(Reinhold Kohler - Optimization of Leadership

Optimization of Leadership Style
Reinhold Kohler
Optimization of
Leadership Style
New Approaches to Effective
Multicultural Leadership
in International Teams
Reinhold Kohler
Ingolstadt, Germany
Dissertation Comenius University Bratislava, Slovakia, 2014
ISBN 978-3-658-11425-1 ISBN 978-3-658-11426-8 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-11426-8
Library of Congress Control Number: 2015951463
Springer Gabler
Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden 2016
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1B Abstract
The aim of this book is to derive a leadership model as well as a sketch for a
development program focusing on managers and employees involved in multicultural
(finance) teams of organizations. Therefore, the first step was executing a literature
analysis of a recent and important topic-related discussion. The result showed that
against the background of optimizing leadership in a multicultural framework, the
scientific debate has not reached the degree of proficiency desired recently for this
academic work and as a result for the target organizations. This analysis of cultural
examinations and multicultural leadership leads to the conclusion that there are
dimensional cultural-related discrepancies between the countries to be examined
which inter alia may lead to reduced productivity if this is not taken into account by
the teams working together. In addition, there neither exist further signs regarding
correlation of cultural and functional diversities in general nor in particular for
multicultural framework in Germany, Spain and France so far.
In the next section, roles, skills and abilities (ROSKAB), personnel development,
mentoring and coaching, sensitivity for mental stress within a multicultural context,
creation of a trustful culture and empowerment of employees, cultural intelligence,
sustainable motivation, change management within a multicultural framework,
multicultural team building and development, time management for time to lead,
multicultural communication as well as emotional intelligence derived from the
literature analysis and the empirical examination will be demonstrated shortly. The
empirical examination is based on a questionnaire for finance managers and finance
employees working in multicultural (German, Spanish and French) teams (n = 214)
where questions are set up correlated and the results of which can be found in the
ROSKAB leadership model and the leadership development program.
Contents
1BAbstract ..................................................................................................................... V
List of Figures .......................................................................................................... IX
List of Tables ........................................................................................................... XI
4BList of Abbreviations .............................................................................................. XV
0. Introduction.......................................................................................................... 1
1. Leadership in Multicultural Organizations ......................................................... 7

1.1 Distinction of Global Organizations and Global Influences on Organizations . 7
1.2 Effective Leadership in Multicultural Organizations ........................................ 9
1.3 Definition of Culture in a Society and the Idea of Cultural Dimensions ..........11
2. Latest State of the Scientific Discussion .........................................................23

2.1 Scholarly Literature Analysis..........................................................................23
2.2 Current Training Courses for Multicultural Managers ....................................45
3. Selected Significant Leadership Roles, Skills and Abilities ...........................51

3.1 Globalization and Leadership New Challenges for Managers ....................51
3.2 Selected Significant Skills for Managers Acting in a Multicultural Context .....55
3.2.1 31BMental Stress in a Multicultural Framework .........................................55
3.2.2 32BBuilding a Trustful Culture and Empowering Employees .....................59
3.3 Selected Significant Roles for Managers Acting in a Multicultural Context ....62
3.3.1 3BManager as Mentor and Coach ...........................................................62
3.3.2 34BManager as Development Officer ........................................................65
3.4 Selected Significant Abilities for Managers Acting in a Multicultural Context .67
3.4.1 35BSuccessful Team Building with a View to Multicultural Challenges .....67
3.4.2 36BSustainable Motivation of Employees ..................................................69
3.4.3 37BChange Management within an International Framework....................71
3.4.4 38BTime Management for Successful Leadership.....................................73
3.4.5 39BReceiver-Based Communication within the Multicultural Context ........74
3.4.6 40BEmotional Intelligence..........................................................................75
3.4.7 41BCultural Intelligence .............................................................................78
VIII Contents
4. Empirical Research: Analysis of Multicultural Leadership Approaches .......81

4.1 Object of the Analysis ....................................................................................81
4.2 Objectives and Hypotheses ...........................................................................81
4.3 Methodic and Methods ..................................................................................82
4.4 Presentation of the Respondents...................................................................87
4.5 Results of the Research and Review of the Hypotheses ...............................89
4.5.1 42BEvaluation of the Empirical Results .....................................................90
4.5.2 43BReview of the Hypotheses .................................................................110
4.6 Deduction of a Leadership Model for Finance Managers ............................111
4.7 Scheme for a Development Program for Finance Managers .......................113
4.8 Recommendations .......................................................................................114
5. Summary ...........................................................................................................117
1BLiterature ................................................................................................................119
12BAppendix ................................................................................................................137
Alphabetical Index .................................................................................................173

List of Figures
Figure 1: Organizational decision about national aligned .......................................... 1
Figure 2: ROSKAB-Leadership-Overview .................................................................. 3
Figure 3: Overview of selected organization types .................................................... 7
Figure 4: Cultural dimensions (Hofstede)................................................................. 14
Figure 5: Chart of the normed cultural dimensions (Hofstede) for GE, SP and
FR ............................................................................................................. 17
Figure 6: Cultural dimension (Trompenaars) ........................................................... 18
Figure 7: Cultural dimensions (GLOBE)................................................................... 37
Figure 8: Foundations of transnational leadership ................................................... 52
Figure 9: Absence days (AU) and absence cases per 100 insurance years
based on mental stress diagnoses ........................................................... 56
Figure 10: Trend of absence days (AU) volume based on mental stress
compared to the sum of absence days volume. Index baseline
1997=100.................................................................................................. 57
Figure 11: How would you rate the level of trust you have in your manager? ............ 61
Figure 12: HR trend report ......................................................................................... 66
Figure 13: Three pillars of cultural intelligence........................................................... 79
Figure 14: Process of the empircal research study .................................................... 83
Figure 15: Mean and standard deviation of Personnel Development (PD) ................ 95
Figure 16: Mean and standard deviation of Mentoring & Coaching (M&C) ................ 96
Figure 17: Mean and standard deviation of Team/Team Building (TB) ...................... 96
Figure 18: Mean and standard deviation of Emotional Intelligence (EQ) ................... 97
Figure 19: Mean and standard deviation of Cultural Intelligence (CQ) ...................... 97
Figure 20: Mean and standard deviation of Trust & Empowerment (T&E) ................. 98
Figure 21: Mean and standard deviation of Communication & Time
Management (Com&TM) .......................................................................... 99
Figure 22: Mean and standard deviation of Change Management (CM) ................... 99
Figure 23: Mean and standard deviation of Mental Stress (MS) .............................. 100
Figure 24: Schematic overview of the top-down and bottom-up questionaire
return quote ............................................................................................ 102
Figure 25: ROSKAB Leadership Model ................................................................... 112
List of Tables
Table 1: Cluster of the four secondary objectives of the research project ................. 4
Table 2: Comparison of normed cultural dimensions - Hofstede (GE, SP, FR) ....... 17
Table 3: Cultural dimensions 1-5 of 7 (Trompenaars/Hampden-Turner) ................. 20
Table 4: Overview of significant scientific literature sources as baseline for the
analysis ..................................................................................................... 25
Table 5: GLOBE dimensions for GE, SP and FR relating to "as is" ......................... 38
Table 6: GLOBE dimensions for GE, SP and FR relating to "should be" ................. 39
Table 7: Derived needs in the framework of leadership ........................................... 43
Table 8: Functional differences described in cultural dimensions ............................ 44
Table 9: Structure of intercultural competence (Bolten) ........................................... 46
Table 10: Typification of intercultural training courses ............................................... 47
Table 11: Overview and brief description of leadership roles, skills and abilities ....... 54
Table 12: Motivation approach cluster ....................................................................... 70
Table 13: Lewins three-phase model ........................................................................ 72
Table 14: Four hypotheses of this research project ................................................... 82
Table 15: Presentation of different research strategies ............................................. 83
Table 16: Questionnaire criteria within this thesis...................................................... 84
Table 17: General questionnaire catalog ................................................................... 85
Table 18: Corresponding questionnaire catalog ........................................................ 87
Table 19: Respondents Phase 1 - Explorative Interviews ......................................... 88
Table 20: Respondents Phase 2 - Expert Interviews ................................................. 88
Table 21: Respondents Phase 3 - Pre-Test .............................................................. 89
Table 22: Respondents Phase 4 - Empirical Study (first overview) ........................... 89
Table 23: Data coding for statistical analysis ............................................................. 90
Table 24: Distribution of socio-demographic items to item position ........................... 92
Table 25: Correlation between socio-demographical items and the 22 Questions .... 93
Table 26: Descriptive Statistic for the 22 ROSKAB Questions .................................. 94
Table 27: Abilities absolute mean differences for variable position......................... 101
Table 28: Sum of abilities mean absolute differences for the variable position ....... 102
Table 29: Absolute amount of rated combinations................................................... 103
Table 30: ROSKAB number reference overview ..................................................... 103
Table 31: Mean of absolute differences between attribute PD ................................ 104
Table 32: Mean of absolute differences between attribute M&C ............................. 104
XII List of Tables
Table 33: Mean of absolute differences between attribute TB ................................. 105

