Social exchange. Compiled by M.

Murdvee

Social exchange
the voluntary actions of
individuals that are motivated
Social by the returns they are
expected to bring and typically

exchange do in fact bring from others.

(Blau, 1964)
Compiled by
Mart Murdvee
Social exchange theory is based
on a central premise: that the
exchange of social and material
Peter Michael Blau resources is a fundamental form
1918 2002 of human interaction.

Social exchange theory Trust

Subjective
evaluation A B Consumer-supplier (client-
Equal! Equal!
vendor) relationships the willingness of a party to be vulnerable to
terminate or continue
based on the prior history the actions of another party based on the
of the relationships
Satisfaction. Satisfaction. Reciprocal exchange leads expectation that the other will perform a
Partnership trust Partnership trust
to trust. particular action important to the trustor
Knowledge-Based Trust: (Mayer et al., 1995)
A B
The trust developed through
Un-
equal!
Un-
equal! repeated interactions that a psychological state comprising the intention
allow an individual to collect
information about the other to accept vulnerability based upon positive
Dissatisfaction. Dissatisfaction. and develop an expectation
Irritation untrust Guilt
that the others behavior is expectations of the intentions or behavior of
predictable and positive. another (Rousseau et al., 1998)
Distress Distress

Social exchange
Social exchange Microstructures, Regulatory Rules of:
Face-to-face interactions (microstructures)
economic systems, political institutions Dominance
(macrostructures).
Larger structures are composed of Power
microstructures. Legitimate control
Interactions are shaped by a reciprocal
exchange of rewards: Task division
1. Social actors engage in activities as a means of
obtaining desired goals;
2. All social activities entais some cost to the actor
time, energy, resouces;
3. Social actors seek to economize their activities as
much as possible, by keepeng costs below rewards.

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Social exchange. Compiled by M. Murdvee

Rewards Costs and Resources

sorces of positive reiforcement including Costs = punishments or lost rewards
pleasures, satisfactions, gratifications (a Investment = time and effort devoted to
developing skills which will be used to
continuum from concrete to symbolic). reward others
Social rewards: Direct costs = resource given to another
Personal attraction in exchange for something else
Opportunity = loss of rewards which
Social acceptance would have been aviable elsewhere
Social approval Resources = anything that can be
Instrumental services transmitted through interpersonal
Respect / prestige behaviour, including commodities,
Compliance / power material, or symbolic matter.

Exchange and Power in Social Life.

Power Principles:
the probability that one actor 1. The more services supplied in
return for receipt of some valued
whithin a social relationship will service, the more power held by
be in a position to call out his those providing valued services.
2. The more alternative sources for
own will despite resistance. reward possessed, the less
Individual has power over others when he those providing reward can
alone is able to supply needed rewards to extract compliance.
them 3. The more receivers can apply
force and coercion, the less
If others are unable to receive the benefits those providing services can
from another source and if they are unable to extract compliance.
offer rewards to the individual, they become 4. The more receivers can do
dependent on the individual. without services, the less
Power results from an unequal exchange providers can extract
stemming from an individual or group compliance.
monopoly over a desired resource.

Expectations in Social Exchange Comparison Level

General expectations a standard representing what people feel they should
associated with role, occupation, receive in the way of rewards and costs from a particular
relationship.
formed by social norms what
Comparison level:
person ought to receive.
is the lowest level of reward acceptable for the person;
Particular expectations refers to the standard by which the individual evaluates;
associated with rewards is determinated by assessing all the known costs and rewards;
received from particular person. can be based on previous experiences.
Comaparative expectations Comparison level for alternatives the lowest level of
rewards of a relationship minus rewards a person is willing to accept given aviable
rewards from alternatives:
costs of maintaining the
comparison of one specific alternative to other aviable
relationship alternative;
is the best reward aviable to someone given to the aviable
alternatives.

