Chapter 3

Flight Instruments
Introduction
Aircraft became a practical means of transportation when
accurate flight instruments freed the pilot from the necessity
of maintaining visual contact with the ground. Flight
instruments are crucial to conducting safe flight operations
and it is important that the pilot have a basic understanding
of their operation. The basic flight instruments required
for operation under visual flight rules (VFR) are airspeed
indicator (ASI), altimeter, and magnetic direction indicator.
In addition to these, operation under instrument flight rules
(IFR) requires a gyroscopic rate-of-turn indicator, slip-skid
indicator, sensitive altimeter adjustable for barometric
pressure, clock displaying hours, minutes, and seconds with
a sweep-second pointer or digital presentation, gyroscopic
pitch-and-bank indicator (artificial horizon), and gyroscopic
direction indicator (directional gyro or equivalent).

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Aircraft that are flown in instrument meteorological conditions height and speed of movement of the aircraft through the
(IMC) are equipped with instruments that provide attitude air, both horizontally and vertically. This pressure, called
and direction reference, as well as navigation instruments that static pressure, is sampled at one or more locations outside
allow precision flight from takeoff to landing with limited or the aircraft. The pressure of the static air is sensed at a flush
no outside visual reference. port where the air is not disturbed. On some aircraft, air is
sampled by static ports on the side of the electrically heated
The instruments discussed in this chapter are those required pitot-static head. [Figure 3-1] Other aircraft pick up the static
by Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) pressure through flush ports on the side of the fuselage or
part 91, and are organized into three groups: pitot-static the vertical fin. These ports are in locations proven by flight
instruments, compass systems, and gyroscopic instruments. tests to be in undisturbed air, and they are normally paired,
The chapter concludes with a discussion of how to preflight one on either side of the aircraft. This dual location prevents
these systems for IFR flight. This chapter addresses additional lateral movement of the aircraft from giving erroneous static
avionics systems such as Electronic Flight Information pressure indications. The areas around the static ports may be
Systems (EFIS), Ground Proximity Warning System heated with electric heater elements to prevent ice forming
(GPWS), Terrain Awareness and Warning System (TAWS), over the port and blocking the entry of the static air.
Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System (TCAS),
Head Up Display (HUD), etc., that are increasingly being Three basic pressure-operated instruments are found in most
incorporated into general aviation aircraft. aircraft instrument panels. These are the sensitive altimeter,
ASI, and vertical speed indicator (VSI). All three receive
Pitot/Static Systems pressures sensed by the aircraft pitot-static system. The static
Pitot pressure, or impact air pressure, is sensed through an ports supply pressure to the ASI, altimeter, and VSI.
open-end tube pointed directly into the relative wind flowing
around the aircraft. The pitot tube connects to pressure Blockage Considerations
operated flight instruments such as the ASI. The pitot tube is particularly sensitive to blockage especially
by icing. Even light icing can block the entry hole of the pitot
Static Pressure tube where ram air enters the system. This affects the ASI
Other instruments depend upon accurate sampling of the and is the reason most airplanes are equipped with a pitot
ambient still air atmospheric pressure to determine the heating system.

Figure 3-1. A Typical Electrically Heated Pitot-Static Head.

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Indications of Pitot Tube Blockage static pressure is usually lower than outside static pressure,
If the pitot tube becomes blocked, the ASI displays inaccurate selection of the alternate source may result in the following
speeds. At the altitude where the pitot tube becomes blocked, erroneous instrument indications:
the ASI remains at the existing airspeed and doesnt reflect 1. Altimeter reads higher than normal,
actual changes in speed.
2. Indicated airspeed (IAS) reads greater than normal,
At altitudes above where the pitot tube became and
blocked, the ASI displays a higher-than-actual
3. VSI momentarily shows a climb. Consult the Pilots
airspeed increasing steadily as altitude increases.
Operating Handbook/Airplane Flight Manual (POH/
At lower altitudes, the ASI displays a lower-than-actual AFM) to determine the amount of error.
airspeed decreasing steadily as altitude decreases.
Effects of Flight Conditions
Indications from Static Port Blockage The static ports are located in a position where the air at
Many aircraft also have a heating system to protect the their surface is as undisturbed as possible. But under some
static ports to ensure the entire pitot-static system is clear flight conditions, particularly at a high angle of attack with
of ice. If the static ports become blocked, the ASI would the landing gear and flaps down, the air around the static
still function but could produce inaccurate indications. At port may be disturbed to the extent that it can cause an error
the altitude where the blockage occurs, airspeed indications in the indication of the altimeter and ASI. Because of the
would be normal. importance of accuracy in these instruments, part of the
At altitudes above which the static ports became certification tests for an aircraft is a check of position error
blocked, the ASI displays a lower-than-actual airspeed in the static system.
continually decreasing as altitude is increased.
The POH/AFM contains any corrections that must be applied
At lower altitudes, the ASI displays a higher-than-actual to the airspeed for the various configurations of flaps and
airspeed increasing steadily as altitude decreases. landing gear.

The trapped pressure in the static system causes the altimeter Pitot/Static Instruments
to remain at the altitude where the blockage occurred. The
Sensitive Altimeter
VSI remains at zero. On some aircraft, an alternate static
air source valve is used for emergencies. [Figure 3-2] If A sensitive altimeter is an aneroid barometer that measures
the alternate source is vented inside the airplane, where the absolute pressure of the ambient air and displays it in
terms of feet or meters above a selected pressure level.

Principle of Operation
The sensitive element in a sensitive altimeter is a stack of
evacuated, corrugated bronze aneroid capsules. [Figure 3-3]
The air pressure acting on these aneroids tries to compress
them against their natural springiness, which tries to expand
them. The result is that their thickness changes as the air
pressure changes. Stacking several aneroids increases the
dimension change as the pressure varies over the usable
range of the instrument.

Below 10,000 feet, a striped segment is visible. Above this

altitude, a mask begins to cover it, and above 15,000 feet,
all of the stripes are covered. [Figure 3-4]

Another configuration of the altimeter is the drum-type.

[Figure 3-5] These instruments have only one pointer that
makes one revolution for every 1,000 feet. Each number
represents 100 feet and each mark represents 20 feet. A drum,
marked in thousands of feet, is geared to the mechanism that
drives the pointer. To read this type of altimeter, first look at
Figure 3-2. A Typical Pitot-Static System.

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 100 ft. pointer

10,000 ft. pointer

Aneroid 1,000 ft. pointer

Altimeter setting window

Altitude indication scale

Static port
Barometric scale adjustment knob Crosshatch flag
A crosshatched area appears on some
altimeters when displaying an altitude
below 10,000 feet MSL.

Figure 3-3. Sensitive Altimeter Components.

the drum to get the thousands of feet, and then at the pointer pressure altitude. The pilot displays indicate altitude by
to get the feet and hundreds of feet. adjusting the barometric scale to the local altimeter setting.
The altimeter then indicates the height above the existing
A sensitive altimeter is one with an adjustable barometric scale sea level pressure.
allowing the pilot to set the reference pressure from which the
altitude is measured. This scale is visible in a small window Altimeter Errors
called the Kollsman window. A knob on the instrument adjusts A sensitive altimeter is designed to indicate standard changes
the scale. The range of the scale is from 28.00" to 31.00" from standard conditions, but most flying involves errors
inches of mercury (Hg), or 948 to 1,050 millibars. caused by nonstandard conditions and the pilot must be able
to modify the indications to correct for these errors. There
Rotating the knob changes both the barometric scale and are two types of errors: mechanical and inherent.
the altimeter pointers in such a way that a change in the
barometric scale of 1" Hg changes the pointer indication Mechanical
by 1,000 feet. This is the standard pressure lapse rate A preflight check to determine the condition of an altimeter
below 5,000 feet. When the barometric scale is adjusted consists of setting the barometric scale to the local altimeter
to 29.92"Hg or 1,013.2 millibars, the pointers indicate the setting. The altimeter should indicate the surveyed elevation

I0 0 FEET

9 0 I
8 CALIBRATED
ALT
T 2
29.8
TO
29.9
20,000 FEET
30.0
7 3
6
5 4

Figure 3-4.Altimeter.
Figure 3-4. Three-Pointer Three-pointer altimeter. Figure 3-5. Drum-Type Altimeter.

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of the airport. If the indication is off by more than 75 feet from appropriate temperature correction determined from the chart
the surveyed elevation, the instrument should be referred in Figure 3-7 to charted IFR altitudes to ensure terrain and
to a certificated instrument repair station for recalibration. obstacle clearance with the following restrictions:
Differences between ambient temperature and/or pressure
Altitudes specifically assigned by Air Traffic Control
causes an erroneous indication on the altimeter.
(ATC), such as maintain 5,000 feet shall not be
corrected. Assigned altitudes may be rejected if the
Inherent Altimeter Error
pilot decides that low temperatures pose a risk of
When the aircraft is flying in air that is warmer than standard, inadequate terrain or obstacle clearance.
the air is less dense and the pressure levels are farther apart.
When the aircraft is flying at an indicated altitude of 5,000 If temperature corrections are applied to charted
feet, the pressure level for that altitude is higher than it would IFR altitudes (such as procedure turn altitudes, final
be in air at standard temperature, and the aircraft is higher approach fix crossing altitudes, etc.), the pilot must
than it would be if the air were cooler. If the air is colder advise ATC of the applied correction.
than standard, it is denser and the pressure levels are closer
ICAO Cold Temperature Error Table
together. When the aircraft is flying at an indicated altitude
of 5,000 feet, its true altitude is lower than it would be if the The cold temperature induced altimeter error may be
air were warmer. [Figure 3-6] significant when considering obstacle clearances when
temperatures are well below standard. Pilots may wish to
Cold Weather Altimeter Errors increase their minimum terrain clearance altitudes with a
corresponding increase in ceiling from the normal minimum
A correctly calibrated pressure altimeter indicates true
when flying in extreme cold temperature conditions. Higher
altitude above mean sea level (MSL) when operating within
altitudes may need to be selected when flying at low terrain
the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) parameters of
clearances. Most flight management systems (FMS) with
pressure and temperature. Nonstandard pressure conditions are
air data computers implement a capability to compensate
corrected by applying the correct local area altimeter setting.
for cold temperature errors. Pilots flying with these systems
should ensure they are aware of the conditions under which
Temperature errors from ISA result in true altitude being
the system will automatically compensate. If compensation
higher than indicated altitude whenever the temperature is
is applied by the FMS or manually, ATC must be informed
warmer than ISA and true altitude being lower than indicated
that the aircraft is not flying the assigned altitude. Otherwise,
altitude whenever the temperature is colder than ISA.
vertical separation from other aircraft may be reduced
True altitude variance under conditions of colder than ISA
creating a potentially hazardous situation. The table in
temperatures poses the risk of inadequate obstacle clearance.
Figure 3-7, derived from International Civil Aviation
Under extremely cold conditions, pilots may need to add an

Figure 3-6. The loss of altitude experienced when flying into an area where the air is colder (more dense) than standard.

