Proceedings of The Fourteenth (2004) International Offshore and Polar Engineering Conference

Toulon, France, May 2328, 2004

Copyright 2004 by The International Society of Offshore and Polar Engineers
ISBN 1-880653-62-1 (Set); ISSN 1098-6189 (Set)

THE POTENTIAL FOR FRICTION STIR WELDING

IN OIL AND GAS APPLICATIONS
Philip L Threadgill and Richard Johnson
TWI Ltd
Cambridge, United Kingdom

offshore industry, and the state of the art in the development of systems
ABSTRACT which can be used in an environment where performance and reliability
are at a premium.
Friction stir welding is a solid state one shot joining process originally
developed for aluminium alloys. It uses a simple rotating tool to INTRODUCTION
generate frictional heat at the interface between two components to be Definition of process
welded. The material is softened and contained by the tool and backing The principle of the process is shown in Figure 1. FSW can be thought
support. The progress of of the tool along the joint line subjects the of as a process of constrained extrusion. Friction between the rotating
materials to very high strains, forcing consolidation into a solid state tool and the workpieces generates heat, and the high pressure under the
weld. The principle is demonstrated in Figure 1. In aluminium, the tool causes a plasticised zone of material to form around the probe. As
process can weld materials from <1mm to >60mm in a single pass, and the tool is traversed along the joint line, the workpiece material is
these limits are constantly being extended. heated, plasticised, and extruded around the tool probe. The extruded
material forms a solid-phase joint behind the tool as it passes.
Since its invention at TWI in 1991, friction stir welding has made
significant inroads into the aluminium fabrication industry, for use in The advantages of the process can be summarised as follows:
airframes, rocket fuel tanks, shipbuilding, railcar manufacturing and
automotive applications. New applications are constantly coming on Solid phase process
stream, and this trend is likely to continue. Single pass process (<1mm to >60mm per pass in Al alloys)
Mechanised process
There have of course been significant efforts put into extending the
No special pre-weld edge profiling or cleaning
processes to materials other than aluminium, and progress has been
No shielding gas or filler wire required for most materials (gas
made with joining magnesium, copper, titanium, steels and nickel.
shield usually required for steels and Ti alloys)
These developments open the way to exploiting the advantages of the
process for the offshore industry, in particular in the joining of steel Low distortion and shrinkage
pipelines and other structures. 1-D, 2-D or 3-D, any position
Excellent mechanical properties
Friction stir welding of steel has been demonstrated for several steels of No welding fume or spatter hazards
interest to the offshore industry, including high strength structural No UV or electromagnetic radiation hazards
steels, several pipeline steels up to API 5LX-100, and several corrosion Low energy consumption
resistant alloys such as AISI 316L and 304L. The number of materials High joint completion rates for thicker section materials.
for which the process has been demonstrated continues to rise.
However, there are still challenges to be overcome when welding such There are of course some disadvantages:
materials, and most of these are centred on the choice of material for Workpieces must be rigidly clamped
the welding tool. Several materials are being investigated, all have Backing bar normally required
certain positive features, but all have disadvantages which make their Keyhole usually left at the end of each weld
immediate use unlikely. Rapid progress is however being made, and it Cannot make fillet welds, or any geometry which requires a filler.
is expected that a tool material which is reliable, obtainable and
affordable will emerge in the near future.

This paper reviews the process and how it works, its possible
advantages and disadvantages, potential applications of relevance to the

1
 automotive and other industries, many of these being safety critical
welds. Many further applications are under development. At the time of
writing, there are over 100 licensees of the process, a number which is
growing continuously.

