three-port valve
Figure 3.16 Motorized valves
When power is supplied to the motor in a two-port valve, it

turns and causes the pipeline to open. As the valve opens it
makes the switch contact inside the unit to allow electricity to
flow to the boiler and pump. Should the power to this control
be switched off, the valve closes, assisted by a spring, and in so
doing breaks the electrical contact to the boiler and pump.
There are two basic types of three-port valve: the diverter valve
and the mid-position valve. The older design of diverter valve
allowed the water to flow either from the central inlet port to
the outlet pipe feeding the domestic hot water circuit or to the
central heating circuit. In effect, it opened one route but closed
the other, i.e. diverted the water flow, hence its name. This
system was wired up to give priority to the domestic hot water
in the cylinder, so that, while this was being supplied with heat
from the boiler, the central heating system had to be off. This
was affected by an internal ball, which pivoted on a fulcrum
between the two outlet ports.
The second type of three-port valve, referred to as a mid-
position valve, allowed the internal ball valve to stop in the
mid position as it was swinging across to close off one of the
outlets, thus allowing water to flow to both the heating and
domestic hot water at the same time, should both the room
and cylinder thermostats be calling for heat. This mid-position
valve therefore had the advantage over the earlier diverter valve.

It must be understood, however, that the amount of water flow
that can be expected through the valve is restricted while the
valve is in the mid position, so they are only suitable for systems
that are not too large.
As for the operation of these valves, this is a lot more
complicated to explain. The main thing to remember is that,
if no power is allowed to go to the valve, the power cannot
continue to travel to the boiler and pump.
Protecting heating systems

Two major threats to the trouble-free functioning of heating
systems are frost and corrosion.
FROST PROTECTION
Sometimes, if pipework or the boiler is located in an unheated
part of the building, such as a garage or the roof space, or
where a separate outbuilding has been used for the boiler, it will
be necessary to provide some form of protection against frost
damage, including:
CC filling the system with special central heating antifreeze
CC using a special frost thermostat and pipe thermostat,

positioned at the predicted coldest points, in order to bring
on the boiler with the intention of heating the water within,
thereby maintaining it at a temperature just above the
freezing point of water (0C).
The two thermostats listed, the frost and pipe thermostats, are
used in conjunction with each other:
CC The frost thermostat is designed to make its electrical contact
when the outside air temperature drops.
CC The pipe thermostat allows electricity to flow through its
contact only where the water temperature inside the pipe, on
which it is positioned, drops to around 5C.
Thus, when it is very cold outside, the frost thermostat makes
its electrical contacts, which allows the electricity to flow to the
102

pipe thermostat. If the water inside the pipe is sufficiently warm,
the electricity will not flow beyond this point but, if the water
inside the system is dangerously cold, it will allow the electricity
to pass to the boiler and pump. Once the pipe thermostat is
satisfied, with sufficient heat detected within the pipe, it breaks
the electrical circuit.
CORROSION INHIBITORS
Corrosion inhibitors can be added to a central heating system
in order to prolong its estimated lifespan. Several trade brands
can be purchased from any plumbers merchant. The corrosion
inhibitor serves several functions, including:
CC lining the pipework in order to minimize the problems of
corrosion
CC lubricating the pump
CC reducing the build-up of bacteria within the system.
The only problem is the fact that, to have any real effect, it
must be added to the system within a short time of installing the
system.
Key idea
The main purpose of an inhibitor added to a central heating system is to
reduce the amount of corrosion within the system. For the inhibitor to be
totally effective the system must be new or newly cleaned.
You can also purchase cleaning solutions for cleaning pipework

internally. These can be administered to some older systems
before you add the corrosion inhibitor. You will need to obtain
the manufacturers data sheets to assist you further if you wish
to consider treating an existing system over-zealous treatment
could find leaks in your system that did not seem to be there
prior to treatment. This is not because the solutions destroy
the pipe materials but because they destroy the sludge that
has formed within the pipes, and it may be this sludge that is
preventing a particular leak!

! Focus points
1 There are many types of central heating system and not all of them
use hot water circulating round pipework to radiators.
2 Radiant heating systems rely on warming the structure of a building
to a temperature comparable to that of the human body, so that
heat is not lost from your body as it gives off infrared heat in an
attempt to warm the building.
3 Radiators give off very little radiant heat; they rely mainly on
warming the building through warm air convection currents, basically
warming the air within a room.
4 A sealed heating system is one that is not open to the atmosphere.
In other words, it is supplied with water directly from the cold mains
water supply and not via an f & e cistern in the roof space.
5 The expansion of water within a sealed system is taken up within a
sealed expansion vessel.
6 It is important to position the central heating circulating pump at a
neutral point within a vented heating system, thereby preventing air
from being drawn into the circulatory pipework.
7 Air in a central heating system will lead to corrosion.
8 A micro-bore central heating system uses pipes as small as 610 mm
in diameter.
9 It is important to balance the heating system carefully to ensure that
the heat is evenly distributed to all heat emitters.
10 To minimize corrosion, a corrosion inhibitor should be mixed in with
the central heating water as soon as a system is installed.
104

Next step
In this chapter you learned about the various
systems of central heating, dry and wet, and how
the heating system is linked with the domestic
hot water system. You also learned more about
boiler design, how the various central heating
controls work, and what to do to increase the life
of your system. Now that you know how home
plumbing works, you can discover in the next
chapter how to identify potential problems and
what action to take.

Emergencies
4
and contingency
work 1
CC how to turn off the water supply
CC how to drain the water from the system
CC how to cure problems with leaking taps
CC how to sort out problems with your toilet.
107

This chapter aims to look at some of the tasks you may need
to carry out in the event of something going wrong with your
plumbing system. If you require expert advice or the services
of a professional, see Appendix 3: Taking it further, for a list of
trade and professional bodies.
Turning off the water supply

To turn off the internal cold water supply stopcock, take the
following steps:
1 Find the valve (see Chapter 1, Figure 1.2).
2 Turn the handle in a clockwise direction.
3 If it operates freely, continue turning clockwise.
4 Open the kitchen sink tap to check that the water has
stopped flowing.
It is advisable to check that this valve works before an emergency
arises. Simply try closing the valve as you would any other tap in
the home. This will involve turning the operating handle or head
in a clockwise direction. It is a good sign if the valve operates
freely. Continue turning clockwise, counting the number of turns,
until you feel the valve is fully closed. Then check that it has
worked correctly by going to the cold sink tap in the kitchen and
turning it on to see if the water stops flowing.
We should always choose the kitchen tap because it is sure to be
on mains supply, unlike other downstairs cold taps that may be
fed via a cold water storage cistern in the roof space. When you
try this tap, be prepared for the water to continue flowing for a
short period before stopping completely because water may be
draining out from the cold supply pipe within the house. Once
the supply stops completely, there shouldnt be any problems.
However, if the sink tap continues to drip, you may need to
apply a little more turning force to the supply stopcock to force
the washer inside this valve tighter on to the seating.
To re-establish the water supply, you simply open the stopcock,
turning it anticlockwise the same number of turns as you
counted when closing the valve. Finally, check to see that the
108

water is flowing freely from the sink tap outlet. It might spurt
out at first, due to the air pressure build-up caused by the air in
the pipe compressing when the water is turned on; this is quite
normal.
If all has gone well, you have completed your very first plumbing
job! Simple really, wasnt it?
Remember this
It is essential to make sure that you know where to turn off the water
supply in an emergency. Remember, if you turn off this valve, eventually
all water in the pipes will cease to flow, whatever the system. Make sure
you know the valve works before an emergency arises!
Why did we count the number of turns when turning off the
supply? This will be explained in more detail in the next chapter,
but basically it is to ensure that you do not create any noise
problems in your system. For example, if the supply stopcock
was originally only open two turns and you then closed it and
re-opened it by, say, four turns, you would allow a potentially
greater volume of water to flow through the valve. This might
cause shock waves to form within the system, due to such a large
volume of water stopping when a tap in the system closes. These
shock waves can create banging noises within the pipework.
One final point to note regarding the stopcock is that it is
never a good idea to fully open the valve so that the head will
not turn anticlockwise any more, as this means that the valve
spindle is wedged up to its highest position, and this might lead
to the valve seizing up. So, if you ever do require the maximum
possible flow through the valve, open the valve fully and then
turn it back half a turn.
To recap:
CC turn clockwise to close the valve (and stop the water flow)
CC turn anticlockwise to open the valve (and restart the water

flow)
CC count the number of turns when opening or closing the valve
4. Emergencies and contingency work 1 109

CC keep the valve labelled up for easy identification
CC make sure you operate the valve occasionally to ensure that

it continues to work freely.
Key idea
To help you identify the purpose of a particular in-line stopcock or
valve anywhere in the home, it is a good idea to tie a label to the valve
indicating what water pipes will be isolated when the valve is closed shut.
PROBLEMS WITH TURNING OFF THE SUPPLY

Unfortunately, it is not always straightforward to turn off your
supply as just described. Often, due to insufficient maintenance
and lack of use, you may encounter problems such as the
following:
CC The tap head has seized up and wont move.
CC Water leaks past the spindle after the valve has been
operated.
CC Water continues to flow after you have turned off the valve.
CC There is no water flow when the stopcock is re-opened.
These points are discussed in greater detail below.
crutch head
rising spindle
packing gland nut
packing
headgear
body
jumper
washer
Figure 4.1 Section through the supply stopcock
110

CC Main stopcock seized up
Since the valve is, as a rule, not operated from one year to the
next, it can simply seize up due to lack of use. There is only so
much torque that you could apply to the head before damage
would result, so what can be done to help?
You can try loosening off the packing gland. Referring to
Figure 4.1, take a small spanner and slightly undo the packing
gland nut by turning it anticlockwise. This releases some of
the pressure on the packing inside the spindle. The packing is
designed to prevent water seeping past the spindle itself when
it is turned. This may be all that is required, but it may be
necessary to undo this nut substantially before any movement
of the head is possible. It is not advisable to completely remove
this packing gland nut because, until it is possible to close off
the supply, water could leak from this point, and you may need
to retighten the gland nut to stop the leak continuing.
If the valve still will not budge, you will need to consider turning
off the outside stopcock or contacting the water supply authority
to ask them to turn off your supply for repair. With the water to
this seized-up valve turned off, the water will need to be drained
from the system so that the valve can either be stripped down to
free up the component part, or be replaced completely.
CC Water leakage past the spindle of the stopcock

After operating a stopcock that has not been used for some
time, occasionally you will find that water seeps past the
packing gland nut when you turn the supply back on. You
may have had to loosen off this nut to close the valve in the
first place, causing this leak. What can be done? Simply try to
tighten the gland nut by turning it clockwise.
Tightening this nut applies pressure to the packing, squeezing it
out to form a tighter seal. This can unfortunately have the effect
of making the valve very stiff to operate, and sometimes just
tightening this nut is not enough to cure the problem, in which
case you may need to repack the gland.

To repack the gland:
1 Fully close off the stopcock that is to be worked on.
2 Completely undo the packing gland nut by turning it
anticlockwise until it comes away from the housing and can
be slipped further up along the spindle. Very little water
should come out because you have turned the supply off,
and any water will be the result of it draining down from the
system. You may need to drain this water via the drain-off
cock, located above the stopcock.
3 With the packing gland nut removed, wrap a few strands of
PTFE tape (an abbreviation for polytetrafluoroethylene, a
common plastic jointing material available from all plumbing
supply outlets) around the spindle and push it into the void
into which the packing gland nut screws, poking it down
with a small screwdriver (as shown in Figure 4.11).
4 Now replace the packing gland nut, tightening it just sufficiently
to squeeze the new packing material within the gland.
5 Re-open the valve and tighten the packing gland nut until the
water seepage past the spindle stops.
CC Stopcock ineffective when closed

If you have turned off the main supply stopcock and water
continues to flow from the kitchen sink tap, it is likely that the
washer has perished and no longer functions. The first thing
to do is double-check that the valve is fully closed and not
just stiff. Having done that, consider turning off the outside
stopcock or contacting the water supply authority to ask them
to turn off your supply for a repair to be initiated.
With the water turned off and the water drained from the
system, it will be possible to strip the valve down to re-washer
it. This can be done as follows:
1 Use a spanner to undo the headgear (see Figure 4.1), by turning
anticlockwise. This removes the top half of the valve from
the body attached to the pipe.
2 With this removed, you will be able to remove any remains
of the old washer and replace it with a new 12 mm tap
washer, obtainable from any plumbers merchant.
112

3 When you replace the headgear, check that the fibre washer
used where the head meets the body is in good condition;
if it is not, water may escape from the joint where the two
surfaces meet. There is usually no problem with this fibre
washer, but occasionally they do perish. Usually a few turns
of PTFE tape between the mating surfaces, forming a new
washer, is all that is needed to form a tight seal.
4 Turn the water supply back on and test whether this valve is
operating correctly, by ensuring that it does not leak past the
spindle or from the body of the tap where you removed the
headgear.
CC No water flow when the stopcock is re-opened

This is another problem that can occur when you turn off the
water supply. It is caused by the washer becoming detached
from the jumper (see Figure 4.1) and remaining stuck down
on to the valve seating. You can try giving the side of the tap a
knock in the hope of dislodging it, but most likely the supply
will need to be turned off and the valve stripped down to re-
washer the valve.
TURNING OFF AN EXTERNAL UNDERGROUND STOPCOCK

As you may have gathered from the solutions identified above, it
is generally inadvisable to access the external stopcock unless you
are prepared to dig up the ground around the stopcock to expose
it. However, if there is an emergency and you need to turn off the
supply at all costs, you may have to do this. The valve will be at
least 750 mm below ground and may be even deeper, so you will
need to use a stopcock key to access the valve (Figure 4.2). This is
designed to pass down the large pipe duct leading to the stopcock
and slip over the top of the valve head to initiate the turn.
Remember this
Do not turn off the outside stopcock unless you have to. It is always
possible that the valve might leak at the packing gland when you re-open
the supply, creating a situation where you need to dig down to the valve
to undertake a repair.

steel rod
emergency
temporary
timber key stopcock
key
V cut
in end
Figure 4.2 Using a stopcock key
TURNING OFF THE COLD WATER FROM A STORAGE CISTERN

(LOW-PRESSURE PIPEWORK)
Where the water feeding an appliance such as a sink, bath or
toilet cistern is supplied directly from the mains inlet, turning
off the incoming supply stopcock will stop the flow of water.
However, if the water continues to flow, you will know that it is
being supplied via the cold storage cistern.
If you simply turned off your incoming supply stopcock and
waited long enough, the water would eventually stop flowing, as
the cold storage cistern would gradually empty. However, you
can instead turn off the stop valve in the pipeline that exits the
storage cistern (see Figure 1.4), by turning the head clockwise.
This valve may be located in the loft close to the storage cistern
or, if you follow the route of this pipe where it passes through
the ceiling to the room below, you may find it more conveniently
in a cupboard. Some buildings, such as blocks of flats, do not
have a loft and so the cistern will be located high in a cupboard
somewhere around the property. This valve will not be of the
same design as the mains supply stopcock. Traditionally, gate
114

valves were used here, but they have invariably been replaced in
recent years with more reliable lever-operated quarter-turn valves
(see Figure 4.3).
wedge-shaped gate non-rising spindle

(a)
wheel head
seating
(b)
quarter-turn
head

Figure 4.3 (a) A gate valve and (b) a quarter-turn lever-operated valve
If you find you have a gate valve, it may only halt the main flow
of water and still let a little water through this type of valve is
not always very effective. Sometimes gate valves fail altogether
and, even when they do work, they sometimes fail to re-open.
Quarter-turn valves do not usually cause problems and, if you
have one, you simply turn it one-quarter of a turn until the
handle is perpendicular to the pipe. This type of valve should
always be installed if you are considering a new or replacement
valve. When choosing a new valve, make sure the type you
select maintains a full bore when you look through it in the
open position; if you choose a design with a reduced bore, you
will notice the lack of water flow after it has been installed.
If you cannot locate the valve from the storage cistern or it does
not work effectively, it is possible to block the outlet pipe from

the cistern with a cork. Alternatively, turn off the supply feeding
the cistern and drain out the water via the taps fed from it. The
cistern can be turned off at its inlet stopcock or screwdriver-
operated quarter-turn valve. If you cannot find a valve, you can
lift the arm of the float-operated valve, which will stop the water
flowing into the cistern. You can tie this up using a piece of string
and a batten resting across the top of the cistern.
If the storage cistern feeds the hot water supply as well as the
cold water, draining out the water from the cistern will also stop
the flow of water from the hot taps.
TURNING OFF THE HOT WATER SUPPLY

Following the same principles as for turning off the cold water
supply, you need to go upstream of the hot water heat source to
locate an isolation valve on the pipework.
With a combination boiler, this will be a quarter-turn valve
found just beneath the boiler itself. This valve may have
an operating handle or you may need to use a spanner or
screwdriver to turn off the valve, giving just one-quarter of
a turn. For other instantaneous systems there may be a valve
incorporated with the appliance or you may have to source a
valve on the pipework to the appliance.
In stored hot water cylinder systems, you will find the isolation
valve on the pipe supplying the cylinder (see Figures 2.6 and 2.8).
This stop valve may be in the same cupboard as the cylinder or
you may need to go into the roof space, where a vented system
is supplied by a cistern. With the water supply to the hot water
cylinder isolated, it is also advisable to turn off the power supply
to the heat source.
With the supply to the cylinder closed off, water can no longer
enter the cylinder and therefore, when a tap is opened on the hot
distribution pipe from this vessel, it runs only for a minute or so,
just long enough to drain the water from the leg of pipework from
the cylinder to the tap. The cylinder itself remains full, even though
no water flows from the tap. In the examples of stored hot water
supply discussed above, the hot water is drawn off from the top
of the cylinder and water is trapped in the cylinder within a big
U-shaped leg of pipework when the supply to the cylinder is closed.
116

Figure 4.4 shows the isolation valve closed. Water will stop
flowing from the tap but is still lying within all the areas shaded
and so, if you wish to cut into these parts of the system, you
will need to drain it via the drain-off cocks.
cold feed
open vent pipe

isolation valve
(closed)
tap opened
drain-off drain-off
cock cock
Figure
When4.4
theWater trapped
isolation valvewithin the pipework
is closed, water will stop flowing from the tap, but
water is still lying within all the areas shaded and these will require draining
via the drain-off cocks if you wish to cut into these parts of the system.
To remove this water, for example to replace the cylinder, the
drain-off cock at the base of the cylinder will need to be opened
and the water drained through a hosepipe to an outside drain.
Figure 4.4 also shows water trapped within a low section
of pipework in the piece of pipe below the tap outlet. You
need to be aware of this when working on any drained-down
pipework because water will flow from a cut pipe until it is all
drained off. This can be disconcerting for the novice plumber
who has turned off the water supply, checked that nothing is
coming out of the taps, and proceeded to cut the pipe, only to
find water flooding out of it.

Draining down the water supply
Draining down either the hot or cold water system is only
necessary when you wish to undertake major repair or
alteration work or if you plan to go away for an extended
period in winter, leaving an unheated building. When going on
holiday, especially during the summer, normally you need only
to turn off the incoming water supply as a precaution.
In order to fully drain down your pipework, take the
following steps:
1 Locate the supply isolation valve and close it. If you plan
to drain down everything, youll need to turn off the mains
supply stopcock. However, if it is just, say, the low-pressure
cold or hot water that needs draining down, you will need
only to close the valve from the storage cistern. If the cold
water within the storage cistern itself needs to be drained,
you will need to close the inlet valve to the cistern.
2 Open the outlet tap fed from the isolation valve that you
have just closed. Water will flow until it has drained from
the pipe. At this point, remember that, while water is no
longer feeding the system, there will still be water lying
in pockets of pipework, and in the case of the hot water
system the pocket includes a cylinder full of water (see
Figure 4.4).
3 Connect a hosepipe to the drain-off cock (see Figure 4.5)
and run it to a suitable discharge point. The square-headed
drain-off valve can now be turned anticlockwise to open
it, with the aid of a spanner, allowing the water to flow.
However, do not completely remove the spindle of this
valve as it unwinds, otherwise the water will discharge all
over the floor.
4 Open several outlets to help with draining the water in steps
2 and 3 above, and flush the toilet if it is fed by the section
being drained this allows air into the pipework, which will
help to remove the water.
118

washer
O ring
hose
connection
valve shown in open position

Figure 4.5 A drain-off cock
Remember this
When a hot water system is drained down, the heat source must also be
isolated to prevent damage.
Water remains in the hot water cylinder even when the valve supplying
the cylinder has been turned off. The water will, however, stop flowing
from the hot taps; this is because the hot water is taken from the top of
the cylinder. To remove water from the cylinder, you will need to drain it
off via the drain-off cock at the cylinders base.
Draining down the central heating

Should you ever need to drain down the water from the central
heating system, this is how to do it:
1 First, turn off the electric power supply to the central heating
system to ensure that the boiler cannot fire up.
2 If it is a vented system, you must now turn off the isolation
valve supplying the system. This does not apply to a sealed
heating system because it has no permanent water connection.
Even if the temporary hose that was used to fill the system
has not been removed by the installer, the isolation valve
would still be in the closed position. The isolation valve for

the vented system can be found on the inlet supply pipe to the
f & e cistern in the roof space. If there is no valve, you will
need to get a piece of wood, position it across the top of the
cistern and use a piece of string to tie up the lever arm to the
float-operated valve, thereby preventing it from opening as
the water in the system drains away.
1 You are now ready to start draining down. Locate a drain-
off cock (see Figure 4.5) somewhere on the system at a low
point. There is usually one situated near the boiler itself.
Connect the hose and open the valve. The water flow may be
a little slow at first, because air needs to get into the system
in order to let out the water.
2 Now go to a radiator high in the system, such as on the
first-floor level, and open the air-release valve with a small
square-headed radiator key this will assist the process of
draining down by letting air into the system. You will hear
the air rushing into the system as the water empties. Radiator
keys can be purchased from any plumbers merchant.
3 Slowly open more radiator air vents, doing the higher-level
radiators first, until they are all open. It is essential to keep
an eye on the water draining from the system, as the drain-
off cock is renowned for letting water escape through its
thread, so you may need a flat tray placed in a suitable
position to catch the water.
4 When all the water has been removed, it is wise to close
the radiator air vents to ensure that the system is ready to
refill and to make sure that the valves, if fully removed, are
not lost.
Sometimes the drain-off cock fails to open, simply because the
washer is stuck to the seating. The best thing to do is to try
and locate another valve. However, if you need to open the one
that is stuck, try tapping the side of the valve; otherwise, totally
remove the screw-in spindle and poke a small screwdriver into
the valve to dislodge the washer. If you do this, you must be
totally prepared for the water that will gush from the fitting
once the washer is dislodged, and be prepared to re-insert the
120

valve head. Sometimes you can attack this washer through the
hose connection hole.
The water drained from a heating system can be just like black
ink and it can stain as much as ink, so do not take this course of
action unless you definitely know what you are doing. Finding
another drain-off cock may save a lot of hassle.
Key idea
When you drain down any system it is always worth removing the
spindle to look at the state of the small washer once the work is
completed (see Figure 4.5). If it has perished, it will fail to keep the
water within the system if reinstated. To avoid having to drain the
system again later to replace this washer, inspect it now and replace it
if necessary.
A dripping tap
A dripping tap is one of the most common problems encountered
in the home. It could be the result of one of the following:
CC a faulty or worn-out washer
CC dirt or grit lodged across the seating
CC damaged seating
CC damaged ceramic discs (quarter-turn taps).
REPLACING A TAP WASHER

Replacing a tap washer is a relatively simple process. The first
thing to do is turn off the water supply feeding the tap, then
open the tap as far as possible to make sure that no water flows
from it before proceeding. Figure 4.6 shows some of the main
differences in the general design of taps. Basically, taps have
either a rising or a non-rising spindle.
Taps with a rising spindle usually have chromium-plated
easy-clean covers, which need to be removed in order to get
a thin spanner on to the nut of the headgear underneath (see
Figure 4.7).

screw holding
capstan head on to tap
head circlip
rising non-rising
packing spindle spindle
gland nut headgear
packing
O ring
easy-clean headgear
cover
jumper
backnut
washer
body
washer
screwdown bibtap pillar tap

Figure 4.6 Types of tap design
To remove this cover, grip it firmly and turn it anticlockwise to

unwind it. You may need a spanner for this process, but take
care not to damage the chromium finish. You will not be able to
completely remove this cover because of the capstan head, but you
should be able to lift it sufficiently to get your spanner in to grip
the headgear itself, which is also turned anticlockwise to remove it
from the tap body. When doing this, the body of the tap needs to
be held very firmly to prevent it from turning within the appliance.
Taps with a non-rising spindle incorporate an aesthetically
designed easy-clean shrouded cover, which must also be
removed in order to gain access to the nut of the headgear. This
may simply pull off, but it is usually held on with a small fixing
screw. This will be either somewhere around the perimeter of
the operating handle or, more likely, beneath the tap indicator
cover found on top of the tap as (see Figure 4.6). To remove this
cover, a small screwdriver is usually needed to ease it up. With
the cover removed, you will see the screw that holds the top of
the tap in place; this can be undone and the operating handle
pulled from the tap. A spanner can now be used, as described
above, to unwind the head of the tap from the body.
122

With the head finally removed from the body of the tap, you
will see the washer on the base of the jumper. Look inside
the body of the tap to inspect the surface of the seating and
check that there are no obstructions preventing effective
operation. Once the washer has been located, it can simply
be removed and replaced with a new one. The washer may
be pressed on to a small central stem or held in position by a
small nut. If the nut is difficult to undo, soak it in penetrating
oil to free it because, were it to snap off, you would have to
replace the whole jumper. Taps on baths use a 19 mm tap
washer, whereas all other appliances use a 12 mm tap washer.
With the washer in place, reassemble the tap by reversing
the procedure described above, and test to check that it now
effectively closes off the supply.
So, to recap:
1 Turn off the water and ensure that the water is off.
2 Remove the chrome shield from the tap.
3 Using a spanner, remove the headgear from the tap body.
4 Remove the old washer and fit on the replacement.
5 Reassemble the tap and test it.
holding up the
easy-clean cover
undoing the
headgear with
a thin spanner
washer
washer
Figure 4.7 Replacing a tap washer

THE TAP IS STILL DRIPPING!
If you have put a new washer into a tap and discovered that it
still drips, this suggests a far greater problem. First, however,
a second washer could be tried, ideally a softer one. However,
it might be that the seating has become eroded. This can occur
particularly where the pressure is very high. The answer is to do
one of the following:
CC Install a nylon substitute seat (sold with a matching washer).
This is dropped over the old seat and it is forced into position
as you close the tap.
CC Recut or smooth off the original brass surface seating where
the washer sits. In order to do this, you need a tap reseating
tool, available cheaply from a reputable plumbers merchant.
Using a tap reseating tool

With the water turned off and the head removed, as above,
screw the tap reseating tool into the body of the tap (see
Figure 4.8). Adjust the tool and wind it down until the cutting
head reaches the seating. Turn the handle of the cutting head
a few times to cut off a thin layer of the brass seating. Now
remove it and look inside the tap to inspect the seating; if it
looks OK, reassemble the tap with a new washer.
reseating tool with

cutting head
body of tap
tap head
removed
seating of tap
Figure 4.8 Reseating a tap
124

RE-WASHERING SUPA-TAPS
Although these taps are no longer made, there are still vast
numbers in existence. They were designed in such a way that
it is possible to re-washer them without turning off the water
supply, as follows:
1 First, hold the operating head of the tap firmly and unwind
the retaining nut (see Figure 4.9) by turning clockwise with
a spanner (it is a left-handed thread). The head will not drop
off, but when the tap is turned, as if opening the tap, it will
eventually drop into your hand. At this point the self-closing
device should drop to form a kind of seal, stopping or greatly
reducing the water flow while the washer is replaced. If it
does not drop, dont panic; the water will only flow into the
appliance and it is possible to poke a small screwdriver into
the outlet to dislodge this closing device, thereby allowing
it to drop. Alternatively, simply turn off the water supply to
this tap.
2 With the tap body in your hands, the washer initially looks
as though it cannot be reached but if you push the water
outlet point against a block of wood, the washer and its anti-
splash device will pop out.
3 Now separate the washer from the anti-splash device by
prising the two apart with a screwdriver. It should be noted
that the Supa-tap washer is encased with its own jumper and
therefore needs to be replaced as a complete unit.
4 With the new washer in place, reverse the sequence of events
described above to reassemble the tap.
TAPS WITH CERAMIC DISCS

Dripping taps that use ceramic discs often require the
replacement of the discs themselves. It is always worth
looking first to see whether any grit or blockage is preventing
the valve from closing fully, but if a disc is cracked or
damaged, it will need to be replaced. You will need to give
the precise details of the manufacturer and product type when
ordering replacements.