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Figure 3-7. ICAO Cold Temperature Error Table.

Organization (ICAO) standard formulas, shows how much charted procedure turn altitude of 1,800 feet minus the airport
error can exist when the temperature is extremely cold. To elevation of 500 feet equals 1,300 feet. The altitude difference
use the table, find the reported temperature in the left column, of 1,300 feet falls between the correction chart elevations of
and then read across the top row to the height above the 1,000 feet and 1,500 feet. At the station temperature of -50C,
airport/reporting station. Subtract the airport elevation from the correction falls between 300 feet and 450 feet. Dividing
the altitude of the final approach fix (FAF). The intersection the difference in compensation values by the difference in
of the column and row is the amount of possible error. altitude above the airport gives the error value per foot.

Example: The reported temperature is -10 Celsius and the In this case, 150 feet divided by 500 feet = 0.33 feet for each
FAF is 500 feet above the airport elevation. The reported additional foot of altitude above 1,000 feet. This provides a
current altimeter setting may place the aircraft as much as 50 correction of 300 feet for the first 1,000 feet and an additional
feet below the altitude indicated by the altimeter. value of 0.33 times 300 feet, or 99 feet, which is rounded to
100 feet. 300 feet + 100 feet = total temperature correction
When using the cold temperature error table, the altitude of 400 feet. For the given conditions, correcting the charted
error is proportional to both the height above the reporting value of 1,800 feet above MSL (equal to a height above the
station elevation and the temperature at the reporting reporting station of 1,300 feet) requires the addition of 400
station. For IFR approach procedures, the reporting station feet. Thus, when flying at an indicated altitude of 2,200 feet,
elevation is assumed to be airport elevation. It is important the aircraft is actually flying a true altitude of 1,800 feet.
to understand that corrections are based upon the temperature
at the reporting station, not the temperature observed at the Minimum Procedure Turn Altitude
aircrafts current altitude and height above the reporting 1,800 feet charted = 2,200 feet corrected
station and not the charted IFR altitude. Minimum FAF Crossing Altitude
1,200 feet charted = 1,500 feet corrected
To see how corrections are applied, note the following Straight-in MDA
example: 800 feet charted = 900 feet corrected
Airport Elevation 496 feet Circling MDA
Airport Temperature - 50 C 1,000 feet charted = 1,200 feet corrected

A charted IFR approach to the airport provides the following Nonstandard Pressure on an Altimeter
data: Maintaining a current altimeter setting is critical because the
Minimum Procedure Turn Altitude 1,800 feet atmosphere pressure is not constant. That is, in one location
Minimum FAF Crossing Altitude 1,200 feet the pressure might be higher than the pressure just a short
Straight-in Minimum Descent Altitude 800 feet distance away. Take an aircraft whose altimeter setting is set
Circling MDA 1,000 feet to 29.92" of local pressure. As the aircraft moves to an area
of lower pressure (Point A to B in Figure 3-8) and the pilot
The Minimum Procedure Turn Altitude of 1,800 feet will fails to readjust the altimeter setting (essentially calibrating
be used as an example to demonstrate determination of it to local pressure), then as the pressure decreases, the
the appropriate temperature correction. Typically, altitude true altitude will be lower. Adjusting the altimeter settings
values are rounded up to the nearest 100-foot level. The

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compensates for this. When the altimeter shows an indicated equipment adjusts the displayed altitudes to compensate for
altitude of 5,000 feet, the true altitude at Point A (the height local pressure differences allowing display of targets at correct
above mean sea level) is only 3,500 feet at Point B. The fact altitudes. 14 CFR part 91 requires the altitude transmitted by
that the altitude indication is not always true lends itself to the transponder to be within 125 feet of the altitude indicated
the memory aid, When flying from hot to cold or from a on the instrument used to maintain flight altitude.
high to a low, look out below. [Figure 3-8]
Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum (RVSM)
Below 31,000 feet, a 1,000 foot separation is the minimum
required between usable flight levels. Flight levels (FLs)
generally start at 18,000 feet where the local pressure is
29.92" Hg or greater. All aircraft 18,000 feet and above use
a standard altimeter setting of 29.92" Hg, and the altitudes
are in reference to a standard hence termed FL. Between FL
180 and FL 290, the minimum altitude separation is 1,000
feet between aircraft. However, for flight above FL 290
(primarily due to aircraft equipage and reporting capability;
potential error) ATC applied the requirement of 2,000 feet of
separation. FL 290, an altitude appropriate for an eastbound
aircraft, would be followed by FL 310 for a westbound
aircraft, and so on to FL 410, or seven FLs available for flight.
With 1,000-foot separation, or a reduction of the vertical
separation between FL 290 and FL410, an additional six
FLs become available. This results in normal flight level and
direction management being maintained from FL 180 through
FL 410. Hence the name is Reduced Vertical Separation
Minimum (RVSM). Because it is applied domestically, it is
Figure 3-8. Effects of Nonstandard Pressure on an Altimeter of an
called United States Domestic Reduced Vertical Separation
Aircraft Flown into Air of Lower Than Standard Pressure (Air is
Minimum, or DRVSM.
Less Dense).
However, there is a cost to participate in the DRVSM program
Altimeter Enhancements (Encoding) which relates to both aircraft equipage and pilot training. For
It is not sufficient in the airspace system for only the pilot example, altimetry error must be reduced significantly and
to have an indication of the aircrafts altitude; the air traffic operators using RVSM must receive authorization from the
controller on the ground must also know the altitude of the appropriate civil aviation authority. RVSM aircraft must
aircraft. To provide this information, the aircraft is typically meet required altitude-keeping performance standards.
equipped with an encoding altimeter. Additionally, operators must operate in accordance with
RVSM policies/procedures applicable to the airspace where
When the ATC transponder is set to Mode C, the encoding they are flying.
altimeter supplies the transponder with a series of pulses
identifying the flight level (in increments of 100 feet) at The aircraft must be equipped with at least one automatic
which the aircraft is flying. This series of pulses is transmitted altitude control
to the ground radar where they appear on the controllers
Within a tolerance band of 65 feet about an acquired
scope as an alphanumeric display around the return for the
altitude when the aircraft is operated in straight-and-
aircraft. The transponder allows the ground controller to
level flight.
identify the aircraft and determine the pressure altitude at
which it is flying. Within a tolerance band of 130 feet under no
turbulent, conditions for aircraft for which application
A computer inside the encoding altimeter measures the for type certification occurred on or before April 9,
pressure referenced from 29.92" Hg and delivers this data to 1997 that are equipped with an automatic altitude
the transponder. When the pilot adjusts the barometric scale control system with flight management/performance
to the local altimeter setting, the data sent to the transponder system inputs.
is not affected. This is to ensure that all Mode C aircraft are
transmitting data referenced to a common pressure level. ATC

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That aircraft must be equipped with an altitude alert system the pressure inside the aneroid. As the aircraft ascends, the
that signals an alert when the altitude displayed to the flight static pressure becomes lower. The pressure inside the case
crew deviates from the selected altitude by more than (in most compresses the aneroid, moving the pointer upward, showing
cases) 200 feet. For each condition in the full RVSM flight a climb and indicating the rate of ascent in number of feet
envelope, the largest combined absolute value for residual per minute (fpm).
static source error plus the avionics error may not exceed 200
feet. Aircraft with TCAS must have compatibility with RVSM When the aircraft levels off, the pressure no longer changes.
Operations. Figure 3-9 illustrates the increase in aircraft The pressure inside the case becomes equal to that inside
permitted between FL 180 and FL 410. Most noteworthy, the aneroid, and the pointer returns to its horizontal, or
however, is the economization that aircraft can take advantage zero, position. When the aircraft descends, the static
of by the higher FLs being available to more aircraft. pressure increases. The aneroid expands, moving the pointer
downward, indicating a descent.

The pointer indication in a VSI lags a few seconds behind

the actual change in pressure. However, it is more sensitive
than an altimeter and is useful in alerting the pilot of an
upward or downward trend, thereby helping maintain a
constant altitude.

Some of the more complex VSIs, called instantaneous vertical

speed indicators (IVSI), have two accelerometer-actuated air
pumps that sense an upward or downward pitch of the aircraft
and instantaneously create a pressure differential. By the time
the pressure caused by the pitch acceleration dissipates, the
altitude pressure change is effective.

Dynamic Pressure Type Instruments

Airspeed Indicator (ASI)
An ASI is a differential pressure gauge that measures the
dynamic pressure of the air through which the aircraft is
flying. Dynamic pressure is the difference in the ambient
static air pressure and the total, or ram, pressure caused by
the motion of the aircraft through the air. These two pressures
are taken from the pitot-static system.

Figure 3-9. Increase in Aircraft Permitted Between FL 180 and

FL 410.

Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI)

The VSI in Figure 3-10 is also called a vertical velocity
indicator (VVI), and was formerly known as a rate-of-
climb indicator. It is a rate-of-pressure change instrument
that gives an indication of any deviation from a constant
pressure level.

Inside the instrument case is an aneroid very much like the

one in an ASI. Both the inside of this aneroid and the inside
of the instrument case are vented to the static system, but
the case is vented through a calibrated orifice that causes Figure 3-10. Rate of Climb or Descent in Thousands of Feet Per
the pressure inside the case to change more slowly than Minute.