FSW OF C-Mn STEELS

Current developments
Although the friction stir welding process has been developed initially
for joining aluminium, it was inevitable that interest would emerge in
applying it to other materials. An increasing volume of work is
appearing on friction stir welding of materials such as magnesium,
copper, titanium and steels. It has been known for some time that many
steels can be welded by the process, including C-Mn steels used in
shipbuilding, but the process is not yet ready for shipyard use. The
main reason for this lies in the tools used to make the weld. In
aluminium, the process seldom achieves temperatures above 500C,
and there are therefore a number of materials which can be used which
will operate well at these temperatures. When welding C-Mn steels,
much higher temperatures of between 1000C and 1200C are
Figure 1. Principal of friction stir welding. achieved, and the options for tool materials are greatly reduced,
especially when the high forces present are considered. It is essential
Of these advantages, low distortion, zero consumable requirement, full that the tool does not degrade by wear, deformation, microstructural
automation and very low defect incidence have probably been the most instability, reaction with the workpiece or fracture.
attractive to marine fabricators. Studies of mechanical properties have
shown that tensile strengths are generally above those obtainable by The same problem will also apply to C-Mn structures in the offshore
fusion processes, and welding speeds are generally comparable or industry, irrespective of the application. There is also strong interest in
better in the thickness range of interest. There are numerous the use of corrosion resistant alloys such as duplex stainless steels,
publications (reviewed by Threadgill, 1999) which show fatigue austenitic stainless steels and nickel alloys. Although these materials
properties to exceed those of MIG welding, although as yet this is not can be welded by the process, a long tool life is not guaranteed.
reflected in design codes. Several Classification Societies have
approved the process, generally on a case by case basis, but this has So far, two tool material types have given promising results, although
opened the way for the process to make significant inroads into the neither meets all of the criteria for an industrial tool material. These
shipbuilding industry. materials are refractory alloys based on the tungsten rhenium (W-Re)
system, and a ceramic solution based on polycrystalline cubic boron
Weldable materials nitride (PCBN), (Sorensen and Nelson, 2003). W-Re alloys exhibit
Studies to date have demonstrated satisfactory welds in many common excellent high temperature strength and toughness, but are prone to
engineering alloys, as detailed in the following list. wear and deformation, in particular when higher strength steels are
Wrought aluminium alloys (virtually all grades/tempers) used. However, they are cheaper than PCBN, and have an advantage in
Aluminium alloy extrusions (6xxx, 7xxx, all tempers) that they can be machined more easily. PCBN is a very hard material
Aluminium alloy castings (Al-Si and Al-Mg based) (boron nitride is thought to be the second hardest material known), and
Aluminium based metal matrix composites therefore wear rates are very low. However, the fracture toughness of
Magnesium alloys (castings and wrought) the material is, like almost all ceramics, very low and the tools are
Copper and copper alloys (electrical grades, brasses, etc) prone to cracking and sudden failure unless handled with great care.
The extreme hardness of the materials means that they are very difficult
Titanium alloys (CP-Ti, Ti-6Al-4V, alloys)
to process to more complex shapes. The tools undergo a very protracted
C-Mn and low alloy steels
manufacturing process, and are therefore expensive. Rapid progress is
Stainless steels (austenitic, duplex and martensitic) being made to improve the characteristics and performance of both tool
Nickel alloys materials, and indeed further work is underway to identify alternative
Zinc and lead tool materials.
Thermoplastics
Figure 2 shows typical tool designs currently under evaluation. They do
Of these, aluminium alloys represent almost all of the commercial not necessarily represent optimum designs. The W-Re tool in Figure
usage of the process. Copper and magnesium are now welded 2(a) shows a simple design, demonstrating a compromise between the
commercially, but with very few applications at the moment. Friction desirability of a fluted profile to promote material movement, and a
stir welding of steels of all varieties is under development, although lack of sharp features that will be prone to rapid wear. The PCBN tool
substantial progress has been made. Titanium is in a similar situation, shown in Figure 2(b) shows the very simple design which is dictated
whereas work on nickel alloys is still at an embryonic stage, although both by the difficulty in machining this material, and also by the poor
the possibility of successful welding has been demonstrated. fracture toughness. On this particular tool, there are two small flats on
the pin.
Non-Oil and Gas Applications
The friction stir process is becoming widely used in the fabrication of
aluminium alloys throughout the world, in particular for long straight
welds where its advantages can be most easily exploited. There are
current commercial applications in aerospace, shipbuilding, railways,