Table 34: Mean of absolute differences between attribute EQ ................................ 106
Table 35: Mean of absolute differences between attribute CQ ................................ 106
Table 36: Mean of absolute differences between attribute T&E .............................. 107
Table 37: Mean of absolute differences between attribute Com .............................. 107
Table 38: Mean of absolute differences between attribute TM ................................ 108
Table 39: Mean of absolute differences between attribute CM ................................ 109
Table 40: Mean of absolute differences between attribute MS ................................ 109
Table 41: Sum of statements absolute mean differences for the variable
CultPos .................................................................................................... 110
Table 42: Deficiency assessment and development recommendations for
leadership ROSKAB ................................................................................ 114
Table 43: Power distance index (Hofstede) ............................................................. 141
Table 44: Individualism index (Hofstede) ................................................................ 142
Table 45: Masculinity index (Hofstede) ................................................................... 143
Table 46: Uncertainty avoidance index (Hofstede) .................................................. 144
Table 47: Long-term orientation (Hofstede) ............................................................. 145
Table 48: Studies about the direct influence to the precepted leadership to the
ideal leadership within the cultural context ............................................. 146
Table 49: Studies about the direct influence of ideal leadership to the leadership
success within the cultural context.......................................................... 148
Table 50: Studies about the direct influence of culture to the precepted
leadership ............................................................................................... 149
Table 51: Overview of typology of management studies in the cultural frame ......... 150
Table 52: Involved countries in the GLOBE Study .................................................. 151
Table 53: GLOBE Study. Societal clusters .............................................................. 152
Table 54: Leadership prototype scales. First order factors and leader attribute
items ....................................................................................................... 152
Table 55: Global Culturally Endorsed Implicit Leadership [CLT] Dimensions .......... 153
Table 56: Universal positive leader abilities ............................................................ 154
Table 57: Universal negative leader abilities ........................................................... 155
Table 58: Ranking of societal clusters using absolute CLT scores ......................... 155
Table 59: Measures to improve the work situation (behavioral prevention) ............. 157
Table 60: Individual measures (behavioral prevention) ........................................... 158
Table 61: Descriptive statistic for socio-demographic items .................................... 159
List of Tables XIII
Table 62: ANOVA descriptives with dependent variable "Reviewed Nationality" .... 159
Table 63: ANOVA results for independent variable position .................................... 161
Table 64: Descriptives of "CultPos" as dependent variable ..................................... 163
Table 65: ANOVA Results for independent variable CultPos .................................. 169
Table 66: Operational ROSKAB deficiency assessment ......................................... 171
List of Abbreviations
4B
A Africa
A A-Rating VHB JOURQUAL 2.1
ANOVA Analysis of variances
AU Arbeitsunfaehigkeit (inability to work, e. g. concerning illness)
AUS Australia
B B-Rating VHB JOURQUAL 2.1
C C-Rating VHB JOURQUAL 2.1
CA Cluster analysis
CEILT Culturally Endorsed Implicit Leadership Theory
CLT Culturally Endorsed Leadership Theory
CEO Chief Executive Officer
CL Charismatic leadership
CM Change Management
COACH Coming together, Orientation, Analysis, Change, Harbor
Com Communication
CQ Cultural Intelligence
CultPos Cultural Position
CVS Chinese Value Survey
DAK Deutsche Angestellten Krankenkasse (German employee health
insurance)
DE Germany
df Degree of freedom
DIN Deutsches Institut fr Normung (German institute for standardization)
DS Descriptive statistics
E Europe
Ed. Editor
EN European standard
EQ Emotional Intelligence
et al. et alli (maskulinum), et aliae (femininum) or et alia (neutrum)
e. g. for example
etc. et cetera
F Female
F F-ratio
FA Faktoranalyse (factor analysis)
FR France
FREmp French Employee
XVI List of Abbreviations
FRMgr French Manager

GE Germany
GEEmp German Employee
GEMgr German Manager
GLOBE Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior and Effectiveness
Research Project
H1-H4 Hypothesis
HR Human Resources
I/C Individualism/Collectivism
i. e. id est
IL Israel
ILT Implicit Leadership Theory
IMD International Institute for Management Development
IPT Implicit Personality Theory
ISBN International Standard Book Number
ISSN International Standard Serial Number
ISO International Organization for Standardization
k. A. Keine Angabe (no information available)
KorrA Korrelationsanalyse (correlation analysis)
KWT Kuwait
L Latin
LS Questionnaire type: Laengsschnittstudie (longitudinal-section study)
LTO Long-Term Orientation
M Male
M Mean
|M| Absolute Mean
|MD| Absolute Mean Differences
M&C Mentoring & Coaching
M|MD| Mean of absolute Mean Differences
Max Maximum
MD Mean Difference
Mgr Manager
Min Minimum
MS Mean Square
MS Mental Stress
M/F Masculinity/Feminity
MWV Mittelwertvergleich (arithmetic average comparison)
List of Abbreviations XVII
N Number of organizations/companies
N Total Number of Participants
n Number of respondents, job position and branch
n Level n: Finance manager
n Number of Participants per Group
n-1 Level n-1: Finance employees
n/a not applicable
NL Netherlands
NZ New Zealand
p. Page
PD Power Distance
PD Personnel Development
PL Poland
pp. Pages
Q Qatar
Q Question
QNr Question Number
QS Questionnaire type: Querschnittstudie (cross-sectional study)
r Correlation Coefficient
R&D Research and Development
RI Indonesia
ROSKAB Roles, Skills and Abilities
RT Rating (Journal)
S Sweden
SD Standard Deviation
Sig. Significance
SP Spain
SPEmp Spanish Employee
SPMgr Spanisch Manager
SPSS Statistical Package for Social Science
SS Sum of Squares
TB Team & Team Building
T&E Trust & Empowerment
TM Time Management
TR Turkey
USA United States of America
UA Uncertainty Avoidance
XVIII List of Abbreviations
UK United Kingdom
VA Variance analysis
VHB Verband der Hochschullehrer fr Betriebswirtschaft
(Association of the university lecturer for business administration)
VIE Valence-Instrumentality-Expectancy Theory
VJ Versicherungsjahr (insurance year)
w. r. t. with regard to
|MD| Sum of Absolute Mean Differences
0. Introduction
With the economic development rapidly progressing for years and the recent trend
to market saturation (e. g. in the automobile, aerospace or defence industry) in the
corresponding national environment resulting in shrinking regional markets in the
future and with analyses to be executed, organizations with a strong focus on
national markets are forced to make important corporate-policy decisions. Against
this background of preparation of decision-making, there are two options on a
unidimensional axis, thoroughly simplified and ideally formulated, to encounter this
fact (Figure 1).
Liquidation national oriented Alignment of dedicated organizational areas

deficit organizational areas to global/international markets
Negative personnel adjustments Positive personnel adjustments
1
Figure 1: Organizational decision about national aligned
The organization either restructures loss-making sectors indeed or anticipated and

adjusts personnel (reorganization, reducing personnel etc.) on one hand (see Figure
1: left hand side) or on the other hand it follows the challenge of globalization or
internationalization (building up resources, defining processes) respectively.
As economic subjects in an abstracted sense tend to maximize profits with
constructivist-technomorphic organizations2 or to maximize viability with systemic-
evolutionary3 socio-technical systems4 respectively, internationalization or in other
words globalization and is being considered further (see Figure 1: right hand side).
Problems
This expansion necessarily leads to considering and discussing new methods and
instruments of economic systems and, as a result, increasing capital flow and trade
in an international environment. These facts of business relationships "unter den
Lndern haben die Welt zu einem gemeinsamen Markt gemacht, in dem die
Geschfte unabhngig von nationalen Grenzen gettigt werden".5
1
Source: Compiled illustration by the author of this research project (2012): Organizational decision
about national aligned organizations on an unidimensional axis - liquidation or alignment of
organizational areas
2
Cf. Koch, G. (2005): Wertorientierte Steuerung von Versicherungsunternehmen im Lichte des
normativen Managements. [Internet]. p. 7
3
Cf. Malik, F. (2002): Strategie des Managements komplexer Systeme. p. 38-39
4
Cf. Malik, F. (1996): Strategie des Managements komplexer Systeme. p. 49
5
Barsauskas, P./Schafir, S. (2003): Internationales Management. p. 19
2 0. Introduction
After examining the abilities and competences respectively key competences of

the own organization against the background of the market situation given, such
increasing internationalization can lead from acceptance of joint ventures with other
market participants over founding own organizations abroad to due diligence
activities with a view to competence expansion in the international environment.
Besides this presentation of the development process from rather nationally
oriented to international organizations, there are also numerous successful
organizations which are internationally well built with a view to knowledge,
experience and attitude. Both kinds (say "internationally inexperienced" and
"internationally experienced") are further seen as organizations with cross-cultural, so
to say multicultural challenges with the filter of a profit-based organization (large
companies and corporations). With a takeover, there may be, for example, an often
revolutionary organizational change with the aim to apply the organizations
philosophy from the overtaking to the overtaken organization and, as a result, mostly
parts of the management with a view to the institutional perspective, i. e. managers,
are being substituted in the new organization. With experienced international
organizations, managers may also undertake new tasks in an international
environment in the framework of planned personnel development measures. This
mostly results in constellations where new supervisors work together with employees
abroad which have, from the supervisors perspective, a deviating nationality. Due to
multicultural facts, these circumstances lead to challenges in leadership with a view
on the, in summary, complex situation.6 Due to organization, there are clearly
definable manager profiles7 with normally corresponding allocated educational
background in an organization. In the framework of this book, leadership in general is
being analyzed and the special features of the group of finance managers are
examined as well, as also a non-quantifiable amount of finance managers with their
functional allocated dimensions (see Table 8) has the possibility to execute
successful leadership with a view to their employees. Those difficulties can be
recognizable in the framework of a relationship between supervisor and employees
having the same nationality.8 The more multicultural "leadership work" shall be
executed, the more complexity increases. Therefore, there is large potential in the
sense of productivity in the employees which can and shall be expanded by
assigning them different leading positions, properties and skills.
6
Cf. Stacey, R. (2010): Complexity and Organizational Reality. p. 81-82
7
Cf. Trompenaars, F./Hampden-Turner, C. (2009): Riding the Waves of Culture. p. 236
8
Cf. Schmitz, W. (2011): Management: Deutsche Arbeitnehmer sind unzufrieden mit ihren Chefs. p.
19
0. Introduction 3
Creation of a trustful
Sensitivity for mental culture and
Personnel Mentoring stress within a empowerment of
Development Coaching multicultural context employees
Managers Managers
Roles Skills
ROSKAB-Leadership-Overview
Critical enablers for an effective leadership in
multicultural organizations
Cultural Intelligence Managers Emotional Intelligence