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The mechanism of the ASI in Figure 3-11 consists of a thin, Equivalent Airspeed (EAS)
corrugated phosphor bronze aneroid, or diaphragm, that EAS is CAS corrected for compression of the air inside the
receives its pressure from the pitot tube. The instrument pitot tube. EAS is the same as CAS in standard atmosphere
case is sealed and connected to the static ports. As the at sea level. As the airspeed and pressure altitude increase,
pitot pressure increases or the static pressure decreases, the the CAS becomes higher than it should be, and a correction
diaphragm expands. This dimensional change is measured by for compression must be subtracted from the CAS.
a rocking shaft and a set of gears that drives a pointer across
the instrument dial. Most ASIs are calibrated in knots, or True Airspeed (TAS)
nautical miles per hour; some instruments show statute miles TAS is CAS corrected for nonstandard pressure and
per hour, and some instruments show both. temperature. TAS and CAS are the same in standard
atmosphere at sea level. Under nonstandard conditions, TAS
Types of Airspeed is found by applying a correction for pressure altitude and
Just as there are several types of altitude, there are multiple temperature to the CAS.
types of airspeed: Indicated Airspeed (IAS), Calibrated
Airspeed (CAS), Equivalent Airspeed (EAS), and True Some aircraft are equipped with true ASIs that have a
Airspeed (TAS). temperature-compensated aneroid bellows inside the
instrument case. This bellows modifies the movement of
Indicated Airspeed (IAS) the rocking shaft inside the instrument case so the pointer
IAS is shown on the dial of the instrument, uncorrected for shows the actual TAS.
instrument or system errors.
The TAS indicator provides both true and IAS. These
Calibrated Airspeed (CAS) instruments have the conventional airspeed mechanism,
CAS is the speed at which the aircraft is moving through with an added subdial visible through cutouts in the regular
the air, which is found by correcting IAS for instrument dial. A knob on the instrument allows the pilot to rotate the
and position errors. The POH/AFM has a chart or graph to subdial and align an indication of the outside air temperature
correct IAS for these errors and provide the correct CAS for with the pressure altitude being flown. This alignment causes
the various flap and landing gear configurations. the instrument pointer to indicate the TAS on the subdial.
[Figure 3-12]

Figure 3-11. Mechanism of an Airspeed Indicator.

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 Most high-speed aircraft are limited to a maximum Mach
number at which they can fly. This is shown on a Machmeter
as a decimal fraction. [Figure 3-13] For example, if the
Machmeter indicates .83 and the aircraft is flying at 30,000
feet where the speed of sound under standard conditions is
589.5 knots, the airspeed is 489.3 knots. The speed of sound
varies with the air temperature. If the aircraft were flying at
Mach .83 at 10,000 feet where the air is much warmer, its
airspeed would be 530 knots.

Maximum Allowable Airspeed

Some aircraft that fly at high subsonic speeds are equipped
with maximum allowable ASIs like the one in Figure 3-14.
This instrument looks much like a standard air-speed indicator,
Figure 3-12. A true airspeed indicator allows the pilot to correct calibrated in knots, but has an additional pointer colored red,
IAS for nonstandard temperature and pressure. checkered, or striped. The maximum airspeed pointer is
Mach Number actuated by an aneroid, or altimeter mechanism, that moves
As an aircraft approaches the speed of sound, the air flowing it to a lower value as air density decreases. By keeping the
over certain areas of its surface speeds up until it reaches the airspeed pointer at a lower value than the maximum pointer,
speed of sound, and shock waves form. The IAS at which the pilot avoids the onset of transonic shock waves.
these conditions occur changes with temperature. Therefore,
in this case, airspeed is not entirely adequate to warn the
pilot of the impending problems. Mach number is more
useful. Mach number is the ratio of the TAS of the aircraft
to the speed of sound in the same atmospheric conditions.
An aircraft flying at the speed of sound is flying at Mach
1.0. Some older mechanical Machmeters not driven from
an air data computer use an altitude aneroid inside the
instrument that converts pitot-static pressure into Mach
number. These systems assume that the temperature at any
altitude is standard; therefore, the indicated Mach number is
inaccurate whenever the temperature deviates from standard.
These systems are called indicated Machmeters. Modern
electronic Machmeters use information from an air data
computer system to correct for temperature errors. These Figure 3-14. A maximum allowable airspeed indicator has a movable
systems display true Mach number. pointer that indicates the never-exceed speed, which changes with
altitude to avoid the onset of transonic shock waves.

Airspeed Color Codes

The dial of an ASI is color coded to alert the pilot, at a
glance, of the significance of the speed at which the aircraft
is flying. These colors and their associated airspeeds are
shown in Figure 3-15.

Magnetism
The Earth is a huge magnet, spinning in space, surrounded
by a magnetic field made up of invisible lines of flux. These
lines leave the surface at the magnetic north pole and reenter
at the magnetic South Pole.

Figure 3-13. A Machmeter shows the ratio of the speed of sound to Lines of magnetic flux have two important characteristics:
the TAS the aircraft is flying. any magnet that is free to rotate will align with them, and

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Figure 3-15. Color Codes for an Airspeed Indicator.

an electrical current is induced into any conductor that cuts scale, called a card, is wrapped around the float and viewed
across them. Most direction indicators installed in aircraft through a glass window with a lubber line across it. The card
make use of one of these two characteristics. is marked with letters representing the cardinal directions,
north, east, south, and west, and a number for each 30
The Basic Aviation Magnetic Compass between these letters. The final 0 is omitted from these
One of the oldest and simplest instruments for indicating directions; for example, 3 = 30, 6 = 60, and 33 = 330.
direction is the magnetic compass. It is also one of the basic There are long and short graduation marks between the letters
instruments required by 14 CFR part 91 for both VFR and and numbers, with each long mark representing 10 and each
IFR flight. short mark representing 5.

Magnetic Compass Overview Magnetic Compass Construction

A magnet is a piece of material, usually a metal containing The float and card assembly has a hardened steel pivot in its
iron, which attracts and holds lines of magnetic flux. center that rides inside a special, spring-loaded, hard-glass
Regardless of size, every magnet has two poles: a north jewel cup. The buoyancy of the float takes most of the weight
pole and a south pole. When one magnet is placed in the off the pivot, and the fluid damps the oscillation of the float
field of another, the unlike poles attract each other and like and card. This jewel-and-pivot type mounting allows the float
poles repel. freedom to rotate and tilt up to approximately 18 angle of
bank. At steeper bank angles, the compass indications are
An aircraft magnetic compass, such as the one in Figure 3-16, erratic and unpredictable.
has two small magnets attached to a metal float sealed inside a
bowl of clear compass fluid similar to kerosene. A graduated The compass housing is entirely full of compass fluid. To
prevent damage or leakage when the fluid expands and
contracts with temperature changes, the rear of the compass
case is sealed with a flexible diaphragm, or with a metal
bellows in some compasses.

Magnetic Compass Theory of Operations

The magnets align with the Earths magnetic field and the
pilot reads the direction on the scale opposite the lubber line.
Note that in Figure 3-16, the pilot sees the compass card from
its backside. When the pilot is flying north as the compass
shows, east is to the pilots right, but on the card 33, which
represents 330 (west of north), is to the right of north. The
reason for this apparent backward graduation is that the card
remains stationary, and the compass housing and the pilot turn
Figure 3-16. A Magnetic Compass. The vertical line is called the around it, always viewing the card from its backside.
lubber line.

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A compensator assembly mounted on the top or bottom of the Flying in the Washington, D.C. area, for example, the variation
compass allows an aviation maintenance technician (AMT) is 10 west. If the pilot wants to fly a true course of south (180),
to create a magnetic field inside the compass housing that the variation must be added to this resulting in a magnetic course
cancels the influence of local outside magnetic fields. This is to fly of 190. Flying in the Los Angeles, CA area, the variation
done to correct for deviation error. The compensator assembly is 14 east. To fly a true course of 180 there, the pilot would
has two shafts whose ends have screwdriver slots accessible have to subtract the variation and fly a magnetic course of 166.
from the front of the compass. Each shaft rotates one or two The variation error does not change with the heading of the
small compensating magnets. The end of one shaft is marked aircraft; it is the same anywhere along the isogonic line.
E-W, and its magnets affect the compass when the aircraft is
pointed east or west. The other shaft is marked N-S and its Deviation
magnets affect the compass when the aircraft is pointed north The magnets in a compass align with any magnetic field.
or south. Local magnetic fields in an aircraft caused by electrical current
flowing in the structure, in nearby wiring or any magnetized
Magnetic Compass Induced Errors part of the structure, conflict with the Earths magnetic field
The magnetic compass is the simplest instrument in the and cause a compass error called deviation.
panel, but it is subject to a number of errors that must be
considered. Deviation, unlike variation, is different on each heading, but it is
not affected by the geographic location. Variation error cannot
Variation be reduced or changed, but deviation error can be minimized
The Earth rotates about its geographic axis; maps and charts when a pilot or AMT performs the maintenance task known
are drawn using meridians of longitude that pass through the as swinging the compass.
geographic poles. Directions measured from the geographic
poles are called true directions. The north magnetic pole to Most airports have a compass rose, which is a series of lines
which the magnetic compass points is not collocated with marked out on a taxiway or ramp at some location where there
the geographic north pole, but is some 1,300 miles away; is no magnetic interference. Lines, oriented to magnetic north,
directions measured from the magnetic poles are called are painted every 30, as shown in Figure 3-18.
magnetic directions. In aerial navigation, the difference
between true and magnetic directions is called variation. This
same angular difference in surveying and land navigation is
called declination.

Figure 3-17 shows the isogonic lines that identify the number
of degrees of variation in their area. The line that passes near
Chicago is called the agonic line. Anywhere along this line
the two poles are aligned, and there is no variation. East of
this line, the magnetic pole is to the west of the geographic
pole and a correction must be applied to a compass indication
to get a true direction.

Figure 3-18. Utilization of a Compass Rose Aids Compensation

for Deviation Errors.

The pilot or AMT aligns the aircraft on each magnetic

heading and adjusts the compensating magnets to minimize
the difference between the compass indication and the actual
magnetic heading of the aircraft. Any error that cannot be
removed is recorded on a compass correction card, like the one
in Figure 3-19, and placed in a cardholder near the compass.
If the pilot wants to fly a magnetic heading of 120 and the
Figure 3-17. Isogonic lines are lines of equal variation.

3-12
 To find the true course that is being flown when the compass
course is known:
Compass Course Deviation = Magnetic Course Variation
= True Course

Dip Errors
The lines of magnetic flux are considered to leave the Earth at
the magnetic north pole and enter at the magnetic South Pole. At
Figure 3-19. A compass correction card shows the deviation both locations the lines are perpendicular to the Earths surface.
correction for any heading. At the magnetic equator, which is halfway between the poles,
aircraft is operating with the radios on, the pilot should fly a the lines are parallel with the surface. The magnets in a compass
compass heading of 123. align with this field, and near the poles they dip, or tilt, the float
and card. The float is balanced with a small dip-compensating
The corrections for variation and deviation must be applied weight, so it stays relatively level when operating in the middle
in the correct sequence and is shown below starting from the latitudes of the northern hemisphere. This dip along with this
true course desired. weight causes two very noticeable errors: northerly turning error
and acceleration error.
Step 1: Determine the Magnetic Course
True Course (180) Variation (+10) = Magnetic Course (190) The pull of the vertical component of the Earths magnetic field
causes northerly turning error, which is apparent on a heading
The Magnetic Course (190) is steered if there is no deviation of north or south. When an aircraft flying on a heading of north
error to be applied. The compass card must now be considered makes a turn toward east, the aircraft banks to the right, and the
for the compass course of 190. compass card tilts to the right. The vertical component of the
Earths magnetic field pulls the north-seeking end of the magnet
Step 2: Determine the Compass Course to the right, and the float rotates, causing the card to rotate toward
Magnetic Course (190, from step 1) Deviation (-2, from west, the direction opposite the direction the turn is being made.
correction card) = Compass Course (188) [Figure 3-20]

NOTE: Intermediate magnetic courses between those listed on If the turn is made from north to west, the aircraft banks to the left
the compass card need to be interpreted. Therefore, to steer a true and the compass card tilts down on the left side. The magnetic
course of 180, the pilot would follow a compass course of 188. field pulls on the end of the magnet that causes the card to rotate
toward east. This indication is again opposite to the direction

N 3
33

6
30
GS

E
12
24
NAV
15
OBS
21 S

View is from the pilots

perspective, and the
movable card is reset
after each turn
3

12
N

33
15
30 2 21 18

3 27
N 33 30 2 24 21 18 1

Figure 3-20. Northerly Turning Error.

