Engineering, 2012, 4, 69-75

http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/eng.2012.42009 Published Online February 2012 (http://www.SciRP.org/journal/eng)

Stress Concentrations for Slotted Plates in Bi-Axial Stress

D. W. A. Rees, H. Bahai, S. Taylor
School of Engineering and Design, Brunel University, London, UK
Email: [email protected]

Received July 12, 2011; revised October 2, 2011; accepted October 10, 2011

ABSTRACT
The photo-elastic method has been employed to determine stress concentration factor (SCF) for square plates containing
holes and inclined slots when the plate edges are subjected to in-plane tension combined with compression. Analyses
given of the isochromatic fringe pattern surrounding the hole provides the SCF conveniently. The model material is
calibrated from the known solution to the stress raiser arising from a small circular hole in a plate placed under biaxial
tension-compression. These results also compare well with a plane stress FE analysis. Consequently, photo-elasticity
has enabled SCFs to be determined experimentally for a biaxial stress ratio, nominally equal to 4, in plates containing
a long, thin slot arranged to be in alignment with each stress axis. The two, principal stresses lying along axes of sym-
metry in the region surrounding the notch are separated within each isochromatic fringe by the Kuske method [1]. FE
provides a comparable full-field view in which contours of maximum shear stress may be identified with the isochro-
matic fringe pattern directly. The principal stress distributions referred to the plate axes show their maximum concen-
trations at the notch boundary. Here up to a fourfold magnification occurs in the greater of the two nominal stresses
under loads applied to the plate edges. Thus, it is of importance to establish the manner in which the tangential stress is
distributed around the slot boundary. Conveniently, it is shown how this distribution is also revealed from an isochro-
matic fringe pattern, within which lie the points of maximum tension and maximum compression.

Keywords: Stress Concentration; Photoelasticity; Isochromatics; Finite Elements; Vertical and Horizontal Slots;
Bi-Axial Stress

1. Introduction bi-axially stressed plate and 2) from a numerical FE

simulation. Both methods 1) and 2) can provide the con-
It is well known that small holes and slots raise the stress tours of maximum shear stress in the surrounding mate-
in loaded plates locally by factors of 3 or 4. Clearly this rial which photoelasticity reveals within its isochromatic
becomes important to an assessment of fatigue life when, fringe pattern. The shear stresses are separated into major
in localised regions of high stress, cyclic loading acceler- and minor principal stresses along axes of symmetry and
ates the crack initiation process. The various design rules around the notch boundary in providing agreement be-
[2,3] require the SCF to be known but often estimates are tween the three methods. Thereafter, a slot is arranged to
made for unusual geometries. The problem of crack ini- lie parallel to each of the perpendicular stress axes in turn
tiation from holes and slots is important to understand for to establish the severity of its concentration experimen-
ensuring the safety of many structures bearing load. The tally from photoelasticity. The degree of stress concen-
prediction of cyclic life is possible when the stress raiser tration (SC) is revealed from locating points of maximum
is quantified with a stress intensity factor. The finite tension and compression around the notch boundary.
element technique has been used [4-6] to estimate stress Overall, the scope of this study is to provide SCFs for
concentration factors in various engineering components a slot with aspect ratio of 5 (nominally) in fixed orienta-
where fatigue cracks occur. Holes and slots are less se- tions to various in-plane biaxial stress states. Here the
vere than pre-existing cracks but are always present in present investigation quantifies SCFs for slots with ver-
designs involving fittings, sharp radii, connections and tical and horizontal dispositions in a stress field for which
attachments [7-12]. Here, in common with much of the tension is combined with compression. The information
early work on quantifying stress raisers [13-15], we shall given provides for the apparent omission of this geome-
examine the influence of slots experimentally by the try in the library of published SCF available for a multi-
photo-elastic method. Firstly, the technique adopted is tude of alternative geometries [3]. The slot orientation
verified by two alternative methods: 1) from the analyti- effect in plates loaded in biaxial tension is presently un-
cal solution to the stress concentration around a hole in a der investigation.