CQ Abilities EQ
Sustainable Multicultural
Motivation Communication
Change
Management within Time Management
the multicultural for time to lead
framework
Multicultural
teambuilding and
development
9
Figure 2: ROSKAB-Leadership-Overview
In the framework of introduction, this approach separates the problems, objectives

and scientific fields. The second chapter focuses on the theoretical-scientific
discussion concerning multicultural leadership as well as the presentation of recently
effective preparations and training courses for multicultural managers. In the third
chapter, leadership is also presented against the background of global perspectives,
i. e. particularly whether the globalization means new challenges for leaders with a
view to leadership. Furthermore, selected roles, skills and abilities (ROSKAB
leadership overview, see Figure 2) for leaders acting in a multicultural context are
presented. The sector of empirical examination with a view to the analysis of effective
leadership in multicultural organizations (large companies and corporations) starts
with the object of examination. Then, the definition of objectives and the formulation
of four hypotheses for an optimized leadership of organizations with a view to the
9
Source: Compiled illustration by the author of this research project (2014): ROSKAB-Leadership-
Overview; Roles, Skills and Abilities as critical enabler for an effective leadership in multicultural
organizations.
4 0. Introduction
multicultural framework follow. Afterwards, there is the presentation of methods and

respondents as well as the actual execution of the study and verification or
falsification of the mentioned hypotheses. The evaluation of the outcome results in
the development of a leadership model for finance managers within Germany, Spain
and France on one hand as well as the outlining of a development program for
finance managers acting in a global context and their employees. The conclusion of
chapter four formulates recommendations. The fifth chapter shows a brief and
executive summary.
Objectives
The main objective of this book is working out recommendations for leadership in
the form of a ROSKAB leadership model and outlining a development program for
finance managers in order to increase their effectiveness of employees in a
multicultural framework.10 Against the backdrop of the presented main objective, the
four secondary objectives derived from are shown in Table 1.
1. Secondary objective 2. Secondary objective
Revision and presentation of recent Derivation of promising leadership
status of scientific discussion with a properties, roles, skills and abilities
view to multicultural leadership. (ROSKAB).
3. Secondary objective 4. Secondary objective
Working out a leadership model Outlining a development program for
(ROSKAB leadership model) in order to finance managers with a view to training
improve leading roles, skills and abilities of roles, skills and abilities for effective
for Managers acting in a multicultural leadership in a multicultural environment.
context.
11
Table 1: Cluster of the four secondary objectives of the research project
Contribution
In the contribution, it can be seen, that (1) the theoretical scientific discussion with
a view to optimizing leadership in a multicultural framework has not reached the level
of coping with and grasping complexity yet as it is necessary in organizations in the
real economy of today. (2) Furthermore, currently discussed and important needs for
an effective leadership regarding roles, skills and abilities will be carved out. Within
10
Special view on Germany, Spain and France
11
Source: Compiled illustration by the author of this research project (2011) - Cluster of the four
secondary objectives of the research project
0. Introduction 5
the empirical part, (3) the contribution shows that multicultural deficiency assessment
and development recommendations (ROSKAB leadership model) for enhancing
productivity through effective leadership with a special view to German, Spanish and
French Finance teams will be deviated.
1. Leadership in Multicultural Organizations
This chapter is separated in the three sectors Distinction of Global Organizations
and Global Influences on Organizations, Effective Leadership in Multicultural
Organizations and Leadership in the Framework of Multicultural Organizations as
well as Definition of Culture in a Society and the Idea of Cultural Dimensions.
1.1 Distinction of Global Organizations and Global Influences on

Organizations
Distinction of Global Organizations

Up to the 18th century, goods were mainly manufactured by hand in great parts of
Europe. Due to market expansion (supply and demand) and technological progress
as well as some other side factors, industrialization started in England in 1750
approximately and spread over Europe by opening new logistical transport routes
(rail network) among others.12
Organizations
(Overall)
Profit Non-Profit
Organizations Organizations
Medium Small
Big Companies
Companies Companies
Employees: > 250
Employees:50 250 Employees: < 50
13
Figure 3: Overview of selected organization types
The composite term "profit-based" has its etymological origin in Anglo-American

areas and subsumes profit orientation or maximization respectively or, in a cybernetic
view, the viability of an organization. Therefore, those top-level organization types
differ from non-profit organizations (compare Figure 3) such as state institutions,
charitable organizations or associations etc. Furthermore, larger profit-based
12
Cf. Staehle, W. (1999): Management. p. 4-5
13
Source: Compiled illustration by the author of this research project (2011) - Overview of selected
organization types referring to the number of employees. Recommendation of the EU commission
(2003). p. 36-41
R. Kohler, Optimization of Leadership Style, DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-11426-8_1,

8 1 Leadership in Multicultural Organizations
organizations are confronted with stronger organizational changes and, as a result,

with faster adjustments and speed (acceleration)14 together with corresponding
leadership specificities against the background of viability. In principle, there is a
comparability and, therefore, a legality of such organization types (profit or non-profit
as well as size of organization) against the backdrop of establishment and process
organization as well as in leadership culture.15 Empirical gained results and legalities
derived from can then be transferred. With the view to this organization type (large
company/corporations), there are numerous literature and scientific discussions such
as change management within an industrial environment and global market
situations.16
Nevertheless, there is no focusing on special improvement of leadership of finance
managers of organizations. In the framework of and further in this thesis, the focus is
on large companies and groups positioned globally with the view to the finance
population (managers and employees).
Influence of Globalization on Organizations
Globalization mainly means the increasing economical growing together of nations
and cultures, the networking of markets as well as the mobility of macroeconomic
production factors labor and capital spreading over national borders. 17 Due to those
increasing international businesses and interactions, profit-based organizations are
confronted with global influences, i. e. state borders lose importance on the global
market. Besides the basic internal and external influences, there is also the fact that
the need for communication increases and cultural differences have to be coped
with. Due to the stakeholder concept, complexity increases as well. Furthermore,
different expectations have to be serviced. All those factors lead to a permanent
struggle for survival.18 The influences on organizations can be separated into
external and internal relations. External influences mean exogenous factors such as
customers, suppliers and authorities acting on organizations from outside. The
internal determinants subsume all factors within an organization which exceed the
purely national norms and processes. Due to these changes, communication must be
increased in order keep the information flow and to minimize misunderstandings from
the beginning. In addition, "managing" cultural differences is an important part of this
book. Due to the high number of stakeholders which influence the companies
permanently and partly mutually and, therefore, different expectations must be
14
Cf. Wendland, J. (2013): Die Folgen der Beschleunigung. p. 6
15
Cf. Mell, H. (2012): Karriereberatung. p. 22
16
Cf. Newlands, D./Hooper, M. (2009): The Global Business Handbook. p. 542
17
Cf. Donges, J. (1998): Was heisst Globalisierung? p. 1
18
Cf. Oestreicher, K. (2010): Strategische Kommunikation und Stakeholdermanagement. p. 16
1.2 Effective Leadership in Multicultural Organizations 9
served, complexity increases. Mastering this complexity is decisive for the causally
permanent and former described struggle for survival on the global market. It was
stated above that countries grow together further and further with the view to
globalization. It is assumed that borders significantly exist in the brains of managers
and employees19, i. e. in this context, organizations are more successful if managers
improve and further develop their global mindset.20 The discussion regarding
globalization and leadership, new challenges for managers is continued in chapter
3.1.
1.2 Effective Leadership in Multicultural Organizations

