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 1

Aluminium Countergravity Casting

Potentials and Challenges
Bolaji Aremo1 and Mosobalaje O. Adeoye2
1Centre for Energy Research & Development, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife,
2Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife,
Nigeria

1. Introduction
Counter-gravity casting, also called vacuum casting, is a mould filling technique in which low
pressure created inside a mould cavity, causes prevailing atmospheric pressure on the melt
surface to bring about an upward or counter-gravity movement of the melt into the mould
cavity. The process was patented in 1972 by Hitchiner Manufacturing (Lessiter & Kotzin, 2002)
and different variants of the process had evolved over the years. Greanias & Mercer (1989)
reported a novel valve system that could potentially increase throughput by allowing mould
disengagement prior to solidification while Li et al (2007) have developed a multifunctional
system aimed at aggregating different variations of the technology into a single equipment.
The unique mould filling approach of the countergravity casting technique confers on it a
set of unique advantages related to casting economics, defects elimination and attainment of
net-shape in cast products. Such desirous attributes has ensured the growing importance of
the technology, especially in power and automotive applications. A testament to the rising
profile of this casting technique is its adoption in the production of a range of parts such as
compressor wheels for turbo-chargers (TurboTech, 2011), automotive exhaust manifolds
(Chandley, 1999) and a high-volume production (130,000 units/day) automotive engine
Rocker Arm (Lessiter, 2000).
The growing importance of this casting technique in some metal casting sectors
notwithstanding, there is scant awareness and interest in many mainstream casting spheres.
This chapter thus seeks to present a technology overview of the countergravity casting
technique. The shortcomings of conventional processes are highlighted alongside the unique
advantages of the countergravity technique. Challenges of the countergravity technique are
also presented with discussion of efforts and prospects for their redemption.

2. Description of the countergravity casting process

The basic process steps for the vacuum casting process are presented as follows. In the
diagram in figure 1, a preheated investment mould with an integrated down-sprue (fill
pipe) is positioned in the moulding flask.
The sprue, with a conical-shaped intersection point with the rest of the mould, pokes
through and sits in the conical depression of the lock-nut. The square fit of the two,
depicted in figure 2, ensures a sealing of the flask interior from the external environment.

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4 Recent Trends in Processing and Degradation of Aluminium Alloys

Fig. 1. Typical setup of the countergravity casting process

Fig. 2. Down sprue, with conical base (a) is integrated with the rest of the investment mould
tree (c). The assemble rests inside the conical depression of the lock-nut (b)

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Aluminium Countergravity Casting Potentials and Challenges 5

The otherwise solid investment mould is made permeable by a single opening at its apex.
This opening effectively connects the mould cavity with the interior space of the moulding
flask, making it an extension of the moulding flask and enabling its evacuation along with
the rest of the flask. The flask lid hosts the casting valve, a connecting hose to the vacuum
system and lid locking mechanism. The electrical resistance furnace melts the aluminium
charge, usually by a superheat of about 40 C above the melting temperature (660 C) of
aluminium to reduce melt viscosity and ease melt up-flow into the mould. During
countergravity casting, the moulding flask with the mould assembly inside, is placed on the
furnace lid with the down-sprue poking through a hole in the furnace lid.
The vacuum system evacuates the moulding flask and the ensuing low pressure thus
created causes ambient atmospheric pressure on the melt to push up the molten metal, up
inside the mould. See figure 3.

Fig. 3. The evacuation of the moulding flask (a) also evacuates the investment mould cavity.
This causes molten aluminium to rise up into the mould cavity (b)
Apart from investment material, the mould could be a metal mould or a ceramic mould. The
vacuum system is calibrated so that just the right volume of melt flows inside the mould for
a period long enough for the melt to solidify. The vacuum is released after allowing enough
time for melt solidification in the mould cavity. This allows un-solidified melt along the
sprue length to be flow back into the furnace. The illustration in figure 4 shows the vacuum
being maintained until the cavity is completely filled. Vacuum pressure is then released
causing un-solidified melt in the sprue to flow back into the furnace

3. Conventional techniques and casting defects

Conventional gravity- or pressure-assisted aluminium metal casting techniques like sand
casting, investment casting and die casting are fraught with problems. These include gas
defects, melt oxidation, shrinkage defects and pouring defects. Defects are naturally
undesirable because they can result in low strength, poor surface finish and high number of
rejects in a batch of cast products.