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70 D. W. A. REES ET AL.

2. Experimental
Holes and slots 1.0 mm wide and with a maximum length
dimension of 2a = 6.2 mm were milled into the centre of
Makralon and araldite CT 200 photoelastic sheets. Two
methods of bi-axial loading square testpieces were em-
ployed [16]: 1) by installing 75 mm squares of 2 mm
thick Makralon diagonally within a shear linkage frame
and 2) applying independent, perpendicular forces to the
120 mm sides of 1.25 mm thick, CT 200 squares using
hydraulic jacks. For the jacks, the bi-axial stress ratio Q,
within the 75 mm square, un-gripped area, was positive
and adjustable between 0 (uni-axial tension) and 8.
The shear linkage frame (reported here) was loaded in
tension along the squares vertical diagonal, thereby in-
ducing compression along its horizontal diagonal. Figure
1 shows the square testpiece with its central hole and slot
details. These were machined to the tolerances shown
from 2 mm Photostress sheet supplied by Budd Inc., USA.
The link assembly provided a central stress ratio Q =
x/y = 3.8 in which the co-ordinates x and y are aligned
with the squares horizontal and vertical diagonals. Q is Figure 1. Geometry of slotted plates.
the negative, central principal stress ratio that applies in
the absence of a notch. The compressive stress induced Isochromatic fringe patterns under a series of increas-
across the horizontal diagonal was increased by the ing loads were recorded with a Practica 35 mm SLR
stated ratio (i.e. x = Qy = 3.8 x from the contacts camera with bellows attachment for close-ups. Typical, 2
made along the four sloping sides. In the frame four s exposures, at an aperture setting of f5.6 with Kodak
equal length links were allowed to rotate upon their 12 100 ASA film, are reproduced here as line diagrams. The
mm diameter end connecting pins. A 2 mm groove ma- shear frames stress ratio Q was found from loading an
chined along the inside of each link provided the register un-notched aluminium plate with a 0/90 strain gauge
for a 75 mm square, Makralon photoelastic model con- bonded to its centre. It will be seen that a more precise
taining the notch (either a hole or a slot) at its centre. value of Q follows from the classical solution to the
Corners were chamfered for ease of assembly (see Fig- stress concentration arising from a hole in a plate under
ure 1). Fringe patterns were examined under both plane biaxial loading.
and circular polariscope arrangements using sodium va- There are two coefficients used in photoelasticity to
pour light. The plane polariscope provides a full stress convert the fringe count (N, fringes) into a stress magni-
field around the notch in the form of a combination of tude. The supplier provides a Material Fringe Stress Co-
isochromatic and isoclinic fringe patterns which reveal, efficient f, independent of the sheet thickness. The user
respectively, the principal stress magnitudes and their adopts a Model Fringe Stress Coefficient F in which
directions. In the circular polariscope, additional 1/4 thickness is accounted for. Either coefficient is found
wave plates are inserted to remove the isoclinics allow- from a calibration upon strips cut from the sheet in which
ing the isochromatic fringes to appear unobscured. Along the fringes are counted within a known stress field, usu-
an isochromatic fringe the difference between the prin- ally from a simple tension test or a beam in four-point
cipal stresses is constant, i.e. it is a line of constant loading. In the former method a unit increase in the
maximum shear stress. Because the principal stress lying fringe number corresponds to an alternating light and
normal to a notch boundary is zero, the isochromatic dark fringe pattern when the tensile stress (= load/section
fringe pattern is sufficient to find the greatest concentra- area) is uniform under a purely axial load. A bending
tion in the tangential principal stress around the hole di- calibration is less prone to experimental error but the
rectly. All that this requires is a fringe count around the stress field varies linearly between maximum tension and
hole or slot and its conversion to stress using the model compression corresponding to (say) a hogging beams
materials fringe stress coefficient. Dividing the greatest top and bottom edges. With equal, maximum stress mag-
stress found from this by the nominal applied stress de- nitudes the fringes are counted at one edge where the
fines the stress concentration for the particular notch geo- stress is calculated from theory. Normally, the gradient
metry. of a plot between calculated stress (in MPa) and the