(a)
retaining
nut
washer
automatic self-
closing device
internal view of tap
(b) (c)
retaining
nut
automatic self-
closing device
(d) (e)
anti-splash washer
device and jumper
Figure 4.9 Re-washering a Supa-tap
The discs are supplied as a cartridge and the cartridge for the hot
tap turns in the opposite direction from that used for the cold
supply, so make sure you fit the right ceramic cartridge type.
In order to get at a ceramic disc, follow the procedure for
stripping down a tap described for the re-washering of taps,
above you will find a disc in place rather than a washer
126

(see Figure 4.10). At the same time as you replace the discs,
replace any rubber-sealing washer supplied.
ensure you fit the right

cartridge, i.e. left and right
ceramic discs
Figure 4.10 Cleaning and replacing ceramic discs
Water leaking from the body of a tap

If you open a tap, and water seems to escape from a point
somewhere around the spindle, it is probably the result of water
leaking past the gland where the spindle turns. The water will
only leak when the tap is running. To resolve this problem, you
need first to identify the tap design: does it have a rising or a
non-rising spindle (see Figure 4.6)?
WATER LEAKING FROM A TAP WITH A RISING SPINDLE

With this design of tap there is no need to turn off the water
supply; you just need to turn off the tap fully while you work
on it. The procedure is straightforward once the easy-clean
cover has been removed, but this in itself can be a tricky task
because you might find it difficult to take off the capstan head
because it may not have been removed since the tap was first
installed.

Here is some guidance for this task (see Figure 4.11):
1 First, look for a small screw holding the capstan head on.
Look around the base of the capstan head, or under the
plastic red (hot) or blue (cold) indication marker on top of
the handle. Occasionally there is no screw.
2 Holding the body of the tap firmly, try to pull off the capstan
head; if it is held on very tightly, a few gentle taps with a
small wooden mallet aimed upwards might dislodge it. One
trick to try is to open the tap fully, with the easy-clean cover
also undone and raised as high as possible, and insert a block
of wood tightly between the cover and the body of the tap.
If you then close the tap, with any luck the process will have
jacked the capstan head off the spindle. Alternatively, using
some penetration fluid might work. The amount of force
required can sometimes be quite large and on rare occasions
you might need to remove the tap altogether, to avoid
unnecessary damage to the fitment.
With the capstan head and easy-clean cover removed, you will
be able to see the packing gland nut. You will see that, when the
tap is opened, water will discharge from this point and will stop
when the tap is closed.
Tightening up the gland nut a little may be all that is required.
However, where this does not cure the problem:
1 Turn off the tap.
2 Unwind this nut and remove it from the spindle.
3 Pack a few strands of PTFE tape or some waxed string
around the spindle and push it into the void into which
the packing gland nut screws, poking it down with a small
screwdriver (see Figure 4.11).
4 Replace the packing gland nut, tightening it just sufficiently
5 Re-open the valve and, if necessary, tighten the packing
gland more until the water stops seeping past the spindle.
6 Finally, reassemble the easy-clean cover and capstan head.
128

capstan head
wooden
blocks
easy-clean PTFE tape
cover fed into
gland
screwdriver
removal of stubborn head

(wind tap closed to jack body of tap
off the head)
Figure 4.11 Repacking the gland
WATER LEAKING FROM A TAP WITH A NON-RISING SPINDLE

With this design of tap, the packing gland has been replaced
with a rubber O ring (see Figure 4.6). Once you have
removed the tap operating head, you will see that the water
is escaping past the spindle if the tap is turned to the on
position.
To cure this problem:
1 First, turn off the water to the tap.
2 Remove the easy-clean shrouded cover and remove the
headgear from the tap body as described earlier.
3 Now remove the circlip located at the top of the valve. Do
this by placing a screwdriver between the open edges and
twisting gently, thereby forcing it apart to slip it from the
spindle. Unfortunately, this circlip will sometimes break, in
which case it will need to be replaced (see Figure 4.12).
4 With the headgear in your hands, push on top of the spindle,
unwinding it and removing it from the brass housing,
exposing the O ring.

5 The old ring can now be flicked off, usually with the aid of a
small screwdriver.
6 Replace the O ring with a new one, applying silicone grease
to provide some lubrication.
Now reassemble the tap and test it. If this repair does not
resolve the problem, it may be due to excessive wear of the
spindle, in which case you would have to replace the tap.
O ring
circlip
removing the circlip
Figure 4.12 Replacing the O ring in a tap with a non-rising spindle
WATER LEAKING FROM THE SWIVEL OUTLET OF A TAP

This is the result of a worn-out O ring, found at the base
of the swivel spout. There is no need to turn off the water
supply; just turn off the hot and cold taps. The first task is to
remove the small retaining screw or locking nut at the base of
the spout (note that some designs do not have this securing
device). You will then need to turn the swivel outlet to one
side, in line with the tap heads, and pull it off from the body
of the tap to expose the large O ring (see Figure 4.13). You
can now swap this for a matching replacement, applying a
little silicone lubricant as necessary. Where excessive wear has
occurred, the problem may persist, in which case you would
have to replace the tap.
130

Figure 4.13 Replacing the O ring in a tap with a swivel spout
Remember this
Failure to replace a worn O ring on taps at the first possible opportunity
may result in undue wear to the brass components, caused by the two
surfaces rubbing together. This may make the tap impossible to repair.
Lack of water flow from a tap

The water that discharges from a tap should come out with
sufficient force (i.e. the force you would expect from a normally
working tap). Some taps are undoubtedly better than others,
with a greater flow or pressure, but in general we know what
to expect. Therefore, when faced with a tap with a poor water
flow rate, we can surmise that something is wrong.
Before condemning the whole system of pipework, consider that
it may be the tap itself that is faulty. Does it operate freely and
open fully? Look at the pipework and see what else is served
from the same section, and check out these taps or outlets too.
Are they also suffering this lack of flow? If so, has the problem
been getting slowly worse or is it a sudden drop in pressure or
flow? Clearly, if several taps are affected, there is some form of
blockage in the pipeline that must be removed.

Such a blockage will generally be one of the following:
CC A turned-off or closed-down water supply
CC A blockage due to debris in the storage cistern
CC A plug of ice
CC An airlock
CC Corrosion or limescale build-up
The first thing to do in this situation is look for the source of

the water that is being blocked. If the problem occurs suddenly,
affecting the cold water mains supply to the kitchen sink tap,
possibly with the flow stopping completely, it may be worth
phoning your water supplier as they may have turned off the
water for some reason.
For your low-pressure pipework, such as that serving the hot
and cold taps to the bathroom, check whether the storage tank
in the loft is full of water. Is the lid in place? Ensure that vermin
have not got into the vessel, drowned and sunk to the bottom,
blocking the outlet pipe.
The weather will be a good indicator of whether a blockage
might be due to ice. This scenario is discussed later. The
problems of airlocks, corrosion and limescale, however, may not
be so obvious and are discussed in more detail below.
BLOCKAGES CAUSED BY AN AIRLOCK

When an airlock is suspected to be the cause of a lack of water flow
to a tap, the air must be forced from its trapped location. An airlock
is the result of poor plumbing design in a low-pressure (storage-
cistern-fed) system. When running pipework, you should never run
it uphill and then downhill, because air will accumulate in the high
pocket (see Figure 4.14). With air trapped in the high pocket, no
water can pass if the water pressure is insufficient. You should aim
to design your system so that air within can always rise and escape
through a tap outlet or via the cold feed or open vent pipe.
With a badly designed system with high points, once the air
has been expelled from these high points it allows water to
flow, so the problem generally only recurs when a system has
been drained down. If you didnt install the plumbing system
132

yourself, you wont know whether it was installed correctly,
therefore, as an unsuspecting individual who has drained down
the pipework, you have no idea that this will occur until you
try to refill the system. So, lets say you have turned on the
water supply after draining down for some reason and there is
no water flow at the outlet. You simply do not know where the
high point is that is causing the trapped air, so what do you do?
The first thing to try is to open the tap and, either using a hose
connected to its outlet or positioning your mouth around the
spout of the tap, try to give a good blow. What this sometimes
does is blow a bit of water that was lying inside the pipe up,
forcing itself past the trapped air which can then escape back
out of the system, via the cold feed. A variation of this is to get
a small length of hosepipe and pass it down into the storage
cistern and into the cold water pipe feeding the offending
section of pipework. With the hose in place and with the tap
opened, you can now blow with all your might in the hope of
forcing the water past the trapped airlock.
Failing this, try a trick used by many plumbers. Get a small
piece of hosepipe and join the cold high-pressure mains water
tap outlet to the low-pressure tap outlet and use this water
total blockage due

to trapped air
storage cistern
partial blockage
Figure 4.14 Common causes of airlocks

pressure to force the air from the high section. This trick works,
but note that technically you would be in violation of the Water
Supply Regulations unless you had some means of backflow in
place to ensure that contaminated water could not flow back
into the water authority mains.
BLOCKAGES DUE TO CORROSION OR SCALE BUILD-UP

Limescale build-up is a problem that has already been discussed,
but recognizing it is not always easy. It is generally accepted that
both corrosion and scale build-up occur gradually over a long
period, during which time things slowly get worse.
The type of metal used will indicate the likelihood of pipework
suffering from corrosion. Galvanized iron pipes in particular
can be a problem and, if you have these, you should always
suspect them of causing a reduced water flow rate. For example,
where galvanized iron has been used in conjunction with copper
or brass, electrolytic corrosion occurs, creating encrustations
within the pipe. The worst-affected point would be where the
two dissimilar metals join together. Fortunately, galvanized
iron is no longer used for domestic pipework and therefore
this problem will only occur in older dwellings. Electrolytic
corrosion is discussed in Chapter 6.
Key idea
There is the greatest possibility of a blockage due to corrosion where you
see copper or lead pipe connected to steel pipework. The jointing of the
two dissimilar metals is likely to lead to electrolytic corrosion.
A blockage caused by limescale is not as easy to detect and

is only a problem in hot water systems. The point where the
blockage may be worst is within the pipe exiting the top of the
hot water storage cylinder. If you isolate the water supply to this
cylinder and remove the pipe coming from the top dome of the
cylinder to inspect it, you may find limescale blocking the pipe.
This is where the hottest water is found and therefore it is here
that limescale is most likely to form. (Figure 1.10 shows a fitting
blocked by limescale.)
134

Toilet will not flush
Toilets can fail to flush for mechanical reasons that will vary
depending on their design.
SIPHON TYPE
This type uses a lever arm to flush the toilet; this lever lifts the
large diaphragm washer inside the siphon tube (see Chapter 1).
If the WC fails to flush, the first thing to do is simply to lift
the lid from the cistern and check the operation of the linkage
system used to lift up the diaphragm washer. Assuming this
is OK, the fault will almost certainly be a split or worn-out
diaphragm washer. This can easily be replaced but, with
close-coupled WC suites, you have to remove the whole
cistern from the wall in order to remove the siphon. There is a
siphon design built as two parts, which allows you to pull the
siphon apart to facilitate this repair, but unfortunately these
are not commonplace. Toilet cisterns with flush pipes such as
that shown in Figure 1.20 do not need to be removed from
the wall.
To replace the washer, take these steps:
1 Turn off the water supply to the WC cistern there may be a
quarter-turn valve on the inlet supply pipe.
2 You now need to bail out the water from the cistern, using
a sponge if necessary to draw out every remaining drop of
water; otherwise what remains will discharge on to the floor
when the siphon is removed.
3 For cisterns with a flush pipe, unwind the large nut securing
it to the siphon, turning it anticlockwise.
4 Next, unwind the big nut securing the siphon to the cistern.
5 You can now lift the siphon from the body of the cistern.
To complete this action you will need to unhook the linkage
to the lever arm and sometimes, if the arm of the float-
operated valve gets in the way, you may need to remove this
as well.

6 With the siphon removed from the cistern you can now see
beneath the base of it and youll see the location of the old
perished diaphragm washer.
7 Remove the hook attached to the top of the shaft that pulls
the diaphragm; this then allows the diaphragm housing to
drop from the base of the siphon (see Figure 4.15).
8 With the old washer removed, a replacement can be inserted.
You can buy them, if you are lucky to find one of the same
size; however, I personally have always used thick plastic
polythene sheeting and cut out my own, simply laying the
old washer on the plastic as a template. The type of plastic
you require is the type used as a damp-proof membrane or
one of those heavy-duty plastic builders bags. When you get
the old washer out, you will see the type of plastic I mean.
9 With the new washer cut, replace everything in the reverse
order. All jointing washers should be in good condition,
but where they have perished simply wrap some PTFE tape
around the joining parts (not around the threads) where the
old jointing washer or material was.
remove hook from

top of siphon
replace PVC
diaphragm washer
Figure 4.15 Replacing a WC siphon washer
136

10Turn the water supply back on and test to see if it works.
Hopefully this has been another job well done!
Removing a close-coupled toilet cistern

With a close-coupled toilet cistern there is, unfortunately, a little
extra work to do before the siphon can be taken out: the cistern
has to be physically removed from its location bolted to the WC
pan. To do this, take these steps:
1 Turn off the water supply to the cistern and undo the pipe
connection to the float-operated valve.
2 The overflow connection will also need to be disconnected.
If this is at the bottom of the cistern, only undo the nut
that connects to the pipe going outside and do not entirely
remove the internal plastic tube from the cistern, otherwise
the water in the cistern will escape on to the floor.
3 Next, remove the two screws holding the cistern back to
the wall.
4 Finally, remove the two wing nuts found beneath the cistern,
one on either side of the back of the WC pan, holding the
cistern down tight on to the pan itself. The cistern is now
free to move and can be lifted from the pan.
5 Tip out the water from the still-full cistern into the WC pan.
6 With the cistern removed, you will see a big black foam
washer pushed over the securing nut of the siphon, often
referred to as a donut washer. Simply pull this off and
replace it with a new one (which you can get from a
plumbers merchant) when reassembling the WC after
completing the repair.
7 Follow the procedure described above to remove the siphon
and replace the washer.
8 Finally, reassemble the components in the reverse order.
In the unlikely event that you cannot obtain a new donut
washer, it is possible to apply a large ring of plumbers mait
(see Appendix 2: Glossary) as an alternative. However, if you
use this, it is essential that the pan and cistern connecting

parts are absolutely dry, otherwise the plumbers mait will
not form a proper seal.
9 Turn on the water supply and test to see if it works.
VALVED TYPE
These flushing devices have only been installed since the turn
of the twenty-first century and therefore are relatively new in
the scheme of things (see Figure 1.8). When you operate the
push-button mechanism to flush the cistern, the valve inside
lifts up from its seating to allow the water to discharge directly
into the cistern outlet. If the unit fails to flush, it is generally due
to a broken component and, in most cases, the whole internal
flushing valve will have to be replaced because spares for these
devices are not generally available.
If you are lucky, you may be able to purchase an identical unit,
making a replacement a relatively simple process. Looking at
the new component, you will notice that there is a facility to
turn and remove the valve from its base plate. So, once you
have done this and removed the existing valve unit within the
cistern, the damaged part can be replaced without the need to
remove the cistern.
Remember to turn off the water supply before carrying out
this task.
Water continuously discharges into

the pan
This problem might occur for one of the following reasons:
CC Damaged or split siphon or flushing valve
In this case you will need to replace the flushing mechanism in
its entirety. In order to do this, follow the guidance for a siphon
type of flushing mechanism above but, instead of replacing the
washer, replace the whole internal flushing component.
CC Worn-out washer (valved type)
If a replacement washer for a valved flushing cistern is
available (it will depend on the manufacturer), this should
138

be your first course of action but, alas, these are not
generally available and the entire mechanism may need to
be replaced.
CC Grit accumulated beneath the valve washer (valved type)
Where grit is preventing the valve fully dropping to seal
the outlet, you will have to twist the valve anticlockwise to
release it from its base plate, at which point you can inspect
it. When doing this, you will need to turn off the water
supply to the cistern. If the washer is damaged, the valve
section may need to be replaced.
CC Siphonic action failing to stop (siphon type)
When the cistern continues to flow due to continued
siphonage, it may be that the cistern is filling too rapidly,
in which case close down the isolation valve a little.
Alternatively, it might be that the piston is not dropping once
the lever arm has been operated. In this case you will need to
investigate to find out what is stopping this action.
CC Water discharge through an internal overflow
This means that the float-operated valve is not operating
correctly and is not closing off the supply, in which case you
should refer to the notes below relating to the toilet cistern
overflowing.
Toilet or storage cistern overflowing

Should you find that water is dripping or pouring from an
overflow pipe outside your building, it is likely that a cistern is
overflowing due to the float-operated valve (ballvalve) failing to
close off the water supply. There are several possible causes of
the valve malfunction, including:
CC a faulty washer this is the most likely cause; the washer
simply wears out and perishes over time
CC limescale causing the components to rub tightly together,
preventing the valve from moving freely and closing

CC the float itself may have developed a leak and have filled with
water, making it ineffective, but this is quite rare if this is
the case, simply replace the float.
If you call out a plumber to make the repair, they are likely to
replace the entire valve. Plumbers today often do not repair
ballvalves as a new one is inexpensive and it would take longer
to repair it than to replace it. Replacing the valve also allows
them to offer a better guarantee of their work.
Replacing the valve is quite a simple process and is completed as
follows:
1 Turn off the water.
2 If you have a storage cistern, lower the water level by
flushing the WC or opening a tap.
3 Remove the old valve (see Figure 4.16). Usually it is possible
to undo the large union nut inside the cistern, which allows
the valve to come away for servicing purposes. The bit that
is left is that which holds the valve in the cistern and on to
which the water supply connection is made. You can now
simply undo this nut on the new valve. If there is no internal
union nut, you will need to replace the entire valve.
4 Install the replacement valve.
5 Adjust the water level as required. This is generally indicated
by a mark inside the WC cistern saying water level or, in the
case of the storage cistern, 25 mm below the point where it
would ultimately overflow.
The float-operated valve can, however, be serviced and repaired.
This basically requires you to close off the supply to the cistern
and to remove the valve as above. Then you simply strip down
the component as necessary, cleaning off any limescale or
abrasions and replacing the washer.
Float-operated valve (ballvalve) washers are readily available
from plumbers merchants, but since they are available in a
couple of designs diaphragm ballvalve washers and Portsmouth
ballvalve washers (see Figure 1.6) you may need to take your
old washer into the shop to ensure that you get the right design.
140

cistern wall
union nut
removal of old valve
replacement valve
Figure 4.16 Replacing a float-operated valve
Sometimes the cause of an overflowing cistern is a small piece

of grit that has travelled through the pipe and blocked the small
inlet hole through which the water needs to pass.
Figure 1.6 shows the location of the washer in the two designs
of float-operated valve. In the Portsmouth design of ballvalve
you will notice that the washer is housed inside a small piston.
To remove the old washer in this type you simply position a flat-
bladed screwdriver in the slot of the piston when removed from
the valve and use a large pair of pliers or a toothed wrench to
unwind the end of the housing, thus exposing the washer. If you
do not have a replacement washer, you can sometimes get away
with just turning the old washer over.
Key idea
For the cost involved, it is generally easier and quicker to replace the
whole float-operated valve rather than just the washer. If you do replace
just the washer, you must remember to clean away any limescale or dirt
that has accumulated within the valve body, as this itself may cause the
valve to be faulty.

Toilet leaking when flushed
This is a common problem and in most cases it can be fixed by
remaking a connection to a component that has worked loose,
often by some unknown movement of the appliance.
Where could it leak from? This is the first thing to find out and
to do this you simply need to flush the WC and look and feel
for the water escaping. Do this as many times as necessary,
as it is quite common to think the leak is at one place only
to discover later that it is higher up and the water is running
down, hidden from view. A leak may arise from several possible
locations, including:
CC in a flush pipe joint, where a low- or high-level cistern is used
CC at the point where the close-coupled cistern sits on the pan
CC at a crack in the porcelain pan itself
CC at the outlet connection to the drainage pipe.
With the exception of the cracked pan, which clearly would

need replacing, all of the above can be repaired as follows.
LEAKY FLUSH PIPE JOINT

This would be a leak from the flush pipe either as it leaves the
cistern or as it adjoins the pan.
CC When the leak occurs as the pipe leaves the cistern

1 The first and simplest thing to do is to try to tighten the
large nut (turning it clockwise) that holds the flush pipe
to the threaded connection of the siphon as it leaves the
cistern base. If there are two nuts, do not turn the big nut
holding the siphon into the cistern. If tightening the nut
does not work, you will need to unwind it and look at the
jointing material beneath. No water will come out when
you disconnect this, because water is only present during
the flushing operation.
2 With the nut unwound, you will usually find a rubber ring
that has been forced into the joint making up the space
between the flush pipe and the siphon. In most cases you can
142

apply a few turns of PTFE tape around the existing ring to
give it that additional volume to fill the gap. Do not wind
the PTFE around the thread of the siphon as this will do
nothing and may in fact prevent you from making a sound
joint. The joint is formed where the jointing material is
forced into the gap.
CC When the leak is where the flush pipe adjoins the pan
1 In this case it is likely that you will need a new flush pipe
cone or connector. To replace this, you may need to undo
the cistern connection end of the flush pipe, as identified
above, to give you some additional movement, otherwise
you simply pull the flush pipe back from the pan, possibly
turning it to the side if room is restricted. The joint is only
a push-fit type joint, although there are a few different
designs (see Figure 4.17).
2 Once you have removed the old material or connector, you
can replace it with a new flush pipe connector, replacing
everything in the reverse order. If you experience difficulty
in pushing the flush pipe into the joint when using the insert
cone type, use a little lubricant, such as washing-up liquid, to
ease it. The order of assembly for this type of joint is first to
place the cone inside the inlet horn of the WC, then to push
the flush pipe into the cone.
inlet horn
flush pipe
WC pan
insert cone internal cone

Figure 4.17 Flush pipe cones

CC When the leak is where the close-coupled cistern sits on
the pan
When water seeps from the space between the cistern and pan
when flushed, it indicates that the donut washer located over
the siphon-securing back nut has perished. The only thing that
can be done is to replace this washer. Remove the close-couple
cistern (as described earlier) to identify the problem and effect
a repair.
CC When the leak is where the pan adjoins the drainage pipe
For well over 35 years the WC pan outlet connection to the
drain has been made using a flexible plastic connector, which
either forms part of a plastic drainage pipe or is a device such
as a Multiquick, which is a patented WC pan connector (see
Figure 8.7).
These flexible joints are very durable and yet, like everything,
are subject to possible damage. When this joint is leaking,
the best course of action is probably to replace it with a new
flexible pan connection. In order to do this you will need to
remove the WC pan. For a low- or high-level cistern with a
flush pipe, you will not need to turn off the water supply and
remove the cistern, but for a close-coupled pan you will need to
remove the whole lot in order to remake the joint.
Where older cement-jointed connections have been made, such
as in securing the pan to the floor or in forming the outlet joint
itself, you may find that the pan cannot be removed and your
only hope is to apply some form of sealant, such as silicone,
over the crack in the joint, but in truth, the days of the pan may
be numbered.
For more advice on removing and replacing of the pan, see
Chapter 8.
144

! Focus points
1 Locate the water supply isolation valve for the system to be turned
off. Mark this valve up with a label so that you know what it turns off
and check that it works; if it does not, get it repaired you may need
it in an emergency.
2 As a last resort, turning off the incoming water supply stopcock will
eventually stop water running from any pipe within the building.
3 When the water has been turned off and confirmed off by opening
an outlet tap, water still remains in the low legs of pipework, which
will need to be drained as necessary via a drain-off cock located at
the lowest point of the system in question.
4 Water dripping from a tap simply requires the tap washer to be
replaced.
5 A Supa-tap can be re-washered without having to turn off the water
supply.
6 If a tap with ceramic discs no longer turns off the water supply and
continues to drip, you usually need to purchase a new set of ceramic
discs to replace those that are faulty.
7 Water seeping past the spindle of a tap when it is operated is the
result of the packing gland becoming worn out. This is a simple repair
that requires replacement of the spindle packing.
8 With taps that rely on an O ring to prevent water leaking from a
turning component, such as the spindle of a tap, you should replace
the ring as soon as you see the leak occurring. Leaving it leaking for
too long can cause irreparable damage to the turning component.
9 A piece of heavy-duty plastic, such as a builders rubbish bag or
damp-proof membrane plastic, makes a good material from which to
cut out a new diaphragm washer to replace one when the toilet will
not flush.
10 Turning a tap washer or float-operated valve (ballvalve) washer over
will sometimes make a suitable repair when the tap or ballvalve is
not closing off the water supply properly.