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6 Recent Trends in Processing and Degradation of Aluminium Alloys

Fig. 4. The vacuum is maintained until the cavity is completely filled. Vacuum pressure is
released causing un-solidified melt to flow back into the furnace

3.1 Gas defects

Molten aluminium is particularly susceptible to adsorbing significant quantities of hydrogen
gas from atmospheric moisture, which leads to a high concentration of dissolved hydrogen
in the melt. This may be further exacerbated by alloying element like magnesium which
may form oxidation reaction products that offer reduced resistance to hydrogen diffusion
into the melt (Key to Metals, 2010). This causes blow holes and gas porosity which combine
to reduce strength of the cast part. The micrograph in figure 5 shows a blow hole defect, it
can appear at any region of the cast microstructure and is exacerbated by damp mould
materials which give off steam during casting. Figure 6 shows gas porosity defects in an
aluminium casting, these are much smaller than blow holes and tend to form in clusters
around the region of the grain boundaries.

3.2 Melt oxidation

Oxidation of the melt is another severe defect suffered by aluminium alloy castings. The
elevated melt temperature promotes easy oxidation of the aluminium by ambient oxygen.
The aluminium oxide thus formed is an undesirable non-metallic inclusion. Considerable
efforts, through the use of in-mould filters, protected atmosphere, or alloying additions are
often needed to reduce oxide formation and entrainment in the mould.

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Aluminium Countergravity Casting Potentials and Challenges 7

Fig. 5. A Blow hole defect in an aluminum casting at 100 magnification

Fig. 6. Gas porosity in aluminium casting at 1000 magnification

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8 Recent Trends in Processing and Degradation of Aluminium Alloys

3.3 Shrinkage
Shrinkage is the natural consequence of liquid to solid transformation of the melt during
cooling and is common in most metals. Shrinkage is particularly severe in aluminium alloys.
In aluminium alloys, the volumetric shrinkage ranges from 3.5% to 8% (Kaufman and Rooy,
2004). This manifests as shrinkage cavities in larger portions of the casting.
This is often counteracted by strategic placement of risers. Figure 7 shows the typical
appearance of volumetric shrinkage defect in an aluminium section.

Fig. 7. Typical appearance of volumetric shrinkage defect in an aluminium section

3.4 Pouring defects

During pouring of the melt, there is considerable splashing and sloshing about of the melt.
This entrains significant quantities of air and non-metallic inclusions in the mould. Such
entrained material degrades casting quality. This problem is often mitigated by incorporation
of complex gating systems designed using advanced Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD)
modules. Such casting simulation software is able to predict and avoid bubble streams in
metals castings (Waterman, 2010).
Some of the problems outlined above have been resolved by advancements in pressure die
casting, improved investment casting techniques and centrifugal casting. These techniques
individually solve some, but often not all of the problems with gravity-assisted pour of an
air-melt. For instance, in conventional die casting, melt is sprayed at high velocity into the
die and cavity-atmosphere tends to be admixed and entrapped in castings during the

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Aluminium Countergravity Casting Potentials and Challenges 9

turbulent cavity-fill (Jorstad, 2003). The process of air melting and pouring also inevitably
introduces oxides, formed during melting, into the cast product. Significant inclusions
segregation at grain boundaries are thus very common with gravity assisted sand casting.

4. Advantages of the countergravity casting technique

Numerous advantages for metal casters are endemic to the countergravity casting
technique. These may be broadly categorized into defect reduction and elimination and
casting economics.

4.1 Cleaner melt

For aluminium alloys, metal oxides formed and aggregated on the melt surface can be by-
passed by taking clean melt from below the surface. The practice of de-slagging using a
hand ladle or metal rod to scoop the slag layer off the melt surface unavoidably leaves
pieces of slag in the melt which ultimately flows into the mould during casting.
Countergravity casting also results in improved melt cleanliness, due to reduced turbulence
during mould filling (Druschitz and Fitzgerald, 2000).