Figure 3-20. Northerly turning error. 3-13

 N 3
33

6
30
GS

E
12
24
NAV
15
OBS
21 S

View is from the pilots

perspective, and the
movable card is reset
after each turn

Figure 3-21. The Effects of Acceleration Error.

Figure 3-21. The effects of acceleration error.
the turn is being made. The rule for this error is: when starting Oscillation Error
a turn from a northerly heading, the compass indication lags Oscillation is a combination of all of the other errors, and it
behind the turn. results in the compass card swinging back and forth around
the heading being flown. When setting the gyroscopic
When an aircraft is flying on a heading of south and begins heading indicator to agree with the magnetic compass, use
a turn toward east, the Earths magnetic field pulls on the the average indication between the swings.
end of the magnet that rotates the card toward east, the same
direction the turn is being made. If the turn is made from south The Vertical Card Magnetic Compass
toward west, the magnetic pull starts the card rotating toward The floating magnet type of compass not only has all the
westagain, in the same direction the turn is being made. The errors just described, but also lends itself to confused reading.
rule for this error is: When starting a turn from a southerly It is easy to begin a turn in the wrong direction because its card
heading, the compass indication leads the turn. appears backward. East is on what the pilot would expect to be
the west side. The vertical card magnetic compass eliminates
In acceleration error, the dip-correction weight causes the end some of the errors and confusion. The dial of this compass
of the float and card marked N (the south-seeking end) to be is graduated with letters representing the cardinal directions,
heavier than the opposite end. When the aircraft is flying at numbers every 30, and marks every 5. The dial is rotated by
a constant speed on a heading of east or west, the float and a set of gears from the shaft-mounted magnet, and the nose
card is level. The effects of magnetic dip and the weight are of the symbolic airplane on the instrument glass represents
approximately equal. If the aircraft accelerates on a heading the lubber line for reading the heading of the aircraft from
of east [Figure 3-21], the inertia of the weight holds its end of the dial. Eddy currents induced into an aluminum-damping
the float back and the card rotates toward north. As soon as the cup damp oscillation of the magnet. [Figure 3-22]
speed of the aircraft stabilizes, the card swings back to its east
indication. If, while flying on this easterly heading, the aircraft The Flux Gate Compass System
decelerates, the inertia causes the weight to move ahead and the As mentioned earlier, the lines of flux in the Earths magnetic
card rotates toward south until the speed again stabilizes. field have two basic characteristics: a magnet aligns with
these lines, and an electrical current is induced, or generated,
When flying on a heading of west, the same things happen. in any wire crossed by them.
Inertia from acceleration causes the weight to lag, and the
card rotates toward north. When the aircraft decelerates on a
heading of west, inertia causes the weight to move ahead and
the card rotates toward south.

3-14
 Figure 3-24. The current in each of the three pickup coils changes
with the heading of the aircraft.
Figure 3-22. Vertical Card Magnetic Compass.

The flux gate compass that drives slaved gyros uses the But as the current reverses between the peaks, it demagnetizes
characteristic of current induction. The flux valve is a small, the frame so it can accept the flux from the Earths field. As
segmented ring, like the one in Figure 3-23, made of soft this flux cuts across the windings in the three coils, it causes
iron that readily accepts lines of magnetic flux. An electrical current to flow in them. These three coils are connected in
coil is wound around each of the three legs to accept the such a way that the current flowing in them changes as the
current induced in this ring by the Earths magnetic field. A heading of the aircraft changes. [Figure 3-24]
coil wound around the iron spacer in the center of the frame
has 400-Hz alternating current (A.C.) flowing through it. The three coils are connected to three similar but smaller coils
During the times when this current reaches its peak, twice in a synchro inside the instrument case. The synchro rotates
during each cycle, there is so much magnetism produced by the dial of a radio magnetic indicator (RMI) or a horizontal
this coil that the frame cannot accept the lines of flux from situation indicator (HSI).
the Earths field.
Remote Indicating Compass
Remote indicating compasses were developed to compensate
for the errors and limitations of the older type of heading
indicators. The two panel-mounted components of a typical
system are the pictorial navigation indicator and the slaving
control and compensator unit. [Figure 3-25] The pictorial
navigation indicator is commonly referred to as a HSI.

Figure 3-23. The soft iron frame of the flux valve accepts the flux
from the Earths magnetic field each time the current in the center
coil reverses. This flux causes current to flow in the three pickup Figure 3-25. Pictorial Navigation Indicator (HSI Top), Slaving
coils. Control and Compensator Unit.

3-15
The slaving control and compensator unit has a pushbutton from the flux valve, and the two pointers are driven by an
that provides a means of selecting either the slaved gyro automatic direction finder (ADF) and a very high frequency
or free gyro mode. This unit also has a slaving meter omnidirectional range (VOR).
and two manual heading-drive buttons. The slaving meter
indicates the difference between the displayed heading and Gyroscopic Systems
the magnetic heading. A right deflection indicates a clockwise Flight without reference to a visible horizon can be safely
error of the compass card; a left deflection indicates a accomplished by the use of gyroscopic instrument systems
counterclockwise error. Whenever the aircraft is in a turn and the two characteristics of gyroscopes, which are rigidity
and the card rotates, the slaving meter shows a full deflection and precession. These systems include attitude, heading,
to one side or the other. When the system is in free gyro and rate instruments, along with their power sources. These
mode, the compass card may be adjusted by depressing the instruments include a gyroscope (or gyro) that is a small wheel
appropriate heading-drive button. with its weight concentrated around its periphery. When this
wheel is spun at high speed, it becomes rigid and resists tilting
A separate unit, the magnetic slaving transmitter is mounted or turning in any direction other than around its spin axis.
remotely; usually in a wingtip to eliminate the possibility of
magnetic interference. It contains the flux valve, which is Attitude and heading instruments operate on the principle
the direction-sensing device of the system. A concentration of rigidity. For these instruments, the gyro remains rigid
of lines of magnetic force, after being amplified, becomes in its case and the aircraft rotates about it. Rate indicators,
a signal relayed to the heading indicator unit, which is also such as turn indicators and turn coordinators, operate on the
remotely mounted. This signal operates a torque motor in principle of precession. In this case, the gyro processes (or
the heading indicator unit that processes the gyro unit until rolls over) proportionate to the rate the aircraft rotates about
it is aligned with the transmitter signal. The magnetic slaving one or more of its axes.
transmitter is connected electrically to the HSI.
Power Sources
There are a number of designs of the remote indicating Aircraft and instrument manufacturers have designed
compass; therefore, only the basic features of the system are redundancy in the flight instruments so that any single failure
covered here. Instrument pilots must become familiar with will not deprive the pilot of the ability to safely conclude
the characteristics of the equipment in their aircraft. the flight. Gyroscopic instruments are crucial for instrument
flight; therefore, they are powered by separate electrical or
As instrument panels become more crowded and the pilots pneumatic sources.
available scan time is reduced by a heavier flight deck
workload, instrument manufacturers have worked toward Pneumatic Systems
combining instruments. One good example of this is the
Pneumatic gyros are driven by a jet of air impinging on
RMI in Figure 3-26. The compass card is driven by signals
buckets cut into the periphery of the wheel. On many aircraft
this stream of air is obtained by evacuating the instrument
case with a vacuum source and allowing filtered air to flow
into the case through a nozzle to spin the wheel.

Venturi Tube Systems

Aircraft that do not have a pneumatic pump to evacuate the
instrument case can use venturi tubes mounted on the outside
of the aircraft, similar to the system shown in Figure 3-27. Air
flowing through the venturi tube speeds up in the narrowest
part and, according to Bernoullis principle, the pressure
drops. This location is connected to the instrument case by
a piece of tubing. The two attitude instruments operate on
approximately 4" Hg of suction; the turn-and-slip indicator
needs only 2" Hg, so a pressure-reducing needle valve is
used to decrease the suction. Air flows into the instruments
through filters built into the instrument cases. In this system,
Figure 3-26. Driven by signals from a flux valve, the compass card
ice can clog the venturi tube and stop the instruments when
in this RMI indicates the heading of the aircraft opposite the upper
they are most needed.
center index mark. The green pointer is driven by the ADF.

3-16
 Vacuum Pump Systems
Wet-Type Vacuum Pump
Steel-vane air pumps have been used for many years to
evacuate the instrument cases. The vanes in these pumps
are lubricated by a small amount of engine oil metered into
the pump and discharged with the air. In some aircraft the
discharge air is used to inflate rubber deicer boots on the
wing and empennage leading edges. To keep the oil from
deteriorating the rubber boots, it must be removed with an
oil separator like the one in Figure 3-28.

The vacuum pump moves a greater volume of air than is

needed to supply the instruments with the suction needed,
so a suction-relief valve is installed in the inlet side of the
pump. This spring-loaded valve draws in just enough air to
maintain the required low pressure inside the instruments,
as is shown on the suction gauge in the instrument panel.
Filtered air enters the instrument cases from a central air
filter. As long as aircraft fly at relatively low altitudes, enough
air is drawn into the instrument cases to spin the gyros at a
sufficiently high speed.
Figure 3-27. A venturi tube system that provides necessary vacuum
to operate key instruments. Dry Air Vacuum Pump
As flight altitudes increase, the air is less dense and more air
must be forced through the instruments. Air pumps that do not
mix oil with the discharge air are used in high flying aircraft.

Figure 3-28. Single-engine instrument vacuum system using a steel-vane wet-type vacuum pump.