The term "leadership" has its origin etymologically in the Anglo-American area and
means management which, however, is not clearly defined. Below some definitions
of different centuries are represented and a synthesis for the further process is built.
One approach is that management means "andere durch eigenes, sozial
akzeptiertes Verhalten so zu beeinflussen, dass dies bei den Beeinflussten mittelbar
oder unmittelbar ein intendiertes Verhalten bewirkt."21 Management in the frame work
of economic organizations is mostly defined as "die zielorientierte Einflussnahme zur
Erfllung von Aufgaben in mehr oder weniger strukturierten Arbeitssituationen".22
Furthermore, management can also mean the "ability of an individual to influence,
motivate, and enable others to contribute towards the effectiveness and success of
the organizations of which they are members".23 Two further approaches describe
management "as a process of social influence in which one person is able to enlist
the aid and support of others in the accomplishment of a common task"24 on one
hand and on the other hand as "the process of influencing others to understand and
agree about what needs to be done and how to do it, and the process of facilitating
individual and collective efforts to accomplish shared objectives".25 In addition, the
German armed forces define management as a "richtungsweisendes und steuerndes
Einwirken auf das Verhalten anderer Menschen, um eine Zielvorstellung zu
verwirklichen; es umfasst den Einsatz materieller Mittel. Ein wesentliches Merkmal
erfolgreicher Fhrung ist ihre Dynamik."26 Therefore, effective leadership in
26
multicultural organizations is a process with mutual influence between managers and
19
Cf. Hruby, J. (2013): Das Global Mindset von Managern. p. 1-2
20
Cf. Rhinesmith, S. (1995): Open The Door to a Global Mindset. p. 36
21
Weibler, J. (2012): Personalfhrung. p. 19
22
Wiswede, G./Wiendieck, G. (1990): Fuehrung und Wandel. p. 3-4
23
Den Hartog, D. et al. (1997): Dutch and Polish Perceptions of Leadership and Culture. p. 389
24
Chemers, M. (2000): Leadership Research and Theory. p. 27
25
Yukl, G. (2010): Leadership in Organizations. p. 26
26
HDV 100/200, Nr. 101
employees in order to reach a defined goal in an environment with changing

framework conditions with the help of appropriate resources with a special view to
cultural specificities27, i. e. it pursues sweeping along people with the help of selected
27
instruments such as individual and social psychological motivation, influence on

attitudes and behavior, situational leadership, recipient or receiver oriented
communication, effective handling of organizational changes and also the ability to
build successful teams.28
Leadership in the Framework of Multicultural Organizations
The cultural background shapes and influences its individuals and, as a result,
also their opinion of leadership and their understanding of how an employee wants to
be led. Therefore, the culture of a community or their national culture is one of the
important drivers regarding leadership in a multicultural framework. In the following
sub-chapters, a historical framework with a view to scientific discussions on the main
topic multicultural or cross-cultural leadership is set up and cultural dimensions of
selected representatives are presented as well.
In the year 1961, Florence R. Kluckhohn and Fred L. Strodtbeck published the first
approach with a view to cultural dimensions. Back then, they examined the character
of human nature, the relation between humans and nature and other humans as well
as the humans orientation of time and activity. In 1974, there are first signs of cross
cultural leadership29 being analyzed. Back then, Ralph M. Stogdill published the first
29
edition of his book handbook of leadership. The topic cross cultural was barely
mentioned30 in this edition. In the second edition31 Stogdill published with Bernhard
Bass in 1982, this topic was considered in a 25 page chapter. In the third edition 32
Bass solely published in 1990, the cross-cultural issue covered even 40 pages. The
fourth edition of Bass handbook shows this issue deeply. 33 At this stage, it shall be
mentioned that in the framework of the GLOBE project (Global Leadership and
Organizational Behavior and Effectiveness Research Project) which was founded by
Robert J. House in 1991, researchers from all over the world analyze the topic of
cross-cultural leadership. The analysts grouped, for example, different cultures (see
Table 52) in the so-called "Metaconfiguration of GLOBE Societal Cultures" (see
27
Cf. Kohler, R. (2009): Fuehrung in Unternehmen. p. 5
28
Cf. Tannenbaum, R. (2013): Leadership and Organization. p. 2-3
29
Cf. Dickson, M. et al. (2003): Research on leadership in a cross cultural context. p. 730
30
Cf. Stogdill, R. (1974): Handbook of leadership
31
Cf. Stogdill, R./Bass, B. (1982): Stogdills handbook of leadership
32
Cf. Bass, B. (1990): Bass and Stogdills handbook of leadership
33
Cf. Bass, B./Bass, R. (2008): The Bass handbook of leadership
1.3 Definition of Culture in a Society and the Idea of Cultural Dimensions 11
Table 53).34 Thus, Germany belongs to the cluster "Germanic Europe" whereas
Spain and France belong to "Latin Europe". In the framework of the scientific
discussion on "global culture concepts" with a special view to cultural dimensions,
five "representative groups" can be highlighted. Besides the former mentioned
Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck, there are Edward T. Hall and Mildred R. Hall 35, Gerard
(Geert) Hofstede, Alfonso (Fons) Trompenaars, Eberhard Duelfer36 as well as
Shalom Schwartz37. Against the background of this scientific analysis with a view to
the problem of cross-cultural leadership, approaches of the important
representatives, i. e. the classics, Hofstede and Trompenaars as well as some new
GLOBE research results and further recent trends in the sector of multicultural
leadership are presented below.
1.3 Definition of Culture in a Society and the Idea of Cultural Dimensions
The essential search for a uniform definition of cross cultural, multicultural, culture
of a society or as subsumed for this sub-chapter culture of a nation was equivalent to
the search for determining a clear definition of the term management, i. e. there are
significantly numerous definitions. Thus, a selection of explanations of culture of a
nation is discussed in the following which are separated in two clusters: (1) Technical
Analysis of the Culture of a Society and (2) Collectivist Analysis of Culture
Definitions. Thereafter, a definition will be derived from for the further course of the
academic discussion.
Cluster 1: Technical Analysis of the Culture of a Society
Putting the focus on the technical analysis of the culture of a society, it shows that
"Kultur etwas ist, was die Menschen von ihrer Umwelt oder von anderen Lebewesen
unterscheidet."38 Further differences between various cultures are not mentioned
there. With this analysis of a society, culture means "a technical term used by
anthropologists to refer to a system for creating, sending, storing, and processing
information developed by human beings, which differentiates them from other life
forms."39
34
Cf. Gupta, V. (2004): Regional and Climate Clustering of Societal Cultures. p. 201
35
Cf. Hall, E./Hall, M. (1990): Hidden Differences
36
Cf. Duelfer, E. (2001): Internationales Management: In unterschiedlichen Kulturbereichen
37
Cf. Schwartz, S. (1999): A theory of cultural values and some implications for work
38
Oezbek-Potthof, G. (2013): Implizite Fuehrung im interkulturellen Kontext. p. 21
39
Hall, E./Hall, M. (2000): Understanding Cultural Differences. p. 183
Cluster 2: Collectivist Analysis of Culture Definitions

In contrary to the technical analysis of the culture of a society (cluster 1), society is
examined more thoroughly in the framework of the collectivist focus (cluster 2). This
second cluster can be separated in two directions: representation of the entire matter
(cluster 2a) as well as common values, norms, artifacts and behavior of the entire
matter (cluster 2b).40 In cluster 2a, approaches of definition with a view to the
collective as a whole are given. "To the human society, culture means the same as
personality means to the individual." Furthermore, culture means "the collective
programming of the mind which distinguishes members of one human group from
another." 41 In this context, culture can be defined "as a groups collective agreement
41F
on interpreting the world around it."42 Cluster 2b demonstrates definitions which

42
values, norms, artifacts and behavior aggregate. "Culture could be defined as the
interactive aggregate of common abilities that influence a human groups response to
its environment".43
Furthermore, culture can be represented as a three-layer model: the outer layer
contains the entirety of explicit artifacts, the values and norms can be found in the
middle layer and the inner layer includes implicit basic assumptions.44 "Culture is
defined as shared motives, values, beliefs, identities, and interpretations or meanings
of significant events that result from common experiences of members of collectives
that are transmitted across generations."45 In addition, cultures are "characteristic
environments of collectives where members exchange sense and values which
results from a forcing sample of common affective, attitudinal and behavioral
orientation which is transferred from generation to generation and separates
collectives."46 A further approach is that "culture is a groups shared set of distinct
basic assumptions, values, practices, and artifact that are formed and retained over a
long period of time."47 In the further course of this research project, national culture is
with a view to an organizational connection and serving of the two clusters
understood as historically anchored programming and conditioning of group
members which is shaping and, therefore, leads to homogeneity. With a view to
40
Cf. Oezbek-Potthof, G. (2013): Implizite Fuehrung im interkulturellen Kontext. p. 21-22
41
Hofstede, G. (1980): Cultures Consequences: International Differences in Work-Related Values. p.
21
42
Javidan, M./Carl, D. (2005): Leadership Across Cultures. p. 26
43
Hofstede, G. (1980): Cultures Consequences: International Differences in Work-Related Values. p.
21
44
Cf. Trompenaars, F. (1993): Handbuch Globales Managen. p. 22-23
45
House, R./Javidan, M. (2004): Overview of GLOBE. p. 15
46
House, R. et al. (1997): Cross-Cultural Research on Organizational Leadership. p. 540
47
Taras, V. et al. (2009): Half a Century of Measuring Culture. p. 359
management attitude and expectation, i. e. to be led, derived and separated legalities

are anticipated correspondingly. Among others, culture exists "of patterns, explicit
and implicit, of and for behavior acquired and transmitted by symbols, constituting the
distinctive achievement of human groups, including their embodiment in artifacts; the
essential core of culture consists of traditional (i. e. historically derived and selected)
ideas and especially their attached values; culture systems may, on one hand, be
considered as products of action, on the other hand, as conditioning elements of
future action."48 National culture can be defined "as the degree to which the cultural
norms in one country are different from those in another country".49
Regarding definition of national culture, there are two scientists abstracted from
the researchers mentioned who made significant contributions to operationalization
of key figures (culture dimensions) in a multicultural context. The scientists are Geert
Hofstede (repeatedly cited above) and Alfons Trompenaars (also cited) whose key
statements are summarized and serve as important starting points for the following
chapters.
Cultural Dimensions According to Hofstede