4.2 Elimination of shrinkage defect

Shrinkage is virtually eliminated in the countergravity casting technique. This is because a
constant supply of fresh melt is maintained in the mould during casting. Hence, as portions
of the mould begin to solidify, the down-sprue is the last to start solidifying. The reservoir
of molten melt in the crucible acts as a riser, ensuring a steady supply of melt into the mould
during solidification. This effectively eliminates the need for risering. Figure 8 shows the
cross-section of a countergravity cast rod. The absence of volumetric shrinkage defect is
evident from the convex meniscus at the top of the rod section.

4.3 Simplified gating system

In the countergravity technique, the gating system is considerably simplified as is depicted
in figure 9. It consists merely of branches of flow channels emanating from the central sprue.
This simplicity is possible because the interior of the mould is actually an extension of the
vacuum system. The high pressure differential between the mould interior and the
atmospheric pressure ensures that the molten metal will completely permeate every cavity
in the mould. Complex in-gates, depending on gravity flow of melt are thus not needed.
This considerably simplifies the mould design.

4.4 Economical
Countergravity technique significantly decreases the amount of gates that must be re-melted
(Flemings et al, 1997). This was actually one of the original goals of the countergravity
technique at its inception. Fettling time and costs are reduced while high quality melt is
judiciously used.

5. Potentials and applications of the countergravity casting technique

The countergravity technique has numerous potentials, derivable from its advanatges over
the conventional metal casting techniques. As such it is gradually making in-roads into
traditional investment casting applications and also in novel materials production.

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10 Recent Trends in Processing and Degradation of Aluminium Alloys

Fig. 8. Cross-section of a countergravity cast rod showing the absence of volumetric

shrinkage defect as evident from the convex meniscus at the top of the rod

Fig. 9. An investment mould tree, simplified structure is characteristic of the countergravity

technique

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Aluminium Countergravity Casting Potentials and Challenges 11

Fig. 10. Ceramic mould at 400 magnification shows heavy segregation of impurities at the
grain boundaries

Fig. 11. Countergravity cast specimen at 400 magnification. Significant reduction of

impurities at the gain boundaries indicates lesser intake of impurities from the melt

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12 Recent Trends in Processing and Degradation of Aluminium Alloys

5.1 Scrap reduction and scrap usage

Due to the intrinsic ability of the casting technique to produce cleaner castings, it is more
adaptable to the use of scraps and foundry returns. These types of foundry feedstock
contain significant admixed impurities like moulding sand and oxide inclusions. Such scrap
metals produce significant slag which float on the melt surface.
The process of taking the melt can actually be used to pump clean metal below the melt
surface. Figures 10 and 11 respectively show the micrographs of gravity-pour ceramic
mould cast samples and countergravity cast samples of scraps of aluminium foundry
returns. The microstructure shows more segregation of melt impurities in the gravity-pour
ceramic mould, while the vacuum cast specimen shows significant reduction in impurities.

5.2 Net-shape casting

The countergravity technique is well suited for producing net-shape cast products. It is
especially suited for thin-walled sections and intricate details due to its excellent mould
filling. This is possible due to the virtual elimination of shrinkage defects in the
countergravity casting technique. Near net-shape castings of even higher temperature
alloys, such as steels are possible. Such has been reported by Chandely et al (1997) in the
production of thin-walled steel exhaust manifolds.

5.3 Improved strength

Countergravity cast products have improved strength over green sand and ceramic
mould specimens. The technique may be thus deployed in the production of high strength
parts hitherto produced by forging. High Counter-Pressure Moulding, a proprietary
variant, has been reported to exhibit the same strength characteristics as forging in alloy
wheel production, at little more than the price of cast wheel (Alexander, 2002).
Countergravity techniques are increasingly becoming the preferred choice for the
production of alloy wheels because of the added advantage of design flexibility over
forging processes. Furthermore, the Cosworth process, which achieves countergravity
melt flow by means of an electromagnetic pump, has been successfully used for high
strength structural components for air frames, gun cradles, and air tanker re-fuelling
manifolds (Bray, 1989).
Griffiths et al (2007) observed that countergravity filling method produced higher values of
the Weibull modulus than conventional gravity mould filling methods. This is a pointer to
the reduced variability of strength achievable in the countergravity technique.

5.4 Economical use of melt

There are often considerable wastages of melt in more conventional casting techniques due
to provisions made for risering and complicated in-gates.
This also results in considerable fettling time and costs. Such wastages are virtually
eliminated in countergravity casting since there is no need for risers and complex in-gates
are not necessary.