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Social exchange. Compiled by M. Murdvee

Propositions Conditions of Exchange

The desire for social rewards leads men to enter into Intrinsic Extrinsic Unilateral
exchange relationships with one another.
Reciprocal social exchange creates trust and social Spontanous Personal Social Respect -
bonds between men. evaluations attraction approval prestige
Unilateral services create power and status differences. Calculated Social Instrumental Compliance -
Power differences make organizations possible. actions acceptance services power
The fair excersise of power evokes social approval and
the unfair excersise of power evokes social
disapprowal. Some social rewards can not be bartered in exchange
If subordinates collectively agree that their superior spontanous reactions.
excersises power generously, they will legitimate his Rewarding actions can be bartered acceptance in a group,
power. instrumental services, compliances.
Legitimate power is required for stable organization.
If subordinates collectively experience unfair excersise
of power, an opposition movement will develop.

Blaus Model of Exchange and the Structure

of Social Relations The Social Norm of Reciprocity
expectation that people will
respond to each other in
similar ways.
Responding to gifts and
kindness form others with


Processes shape the exercise of power and the rise of opposition to it.
These processes account for both: stability and change in interpersonal and group relations, as well as in more
similar benevolence on their

complex social institutions.
Central importance is the role of social norms of fairness and the legitimacy they either confer on or deny those
own (I scrach your back,

in dominant positions.
Legitimate authoritya superiors right to demand compliance from subordinates and their willing obedienceis
you scrach my back)
based on shared norms that constrain an individuals response to issued directives.
Imbalanced exchange relations are governed less by individual, rational calculations than they are by shared Responding to harmful,
expectations and the cultural values that legitimate them.
As long as the superior meets or exceeds the expectations for rewards deemed acceptable by the group, then hurtful acts from others with
the ensuing legitimacy conferred on the superior will foster the stability of the group.
The costs incurred by subordinates, both in the services they perform and in the very act of submission, must be either indifference or some
judged fair relative to the benefits derived for obedience. Otherwise, opposition to the superiors exercise of
power may arise, and with it the potential for change in the structure of existing interpersonal or institutional
relations.
form of retaliation (eye for
This judgment rests, on consensual, normative standards of fairness. eye, tooth for tooth)

Key principles of reciprocity The value of the benefit and the debt
The value of the benefit and the debt is in proportion to and varies,
Once it has been established as a norm depending on:
governing the relationship between two the intensity of the recipient's need at the time the benefit was
bestowed ("a friend in need . . ."),
individuals, reciprocity requires the individuals the resources of the donor ("he gave although he could ill afford it"),
the motives imputed to the donor ("without thought of gain"), and
to abide by two key principles: the nature of the constraints which are perceived to exist or to be
absent ("he gave of his own free will . . .").
First, individuals must assist those who have The obligations imposed by the norm of reciprocity may vary with
the status of the participants within a society.
previously given them assistance. The norm of reciprocity functions differently in some degree in
Second, individuals should not do anything different cultures (friendship, kinship, and neighborly etc relations).
The norm of reciprocity cannot apply with full force in relations with
that might harm those who have previously children, old people or with those who are mentally or physically
handicapped.
given them assistance.
Gouldner, 1960 Gouldner, 1960

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Social exchange. Compiled by M. Murdvee

Fairness theories Balanced" (or "specific") and

Possibilities of fair" sharing: "generalized" (or "diffuse") reciprocity
Equal Balanced reciprocity refers to a
simultaneous exchange of items
According to the contribution of equivalent value, as when
office-mates exchange holiday
According to pursuit gifts or legislators log-roll.
According to the costs Generalized reciprocity refers
to a continuing relationship of
According to the need exchange that is at any given
time unrequited or imbalanced,
According to the social benefits but that involves mutual
Cicero (106 BC 43 BC) about the expectations that a benefit
norm of generalized reciprocity: granted now should be repaid in
"There is no duty more the future. Friendship, for
How it is fair? indispensable than that of
returning a kindness. All men
example, almost always involves
generalized reciprocity.
distrust one forgetful of a benefit."
Putnam, 1994

Three tactics for continuing

Weak and Strong Reciprocity exchange-based relationships:
Weak reciprocity - reciprocal strategies are
profitable for the agents who play them. Virtuous - the individual will return any favours in
Strong reciprocity - actors will return a favor kind.
with a favor and retaliate against an unfriendly Forgiveness - if the other is not helpful on some
act without expecting to be compensated for
the costs they incur in doing so.
occasion, the individual will restore cooperation and
Strong reciprocity is a key mechanism in continue to provide favours such that the other feels
promoting cooperation in voluntary obligated to reciprocate at some future point.
contribution games, strong reciprocity is a Retaliation - if the other is not helpful, the individual
powerful device for the enforcement of
social norms involving, for example, food will act likewise to bring the other back in line so that
sharing or collective action. (Fehr, 2002). the relationship may continue