Geert Hofstedes examinations regarding his five culture dimensions (see Figure
4) (1) power distance, (2) individualism/collectivism, (3) masculinity/femininity, (4)
uncertainty avoidance as well as (5) long-term and short-term orientation are the
most famous theories for registering cultural differences.50 The results are based on
an empirical study of approx. 100.000 IBM employees in the period from 1968 to
1972 as well as repeated studies. Up to now, there has been no such extensive
study. The results of Hofstedes study have been the basement for many other
examinations regarding multicultural differentiations and operationalizations. 51
Further studies of the researcher mentioned confirm the developed dimensions
and result in a stability of the values.52 After the presentation of the single culture
dimensions, Germany, Spain and France are referenced to each corresponding
operationalized key figure value.
48
Kroeber, A./Kluckhohn, C. (1952/2001): Culture. p. 181
49
Sousa, C./Bradley, F. (2008): Cultural Distance and Physic Distance. p. 471
50
Cf. Hofstede, G. (2009): Lokales Denken, globales Handeln. Power Distance (S. 51), Individualism/
Collectivism (p. 98), Masculinity/Femininity (p. 522), Uncertainty Avoidance (p. 224) and Long-
Term Orientation (p. 522)
51
Cf. Kutschker, M./Schmid, S. (2011): Internationales Management. p. 733-734
52
Cf. Kutschker, M./Schmid, S. (2011): Internationales Management. p. 732
Cultural Dimensions
(Hofstede)
Masculinity/ Long-Term
Power Distance Femininity Orientation
Individualism/ Uncertainty
Collectivism Avoidance
53
Figure 4: Cultural dimensions (Hofstede)
(1) Power Distance

Hofstede determines power distance as "den Grad, bis zu dem die weniger
mchtigen Mitglieder von Institutionen und Organisationen in einem die ungleiche
Verteilung von Macht erwarten und akzeptieren."54 According to Hofstede, the
operationalized key figure power distance index is the measurement for the degree of
power distance among the people of a country. Thus, a high power distance index
means that leaders and employees are provided with different rights. The dependent
employee does what he was instructed to. Each management (n-1) reports to the
next higher instance (n). A low power distance index shows that there are small
differences between the hierarchy levels. In Table 43, the power distance indices of
the countries are shown in descended order.
Implication for GE/SP/FR: The comparison of Germany [35 points], Spain [57 points]
and France [68 points] in Table 24 shows that there are
significant differences which could be a reason for
possible frictions in the cross-cultural field. The maximum
number of points in this category is 104.
(2) Individualism/Collectivism
According to Hofstede, individualism means "eine Gesellschaftsform, in der die
sozialen Bindungen zwischen Individuen nicht sehr fest sind. Von jedem wird
erwartet, dass er sich nur um sich selbst oder seine eigene, unmittelbare Familie
53
Source: Compiled illustration by the author of this research project (2012) referring to Hofstede, G.
(2009): Lokales Denken, globales Handeln. Power Distance (p. 51), Individualism/Collectivism (p.
98), Masculinity/Femininity (p. 522), Uncertainty Avoidance (p. 224) and Long-Term Orientation (p.
522)
54
Hofstede, G. (2009): Lokales Denken, globales Handeln. p. 522
kmmert."55 The key figure is the so-called individualism index which shows the
measurement for the degree of individualism within a culture. In a professional
environment, people in individualistically shaped cultures are interested in
maximizing their freedom. These are mostly rather wealthy societies as
independence is mostly based on prosperity. 56 Individualism in diametrical contrast to
the so-called collectivism which "reprsentiert eine Gesellschaft, in der die Menschen
von Geburt an in Wir-Gruppen leben, das heit in Gruppen mit einem starken
Zusammengehrigkeitsgefhl, die ihnen das ganze Leben lang Schutz fr ihre auer
Frage stehende Loyalitt gewhren."57 In cultures with strong collectivist abilities,
people are, for example, interested in continuing education and good physical
conditions regarding their professional environment and they want to make full use of
their competences (abilities and skills).58
Implication for GE/SP/FR: With a view to Table 44, Germany reaches 67 points,
Spain 51 points and France 71 points. The maximum
number of points in this category is 91.
(3) Masculinity/Femininity
According to Hofstede, masculinity describes a "Gesellschaft, in der emotionale
Geschlechterrollen klar festgelegt sind: Mnner sollen durchsetzungsfhig und hart
sein und sich auf materiellen Erfolg konzentrieren; Frauen sollen bescheiden und
zrtlich sein und sich mit der Lebensqualitt beschftigen."59 The resulting
masculinity index is, therefore, a measurement for the degree of masculinity among a
countrys people, according to Hofstede. The contrary is the so-called femininity
which" reprsentiert eine Gesellschaft, in der sich die emotionalen Geschlechter-
rollen berschneiden, sowohl Mnner wie auch Frauen gelten als bescheiden,
sensibel und um Lebensqualitt bemht."60 In this context, masculine abilities are, for
example, recognition and appreciation, professional success and corresponding
income but also to be claimed in the professional framework. Signs of femininity are,
for example, good relations to colleagues and managers, personal appreciation of a
secure and good work place.
55
56
Cf. Hofstede, G. (2009): Lokales Denken, globales Handeln. p. 98
57
58
Cf. Hofstede, G. (2009): Lokales Denken, globales Handeln. p. 98
59
60
Implication for GE/SP/FR: Table 45 shows the following: Germany [66 points], Spain
[42 points] and France [43 points] of 110 possible points.
(4) Uncertainty Avoidance

According to Hofstede, uncertainty avoidance means the "Grad, bis zu dem sich
die Mitglieder einer Kultur durch nicht eindeutige oder unbekannte Situationen
bedroht fhlen. Dieses Gefhl drckt sich unter anderem in nervsem Stress und
einen Bedrfnis nach Vorhersehbarkeit aus: ein Bedrfnis nach geschriebenen und
ungeschriebenen Regeln."61 The key figure uncertainty avoidance index is, according
to Hofstede, a measurement for the degree of uncertainty avoidance among a
countrys people.
Implication for GE/SP/FR: Table 46 shows the following results for the cultures
analyzed: Germany [65 points], Spain and France [86
points each]. The maximum number of points in this
category is 112.
(5) Long-Term and Short-Term Orientation

The last culture dimension, according to Hofstede, is the long-term orientation.
Thus, he describes "das Hegen von Tugenden, die auf knftigen Erfolg hin
ausgerichtet sind, insbesondere Sparsamkeit und Beharrlichkeit."62 On contrary, the
short-term orientation focuses on "the keeping of values which are related to the past
and the present especially respect for tradition, saving "face" and fulfilling social
obligations."63 Thus, the long-term orientation index is "a measurement for the
degree of long-term orientation in the culture of a country based on the research
project of the Chinese Value Survey regarding random samples by students."64
Implication for GE/SP/FR: Table 47 shows 31 points for Germany, 19 points for
Spain and 39 points for France out of a maximum of 118
possible points.
In Figure 5, Hofstedes normed cultural dimensions from Table 2 for the nations of
Germany, Spain and France are compared.
61
62
63
64
Cultural Dimensions (Hofstede)

GE SP FR
Normed parameter [%]
Power Distance (PD) 34 55 65
Individualism/Collectivism (I/C) 74 56 78
Masculinity/Femininity (M/F) 60 38 39
Uncertainty Avoidance (UA) 58 77 77
Long-Term Orientation (LTO) 26 16 33

65
Table 2: Comparison of normed cultural dimensions - Hofstede (GE, SP, FR)
Table 2 as well as the visualization of the data in Figure 5 show that, regarding
power distance, France has the highest instance before Spain and Germany. The
cultural variable individualism/collectivism shows similar values for Germany and
France, but lower for Spain. In the cluster masculinity/femininity, France and Spain
are almost on the same level whereas Germany shows a very high instance there
which is similar to the aspect uncertainty avoidance. In this case, however, Spain and
France are on a higher level than Germany. The long-term orientation is low in each
culture mentioned, i. e. rather short-term oriented. Thus, Spain is on the lowest level
behind Germany and France.
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
PD I/C M/F UA LTO
GE SP FR
66
Figure 5: Chart of the normed cultural dimensions (Hofstede) for GE, SP and FR
65
Source: Own calculations and standardizations of the author based on the five cultural dimensions
with view on GE, SP and FR divided with the corresponding maximal value w. r. t. Hofstede, G.
(2009). p. 56, 105, 166, 234 and 294
Cultural Dimensions According to Trompenaars

Those five dimensions according to Hofstede are attributable to the classic
approaches but are also discussed critically. Alfons "Fons" Trompenaars (student of
Geert Hofstede) as well as Peter Wooliams and Charles Hampden-Turner
researched even empirically the complex of cultural dimensions with the help of
operationalized questionnaires and differentiated it into seven partial aspects: (1)
universalism versus particularism, (2) individualism versus collectivism, (2) neutrality
versus affectivity, (4) specificity versus diffusivity, (5) achieved status versus ascribed
status, (6) attitude of time and (7) internal versus external control (see Figure 6). The
first five cultural dimensions focus on the social interactions between the people
themselves67 whereas dimension (6) demonstrates the analysis of time and
dimension (7) the orientation of environment and nature respectively. Trompenaars
leans his last two aspects on the formerly mentioned Florence R. Kluckhohn and
Fred L. Strodtbeck.68 In contrast to Hofstede, there are no classic indices used for
these cultural dimensions. Thus, direct comparison or even cross cultural ranking is
barely possible.
Cultural Dimensions
(Trompenaars)
Time
Individualism vs. Sequential vs.

Universalism vs. Neutral vs.
Collectivism Synchronic
Particularism Emotional
Internal Control vs.