3-17
Steel vanes sliding in a steel housing need to be lubricated, instruments identify their power source on their dial, but it
but vanes made of a special formulation of carbon sliding is extremely important that pilots consult the POH/AFM to
inside carbon housing provide their own lubrication in a determine the power source of all instruments to know what
microscopic amount as they wear. action to take in the event of an instrument failure. Direct
current (D.C.) electrical instruments are available in 14- or
Pressure Indicating Systems 28-volt models, depending upon the electrical system in
Figure 3-29 is a diagram of the instrument pneumatic the aircraft. A.C. is used to operate some attitude gyros and
system of a twin-engine general aviation airplane. Two dry autopilots. Aircraft with only D.C. electrical systems can use
air pumps are used with filters in their inlet to filter out any A.C. instruments via installation of a solid-state D.C. to A.C.
contaminants that could damage the fragile carbon vanes in inverter, which changes 14 or 28 volts D.C. into three-phase
the pump. The discharge air from the pump flows through 115-volt, 400-Hz A.C.
a regulator, where excess air is bled off to maintain the
pressure in the system at the desired level. The regulated air Gyroscopic Instruments
then flows through inline filters to remove any contamination Attitude Indicators
that could have been picked up from the pump, and from The first attitude instrument (AI) was originally referred to as
there into a manifold check valve. If either engine should an artificial horizon, later as a gyro horizon; now it is more
become inoperative or either pump should fail, the check properly called an attitude indicator. Its operating mechanism
valve isolates the inoperative system and the instruments are is a small brass wheel with a vertical spin axis, spun at a high
driven by air from the operating system. After the air passes speed by either a stream of air impinging on buckets cut into
through the instruments and drives the gyros, it is exhausted its periphery, or by an electric motor. The gyro is mounted in
from the case. The gyro pressure gauge measures the pressure a double gimbal, which allows the aircraft to pitch and roll
drop across the instruments. about the gyro as it remains fixed in space.

Electrical Systems A horizon disk is attached to the gimbals so it remains in

Many general aviation aircraft that use pneumatic attitude the same plane as the gyro, and the aircraft pitches and
indicators use electric rate indicators and/or the reverse. Some rolls about it. On early instruments, this was just a bar that

Figure 3-29. Twin-Engine Instrument Pressure System Using a Carbon-Vane Dry-Type Air Pump.

3-18
represented the horizon, but now it is a disc with a line that exceeded the instrument limits. Newer instruments do
representing the horizon and both pitch marks and bank-angle not have these restrictive tumble limits; therefore, they do
lines. The top half of the instrument dial and horizon disc not have a caging mechanism.
is blue, representing the sky; and the bottom half is brown,
representing the ground. A bank index at the top of the When an aircraft engine is first started and pneumatic or
instrument shows the angle of bank marked on the banking electric power is supplied to the instruments, the gyro is
scale with lines that represent 10, 20, 30, 45, and 60. not erect. A self-erecting mechanism inside the instrument
[Figure 3-30] actuated by the force of gravity applies a precessing force,
causing the gyro to rise to its vertical position. This erection
can take as long as 5 minutes, but is normally done within
2 to 3 minutes.

Attitude indicators are free from most errors, but depending

upon the speed with which the erection system functions,
there may be a slight nose-up indication during a rapid
acceleration and a nose-down indication during a rapid
deceleration. There is also a possibility of a small bank angle
and pitch error after a 180 turn. These inherent errors are
small and correct themselves within a minute or so after
returning to straight-and-level flight.

Heading Indicators
A magnetic compass is a dependable instrument used as a
backup instrument. Although very reliable, it has so many
inherent errors that it has been supplemented with gyroscopic
heading indicators.
Figure 3-30. The dial of this attitude indicator has reference lines
to show pitch and roll. The gyro in a heading indicator is mounted in a double gimbal,
as in an attitude indicator, but its spin axis is horizontal
A small symbolic aircraft is mounted in the instrument case so it permitting sensing of rotation about the vertical axis of the
appears to be flying relative to the horizon. A knob at the bottom aircraft. Gyro heading indicators, with the exception of slaved
center of the instrument case raises or lowers the aircraft to gyro indicators, are not north seeking, therefore they must
compensate for pitch trim changes as the airspeed changes. The be manually set to the appropriate heading by referring to
width of the wings of the symbolic aircraft and the dot in the center a magnetic compass. Rigidity causes them to maintain this
of the wings represent a pitch change of approximately 2. heading indication, without the oscillation and other errors
inherent in a magnetic compass.
For an AI to function properly, the gyro must remain
vertically upright while the aircraft rolls and pitches around Older directional gyros use a drum-like card marked in the
it. The bearings in these instruments have a minimum of same way as the magnetic compass card. The gyro and the
friction; however, even this small amount places a restraint card remain rigid inside the case with the pilot viewing the
on the gyro producing precession and causing the gyro to tilt. card from the back. This creates the possibility the pilot might
To minimize this tilting, an erection mechanism inside the start a turn in the wrong direction similar to using a magnetic
instrument case applies a force any time the gyro tilts from compass. A knob on the front of the instrument, below the
its vertical position. This force acts in such a way to return dial, can be pushed in to engage the gimbals. This locks the
the spinning wheel to its upright position. gimbals allowing the pilot to rotate the gyro and card until
the number opposite the lubber line agrees with the magnetic
The older artificial horizons were limited in the amount of compass. When the knob is pulled out, the gyro remains rigid
pitch or roll they could tolerate, normally about 60 in pitch and the aircraft is free to turn around the card.
and 100 in roll. After either of these limits was exceeded,
the gyro housing contacted the gimbals, applying such a Directional gyros are almost all air-driven by evacuating
precessing force that the gyro tumbled. Because of this the case and allowing filtered air to flow into the case and
limitation, these instruments had a caging mechanism that out through a nozzle, blowing against buckets cut in the
locked the gyro in its vertical position during any maneuvers

3-19
periphery of the wheel. The Earth constantly rotates at 15
per hour while the gyro is maintaining a position relative
to space, thus causing an apparent drift in the displayed
heading of 15 per hour. When using these instruments, it
is standard practice to compare the heading indicated on the
directional gyro with the magnetic compass at least every 15
minutes and to reset the heading as necessary to agree with
the magnetic compass.

Heading indicators like the one in Figure 3-31 work on the

same principle as the older horizontal card indicators, except
that the gyro drives a vertical dial that looks much like the
dial of a vertical card magnetic compass. The heading of the
aircraft is shown against the nose of the symbolic aircraft on
the instrument glass, which serves as the lubber line. A knob
in the front of the instrument may be pushed in and turned
to rotate the gyro and dial. The knob is spring loaded so it
disengages from the gimbals as soon as it is released. This Figure 3-32. Precession causes a force applied to a spinning
instrument should be checked about every 15 minutes to see wheel to be felt 90 from the point of application in the direction
if it agrees with the magnetic compass. of rotation.

The inclinometer in the instrument is a black glass ball sealed

inside a curved glass tube that is partially filled with a liquid
for damping. This ball measures the relative strength of the
force of gravity and the force of inertia caused by a turn.
When the aircraft is flying straight-and-level, there is no
inertia acting on the ball, and it remains in the center of the
tube between two wires. In a turn made with a bank angle
that is too steep, the force of gravity is greater than the inertia
and the ball rolls down to the inside of the turn. If the turn is
made with too shallow a bank angle, the inertia is greater than
gravity and the ball rolls upward to the outside of the turn.

The inclinometer does not indicate the amount of bank, nor

does it indicate slip; it only indicates the relationship between
the angle of bank and the rate of yaw.
Figure 3-31. The heading indicator is not north seeking, but must
be set periodically (about every 15 minutes) to agree with the
magnetic compass.

Turn Indicators
Attitude and heading indicators function on the principle
of rigidity, but rate instruments such as the turn-and-
slip indicator operate on precession. Precession is the
characteristic of a gyroscope that causes an applied force to
produce a movement, not at the point of application, but at
a point 90 from the point of application in the direction of
rotation. [Figure 3-32]

Turn-and-Slip Indicator
The first gyroscopic aircraft instrument was the turn indicator
in the needle and ball, or turn-and-bank indicator, which
has more recently been called a turn-and-slip indicator.
[Figure 3-33] Figure 3-33. Turn-and-Slip Indicator.

3-20
The turn indicator is a small gyro spun either by air or by alignment mark, the turn is 3 per second and the turn takes
an electric motor. The gyro is mounted in a single gimbal 2 minutes to execute a 360 turn. In a 4 minute instrument,
with its spin axis parallel to the lateral axis of the aircraft the same turn takes two widths deflection of the needle to
and the axis of the gimbal parallel with the longitudinal axis. achieve 3 per second.
[Figure 3-34]
Turn Coordinator
The major limitation of the older turn-and-slip indicator is that
it senses rotation only about the vertical axis of the aircraft. It
tells nothing of the rotation around the longitudinal axis, which
in normal flight occurs before the aircraft begins to turn.

A turn coordinator operates on precession, the same as the

turn indicator, but its gimbals frame is angled upward about
30 from the longitudinal axis of the aircraft. [Figure 3-34]
This allows it to sense both roll and yaw. Therefore during
a turn, the indicator first shows the rate of banking and once
stabilized, the turn rate. Some turn coordinator gyros are dual-
powered and can be driven by either air or electricity.

Rather than using a needle as an indicator, the gimbal moves

a dial that is the rear view of a symbolic aircraft. The bezel
of the instrument is marked to show wings-level flight and
bank angles for a standard rate turn. [Figure 3-35]

Figure 3-34. The rate gyro in both turn-and-slip indicator and turn
coordinator.

When the aircraft yaws, or rotates about its vertical axis, it

produces a force in the horizontal plane that, due to precession,
causes the gyro and its gimbal to rotate about the gimbals Figure 3-35. A turn coordinator senses rotation about both roll
axis. It is restrained in this rotation plane by a calibration and yaw axes.
spring; it rolls over just enough to cause the pointer to deflect
until it aligns with one of the doghouse-shaped marks on the The inclinometer, similar to the one in a turn-and-slip
dial, when the aircraft is making a standard rate turn. indicator, is called a coordination ball, which shows the
relationship between the bank angle and the rate of yaw. The
The dial of these instruments is marked 2 MIN TURN. Some turn is coordinated when the ball is in the center, between the
turn-and-slip indicators used in faster aircraft are marked 4 marks. The aircraft is skidding when the ball rolls toward the
MIN TURN. In either instrument, a standard rate turn is outside of the turn and is slipping when it moves toward the
being made whenever the needle aligns with a doghouse. A inside of the turn. A turn coordinator does not sense pitch.
standard rate turn is 3 per second. In a 2 minute instrument, This is indicated on some instruments by placing the words
if the needle is one needle width either side of the center NO PITCH INFORMATION on the dial.