2
 Properties of steel welds
Examples of single and two pass welds (Johnson and dos Santos 2003)
in a ferritic structural steel (EN10025:1993 S355) are given in Figure 3.
Unlike aluminium welds, friction stir welds in C-Mn steels do not show
a distinct nugget region, and microstructural regions are more difficult
to distinguish, as the extent of plastic deformation is generally difficult
to determine. The microstructure in the weld centre is generally similar
to the HAZ of a conventional fusion weld, although the maximum
austenite grain size is generally less. As the distance from the original
(a) Typical W-25%Re tool bond line increases, the microstructure exhibits the normal features of
fine grained supercritical HAZ, intercritical HAZ and subcritical HAZ.
Hardness values can vary, but high hardness levels are unusual. Typical
examples of microstructures are shown in Figure 4a-d.

(b) Typical PCBN tool

Figure 2: Tools for friction stir welding of steels.

(a) Parent material microstructure

(a) Two pass weld

(b) Intercritical HAZ microstructure

(b) single pass weld

Figure 3. Sections through two pass and single pass friction stir welds
in a 12mm structural steel (Johnson and dos Santos 2003).

3
 120
base
100 nugget

Impact Energy (J)

HAZ
80
Poly. (base)
Poly. (nugget)
60
Poly. (HAZ)

40

20

0
-50 -25 0 25
Temperature (C)

Figure 5. Charpy data for friction stir welded C-Mn structural steel
(Johnson and dos Santos 2003)

techniques such as CTOD are available, but it is clear that the

(c) Fine grained stir zone microstructure
generation of a considerable volume of such data will be needed to give
industry the confidence to use the process. A similar lack of data exists
for fatigue in friction stir welded steel, and the same argument
regarding the need for such data is valid. At present, most research
efforts are directed towards solving the main challenges, which are the
development of improved tool technology and possible improved
process technology.

FSW OF CORROSION RESISTANT ALLOYS

Progress has been reported by a number of authors on the welding of
stainless steels, the majority of the work being on austenitic or super-
austenitic grades, and encouraging results have been obtained with W-
Re and PCBN tools. As for C-Mn steels, the former are prone to wear,
and the latter are likely to fracture if not handled with the greatest of
care.

The primary requirement of a weld in any corrosion resistant alloy is

that the corrosion resistance is not seriously compromised. At present
there are no published studies on the corrosion resistance of alloys of
interest to the offshore industry. This is not surprising, as research
efforts have concentrated on developing reliable and repeatable
(d) Microstructure at centre of stir zone welding conditions.
Figure 4. Microstructures in various regions of a friction stir weld in a
C-Mn steel. There has been considerable activity in the characterisation of friction
stir welds in austenitic stainless steels. Most of the work has
Charpy data are rather variable, and as expected lower than parent concentrated on alloys such as 304L and 316L, although there is also
values in the weld region. Data from a C-Mn steel (EN10025:1993 limited information on duplex alloys and superaustenitic alloys such as
S355) are shown in Figure 5 (Johnson and dos Santos 2003). No direct AL6-XN.
comparative data with more established welding processes are known.
Direct comparison may be difficult, as friction stir welds are normally Typical nugget microstructures from 5mm 316L material are shown in
made in one or two passes when welding material of 10-12mm thick, Figure 6. The macros show quite different macro structures, depending
whereas competing processes may have several passes, allowing on whether W-Re or PCBN tools have been used. It should be noted
tempering of earlier passes by later passes. Additional data has been that considerably faster travel speeds have been achieved with W-Re
generated on shipbuilding steels such as DH36 and HSLA-65 in the tools, presumably because these seem to tolerate higher traversing
USA (Lienert et al 2003, Konkol et al 2001, Posada et al 2003), but the forces than PCBN tools. Whatever the reason may be, it is seen that the
data obtained generally reflect that illustrated above. Although data are weld in Figure 6 made with PCBN tools exhibits dark etching regions,
at present limited, it appears that weld Charpy properties are influenced and a more detailed examination of these shows that they are associated
by the parent material values, therefore it is necessary to weld tough with the formation of retained ferrite. This is in line with the expected
materials if good nugget/HAZ properties are required. There are no higher peak temperature and longer thermal cycle which will result
known public domain data on pipeline steels at the time of writing, from the use of slower travel speeds. It should also be stated that the
although investigations are known to be underway. welding procedures may not be fully optimised; after all one of the
criteria for claiming an optimised procedure would be the achievement
No data on fracture toughness as measured by more sophisticated of optimum corrosion resistance.