External Control
Specific vs. Achievement vs.
Diffuse Ascription
Environment and nature
orientation
Social interaction between human beings
69
Figure 6: Cultural dimension (Trompenaars)
66
Source: Compiled illustration by the author of this research project (2013). Illustration of the value
referring to Table 2 and footnote 65
67
In this frame Trompenaars is referring to Talcott Parsons pattern variables.
68
Cf. Kutschker, M./Schmid, S. (2008): Internationales Management. p. 736
69
Source: Adapted and compiled illustration by the author of this research project (2013) referring to
Trompenaars, F./Woolliams, P. (2004): Business weltweit. p. 37-97
(1) Universalism versus Particularism

The cultural dimension "universalism versus particularism" describes the
perceived handling of priority of rules or relations. Thus, particularistically shaped
cultures adjust their behavior to the circumstances given and reject the binding
compliance with norms, i. e. relations (to their friends and family, for example) are
more important to them than rules. On contrary, universalistic cultures prefer to follow
the rules.70
(2) Individualism versus Collectivism
In the framework of this cultural dimension "individualism versus collectivism", the
discrepancy between the interests of individual and group is analyzed. Individualists
tend to maximize their freedom and aim to further develop themselves in order to
improve their quality of life. Collectivists, on contrary, focus on reaching common and
overarching objectives of the group.71
(3) Neutrality versus Affectivity
The dimension "neutrality versus affectivity" separates the culturally lived handling
with emotions in public. Neutrally conditioned cultures barely express their emotions
in public environment whereas effectively oriented people spontaneously show their
emotions even in public.72
(4) Specificity versus Diffusity
The cultural dimension "specificity versus diffusity" demonstrates in which extent
other people are involved in each individual area of life and how this area is
protected. In specifically oriented cultures, privacy and profession are clearly
separated from another. Communication is very factual. In contrast, the above
mentioned areas of life are mixed up in diffuse cultures. Privacy is also open for
colleagues and communication is mostly indirect.73
(5) Achieved Status versus Ascribed Status

In the framework of Trompenaarss cultural dimension "achieved status versus
ascribed status", the differences in subject to public image are presented against the
background of status. In performance-oriented cultures, people get a certain status
based on their achievements or their engagements respectively. The status within a
social framework is dependent on individual performances. Status-oriented cultures,
on contrary, attach great importance to being and to social circumstances. Relevant
70
Cf. Trompenaars, F./Woolliams, P. (2004): Business weltweit. p. 37-49
71
72
73
features with a view to the status in a society are, for example, age, gender, social
networks, education and for many individuals also practiced profession.74
(6) Attitude of Time

The cultural dimension "attitude of time" explains cultural differing meanings of
time. On one hand, for example, the items punctuality and pace are analyzed as well
as orientation with a view to the past, the present and the future on the other hand.
Furthermore, it is separated if time is determined individually, sequentially or
synchronously. Time has high importance to people with sequential understanding of
time. Those people are always punctual and execute their jobs one by one.
Synchronously oriented people combine past, present and future causally. They
execute various jobs in parallel and have an aversion to binding schedules. With a
view to past-oriented cultures, time orientation determines that they preserve
traditions, respect their ancestors and also pass on those values. Present-oriented
cultures, on contrary, live from one day to the other and do not care about past and
future whereas to future-oriented cultures, past is of less importance. They focus on
future.75
Nr. Cultural Dimensions GE SP FR
1 Universalism x x
Particularism x
2 Individualism x
Collectivism x x
3 Neutral x
Emotional x x
4 Specific x
Diffuse x x
5 Achievement x x
Ascription x
76
Table 3: Cultural dimensions 1-5 of 7 (Trompenaars/Hampden-Turner)
(7) Internal versus External Control

This seventh and last cultural dimension according to Trompenaars "internal
versus external control", examines, on one hand, if each culture tries to dominate
nature or, on the other hand, if the culture submits to it. If internal control exists, the
74
75
76
Source: Cultural dimensions - compiled illustration by the author of this research project (2013)
referring to cf. Trompenaars, F./Hampden-Turner, C. (2009): Riding the Waves of Culture. p. 29-
119
basis is personal and individual life. Those people are of the opinion that they can
dominate and control nature. But if external control is in the foreground in a culture,
the peoples goal is to live in harmony with nature. They see themselves as part of it
and are influenced by it.77
In Table 3 "interpersonal" cultural dimensions (1-5) universalism versus
particularism, individualism versus collectivism, neutrality versus affectivity, specificity
versus diffusity as well as achieved status versus ascribed status of the countries of
Germany, Spain and France are compared. Also in this context, deviations can lead
to cross cultural leadership discrepancies.
77
Cf. Trompenaars, F./Hampden-Turner, C. (2009): Riding the Waves of Culture. p. 96-97
2. Latest State of the Scientific Discussion
In the framework of this chapter, significant studies with a view to the separation of
this subject are divided and current effective preparations for multicultural managers
are presented as well.
2.1 Scholarly Literature Analysis
Procedure for Selecting Literature

Against the background of selecting significant literature, so-called overviews are
analyzed as well besides empirical studies (typologies of management studies in
cultural context78; see Table 51).
Those overviews can, depending on their qualification/quantification, be separated
and assigned to the four groups narrative, descriptive and comparing overview or
meta-analysis.79 Following, those approaches are separated and their relevance is
finally discussed. Thereafter, the quality (rating [RT]) of the journal is presented and
differentiated.
The narrative overview shows a method of qualitative classification. I. e. the
results of the literature analysis will be subjectively and verbally formulated. In the
framework of this process, (a) the most important factors, (b) the links between the
factors as well as (c1) the research results and (c2) the discrepancies between the
research results of the analyzed literature will be presented and discussed. There is
no unique norm for the form of the presentation of the results.80
The next qualitative method for literature analysis with first quantitative shapes is
the descriptive overview. This researches, analyzes and systemizes scientific essays
and specialist articles with the help of normed and pre-defined criteria (timeliness of
the studies, objects of investigation of the studies as well as the analysis of
embedded and referenced theories).81 Furthermore, the so-called significance values
of the empirical research results are reflected in the framework of this method.82
The comparative overview demonstrates the ongoing method of literature review
in the direction of quantitative classification (i. e. vote counting or box score in an
international context).83 In the framework of this overview, the research results are
78
Holzmueller, H. (1995): Konzeptionelle und methodische Probleme in der interkulturellen
Management- und Marketingforschung. p. 59
79
Cf. Schiepek, G. (2012): Systemische Forschung ein Methodenueberblick. p. 35 and Cf. Cooper,
H./Hedges, L. (2009): Research Synthesis is a Scientific Process. p. 4-9
80
Cf. Bryman, A./Bell, E. (2011): Business research methods. p. 101-103
81
Cf. Bryman, A./Bell, E. (2011): Business research methods. p. 403-404
82
Cf. Mayer, H. (2013): Interview und schriftliche Befragung. p. 144-145
83
Cf. Bushmann, B./Wang, M. (2009): Vote-Counting Procedures in Meta-Analysis. p. 208

24 2 Latest State of the Scientific Discussion
grouped with a view to determined criteria. The abilities of the results and clusters
can be as follows: positively significant, negatively significant or non-significant.84 The
cluster which can be found the most in the framework of the verified examinations is
seen as the final result of the relations examined.
The fourth method of overview is the meta-analysis (quantitative shape). This
literature analysis examines the quantitative results of the examinations to be
compared.85 These analyses of the results are realized and judged to each other with
the help of significance tests86 which are derived from the two variables effect size
86
and extent of the random samples.87 By analyzing the comparative values

mathematic-statistically, an objective estimate of each examination is guaranteed.88
Besides the four mentioned overview methods of literature analysis, empirical
studies are even important tools against the background of the scientific discussion.
The aim of empirical examinations is to review hypotheses on their validity
(verification or falsification).89 These examinations are based on studies which can be
differentiated in qualitative and/or quantitative method. Qualitative empirical studies
are executed in order to examine unexplored human or socially based questions and
make them more tangible for researchers.90 Against this background, for example,
study methods such as interviews and discussions in groups or teams are used and
their verbal content is analyzed.91 In contrary, quantitative empirical examinations
use normed and standardized questions with a view to answering the questions such
as telephone surveys or questionnaires and online surveys in order to reach
comparability of the questions answered,92 i. e. to review interdependences and
correlations due to measurable variables.93
84
Cf. Bushmann, B./Wang, M. (2009): Vote-Counting Procedures in Meta-Analysis. p. 208-210
85
Cf. Card, N. (2012): Meta-Analysis for Social Scientific Research. p. 3
86
87
Cf. Card, N. (2012): Meta-Analysis for Social Scientific Research. p. 102-103
88
89
Cf. Bortz, J./Doering, N. (2006): Forschungsmethoden und Evaluation fuer Human- und Sozial-
wissenschaftler. p. 10
90
wissenschaftler. p. 95-103
91
Cf. Opp, K.-D. (1999): Wissenschaftliche Grundlagen der empirischen Sozialforschung. p. 52-57
92
Cf. Paier, D. (2010): Quantitative Sozialforschung. p. 10
93
2.1 Scholarly Literature Analysis 25
# Journal/Book Title ISSN/ RT 94F93F93 F