(Gibb, 1999)
Diekmann et al (2014) Reputation Formation and the Evolution of Cooperation in
Anonymous Online Markets

Four types of exchange that

Tit-For-Tat Strategy structure all social relationships:
The program opens by cooperating with its
opponent. It then plays exactly as the other communal sharing
side played in the previous game. If the
other side defected in the previous game, authority ranking
the program also defects; but only for one equality matching
game. If the other side cooperates, the
program continues to cooperate. market pricing
the program punished the other player These exchange types can work
for selfish behaviour and rewarded her individually in relationships or they
for cooperative behaviourbut the can work together with different
punishment lasted only as long as the types of exchange operating in or
Anatol Rapoport selfish behaviour lasted. This proved to
1911 2007 be an exceptionally effective sanction, dominating different aspects of
quickly showing the other side the the relationship at a given time.
advantages of cooperating.
(Fiske, 1991)

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Social exchange. Compiled by M. Murdvee

Communal sharing Authority ranking

The communal sharing relationship involves a social Authority ranking is a relational structure based on inequity.
exchange relationship where everyone gives their all to the Authority ranking consists of a linear hierarchy where individuals are
community and is then free to take out what they need. placed in order of social importance or status, with the most important
at the top and the least important at the bottom.
A group based on communal sharing has a sense of solidarity and
identity within the group, often in contrast to outsiders, creating the basic The higher in rank an individual is placed, the more people, things or land he or
she will control. Individuals ranked higher are often considered more
in-group/ out-group dynamic. knowledgeable and powerful because the higher ranking individual has more
Membership to the group is the most important component and control over events.
supersedes the individual, who is undifferentiated from other group Subordinates feel they deserve to be in lower positions and subsequently pay
members through a relationship of equivalence. homage, are loyal, and are deferential to the authority figures. In return,
There is a feeling of oneness in the group where individuals are kind and subordinates are entitled to receive aid, protection, and support from their
generous with each other because the group is believed to be of the leaders. Authority ranking can be regarded as similar to an ordinal scale.
same kind, especially kin. While rankings are linear, there is no specified difference between the ranks.
Specifically, one person may be greater than the other, but there is no meaningful
Within the framework of a communal sharing relationship, two people measure of how much greater the higher ranked individual is. Moreover, the
belonging to the same group are equivalent and undifferentiated allowing distance between any two rankings is likely different, such that the person ranked
certain expectation to evolve about a group. Consequently, people number one may be significantly greater than the person ranked number two,
cannot be switched at random from one group to another without while the person ranked number two might be only slightly greater than the
disrupting the relationships or relational structure of communal sharing person ranked number 3.
(Fiske, 1991). (Fiske, 1991).

Equity matching Market pricing

Equality matching utilises elements from both communal Similar to equality matching, market pricing is an
sharing and authority ranking. While peers in this type of equivalent exchange. However, rather than paying with an
exact match of what was given, a value is given to what
relational structure are considered equal as in communal each person has.
sharing, they are distinguishable as in authority ranking. That The value of the items exchanged is determined by the market, allowing
is, they are viewed as distinct but equal. items of equal value to be exchanged. Usually the value is designated by
a price or utility in a single universal metric; however, this is not required.
Each person takes turns providing what is needed creating a Rules are agreed upon by the group members so that everyone may
achieve an ideal end in the exchange process. These rules are rational
process of in-kind reciprocity. and highly structured, as well as consistent and universal, allowing the
What each person gives up exactly matches what he or she groups social life to be more agreeable, predictable, and successful.
Because of the nature of exchange and the value of others actions,
gets in return, creating a condition where everyone is equal. services, and products, the market pricing relationship is open to
competent honest individuals who have something to exchange or sell, or
have money to buy. Market pricing corresponds to a ratio scale.
For example, the price of a dinner of a specified kind at a particular restaurant
has a definite, socially meaningful ratio to the cost of an hour of child-care by
a baby sitter who charges a specific rate.
(Fiske, 1991).