4
The formation of retained ferrite is not confined to PCBN tools Therefore it must be concluded that, although the friction stir welding
however, as can be seen from the micrograph in Figure 7, taken from process can give sound welds in austenitic steels, it is possible to
the nugget region of a weld in 304L made with a W-Re tool. If the generate conditions under which sigma phase can form. It is therefore
thermal cycle is sufficiently protracted at high temperature, there will evident that careful qualification of welding procedures will be
be a risk of delta ferrite formation. required.

Microstructures in stainless steel friction stir welds are shown in Figure

8. The nugget region may or may not be well defined, this may depend
on both the alloy being welded and the welding parameters, and it is
not possible at this time to predict if a clearly defined nugget will form.
It is not particularly important. At the weld centre, the microstructure
indicates that a dynamically recrystallised microstructure exists, usually
with a finer grain size than the parent material. However, detailed
evaluations of the microstructure are only just beginning to emerge, and
it is likely that more detailed information will be available in the near
future. In the sample shown in Figure 8, the microstructure of the
parent material and the weld centre is clearly similar, although there are
(a) Weld made with W-25Re tool. very few twins in the nugget area compared to the parent material.

(b) Weld made with PCBN tool.

Figure 6; Macrosections of two pass welds in 5mm 316L stainless
steel, using different tool materials.

(a) Parent material microstructure

Figure 7. Microstructure of nugget region of 304L weld, showing (b) Nugget/TMAZ boundary microstructures.
extensive retained ferrite.

More recent work (Park et al, 2003) has shown beyond doubt that the
retained ferrite can contain sigma phase. This has been identified by
electron diffraction in welds made with PCBN tools. This statement
does not necessarily mean that sigma does not form in welds made with
W-Re tools. As already mentioned, delta ferrite has been reported in
such welds (Johnson and Threadgill, 2002), but no detailed electron
microscopy has yet been carried out.

5
 and orbital welds, and indeed such welds have been successfully made
in pipeline steels. However, both the technical and economic case for
using the process must be demonstrated, and the perceived benefits
proven unambiguously. This will require considerable effort and
investment in an industry which rightly takes a conservative approach
to the introduction of new technologies in safety critical areas.