3-21
Flight Support Systems expensive inertial sensors and flux valves. However, today the
Attitude and Heading Reference System (AHRS) AHRS for aviation and general aviation in particular are small
solid-state systems integrating a variety of technology such
As aircraft displays have transitioned to new technology,
as low cost inertial sensors, rate gyros, and magnetometers,
the sensors that feed them have also undergone significant
and have capability for satellite signal reception.
change. Traditional gyroscopic flight instruments have
been replaced by Attitude and Heading Reference Systems
Air Data Computer (ADC)
(AHRS) improving reliability and thereby reducing cost and
An Air Data Computer (ADC) [Figure 3-37] is an aircraft
maintenance.
computer that receives and processes pitot pressure, static
pressure, and temperature to calculate very precise altitude,
The function of an AHRS is the same as gyroscopic systems;
IAS, TAS, and air temperature. The ADC outputs this
that is, to determine which way is level and which way is north.
information in a digital format that can be used by a variety
By knowing the initial heading the AHRS can determine both
of aircraft systems including an EFIS. Modern ADCs
the attitude and magnetic heading of the aircraft.
are small solid-state units. Increasingly, aircraft systems
such as autopilots, pressurization, and FMS utilize ADC
The genesis of this system was initiated by the development
information for normal operations. NOTE: In most modern
of the ring-LASAR gyroscope developed by Kearfott located
general aviation systems, both the AHRS and ADC are
in Little Falls, New Jersey. [Figure 3-36] Their development
integrated within the electronic displays themselves thereby
of the Ring-LASAR gyroscope in the 1960s/1970s was
reducing the number of units, reducing weight, and providing
in support of Department of Defense (DOD) programs to
simplification for installation resulting in reduced costs.
include cruise missile technology. With the precision of
these gyroscopes, it became readily apparent that they could
be leveraged for multiple tasks and functions. Gyroscopic
Analog Pictorial Displays
miniaturization has become so common that solid-state Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI)
gyroscopes are found in products from robotics to toys. The HSI is a direction indicator that uses the output from
a flux valve to drive the dial, which acts as the compass
Because the AHRS system replaces separate gyroscopes, card. This instrument, shown in Figure 3-38, combines the
such as those associated with an attitude indicator, magnetic magnetic compass with navigation signals and a glide slope.
heading indicator and turn indicator these individual systems This gives the pilot an indication of the location of the aircraft
are no longer needed. As with many systems today, AHRS with relationship to the chosen course.
itself had matured with time. Early AHRS systems used

Figure 3-36. The Kearfott Attitude Heading Reference System (AHRS) on the left incorporates a Monolithic Ring Laser Gyro (MRLG)
(center), which is housed in an Inertial Sensor Assembly (ISA) on the right.

3-22
 takes the aircraft to the selected facility. When the indicator
points to the tail of the course arrow, it shows that the course
selected, if properly intercepted and flown, takes the aircraft
directly away from the selected facility.

The glide slope deviation pointer indicates the relation of

the aircraft to the glide slope. When the pointer is below the
center position, the aircraft is above the glide slope, and an
increased rate of descent is required. In most installations,
the azimuth card is a remote indicating compass driven by
a fluxgate; however, in few installations where a fluxgate is
not installed, or in emergency operation, the heading must
be checked against the magnetic compass occasionally and
reset with the course select knob.

Attitude Direction Indicator (ADI)

Figure 3-37. Air Data Computer (Collins).
Advances in attitude instrumentation combine the gyro
In Figure 3-38, the aircraft heading displayed on the rotating horizon with other instruments such as the HSI, thereby
azimuth card under the upper lubber line is North or 360. reducing the number of separate instruments to which the
The course-indicating arrowhead shown is set to 020; the pilot must devote attention. The attitude direction indicator
tail indicates the reciprocal, 200. The course deviation bar (ADI) is an example of such technological advancement.
operates with a VOR/Localizer (VOR/LOC) navigation A flight director incorporates the ADI within its system,
receiver to indicate left or right deviations from the course which is further explained below (Flight Director System).
selected with the course-indicating arrow, operating in the However, an ADI need not have command cues; however,
same manner that the angular movement of a conventional it is normally equipped with this feature.
VOR/LOC needle indicates deviation from course.
Flight Director System (FDS)
A Flight Director System (FDS) combines many instruments
into one display that provides an easily interpreted
understanding of the aircrafts flight path. The computed
solution furnishes the steering commands necessary to obtain
and hold a desired path.

Major components of an FDS include an ADI, also called

a Flight Director Indicator (FDI), an HSI, a mode selector,
and a flight director computer. It should be noted that a
flight director in use does not infer the aircraft is being
manipulated by the autopilot (coupled), but is providing
steering commands that the pilot (or the autopilot, if coupled)
follows.

Typical flight directors use one of two display systems for

Figure 3-38. Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI). steerage. The first is a set of command bars, one horizontal
and one vertical. The command bars in this configuration
The desired course is selected by rotating the course- are maintained in a centered position (much like a centered
indicating arrow in relation to the azimuth card by means glide slope). The second uses a miniature aircraft aligned to
of the course select knob. This gives the pilot a pictorial a command cue.
presentation: the fixed aircraft symbol and course deviation
bar display the aircraft relative to the selected course, as A flight director displays steerage commands to the pilot on
though the pilot were above the aircraft looking down. the ADI. As previously mentioned, the flight director receives
The TO/FROM indicator is a triangular pointer. When the its signals from one of various sources and provides that to the
indicator points to the head of the course arrow, it shows ADI for steerage commands. The mode controller provides
that the course selected, if properly intercepted and flown, signals through the ADI to drive the steering bars, e.g., the

3-23
pilot flies the aircraft to place the delta symbol in the V of the
steering bars. Command indicators tell the pilot in which
direction and how much to change aircraft attitude to achieve
the desired result.

The computed command indications relieve the pilot of

many of the mental calculations required for instrument
flight. The yellow cue in the ADI [Figure 3-39] provides all
steering commands to the pilot. It is driven by a computer that
receives information from the navigation systems, the ADC,
AHRS, and other sources of data. The computer processes this
information, providing the pilot with a single cue to follow.
Following the cue provides the pilot with the necessary three-

Figure 3-40. Components of a Typical Flight Director System.

The components of a typical flight director include the mode

controller, ADI, HSI, and annunciator panel. These units are
illustrated in Figure 3-40.

The pilot may choose from among many modes including

the HDG (heading) mode, the VOR/LOC (localizer tracking)
mode, or the AUTO Approach (APP) or G/S (automatic
capture and tracking of instrument landing system (ILS)
localizers and glide path) mode. The auto mode has a fully
automatic pitch selection computer that takes into account
aircraft performance and wind conditions, and operates once
the pilot has reached the ILS glide slope. More sophisticated
systems allow more flight director modes.

Integrated Flight Control System

The integrated flight control system integrates and merges
various systems into a system operated and controlled by one
principal component. Figure 3-41 illustrates key components
of the flight control system that was developed from the
onset as a fully integrated system comprised of the airframe,
Figure 3-39. A Typical Cue That a Pilot Would Follow. autopilot, and flight director system. This trend of complete
integration, once seen only in large commercial aircraft, are
now becoming common in the general aviation field.
dimensional flight trajectory to maintain the desired path.
One of the first widely used flight directors was developed
Autopilot Systems
by Sperry and was called the Sperry Three Axis Attitude
An autopilot is a mechanical means to control an aircraft
Reference System (STARS). Developed in the 1960s, it was
using electrical, hydraulic, or digital systems. Autopilots can
commonly found on both commercial and business aircraft
control three axes of the aircraft: roll, pitch, and yaw. Most
alike. STARS (with a modification) and successive flight
autopilots in general aviation control roll and pitch.
directors were integrated with the autopilots and aircraft
providing a fully integrated flight system.
Autopilots also function using different methods. The first
is position based. That is, the attitude gyro senses the degree
The flight director/autopilot system described below is
of difference from a position such as wings level, a change
typical of installations in many general aviation aircraft.
in pitch, or a heading change.

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Figure 3-41. The S-TEC/Meggit Corporation Integrated Autopilot Installed in the Cirrus.

Determining whether a design is position based and/or rate

based lies primarily within the type of sensors used. In order
for an autopilot to possess the capability of controlling an
aircrafts attitude (i.e., roll and pitch), that system must be
provided with constant information on the actual attitude
of that aircraft. This is accomplished by the use of several
different types of gyroscopic sensors. Some sensors are
designed to indicate the aircrafts attitude in the form of
position in relation to the horizon, while others indicate rate
(position change over time).

Rate-based systems use the turn-and-bank sensor for the

autopilot system. The autopilot uses rate information on
two of the aircrafts three axes: movement about the vertical
axis (heading change or yaw) and about the longitudinal
axis (roll). This combined information from a single sensor Figure 3-42. An Autopilot by Century.
is made possible by the 30 offset in the gyros axis to the
longitudinal axis. of a Master Navigation System that would accept inputs
from a variety of different types of sensors on an aircraft
Other systems use a combination of both position and rate- and automatically provide guidance throughout all phases
based information to benefit from the attributes of both systems of flight.
while newer autopilots are digital. Figure 3-42 illustrates an
autopilot by Century. At that time aircraft navigated over relatively short distances
with radio systems, principally VOR or ADF. For long-range
Figure 3-43 is a diagram layout of a rate-based autopilot by flight inertial navigation systems (INS), Omega, Doppler,
S-Tec, which permits the purchaser to add modular capability and Loran were in common use. Short-range radio systems
form basic wing leveling to increased capability. usually did not provide area navigation capability. Long-
range systems were only capable of en route point-to-point
Flight Management Systems (FMS) navigation between manually entered waypoints described
as longitude and latitude coordinates, with typical systems
In the mid-1970s, visionaries in the avionics industry such
containing a limited number of waypoints.
as Hubert Naimer of Universal, and followed by others such
as Ed King, Jr., were looking to advance the technology of
aircraft navigation. As early as 1976, Naimer had a vision

3-25
Figure 3-43. A Diagram Layout of an Autopilot by S-Tec.

The laborious process of manually entering cryptic latitude such a system a pilot could quickly and accurately construct
and longitude data for each flight waypoint created high a flight plan consisting of dozens of waypoints, avoiding
crew workloads and frequently resulted in incorrect data the tedious typing of data and the error potential of latitude/
entry. The requirement of a separate control panel for each longitude coordinates. Rather than simply navigating point-
long-range system consumed precious flight deck space and to-point, the master system would be able to maneuver the
increased the complexity of interfacing the systems with aircraft, permitting use of the system for terminal procedures
display instruments, flight directors, and autopilots. including departures, arrivals, and approaches. The system
would be able to automate any aspect of manual pilot
The concept employed a master computer interfaced with all navigation of the aircraft. When the first system, called the
of the navigation sensors on the aircraft. A common control UNS-1, was released by Universal in 1982, it was called a
display unit (CDU) interfaced with the master computer would flight management system (FMS). [Figure 3-44]
provide the pilot with a single control point for all navigation
systems, thereby reducing the number of required flight deck
panels. Management of the various individual sensors would
be transferred from the pilot to the new computer.