Next step
In this chapter you learned how to deal with
drips and leaks from taps and toilets, and how
to turn off the water supply and drain the water
from the system before carrying out repairs.
The next chapter looks at how to solve more
plumbing problems, from burst pipes to noises
and blockages.
146

Emergencies
5
and contingency
work 2
CC how to deal with burst pipes
CC how to prevent noises in your pipework
CC how to solve problems with the hot water
system
CC how to solve problems with the central
heating system
CC how to unblock your drainage pipes.
147

This chapter looks at more of the tasks you may need to carry
out in the event of something going wrong with your plumbing
system.
Burst pipes
The uncontrollable discharge of water from a pipe rapidly
sets the heart racing. This is where your ability to locate and
isolate the necessary stop valves for each part of your plumbing
system will pay dividends. If you have not already done so, now
might be the time to review the section that deals with turning
off the water supply (see Chapter 4).
When water accumulates above a plasterboard ceiling, the
ceiling will often begin to bulge. If this happens, it is always
advisable to make a small hole at the lowest point of the bulge,
thereby letting the water out, which can then be caught in a
bucket. Failure to do this may eventually lead to large sections
of the ceiling coming down and creating a great deal of mess
and damage. Making a water-release hole can also prevent
water accumulating above the ceiling and running on to
electrical equipment, causing additional problems.
If a burst pipe is the result of someone banging a nail into it, the
easiest way to minimize the water flow is to pop the nail back
into the hole made in the pipe. It will probably continue to leak
but the nail will greatly stem the flow while you drain down the
system via a suitable drain-off cock.
If, for some unknown reason, you cannot isolate the water
supply, you could get a hammer and flatten the relevant pipe
section; this is not guaranteed to stem the flow but provides a
little hope in a desperate situation.
Remember this
Turning off the water mains supply inlet stopcock found at the entry to a
property will eventually cause all water to stop flowing. Another option is
to turn off every stopcock or valve you can find.
148

FINDING THE LEAK
Here are some indicators that will provide clues as to which
system is leaking:
CC Can you hear the float-operated valve running in the loft
storage cistern? If so, the leak is not on the mains supply.
CC If you turn off the mains supply only, does the leak stop
immediately? If so, this indicates that it is fed directly from
the mains supply.
CC Is the water hot, suggesting that it is from the hot water or
central heating system? Where the leak is from the hot water
or central heating system, it is advisable also to turn off the
heat source.
Once you have stopped the water flow, you can begin to control
the situation. If the leak is in a section of pipework that is
hidden from view, such as above a ceiling, the first thing to do is
expose the pipework where the leak is most apparent by lifting
floorboards or removing any covering panels. Now turn the
water back on for a short while in order to pinpoint the leak.
Dont be surprised if, when you turn on the water, the leak is
not from the area you suspected. Water has an uncanny way of
travelling long distances undetected.
When you turn the water back on, consider again the clues
above, which may give some indication of which system is
leaking. If you hear cisterns filling in the loft, look to see which
cistern is filling. If it is the f & e cistern, you know that the
heating system is leaking. If it is the larger cold storage cistern,
it will be the low-pressure hot or cold water that has the leak.
Each of the cold water outlets from the cistern can be closed off
to pinpoint which pipe is leaking.
A bit of detective work often needs to be done to locate the
source of a leak. You will need to call on your understanding of
the system designs described in Chapters 1 and 2. You may need
to expose more pipework and listen very carefully to the sound
of the water hissing from the pipe.
One of the most difficult leaks to locate is one beneath a sand-
and-cement floor screed. The water seems to travel everywhere

through the channels preformed for the pipes, making detection
very difficult. It is invariably a case of trial and error, exposing
test holes in the floor to find the wettest sections.
Eventually, however, the point of discharge will be found, as
will the supply isolation valve. The rest is now basic plumbing,
cutting out the affected section of pipe and replacing it. For this
work, see the notes in Chapter 6 about jointing pipework.
Noises from pipework

Water flowing through pipes and into vessels can cause a variety
of noises, all of which may be quite annoying in their own way.
Sometimes we put up with these noises because of the cost of
curing the problem. The key thing is to install the system correctly
in the first place and most of the problems will never occur.
The various kinds of noise you might have include:
CC one or two loud banging noises, usually when a tap is closed
CC a series of rapid banging noises
CC humming in the pipework
CC a shushing noise as water passes through the pipework
CC noise generated by a pump
CC creaking floor timbers
CC splashing noises as water refills a cistern
CC noises from a boiler, like a kettle boiling
CC gurgling noises in the pipework
CC gurgling noises from an appliance waste trap.
This is not an exhaustive list, but it represents the more

common situations dealt with below.
One or two loud banging noises, usually when

a tap is closed
This is the classic water hammer sound. It is the result of a
tap or stopcock jumper/washer or non-return valve rapidly
150

closing, creating a sudden back-surge of water. This noise can
also be created by pipework that has not been fixed securely,
so that it flaps about. Securing loose pipework may cure the
problem, but if not:
1 Slightly turn down the incoming supply stopcock, reducing
the incoming water flow rate and thereby preventing these
back-surges.
2 Where water flow cannot be compromised, it is possible to
purchase a small expansion vessel to take up the shock wave.
This expansion vessel, designed specifically to deal with this
problem, is similar to that used for an unvented domestic hot
water system, but a lot smaller.
A series of rapid banging noises or humming in the pipework

These different sounds are, in fact, caused by the same thing.
The sounds are generated by the float-operated valve in a
storage cistern rapidly opening and closing as it rides up and
down on the small ripples or waves formed on the surface of the
water in the cistern. The waves are formed as water flows into
the cistern when the float-operated valve opens to make up the
water level after some water has been drawn off.
If the plastic cistern has been installed without the metal
reinforcing piece that came with it, the cistern wall will flex as
the float rides over the ripples on the water. There are several
possible cures for this problem:
1 Secure the float-operated valve (ballvalve) by fully supporting
the cistern wall.
2 Replace the normal 100 mm diameter float with a larger
ball float.
3 If a larger float cannot be obtained, secure a damper plate to
the lever arm to create a larger surface area (see Figure 5.1).
4 Fit a baffle within the cistern to prevent waves forming. This
is basically a dividing plate to reduce the total surface area of
the water.
5 Turn down the incoming supply stopcock to reduce the water
flow into the home.

float-operated valve
metal reinforcement
to plastic cisterns
damper plate
Figure 5.1 Preventing ballvalve murmur
A shushing noise as water passes through the pipework

This noise often occurs if the installer has failed to take the
small internal burr off the pipe when using a copper tube cutter.
It is also sometimes generated where pipework has been run
within a timber stud wall. The plasterboard over the timber
studwork acts as a resonator, amplifying the sound of the water
flowing through the pipe. When pipes are run within timber
stud walls, they should ideally be insulated and the pipe clips
placed on rubber or felt mountings to stop this transmission
of noise.
Curing this problem after the event is often very difficult. Again,
try turning down the supply stopcock. It may cure the problem
or at least improve things. Sometimes this noise is generated in
central heating pipework, in which case try turning down the
pump pressure setting.
Remember this
One of the easiest and best cures for noisy cold water pipework that
is subjected to mains supply pressure is to turn down, or slightly close,
the inlet stopcock. In some areas this valve needs to be open only half
a turn or so.
152

Noise generated by a pump
Where this problem occurs with a central heating system,
turning down the setting if a variable speed pump has been
installed will generally alleviate the problem. However, this
may create a different problem in large heating systems in
that the furthest radiators from the pump may not get warm
enough.
Where the pump noise comes from a shower booster pump,
it may be that the pump has not been fitted with flexible
connections and on to a flexible mounting, and so this would
need to be provided if necessary. Also check that the pump is
not touching anything that would act as a sounding box and
elevate the noise level.
Creaking floor timbers

This is generally the result of pipework running below timber
floors and passing through the floor joists with notches that are
barely large enough, or pipes that have been run touching one
another. The noises are the result of the copper pipes expanding
and contracting as they heat up and cool down.
When passing copper pipework through notches that have been
cut in the joist, ideally a felt pad or piece of carpet underlay
should be laid to dampen any movement noise caused by the
pipe expanding or contracting. The only option is to lift the
floorboards and investigate.
Splashing noise as water refills a cistern

You can eliminate this noise by fitting a polythene collapsible
silencer tube (see Figure 5.2). These are often fitted as standard
to WC flushing cisterns but are rarely fitted to cold water storage
cisterns. Within the loft and inside an insulated cistern the noise
is rarely heard, but if the cistern is above your bedroom in a
quiet house, it is the sort of noise that sometimes, at night, seems
like Chinese water torture.
If you cannot get a polythene silencer, sometimes fitting an
inclined ramp, on to which the water can discharge inside the
cistern, eases the problem.

polythene silencer tube
Figure 5.2 Fitting a polythene silencer tube
Noises from a boiler, like a kettle boiling

Noises from the boiler, such as the sound of bubbling water, can
have one of several causes. If the system used to work well and
the problem has only just started for no apparent reason, it is
possible that a narrow pocket of air has become trapped within
the boiler, perhaps as a result of limescale or corrosion. The
noise is generated by the formation of steam and its subsequent
condensing within this area of trapped air. The only remedy,
apart from a new boiler, is to treat the system with a descaling
solution. Where a power flush is sought, this may require the
services of a reputable heating engineer; however, depending
on the age of your system and the materials it is made from,
e.g. aluminium, copper or steel, several manufacturers produce
chemical cleaning solutions, available from any plumbers
merchant. These come with the necessary application
instructions and can be administered to clean out your system.
Remember this
Using acidic solutions to remove sludge that has been blocking a corroded
radiator or preventing a leaking joint may expose the fault and leave you
with a system that now leaks. But you must remember that the fault
was there already and at least you will find the leak under controlled
conditions and it will not simply spring up when you are not at home.
154

Another cause of a noisy boiler could be the flame impinging
directly on to the heat exchanger within the boiler, causing local
hot spots where steam forms and collapses. This requires a
specialist heating engineer to make the appropriate adjustments
to the flame and, where necessary, to investigate the cause further.
Gurgling noises in the pipework

These sounds are to some extent to be expected in a new
system, as trapped air is slowly released from the system via the
vented pipework. However, if these bubbling noises continue
to flow up through the system, it suggests a much deeper
problem. It is possible that air is being drawn into the system,
in particular the heating system, because a circulation pump is
incorrectly located (see Chapter 3).
Air being continually drawn into the system increases the
speed of corrosion within the system and, apart from the noise
generated, it should still be rectified in order to extend the life of
your system.
Gurgling noises from an appliance waste trap

These noises are the result of water being siphoned out from the
trap. See Chapter 1 for a discussion of this problem.
Hot water problems

Hot water problems may occur in both the water supply and
the central heating systems.
WATER GETTING TOO HOT

If the water is too hot, the most likely reason is that the
thermostat on the cylinder is set too high or that the
thermostat itself has malfunctioned. Where the temperature
is set too high, the simple remedy is to adjust the thermostat
setting. This needs to be done with a screwdriver. Isolate
the power before adjusting an immersion heater thermostat,
as you will need to remove the top cover from the unit (see
Figure 2.7). You wont need to isolate the power if a central
heating cylinder thermostat has been strapped to the side of
the cylinder.

In both cases, set the temperature to provide water at 60C
at the top of the cylinder (see Chapter 2). If, however, the
thermostat has malfunctioned and simply fails to operate and
close off the heat source, the thermostat probably needs to
be replaced. This is a relatively simple process, making the
electrical connections with a similar replacement component,
but you will need to isolate the power before doing this. This
will be discussed further in Chapter 8.
Remember this
The ideal storage temperature for domestic hot water to be drawn off at
the taps is 60C. Storing water too hot leads to the risk that someone
could be scalded; in hard water areas there will be the additional problem
of scale build-up. Storing the water not hot enough may lead to the
growth of Legionella bacteria.
NO HOT WATER OR CENTRAL HEATING

A lack of hot water or central heating could be due to one of
several possibilities. You may have hot water but no heating,
or vice versa. There may be a blockage within the pipeline,
such as limescale or sludge build-up, but this type of problem
is fairly uncommon. The most likely cause, and the first thing
to investigate, is an electrical control fault preventing the
power reaching the point where it is required. The areas to
investigate are:
CC a blown fuse or loss of power supply
CC the time clock/programmer wrongly set or faulty
CC a faulty thermostat (room, cylinder or immersion heater

thermostat as appropriate)
CC a faulty motorized valve
CC a fault with the boiler or pump.
Electrical faults generally require the assistance of an expert.

The engineer will go through the above list and, by a process of
elimination, find where the fault lies.
156

The power supply to the boiler and pump ultimately follows a
set route (see Figure 5.3), and in order to determine the cause
of a problem you will need to check that power is going to the
first component, then that it leaves that component to move on
to the next component, and so on until it reaches the boiler and
pump. Along the way you will discover where the interruption
in the sequence occurs, so you can focus on the area causing
the fault. So, for example, if you find that 230 volts is going
into the cylinder thermostat yet there is no voltage coming
from it, this suggests that this component or the wiring to or
from it is at fault.
power fuse programmer cylinder motorized

supply thermostat valve
room motorized boiler

thermostat valve and
pump
Figure 5.3 Sequential flow diagram showing power supply to the boiler
and pump
RADIATORS NOT GETTING HOT

If the radiators fail to get hot, this may be the result of an
electrical fault as discussed above. However, assuming that you
have an electrical supply to the pump and boiler, it might be a
problem with the pump itself. You can check whether the pump
impeller is going round simply by placing the end of a large
screwdriver up against the pump and putting your ear to the
handle. This transmits the sound along the screwdriver shaft
to the handle and you will hear whether the pump impeller is
going round.
You can investigate the operation of the impeller further by
removing the large central screw from the body of the pump,

out of which a little water will discharge. Behind this big screw
you will see another smaller screw head that will be rotating
if the pump is in operation. If not, try to turn it with your
screwdriver; if you are lucky, it will start up and flick from your
screwdriver as it rapidly turns. In this case, replace the outer
large screw to stop the water seepage. I hardly dare say it, but
giving the pump a quick tap on its side with a hammer will
sometimes nudge a pump back into action. If the impeller fails
to turn, it will need to be replaced.
CC Replacing the central heating pump

Once you have decided that the pump is faulty, you will need to
buy a replacement of a similar design. The task, summarized in
Figure 5.4, is then completed as follows:
1 Remove the electrical power supply to the pump and boiler
by isolating the circuit and removing the fuse. Once you
have confirmed that the power is dead, remove the old wires
where they enter the pump.
2 If you are lucky, there will be a water isolation valve on
either side of the pump. These are operated by turning the
two slotted heads on the valves one-quarter of a turn with a
screwdriver or spanner. Where there are no isolation valves,
or these are ineffective, you will need to drain down the
whole heating system (see Chapter 4).
3 With the water isolated, you can now undo the
large nuts on either side of the pump and remove it.
4 With the old pump out, position new sealing washers,
if these are used for the mating surfaces, and use a little
jointing paste where the components meet as the new pump
is inserted.
5 Firmly tighten the joints to secure the new pump in
position.
6 Now turn the water supply back on and check for leaks.
7 If all is sound, you can remake the electrical connections and
test the system.
158

Once the new pump is in place, the speed, if it is a variable-
speed pump, will need to be set to the lowest setting and only
increased if all the radiators fail to get hot. Setting the speed too
high might create unacceptable noises within the system.
ensure you fit a new

sealing washer
valves turned off

to isolate water
to confirm pump
supply when is working remove
replacing pump this screw to view
rotating head
below
pump
Figure 5.4 Replacing a central heating pump
Remember this
If in doubt over the electrical wiring to the circulating pump, you must
seek the advice of a competent electrician. Failure to observe this simple
rule could put you and others in danger of electrocution.
RADIATORS DONT GET HOT, BUT THE PUMP IS OK

If the radiators fail to get hot but the pump is working, the
system may be blocked with sludge caused by corrosion. Should
this be the case, you will need to descale the system using a
special acidic solution to dissolve it, as discussed earlier.
Sometimes a radiator only gets warm around the sides and
along the top and has a cold spot in the middle. This is a classic

sign that corrosive sludge has accumulated in that particular
part of the radiator. Again, it may be possible to solve this
problem by using a descaling solution. Alternatively, the
radiator can be removed and subjected to individual treatment
and flushing through with a high-pressure hose.
CC Bleeding a radiator
There may be just one or two radiators on your system that are
not getting warm. Assuming that the valves at each end of the
radiator are open, the first thing to check is that they are not
cold simply because they are full of air. Air is expelled from the
system radiators through a small air-release valve located at
the top and to one side of the radiator, a process referred to as
bleeding. Do this as follows:
1 Turn down the room thermostat. This will turn off the
pump. (The reason for turning off the pump while bleeding
the radiator is to ensure that air is not sucked into the system
if the pump is creating a negative pressure within.)
2 Use a special square-headed radiator key to open the air-
release valve, turning it anticlockwise. You will hear the air
being forced out and eventually water will appear at this
point, whereupon you simply close the air-release valve.
3 Turn the room thermostat back to the desired setting.
If a particular radiator continues to accumulate air, this suggests
that air is being drawn into the system, possibly due to the
incorrect positioning of the circulation pump. This situation
must be addressed because the air that is being drawn into the
system will speed up the corrosion process and very soon you
will be experiencing leaky radiators that have corroded from
the inside. Correct pump location has already been discussed in
Chapter 3.
If some radiators still remain cold after bleeding, the system
might be too large for the pump. A particular pump only
generates so much pressure and will only push the water so
far, so a larger pump may be required. The pump may have
variable settings and it might be possible to increase its speed
160

and pressure by making a simple adjustment on the side of the
pump itself.
Another possibility is that some of the radiators closer to the
pump have their lockshield valves open to such an extent that
they are taking all the flow of water, in which case they need to
be closed a little in order to balance the system (see Chapter 3).
A simple test to see if balancing is required is to close off the
manual radiator valve operating heads to several radiators that
are working fine, to see if the cold radiators then get hot; if so,
you need to balance the system better.
LEAKING RADIATOR VALVE

Sometimes when a radiator valve is operated, it leaks from the
nut at the point where the spindle turns. This can only be seen
when the plastic head is removed. This leaking joint is often the
result of the valve not being used regularly. The simplest cure
and often all that is required is to tighten up the gland nut (see
Figure 3.11). If this does not cure the problem, the gland will
need repacking. To do this, take these steps:
1 First, turn off both radiator valves. To close the lockshield
valve you will need to use a small spanner. When you close
the lockshield valve, count the number of turns it takes and,
when required, only open the valve by that number of turns.
2 With the valves closed, simply unwind the gland nut, pack
a few strands of PTFE around the spindle and push it into
the void into which the packing gland nut screws, poking it
down with a small screwdriver.
3 Now replace the packing gland nut, tightening it just enough
4 Re-open the radiator valves and test it.
Repacking this gland nut is basically the same procedure as
repacking any gland, as described with reference to a leaking
stopcock or tap in Chapter 4 (see Figure 4.11). Note that some
designs of valve do not have a gland nut and use an O ring. If
this joint leaks, the valve will need to be replaced.

Blockages in the wastewater pipework
The most effective weapon used by the homeowner or a
plumber when tackling an obstruction is a plunger. The plunger,
when applied effectively, can cause some very large pressures to
push directly on to a blockage. If the pipe is full of water, the
force with which you push down on the plunger is concentrated
on the area of the blockage say a 100 mm drainage pipe
and, when the plunger is pulled up again, it creates a partial
vacuum and the pressure of the atmosphere on the other side of
the blockage pushes back up on it.
BLOCKED SINK, BASIN OR BATH

The first thing to try is to use a plunger to unblock the plughole.
1 You will require a force cup plunger as shown in Figure 5.5.
These are easily obtainable from most hardware stores or
plumbers merchants.
2 Fill the sink with a fair quantity of water.
3 You must now block up the overflow pipe. To do this, take
a piece of rag and stuff it hard against the overflow opening.
You must make a good seal here in order to be successful in
the plunging operation.
4 All you need to do now is push the plunger up and down
over the waste pipe outlet several times.
Using a plunger will usually clear a blockage; however,
blockages to appliances such as sinks and basins are often the
result of soap and fatty deposits. Plunging will give some relief
to the problem but will not remove all the fatty debris and may
make only a small hole in the blockage, which will soon block
up again. In this instance the ideal solution is to remove the trap
from the appliance for internal inspection.
CC Removing the trap

Where a plastic trap has been fitted to the appliance, this is a
relatively easy operation, but for older metal traps more force
and therefore more care will be required to undo the nut(s) of
the trap.
162

block the overflow
with a piece of rag
force cup plunger
plunging a sink waste
appliance waste
waste pipe
unscrewing a trap to remove a blockage

Figure 5.5 Unblocking a sink or basin

To remove the trap, take these steps:
1 Empty as much of the water from the appliance as possible,
bailing it out into a bucket.
2 Now position a bucket or suitable receptacle beneath the
appliance to catch any spillage and remaining water from
within the trap itself.
3 If a bottle trap has been fitted, you will just need to remove
the lower dome-shaped bottom, as shown in Figure 5.5.
Where a tubular trap has been installed, you will need to
remove this in its entirety, as follows:
i Undo the large nut that joins the trap to the appliance
waste outlet, turning it anticlockwise.
ii Now undo the nut that joins the trap to the pipe; this will
allow you to remove the trap.
4 Be prepared for a sickly sight of fat, hair and general grime.
However, once all this rubbish has been removed (undoing
the third large nut adjoining the two sections of the trap
if necessary), you will have a clean trap with an effective
internal bore.
5 Before replacing the components, just look into the outlet
pipe for any further signs of blockage. If there is excessive
blockage, it may be time to consider using a series of long
drainage springs to poke down the tube, or you could
remove the whole pipe section and replace it, but this is not
usually necessary.
During this process no water, apart from that held within
the sink and trap itself, will flow from the appliance. In most
instances the trap is fairly easy to access, but sometimes it
may be difficult to reach the nut adjoining the waste outlet
of a pedestal basin. It might be possible to ease the pedestal
forward a small amount to gain better access, but take care as
it is designed to give support to the basin and is easily chipped,
being made of porcelain.
When you reassemble the waste pipe, take extra care when
doing up the nuts as they are made of plastic and it is easy to
164

cross-thread a joint, preventing it from doing up tightly. The
seal that was in place before you undid it will probably still be
fine to reuse, but if necessary you can wrap a few turns of PTFE
tape to the mating surfaces near the damaged sealing washer.
Do not wrap PTFE tape around the pipe threads themselves as
the nut and thread are just used to pull or clamp the two mating
surfaces together, crushing jointing material in place to form the
seal they do not themselves form the watertight seal.
Key idea
It is possible to avoid stripping down the trap by purchasing a drain
cleaning solution, available at most hardware stores. These can be most
effective, using acid to dissolve the offending matter, and this option
should not be overlooked.
BLOCKED TOILET
When a toilet blocks, the natural instinct is to panic and to wish
the problem would go away as quickly as possible. When you
flush the toilet, the bowl fills with foul water, which just sits there.
It may slowly drain away but the blockage still remains, and after
the next flush the water will back up and fill the bowl again.
Purchasing a simple drain rod and a 150 mm rubber plunger
to screw on to its head could easily save you hundreds in
plumbers call-out charges. If you call out a plumber, they will
probably fix the problem within 30 seconds of arriving, leaving
you happy to pay whatever they ask. But there is no magic it
is simply a matter of them using their plunger to create the
pressure needed to dislodge the blockage.
So what do you do?
1 Obtain a drainage rod or chimney sweeps rod with a thread
on one end. On to this, screw a 150 mm drain plunger
obtainable from a plumbers merchant.
2 Ensure that some water, however disgusting, is in the WC
bowl, or flush the appliance so that it fills and backs up.
3 Push the rubber plunger back and forth down inside the pan,
back towards the trap, as shown in Figure 5.6.

With any luck this will cure the problem. I once cleared a
blockage using this technique but without a plunger. I used an
old-fashioned floor mop on to which I secured a plastic bag; this
made a suitably effective plunger. Plunging can be very effective
and so, if a toilet remains blocked after plunging, this suggests a
blockage further down the pipeline. Air is simply getting in via
the open vent pipe at the top of the drain, relieving the partial
vacuum you are trying to create.
Blockages further along the drainpipe might also affect other
appliances, in effect putting several appliances, such as sinks
and baths, out of action.
150 mm rubber
plunger on a
drain rod
blockage
Figure 5.6 Unblocking a WC pan
Remember this
The most efficient and easiest way to unblock a sink or toilet is to use a
plunger. The main thing to remember when unblocking a sink or basin is
to block up the overflow pipe while using the plunger.
166

BLOCKED DRAINS
What a nightmare! Nobody likes blocked drains. Everything
in the household may be put out of action as a result of
this kind of blockage. The first course of action is again to
consider the plunger.
Lets assume that you lift up the inspection/manhole covers
outside your home and find that they are filled with sewage.
Arm yourself with a set of drainage rods now, not just the single
one required to unblock a WC pan (rods can be hired quite
cheaply from most hire centres). Secure a 100 mm plunger on to
the end and insert this into the next dry manhole chamber down
from the blockage, aiming towards the one full of liquid. Insert
the rod several metres and then pull it from the pipe. Nine times
out of ten, this will create the suction required to dislodge the
blockage. If you cannot locate a dry inspection chamber, you
will need to try to pass your rods, with the plunger attached,
through the sewage towards the outlet to pass it into the pipe.
Again, once it is inserted, simply push and pull the plunger to
create an alternating pressure to dislodge the blockage.
Warning!
When the drainage rods are inserted into the drain, never turn your rods
anticlockwise or you might unwind the plunger from the end of the rods
and leave it behind inside the pipe, causing a real problem.
Unfortunately, plunging the pipework does not work in every

situation, but always try it first. Where it fails, you will need
to secure the worm screw attachment on to the end of the
drainage rods. You then pass these down through the pipe
until the blockage is found and then you need to give a few
forward blows, hitting the blockage directly, attacking it from
both directions if necessary upstream and downstream. But
remember: never turn the rods anticlockwise (see Figure 5.7).
Drainage systems installed in buildings prior to the 1960s
often incorporated a special intercepting trap at the point
where the house drain joined the public sewer. These are no
longer installed because they were often the cause of blockages.