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 D. W. A. REES ET AL. 71

fringes count N (= 1, 2, 3 etc.) provides F directly, from cipal stress difference becomes:
which f = Ft. Here a tension test conducted upon a paral-
p q r (2a)
lel strip of test material between the polariser and ana-
lyser revealed a Material Fringe Stress Coefficient f = Using Kuskes method [1], let r increase by an
13.9 N/mm/fringe [16]. For a 2 mm thick plate, this gives amount r across a radial increment r and apply the
a Model Fringe Stress Coefficient F = f/t = 6.95 MPa/ radial equilibrium equation [17] to positions n = 0, 1, 2,
fringe. Hence F allows a direct conversion of an isochro- This gives the gradient in r as
matic fringe count at any point in the model to stress. As
the latter corresponds, generally, to the difference be- r r n p q n rn r n rn (2b)
tween principal stresses p and q at a point, the photoelas-
tic technique requires further analyses to separate p from The incremental change (r)n in r between adjacent
q. Conveniently, no such separation is necessary for pairs of points n 1 and n is estimated from the average
fringe counts at points upon boundary points where one of the their two gradients times their radial separation:
principal stress is known to be zero.
r n r 2 r r n 1 r r n (3)
3. Analyses By placing n 1 = 0 at a notch boundary, where r = 0,
3.1. Photoelasticity the radial stress at body positions n = 1, 2, follows
from successive summations:
For a model of thickness t, photo-elasticity theory [13-15]
gives the magnitude of the difference between the prin- r n r n 1 r n (4a)
cipal stresses p and q
where (r)n is given in Equation (3). The hoop stress
p q Nf t NF (1) follows from Equations (2a) and (4a) as
where it is seen that the model stress coefficient F = f/t
(MPa/fringe) provides a direct conversion from a nu-
n p q n r n (4b)
merical fringe order value N to the magnitude of the prin-
cipal stress difference. The special principal stress sym- 3.2. Finite Elements
bols p and q that appear universally in photoelastic ana- The FE analysis of slotted plates was conducted using the
lyses identify here with the hoop and radial stress around Abaqus code [18]. Plane stress, iso-parametric elements
a slot boundary and along axes of symmetry. (8-noded, quadratic type) were used to discretise the
plate testpiece. The boundary conditions included a fix-
3.1.1. Hole and Slot Boundary ing of the left-hand side and bottom corners of the test-
Counting the fringe order N around a notch boundary piece. In order to model the biaxial loading used in the
allows the major principal (tangential) stress p and the experiment a compressive and a tensile load were applied
maximum stress concentration S to be found directly to the testpieces corners in a similar ratio to those ap-
from F. This is because the minor principal (radial) stress plied in the test rig. The Tresca equivalent stresses ob-
q is zero normal to the boundary. Equation (1) simplifies tained from the FE analysis compare directly with the
to give the boundarys circumferential (or hoop) stress p isochromatic fringe pattern from a photoelastic model as
= NF where N is counted around the notch boundary each provide the magnitude in the difference between the
starting from the zero-order fringe location. In the Fig- major and minor principal stresses. The sodium vapour
ures 1, 3 and 5 that follow the N = 0 location is shown to light source sharpens the isochromatic fringe compared
mark those boundary points at which there is an inter- to the spread found from a white light source. The image
change between hoop tension and compression. emerges as a pattern of lines along which the stress dif-
ference is constant from point to point in the model.
3.1.2. Axes of Symmetry
To find the stress distribution along the x, y axes of
symmetry in the body of the plate, beyond the notch (a
4. Results
hole or slot), equi-spaced points n are taken along each Recently, a number of solutions have appeared to the
axis. The fringe number N is then counted at radii rn from SCFs in plates [19,20] thick cylinders [21], shells [22],
the centre of the notch, separated by r. These symmetry valves [23], key-ways [24] rivets [25]. Since there re-
axes coincide with principal stress directions where the main no solutions available for the stress distributions in
shear stress component is absent. For the calculation of p plates containing straight-sided, inclined slots, here we
and q it is convenient to convert to polar co-ordinates (r, present time-honoured photoelastic analyses of their stress
) at each point n upon the x- and y-axes so that the prin- concentration factors. In contrast, we begin with the clas-