Friction stir welding is still very much an embryonic technology as far

as steels are concerned, although initial studies have produced very
exciting results. There is still a significant lack of information in certain
key areas, for example fracture toughness, fatigue, corrosion
performance etc., and these areas are unlikely to assume a high priority
until the problems of tool materials have been further addressed. It will
also be necessary to evaluate the economics of the process for offshore
applications. Clearly, there is much to be done, and this will require
significant investment, particularly if progress is expected in the short
term.
(c) Nugget centre microstructure.
Figure 8: Microstructures in various regions of a friction stir weld in a
SUMMARY
304L stainless steel.
This work has demonstrated the viability of the friction stir welding
process for use with C-Mn and stainless steels of interest to the
Mechanical properties of friction stir welds in stainless steels are
offshore industry.
unlikely to be a problem. Data available show that the welds are
typically harder than the parent materials, and the fine grain size should
Although good quality welds can be made, further progress is needed in
ensure more than adequate toughness in a material where toughness is
the development of improved friction stir welding tool materials.
seldom an issue.
Further characterisation of the weld performance is also needed, in
particular in fracture toughness and corrosion performance. The
Very little work has been reported on the friction stir welding of duplex
economics of the process, when applied to offshore structures, also
materials. A very brief study (Okamoto et al, 2003) showed sound
need to be demonstrated.
welds in a 6mm 329 material. As expected, the nugget microstructure is
a mixture of ferrite and austenite grains of about 5m diameter. The
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.
authors have reported an increase in the austenite percentage from 43%
This work was partially funded by Industrial Members of TWI as part
in the parent material to 56% in the weld nugget. However, this is the
of TWIs Core Research Programme. The authors are indebted to many
result of a limited study, and it is very likely that the use of different
colleagues in the friction stir welding community for useful discussions
welding conditions would lead to a different phase balance. No
relating to the content of this paper.
corrosion data were reported for these welds.
REFERENCES
FSW OF ALUMINIUM
Almost all of the commercial production of friction stir welding is at Johnson R and dos Santos J F (2003). Mechanical Properties of
present for aluminium. All common aluminium alloys can be friction Friction Stir Welded S355 C-Mn Steel Plates. 4th International
stir welded, irrespective of the ease with which they can be welded by Friction Stir Welding Symposium, Park City UT, USA.
fusion processes. There are a few applications for aluminium in the Johnson R and Threadgill P L (2002). Progress in Joining
offshore sector, but it is known that the process has been used in the Austenitic Stainless Steels by Friction Stir Welding. ASM 6th
manufacture of helidecks, and would also be suitable for use in Trends in Welding Research Conference, Pine Mountain GA,
manufacturing lightweight topside structures for accommodation USA
modules etc, similar to cruise ship superstructures. There has been Konkol P J, Mathers J A, Johnson R and Pickens J R (2001).
some interest in the use of aluminium in other offshore related
Friction Stir Welding of HSLA-65 for Shipbuilding. 3rd
structures, but this remains at a development stage.
International Friction Stir Welding Symposium, Kobe, Japan.
There is a wealth of information on friction stir welding of aluminium Lienert T J, Tang W, Hogeboom J A and Kvidahl L G (2003).
alloys, and it would be impossible to summarise this in a paper of this Friction Stir Welding of DH36 Steel. 4th International
type. Readers seeking more information should go to TWIs website Friction Stir Welding Symposium, Park City UT, USA.
(www.twi.co.uk), which will provide a good starting point. Okamoto K, Hirano S, Inagaki M, Park S H C, Sato Y S,
Kokawa H, Nelson T W and Sorenson C D (2003).
FUTURE CHALLENGES Metallurgical and Mechanical Properties of Friction Stir
Without doubt, the greatest challenge facing the future of the friction Welded Stainless Steels. 4th International Friction Stir
stir welding of steel and CRAs is the development of a tool material Welding Symposium, Park City UT, USA.
which meets all the required technical and commercial criteria.
Park S H C, Sato Y S, Kokawa H, Okamoto K, Hirano S and
Although progress has been rapid, there is still some way to go before
this process can be used commercially in the oil and gas industry. This Inagaki M (2003). Rapid Formation of the Sigma Phase in
area is, however, the focus of considerable attention and progress is 304 Stainless Steel during Friction Stir Welding. Scripta
expected in the short term. Mat., 49, 1175-1180.
Posada M, DeLoach J J, Reynolds A P, Fonda R W and Halpin J
The process has possibilities for welding pipelines, both circumferential P (2003). Evaluation of Friction Stir Welded HSLA-65. 4th

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 International Friction Stir Welding Symposium, Park City UT,
USA.
Sorensen C D and Nelson T W (2003). Progress in
Polycrystalline Cubic Boron Nitride Friction Stir Welding
Process. 4th International Friction Stir Welding Symposium,
Park City UT, USA.
Threadgill P L (1999). Friction stir welding the state of the
art. TWI members Report 678/1999