If one of these is blocked in an older property, it will need to be
plunged in the same way as a WC pan. However, if the blockage
is downstream of the trap, there is a stopper that allows rodding
access towards the sewer. The stopper should be removed by
lifting it from its seating, pulling it up with the attached chain.
For smaller pipes a snakentainer (a rotary drain snake or
flexible wire) is used, which again is passed into the pipe and
continually turned clockwise, to dislodge any obstruction.
Key idea
Clearly, when working blockages in the wastewater pipework, it is
essential to take the appropriate hygiene measures and wear protective
clothing and rubber gloves to avoid contamination by germs lurking in the
drainage system.
One final point regarding blocked pipes is that, if you have to

remove bolted-on access covers, particularly those inside the
house in the above-ground part of the drainage system, give
some thought to what might be behind the access door. These
doors are designed to be watertight, so prior to opening them
you cannot tell what is behind them. Since the pressure of the
backed-up liquid contained within could be quite considerable,
spraying the contents some distance from the opening, you will
need to take precautions to avoid getting covered in effluent.
BLOCKED GUTTERS AND RAINWATER PIPES

Over time your gutters will collect dust from the atmosphere,
plus moss and other debris as it falls on and comes down from
the roof. This inevitably silts up the gutters, making a well-
watered bedding material for seeds to grow in. Eventually the
gutter will overflow because the water cannot freely pass to the
downpipe. It is very easy to clear out this debris, and a useful
tool to help with this is a small semi-circular section fixed on to
the end of a pole, to pull any debris towards you. Simply collect
the rubbish into a bucket for removal.
Take care when working up a ladder. If you do not feel
confident doing so, it may be advisable to call on someone else
168

direction
direction
manholes are full
rod towards the
of flow
of flow
sewer if all the
chain and stopper
attached
(only found in older properties)

drain rods
intercepting trap
worm screw attachment
fitted to drain rods
blockage
Figure 5.7 Rodding a drain
to do the work. If you do decide to do it yourself, always ensure

that the ladder is footed by another competent person so that
it will not slip, and never overreach when working up a ladder.
Never lean the ladder up against the gutter itself as it may cause

damage, especially where a plastic gutter has been installed, but,
more importantly, your ladder can also easily slip to the side
when it is resting against such a smooth surface, making it very
dangerous.
Should the rainwater pipe itself become blocked with debris,
it poses a much more difficult problem. You can try poking a
drainage spring up or down the pipe, but sometimes, especially
if it is a plastic rainwater pipe, it is quicker to disconnect the
entire pipe section and do the unblocking at ground level.
Fortunately, it is usually just a blockage at the bottom end
of the pipe that is creating the problem, causing the water
to back up and come out of the joints, which are not made
watertight and, incidentally, were never intended to be
watertight. A blockage at the bottom of the pipe is often
the result of a blocked gully, which can simply be emptied
physically by hand.
Remember this
Always take extra care when working from a ladder. If in doubt, call in
a professional. Every year many people die as the result of falling from
ladders; dont add your name to the list!
Smell of gas or fumes

Never allow this situation to go unchecked! If you smell a gas
leak, take the following measures for your own safety because
otherwise an explosion could result:
1 Turn off all gas appliances.
2 Turn off the emergency gas control valve at the gas meter.
3 Open all windows.
4 Do not operate light switches and extinguish all naked
flames.
5 Call a gas service engineer or your gas supplier.
170

Key idea
Just as you should know the location of your mains inlet water supply
stopcock, you should know the location of the gas supply inlet. Make
sure you can access it easily, in case you need to turn off the supply in
an emergency. The telephone number of the national UK gas emergency
service is 0800 111 999. In the US, simply call 911.
In newer houses, the gas meter and emergency control valve are often
outside in a meter box. If you have a gas meter box, make sure you know
where the key is kept in case of an emergency. You can close off the
supply completely by turning the handle attached to the control valve
just a one-quarter turn.
The products of combustion are highly dangerous, not just from

gas appliances but also from any fuel-burning appliances such
as those burning oil and solid fuel. You may smell products
other than gas, and there is a good chance that these will
contain carbon monoxide, a highly toxic gas (see Chapter 2). As
above, if you smell any fumes, do the following:
1 Turn off the gas appliance.
2 Open the windows where the fumes are discovered.
3 If you feel drowsy, evacuate the building to get some fresh air.
4 Call a doctor if necessary.
5 Call a gas service engineer.
! Focus points
1 Turning down the incoming cold water supply stopcock will often
cure a host of sloshing and banging noises in pipework.
2 Creaking floor joists are often the result of insufficient expansion
allowance between the notch in the timber and a hot water pipe
passing through, so, as the pipe expands due to heating up, it rubs
against the timber.
3 A noisy boiler is often caused by corrosion or scale build-up within
the heating circuit, leading to air becoming trapped in the boiler.

4 Do not undertake electrical work, such as changing the circulating
pump on the central heating system, unless you are competent with
electrical installations and know how to work safely in this field.
5 When radiators fail to get hot, the system could be poorly balanced
or blocked by sludge, which is invariably the result of corrosion
within the system.
6 Most blockages in wastewater pipework can be rectified by the use
of a plunger.
7 When using a plunger, you must block up the overflow pipe, where
one is fitted.
8 The trap beneath appliances such as sinks and basins can simply be
disconnected and drained into a bucket. For this task the water does
not need to be turned off.
9 When unblocking drains, take suitable precautions to avoid
contamination by the foul and dangerous bacteria found in these
pipe systems.
10 If you smell gas or fumes within a building, act immediately by
turning off the appliance(s) and ventilating the property by opening
all doors and windows. Do not operate any light switches, and call
either a gas engineer or the supplier for further advice.
Next step
In this chapter you learned how to solve various
noise and other problems in your pipework
and systems, including blockages in your
drainage system. The next chapter deals with
plumbing processes and focuses on installation
requirements, including where to locate pipe runs
in an emergency and where not to run pipes
which will help overcome some of the problems
described in Chapters 4 and 5.
172

6
Plumbing
processes
CC about the various plumbing materials
and pipes
CC about jointing to pipes
CC about bending copper pipes
CC about specialist plumbing tools
CC about working practices
CC about concealing pipework.
173

This chapter starts by taking a closer look at corrosion, what it
is and why it needs to be considered when designing a plumbing
system. The chapter then looks at some of the practical skills
that need to be mastered in order for you to undertake specific
plumbing tasks. Often it is a case of knowing how to undertake
a job and what particular tools are available to help complete
the task.
Corrosion
Corrosion is a chemical attack on metal, which brings about its
destruction. There are two forms of corrosion:
CC atmospheric corrosion
CC electrolytic corrosion.
ATMOSPHERIC CORROSION
Everyone has seen atmospheric corrosion: leave a tin can in the
garden and very soon it will be rusty and full of holes. It is the
water and oxygen in the air that causes this corrosion: their
presence on the exposed surface of iron causes oxidation. The
resultant iron oxide is not stable and falls away, exposing more
fresh metal, and the process continues until there is none of the
iron left and only a scattering of iron oxide (rust) on the ground.
Atmospheric corrosion attacks all metals in this way but
unless the metal is ferrous (i.e. contains iron) the corrosion
formed on the surface of the metal is stable and so prevents
any further corrosion. This process can be seen on a copper
roof that has turned green the green is the oxidized copper
that has formed due to corrosion over a period of time.
Copper pipe is unaffected by atmospheric corrosion and it can
therefore be used for water supplies without fear. If we used
iron pipes for water services, they would last only a very short
time. You may find iron pipework in your home, but the iron
has been covered with a coating of zinc, referred to as being
galvanized, so the metal is in fact protected to some degree
against atmospheric corrosion.
As discussed in Chapter 3, steel radiators are used in central
heating systems and last for many years without rusting.
174

This may seem strange as they are totally filled with water, but
for corrosion to occur there also needs to be oxygen present.
There is a certain amount of oxygen within a sample of
water, but the radiators do not rust because the water is never
changed, except for repair work, and within a week or so of
filling the system all the oxygen in it will have escaped back into
the atmosphere. And with no oxygen there is no rusting.
ELECTROLYTIC CORROSION
Galvanized mild steel iron coated with zinc is no longer
installed in the home, although it can still be found. This
pipework, although protected against atmospheric corrosion,
is subject to another form of corrosion brought about by a
process known as electrolysis. This is where one metal attacks
and destroys another metal lower down the electromotive series.
The electromotive series is a list of metals with different abilities
to resist destruction by another metal the metals lower
down the list are less able to resist than those higher up the
list. Where there is a mix of different metals within a system,
the metal lowest on the list is destroyed first, before electrolytic
corrosion begins on the metal next highest in the list.
The electromotive series of typical plumbing metals is:
CC copper
CC lead
CC tin
CC iron
CC zinc
CC aluminium.
Galvanized mild steel pipes are iron with a coating of zinc. The
zinc coating not only protects the iron against atmospheric
corrosion but also provides a sacrificial metal to be destroyed
before the iron when mixed with other materials such as copper.
If you look at the list above, you will see that the copper would
destroy the zinc before the iron is attacked, as the zinc is lower
down the list.
6. Plumbing processes 175

Key idea
Atmospheric corrosion is the result of water and oxygen in the air acting
upon the surface of a metal. Electrolytic corrosion is the reaction caused
by two different metals, in contact with a liquid such as water, and results
in one metal destroying the other.
Pipework used for water supplies

You can buy a whole range of fittings designed to make all kinds
of connections, such as for joining pipe to pipe or a pipe to an
appliance. Today you can pick up special flexible pipe fittings
designed to help you make connections to basins, baths and other
appliances. In the past these connections could only be achieved
with the use of a bending machine. For the past 50 years or so,
copper pipe has been the material most widely used for running
water through; however, plastics are being used more and more
and, depending upon the age of your property, you may find
other materials including mild steel and lead pipework, which is
no longer installed but to which connections can still be made.
CONNECTIONS TO LEAD PIPES

Lead pipework installations should always be removed where
possible because the material is toxic and can contaminate the
water supply. Any connections to lead pipework should be
made only as a last resort for example, if you need to make a
connection on to an existing lead mains cold water inlet supply
pipe. The connection is made using a special compression fitting.
These joints are similar to the compression joint used for copper
pipes (see below), except that they are much larger and have a
rubber compression ring instead of the brass ring used for copper.
These compression fittings (e.g. Lead-loc) can be obtained from
most plumbers merchants. The replacement of old lead mains
should be considered at the earliest possible opportunity, for
which a local government grant may be available.
CONNECTIONS TO MILD STEEL PIPES

As with lead pipes, mild steel pipes should generally be
removed whenever possible, as they have now well exceeded
176

their expected lifespan. It is more than likely that they are
excessively corroded inside and are affecting the volume of flow
that you should expect. In fact, old steel pipework is one of the
major causes of blockages to existing systems of water supply.
Connections to mild steel pipework with copper will create
additional electrolytic corrosion problems, as discussed above,
and any connection made could be the source of a blockage
problem within a few years.
Connection to the pipe can be achieved with a similar
compression joint to that used on lead pipe, with a rubber
compression ring. However, the best joint to use would be to
make a connection on to a threaded joint. This would be one of
the following:
CC A male iron thread (an external thread)
CC A female iron thread (an internal thread)
Figure 6.1 shows these fittings. The threaded connection is

made by firstly applying a few turns, in a clockwise direction,
of PTFE jointing tape on to the male thread of one fitting.
This is then wound into the female thread of the other
fitting, thereby forming a sound bonded joint. The copper or
plastic pipe is then made on to this fitting as a compression
connection (see below). It is possible to use a jointing paste
instead of PTFE tape, but you will need to ensure that it is
acceptable for use with the contents of the pipe, as indicated
on the side of the tin.
female iron compression joint

thread
1
2
mild steel pipe 15 mm copper pipe
male iron 1
2
female iron to 15 mm
thread copper coupling
Figure 6.1 Threaded joints

PTFE
PTFE is the abbreviation for polytetrafluoroethylene, which is a
white-coloured plastic tape used extensively for making joints to
threaded pipe connections, or as a packing material where some
make-up to a small void is required. It is readily available and
can be purchased at all plumbers merchants. PTFE is known as
Teflon in the USA.
Copper pipework and fittings

Copper has become well established as a piping material
suitable for all water supplies and in all circumstances. Making
a sound water connection to a pipe is a relatively simple
operation and, once youve mastered this skill, you will be able
to undertake fairly substantial projects. There are three basic
jointing methods used in the domestic environment:
CC compression joints
CC soldered joints
CC push-fit joints.
COMPRESSION JOINTS
These are made using a fitting that clamps a compression ring
on to the pipe and wedges it into the fitting at the same time (see
Figure 6.2). To complete a sound joint, take the following steps:
1 Push the nut on to the pipe.
2 Push on the brass compression ring.
3 Insert the end of the pipe fully into the fitting, making sure
that it reaches the stop.
4 Push the compression ring along the pipe to the mouth of the
fitting.
5 Now wind the nut on to the thread of the fitting in a
clockwise direction. This pulls the compression ring into
the fitting. It is essential that the compression nut is not
tightened too much as this will distort the compression ring
inside, which may cause a leak. The joint should only be
tightened sufficiently to hold the connection firm. When the
178

water is turned on, it can always be tightened a little more if
necessary, but once tightened too much no further tightening
will cure the leak.
Note that no jointing materials are necessary to make this
connection: it is a dry jointing method. However, a trick
sometimes used by plumbers, especially where the compression
ring used is not new, is either to wrap a ring of PTFE tape over
the compression ring or to apply a little jointing paste on to the
ring to make up for any blemishes. This is not applied on to
the threads of the fitting, as these are just used to pull the joint
together and do not make the seal.
tee coupling elbow
nut
pipe compression ring
section through a compression coupling

Figure 6.2 Compression fittings
SOLDERED JOINTS
These are joints that have been made with the use of a
blowlamp, although an electric soldering machine can also be
used to supply sufficient heat to the joint without the need of a
blowlamp.

There are two types of solder fitting: those that contain a ring of
solder (referred to as solder ring fittings) and those that require
the solder to be applied from a reel (referred to as end-feed
fittings) (see Figure 6.3). When using the solder ring fittings, no
additional solder needs to be applied to the joint.
Note that the solder used for hot and cold water supplies needs
to be lead free in order to avoid contaminating the water.
However, where central heating pipework is being installed, it
makes no difference what kind of solder you use. Both of these
solders are readily available from plumbers merchants.
ring of solder
within fitting
solder ring reducer end-feed reducing tee end-feed tap connector
ring of solder solder

within fitting
solder ring joint end-feed joint

(solder is added to joint)
Figure 6.3 Soldered joints
To make a soldered joint, take the following steps:

1 Adequately clean the mating surfaces of the pipe and inside
the fitting. Do this with wire wool or a special nylon cleaning
pad available from plumbers merchants.
2 Apply a suitable flux to the cleaned surfaces. This is a special
paste, readily available from plumbers merchants, applied
in order to keep the work area clean while soldering, thereby
allowing the molten solder to stick to the copper and flow
180

easily. Note that solder will not adhere to dirty or oily
surfaces. (There are self-cleansing fluxes that will clean the
pipe and fitting as the heat is applied, but take care: they can
be aggressive, and any residual flux needs to be fully flushed
from both inside and outside the pipe.)
3 Ensure that there is absolutely no water in the pipe when
soldering, otherwise it will not reach a high enough
temperature even the smallest drop of water will prevent
the solder from melting.
4 Using a blowlamp or a soldering machine, apply heat to the
assembled joint to melt the solder. Apply the solder as soon
as it melts do not simply hold the blowlamp there and burn
away all the flux. If solder ring fittings have been used, the
solder will be seen emerging at the mouth of the fitting. Then
remove the heat source.
5 Take care not to set fire to any combustible materials in the
vicinity.
6 Allow the joint to cool before moving it.
7 Finally, wipe off any residual flux otherwise, it will make
the pipe go green from the effect of corrosion on the pipe.
Should the joint leak when you test it, you will need to
completely remove it and form a new joint, using a new
fitting. The problem is most likely to have been a dirty joint.
Cleanliness and the application of a flux are essential in order to
solder a joint successfully.
Remember this
The completion of a soldered joint is a relatively straightforward task if
you follow the guidelines above. There must be no water in the pipe in
order to solder successfully. The pipe must be clean and have a suitable
flux applied. Any joint that fails will need to be completely removed.
PUSH-FIT JOINTS
There is a whole range of push-fit joints available. These joints
are very effective and you should not worry that they will not

hold the water pressure as long as you have assembled the
joint correctly, inserting it fully into the fitting and ensuring
that it is pushed all the way up to the internal stop. The joint
is achieved by the use of an internal O ring. When elbow or
bend joints are used, they have the advantage that they can be
swivelled around to any direction, even when water is in the
pipe. Because of this freedom of movement, the pipework does
need to be fully supported with pipe clips (see below).
Push-fit joints cannot readily be pulled from the pipe as there is
an internal grab ring preventing withdrawal. However, they can
be dismantled and reused. To remove the joint (see Figure 6.4),
push the end collet tightly into the fitting and, while holding it
close to the fitting, pull out the pipe. Different manufacturers use
different methods to disassemble the joint, so you may need to
obtain further advice from the manufacturer of a particular fitting.
Remember this
There is a simple way to ensure that a push-fit joint has been correctly
and fully pushed into the fitting: put a pencil mark on the pipe at the
distance from the end of the tube that would equal the depth that the
pipe should enter the fitting.
elbow
push and hold

collet in to O ring
withdraw pipe
collet
section through a straight coupling
Figure 6.4 Push-fit joints
182

PIPE CLIPS
All pipework needs to be securely supported and held firmly
by a pipe clip. These clips should be securely fixed to the wall
or adjoining surface at a distance not exceeding the dimensions
listed in Table 6.1 below.
Pipe size Copper clips Plastic clips

(mm) horizontal Vertical horizontal Vertical
15 1.2 1.8 0.6 1.2
22 1.8 2.4 0.7 1.4
28 1.8 2.4 0.8 1.5
Table 6.1 Maximum pipe support spacing, in metres
Bending copper tube

Copper tube can be installed using fittings throughout, thereby
avoiding the need to pull any pipe bends. However, this would:
CC increase the installation time
CC add to the cost of the job
CC increase the likelihood of leaks
CC reduce the pressure available at the outlet, due to the

increased frictional resistance caused by the fittings installed.
It is possible to purchase special flexible pipes and these do
have a use in areas such as making the final connections to bath
taps, but these would again increase the cost of the work if used
extensively throughout a plumbing project and they do look
unsightly. Bends pulled directly on to the pipe are preferable,
but in order to form a bend you will need either a bending
spring or a bending machine.
USING A BENDING SPRING

This is the cheap option for pipe bending. A bending spring,
if used correctly, will generally be more than adequate for
occasional use. However, it is easily damaged and can get stuck
inside the pipe if wrongly used.

There are several tricks for successfully using a bending spring:
CC Dont pull the bend too sharply, i.e. have a long radius to the
bend. As a general guide for a 90 bend on 15 mm copper
pipe, the radius will be something like that if pulled around a
pipe of 150 mm diameter.
CC Always slightly over-pull your bend, then open the bend out
again. This will release the spring inside the pipe to assist
removal.
CC When withdrawing the spring after pulling the bend, do
not just pull hard at the end of the spring, but turn it in a
clockwise direction. Do this with the aid of a screwdriver
passed into the loop at its end. This tightens the spring up,
forcing it to a smaller diameter. Just pulling hard to remove
the spring will damage it.
CC If it gets stuck, try gently closing and opening the bend a
little to free up the spring.
Bending springs are ideal where small bends and direction
changes are required and when used to form offsets in the
pipework. With the spring inserted into the pipe, pull it
around a round object or around your knee, keeping the
radius smooth and not too sharp (see Figure 6.5). If at any
time a ripple begins to form in the bend, immediately stop the
process and withdraw the spring as it will undoubtedly get
stuck inside the pipe.
USING A BENDING MACHINE

A small handheld bending machine will last a lifetime. It will
cost more than a bending spring but you can also hire one
by the day. With a bending machine it is possible to form all
kinds of weird and wonderful shapes. A few simple operations
are explained here, but if you struggle to pull a 90 bend to
the accuracy described, do not worry; just pull the bend with
a little extra spare pipe and cut it to the required length as
necessary.
184

Spring
internal bending
spring
Figure 6.5 Pipe bending with a spring
CC Forming a bend
The procedure described here can be used to form a bend at any
angle up to 90.
1 First, measure and mark on a straight length of pipe the
distance to the back of the bend you require, as shown in
Figure 6.6.
2 Place the pipe into the bending machine with this mark
square in line with the back of the bending machine.
3 Attach the hook of the tube stop to the pipe.
4 Position the back guide on the pipe and engage the roller to
hold it in place.
Finally, pull down the lever arm to form the bend, stopping
when the desired angle is achieved. Note that to form a bend in
22 mm pipe requires considerable strength.

x mark pipe here
proposed bend pipe
lever arm of
bending machine
pulled down
x roller
back guide
tube stop
square
pipe
Figure 6.6 Pulling a 90 bend
CC Forming an offset
An offset is a series of two bends that, in effect, allows the pipe
to continue in the same direction but along a new parallel plane.
This is achieved as follows:
1 Take a measurement of the required offset.
2 Now pull the first bend to an angle within the machine. This
angle can be as large or as small as suits your needs, but
should not be too sharp otherwise there will be insufficient
room for the tube stop and hook to sit on the pipe when
making the second bend. An angle of around 30 is usually
about right.
3 The pipe is now repositioned in the bending machine, with
the bend you have just pulled pointing upwards. Ensure that
186

the pipe is lying in the bender with the first offset in line with
the direction of the roller, otherwise your second bend will
be pulled in a different plane. Place a straight edge parallel
to the angle of the first bend formed, to measure the required
distance of the offset (see Figure 6.7).
4 Once you have measured the correct distance for the
required offset and put the tube stop in place, the pipe can
be pulled round until the correct angle is achieved along the
new parallel plane.
Plastic pipework and fittings

Over the past 20 years or so there has been quite a revolution
within the plumbing industry regarding whether to use copper
or plastic for the pipework within a building. Plastic pipework
can be used safely for both cold and hot water supplies,
including the central heating. Plumbing systems can certainly
be installed much more quickly with plastic piping, and no
jointing is required in long pipe runs. It is also easier to poke
or push it through difficult locations or pipe ducts. Water
noise due to water flowing through the pipes is also greatly
reduced. But, for pipes that will be seen and that run on the
surface, plastic looks rather messy. It lacks the sharpness and
conformity of a regular shape that one expects from a piece of
copper tube.
Fortunately, nowadays the external pipe diameter of most
plastic pipe is the same as for copper, and therefore you can
simply use a mix of the two materials, running plastic below
floors and anywhere else they wont be seen, and making the
final connections that will be on show in copper. The push-fit
method of jointing would be used (see above).
The polyethylene (PE) plastic pipe used underground, such as
that used for the mains water supply pipe from the road into a
building, is of a different type and to make this type of joint a
special compression fitting is usually used, although some push-
fit joints can be used. It should be noted that, when making this
plastic joint, an internal sleeve is inserted into the tube end as it
enters the fitting, thereby providing additional support.

Polyethylene pipe has a very thick wall so, for example, 25 mm
PE equates to 22 mm copper pipe and 20 mm PE equates to 15
mm copper pipe.
proposed offset
on pipe
required
offset
pulling first bend
required
offset straight edge
back guide
first bend
tube stop tube
pulling second bend
Figure 6.7 Forming an offset
188

PLASTIC WASTE PIPEWORK
Within the home, plastic plumbing materials for internal
drainage pipes have been used now for well over 40 years.
These materials are very simple to join together and, when
installed correctly, last for many years without any problems.
The three types of joint used are:
CC push-fit
CC solvent-welded
CC compression fitting (see Figure 6.8).
CC Push-fit joints
These consist of a large O ring housed within the fitting and
into which the spigot of another fitting or the plain end of a
pipe is pushed. In order to make a successful joint, the pipe
needs to be cut square and a small bevelled edge chamfered on
to the pipe end, using a rasp or similar tool. Now, ideally, some
silicone lubricant or soap solution is put on to the pipe and it is
pushed firmly into the fitting. Where a long pipe run has been
made, it is advisable to re-pull the pipe from the fitting a little,
say 10 mm, thereby allowing for expansion of the plastic pipe.
CC Solvent-welded joints
These joints, once formed, cannot be reused, unlike the push-fit
joint, which can be pulled apart and used over and over again.
The solvent-welded joint uses special solvent weld cement. It is
not a glue used to stick the two surfaces together but a solvent
that burns into the pipe and the fitting, thereby bonding the
two to form a sound, firm joint. Once made, the joint hardens
within seconds and, when fully set, no amount of pulling or
twisting will have any effect. To form this type of joint, follow
these steps:
1 First, clean the pipe end and the internal surface of the fitting
with a solvent cleaner. This process can be omitted if your
fittings and pipe are reasonably clean.
2 Now smear a thin layer of solvent cement on to the pipe
end and inside the fitting to be joined to it. Bring the two

together quickly, giving a slight twist, thereby ensuring that
the cement is in contact with all parts of the mating surfaces.
Before the solvent sets, make sure the bend, if used, is facing
in the desired direction. Leave the fitting to stand for a few
minutes, after which time it will be set quite firm and will
generally be ready for use.
3 It is essential not to use too much solvent cement because
excess cement will be pushed into the pipe and wasted, and
the joint will take much longer to set. Solvent cement gives
off vapours, so do not use it in confined spaces without
plenty of ventilation. The cement is also highly flammable.
O ring
solvent-welded joint push-fit joint
nut flat rubber

washer compression
ring
compression joint
Figure 6.8 Joints used on plastic waste pipe
190

Remember this
When forming a solvent-welded joint on plastic waste pipe, remember
that, once the joint has set usually within 30 seconds or so the joint
cannot be pulled apart. If incorrectly positioned, the joint would need to
be cut out of the pipeline.
CC Compression joints
Waste pipe compression joints are generally restricted to the
connections of traps to the pipework. For this joint, a rubber
compression ring is used. To form this type of joint, follow
these steps:
1 Push the nut on to the pipe.
2 Push on the flat plastic washer.
3 Push on the rubber compression ring.
4 Fully insert the end of the pipe into the fitting, making sure it
reaches the stop.
5 Push the compression ring along the pipe to the mouth of the
fitting.
6 Now wind the nut on to the thread of the fitting in a
clockwise direction. This pulls the flat washer up to the
compression ring, forcing it into the fitting. These joints
are generally made watertight by no more force than that
required to tighten the nut up by hand.
Specialist plumbing tools

Before starting out on any plumbing job, you will need a
selection of tools to enable you to complete the task with
relative ease. If you do not have the correct tools, you will
become frustrated very quickly and find you wish you had never
started the job in the first place.