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72 D. W. A. REES ET AL.

sical solution to the stress raising effect of a circular hole

in a thin plate and compare this with alternative solutions
from photoelasticity and finite elements. The good agree-
ment found between the three approaches serves to sup-
port the experimental method adopted for each slot ana-
lysis and the accuracy of the stress concentration factors
it provides.

4.1. Central Hole

4.1.1. Stress Ratio at Hole Boundary
The shear frames linkages apply a vertical tensile force
in combination with horizontal compressive force to the
diagonals of a square plate. Here it needs to be recog-
nised that these remote forces produce compressive and
tensile stresses at the respective vertical and horizontal
positions upon the boundary of a hole located at the cen-
tre of the plate. This means that a hole elongates in the
direction of tension putting its North and South points
under compression and its East and West under tension. (a)
Figure 2(a) shows an isochromatic fringe pattern when a
vertical tensile force (the y-direction) is applied to the
frame. Here, the fringe count shows a nominal ratio be-
tween maximum compression ( = 90) and maximum
tension ( = 0) of 90/0 = 2. This hoop stress ratio ap-
plies to each angular position within the holes boundary.
An average stress ratio of 90/0 = 1.83 was found from
fringe patterns under numerous loads when fractional
order fringes were accounted for. Elasticity theory [26]
relates this ratio to the remote biaxial stress ratio Q =
x/y imposed by the frame:
90 0 3Q 1 3 Q (5)

when 90/0 = 1.83, Equation (5) shows Q = 3.84. To

check Q, an un-notched 2 mm thick aluminium alloy
plate replaced the testpiece having 0/90 strain gauges
(b)
bonded at its centre in alignment with the plates x,
y-diagonals. When a state of plane stress is assumed the Figure 2. (a) Isochromatic fringe pattern around a hole; (b)
stress ratio Q at the plate centre becomes [17]: Boundary hoop stress variation within a hole.

Q x y 1 v y x y x v (6)
1 S 2 S cos 2 2QS cos 2 (7)
Under an increasing vertical load, the 0/90 strains where S = y is the applied tensile stress. The latter is
responded linearly in a constant ratio y/x = 0.561, in found from dividing the applied load by the area of the
which y is positive and x is negative. Substituting into plate section through its horizontal diagonal. The ap-
Equation (6) with v = 1/3 gives Q = 3.53, which is in plied, horizontal compressive stress follows as QS = x.
acceptable agreement with Q found from Equation (5).
4.1.3. Principal Stress Distributions
4.1.2. Hoop Stress Variation within Hole Boundary Separating p from q by the method outlined above in
The hoop stress variation measured around the hole is para (3.1), provides the principal stresses along the x, y
shown in Figure 2(b). It is established quite simply from axes of symmetry (Figures 3(a) and (b) apply with a
applying = NF to the fringe count around the hole. The common legend). The experimental distributions shown
variation found is seen to agree fairly well with the theo- here agree well with FE predictions and the stress func-
retical stress-function prediction [26]: tion solution to this problem [17]:

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 D. W. A. REES ET AL. 73

r S 2 1 a 2 r 2 pression with SCF = 14/3.84 = 3.65.