Difference of economic exchange Differences between social exchanges

and social exchange and economic exchanges
Unlike an economic exchange (involving quantifiable material The differences stem from the content of the exchange transaction
goods), social exchange is based on intangible goods that are not and from the conceptual units of analysis employed.
quantifiable. Social exchanges can be purely social or a combination of social
For example, advice, support, positive attitudes, signs of and economic exchanges.
recognition, cordial forms of behavior such as mutual aid and In contrast to pure economic exchanges, the benefits from social
benevolent attitudes such as empathy all play a part in structuring exchange often are not contracted explicitly, and it is voluntary to
social exchanges between individuals. In order for an exchange to provide benefits.
produce the anticipated outcome in terms of durability and Thus, social exchange theory focuses on the social relations and
relational quality, the goods involved in the exchange must have a personal ties among the actors that shape the exchange of
value. resources and benefits.
The individuals involved in the exchange are committed to Personal ties are the bonds that result from successful, mutually
pursuing the exchange if, in return for what they have given, they rewarding interactions over time. They are founded upon trust,
receive goods that have an estimated or perceived value reciprocation and reward.
equivalent to the goods they have previously given, even if the
return is deferred over time. The maintenance of the relationship in In contrast to social exchanges, economic exchanges take place
the long term is heavily dependent on the sense of trust in the market. Such transactions imply the allocation of resources
established between the two individuals (Blau, 1964). with disregard to personal ties, in favour of an immediate
maximization principle of profit making.

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Social exchange. Compiled by M. Murdvee

Comparison social exchange and Planned short-term dyadic strategic

economic theory alliances lack of reciprocity
When compared to long-term strategic alliances, planned short-
Social exchange theory Economic theory term dyadic strategic alliances are more difficult to manage.
Focus on the social relations and Focus on price as the mechanism to These alliances encourage independent behaviours, have limited
personal ties that shape the govern exchange recourse to coercive techniques and are excessively prone to
exchange of resources conflict.
Examines a combination of Examines economic exchanges only The independent ownership/control structures and short-term
nature of these alliances limit reciprocal activity. Such alliances are
economic and non-economic limited to one type of reciprocal action, known as specific
exchanges reciprocity.
Exchange is voluntary Exchange is mandatory In addition to its reliance on specific reciprocity, exchange partners
Exchange is not contracted explicitly Exchange is contracted explicitly have less recourse to a specific type of reciprocal action, known
as tit for tat. Tit for tat is a social control mechanism that allows
Exchange takes place within a social Exchange takes place within the partners to punish and reward each other.
system market Planned short-term dyadic strategic alliances interrupt the
development of benevolent and credibility trust and promote the
development of a weaker form of trust, known as calculus based
Bignoux (2006) Short-term strategic alliances - a social
exchange perspective.
trust.

Model of the transformation process of

social exchange variables References
Diekmann et al (2014) Reputation Formation and the Evolution of Cooperation in
Anonymous Online Markets. American Sociological Review; 79: 65
Paille et al (2013) When subordinates feel supported by managers: investigating
Short-term Medium-term Long-term the relationships between support, trust, commitment and outcomes. International
Review of Administrative Sciences; 79(4) 681700
strategic strategic strategic
Bignoux (2006) Short-term strategic alliances - a social exchange perspective.
alliances alliances alliances Management Decision, Vol. 44 No. 5, pp. 615-627
Biron, Boon (2013) Performance and turnover intentions: a social exchange
perspective. Journal of Managerial Psychology, Vol. 28 No. 5, pp. 511-531
Hornung, Glaser (2010) Employee responses to relational fulfilment and work-life
benefits - A social exchange study in the German public administration.
International Journal of Manpower, Vol. 31 No. 1, pp. 73-92
Benevolent trust & Gouldner, A. W. (1960). "The Norm of Reciprocity: A Preliminary Statement."
Calculus based trust / Specific reciprocsity Credibility trust / American Sociological Review 25: 161-178.
Diffuse reciprocity Putnam, Leonardi, Nanetti (1994) Making democracy work - Civic traditions in
modern Italy.

Bignoux (2006) Short-term strategic alliances - a social exchange

perspective

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