Quick kit guide to plumbing tools
Listed here are the tools you should ideally have to hand, to deal with a
good percentage of small works:
Various sized screwdrivers, both cross- and straight-head types
Claw hammer and selection of wood chisels
Club hammer for heavier work and a selection of cold chisels for
brickwork
Various adjustable spanners
One or two adjustable wrenches such as pump pliers or Stilsons
Basin spanner*
Large-framed and junior hacksaws, plus some spare blades
Cutting knife (e.g. Stanley)
Wood saw
Copper tube cutters*
Various rasps and files
Side cutters and pliers
Large and small spirit level
Tape measure
Stopcock key (see Chapter 4)
Temporary bonding wires*
Blowlamp
Sink plunger & 150 mm plunger for WC pans (see Chapter 5)
Pipe bender (see Chapter 6)
Battery drill and various drill bits for both wood and wall
Dustsheets
Personal safety equipment
* These are specialist items, which are identified further over the following pages.
THE BASIN SPANNER

This tool is essential if you need to tighten or loosen the nuts
located up behind a bath, basin or sink where space is very
restricted. There are several designs of basin spanner, and the
design you use is very much a matter of choice I personally find
the adjustable wrench type the most versatile (see Figure 6.9).
192

Explaining how to use this spanner is difficult and it is really
necessary to get some hands-on practice. You can change
the turning direction, i.e. clockwise or anticlockwise, of the
adjustable wrench shown simply by altering the direction to
which the toothed head is facing at the top of the shaft.
adjustable wrench
shetack type of
basin spanner
Figure 6.9 Basin spanners
THE TUBE CUTTER

This is not an essential tool because you can cut a pipe with a
hacksaw, even a junior hacksaw, but it will cut the pipe squarely
and with a great deal of ease. However, its biggest drawback is
that it puts a small internal burr on the pipe. Often the plumber
does not worry about this, but it can cause noise problems that
are not identified until it is too late to do anything about it. The
internal burr should ideally be reamed or filed out, and many
cutters include a reamer for this purpose. The cutter is operated
by winding down the handle until the single roller touches the
pipe (see Figure 6.10). The tool is then rotated fully around
the pipe; the handle is then wound down another half to one
turn and rotated again. You repeat this process as many times

roller pipe slice
cutting
wheel
reamer
roller pipe cutter

Figure 6.10 Copper tube cutters
as necessary until sufficient depth has been cut into the pipe
to cause it to part. A particularly good cutter for getting into
tight areas is the pipe slice, but with this you need to select one
of the correct size, i.e. 15 mm or 22 mm. This design of cutter
automatically cuts the pipe as it is rotated, without you needing
to adjust the blade depth.
These cutters will cut right through the pipe so, before you cut
it, it is absolutely essential to check that there is no water within
the pipe, otherwise this will flow uncontrollably from the pipe
ends when they part.
TEMPORARY CONTINUITY BONDING WIRE

Although pipework these days is supposed to be bonded and
safe from electrical currents (see equipotential earth bonding in
Chapter 1), it is possible that there might be a fault, unknown
to anyone, in which an electrical current is flowing down to
earth through your metal pipework. Anyone who cuts the
pipe and pulls the two sections apart runs the risk of being
electrocuted. Plumbers rarely use a temporary bonding wire
194

and are even more rarely electrocuted, but it does happen (on
only half a dozen or so occasions a year), occasionally fatally.
The choice is yours. What happens is that the fault current
flowing down through the pipe to earth is interrupted as the
pipe is cut. As the operative holds on to the two separate pipe
ends, the current can resume its path and flow through the
individual, up their arm, through the trunk and heart and
back down the other arm to rejoin the pipe. Their muscles will
contort with the shock and they will grip the pipe more tightly
and be unable to let go.
In order to ensure complete safety, anyone doing this sort of
plumbing work should place a temporary bonding wire across
the section to be cut, so that, in the event of a current flowing,
the fault path is maintained as the two pipe sections are pulled
apart. This bonding wire should be kept in place until the
pipe section is reinstated, such as when inserting a new tee
connection. A bonding wire is essentially the same as a set of
car jump-start leads (see Figure 6.11).
disconnected
pipe
10 mm2 cable
Figure 6.11 Temporary continuity bond

Concealing your pipework
Most people do not like to see pipework, so concealment is
one of the keys to a successful plumbing job. Pipes run on the
surface can never be made to look good, so hiding them within
walls and below floors should always be considered. However,
there are a few specific requirements that need to be observed.
Figure 6.12 shows methods that can be used.
Remember this
When concealing any form of pipework, consider noise transmission
and the effects of placing pipes inside compartments and below floors.
They will often act as a resonator and increase the volume of any noise
generated. Secure where necessary, allowing for movement, and use
rubber or foam mountings.
PIPES BELOW FLOORS
CC Solid floors
There is no problem in running the pipework within the floor
screed (i.e. the top layer of sand and cement) providing there
is some protection around the pipe to prevent chemical attack
or corrosion caused by the cement. In the case of heating
pipework, there also needs to be some provision to allow for
expansion. This can be achieved by placing the pipe within
some thin lagging material or running it within a small floor
duct, covered with a plate. If you wish to run the pipe in
concrete, it will need to be fully protected and to do this you
could run it within a larger-sized pipe.
CC Timber floors
It is essential to remember that, if you cut too much material
from a structural floor joist, you will weaken it, possibly
making it unsafe. For example, the maximum depth to which
a floor joist can be cut is one-eighth of the overall depth of the
joist, and the notch should be made close to the bearing wall.
Also, when running pipes below timber floors, remember to
allow for expansion and contraction, and possibly consider
196

pipe screwed to
stud with resilient
max =
wall width mounting
3
pipe run within a wall chase

(solid wall)
pipe within timber wall
protected pipe
laid in screed
sand/cement screed
oversite concrete
solid floors
joist length
max = 4
joist depth
max = 8
notching floor joists
timber floors
Figure 6.12 Concealing pipework within walls and floors

laying the pipes on to felt pads to cut down the noise from these
movements. You should also avoid pipes touching each other
because this will also create noise problems.
PIPES WITHIN WALLS

CC Solid walls
Pipes can be concealed within an internal wall within a pipe
chase (a channel cut into the wall, as seen in Figure 6.12) and
simply plastered over; however, there must be provision to isolate
the pipe should a leak occur. Again, ideally the pipe should be
protected against acid attack from cement-based products. As
with floor joists, there is a maximum depth at which any pipe
chase can be placed before weakening occurs this depth is one-
third of the thickness of the wall for vertically installed pipes, and
one-sixth where the pipe chase is run horizontally.
CC Timber walls
When running pipework within timber stud walls, you must
consider the possibility that the water flowing through the
pipes could resonate through the structure. Securing the pipe
clips on to rubber or felt mountings and adding additional pipe
insulation material will help to reduce this. Above all, ensure
that the system is fully checked for leaks before finally sealing in
the pipes.
In all cases, wherever pipes will be inaccessible once they have
been installed, joints should be kept to a minimum as these
are generally the weakest point of the system and are the most
likely to cause problems. Where possible, fit an access panel,
screwed in place, to enable future access if required.
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! Focus points
1 Atmospheric corrosion is the result of water and oxygen in the air
attacking metal pipework. Iron is attacked the most severely with
the iron oxide (rust) that forms continually dropping away to expose
fresh metal, which in turn also rusts away.
2 Electrolytic corrosion is the result of two different metals being in
contact via a body of water, through which the passage of electrically
charged ions can pass. The metal lower down the electromotive
series is slowly destroyed.
3 Any existing lead pipe, used for cold or hot water services, should
always be removed if possible. Where this is not possible, make any
connections to the lead pipe using compression-type joints.
4 Mild steel pipe should not be used for cold and hot water distribution
pipework as it is rapidly corroded by atmospheric and electrolytic
means.
5 PTFE, which stands for polytetrafluoroethylene, is a jointing tape
sometimes used to make joints to pipework.
6 When soldered joints are to be used to make joints to copper pipes,
the solder used on cold and domestic hot water supplies must be
lead-free.
7 Plastic pipe used for water services is the same diameter as copper
tube pipework, and push-fit joints can be easily made to join the
two materials. Plastic can be used very successfully on all systems
without fear of leaking joints.
8 To get to the awkward pipe joints behind sink and basins, use a
special plumbers tool called a basin spanner.
9 When removing a section of pipe, it is advisable to insert a
temporary bonding wire to prevent the possibility of electric shocks.
10 Consider possible future access to concealed pipework and
remember to allow for expansion and noise transmission.

Next step
In this chapter you learned about the different
plumbing tools and materials, and how to bend
and join pipes and conceal unsightly pipework. You
also learned about safe working practices. Once
you have understood the material in this chapter,
it will be much easier to carry out the range of
tasks in the next chapter, which looks at how to
maintain the various systems so as to prevent and
overcome the plumbing problems described in
Chapters 4 and 5.
200

Ancillary works
7
and maintenance
CC about employing a qualified professional
CC about gas or oil boiler maintenance
CC about gas-fire maintenance
CC about general plumbing maintenance
CC about maintenance of unvented hot water
systems.
201

To keep your systems free from too many problems, they need
regular servicing and maintenance. Some of this servicing
should be done by a professional, and this chapter identifies
what you should be looking for when employing someone to do
this work for you.
Employing a qualified professional

Plumbing work around the home is generally within the
grasp of anyone. With manufacturers making the assembly of
components easier and the costs of employing a professional
to do the work increasing, it seems sensible to look for other
options such as DIY. However, there will come a time when you
wish to call someone in to do the work. So who do you call?
Unfortunately, many people think that, because they can join
two pipes together or can wire up an electrical component, they
can now earn a living and trade as a professional. However,
a truly professional plumber or electrician will have undergone
extensive training in system design and been tested on their
ability to do the work properly.
As we have seen, running pipes and cables of an incorrect size
or following the wrong route can lead to problems that may
be long-term and recurrent, and even dangerous. Untrained
operatives may undertake work that fails to perform as it
should and that, due to ignorance or even deliberate action,
infringes the various regulations in force.
There is no law to stop anyone trading as a plumber or as an
electrician, but there are laws in place that require most work
activities to be certified as completed correctly and to the right
standard.
Key idea
Finding the right person to do work for you can be a nightmare. Ask
what qualifications the operative has and ask to see any appropriate
registration cards they may have. Ask for references and take these up.
Once you have found a good contact, look after them; a professional who
knows their stuff is worth every penny.
202

CERTIFICATION
Over the past decade or so there has been a shift in the law,
which has put more and more onus on the householder to take
responsibility for what they have in their home. If it is your
home, you may be liable to prosecution for works completed
that fail to comply with current regulations.
A professional will usually be registered with a national validation
body, such as one of those listed in Appendix 3, allowing the work
to be undertaken immediately and permitting self-certification.
Anyone else may be legally bound to seek approval in writing
to do the work. If you do not do this, you risk breaking the law
with your installation. Appendix 1 highlights the legislation that
currently applies, and failing to employ the right person might
result in you having to try to get work certificated at a later date,
or failing to comply with the small print of your home insurance
policy should you wish to make a claim.
Professionals have to ensure that at all times they comply with
changes in legislation, and to achieve this they invariably need to:
CC pay annual fees to belong to a professional body
CC pay for continued training and assessment
CC take time off from work and therefore lose earnings to attend
courses
CC comply with additional safety laws, which have additional
cost implications.
All these costs have a knock-on effect on what you would
expect to pay for an hours or a days work.
CC Gas installation work within your home

It is illegal for anyone to undertake gas installation work for
monetary gain unless they are registered onto the Gas Safe
registration scheme (see Appendix 1: Legislation). Employing
someone who you know is not registered could also be deemed
to be an offence. It is essential, therefore, that you always
check to see the operatives current Gas Safe registration card,
identifying on the back of the card what gas work they have
been assessed to undertake.
7. Ancillary works and maintenance 203

CC Electrical installation work within your home
Again, all electrical work undertaken must be certified as safe
without this certification you cannot be absolutely sure that
the work has been carried out by a competent operative. For
example, a central heating installation has an electrical supply
and therefore its installation legally requires a minor works
certificate as a minimum.
Finding the right professional

Where do you go to get the right plumber, heating engineer, gas engineer
or electrician?
One of the best options is through a recommendation.
Next, try contacting one of the recognized professional bodies such
as those listed in Appendix 3: Taking it further. These bodies generally
maintain lists of trading operatives local to the area where you live or
where you require the work to be done.
Do not necessarily go for the big ads in trade indexes such as Yellow
Pages. These people may or may not be any good. My view is that a
good company does not necessarily have to advertise for work.
Dont accept the first quote you are given for a job; try to get at least
three estimates where possible.
Dont necessarily go for the cheapest option and dont have the
work completed by someone who cannot offer the full services and,
where necessary, the essential certification as identified above and in
Appendix 1: Legislation.
Gas or oil boiler maintenance

Boiler manufacturers usually recommend that boiler servicing
be undertaken on an annual basis, so I could not possibly
recommend anything less. If you dont touch the boiler, it may
work for years, but will it be working safely and efficiently?
Thats the question!
Servicing is not carried out just to ensure that the boiler stays
working: it is also to ensure that it stays working safely.
Without an annual check-up, the odourless combustion
products from a faulty appliance may discharge into the room.
204

Combustion products do accumulate on the heat exchanger
within the appliance and in so doing reduce its efficiency. Most
modern gas boilers have very compact heat exchanger fins,
which can block up rapidly.
All kinds of service contracts are provided by installers, at a
range of costs. Some companies seem to do no more than stick a
flue gas analyser into the flue to take an efficiency reading of the
appliance and measure for carbon monoxide (CO). They might
only consider undertaking a full service if the reading is too
high, but this is not a service and is sometimes called a safety
check. However, the sample flue gas products obtained will only
be accurate at the time of taking the reading. If there is plenty of
fresh air around, this may lead to a good reading; conversely, if
on another occasion no fresh air can get into the appliance, the
reading may well be worse, and it could deteriorate over time.
A service is a full check of the running condition of the appliance
as recommended by the manufacturer. Ideally it would also
include undertaking a flue gas analysis before and after the
service. The service itself would include, among other things:
CC a check on the gas burner pressure or oil pressure, as
applicable
CC checking the correct ventilation or air supply to the appliance
CC inspection and, if necessary, cleaning of the heat exchanger
CC inspection and, if necessary, cleaning of the burner head
CC an inspection to confirm the correct fluing arrangements
CC cleaning out, where applicable, the condensation trap as

found in a high-efficiency or condensing boiler
CC checking the flame ignition and flame failure devices
CC checking pressures or levels of expansion vessels
CC checking correct operation of thermostats
CC checking pressure-sensing devices
CC checking the system controls for correct operation
CC above all, checking the safe operation of the appliance.

There is no law to state that you cannot service your own
appliance in your own home. But would you be sure that you
have an appliance that is operating safely? Oil engineers registered
with OFTEC and gas service engineers registered on the Gas Safe
scheme have been assessed on their ability to undertake work on
these appliances. Ask what their service consists of and whether
they will be giving you a service or safety check. There is no law
to say that a certificate should be given for a service, but you
should try to find out what they will be doing for their money.
Gas fire maintenance

Gas fires are often installed and run for years without anyone
checking them. Some of the old gas fires still in use today
have been in operation for well over 30 years, possibly never
having been inspected since the day they were installed. Over
this period they will have suffered the strain of time and will
invariably have cracks in the heat exchanger, unseen by the user,
and products of combustion, including carbon monoxide, may
be drawn into the room. In Chapter 2 the dangerous effects of
carbon monoxide (CO) inside a room were discussed.
Also consider the poor birds outside in the winter! Where
would you sit if you were one? On top of the chimney pot is
a nice warm spot, and it also makes a nice place for them to
leave their droppings. Unfortunately birds inevitably fall off
their perch, sometimes down the chimney. All the droppings,
dead birds and other material such as leaves accumulate
within the chimney and eventually create a blockage in the
flue system.
The gas fire installed to a blocked flue will still operate, but it
will discharge its products into the room rather than up the flue.
Carbon monoxide has no smell so you wont even know that
you are being poisoned. If you look at Table 2.1, relating to
carbon monoxide poisoning, you will see that there only needs
to be as little as less than 1 per cent within the room before a
fatality will result within a few minutes.
It is important occasionally to have your gas fire checked out
by a professional; it may save your life! An expert will not only
206

check that it is operating safely but will also check the operation
of the flue. Expect the service engineer, as a minimum, to:
CC remove the fire for inspection and, if necessary, clean the
burner head
CC check the condition of the radiants and heat exchanger,
replacing any faulty parts
CC check for the correct ventilation of the appliance
CC check for the correct fluing arrangements, removing any

debris
CC undertake a flue flow test, which consists of passing a
quantity of smoke up through the chimney to confirm that it
is clear
CC reinstate the appliance, ensuring a secure fixing and that the
flue seals are maintained
CC check the gas burner pressure
CC check the flame ignition and flame failure devices
CC undertake a spillage test while the appliance is in operation.
The spillage test is one of the most important tests and is

undertaken by holding a special smoke-producing match at a
position around the canopy just above the flames or radiants.
If the products of combustion spill into the room, the smoke
will likewise be pushed back into the room; conversely, if the
products are being drawn into the flue, the smoke likewise will
be sucked into the chimney.
Key idea
One of the indicators of a gas fire continuously spilling products of
combustion is black staining to the walls or on the canopy of the fire, just
above the flame itself.
DECORATIVE FUEL-EFFECT GAS FIRES

These fires have been around now for some 2030 years. In
the early days they were put together quite precariously, often

consisting of a bent copper tube with a series of small holes
drilled into it and laid in a bed of dry sand, through which
the gas could filter and escape, creating the effect of naturally
burning coal or wood.
The design of these fires has improved considerably since then,
and fires of this nature fitted these days even have their coals
laid out onto the fire bed in a systematic order. It is important to
be aware that they are fuel-effect fires, not real solid fuel fires,
and so you should not throw certain items on to them, such as
paper, cigarette ends and so on, to burn them. Of course these
items will burn, but in so doing they pass combustion products,
including carbon or soot, into the flue system where they
accumulate, reducing its effectiveness. Also, these items will leave
deposits of ash, which will not be cleared away as they would
with real coal or wood-burning fires. This ash accumulates and
disrupts the correct operation of the fire, again possibly leading
to combustion products escaping into the room.
Remember this
All gas appliances within the home, such as a water heater or cooker,
should still occasionally be given a safety check, even though they rarely
cause fatalities.
General plumbing maintenance

All parts of your plumbing system should be checked
occasionally, even the areas that you do not expect to go wrong,
such as your loft cistern, stopcocks and valves. If you have an
unvented system for your hot water, this should also be subject
to regular maintenance.
PLUMBING IN THE LOFT

This area of maintenance is often overlooked. Unless the cistern
overflows, no one generally goes near their cistern(s). However,
modern overflow pipes have a filter within the housing that
connects to the cistern wall and the lid will also have a filter
in its vent and these filters should be checked occasionally.
208

They are unlikely to become blocked with insects and other
debris, but the time to find out is not when the cistern starts
to overflow because the float-operated valve is not closing off
properly.
To inspect the overflow and lid filters, take the following steps:
1 Hold the ball float down below the water level to allow the
cistern to overflow for a moment. This will confirm that the
filter is free and that the overflow is effective, without any
leakage.
2 Check the security of the lid.
3 Confirm that the insulation material is held securely in place.
4 Check that the isolation valves are operating freely.
5 Look for general signs of fatigue or damage, particularly
with older galvanized cisterns.
COLD AND HOT WATER SUPPLY STOPCOCKS AND VALVES

All the internal valves used for turning off the hot or cold water
pipework should occasionally be operated. This prevents them
from seizing up and keeps them operational in the event of an
emergency. Check also that the label identifying what services it
supplies is still in place and legible.
UNVENTED SYSTEMS OF HOT WATER SUPPLY

Unvented systems incorporate several fail-safe devices but, even
so, these systems do have the potential to blow up!
CC If the pressure and temperature relief valves fail to operate
along with the temperature thermostats, the pressure will
continue to rise within, until it can take no more.
CC The pressure in these systems has the potential to increase
above 1 bar (this being the pressure created by the
atmosphere surrounding the system). Water boils at 100C
at 1 bar pressure, but at greater pressures the boiling
temperature of the water increases. Because of this, if a
fracture were to occur in the cylinder when the pressure
is higher than 1 bar, all the water would instantaneously

flash to steam as it came under the influence of atmospheric
pressure. When water changes to steam, it expands around
1,600 times, so the damage from such a steam explosion
could be catastrophic.
As a minimum, you need to check the test levers to ensure that
they are still functioning. In an ideal world this should be an
annual check but in reality this task, like many maintenance
tasks, is wrongly put off until another day. I would not
recommend putting off the maintenance of these controls
indefinitely.
Unfortunately, the biggest problem is that, when these test
levers are operated, they invariably let-by (in other words the
valves do not close off properly) and they drip and continue
to drip. This dripping may be due to some limescale building
up beneath the valve head, which suggests that the valve needs
replacing in any case. Changing the valve should be undertaken
by a qualified operative because, technically, these are the only
people, identified under the Building Regulations, with the
proven competence to replace them.
Should a specialist be called in to check your system as part of
a maintenance contract, in addition to checking that these test
levers operate, they should as a minimum also check:
CC the pressure/volume capacity of the expansion vessel
CC the in-line filter for debris
CC that the normal operating thermostat is functioning, closing

off at 60C maximum.
Typical problems generally encountered with these systems
include the following:
CC Water discharging intermittently from the pressure relief
valve. This is generally due to a pressure build-up within the
system, possibly caused by:
XX a faulty pressure-reducing valve
XX a faulty expansion vessel (which will probably have lost
its air pressure charge), so that as the water heats up it
210

cannot expand into the expansion vessel and it forces
open the pressure-relief valve. Where the air charge
pressure is lost from a sealed expansion vessel, the system
will need to be drained down and the vessel repressurized.
CC Water discharging continuously from the pressure-relief
valve. This could possibly be caused by:
XX a faulty pressure-reducing valve
XX a piece of grit lodged beneath the outlet valve seating of
this control.
CC Water discharging from the temperature-relief valve. This
could be the result of:
XX a piece of grit lodged beneath the outlet valve seating of
this control
XX both the normal operating and high-limit thermostats
failing to operate.
In all these cases it is essential to investigate the cause of the
problem and not simply plug off the water seepage with a
fitting to stem the water flow. The seepage is telling you that
something may be wrong!
! Focus points
1 Remember to ask to see the Gas Safe registration card when
employing a gas engineer to do work within your home.
2 Ask to review the back of an operatives Gas Safe registration card
to confirm that the operative has been accredited for the work you
wish them to undertake.
3 If in doubt, phone the validation body to confirm the details of
certification.
4 When some kinds of electrical work are completed in your home, the
work must be certified as safe, and you should keep a copy of the
certification.
5 Annual inspections of gas appliances should be undertaken to ensure
that the gas appliance is working safely.
6 Dont forget to have the gas fire serviced as well as the boiler.

7 When looking for a professional to undertake work for you, try
to get a recommendation and dont necessarily go for the big
advertisements.
8 Always get several quotes for works to be completed in your home,
to ensure a fair price.
9 If you have an unvented domestic hot water supply system, have the
system inspected and the safety components checked as working, to
ensure that limescale or seizure is not preventing the components
from doing their job.
10 Never plug off a dripping safety valve; get it replaced.
Next step
In this chapter you learned the importance of
maintaining a system to prevent the problems
associated with things going wrong and breaking
down, and how to locate the right person to deal
with specific gas and electrical works. The final
chapter deals with altering or making additions
to the various plumbing systems you may have
in your home, when you can refer back to the
first chapters describing the cold and hot water
supplies and drainage systems. You will also
find Chapter 6 useful to refer to when you are
undertaking small plumbing projects to ensure a
safe, well-maintained and effective system.
212

Undertaking small
8
plumbing projects
CC how to install a washing machine or
dishwasher
CC how to install a water softener
CC how to make a connection to the soil pipe
CC how to install an outside tap
CC how to remove a radiator to decorate
behind it
CC how to repair or replace the incoming cold
water supply main
CC how to install a new storage cistern
CC how to repair a faulty immersion heater
CC how to insulate to prevent freezing and
frost damage
CC how to install guttering and rainwater pipes
CC how to install a range of sanitary appliances
CC how to replace a shower booster pump.
213

This chapter shows you how to undertake some of the smaller
plumbing tasks that you may wish to tackle yourself. It
assumes that you have read and understood the basic plumbing
processes discussed in Chapter 6, and that you know how to
turn off the water supply (see Chapter 4) and therefore have an
adequate grounding to tackle these small projects.
As your confidence grows, you will soon discover that, by
following the same basic principles and taking your time to think
through how best to tackle a particular job, all kinds of tasks can
be attempted. The instructions here allow you to sequence your
activity and break down tasks into small, manageable chunks.
Preparation and first principles

Invariably it is the preparation that takes most of the time.
Taking up floorboards and making way for pipe runs is the
donkeywork the running of pipes is often the easy bit. Start
by getting rid of everything thats no longer wanted its going
anyway and, if you try to work round things, it slows you down
and prevents you running the pipework as you would choose to.
With the old products out of the way, you can easily gain access
to areas below floorboards or behind timber panels where the
new pipework may be run (i.e. out of sight). Having cleared
everything away, you will have made room to work comfortably
instead of falling over everything.
You will find that the same principles apply whether you are
installing a single WC or a complete bathroom suite. In all the
projects described, the sequence of events will go something
like this:
1 Turn off the water supply and hot water heaters where
applicable.
2 Confirm that the water has shut off correctly.
3 Remove items that are no longer wanted.
4 Temporarily cap off the pipework at a point where the new
connection is to be made, and turn the water supply back on
until the new work is ready to be connected.
214

5 Prepare the work area for the new installation, running all
new pipework and installing the appliances.
6 Turn off the water supply and make the new connection as
necessary.
7 Turn the water back on and test the new appliance as
appropriate.
Key idea
All the jobs described in this chapter share similarities, so, before
undertaking any of them, read the chapter in its entirety because you
may find that tips for one job are also applicable to another.
Remember this
If you require some expert advice or the services of a professional, see
Appendix 3: Taking it further.
Installing a washing machine

or dishwasher
This is one of the simplest projects to undertake as an
introduction to doing your own plumbing works. The
requirements for a dishwasher are the same as those for a
washing machine so, in effect, these notes are applicable to
both appliances. When you purchase the machine, it will come
with its own set of installation guidance notes that you can
use to support what is written here. To complete this task, you
will need:
CC adequate space into which the appliance can be fitted
CC an electrical supply point within reach of the appliance cable
CC a drain within close proximity or along the same stretch of

wall
CC a hot and cold water supply, the closer the better.
8. Undertaking small plumbing projects 215

Most machines will work with just a cold supply and some
machines only require this, but if there is no hot supply the
operating time of the machine will be longer because the
machine will have to heat the water. Check with the machine
supplier; heating water using electricity is generally less
economical than using your normal hot water supply.
Assuming the first two points are fulfilled, all that needs to be
done is to run the waste pipe and water supply connection.
THE WASTE PIPE

If you are lucky, you will be installing the appliance next to an
existing sink. Look at the trap from this sink; if it is plastic, it
may already have a special washing machine trap fitted for a
branch connection to a washing machine or dishwasher (see
Figure 8.1). If this is the case, all you need to do is cut the
blanked end off to enable you to push the washing machine
waste pipe hose on to the tapered connection and secure it
in place with a large jubilee clip (available from plumbers
merchants and hardware stores).
If there is not one of these traps in place, the best option is to
purchase one and replace the existing trap, altering the existing
waste pipe to the sink if necessary. Sometimes this may require
the replacement of the existing sink waste pipe, but this is often
still the best option and overcomes the need for the additional
waste pipe, which would be required as the alternative. You
should avoid cutting a tee branch connection into the existing
waste pipe, as is often done by the DIY plumber, as this may
result in problems with trap siphonage (see Chapter 1).
Where it is not possible to make a connection to a washing
machine trap, a new waste pipe will need to be run. To do this
you would need to gain access to a drain connection. Look
outside the building for a gully into which you could discharge
your new waste pipe.
Alternatively, you may need to make a boss connection into
the soil stack as it passes down to ground level. This is a much
bigger job, for which you will need to refer to the notes later
in the chapter on making a branch connection to the existing
vertical soil pipe.
216

alternative washing machine
trap with branch connection
for appliance
back of
washing
machine
trap
washing machine using stand

pipe alternatively, use a washing
machine trap (see above)
inline washing tee valve

machine service
valve
Figure 8.1 Installing a washing machine or dishwasher

If you have decided to run a completely new additional waste
system for the washing machine, the pipework must be run
following the guidelines for waste pipework in Chapter 1, with
a minimum waste pipe size of 40 mm (1). The new waste
system will need a trap to be fitted and the pipe terminated with
an upstand, as shown in Figure 8.1. The washing machine waste
pipe is then simply hooked into this upstand.
THE WATER SUPPLY CONNECTION

The flexible hot and cold hose(s) from the appliance must next
be connected to the water supply. To make this connection
you need to terminate your pipe with a quarter-turn washing
machine valve, one for the hot water and one for the cold,
within about 300 mm of the back of the machine. As with the
trap, look first to see if these are already there. If they are not
present, a new connection will need to be run.
To complete this task, you need to do the following:
1 Locate a suitable pipe where you could cut in your new tee
joint.
2 Ensure that you have chosen the correct pipe for your
connection by following the route of the pipe to check that it
feeds a hot or cold outlet as necessary.
3 Install your new pipework, terminating with the quarter-turn
washing machine valve close to the washing machine. These
come with a red or a blue head, for designating the hot and
cold supply. If there is a pipe close to the machine into which
you could cut, and sufficient room within the pipework, you
can purchase a special tee valve for this purpose.
4 Run the new pipework prior to making the final connection
to the existing supply, thereby ensuring that the water only
needs to be turned off for the minimum amount of time.
5 Run the new pipework following the basic plumbing
processes discussed in Chapter 6. Turn off the water supply
and confirm that water is drained from the pipe by opening
the taps along this section of pipe and/or a drain-off cock.
218