Since navigation sensors rarely agree exactly about position,

Naimer believed that blending all available sensor position
data through a highly sophisticated, mathematical filtering
system would produce a more accurate aircraft position. He
called the process output the Best Computed Position. By
using all available sensors to keep track of position, the system
could readily provide area navigation capability. The master
computer, not the individual sensors, would be integrated into
the airplane, greatly reducing wiring complexity.

To solve the problems of manual waypoint entry, a pre-

loaded database of global navigation information would
Figure 3-44. A Control Display Unit (CDU) Used to Control the
be readily accessible by the pilot through the CDU. Using Flight Management System.

3-26
An FMS uses an electronic database of worldwide Electronic Flight Instrument Systems
navigational data including navigation aids, airways and Modern technology has introduced into aviation a new
intersections, Standard Instrument Departures (SIDs), method of displaying flight instruments, such as electronic
Standard Terminal Arrival Routes (STARs), and Instrument flight instrument systems, integrated flight deck displays, and
Approach Procedures (IAPs) together with pilot input through others. For the purpose of the practical test standards, any
a CDU to create a flight plan. The FMS provides outputs to flight instrument display that utilizes LCD or picture tube like
several aircraft systems including desired track, bearing and displays is referred to as electronic flight instrument display
distance to the active waypoint, lateral course deviation and and/or a glass flight deck. In general aviation there is typically
related data to the flight guidance system for the HSI displays, a primary flight display (PFD) and a multi-function display
and roll steering command for the autopilot/flight director (MFD). Although both displays are in many cases identical,
system. This allows outputs from the FMS to command the PFD provides the pilot instrumentation necessary for
the airplane where to go and when and how to turn. To flight to include altitude, airspeed, vertical velocity, attitude,
support adaptation to numerous aircraft types, an FMS is heading and trim and trend information.
usually capable of receiving and outputting both analog and
digital data and discrete information. Currently, electronic Glass flight decks (a term coined to describe electronic flight
navigation databases are updated every 28 days. instrument systems) are becoming more widespread as cost
falls and dependability continually increases. These systems
The introduction of the Global Positioning System (GPS) has provide many advantages such as being lighter, more reliable,
provided extremely precise position at low cost, making GPS no moving parts to wear out, consuming less power, and
the dominant FMS navigation sensor today. Currently, typical replacing numerous mechanical indicators with a single glass
FMS installations require that air data and heading information display. Because the versatility offered by glass displays is
be available electronically from the aircraft. This limits FMS much greater than that offered by analog displays, the use
usage in smaller aircraft, but emerging technologies allow this of such systems will only increase with time until analog
data from increasingly smaller and less costly systems. systems are eclipsed.

Some systems interface with a dedicated Distance Measuring Primary Flight Display (PFD)
Equipment (DME) receiver channel under the control of the PFDs provide increased situational awareness to the pilot by
FMS to provide an additional sensor. In these systems, the replacing the traditional six instruments used for instrument
FMS determines which DME sites should be interrogated flight with an easy-to-scan display that provides the horizon,
for distance information using aircraft position and the airspeed, altitude, vertical speed, trend, trim, rate of turn
navigation database to locate appropriate DME sites. The among other key relevant indications. Examples of PFDs
FMS then compensates aircraft altitude and station altitude are illustrated in Figure 3-45.
with the aid of the database to determine the precise distance
to the station. With the distances from a number of sites the Synthetic Vision
FMS can compute a position nearly as accurately as GPS. Synthetic vision provides a realistic depiction of the aircraft
in relation to terrain and flight path. Systems such as those
Aimer visualized three-dimensional aircraft control with produced by Chelton Flight Systems, Universal Flight
an FMS. Modern systems provide Vertical Navigation Systems, and others provide for depictions of terrain and
(VNAV) as well as Lateral Navigation (LNAV) allowing course. Figure 3-46 is an example of the Chelton Flight
the pilot to create a vertical flight profile synchronous with System providing both 3-dimensional situational awareness
the lateral flight plan. Unlike early systems, such as Inertial and a synthetic highway in the sky, representing the desired
Reference Systems (IRS) that were only suitable for en route flight path. Synthetic vision is used as a PFD, but provides
navigation, the modern FMS can guide an aircraft during guidance in a more normal, outside reference format.
instrument approaches.

Today, an FMS provides not only real-time navigation

capability but typically interfaces with other aircraft systems
providing fuel management, control of cabin briefing and
display systems, display of uplinked text and graphic weather
data and air/ground data link communications.

3-27
Figure 3-45. Two Primary Flight Displays (Avidyne on the Left and Garmin on the Right).

Advanced Technology Systems

Automatic Dependent SurveillanceBroadcast
(ADS-B)
Although standards for Automatic Dependent Surveillance
(Broadcast) (ADS-B) are still under continuing development,
the concept is simple: aircraft broadcast a message on
a regular basis, which includes their position (such as
latitude, longitude and altitude), velocity, and possibly
other information. Other aircraft or systems can receive this
information for use in a wide variety of applications. The
key to ADS-B is GPS, which provides three-dimensional
position of the aircraft.

As an simplified example, consider air-traffic radar. The radar

measures the range and bearing of an aircraft. The bearing is
measured by the position of the rotating radar antenna when it
receives a reply to its interrogation from the aircraft, and the
Figure 3-46. The benefits of realistic visualization imagery, as range by the time it takes for the radar to receive the reply.
illustrated by Synthetic Vision manufactured by Chelton Flight
Systems. The system provides the pilot a realistic, real-time, three-
dimensional depiction of the aircraft and its relation to terrain
An ADS-B based system, on the other hand, would listen
around it. for position reports broadcast by the aircraft. [Figure 3-48]
These position reports are based on satellite navigation
Multi-Function Display (MFD) systems. These transmissions include the transmitting
In addition to a PFD directly in front of the pilot, an MFD aircrafts position, which the receiving aircraft processes into
that provides the display of information in addition to primary usable pilot information. The accuracy of the system is now
flight information is used within the flight deck. [Figure 3-47] determined by the accuracy of the navigation system, not
Information such as a moving map, approach charts, Terrain measurement errors. Furthermore the accuracy is unaffected
Awareness Warning System, and weather depiction can all by the range to the aircraft as in the case of radar. With radar,
be illustrated on the MFD. For additional redundancy both detecting aircraft speed changes require tracking the data and
the PFD and MFD can display all critical information that changes can only be detected over a period of several position
the other normally presents thereby providing redundancy updates. With ADS-B, speed changes are broadcast almost
(using a reversionary mode) not normally found in general instantaneously and received by properly equipped aircraft.
aviation flight decks.

3-28
Figure 3-47. Example of a Multi-Function Display (MFD).

Figure 3-48. Aircraft equipped with Automatic Dependent SurveillanceBroadcast (ADS-B) continuously broadcast their identification,
altitude, direction, and vertical trend. The transmitted signal carries significant information for other aircraft and ground stations alike.
Other ADS-equipped aircraft receive this information and process it in a variety of ways. It is possible that in a saturated environment
(assuming all aircraft are ADS equipped), the systems can project tracks for their respective aircraft and retransmit to other aircraft
their projected tracks, thereby enhancing collision avoidance. At one time, there was an Automatic Dependent SurveillanceAddressed
(ADS-A) and that is explained in the Pilots Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge.

3-29
Additionally, other information can be obtained by properly Safety Systems
equipped aircraft to include notices to airmen (NOTAM), Radio Altimeters
weather, etc. [Figures 3-49 and 3-50] At the present time,
A radio altimeter, commonly referred to as a radar altimeter,
ADS-B is predominantly available along the east coast of
is a system used for accurately measuring and displaying the
the United States where it is matured.
height above the terrain directly beneath the aircraft. It sends
a signal to the ground and processes the timed information.

Figure 3-49. An aircraft equipped with ADS will receive identification, altitude in hundreds of feet (above or below using + or -), direction
of the traffic, and aircraft descent or climb using an up or down arrow. The yellow target is an illustration of how a non-ADS equipped
aircraft would appear on an ADS-equipped aircrafts display.

Figure 3-50. An aircraft equipped with ADS has the ability to upload and display weather.

3-30
Its primary application is to provide accurate absolute altitude
information to the pilot during approach and landing. In
advanced aircraft today, the radar altimeter also provides its
information to other onboard systems such as the autopilot
and flight directors while they are in the glide slope capture
mode below 200-300 feet above ground level (AGL).

A typical system consists of a receiver-transmitter (RT)

unit, antenna(s) for receiving and transmitting the signal,
and an indicator. [Figure 3-51] Category II and III precision
approach procedures require the use of a radar altimeter and
specify the exact minimum height above the terrain as a
decision height (DH) or radio altitude (RA).

Figure 3-52. Coverage Provided by a Traffic Information System.

of other aircraft [Figures 3-55, 3-56, and 3-57] and are cost
effective alternatives to TCAS equipage for smaller aircraft.

Figure 3-51. Components of a Radar Altimeter. Traffic Avoidance Systems

Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System (TCAS)
Traffic Advisory Systems The TCAS is an airborne system developed by the FAA that
Traffic Information System operates independently from the ground-based ATC system.
The Traffic Information Service (TIS) is a ground-based TCAS was designed to increase flight deck awareness of
service providing information to the flight deck via data proximate aircraft and to serve as a last line of defense for
link using the S-mode transponder and altitude encoder. TIS the prevention of mid-air collisions.
improves the safety and efficiency of see and avoid flight
through an automatic display that informs the pilot of nearby There are two levels of TCAS systems. TCAS I was developed
traffic. The display can show location, direction, altitude to accommodate the general aviation (GA) community and
and the climb/descent trend of other transponder-equipped the regional airlines. This system issues traffic advisories
aircraft. TIS provides estimated position, altitude, altitude (TAs) to assist pilots in visual acquisition of intruder aircraft.
trend, and ground track information for up to several aircraft TCAS I provides approximate bearing and relative altitude
simultaneously within about 7 NM horizontally, 3,500 feet of aircraft with a selectable range. It provides the pilot
above and 3,500 feet below the aircraft. [Figure 3-52] This with traffic advisory (TA) alerting him or her to potentially
data can be displayed on a variety of MFDs. [Figure 3-53] conflicting traffic. The pilot then visually acquires the traffic
and takes appropriate action for collision avoidance.
Figure 3-54 displays the pictorial concept of the traffic
information system. Noteworthy is the requirement to have TCAS II is a more sophisticated system which provides the
Mode S and that the ground air traffic station processes the same information of TCAS I. It also analyzes the projected
Mode S signal. flight path of approaching aircraft and issues resolution
advisories (RAs) to the pilot to resolve potential mid-air
Traffic Alert Systems collisions. Additionally, if communicating with another
Traffic alert systems receive transponder information from TCAS II equipped aircraft, the two systems coordinate the
nearby aircraft to help determine their relative position to the resolution alerts provided to their respective flight crews.
equipped aircraft. They provide three-dimensional location [Figure 3-58]

3-31
Figure 3-53. Multi-Function Display (MFD).