5.5 Production of metal matrix composites

Use of the countergravity casting technique is gradually branching into novel materials
production. An emerging field of application is the production cast Metal Matrix

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Aluminium Countergravity Casting Potentials and Challenges 13

Composites (MMC) which can be cast into complex, intricate geometries. These materials
have found applications in diverse fields, from high quality reflective mirrors to optical
and laser equipment (OFallon Casting, 2009). There has been increased interest in the use
of cast aluminium/silicon carbide MMC for optoelectronics packaging due to its
compatible coefficient of thermal expansion, high thermal conductivity, and potential to
produce parts at low cost (Berenberg, 2003). In ring laser gyros, these MMCs are
displacing traditional favourites like beryllium and stainless steel in the production of
dimensionally stable mirrors that can withstand extreme thermal cycling (Mohn and
Vukobratovich, 1988).

6. Challenges and limitations of countergravity casting

The afore-mentioned advantages notwithstanding, the process has some challenges militating
against its wide-spread deployment.

6.1 Equipment cost

Spada (1998) reported the cost of countergravity mould and handling equipment to be
typically between $50,000 to $1.25 million depending on complexity. Present day prices
would naturally be much higher. This is so because the proper utilisation of a
countergravity casting equipment requires an ecosystem of support facilities. These include
high-temperature mould pre-heating ovens, mould and moulding flask positioning units,
and sophisticated vacuum control systems. These added facilities add to the cost of setting
up and operation of the technique. In some instances, licensing fees may also apply, further
raising up the cost.

6.2 Size restriction of products

Countergravity casting is typically restricted to smaller sized components, usually less than
50 kg. This is because the moulding flask tend to be small, to allow for proper operation of
the vacuum system. Larger flasks are more difficult to evacuate and maintain at desired
partial vacuum.

6.3 Mould and sprue pre-heat temperature

It is essential for the mould and the sprue to be adequately heated prior to carrying out
countergravity casting. The pre-heat prevents chilling of the melt as it flows up from the
crucible. Improperly pre-heated sprue and mould will cause increased melt viscosity and a
tendency for the melt to get stuck in the sprue or incomplete mould filling. Figure 12 shows
premature solidification of melt inside the sprue due to inadequate pre-heat of the mould
and sprue assembly.

6.4 Vacuum control

Proper control of vacuum pressure is paramount in countergravity casting. Too much
vacuum will result in splatter of melt inside the moulding flask due to over-filling of the
mould cavity. Loss of vacuum during casting is also a real problem for countergravity
technique. This may be caused by improperly closed lid, damage to or cracks in the
moulding flask, or a poor seal between the recess of the lock-nut and the conical connection

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14 Recent Trends in Processing and Degradation of Aluminium Alloys

point of the sprue on the mould. These non-ideal, but very real instances may require a
more interactive vacuum system, wherein pressure feedback is used to constantly adjust the
flask vacuum pressure.

6.5 Melt contamination by reusable sprue

An effort to bring down overall system costs have led to the use of re-usable sprues. These
are usually in the form of metallic pipes. Re-usable sprues must however be used with
caution because of the tendency of accumulated impurities in the sprue channel to
contaminate the melt.

Fig. 12. Premature solidification of melt inside the sprue due to inadequate pre-heat

7. Benefits of countergravity casting

Some of the advantages highlighted for the countergravity casting technique may be
achievable in other, more conventional processes. However, the countergravity technique
provides a more complete solution. The process easily lends itself to automation for large
scale production; while at the same time can be scaled down for small-scale and jobbing
applications.

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Aluminium Countergravity Casting Potentials and Challenges 15

The possibility of more economical use of the melt is good for the bottom line of foundry
operation and was actually the original goal of the countergravity technique. This has
motivated a growing list of companies and industrial sector to adopt the technology.
The combination of precision near net shape and strength has resulted in countergravity die
casting being used to produce parts formerly made of steel that required a significant
amount of secondary machining (Aurora Metals LLC, 2009).
Net shape casting, particularly for thin sections is easily achievable in countergravity
casting. Countergravity cast part may have walls as thin as 0.5 mm (National Institute of
Industrial Research, 2005).
In order to make the benefits of this casting technique more accessible, low-cost
countergravity equipment have been developed. A low-cost design developed by the
authors is presented in figure 13.
The design utilizes a simplified vacuum control system and manual positioning of mould
and moulding flask. Such low cost alternatives would be invaluable for small scale
operations.