6 Cut into the existing pipe and make the final tee connection
into the existing pipework.
7 Turn the water back on and turn on the pipe to test that it
works.
8 With the hot and cold supply valves in place, you just need
to make the final connection to the machine. This will be via
two hoses, supplied with the machine, with a rubber washer
making the connection at your new valves and on to the
termination points on the machine. These joints should not
be done up too tightly.
9 Turn on the quarter-turn valves and check that they are
watertight, doing up the nuts a little if necessary. Now, if
you have not already done so, it is essential to remove the
transit bracket that was secured at the factory to prevent
the drum from moving and causing damage during the
transportation of the machine.
10 Finally, plug the machine into the power supply and start
your (dish)washing.
Installing a water softener

The installation of a water softener is in itself a relatively simple
task, but you do need to ensure that a hard water connection
direct from the water main is maintained prior to the water
softener connection. As with the installation of a washing
machine, you will need:
CC adequate space into which the appliance can be fitted
CC an electrical supply point within reach of the appliance cable
CC a drain within close proximity or along the same stretch of

wall
CC a cold water supply, the closer the better.
When installing a water softener, you will need to run the waste
pipe. To do this, follow the guidance given above for running
the waste pipe when installing a washing machine. The cold

softened
water supply
cover
salt compartment
lid time controller
for automatic
regeneration
drinking water
supply prior
closed to softener
service valve
service
valves
opened check
valve
salt level
maintained by
householder drain-off
overflow
cock
waste stop
pipe valve
Figure 8.2 Installing a water softener
water connections are made into the water supply main, as

shown in Figure 8.2. Note that a connection has been run to the
sink to provide water for drinking purposes. Softened water is
generally regarded as safe to drink, but it is not recommended
for pregnant women and young children, and some people do
not like the taste.
Installation instructions will be provided with the appliance,
which you can follow. When cutting into the existing cold
water mains supply pipe, make sure, as always, that the water
is turned off and that any excess water has been drained
from the pipe via the drain-off cock. Ensuring that the float-
operated valve in the storage or toilet cistern is opened will
help to drain down this pipe it allows the air in to force the
water out. The process of joining the pipework is discussed in
Chapter 6.
220

When the installation is complete, you will need to fill the
water softener with salt and set the time clock, following the
instructions supplied by the manufacturer.
Remember this
A water softener is different from a water conditioner in that it totally
removes the soluble calcium carbonate and sulfate salts from the water. A
water conditioner simply alters the shape of these salts to prevent them
easily sticking together and to the material components of the system.
Making a connection to the soil pipe

Sometimes, in order to make a connection to the drainage
system, it is necessary to cut into the vertical soil stack. You will
need to insert a tee branch connection for large pipes; however,
when this connection is for a small pipe, the connection is called
a boss, as shown in Figure 8.3. Ideally, when looking for a
connection for a new waste pipe, try to find a gully or existing
connection so that the amount of work is kept to a minimum
(alas, life is rarely that simple).
The procedure identified here is for jointing into a plastic
drainage pipe; making a boss connection to cast-iron or
asbestos soil stacks is beyond the scope of this book.
100 mm main
discharge soil pipe
waste
pipe
rubber lining
is pushed into
the boss,
hole cut boss secured followed by
in pipe to pipe the pipe
Figure 8.3 Strap-on boss

Follow this simple process to make a boss connection to a
plastic soil pipe:
1 Purchase a strap-on boss for the size of waste pipe you have.
2 Once you have this you will see the size of hole that needs
to be cut into the existing soil stack. Cut this hole out with
a special hole saw; this has a central drill bit and a circular
toothed saw blade, and can be purchased cheaply at any
hardware store. Before cutting the pipe, check that the saw
is the right size for the boss fitting. You will notice that a lug
is designed to fit into the hole to be cut, thereby keeping it
central. If you cut the hole too small, the lug will not enter
and will prevent full contact of the mating surfaces. Cut the
hole too big and you run the risk of insufficient coverage of
the mating surfaces.
3 With everything in place and access gained to the soil pipe,
ensure that the waste system is not being used by anyone
until you have finished your work! Then drill the hole at
the correct vertical height, following the guidance for slope
gradient, as discussed in Chapter 1. You must not fit the boss
too high or you will trap water in the pipe as it drains from
the appliance.
4 With the hole made, confirm that the boss fits snugly to the
pipe.
5 Now clean the mating surfaces, removing any paint or other
residue from the existing soil stack to provide a clean plastic-
to-plastic joint.
6 Apply the appropriate solvent cement, as made and supplied
by the manufacturer of the plastic strap-on boss.
7 Now push the fitting into place and hold it firmly until the
cement has set, usually within a few minutes. Some designs
have a strap that passes right around the large soil pipe and
bolts on to the pipe.
8 Some designs of boss include a rubber O ring to enable you
to push the small waste pipe into the fitting; others, such as
the one illustrated here, require you to insert a rubber cone
prior to making your final connection.
222

Installing an outside tap
The type of tap used outside is referred to as a hose union bib
tap, which provides for the connection of a hosepipe. Installing
this tap is a relatively simply task possibly the biggest job is
drilling the hole through the external wall, through which to
run the pipe. Installing an outside tap also requires some specific
regulations to be complied with, as follows:
CC There must be an inline stop valve fitted, such as a stopcock,
to isolate the tap.
CC A device must be installed within the pipeline to ensure that
no water can be drawn back into the water supply pipeline
should a negative pressure be created within. This device is
called a double checkvalve, which basically incorporates two
spring-loaded non-return valves.
CC There must be provision to drain out the water in winter
when the tap is not in use.
CC Thermal insulation material must be fitted as appropriate.
CC Finally, it should be noted that, when running the pipe to this

external location, there is the potential for stray electrical
currents from a faulty electrical system to pass to earth
when someone outside touches the tap. To avoid this, it is
recommended that you include a plastic fitting within the
pipeline to the tap.
To install the tap, take the following steps:
1 Drill the hole in the wall at the desired location.
2 Inside the building, run the pipe to the nearby cold water
supply and install a stopcock or alternative isolation valve.
Further along the pipe leading to the outside tap, incorporate
the double checkvalve and a drain-off cock. Finally, assuming
that the work completed has been run in copper, before the
pipe exits the property, incorporate a plastic push coupling.
3 Run the pipe through the wall and terminate it securely,
possibly to a back-plate elbow. This fitting is designed with a
female thread into which the hose union tap can be secured

and has the provision to be screwed back to the wall, which
will hold the tap firmly in place.
4 With everything in place, turn off the water supply and
confirm that it is closed. Cut the pipe to make a tee connection
as necessary, branching to your new outside hose union tap.
5 Finally, test the pipework and insulate it to provide adequate
protection from frost.
Removing a radiator to decorate

behind it
When a radiator needs to be removed from a wall in order to
decorate behind it, this can be done quite simply without having
to drain down the whole of the heating system. The job may
require two people if the radiator is quite large.
The first task is to turn off the radiator at both ends. One end
will have a lockshield valve attached, while the valve at the
other end will be manually operated or will be a thermostatic
radiator valve (TRV).
CLOSING THE LOCKSHIELD VALVE

To turn this off, pull off the plastic cap or cover (sometimes
a screw is located in the top to hold this cap on). With this
removed, use a spanner to turn the spindle clockwise until the
valve is fully closed. Take a note of the number of turns you
make to close this valve it may only be half a turn or it may
take several turns. When reinstating the radiator, it is important
that you only open this valve the same number of turns as you
used to close it, as this valve will have been adjusted to balance
the system, thereby ensuring that water feeds equally to all the
radiators within the system. Opening it too much might affect
the operation of the other radiators, in effect stealing all the
hot water.
CLOSING THE MANUALLY OPERATED VALVE OR TRV

You now need to turn off the valve at the other end of the
radiator. This may be a manually operated valve, which is
224

simply turned clockwise to close, or there may be a TRV fitted,
in which case you will need to fit the manual isolation head
that came with the valve. If you just turn down a thermostatic
valve, it may turn off the water but, if the temperature within
the room drops, it might automatically open again, allowing
water to discharge on to the floor while the radiator is off the
wall. There is a pin below the thermostatic control that needs to
be held down by the manual isolation head, keeping the water
from passing through the valve.
REMOVING THE RADIATOR

With the radiator isolated, you must now confirm that the
valves are holding back the water flow. Do this by opening the
air-release valve at the top of the radiator with a small radiator
key. Water will initially spurt out due to the pressure contained
within, but it should subside within about three to five seconds.
If the water continues to flow, you know one of the valves is not
fully closed, so you need to check the two valves again. When
you can open the air-release valve with no water flowing, you
will know that the valves are properly closed. Now it is essential
to reclose the air-release valve, otherwise air will enter the
radiator and force the water out on to the floor when you undo
the union nuts at the base of the radiator.
Having confirmed that no water is flowing into the radiator,
you can now undo the large union nuts at both ends, which
connect the radiator to the isolation valves. The radiator is still
full of water at this point, but this can only come out if air is
allowed in. However, you will need to be prepared for a little
water to discharge, which may be inky black in colour. With
both unions fully undone and the radiator disconnected from
the valve, you simply lift it from the radiator brackets and
place your thumb over the open end, as quickly as possible,
thus preventing air going in and water escaping. You will
need to be prepared to take the weight of the radiator and the
water it contains, hence the need for a second person. Take
the radiator outside and tip it up to remove the water. Now
go back and check that the valves that were connected to the
radiator are not dripping.

REINSTATING THE RADIATOR
1 Apply a little jointing compound such as Boss white
between the two mating surfaces of the brass union, to
ensure a sound seal when tightening back up the union nuts
to the radiator. Do not use PTFE tape on the threads as these
do not form the seal but just act as the leverage to pull the
two mating surfaces of the union together.
2 Turn down the room thermostat; this will turn off the power
supply to the central heating pump, hence ensuring that air
can be bled from the system without a possible negative
pressure caused by the pump sucking air into the system.
3 Turn on the radiator valves and bleed the air from the top of
the radiator with the special radiator key until water is seen
to emerge. Remember, only open the lockshield valve the
same number of turns as you used to close it.
4 Check the two union joints to confirm that they are not
leaking.
5 Finally, adjust the room thermostat back up to the desired
temperature.
Repairing the water supply main

A leaking underground water supply main is often left
undiscovered for months. One of the key indicators is when
you experience a lack of water flow or there is a continued
sound of water flowing from the mains pipework but you have
no taps open. This is more frequently heard at night when
there is often greater pressure within the mains and all is quiet
around the house.
Depending where the leak is on the underground stopcock, such
as through the packing gland nut (see Chapter 4), it is possible
sometimes to reach down the pipe duct with tools such as an
adjustable basin spanner (see Figure 6.9) to cure the problem.
But the leak may be at any point along the entire length of the
pipe so, if it is not at the stopcock, you will have to dig down
to the pipe and expose it. You can only start by chancing a test
hole where you think the leak might be. Once the pipe depth
226

has been reached, you often get a clue as to what direction to
dig from the direction from which the issuing water is flowing.
But make no mistake, there is no quick fix and you may have to
search for some time.
Once you have found the leak, how you make the repair will
depend on the material used for the supply. In all cases you will
have to turn off the supply from a valve further upstream, such
as at your outside stopcock or by getting the supply turned off
by the water authority.
If you have a polyethylene or copper supply pipe, making the
repair is usually quite a simple process. It might entail remaking
a joint that has come apart or it might be necessary to cut the
pipe and insert a new section, joining the piece cut out with a
new piece of plastic or copper pipe.
Where you have an existing lead or steel mains supply pipe, it
may be more appropriate to consider replacing the entire length.
It may be possible to insert a short section of plastic, using
two specially designed compression couplings for this purpose.
There are strict Water Supply Regulations preventing:
CC the use of lead in new or repair works
CC the use of copper upstream of lead or galvanized steel

pipework, so this could not be inserted midway along a
length of pipe run.
You need to remember that:
CC where steel has been used, it has already well exceeded its life
expectancy
CC where lead mains are found, they should be replaced
whenever possible on the grounds of safety due to the toxic
nature of lead.
Replacing the water supply main

If you plan to replace the entire length of the supply pipe, it may
be worth hiring a mini digger. The task is quite straightforward
apart from the large amount of manual labour involved in
digging out the hole and then refilling it. It is hoped that, when

you have exposed the entire length of the supply main, you will
discover that the builder included a pipe duct in the foundations
of the building through which to pass your pipe into the house.
For buildings more than 3540 years old, however, dont bank on
the pipe duct being there: you may need to undertake additional
laborious work cutting through the foundation wall and down
through the floor in order to make a route for your new pipe.
With the route exposed (minimum 750 mm depth see
Figure 1.1) between the external and internal stopcocks, the new
recommended 25 mm polyethylene pipe can be laid within the
trench. Run the pipe in one complete length, avoiding coupling
or connection joints. It is a good idea to lay the pipe within the
trench from side to side, thereby providing some spare pipe
to allow for expansion and ground movement. For the pipe
connections that need to be made at each end of the pipe run, see
the section that deals with pipe jointing in Chapter 6.
Installing a new storage cistern

Storage cisterns used today are made of plastic and, if you are
going to install one, it is essential to ensure that the base is
completely supported. If it is not, the weight of water contained
within the cistern will cause the plastic to stretch and eventually
break at the unsupported point. Old galvanized cisterns did not
require this total support.
These old metal cisterns are invariably left in the roof space
because removing them requires extensive additional work.
Sometimes, old asbestos cisterns are encountered. These are fine
while in use but, when they have passed their useful lifespan, it
is vital that they are disposed of safely: the best option is to get
in a specialist firm for safe removal. Do not cut the material, as
this will create dust that is extremely dangerous to inhale; even
a minute particle can be hazardous to your health.
The size of a new cistern should be a minimum capacity of
100 litres if it is to serve only either a system of cold or a system
of hot water. However, this volume should be at least 200 litres,
ideally 250 litres, if it is to serve both cold and hot supplies. The
228

new cistern is installed as shown in Figure 1.5 and as described
in Chapter 6. In order to provide the best pressure possible
at the outlet points, such as showers and taps, you need to
locate the cistern as high up as possible. This may require the
construction of a supporting frame or stand, using sufficiently
strong timbers and bracing it well to ensure that it can take the
weight of the cistern when full of water. The weight of water
is quite substantial 1 litre of water weighs 1 kg, so 250 litres
weighs 250 kg (a quarter of a tonne)!
It is essential that no jointing pastes or compounds are used
to make the connections to the cistern: these will have a
detrimental effect on the plastic walls of the cistern, causing
it to break down and reducing its expected lifespan. The
connections to the cistern are made with what are referred to as
tank connectors. These are simply passed through a hole made
in the cistern, with a plastic washer included, and when the
fitting nut is tightened it clamps tightly to the cistern wall.
LOFT HATCH TOO SMALL FOR A REPLACEMENT CISTERN?

Often the old cistern will have been installed during the
construction of the building, when the roof was open. This may
mean that the loft hatch is too small for a new cistern to pass
through. This can pose a problem and in some cases will require
the hatch to be made bigger. However, it is sometimes possible to
buy a round cistern, the sides of which can be folded in, making
it sufficiently small to pass through the opening to the loft.
Alternatively, you can purchase two smaller cisterns and couple
these together to provide an adequate volume (see Figure 8.4). In
this case the overflow is in the same cistern as the float-operated
valve, and the outlet is taken from the second cistern.
Replacing a faulty immersion heater

Should the heater element in an immersion heater break down
and fail to operate, it is a relatively simple process to replace it
with a new one. The immersion heater consists of two parts:
CC the heater element
CC the thermostat.

mains supply
screened
air vents
overflow
The overflow is
taken from the
first cistern and
the cold outlet is
large connecting cold outlet
taken from the
pipe at low level pipe
second cistern.
Figure 8.4 Coupling two cisterns together
If you plan to undertake any work on the heater, either to test

the unit or to replace it, you must first cut the electrical power
supply to the heater by isolating the circuit and removing the
fuse. Once you have confirmed that the power is dead, you can
check the condition of the immersion heater and thermostat:
1 Check the condition of the immersion heater by looking for
a resistance in ohms using a suitable multimeter between
the line (phase) and neutral heater element terminals (see
Figure 2.7). The reading would be typically around 18 ohms
for a good element, so a very high reading (several megohms)
would indicate a breakdown of the unit.
2 Check that the thermostat is operating properly. To do this,
remove it from its pocket and connect a continuity tester to
each side of the electrical connections. This is a function on a
multimeter that bleeps when the two probes are put together.
It should bleep, indicating a make-or-break connection when
the probe is placed in very hot or very cold water.
If the thermostat is faulty, simply replace it with a new one. If
the heater element is faulty, a little more work is required, as
follows:
1 Disconnect the wires from the terminals.
2 Close the water supply valve to the hot water cylinder. This
is located on the pipe feeding the cold water to the cylinder
230

(see Figure 2.6). With the water supply isolated, open a hot
tap fed from the cylinder and wait until the water stops
flowing this may take a minute or so. Now open the
drain-off cock located at the base of the hot water storage
cylinder to remove some of the water contained within;
although no more water is serving the cylinder, it is still a
large container full of potentially very hot water. You need
to drain sufficient water from the vessel to reduce the water
level below that of the immersion heater. If the immersion
heater is located in the top dome of the cylinder, which is
quite common, it is only necessary to drain off about 45
litres of water (a gallon); however, when it is located at some
distance down the side of the cylinder, it may be necessary to
drain off all the water.
3 Once you have removed the water, you can unwind the
old immersion heater from its connection by turning the
large nut anticlockwise. The spanner used for this is quite
specialist and will need to be acquired from a plumbers
merchant. Often the old immersion heater is held in
quite solidly, in which case you will need to take a thin
hacksaw blade and cut out the fibre washer that makes
the seal between the immersion heater and the hot storage
vessel. With this washer removed, the nut will usually
now unwind; if not, try turning clockwise to tighten it a
little, thus breaking the seal. If it is still too tight, a little
penetrating oil may be required to soak into the thread, or
the heat from a blowlamp may provide sufficient expansion
to effect removal.
4 With the old heater element removed, you can fit a
replacement, installing everything in reverse order and
making sure that you include a new fibre washer, smeared
with a little jointing paste (see Appendix 2: Glossary).
5 Once the new heater is in position and has been tested for
water soundness, connect the wires to the new thermostat.
6 Finally, adjust the temperature on the thermostat to provide
60C at the top of the cylinder.

Insulating pipes against freezing
When water freezes, it expands by 10 per cent. This expansion
cannot be restrained and, as a result, it will cause the pipe or
fitting to stretch, often to the point where it splits open. At the
time the pipework splits open no water will come out because
the ice will still be solid; it is only when the ice thaws that the
problems start.
Should you need to repair pipework that has been subjected
to frost damage, bear in mind that the whole section may
have expanded before the split occurred. As a result, you may
encounter difficulties in getting the new fittings to fit on to
the pipe, owing to its increased diameter, so you may need to
cut out more pipework than you anticipated. However, fixing
a burst pipe is like closing the stable door after the horse has
bolted; the best thing is always to try to prevent the problem
by insulating any pipework that could be exposed to damage in
this way.
Insulating pipework is a relatively simple process and can
generally be undertaken by anyone (see Figure 8.5). You will
find insulation materials for a whole range of situations at your
local plumbers merchant. The obvious, yet foolish, thing to
do would be to select the thin, relatively cheap material. The
thinner insulation products are not necessarily designed for frost
protection, although they are better than nothing.
Insulation material serves several purposes. It serves to:
CC provide thermal insulation against frost damage
CC prevent the loss of heat from hot water pipes
CC conserve fuel or prevent heat loss from a domestic hot water

pipe to a draw-off point
CC cut down the transmission of noise to the adjoining structure,
such as when installing pipework within internal timber stud
walls.
Should you have a major leak in your roof and water
discharges through the ceiling, causing serious damage, your
insurance company may not pay out, simply because your
232

foam pipe
insulation
making a joint
at a tee junction
making a joint
at an elbow
making a joint
at a bend
Figure 8.5 Insulating pipes with foam
insulation material was insufficient, as laid down in the Water

Regulations. The effectiveness of the insulation material is
identified by the supplier. A suggested minimum insulation
wall thickness of 22 mm is advisable where flexible foam is
used for internal applications, increasing to 27 mm for outside
applications. Loose-fill materials should be even thicker a
typical surrounding to the pipe should be at least 100 mm.
Figure 1.5 shows how all the pipework within a roof space
has been insulated, including the vent pipe and overflow pipes.
These will generally not have any water within them, but they
may do if there is a fault, so these must also be fully insulated.
In addition, the cold storage cistern itself must be insulated,
apart from its base where it sits directly on the ceiling joists, as
hot air will rise from the building below. It is essential that all
insulation material be securely fixed to prevent it parting and
letting in cold air.
Figure 1.5 also shows a bend attached to the inside of the
cistern overflow pipe connection. This bend turns down and
should be dipping into the water. Its purpose is to prevent
cold draughts from blowing up the overflow pipe and causing
freezing conditions to occur inside the cistern. This has
been a Water Regulations requirement now since 1999 but
unfortunately plumbers all too often disregard this bend, or
they adjust the water level too low and below its inlet point,
making this additional frost precaution void.

Key idea
When an insulation material that is too thin and therefore ineffective in
extreme conditions fails to achieve its goal of protecting the pipe from
frost damage, you may find a possible insurance claim invalid as you may
not have complied with the insurance policy requirements.
Installing guttering and rainwater pipes

Old metal guttering systems are still obtainable if you need
them. These are put together using nuts and bolts and non-
setting putty such as plumbers mait. Since normal putty goes
hard and therefore restricts the movement of the joints due to
expansion and contraction caused by the heat of the sun, it
should not be used.
Plastic guttering is generally used these days and is relatively
easy to install. However, a novice installing guttering often
makes two fundamental mistakes.
CC First, they assume that the gutter requires a noticeable fall
(slope towards the outlet) in order to remove the water from
the channel. This is not so and in fact I often install guttering
with barely any fall whatsoever. Manufacturers instructions
suggest a fall of around 1 mm in every 600 mm. So, over the
length of a building, say 9 metres long, the total amount of
fall would be 9000 mm 600 mm = 15 mm. This 15 mm
drop will be hardly noticeable when viewed from ground
level, so the guttering will look level and be more pleasing to
the eye. If you run a gutter with a greater fall than this, the
angle will look strange. Also, the speed of run-off towards
the lower end and outlet will be so great that water running
along the channel is likely to discharge over the top of the
gutter stop end.
CC The second error is allowing insufficient room for expansion
and contraction. Plastic expands quite extensively as the
temperature rises; for example, the 9-metre gutter mentioned
above, when subjected to a temperature change of, say,
35C, which is quite probable when you compare winter
temperatures with those of summer, would expand by 57 mm.
234

This may not sound a lot but, if it is not allowed for, the
guttering will buckle and a clip might break. Conversely, if the
gutter contracts by this amount due to cooling it could cause a
joint to be pulled apart. If you look carefully at a gutter fitting
you will notice that the manufacturer imprints a line within
the moulding to tell you where to finish the gutter end.
Remember this
Although safe working practices are not within the remit of this book, do
not undertake this sort of work unless you have some understanding of
the possible dangers and how to avoid them, in which case it may not be
worth the risk of doing it yourself. When working at heights, you must
take certain safety precautions, such as having well-supported ladders. If
in doubt, get a professional to do the work.
To install a new system of guttering, take the following steps:

1 Remove any old guttering materials, if applicable.
2 Review the condition of the timber fascia board, i.e. the
timber on to which the gutter is to be fixed. Now would be a
good time to undertake any repairs and paintwork to this.
3 Use a long spirit level to ascertain whether the fascia board
is level. If you find that the fascia is not level, you will need
to take particular care with the individual gutter fixings,
using the level at each fixing clip to ensure you do not
position them wrongly. If the fascia is level, you can simply fix
one clip towards one end of the fascia as high as is possible.
4 Do the following calculation: total length of the gutter in
mm 600 = total fall in mm.
5 Fix the next clip towards the other end of the fascia at the
calculated fall in height.
6 With these two clips fixed, you can now tie a length of string
between the two to act as a guide for fixing all the remaining
clips and gutter fixings, such as the connection joints and the
outlet.

7 All fixings should be spaced at a maximum of 1 metre apart
(see Figure 8.6). With the clips and fixings in position, all
that is left is for the gutter to be snapped into place, ensuring
that it has been cut to the correct length, where applicable,
allowing for the expansion as identified above.
With the gutter in place, you can now run the rainwater pipe.
This either terminates at its lowest end with a special outlet
referred to as a rainwater shoe, which discharges into an open
gully, or is run into a drainage connection at ground level.
When installing this downpipe, as it is sometimes called, it
should be run vertically, again for reasons of appearance. This
can be judged by placing the pipe clips at a maximum of
2 metres apart in line with the brickwork or the corner of the
building. Sometimes installers use a plumb line for this. This is
basically a weight tied to a length of string and hung from the
gutter outlet, to drop vertically downwards.
1m max. distance
between clips
gutter
1m max.
gutter
bracket
string line plumb

fascia board
line
maximum
amount
of fall
2 m max.
brackets at each end of

facia onto which the gutter
is to be fixed
shoe
Figure 8.6 Installing gutters and rainwater pipes
236

When fixing the clips and in particular the coupling or joining
sockets, remember to make an allowance for the expansion of
the pipe to avoid it buckling due to changes in temperature.
When assembling the gutter and rainwater pipe, no additional
jointing mediums are required. The guttering is fitted with a
rubber seal incorporated into the gutter fitting. The rainwater
pipes require nothing as the joints just slot together with the pipe
end dropping downwards into the socket of the fitting below.
Remember this
When replacing the guttering system in very old buildings, do not rely
on the fascia timber being level. It may look horizontal but the building
may have subsided over the years, so check the gutter fall with a spirit
level if necessary. A level gutter is fine, but a fall flowing the wrong way
is a nightmare.
Installing a new WC suite

The installation guidance will assume the worst and deal with
the larger job of converting, say, a high- or low-level suite to
a combination suite (a suite where the cistern sits directly on
the pan and does not have a flush pipe). Obviously, changing
like-for-like is a much simpler task but it will follow similar
guidelines nevertheless.
To remove the old WC, take the following steps:
1 Turn off the water supply.
2 With the supply isolated, give the cistern a final flush to
remove most of its water. Then remove it from the wall,
tipping any remaining water into the pan.
3 Remove the toilet pan. If it is no longer wanted, you do not
need to take any particular care of the sanitaryware you
are removing (the pan or cistern) so, if you need to put the
hammer through the foot of the pan because it is cemented
to the floor or to the drainage pipe, then do so. Dont forget,
however, that there will be a little water in the trap that
needs to be disposed of first.