Title of Study Year
94
ISBN
1 Applied Psychology: 14640597 C Exploring the Implicit Leadership Theory in 2001
An International Review the Arabian Gulf States
2 Culture and Leadership across 978080585 n/a Culture and Leadership across the world: 2007
the world 9973 The GLOBE Book of in-depth Studies of 25
Societies
3 Culture, Leadership, and 978076192 n/a Culture, Leadership, and Organizations - 2004
Organizations 4012 the Globe Study of 62 Societies
4 European Journal of Work and 1359432X C Dutch and Polish Perceptions of 1997
Organizational Psychology Leadership and Culture
5 European Journal of Work and 1359432X C National Cultures and Leadership Profiles 1999
Organizational Psychology in Europe
6 Journal of Applied Psychology 00219010 A Implicit Leadership Theory as a 1975
Determinant of the Factor Structure
Underlying Supervisory Behavior Scales
7 Journal of Applied Psychology 00219010 A From Ideal to Real: A Longitudinal Study of 2005
the Role of Implicit Leadership Theories on
Leader-Member Exchange and Employee
Outcomes
8 Journal of Occupational and 20448325 B Cultural Variation of Leadership Prototypes 2000
Organizational Psychology Across 22 European Countries
9 Journal of Social Psychology 00224545 B The Generalizability of Implicit Leadership 1987
Theory
10 Journal of Social Psychology 00224545 B Chinese Implicit Leadership Theory 2000
11 Journal of World Business 10909516 B Cross-cultural competencies and global 2012
leadership effectiveness
12 Kelly Global Workforce Index n/a n/a Effective Employers. The evolving 2011
Workforce
13 Organizational Behavior and 07495978 A Cross-Cultural Variations in Leadership 2003
Human Decision Processes Perceptions and Attribution of Charisma to
the Leader
14 Scandinavian Journal of 09565221 C Modelling Leadership 2006
Management
15 Strategic Management Journal 10970266 A The salience of "cultures consequences" 1997
16 The international Journal of 09585192 B Exploring Servant Leadership Across 2010
Human Resource Cultures
Management
17 The Leadership Quarterly 10489843 B Culture Specific and Cross-Culturally 1999
Generalizable Implicit Leadership Theories
18 The Leadership Quarterly 10489843 B Leadership Perceptions in Cross-Cultural 1997
Context
95
Table 4: Overview of significant scientific literature sources as baseline for the analysis
94
Rating w. r. t. VHB JOURQUAL 2.1 (2011)
95
Illustration of the examined scientific sources (books and journals) in alphabetical order.
In the framework of this thesis and the resulting literature analysis, the
demonstrated methods are researched. Thus, the focus is on the examination with
the help of narrative overviews, meta-analyses and empirical studies (qualitative as
well as quantitative) and the demonstration of singular and significant results of
examinations in the framework of the issues multicultural and functional differences.
As discussed above, further criteria for the literature review is the quality of the
essays which is identified with the help of journal ratings. Significant and international
journals, magazines and books regarding management, leadership, organization and
psychology were analyzed for the evaluation of the literature.96 These journal ratings
can be citation based, survey based or both (hybrid ratings). The rating of a journal in
citation based ratings is dependent on the number of received quotes of the papers.97
The survey based ratings result from the estimates of recognized experts and
specialists. This peer-group judges the quality of the journals with the help of normed
evaluation scales which are finally condensed.98 As already mentioned above, hybrid
rankings use citation based methods as well as survey based methods which shall
anticipate a higher objectivity with a view to the journal rating. 99 The literature used
(magazines, journals and books) is shown in Table 4 by stating consecutive
numbers, title of magazine, journal or book, literature number, rating [most recent
basis: VHB JOURQUAL 2.1 of 2010/2011] as well as title of study. In total, 18
sources were reviewed: four A journals, seven B journals and four C journals. 100
There were four further sources where no ratings were given. In addition, the
literature analysis is separated in four issues with the emphasis on content, concept,
method and abstraction/concreteness.
The key message of the content is the evidence of inconsistencies and
consistencies of theses, the central results of literature on one hand and, on the other
hand, the basis is the object of investigation. Therefore, all variables and their
correlations to be reviewed are shown among themselves. With the help of the so-
called relation framework of literature analysis, those will then be systemized and
examined in order to find out which connections do exist and which do not exist.
The conceptual view of the literature review follows the theoretical basics as well
as the conception of the so-called relation framework. In the framework of the
theoretical basics mentioned, empirical examinations will be differentiated against the
background of their hypothesis approaches (formulating theories or plausibility
96
97
Cf. Schrader, U./Henning-Thurau, T. (2009): VHB-JOURQUAL 2. p. 181
98
Cf. Williams, C. (2007): Research Methods. p. 65-71
99
Cf. Schrader, U./Henning-Thurau, T. (2009): VHB-JOURQUAL 2. p. 180-204
100
Cf. VHB JOURQUAL 2.1 (2011)
considerations).101 Generally recognized, there are various possibilities of

correlations between the variables with a view to the conception of the relation
framework. In the framework of this thesis, direct 102 or mediating103 connection is
used.104
The methodical focus or literature review aims on the time frame of the study, the
basis of data as well as the method of analysis. Regarding the period of examination,
it can be differentiated between so-called cross-sectional studies and longitudinal-
section studies. With a cross-sectional study, all examinations are executed at the
same time. In contrary, examinations in longitudinal-section studies are done at
different times.105 In the framework of empirical examinations, there are more cross-
section studies than longitudinal-section studies. This is because longitudinal-section
studies bear the risk that random sample values in a determined framework can vary
considerably.106 In the context of data basis, key data such as extent and
construction of the random samples or in which organizational relation with which
cultural background is being researched are embedded. This data basis is important
for deduction and, thus, for the representation of the results. In this context, the
amount of random samples is important as the more data as well as participants or
respondents there are, the more accurate are the examination results.107
After recording data, the analysis of the gained information starts. This can be
done by executing different statistical processes. A selection of recognized methods
of analysis will be demonstrated below. There are descriptive statistics, factor
analysis, comparison of means, correlation analysis, regression analysis, variance
analysis, structural equation models as well as cluster analysis.
Finally, evaluation of the studies on both an abstract and a concrete level will be
executed. The abstract view shows general and overlapping multicultural aspects as
well as the examined organization or the target group of interviewed persons. In
contrast, gained connections in the context of Germany, Spain and France are
reviewed in the framework of concrete discussions.
101
Cf. Paier, D. (2010): Quantitative Sozialforschung. p. 12-15
102
A direct relation is available when the origin variable has a causal influence to the target variable.
103
A mediation based correlation is present, when the origin variable influences the target variable
with a variable among the two mentioned variables. Source: Cf. Bortz, J./Doering, N. (2006):
Forschungsmethoden und Evaluation fuer Human- und Sozialwissenschaftler. p. 3
104
105
Cf. Paier, D. (2010): Quantitative Sozialforschung. p. 43
106
Cf. Daumenlang, K. (1999): Querschnitt- und Laengsstudien. p. 309
107
Cf. Hartmann, H. (1999): Stichproben. p. 204-205
Trends regarding Multicultural and Functional Leadership

A) Cross Cultural Leadership
In the current scientific discussion on the issue analysis of current states of
research in the context of multicultural leadership, the thesis "Implizite Fuehrung im
interkulturellen Kontext" (implicit leadership in a multicultural context) represents an
anchor. Among others, relevant literature in the framework of leadership/international
leadership is analyzed there.108 In the following, research results will be reviewed on
completeness with a view to applicability for this research project whereby not
relevant approaches and results are separated and studies relevant for this academic
discussion are added. Then, the results will be discussed and summarized according
to the scientific criteria and factors mentioned earlier and transferred to the scientific-
literally approach to the question of "effective leadership in multicultural
organizations".
In the following, the studies (A-a) about direct influence of realized leadership109
on ideal leadership110 in a cultural context, (A-b) about direct influence of ideal
leadership on leadership success in a cultural context, (A-c) about influence of
realized leadership on leadership success mediated by ideal leadership in a cultural
context, (A-d) about direct influence of culture on realized leadership as well as,
finally, (A-e) about direct influence of culture on ideal leadership111 with a view to the
transfer to both directions top-down (manager n) and bottom-up (manager n-1
respectively employee n-1) are analyzed.
As the analyses and examinations of the studies about direct influence of realized
leadership on ideal leadership, direct influence of ideal leadership on leadership
success, direct influence of realized leadership on leadership success, influence of
realized leadership on leadership success mediated by ideal leadership as well as
direct influence of personal experience on ideal leadership have no multicultural
relation112, they are separated from this thesis.
(A-a) Bottom-up approaches: Examinations on direct influence of realized
leadership on ideal leadership in a cultural context
108
In the frame of the literature discussion from Oezbek-Potthoff (2013) "wird von einer theoretischen
Fundierung der gesichteten Studien ausgegangen, wenn die Hypothesenformulierung mit Hilfe von
Theorien, die in der Fuehrungsforschung anerkannt sind, hergeleitet wird." p. 36
109
Precepted Leadership are the skills, the characteristics and the behavior of the leader. Oezbek-
Potthof, G. (2013): Implizite Fuehrung im interkulturellen Kontext. p. 30. Transfer to this academic
discussion: top-down approach.
110
Ideal leadership are the expectations of the employees how the boss should lead. Oezbek-Potthof,
G. (2013): Implizite Fuehrung im interkulturellen Kontext. p. 30. Transfer to this academic
discussion: bottom-up.
111
112
With a view to the focus on direct influence of realized leadership on ideal