Fig. 13. A low-cost machine for countergravity casting

Size restrictions have been tackled by many recent designs. Jie et al (2009) reported a system
using compressed air to assist the up-flow of melt for large-sized castings. The Check Valve
(CV) process is has been developed Hitchiner for larger sized casting. This allows for

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16 Recent Trends in Processing and Degradation of Aluminium Alloys

portions of the melt in the down sprue to be returned to the furnace whilst keeping the
portion delimited by the valve in the moulding flask.
Vacuum control in countergravity casting has benefited significantly from advances in
control technology and instrumentation. Li et al (2008) demonstrated a pressure control
system based on fuzzy-PID control and a digital valve system and achieved pressure error
of less than 0.3 KPa. Other workers such as Khader et al (2008) have carried out extensive
system modelling of the countergravity casting machine with the goal of developing an
automatic controller for control of machine operation.

8. Conclusion
Metal casting is several millennia old, and yet it continues to evolve both in areas of
applications and in the technologies of implementation. The increasing relevance of
aluminium alloys in modern technology, from power applications to consumer products,
makes it imperative to seek better, more cost-effective production routes.
The countergravity casting technique is an ingenious method for production of aluminium
parts. The numerous permutations and mutations of this technique over the last four
decades is a testament to its feasibility and flexibility; and a recognition of its inherent
advantages. Aluminium alloy castings stand to benefit immensely from the unique
attributes of the countergravity technique because the goals of net-shape casting and
superior mechanical properties are truly achievable via this method.

9. References
Alexander, D. (2002). High-Performance Handling Handbook. MotorBooks International,
ISBN 978-0760309483, Osceola, Wisconsin
Aurora Metals. (2009). Vacuum Cast Impellers. March 12th 2011, Available from:
< http://www.aurorametals.com/vc.htm>
Berenberg, B. (2003). Metal Matrix Composites Advance Optoelectronics Package Design. In:
High Performance Composites, 20th May, 2011, Available from:
< http://www.compositesworld.com/articles/metal-matrix-composites-advance-
optoelectronics-package-design>
Bray, R. (1989). Aluminium casting process finds new applications; developments in the
Cosworth Process have spread its application to such fields as the aerospace and
defence industries. Modern Casting, 20th May 2011, Available from;
< http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-8230613.html>
Chandley, G.D.; Redemske, J.A.; Johnson, J.N.; Shah, R.C. & Mikkola, P.H.(1997). Counter-
Gravity Casting Process for Making Thinwall Steel Exhaust Manifolds Society of
Automotive Engineers (SAE), Technical Papers, March 3rd 2011., Available from:
< http://papers.sae.org/970920/>
Chandley, G.D. (1999). Use of vacuum for counter-gravity casting of metals. Materials
Research Innovations, Vol. 1999, No. 3, pp 14-23.
Druschitz, A.P & Fitzgerald, D.C. (2000). Lightweight Iron and Steel Castings for
Automotive Applications. Proceedings of Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) 2000
World Congress, ISSN 0148-7191, Detroit Michigan, March, 2000

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Aluminium Countergravity Casting Potentials and Challenges 17