4 With the old suite removed, cut back the water supply pipe
to a position from which it will be suitable to run to the new
WC cistern.
5 At this point you can fit a temporary cap or blanking fitting
to the water supply pipe, so that you can turn the water back
on until the work is near completion; otherwise it may be off
for some time.
All being well, the work you have done so far should have taken
no more than an hour. You now need to install the components
of the new flushing cistern into their respective positions
within the cistern. This is a relatively simple operation and the
manufacturer will have supplied some installation instructions.
1 You will need to change the size of the inlet seating of the
float-operated valve or insert a special restrictor, depending
upon whether the water supply is on high or low pressure.
Again, the installation instructions will give advice on this.
2 With the components assembled, you can now carefully put
the WC pan up to the position where it is to be located and
hold the cistern in position to check that everything will fit.
Unfortunately, there are sometimes problems with this:
i First, the pan outlet is sometimes either slightly too high or
too low and it does not align correctly with the soil pipe
branch connection. If it is above the soil pipe connection,
this is not generally a big problem, as you just need to
purchase a Multiquick offset pan connector, as shown
in Figure 8.7, to allow for the drop. However, if your pan
outlet is lower than the soil pipe connection, you do have
a problem because simply using an offset pan connector will
create an additional uphill obstruction that the flush will
have to overcome and that might become an area prone to
blockage. So you need somehow to alter the soil pipe branch
connection to lower it (this is a major job and involves
dismantling the drainage stack), or you could put the pan on
a hardwood plinth (clearly not an ideal solution). Fortunately,
this is not a common problem and it is likely that the old pan
was located on a similar mounting in any case. The outlet
height for all British-designed WC pans is identical.
238

drainage Multiquick type
pipe connector
WC pan
outlet
bent offset
donut washer
spirit level
inserted here
checking the pan is level lifting the cistern on to the pan

Figure 8.7 Installing a close-coupled WC suite

ii A second problem sometimes encountered is that, when you
put the pan and cistern up to the wall, the outlet pipe is too
short and the pan outlet does not reach the soil pipe. This
problem is easily overcome by using a WC pan extension or
a Multiquick extension piece. This can be inserted into the
soil pipe and adjusted or cut as appropriate.
iii Conversely, the soil pipe branch may be too far forward
from the wall. This prevents the cistern from touching the
wall. Where the cistern is held off the wall, you will need
to cut the soil pipe back as necessary. This is not a problem
with plastic soil pipes but may prove difficult without
specialist equipment where an old cast-iron stack has been
installed. In this case, you may have to attach battens on to
the wall for the cistern to sit against again, not an ideal
situation.
3 Assuming that everything fits correctly, insert a plastic push-
fit pan connector, such as the Multiquick, into the soil pipe
and push the pan into this.
4 Now place a spirit level on the pan to check that it is level,
packing up the sides if necessary, and screw the pan to the
floor using 65 mm brass screws. Sometimes pans are secured
to concrete floors with sand and cement but this is not ideal
as it prevents the pan from being removed in the future.
5 With the pan firmly secured in position, put the cistern up
to the pan and mark out the location of the wall fixings.
6 Drill the holes as necessary and insert the wall fixings.
7 Bolt the cistern securely on to the pan, incorporating the foam
donut washer supplied to form a seal between the cistern and
the pan. The cistern can be secured to the wall using brass
or stainless-steel screws to prevent them from rusting. (The
old cistern probably had an overflow connection run to the
outside, but these days the overflow is generally incorporated
within the cistern flushing mechanism.)
8 The cold supply pipe can now be run to the cistern from the
point where the supply was capped off. Within this pipeline
you must incorporate an inline isolation valve just before
240

the connection to the cistern, thereby complying with the
Water Supply Regulations. This valve is generally of the small
screwdriver-operated quarter-turn type. Take particular care
when making the connection to the plastic thread of the
float-operated valve, as it is very easy to cross-thread with the
brass tap connector used against this soft plastic material.
9 Turn off the water supply, remove the temporary cap and
make the final water connection.
10 Turn on the water supply, adjust the water level as necessary
(as indicated by a line inside the cistern) by setting the
position at which the float shuts off the water supply, and
test how the installation works.
11 Finally, fit the toilet seat to complete the task.
Installing new sink, basin or bath taps

If you plan to change your appliance taps, possibly with
something more modern, the first thing you need to do before
purchasing your new taps is look at your existing hot and cold
water supplies. If you plan to install a mixer tap, you must
determine whether or not it will be supplied by pressures that
are equal. Figure 8.8 shows two designs of mixer tap, but the
one that mixes the water within the body of the tap should only
be used where the pressure of the hot and cold supply to the tap
is the same. The other tap design does not allow the hot and
cold water to mix together until it leaves the spout, so it is OK
if the hot and cold are of different pressures.
Key idea
It is essential to choose the right design of mixer tap. Where water
pressures are different (such as a high-pressure cold mains supply and
a low-pressure, cylinder-fed hot water supply), it will not be possible to
get water from the low-pressure pipework when both are opened at the
same time if you use the wrong tap. The high-pressure water will take
precedence and could even back up via the opened tap to pass into the
lower-pressure pipework.

outlet nozzle outlet nozzle
hot water cold water hot water cold water

control control control control
double outlet water single outlet water

mixes as it leaves mixes in body
the spout of tap
Figure 8.8 Single and double outlet mixer taps
Some fancy modern taps are designed to give a frothy or

pulsating discharge from the spout. You may need to consider
the flow rate and pressure required in order to get this effect
and whether your existing supply can meet these requirements.
If not, the taps will not perform properly. However, for
standard taps, this should not be a problem.
Once you have purchased your new tap(s), before beginning the
work you may need to alter the pipework a little as the length
of the thread on your new taps may differ from the existing
fitment. So, dont start the work when the shops are closed as
you may need to buy a few pipe fittings! In order to complete
this task you will also need to purchase a basin spanner, which
is a specialist plumbing tool (see Figure 6.9) available at most
plumbers merchants.
When you are ready to change the taps, take the following steps:
1 Turn off the water supply to the taps and confirm that the
water has stopped flowing. Leave the taps open and then,
242

if possible, open another tap or flush the toilet on the same
section of pipework that has been turned off. If you watch
the lower of the two open valve outlets, assuming your tap is
the lower of the two, you will see that it starts to flow again,
possibly discharging a significant amount of water. This is
because the other appliance lets air into the pipework as it
opens, allowing the water to escape. If you do not open this
second appliance, you will have a continued slow discharge
as the air slowly enters the pipe. This generally runs down
your arm as you are lying on your back reaching up to the
tap! Or, when you are working on the job, someone in the
building might open another tap or flush the toilet and you
will get completely soaked!
2 Once you have gained access to the underside of the
tap connection, you can use a basin spanner, turning
it anticlockwise, to undo the tap connector joining the
existing tap on to the pipework (see Figure 8.9).
3 You now repeat the process and undo the back nut, which
clamps the tap to the appliance. You will need to get
someone to hold the tap still, to prevent it from turning
while you are undoing this nut.
4 You should now be able to remove the old tap, unless it is
a mixer tap, in which case you repeat the process for the
other water supply.
5 Now that you have removed the old tap, you will see whether
the pipework needs to be altered to allow the new tap to be
installed. This is unlikely, though, because invariably there is
sufficient movement within the pipework to accommodate
a slight difference in the length of the thread. Sometimes,
where a new tap is a bit short, it is possible to include a
shank extender/adapter to provide the additional length
required. If you do need to alter the pipework, a bendable
pipe tap connector may prove useful if you are not very
proficient at bending pipes. (To alter the pipework, refer to
the basic plumbing processes in Chapter 6.)
6 Now insert the new tap into the appliance with the supplied
foam or rubber washer, or with a ring of plumbers mait

around the base of the tap as it sits into the appliance. This
forms a seal to prevent any water that has splashed on to the
appliance passing through the gap and dripping on to the floor.
7 Firmly secure the tap into the appliance with its back nut.
8 In the case of stainless-steel sinks, where the appliance is
made of a very thin material, a spacer washer is required,
sometimes referred to as a top hat. Position this between the
appliance and the back nut, making up the gap where there
is no thread on the top part of the tap shank.
9 Now wind the tap connector on to the threaded shank of
the tap and include a new fibre washer to form a good seal.
10 Finally, turn on the water to test out the installation. If
there is a slight drip from the tap connector, you could try
tightening this fixing a little, but often after a few moments
it seals itself as the fibre washer becomes wet and expands.
back nut
fibre washer
tap
shank connector
extender
(insert if
bendable pipe
necessary)
tap connector
straight
compression
coupling
Figure 8.9 Tap connections
244

Installing a new sink, basin or bath
If you are installing a new appliance, it is likely that it will
include a new set of taps, in which case you can refer to the
notes above to ensure that these are suitable for the installation
in terms of pressure, flow and mixing.
The new installation may be a replacement for an existing
appliance or a totally new installation. If it is a replacement,
you may be able to use the existing services without alteration,
including the water supplies and drainage connection. These
notes assume that this pipework has to be installed but, if you
just need to make an alteration, make sure you do not cut back
the existing pipework any more than necessary.
THE PIPEWORK: THE FIRST FIX

Running the waste pipe and water supplies for a new
installation is referred to in the trade as the first fix, i.e. the
pipework has been run to an installation, but the appliances
have yet to be fixed. For a completely new installation, the first
thing to do is check that there is a clear route to run the waste
pipe to a drain. It is generally possible to run the water supplies
anywhere, but the waste pipe requires a gradual fall in the
direction of the drain, where the connection can be made.
Look outside the building for a gully or hopper head (see
Appendix 2: Glossary) into which you could discharge your
new waste pipe. Alternatively, you may need to make a boss
connection into the soil stack as it passes down to ground level.
This is a much bigger job and for this you will need to see the
section above on making a branch connection to the existing
vertical soil pipe.
Where no drain connection is viable, it may be possible to
include a macerator pump, in which case refer to the notes in
Chapter 1. Ideally, the pipework should be installed following
the guidelines given in Chapter 1, with a minimum waste
pipe size of 40 mm for baths and sinks and 32 mm for basins.
However, if your pipe length exceeds these requirements, it is
possible to install a slightly larger pipe and reduce it in size

as necessary as it gets nearer the appliance. Alternatively, a
resealing trap could be considered (see Figure 1.16).
To install the new pipework for a new sink, basin or bath, take
the following steps:
1 First, run your waste pipework and terminate this at a suitable
location beneath the proposed location for the new appliance.
This needs to be at a position no higher than the final location
of the appliance trap outlet (see below). Also, if a pedestal
basin is to be installed, it is best to keep the pipes behind
the pedestal for reasons of neatness, and this should also be
considered when deciding where to terminate the waste pipe.
2 Now run the hot and cold water pipes from where they
are to be connected to the system to a location beneath the
new appliance in a similar location to the waste pipe. See
Chapter 6 for advice on running pipework and making
joints. Dont make a connection to the water supply yet.
3 The appliance can now be made ready: secure the waste
outlet connection to the appliance and secure the taps as
necessary, doing up the back nuts clamping them to the
appliance. Making the waste fitting into a basin is different
from that of a sink or bath, as explained below.
BATH AND SINK WASTE FITTINGS

These use a thick rubber washer beneath the appliance outlet,
and possibly a second, thinner washer above. These are clamped
together with the appliance in between, with the aid of a large
back nut, although some designs use a long stainless-steel screw
(see Figure 8.10), clamping the waste tightly to the appliance.
The overflow is connected to this waste fitting with a flexible
pipe, which is likewise securely clamped to the appliance
overflow hole.
THE BASIN WASTE FITTING

For basins there is no need to make an overflow connection since
this forms an integral part of the appliance. The waste fitting is
ideally made into the basin with suitable rubber washers.
246

overflow
combination
waste and
overflow fitting
waste
long screw securing the

outlet to the base,
clamping the appliance
tightly
connection to
sink or bath
integral
overflow
slotted
waste fitting
washer
plumbers mait or
similar flexible
jointing material
back nut
trap
connection to
basin waste
Figure 8.10 Connections to a sink, bath or basin waste fitting
Where these are not available, the joint can be made as follows:
1 Apply a ring of plumbers mait or silicone rubber to the
underside of the section of the waste fitting that sits in the
basin outlet. For this joint to be successful, the appliance
must be absolutely dry, otherwise the jointing mediums used
will fail to stick to the porcelain.
2 Place the waste fitting in position and apply a second ring
of plumbers mait or silicone or a large rubber washer to the
area around where the thread pokes through the waste hole
of the appliance.

3 Then put on a 32 mm polythene washer.
4 Finally, wind a large back nut on to the waste fitting,
clamping the whole lot together to form a seal.
5 To prevent the waste fitting turning in the basin while doing
up the back nut, poke two screwdrivers through the slots or
grates in the waste fitting and hold it secure.
CONNECTING UP: THE SECOND FIX

Once the appliance is made up, you can begin what is referred
to in the trade as the second fix. First, secure the appliance into
its location, ensuring that it is adequately supported and level.
The top of the appliance is plumbed in level as the gradient
towards the waste is built into the design of the appliance.
For plastic bath installations there are additional wall fixing
clips, identified on the instructions provided with the appliance,
designed to prevent the bath sagging due to the weight of the
water as it fills. Also, if a bathtub is to be located along a wall
that is going to be tiled, and the edge of the bathtub has a
widely curved edge for which the depth of the tiles does not
provide suitable coverage across the top, you may need to cut
a chase into the wall to allow for this. Failure to do this means
water will accumulate at this ledge and cause staining, and may
lead to a leak past this point on to the floor.
CC Making the waste connection

The final connection to the waste pipe can now be made by
installing a suitable trap on to the waste fitting of the appliance.
With the waste connection finished, you should get a bucket
of water to give it an initial test because, if you do need to
remove the appliance again for any reason, you dont want to
undo more than is necessary. If a basin waste fitting is leaking
and you have used plumbers mait or silicone rubber, then
unfortunately you will need to take it out, completely dry off
the porcelain and remake the joint.
CC Making the water connections

Make the hot and cold water connections to the taps from
the pipe previously located beneath the appliance. This can
248

be a tricky process without the use of a bending machine, but
it is always worth paying a little extra for the special flexible
connectors that are now manufactured to make this joint and
this final fiddly section of pipework. For an example of one of
these, see Figure 8.9.
CC The final connections

Once you have made these connections, all that is left is to
do is to make the final connections to the water supplies
remember that these have not yet been made. To do this, take
the following steps:
1 First, turn off the water supply.
2 Confirm that the water has been shut off before cutting into
the pipe to make your connection.
3 Finally, turn the water back on and test out your installation.
Your plumbing works are now finished, but there is one final
task related to the metal components in a bathroom: to make
sure that all the metalwork is suitably bonded together, thereby
ensuring that it is all at the same electrical potential. This
means that an earth wire needs to be joined to all the exposed
metal parts, in effect linking them together. See the notes on
equipotential earth bonding in Chapter 1.
The finishes can now be made good around the appliance, such
as tiling and applying a fillet of silicone rubber along the top
edge of the appliance to prevent water splashes dripping down
behind it on to the floor below.
Installing a shower cubicle

When you are considering installing a shower cubicle, one of
the first things to decide is how you would gain access to the
waste pipework at a later date should you need to, for example,
to unblock the pipe. Some traps give access via a pocket above
the appliance that lifts out from the waste fitting itself, but you
can never guarantee that this will be sufficient. Once the shower
tray is installed, it will not come out again without causing a lot

of damage, so trap access is essential. Sometimes it is possible
to access a trap fitted to the appliance from a floorboard access
door next to the shower tray; if not, you will need to consider:
CC an access panel in the ceiling of the room below the shower
cubicle
CC raising the shower cubicle on to a plinth, in which an access
door has been fitted
CC installing a running trap, such as that shown in Figure 1.12,
underneath the floorboards just outside the appliance area.
With this decision made, the waste pipe can be run in the same
way as for a new sink, basin or bath, as outlined above. The
size of a shower waste pipe should be no less than 40 mm,
i.e. the same as a bath waste pipe. The shower tray now needs
to be secured in position, again following the guidance for
fitting baths: if there is to be tiling along the edge of the shower
tray, the tray might need to be recessed into the wall. You must
follow the manufacturers installation instructions for securing
the shower tray in position to avoid any movement and ensuring
that it is level along the top edge in all directions. The fall to the
waste outlet is built into the appliance.
With the waste connection completed and the tray adequately
secured, you can now consider the water connections. For this
you may choose to use:
CC a cold water, mains-fed shower heater
CC a combination boiler or multipoint water heater
CC a storage-fed hot water supply, with or without a booster

pump.
There are other options, but those above cover most scenarios.
The cold water, mains-fed shower heater units require only
a cold water supply, usually supplied under mains pressure
and with a minimal flow rate, so you will need to check the
requirements for installation with the supplier of the heater.
These units do require an electrical supply to be installed and
this must be on its own circuit from the electrical consumer
250

unit or fuse box. This electrical supply will also need to be
certificated and the work is notifiable to your local Building
Control department. Basically, the water supply is run to the
small heater installed in the shower cubicle and the shower hose
is simply connected to the heater. The electrical power is initiated
by the operation of a pull cord adjacent to the shower itself.
If the second option is chosen, and the water is taken from an
instantaneous system such as a combination boiler or multipoint,
you must remember that the water flow is invariably restricted
as it flows through the heater and these restricted water volumes
will adversely affect the performance of the shower.
With both of these options, where the cold water to a shower
is taken directly from the cold water supply mains, you must
ensure that no backflow of water can occur, i.e. no water can
be sucked back into the mains supply. This is usually achieved
by ensuring that the showerhead cannot be laid down at a point
below where it could be submerged in water.
If you choose a storage-fed hot water supply option for your
shower, note that in order to ensure that the cold water is never
starved from the shower-mixing control valve, the water must
have its own independent supply from the cold water storage
cistern. The cold supply is also taken from the storage cistern
below that of the cold feed to the hot water cylinder. In both
cases, this is to ensure that you can never stand in a flowing
shower that goes very hot because the cold water has ceased to
flow, i.e. the cold water will always be the last supply to stop
running and this therefore prevents scalding.
Ideally, the shower should also be supplied with the hot
water taken directly from the hot water storage cylinder,
independently from the other hot water draw-off points. To
ensure that the shower works effectively, the water pressures
from both the hot and cold water need to be the same (as
identified above in relation to mixer taps). When connecting to
a storage cistern, you must ensure that you have at least 1 metre
head above the shower rose to the underside of the water cistern
in the roof space, otherwise the water flowing from it will be
very poor. See Figure 8.11.

An alternative is to incorporate a shower booster pump. These
are very effective but you must follow the manufacturers
guidance and maintain a good flow rate of water to the booster.
This usually requires a minimum of 28 mm pipework, otherwise
its lifespan will be reduced as it struggles to cope with the
limited water supply. Domestic shower boosters are very simple
units to install, usually coming with push-fit flexible water
connections and a pre-wired 13-amp plug that is simply plugged
into a nearby socket outlet. They automatically operate as the
water flows through the booster, initiated by an internal flow
switch, hence the need for an adequate supply.
In all the cases above, you need to run the pipework to the
shower control in the same way as for running the hot and cold
water pipework to other appliances. The actual shower mixer
could be installed on to the finished tiled surface or built into
the wall, in which case all the pipework will also need to be run
within the wall and the whole system tested prior to tiling.
Finally, where metal pipework or components have been
installed, these need to be suitably bonded (see Chapter 1).
Replacing a shower booster pump

This is a very simple operation. You will need to purchase a
new pump with identical or similar qualities to the one you are
replacing. The electrical connection is generally a pre-wired
13-amp three-pin plug that has simply been plugged into a
convenient socket outlet, so there should be no problems with
disconnection and reconnection. Once you have everything to
hand, complete the task as follows:
1 Isolate the hot and cold water to the unit and confirm that it
is off.
2 If available, open the drain-off cocks to release any water
from the pipework feeding the pump. Alternatively, be
prepared for a little water to discharge as you disconnect the
pipework. Fortunately, these connections are usually made
via a flexible connection with push-fit or compression joints,
and your new replacement booster will almost certainly have
252

cold feed connection to
hot water above the cold
supply to the shower to
prevent scalding
1 m min.
alternative
connection
shower mixing
valve
Essex
flange
used
drain-off
cock hot and
cold
supplies
to all other
storage-fed shower appliances
flexible
connections
Essex
flange
used
booster
drain-off
pump
cock
shower booster pump

Figure 8.11 Installing a shower
the same sort of connections. So it is often simply a case of

removing the old connections and fixing on the new ones,
as the flexible connections will allow for the necessary free
movement to facilitate the replacement.

3 Turn on the water supplies and check for any leaks.
4 Plug the new pump into the socket outlet provided for the
existing pump.
Where no flexible connections have been provided, you
will have to be prepared to alter the pipework as necessary,
following the notes in Chapter 6, taking care not to damage the
plastic water connections of the new pump with heat from any
soldering processes, or by cross-threading the connection.
I could give instructions for installing endless appliances but,
as mentioned at the beginning of this chapter, all jobs follow
the same basic principles and you just need to transfer the skills
outlined in this chapter. So, in conclusion:
1 Turn off the water supply and the hot water heaters where
applicable.
2 Confirm that the water has shut off correctly.
3 Remove items that are no longer wanted.
4 Temporarily cap off the pipework at a point where the new
connection is to be made, so that you can turn the supplies
back on until the new installation is ready to be connected.
5 Prepare the work area for the new installation, running all
new pipework and installing the appliances.
6 Turn off the water supply and make the new connection as
necessary.
7 Turn on the water and test out the installation as appropriate.
254

! Focus points
1 The same general principles apply to all plumbing works.
2 When turning off the water supply, confirm that it is off by opening
a tap from the same pipe. Remember that water will be lying inside a
pipe even when the water is turned off, and this needs to be drained
out by a drain-off cock located at the base of the system.
3 Dont forget to let air into the pipework from a higher position, such
as by opening another tap or flushing the toilet cistern.
4 For larger works, once the old materials and pipework have been
removed, temporarily cap off the pipe and turn the water supply
back on for convenience.
5 Complete the new works in stages referred to as first and second fix,
testing each section as you proceed through the job.
6 Dont forget to install isolation valves and drain-off cocks where
necessary in your new installation pipework.
7 When you have to make connection into the vertical waste discharge
pipe, remember to inform everyone, thereby ensuring that they do
not let water flush down the pipe.
8 When you are to replace a storage cistern in the roof space, it
is possible to link two cisterns together to give you the required
storage volume.
9 Apply good-quality thermal insulation material to any pipework that
might be liable to frost damage.
10 If working at height to replace or repair a system of guttering, make
sure that you work safely and do not overreach.

Next step
In this chapter you learned how to repair defective
components within the various plumbing systems
within your home, how to install various new
additional cold and hot water devices and
fitments, and how to insulate the various systems
to prevent noise and frost damage. For more
information, consult the following appendices,
which contain details of the relevant legislation
and regulations, a glossary of plumbing terms and
lists of useful publications and addresses.
256

Appendix 1: Legislation
Gone are the days when everyone could do what they liked
with their homes. Today a whole range of legislation governs
what we can and cannot do. There is no restriction on what you
can do yourself, but you need to ensure that your work is in
compliance with the law.
Much plumbing and electrical work requires the issue of a
completion certificate, which is something, incidentally, that you
must insist upon when employing someone else to do the work
for you.
CC Do not assume that they are registered with a specific body
(see below).
CC Do not be fobbed off with, Its not applicable to what we
are doing.
The following gives a guide to situations requiring certification
by the local building or water authority. When you have the
work done, you may not care too much whether or not a
certificate is issued, but:
CC when you come to sell your home, this may be picked up by
the surveyor and prove costly to certify this work at a later
date
CC you may not be covered by your insurance should you wish
to make a claim.
Work requiring notification under local

Building Control
In the following situations you will need to notify the local
Building Control officer of the local authority of any work
carried out. This is in order to comply with the requirements of
the Building Regulations.
If you use a contractor to do the work, they may be registered
with a validating body such as Gas Safe Register1, NAPIT2,

APHC3 or OFTEC4, which allows them to self-certify the work
(note that there are other bodies). However, you need to check
that they really are registered with a certificating organization
or you may not receive the certificate for the work completed,
as required by law.
1
Gas Safe Register (0800 408 5500)
2
National Association for Professional Inspectors and Testers
(NAPIT: 01623 811483)
3
Association of Plumbing & Heating Contractors (APHC: 0121
7115030)
4
Oil Firing Technical Association (OFTEC: 01473 626298)
A couple of points to note:
CC Advice relating to any of the following situations can be
sought simply and quickly by phoning your local council
offices and asking to speak to the Building Control officer.
The plumber you engage should be fully conversant with
these rules, but do not bank on this.
CC Without certification you may have to remove what you
install if it is discovered by the local authority to have been
carried out without approval.
DRAINAGE ALTERATIONS
Certification is required for all new additions to your drainage
system, such as an additional toilet, sink, bathroom or pumped
macerator unit. It is also required in all instances where you
wish to alter your existing waste pipework, for example if you
want to move your bath from one corner of the room to the
other. The only time that notification is not required is when
you do not alter the waste pipework at all and use the existing
connections for a straightforward replacement.
HEATING AND HOT WATER REQUIREMENTS

Where a new boiler or hot water cylinder is to be installed,
notification and certification will be required. When just a new
cylinder is needed, it is sufficient to undertake the appropriate
replacement and ensure that boiler interlock is provided for
258

(see Chapter 3); when the boiler is to be replaced, it must be
upgraded, in most cases to a high-efficiency type, often referred
to as a condensing boiler. In addition, the heating system will
need to be upgraded to include all the items listed under the
heading Heating controls in Chapter 3.
The installation of unvented domestic hot water systems also
requires notification.
ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS
Alterations to the electrical installation are subject to
certification. Additional alterations in rooms such as general
living areas and bedrooms do not require notification to
Building Control, but they will still require an electrical minor
works certificate to be issued. Areas that must be reported
to the local authority include new circuits or when work is
completed in wet areas such as bathrooms and kitchens and
where a central heating control system has been installed.
GAS SYSTEMS
Where a new gas-heating appliance is installed, including
cookers, gas fires and boilers, the work must be certified. The
only body currently registered to self-certificate the installation
of a domestic gas appliance is the Gas Safe Register.
OIL INSTALLATIONS
Oil installations and replacement of oil boilers and storage
tanks also require certification. Operatives able to self-certificate
will be registered with OFTEC.
VENTILATION
Where an extractor system is included, such as in a bathroom,
notification is required.
Key idea
The requirements for Building Control notification do not stop at the
above areas of work. Whenever you alter a building, certification may be
required, including changing your windows. You need to keep hold of these
certificates and know where they are should you wish to move house.