Figure 3-54. Concept of the Traffic Information System.

3-32
 Figure 3-56. A Skywatch System.

Figure 3-55. Theory of a Typical Alert System.

Figure 3-57. Alert System by Avidyne (Ryan).

3-33
 While on final for landing with the landing gear inadvertently
up, the crew failed to heed the GPWS warning as the aircraft
crossed a large berm close to the threshold. In fact, the crew
attempted without success to shut the system down and attributed
the signal to a malfunction. Only after the mishap did the crew
realize the importance of the GPWS warning.

Terrain Awareness and Warning System (TAWS)

A TAWS uses GPS positioning and a database of terrain and
obstructions to provide true predictability of the upcoming
terrain and obstacles. The warnings it provides pilots are
both aural and visual, instructing the pilot to take specific
action. Because TAWS relies on GPS and a database of
terrain/obstacle information, predictability is based upon
aircraft location and projected location. The system is time
based and therefore compensates for the performance of the
Figure 3-58. An example of a resolution advisory being provided
the pilot. In this case, the pilot is requested to climb, with 1,750 aircraft and its speed. [Figure 3-59]
feet being the appropriate rate of ascent to avoid traffic conflict.
This visual indication plus the aural warning provide the pilot Head-Up Display (HUD)
with excellent traffic awareness that augments see and avoid
practices. The HUD is a display system that provides a projection of
navigation and air data (airspeed in relation to approach
Terrain Alerting Systems reference speed, altitude, left/right and up/down glide slope)
Ground Proximity Warning System (GPWS) on a transparent screen between the pilot and the windshield.
An early application of technology to reduce CFIT was the The concept of a HUD is to diminish the shift between
GPWS. In airline use since the early 1970s, GPWS uses the looking at the instrument panel and outside. Virtually any
radio altimeter, speed, and barometric altitude to determine the information desired can be displayed on the HUD if it is
aircrafts position relative to the ground. The system uses this available in the aircrafts flight computer. The display for
information in determining aircraft clearance above the Earth the HUD can be projected on a separate panel near the
and provides limited predictability about aircraft position windscreen or as shown in Figure 3-60 on an eye piece. Other
relative to rising terrain. It does this based upon algorithms information may be displayed, including a runway target in
within the system and developed by the manufacturer for relation to the nose of the aircraft, which allows the pilot to
different airplanes or helicopters. However, in mountainous see the information necessary to make the approach while
areas the system is unable to provide predictive information also being able to see out the windshield.
due to the unusual slope encountered.
Required Navigation Instrument System
This inability to provide predictive information was evidenced Inspection
in 1999 when a DH-7 crashed in South America. The crew Systems Preflight Procedures
had a GPWS onboard, but the sudden rise of the terrain Inspecting the instrument system requires a relatively small
rendered it ineffective; the crew continued unintentionally part of the total time required for preflight activities, but its
into a mountain with steep terrain. Another incident involved importance cannot be overemphasized. Before any flight
Secretary of Commerce Brown who, along with all on board, involving aircraft control by instrument reference, the pilot
was lost when the crew flew over rapidly rising terrain where should check all instruments and their sources of power
the GPWS capability is offset by terrain gradient. However, for proper operation. NOTE: The following procedures are
the GPWS is tied into and considers landing gear status, flap appropriate for conventional aircraft instrument systems.
position, and ILS glide slope deviation to detect unsafe aircraft Aircraft equipped with electronic instrument systems utilize
operation with respect to terrain, excessive descent rate, different procedures.
excessive closure rate to terrain, unsafe terrain clearance while
not in a landing configuration, excessive deviation below an
ILS glide slope. It also provides advisory callouts.

Generally, the GPWS is tied into the hot bus bar of the electrical
system to prevent inadvertent switch off. This was demonstrated
in an accident involving a large four-engine turboprop airplane.

3-34
Figure 3-59. A six-frame sequence illustrating the manner in which TAWS operates. A TAWS installation is aircraft specific and provides
warnings and cautions based upon time to potential impact with terrain rather than distance. The TAWS is illustrated in an upper left
window while aircrew view is provided out of the windscreen. illustrates the aircraft in relation to the outside terrain while and
illustrate the manner in which the TAWS system displays the terrain. is providing a caution of terrain to be traversed, while
provides an illustration of a warning with an aural and textural advisory (red) to pull up. also illustrates a pilot taking appropriate
action (climb in this case) while illustrates that a hazard is no longer a factor.

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 TRACK KDVT 25L

--- 00500
100 2000
4
90 5 5 3
2
80
1
70
24 3 25 26 80 W
6602 14 60

7 7
50 1

2
3
5 5 4
1000
29.89 IN

10 10
ON RWY 36L

VOR2 CRS HDG

- - . - NM 360 360
GSPD
59 KTS

VOR1

Figure 3-60. A Head-Up Display.

Figure 3-54. A Head Up Display on a Gulfstream.
Before Engine Start 6. ASI: Proper reading, as applicable. If electronic
flight instrumentation is installed, check emergency
1. Walk-around inspection: Check the condition of all
instrument.
antennas and check the pitot tube for the presence
of any obstructions and remove the cover. Check 7. Attitude indicator: Uncaged, if applicable. If electronic
the static ports to be sure they are free from dirt flight instrumentation is installed, check emergency
and obstructions, and ensure there is nothing on the system to include its battery as appropriate.
structure near the ports that would disturb the air 8. Altimeter: Set the current altimeter setting and ensure
flowing over them. that the pointers indicate the elevation of the airport.
2. Aircraft records: Confirm that the altimeter and static 9. VSI: Zero indication, as applicable (if electronic flight
system have been checked and found within approved instrumentation is installed).
limits within the past 24 calendar months. Check the
replacement date for the emergency locator transmitter 10. Heading indicator: Uncaged, if applicable.
(ELT) batteries noted in the maintenance record, and 11. Turn coordinator: If applicable, miniature aircraft
be sure they have been replaced within this time level, ball approximately centered (level terrain).
interval. 12. Magnetic compass: Full of fluid and the correction
3. Preflight paperwork: Check the Airport/Facility card is in place and current.
Directory (A/FD) and all Notices to Airmen 13. Clock: Set to the correct time and running.
(NOTAMs) for the condition and frequencies of all the
navigation aid (NAVAIDs) that are used on the flight. 14. Engine instruments: Proper markings and readings,
Handbooks, en route charts, approach charts, computer as applicable if electronic flight instrumentation is
and flight log should be appropriate for the departure, installed.
en route, destination, and alternate airports. 15. Deicing and anti-icing equipment: Check availability
4. Radio equipment: Switches off. and fluid quantity.

5. Suction gauge: Proper markings as applicable if 16. Alternate static-source valve: Be sure it can be opened
electronic flight instrumentation is installed. if needed, and that it is fully closed.

3-36
 17. Pitot tube heater: Check by watching the ammeter to the published field elevation during the preflight
when it is turned on, or by using the method specified instrument check.
in the POH/AFM.
7. VSI: The instrument should read zero. If it does not,
tap the panel gently. If an electronic flight instrument
After Engine Start
system is installed, consult the flight manual for proper
1. When the master switch is turned on, listen to the procedures.
gyros as they spin up. Any hesitation or unusual noises 8. Engine instruments: Check for proper readings.
should be investigated before flight.
9. Radio equipment: Check for proper operation and set
2. Suction gauge or electrical indicators: Check the as desired.
source of power for the gyro instruments. The suction
developed should be appropriate for the instruments 10. Deicing and anti-icing equipment: Check operation.
in that particular aircraft. If the gyros are electrically
driven, check the generators and inverters for proper Taxiing and Takeoff
operation. 1. Turn coordinator: During taxi turns, check the
3. Magnetic compass: Check the card for freedom of miniature aircraft for proper turn indications. The ball
movement and confirm the bowl is full of fluid. or slip/skid should move freely. The ball or slip/skid
Determine compass accuracy by comparing the indicator should move opposite to the direction of
indicated heading against a known heading (runway turns. The turn instrument should indicate the direction
heading) while the airplane is stopped or taxiing of the turn. While taxiing straight, the miniature
straight. Remote indicating compasses should also be aircraft (as appropriate) should be level.
checked against known headings. Note the compass 2. Heading indicator: Before takeoff, recheck the heading
card correction for the takeoff runway heading. indicator. If the magnetic compass and deviation card
4. Heading indicator: Allow 5 minutes after starting are accurate, the heading indicator should show the
engines for the gyro to spin up. Before taxiing, or known taxiway or runway direction when the airplane
while taxiing straight, set the heading indicator to is aligned with them (within 5).
correspond with the magnetic compass heading. A 3. Attitude indicator: If the horizon bar fails to remain
slaved gyrocompass should be checked for slaving in the horizontal position during straight taxiing, or
action and its indications compared with those of the tips in excess of 5 during taxi turns, the instrument is
magnetic compass. If an electronic flight instrument unreliable. Adjust the miniature aircraft with reference
system is installed, consult the flight manual for proper to the horizon bar for the particular airplane while on
procedures. the ground. For some tricycle-gear airplanes, a slightly
5. Attitude indicator: Allow the same time as noted nose-low attitude on the ground gives a level flight
above for gyros to spin up. If the horizon bar erects attitude at normal cruising speed.
to the horizontal position and remains at the correct
position for the attitude of the airplane, or if it begins Engine Shut Down
to vibrate after this attitude is reached and then slowly When shutting down the engine, note any abnormal
stops vibrating altogether, the instrument is operating instrument indications.
properly. If an electronic flight instrument system
is installed, consult the flight manual for proper
procedures.
6. Altimeter: With the altimeter set to the current reported
altimeter setting, note any variation between the
known field elevation and the altimeter indication. If
the indication is not within 75 feet of field elevation,
the accuracy of the altimeter is questionable and
the problem should be referred to a repair station
for evaluation and possible correction. Because the
elevation of the ramp or hangar area might differ
significantly from field elevation, recheck when in
the run-up area if the error exceeds 75 feet. When
no altimeter setting is available, set the altimeter

3-37
3-38