Flemings, M.; Apelian, D.; Bertram, D.; Hayden, W.; Mikkola, P. & Piwonka, T.S. (1997).
World Technology Evaluation Centre Report on Advanced Casting Technologies in Japan
and Europe. American Foundrymens Society (AFS), ISBN 1-883712-45-9
Greanias, A.C. & Mercer, J.B. (1989). Vacuum countergravity casting apparatus and method
with backflow valve, In: United States Patent 4862945, March 3rd 2011, Available
from :< http://www.freepatentsonline.com/4862945.html>
Griffiths, W.D.; Cox, M.; Campbell, J & Scholl, G. (2007). Influence of counter gravity mould
filling on the reproducibility of mechanical properties of a low alloy steel. Materials
Science and Technology, Vol. 23, No. 2, pp 137-144, ISSN 0267-0836
Jie, W.Q.; Li, X.L. & Hao, Q.T. (2009). Counter-Gravity Casting Equipment and Technologies
for Thin-Walled Al-Alloy Parts in Resin Sand Moulds. Materials Science Forum. Vols.
618-619 (2009), pp 585-589
Jorstad, J.L. (2003). High Integrity Die casting Process Variations, Proceedings of
International Conference on Structural Aluminium Casting, Orlando Florida,
November, 2003
Kaufman, G.J. & Rooy, E.L. (2004). Aluminium Alloy Castings Properties, Processes, and
Applications. ASM International, ISBN 0-87170-803-5, Ohio.
Key to Metals (2010). Aluminium and Aluminium Alloys Casting Problems. March 6th 2011,
Available from: < http://www.keytometals.com/Article83.htm>
Khader, A. M.; Abdelrahman, M. A.; Carnal, C.C. & Deabes, W. A. (2008). Modelling and
Control of a Counter-Gravity Casting Machine. Proceedings of 2008 American Control
Conference, Seattle Washington, June 2008
Lessiter, M.J. & Kotzin, E.L. (2002). Timeline of Casting Technology. Engineered Casting
Solutions, Summer 2002, pp 76-80.
Lessiter, M.J. (2000). Engineered Cast Solutions for the Automotive Industry. Engineered
Casting Solutions, Fall 2000, pp 37-40.
Li, X.; Hao, Q.; Jie, W. & Zhou, Y. (2008). Development of pressure control system in counter
gravity casting for large thin-walled A357 aluminium alloy components.
Transactions of Nonferrous Metals Society of China, Vol. 18, No. 4, pp 847-851
Li, X.; Hao, Q.; Li, Q. & Jie, W. (2007). Study on Technology of Multifunction Counter
Gravity Casting Equipment. Foundry Technology, Vol. 07, No. 014,
Mohn, W.R. & Vukobratovich, D. 1988. Recent applications of metal matrix composites in
precision instruments and optical systems. Optical Engineering, Vol. 27, No. 2, pp
90-98
National Institute of Industrial Research (NIIR) Board of Consultants & Engineers. (2005).
The Complete Book on Ferrous, Non-Ferrous Metals with Casting and Forging
Technology. National Institute of Industrial Research, ISBN: 8186623949, New
Delhi
OFallon Casting. (2009). Silicon Carbide Metal Matrix Composite Alloys (SiC MMC),
March 12th 2011, Available from:
< http://www.ofalloncasting.com/MetalMatrix.html>
Spada, A.T. (1998). Hitchiner Manufacturing Co. Turning the Casting World Upside
Down. Modern Casting, Vol. 88, No. 7, pp 39-43

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18 Recent Trends in Processing and Degradation of Aluminium Alloys

TurboTech Precision Products Ltd. (2011). Aluminium Compressor Wheel Castings for
Turbochargers, March 3rd 2011, Available from:
< http://www.turbotech.co.uk/manufacturing-process.htm>
Waterman, P.J. (2010). Understanding Core-Gas Defects Flow-3D software helps trace,
predict and avoid bubble streams in metal castings. In: Desktop Engineering, Design
Engineering and Technology Magazine, March 6th 2011, Available from:
< http://www.deskeng.com/articles/aaaype.htm>

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 Recent Trends in Processing and Degradation of Aluminium Alloys
Edited by Prof. Zaki Ahmad

ISBN 978-953-307-734-5
Hard cover, 516 pages
Publisher InTech
Published online 21, November, 2011
Published in print edition November, 2011

In the recent decade a quantum leap has been made in production of aluminum alloys and new techniques of
casting, forming, welding and surface modification have been evolved to improve the structural integrity of
aluminum alloys. This book covers the essential need for the industrial and academic communities for update
information. It would also be useful for entrepreneurs technocrats and all those interested in the production
and the application of aluminum alloys and strategic structures. It would also help the instructors at senior and
graduate level to support their text.

How to reference
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Bolaji Aremo and Mosobalaje O. Adeoye (2011). Aluminium Countergravity Casting Potentials and
Challenges, Recent Trends in Processing and Degradation of Aluminium Alloys, Prof. Zaki Ahmad (Ed.), ISBN:
978-953-307-734-5, InTech, Available from: http://www.intechopen.com/books/recent-trends-in-processing-
and-degradation-of-aluminium-alloys/aluminium-countergravity-casting-potentials-and-challenges

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