Given its validation from within (a), (b) and (c) above,

S 2 1 3a 4 r 4 4a 2 r 2 cos 2 we may now use photoelasticity to determine stress dis-
(8a) tributions where a theoretical solution is unavailable. In

Q S 2 1 a 2 r 2 particular, slots 6.2 mm long 1 mm wide, in alignment

S 2 1 3a 4 r 4 4a 2 r 2 cos 2
with the y- and x-directions, will replace the hole at the
testpiece centre. Correspondingly, the following vertical
and horizontal slot analyses apply.
S 2 1 a 2 r 2 S 2 1 3a 4 r 4 cos 2

Q S 2 1 a 2 r 2 (8b) 4.2. Vertical Slot
Figure 4(a) shows the isochromatic pattern around a

S 2 1 3a 4 r 4 cos 2
vertical slot subjected to a similar remote biaxial stress
ratio Q = 3.84 from loading in the shear frame. The
max r 2 (8c) boundary hoop stress variation = NF, as derived from
the fringe count N, is shown in Figure 4(b). This reveals
where a is the hole radius. The stress ordinates in Fig-
a ratio of 90/0 = 5 between the maximum compressive
ures 3(a) and (b) are normalised with the remote stress S
and tensile stresses. Separating the principal stresses be-
to show that two maximum stress concentration factors
yond the slot, along the more highly stressed y-axis, leads
(SCF) arise at x and y on the boundary under an applied
to the distribution shown in Figure 5. Each stress com-
stress ratio Q = 3.84. The greater of these occurs in com-
ponent: radial, hoop and maximum shear, has a distribu-
tion similar to the y-distributions for a circular hole in
Figure 2(b). Away from the slot ends, stress components
fall off rapidly to attain the ratio that prevails in the ab-
sence of the notch. The slot magnifies these by a nor-
malised stress concentration factor and here it is seen
that, along its y-axis, the slot is more severe than the hole.
That is, the greater applied compressive stress is magni-
fied by a factor of SCF = 15.62/3.84 = 4.07 compared to
3.65 for the hole.

4.3. Horizontal Slot

Figures 6(a) and (b) shows the isochromatic fringe pattern
around a horizontal slot subjected to Q = 3.84 within the
shear frame. A load identical to that applied to the verti-
(a) cal slot was used. The fringe count N reveals the bound-
ary hoop stress variation = NF, as shown in Figure
6(b). Maximum hoop tension = 6F occurs along the
x-axis. A maximum compression of equal magnitude
occurs along the straight sides close to the point where
the end radius begins. Elsewhere, compression along the
straight edge is of a lesser magnitude = 5F, giving a
tension/compression axis stress ratio of 1.2. Separating
the principal stresses beyond the slot ends along the
x-axis, leads to the distribution shown in Figure 7. Each
of the three stress components shows a normalised dis-
tribution, similar to the stress distribution for the x-axis
of a hole (see Figure 3(a)). Moreover, the stress concen-
trations at the x-axis boundary of a hole and at the end of
a horizontal slot are comparable. Their SCs are, respec-
tively: 7.65/3.84 = 2 and 9.37/3.84 = 2.44. However, a
(b) comparison between Figures 5 and 7 shows that a slot
Figure 3. (a) S-Normalised stress distributions for holes with a vertical orientation, giving SC = 4.07, is far more
x-axis; (b) S-Normalised stress distribution for holes y-axis. severe in concentrating hoop stress within its boundary.

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74 D. W. A. REES ET AL.

Figure 5. S-Normalised stress distributions for vertical

slots y-axis.

(a)

(a)

(b)

Figure 6. (a) Isochromatic fringe pattern around a horizon-

tal slot; (b) Boundary hoop stress variation within a hori-
zontal slot.

(b)

Figure 4. (a) Isochromatic fringe pattern around a vertical

slot; (b) Boundary hoop stress variation within a vertical Figure 7. S-Normalised stress distributions for horizontal
slot. slots x-axis.

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 D. W. A. REES ET AL. 75

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