Work to which Gas Regulations apply
You may undertake gas work as DIY in your own home but,
if you do, it is essential for your own safety that you fully
understand what you are doing, and your work must be
in accordance with the Gas Safety Regulations and British
Standards. If you decide to employ a professional to do the
work which is the safest course of action in addition to
the certification discussed above, the installation of a new gas
appliance and all gas work undertaken within your property
must be undertaken by a registered gas-fitting operative. It
is very important that you ask to see proof of the operatives
identity in relation to the work that they wish to undertake
because failure to do so might put your life at risk. All operatives
have been issued with a Gas Safe Register yearly credit-card-
sized proof of identification. This card has their photograph
clearly displayed on the front, which you must check. Their
identity can be checked by phoning Gas Safe Register on 0800
408 5500 or by logging on to www.GasSafeRegister.co.uk
Do not look just at the front of the card. Listed on the back
are the specific areas of domestic gas expertise in which the
operative is authorized to undertake work. These include:
CC pipework
CC cookers
CC gas fires
CC water heaters
CC central heating
CC warm air heating
CC tumble dryers.
Remember this
If you want work done on your gas boiler, make sure central heating is
listed on the back of the card. If you find that an operative is operating
without registration, you should report them to the Gas Safe Register as
they may be endangering the lives of others. If they do not produce the
card, do not let them do the work.
260

Work to which Water Regulations apply
Under the Water Regulations, you have a legal duty to avoid
and prevent the following situations occurring within your
premises at all times:
CC wasting water, e.g. not repairing leaking joints or dripping taps
CC misusing water, e.g. filling a swimming pool in excess of

10,000 litres without giving notice to the water supplier
CC undue consumption of water, e.g. installing a toilet cistern of
a larger capacity than permitted
CC water contamination, e.g. using lead-soldered fittings instead
of lead-free fittings
CC erroneous measurements of water usage, e.g. bypassing a
water meter.
As with all the other regulations, you can undertake any new
work in your home yourself but you must complete the work
in accordance with the regulations listed above. In addition to
this, some specific new works or additions to your plumbing
system will require notification to the local water authority.
These include:
CC erecting a new building permission is required both for
internal pipework and for the use of a temporary water
supply for building purposes
CC installing a bath with a capacity greater than 230 litres
CC installing a bidet with an ascending spray or hose
CC installing a booster pump using more than 12 litres per

minute
CC installing a water treatment unit such as a water softener
CC installing any sort of garden watering system, unless it is a

handheld hosepipe
CC constructing a pond or swimming pool greater than
10,000 litres filled by automatic means.

If you wish to undertake any of these activities as part of
your new works, you must apply in writing to the local water
authority at least ten days before starting the work. They will
either:
CC give consent
CC refuse consent, giving their reasons
CC give consent subject to certain conditions.
If you do not receive a reply after ten days, consent may be

deemed to have been given.
When employing a plumbing contractor to do the work for you,
check to see that they are approved and registered with a water
authority. This will ensure that the work is in compliance with
the Water Regulations. Also make sure they issue you with a
certificate once the work is completed and certainly do not settle
your account until you have this. As with Building Control
certificates, these need to be kept and produced if called upon,
to show you have had approval.
Where you employ a plumber who is not registered, you may
have difficulty proving compliance with the law, and any
certificate offered by them will be worthless. Also, if they are
not approved you cannot begin the works listed above until
consent has been given.
It must be understood that you, the householder, and therefore
the user of the supply (not the person who actually did the work)
will be held liable for contraventions to the Water Regulations and
therefore subject to any fines imposed owing to contravention.
Registration requirements
For all work relating to gas installations, unless DIY, operatives must be
registered with the Gas Safe Register.
For all work relating to oil, operatives should be registered with
OFTEC.
For all work relating to drainage, operatives should be registered with
an approved body, such as those listed previously or another such
organization.
262

For all work relating to the hot or cold water pipework, operatives
should be registered with a water authority.
For all work relating to electrical installation, operatives should be
registered with an approved body, such as those listed previously or
another such organization.
For all work relating to ventilation, operatives should be registered
with an approved body, such those listed previously or another such
organization.
Where the operative is not registered with a specific body, the work can
still be completed, but you may need first to seek approval in writing
from the local building or water authority.
The professional plumber

Finding the right plumber may prove difficult. You will be lucky
to find someone with everything I have suggested a plumber
should have. I have a lot of experience in training and meeting
with plumbers, heating engineers, gas fitters and electricians.
These operatives need to be registered to work on:
CC gas installations, and tested on each type of appliance on
which they wish to work
CC hot and cold water systems
CC drainage systems
CC electricity supply systems
CC heating systems.
Each of these disciplines requires:

CC upgrade training
CC passing an assessment, often on the basis of five-yearly

reassessment
CC paying the annual fees to belong to a professional body, of
which they may need to join several.
All of this is very expensive!

In addition, they have to:
CC take time off from work to attend courses and therefore
incur a loss of earnings
CC comply with an extensive range of additional safety
legislation, which has additional cost implications.
All this has resulted in operatives being faced with the decision
either to limit the work they are able to do legally, or to offset
the cost of the work through the fees they charge. The amount
they quote for a job is therefore often above what the client had
envisaged paying. It will almost certainly be higher than a quote
from someone who is not appropriately registered to carry out
the work.
Check why someone is asking a specific price for a job.
They might be the most expensive because they will give you
everything you need. You need to make sure that they are the
dearest for a reason and are not just fleecing you. Conversely,
will the cheapest quote give you the standard of service you
expect and be certificated if applicable?
Good luck in your search. Find a good plumber and keep
them.
264

Appendix 2: Glossary
access cover A point where access can be gained for internal
inspection of a drain.
air gap A distance maintained above the top of an appliance,
such a sink or basin, at which the water would spill over
on to the floor to the underside of the tap outlet. An air gap
is maintained to prevent back-siphonage of water from the
appliance into the supply pipe.
air separator Also referred to as a de-aerator, this device is
sometimes found in a fully pumped central heating system to
maintain the neutral point, where the cold feed and vent pipes
join the system.
alloy A material made up from two or more metals, for
example brass or solder.
automatic air-release valve A special valve that allows air to
escape from any high points within a low-pressure system,
where air would accumulate and cause a blockage.
back boiler A boiler that has been installed within the fire
opening in a living room or lounge.
backflow Water that flows in the opposite direction to that
intended, possibly causing water contamination.
back siphonage Water that is sucked back into the pipework,
causing water contamination.
balanced flue See room-sealed appliance.
balancing The throttling down of the flow of water to certain
radiators, to force the water to flow to those further away from
the pump, thereby allowing them to receive sufficient hot water.
ballvalve See float-operated valve.
basin spanner A special spanner designed to reach the nuts
located up behind baths and sinks where there is restricted
room to turn a normal spanner.

bib tap A design of tap that screws horizontally into the pipe
fitting, and used for an outside tap. See also pillar tap.
boiler The appliance used to heat water for washing and central
heating purposes.
bonding A system where specific metal pipework is connected
either together or to the main earth terminal in order to avoid
an electric shock caused by a faulty electrical installation.
boss A special connection branch where smaller-diameter pipes
are connected into a larger-diameter waste pipe.
branch In pipework, a tee joint.
brass An alloy of copper and zinc.
Building Regulations The laws applicable to building works,
administered by the local authority.
capillary joint A soldered joint used to join two pieces of
copper tube together.
carbon monoxide A poisonous gas produced as the result of
incomplete combustion of fuel.
cesspool Also called a cesspit, this is a sewage collection
chamber where foul drainage water is collected until it can be
removed for proper disposal.
checkvalve A non-return valve fitted in a pipeline, designed to
prevent backflow.
circulating pump A device installed in a central heating system
to circulate the hot water to all the radiators.
cistern An open-topped vessel used to store water, such as a
water storage vessel or a toilet cistern.
close-coupled suite A toilet suite that does not include a
flushpipe. The cistern is bolted directly on to the WC pan.
cock A type of valve, such as a stopcock.
cold feed The pipe that serves a specific system, such as the cold
feed to a hot water system or central heating system.
266

combination boiler A design of boiler used for both the central
heating and as a unit to instantaneously heat up water going
to hot water outlets. It does away with the need to have a hot
water storage cylinder.
combined system of drainage A drainage system that takes both
rainwater and foul water from the house sanitary pipework.
compression joint A fitting used to join two pipes together. It
incorporates a compression ring that is clamped on to the pipe
and forced up hard against the body of the fitting.
condensate pipe A pipe that removes the water collected within
a condensing boiler to a drain.
condensing boiler A design of boiler that operates to a very
high level of efficiency.
CORGI The abbreviation for the Council for Registered Gas
Installers, the body responsible for gas registration before the
setting up of the Gas Safe Register.
de-aerator See air separator.
direct cold water supply A cold water supply system fed
directly from the mains supply pipe.
drain-off cock A small valve designed to permit a hosepipe to
be connected, thereby allowing water to be drained from the
system. All low points of water-filled systems should be fitted
with a drain-off cock.
Essex flange A special fitting sometimes used to provide an
additional connection to a hot water storage cylinder, such as
where a shower requires its own supply.
f & e cistern The abbreviation for feed and expansion cistern.
This is a small cistern used for supplying water to a central
heating system. It also allows for the expansion of the water due
to heating. When filled, the water level is adjusted to a level very
low down inside, just above the outlet point, thereby making
room for the expanding water.

feed cistern A cistern located in the roof space to hold a
quantity of cold water for supplying a system of domestic hot
water.
female iron In threaded joints, the female iron thread has
an internal thread. The male iron has an external thread and
screws into the female iron.
ferrous metal Metals containing iron.
first fix The process of running the pipework to an installation,
when the appliances have yet to be fixed.
flame failure device A special control that prevents fuel passing
to the combustion chamber of an appliance if a flame is not
detected.
float-operated valve Also called a ballvalve, the control valve
located inside a cistern to stop the incoming flow of water.
flow rate The volume of liquid passing through pipework.
flue The pipe that removes the products of combustion to the
external environment.
flushing cistern Another name for a toilet cistern.
flux A special paste that is applied to the mating surfaces of
copper pipe and fittings prior to soldering. It is designed to
exclude the oxygen within the surrounding air, which would
otherwise cause the joint to become dirty when the heat is
applied. It also helps the solder to stick to the pipe and fitting.
foul water The water from waste appliances and toilets.
fur Another name for limescale.
gate valve A stop valve which closes off the flow of water by
closing a gate.
gland nut Also called a packing gland nut, it is the nut found
on many taps and valves, designed to tighten up and squeeze
out the material surrounding the spindle where it turns, thus
preventing water leaking past this spindle. (See Figure 4.1.)
gradient The incline of a pipe.
268

gully A drainage fitting into which smaller pipes are connected.
The gully may be trapped or untrapped. All gullies connected to
a foul-water drainage system must be trapped.
hard water Water with a proportion of calcium and magnesium
salts held in solution within the water.
heat exchanger The component within a boiler or hot water
cylinder where heat is transferred from one source to another.
hopper head A funnel-shaped drainage fitting located at the
uppermost end of a pipe. It is designed to assist the collection of
water from the smaller pipes that discharge into it.
immersion heater The heater found inside a hot water cylinder,
similar to a kettle element only much larger.
inhibitor A solution added to a central heating system, designed
to minimize the problems of corrosion. It also has pump-
lubricating qualities.
insulation The material applied to pipes and storage vessels to
decrease the transference of heat or sound.
intercepting trap A special drainage fitting installed at the point
where the house drain meets the sewer. It forms a trap to keep
the two systems separate. These are no longer installed.
jointing paste One of several oil-based compounds that can be
used to assist in making pipe connections. It is essential that this
paste is not used in connections with plastic materials because it
will cause them to break down.
jumper This is the brass plate on to which the washer of a tap
is attached.
Legionella Bacteria that grow in warm water and are
potentially fatal when transmitted to humans via water in the
form of a fine spray or mist.
LPG Abbreviation for liquefied petroleum gas.
macerator pump A domestic pumping unit designed to
discharge the low-level waste water contents from sanitary
appliances through small-bore pipes up to a drainage system at
a higher level.

male iron See female iron.
manhole An inspection chamber below ground level, designed
to give access to the house drains.
microbore Small-diameter central heating systems using pipes
as small as 6 mm.
mixer tap A tap designed to receive both hot and cold water
and deliver them into the appliance simultaneously, if desired.
motorized valve A special valve used within a fully pumped
central heating system to automatically open and close the
pipeline when water is required for a particular heating circuit.
Multiquick The trade name of a push-fit WC pan outlet
connector.
neutral point The point within a pumped heating system that is
under the influence of atmospheric pressure and not subject to
any positive or negative pressure caused by a pump.
O ring A neoprene washer, designed to prevent water escaping
past two mating surfaces. These washers are used in push-fit
joints and many taps and mixer valves, to allow the turning
movement of a spindle or spout.
open flue The flue pipe from a heat-producing appliance, in
which the air supply to the appliance has been taken from the
room.
overflow pipe The pipe found in toilet and storage cisterns,
designed to remove the excess water filling the cistern when the
float-operated valve fails to close off the water supply.
P trap A trap located on the outlet of a sanitary appliance, with
its outlet horizontal to the floor.
pH value Abbreviation for potential of hydrogen, identifying
the amount of hardness in a sample of water.
pillar tap A design of tap that screws vertically into the sanitary
appliance, such as might be used for a basin tap. See also bib
tap.
270

pipe duct A void through which a pipe has been run, thereby
facilitating maintenance or removal.
plumbers mait Non-setting putty often used when making the
waste fitting connections to sanitary appliances.
PTFE tape Abbreviation for polytetrafluoroethylene, which is a
white-coloured jointing tape generally used when making pipe-
threaded joints.
pump A device used to move a volume of water. One example
would be a circulating pump used in a central heating system to
force the water around the system.
PVC Abbreviation for polyvinyl chloride, a type of plastic
typically used in waste water drainage systems.
radiant heating A form of infrared heating, designed only to
warm the objects upon which the heat waves land (typically the
building structure or the occupants of the building). It does not
warm the air.
radiator A heat emitter through which hot water is passed to
warm a room.
reducer A pipe fitting designed to reduce or increase the bore of
a pipe.
room-sealed appliance A fuel-burning appliance that takes
its air supply from outside the building as well as discharging
the flue products outside, usually at a point adjacent to the air
intake, in which case it is referred to as a balanced flue. Where
the flue discharges at a different location from the air intake it is
not in balance.
running trap A trap which is installed within a run of pipework
rather than fixed directly on to a waste fitting, as found
typically with the P or S trap.
sanitary appliance A bath, basin, toilet, cistern, sink or other
plumbed fitting.
sealed system A central heating system that is not open to
the atmosphere, typically filled via a temporary filling loop
connected to the water supply mains.

seating The area within a tap or valve on to which a washer is
tightened, thus closing the supply.
separate system of drainage A system of drainage that has two
drainage pipes, one for surface rainwater and one for foul water
from the house sanitary pipework.
septic tank A private sewage disposal system used in some rural
areas.
silicone A non-metallic substance, typically found in liquid
form as a lubricant or as a rubber setting multipurpose sealing
compound.
siphonic action The action of transferring a liquid, typically
water, from one level up and over the edge of a vessel down to a
lower level, using the force created by atmospheric pressure.
soft water Water with no calcium or magnesium salts held in
solution within it, and which may contain additional carbon
dioxide, making it more acidic.
solder An alloy used to make capillary joints in copper tube.
The solder may contain lead and tin or be lead free, typically
consisting of copper and tin.
stopcock A valve fitted on high-pressure mains supply
pipework, designed to control or stop the flow of water.
stop valve A valve installed within a run of pipe, e.g. a
stopcock, gate valve or quarter-turn.
storage cistern A large open-topped vessel, usually located in
the roof space or loft, designed to hold water to supply a system
of hot or cold water.
S trap A trap located on the outlet of a sanitary appliance with
its outlet vertical to the floor.
stuffing box The area beneath the packing gland nut where a
special packing is located to allow the spindle of a valve to turn
without letting water escape. See gland nut.
Supa-tap A design of tap that can be re-washered without
turning off the water supply.
272

surface water Rainwater that runs off roofs and paved areas.
thermostat A device designed to automatically open or close an
electrical circuit as the temperature increases or decreases.
trap A component located beneath or forming part of a
sanitary appliance, designed to hold a quantity of water with
the intention of preventing foul air and gases passing into the
building from the house drains.
unvented domestic hot water supply A system of stored hot
water supply, in excess of 15 litres, that is supplied directly from
the mains supply pipework.
vacuum A space devoid of any matter, so that air from the
surrounding atmosphere applies a force as it tries to fill this
void.
valve A fitting incorporated within a pipe run, either to control
or to stop the volume of liquid passing through.
vent pipe The pipe from a high spot within a central heating
or hot water system, designed to allow the air to escape as the
system fills and let air into the system as it is drained.
washing machine trap A special trap with a branch for the
connection of a dishwasher or washing machine.
water pressure The force acting upon the water within a pipe.
WC The abbreviation for water closet, which is a toilet. The
term WC really identifies the room in which a toilet is located,
but it is also used when referring to the toilet itself.
zone valve A two-port motorized valve used in a heating system
to open and close the pipeline automatically when called upon
by the thermostat.

Appendix 3:
Taking it further
Further reading
Treloar, R.D., Plumbing, fourth edition (London: Blackwell
Publishing, 2012)
Treloar, R.D., Plumbing Encyclopaedia, fourth edition (London:
Blackwell Publishing, 2009)
Treloar, R.D., Gas Installation Technology, second edition,
(London: Blackwell Publishing, 2010)
Plumbing trade and professional bodies

Listed here is a selection of organizations from which you can
obtain the contact details of qualified operatives. The companies
listed with organizations such as these will need to follow
strict guidelines as laid down by the organization making the
recommendation and, as such, the organization will be held
accountable to some extent for the work they undertake.
CC Association of Plumbing and Heating Contractors (APHC)
0121 711 5030
www.competentpersonsscheme.co.uk/consumers
CC Chartered Institute of Plumbing and Heating Engineering
(CIPHE)
01708 472791 www.ciphe.org.uk
CC Gas Safe Register
0800 408 5500 www.GasSafeRegister.co.uk
Appendix 3: Taking it further 275

CC Oil Firing Technical Association (OFTEC)
0845 65 85 080 www.oftec.org
In addition, the following sponsored government website is very
useful: www.trustmark.org.uk
276

Index
access points, 278 f & e see f & e cisterns
air admittance valves, 267 flushing, 1417, 2930, 138
air in central heating systems, 8990 installing, 22830
airlocks creating blockages, 1324 maintenance, 2089
air separators, 834, 265 noisy, 1534
atmospheric corrosion, 1745, 176 overflowing, 13941
automatic bypass valve, 99100 storage see storage cisterns
turning off, 11416
ballvalve see float-operated valve close-coupled toilets, not flushing,
basin spanners, 1923 1378
basins, installing, 2459 closed systems, 7982
baths, installing, 2459 cold water supply, 214
bending machines, 1847 turning off, 10816
bending springs, 1835 combination (combi) boilers, 645,
blockages, 27, 57, 1324, 16270 679, 79
boiler interlock, 989, 258 compression joints, 1789,
boilers, 48, 4950, 53, 6970, 904 191
certification, 2589 condensing boilers, 945
combination (combi), 645, connections, 2489
679, 79 contamination in cisterns, 11
condensing, 945 controls for heating, 96102
high-efficiency (HE), 956 convection currents, 75, 767
maintenance, 2046 copper pipes, 17883
noisy, 1545 bending, 1837
bonding wires, 357, 1945 corrosion, 55, 134, 1746
boss connections to soil pipes, 2212 corrosion inhibitors, 103
Building Regulations, 78, 87, 96, 2579 cylinder thermostats, 98
cylinders
carbon monoxide (CO), 445, 206 hot water, 4850, 5361,
ceiling, bulging, 148 66
central heating systems, 689, 74103 storage, 6970
draining down, 11921
problems, 15661 diaphragm valves, 1213
ceramic discs, 1257 diaphragm washers, 1356
certification for professionals, 2034, direct systems of cold water supply,
25764 67
cesspools/cesspits, 312 direct systems of hot water supply,
cisterns 513
close-coupled, 1378 dishwashers, installation, 21519
contamination, 11 drainage points, 278
Index 277

drainage systems, 2236 gravity circulation, 53
blockages, 1679 gutters
certification, 258 blockages, 16870
connections to soil pipes, 2212 installing, 2347
draining down central heating,
11921 hard water, 1621
draining down water supply, 11819 heating controls, 96102
drain-off stopcock, 5, 11819 heating, underfloor see underfloor
drinking water, 9, 220 heating
high-efficiency (HE) boilers, 956
efficiency of boilers, 956 hot water supply, 4870
electricians, 204 maintenance, 20911
electricity not hot enough, 1567
certification, 259 too hot, 1556
earthing, 357 turning off, 11617
electrolytic corrosion, 175
equipotential earth bond, 357 immersion heaters, 513
expansion of water, 57, 61, 7980 replacing, 22931
expansion vessels, 81 indirect systems of cold water supply,
external stopcock, 11314 78
indirect systems of hot water supply,
f & e (feed and expansion) cisterns, 5363
545, 57, 778, 81, 149, 267 induced siphonage, 25
fire valves, 46 instantaneous systems of hot water
first fix, 2456 supply, 635
float-operated valve/ballvalve, 1013, insulation for pipes, 2324
14, 16, 13941, 1512 isolation valve, 11617
floors, pipes concealed below, 1968
floor timbers, noisy, 153 joints
flow rate, 68, 69 compression, 1789, 191
flue pipes, 467 push-fit, 1812, 189
flushing cisterns, 1417, 2930, 138 soldered, 17981
forced draught boilers, 93 solvent-welded, 18991
frost protection, 1023
fuel efficiency, 49 lead pipes, 176
fuel types, 91 Legionella bacteria, 501
fully pumped systems, 813 limescale, 1820, 134
lockshield valves, 879, 224
gas fires, maintenance, 2068 loft hatch, 229
gas leaks, 1701 LPG (liquefied petroleum gas), 42
Gas Safe Register, 445, 203, 259, 260
gas supply, 423 macerator units, 28
gate valves, 115 maintenance checks, 20411
278

micro-bore systems, 845, 88 traps, 22, 245
mild steel pipes, 1767 water supply main, 2268
modified cold water supply, 79 plastic pipes, 18791
motorized valves, 1002 plumbers, 2023
plungers, 1623, 1657
natural draught boilers, 93 Portsmouth valves, 1213, 1401
natural gas, 42 priority systems, 689
professional tradespeople, 2024,
O rings, replacing, 12931 2634
oil installation, certification, 259 programmer, 97
oil supply, 456 protection for heating systems, 1023
open-flued boilers, 93 PTFE (polytetrafluoroethylene), 178
overflow pipes, 10, 16 public drainage systems, 325
overflowing water, 13941 pump-overrun facility, 99
pumps, 813
packing gland nut, 11112, 1289 central heating, replacing, 1579
pH value of water, 17 noisy, 153
pipe clips, 183 shower booster, 2524
pipe thermostats, 1023 push-fit joints, 1812, 189
pipes
access points, 27 quarter-turn valves, 11516
between radiators, 778
blockages, 1324, 16270 radiant heating, 746
burst, 14850 radiators, 768, 847
cold water supply, 24 bleeding, 1601
for combi boilers, 68 leaking, 161
concealing, 1968 not hot enough, 15761
connections to soil pipes, 2212 removing, 89, 2246
copper, 17887 valves, 8790, 161
corrosion, 1746 rainwater pipes
drainage, 234 blockages, 16870
draining down, 11819 installing, 2347
first fix, 2456 regulations, 25764
flue, 467 room thermostats, 978
hot water distribution, 67 room-sealed boilers, 93
insulating, 2324
lead, 176 safety
leaking, 1424 gas see Gas Safe Register
mild steel, 1767 hot water, 501
noisy, 1505 sealed expansion vessels, 81
overflow, 10, 16 sealed heating systems, 7982
plastic, 18791 second fix, 2489
second fix, 2489 self-siphonage, 245
Index 279

septic tanks, 301 temporary continuity bonding wire,
servicing appliances, 20411 1945
sewage disposal, 305 thermal storage systems, 657
shower booster pumps, replacing, thermostatic radiator valves (TRVs),
2524 87, 98, 2245
shower cubicles, installing, 24952 thermostats, 979
single-feed systems of indirect hot frost protection, 1023
water supply, 578 immersion heater, 230
single-stack system, 23 problems, 1557
sinks, installing, 2459 three-port valves, 1002
siphon toilets, not flushing, 1358 toilet-flushing cisterns, 1417, 2930
siphonage from traps, 245 toilets, 2830
siphonic action, 15, 2930 blockages, 1656
soakaways, 323 continuous water discharge, 1389
soft water, 18 installing, 23741
soil pipes, 240 leaking when flushed, 1424
connections, 2212 not flushing, 1358
soldered joints, 17981 overflowing, 13941
solid fuel boilers, 91 tools for plumbing, 1915
solvent-welded joints, 18991 traps, 22, 245
spanners, 1923 removing, 1625
spindles, rising and non-rising, 122, from washing machines and
12731 dishwashers, 216
stacks, 234, 26 TRVs see thermostatic radiator valves
stopcock/stoptap, 23, 45 tube cutters, 1934
turning off, 10817, 148 two-pipe system, 778
storage cisterns, 7, 911 two-port valves, 1001
installing, 22830
pressure, 1314 underfloor heating, 746
turning off, 11416 unvented systems, 5863, 69
storage cylinders, 6970
storage systems, hot water, 4863, valves
657 air admittance, 267
Supa-taps, 1256 automatic bypass, 99100
surface-water disposal, 313 cold water supply, 10816
diaphragm, 1213
tap seating, 124 fire, 46
taps float-operated/ballvalves, 1013,
dripping, 1217 14, 16, 13941, 1512
installing, 2414 gate, 115
installing outside, 2234 hot water supply, 11617
leaking, 12731 isolation, 11617
low water flow, 1314 lockshield, 879, 224
280

maintenance, 209 from washing machines and
motorized, 1002 dishwashers, 21618
Portsmouth, 1213, 1401 water, hard and soft, 1621
quarter-turn, 11516 water closets (WCs) see toilets
radiator, 8790, 161 water conditioners, 201
TRVs, 87, 98, 2245 water flow, 13
three-port, 1002 insufficient, 1314
two-port, 1001 water meters, 2
valve-type flushing cisterns, 1617 water pressure, 1214, 7980
not flushing, 138 Water Regulations, 2613
vented systems, 538, 69, 81 water softeners, 20
ventilation, 467 installation, 21921
water supply
walls, pipes concealed behind, 198 cold see cold water supply
washers connections, 2489
diaphragm, 1356 draining down, 11819
replacing, 11213, 1213, hot see hot water supply
1256 maintenance, 20811
washing machines, installation, repairing main, 2267
21519 replacing main, 2278
waste pipes turning off, 10817, 148
blockages, 16270 to washing machines and
connection, 248 dishwashers, 21819
Index 281

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Master Basic Plumbing

and Central Heating

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Meet the author ix

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Your safety checklist

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Incoming cold water supply

THE WATER SUPPLY PIPE

CC inch galvanized mild steel pipe

CC inch lead pipe.

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Figure 1.1 The cold water supply into a home

1. The plumbing in your home

SUPPLY STOPCOCK (STOPTAP)

CC under the stairs, in a cupboard

CC under a wooden floorboard, just inside the front door.

There may be an additional stopcock outside the building.

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Figure 1.2 Supply stopcock with drain-off valve

Cold supply inside the dwelling

CC indirect cold water supply

CC modified cold water supply.

The pipework usually runs beneath floors or through pipe

1. The plumbing in your home 5

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Figure 1.3 A direct cold water supply system

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INDIRECT COLD WATER SUPPLY

MODIFIED COLD WATER SUPPLY

1. The plumbing in your home 7

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Figure 1.4 An indirect cold water supply system

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WHAT OUTLETS ARE FED DIRECTLY FROM THE SUPPLY MAIN?

DRINKING WATER (POTABLE WATER)

The storage cistern

1. The plumbing in your home 9

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dhw = domestic hot water

everything is fed directly from the cold mains water supply do

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THE FLOAT-OPERATED VALVE (BALLVALVE)

1. The plumbing in your home 11