leadership in a cultural context, Oezbek-Potthoff examined nine studies which are
embedded in seven theses (see Table 48).
Those studies are extended by the results of the Kelly studies (empirical view), the
so-called Kelly Global Workforce Index (KGWI) which are briefly sketched before the
total analysis. The approaches of GLOBE (phases 1 to 3) partially overlap with this
review "examinations on direct influence of realized leadership on ideal leadership in
cultural context". The key issue is "examinations on direct influence of culture on
realized leadership". Against this background, GLOBE is discussed in section (A-d).
Kelly Services Inc. execute regular examinations on various issues in the
framework of the so-called Kelly Global Workforce Index (>30 countries and
>100.000 participants). In 2011, the empirical study was published with the title
"Effective employers" and a questionnaire was offered. With a view to this thesis,
question 16 "What factor do you consider the most important in a good boss?" was
examined.113 In concrete, Germany and France ranked their style of leadership top
level each (besides personality, vision, team work etc.). The examination of the
aspects mentioned did not include Spain.
Against the backdrop of realized leadership to ideal leadership in a cultural
context, the content perspective is aimed at the review of the studies whether the
rankings used are also applicable to other cultures. This examination makes clear
that either leadership properties or leadership styles are discussed which
characterize ideal leadership regarding bottom-up approaches. On one hand, many
studies determine leadership properties114 and, on the other hand, they analyze
existing rankings for leadership properties and those rankings are extended in order
to identify ideal leadership properties.115 Oezbek-Potthoff points out that in the
framework of the central examination results, the following two clusters can be
differentiated: Cluster 1 aggregates the result that different cultures each have their
own leadership rankings with differentiated leadership properties. Against this
background, culture specific rankings are developed.116 Cluster 2 shows that in
different cultural frameworks, determined leadership properties have different
113
Cf. Kelly Global Workforce Index (2011): Effective Employers. p. 5-16
114
Cf. Brodbeck, F. et al. (2000): Cultural Variation of Leadership Prototypes Across 22 European
Countries. p. 1-29 and Den Hartog, D. et al. (1999): Culture Specific and Cross-Culturally
Generalizable Implicit Leadership Theories. p. 219-256
115
Cf. Abdalla, I./Al-Homoud, M. (2001): Exploring the Implicit Leadership Theory in the Arabian Gulf
States. p. 506-531; Epitropaki, O./Martin, R. (2004): Implicit Leadership Theories in Applied
Settings. p. 293-310; Holmberg, I./kerblom, S. (2006): Modelling Leadership. p. 307-329
116
Cf. e. g. Abdalla, I./Al-Homoud, M. (2001): Exploring the Implicit Leadership Theory in the Arabian
Gulf States. p. 506-531; Ling, W. et al. (2000): Chinese Implicit Leadership Theory. p. 729-739
intensities.117 The result is that, in contrary to cluster 1, in the cultures examined

consistent and, therefore, comparative rankings are used for data collection and
analysis. This means the studies analyzed are culture-comparative examinations.
With a view to concept, it shall be mentioned first that, regarding theoretical basics,
eight out of ten examinations (i. e. including KGWI) reference to the so-called implicit
leadership theories for their model building. Furthermore, the Culturally Endorsed
Implicit Leadership Theory118 (CLT, CELT or CEILT) and the Implicit Personality
Theory according to Schneider119 are used. Against the backdrop of the conception
of the relation framework, the analysis shows that none of the examinations in Table
48 has causal correlations. They exclusively show simplified correlations with a view
to the abundance of the visibility of determined leadership properties. According to
the methodic focus, it can be summarized that against the background of the
examination period, nine out of ten examinations (including KGWI) are cross-
sectional studies.
Regarding methodic, only one thesis is a longitudinal-section study.120 Analyzing
the data basis, there is a great difference concerning the amount of random samples.
Single studies show high differences regarding the number of organizations
examined. In concrete, one of the studies only shows one organization, 121 whereas
all other examinations at least review three enterprises.122 The composition of
random samples was made across all industries, i. e. organizations of the banking
sector, service sector, industry sector, consumer goods industry sector, information
technology/telecommunication sector and also non-profit organizations. The
execution of the examinations took place either in a cultural framework 123 or in
117
Countries. p. 1-29; Den Hartog, D. et al. (1999): Culture Specific and Cross-Culturally
Generalizable Implicit Leadership Theories. p. 219-256; Kelly Global Workforce Index (2011):
Effective Employers. p. 5-16
118
States. p. 506-531; Den Hartog, D. et al. (1999): Culture Specific and Cross-Culturally
Generalizable Implicit Leadership Theories. p. 219-256; Holmberg, I./kerblom, S. (2006):
Modelling Leadership. p. 307-329. CLT/CELT/CEILT is based on the fact that employees in the
frame of social groups have a different views on leadership expectations. According to that there
persists significant differences between cultural leadership.
119
Cf. Eden, D./Leviathan, U. (1975): Implicit Leadership Theory as a Determinant of the Factor
Structure Underlying Supervisory Behavior Scales. p. 736-741 referring to Schneider, D. (1973):
Implicit Personality Theory. p. 294-309
120
Cf. Epitropaki, O./Martin, R. (2004): Implicit Leadership Theories in Applied Settings. p. 293-310
121
Structure Underlying Supervisory Behavior Scales. p. 736-741
122
States. p. 506-531; Holmberg, I./kerblom, S. (2006): Modelling Leadership. p. 307-329
123
Structure Underlying Supervisory Behavior Scales. p. 736-741; Epitropaki, O./Martin, R. (2004):
Implicit Leadership Theories in Applied Settings. p. 293-310; Holmberg, I./kerblom, S. (2006):
different cultures each at the same time.124 All examinations show in the intersection
that different cultures are compared to each other.
The respondents of the examinations had different levels of hierarchy. There was
a group of students (m/f)125, managers (m/f)126, employees (m/f)127 or mixed
groups.128 In regard to the corresponding methods of analysis, it could be derived
that the factor analysis amounting to 50 percent (basis: 10 studies) was used the
most.129 Correlation analysis amounts to 30 percent130, descriptive statistics to 20
percent131, cluster analysis132 and also variance analysis133 to 10 percent each. It can
be subsumed that in applying various methods of analysis, also with regard to the
KGWI 2011, "nicht primr die Erklrung von kausalen Zusammenhngen ist, sondern
strker auf die Gewinnung von Informationen ber die Zusammenhnge der
untersuchten Phnomene und dem Vergleich von Ergebnissen abzielt."134 With a
view to the abstracted evaluation, it can be summarized that the examinations in an
international context were executed with increased intensity by interviewing
managers. Employees, so-called bottom-up, where only polled by Epitropaki and
Modelling Leadership. p. 307-329; Ling, W. et al. (2000): Chinese Implicit Leadership Theory. p.
729-739
124
States. p. 506-531; Brodbeck, F. et al. (2000): Cultural Variation of Leadership Prototypes Across
22 European Countries. p. 1-29; Den Hartog, D. et al. (1999): Culture Specific and Cross-Culturally
Generalizable Implicit Leadership Theories. S. 219-256 und Kelly Global Workforce Index (2011):
Effective Employers. p. 5-16
125
Structure Underlying Supervisory Behavior Scales. p. 736-741, Ling, W. et al. (2000): Chinese
Implicit Leadership Theory. p. 729-739
126
States. p. 506-531; Brodbeck, F. et al. (2000): Cultural Variation of Leadership Prototypes Across
22 European Countries. p. 1-29; Kelly Global Workforce Index (2011): Effective Employers. p. 5-16
127
Cf. Epitropaki, O./Martin, R. (2004): Implicit Leadership Theories in Applied Settings. Study 2. S.
293-310
128
Cf. Den Hartog, D. et al. (1999): Culture Specific and Cross-Culturally Generalizable Implicit
Leadership Theories. p. 219-256; Epitropaki, O./Martin, R. (2004): Implicit Leadership Theories in
Applied Settings. Study 1. p. 293-310
129
Structure Underlying Supervisory Behavior Scales. p. 736-741; Ling, W. et al. (2000): Chinese
Implicit Leadership Theory. p. 729-739; Kelly Global Workforce Index (2011): Effective Employers.
p. 5-16
130
States. p. 506-531; Epitropaki, O./Martin, R. (2004): Implicit Leadership Theories in Applied
Settings. p. 293-310
131
Leadership Theories. p. 219-256; Holmberg, I./kerblom, S. (2006): Modelling Leadership. p. 307-
329
132
Countries. p. 1-29
133
Leadership Theories. p. 219-256
134
Oezbek-Potthof, G. (2013): Implizite Fuehrung im interkulturellen Kontext. p. 47
Martin. In concrete, results from the Kelly study can be derived for France and
Germany as well as leadership styles. Finance managers or their employees were
not explicitly interviewed.
(A-b) Top-down approaches: Examinations in the frame of direct influence of
ideal leadership on leadership success in a cultural context
Against the background of direct influence of ideal leadership on leadership
success in a cultural context, Oezbek-Potthoff reviewed three studies (see Table 49)
which are extended by the results of Geletkanycz, Caligiuri and Tarique in the
framework of this scientific discussion. In the following, the two latter mentioned
examinations will be presented before starting the analysis on this sub-issue. In
1997, Geletkanycz interviewed top managers in different countries and organizations
in the framework of an extensive examination concerning cross-cultural leadership
and corporate strategy (n = 1540). The result shows that the peer-group interviewed
is geared to existing leadership properties and strategy profiles regarding
individualism, uncertainty avoidance, power distance and long-term orientation and
that they do not want to sustainably change them.135 By the end of 2012, Caligiuri
and Tarique published their examination results after interviewing (n = 420) so-called
global leaders against the backdrop of the article "Dynamic cross-cultural
competencies and global leadership effectiveness" and subsumed their results in the
three clusters personal abilities, cross-cultural experiences as well as prediction of
dynamic cross-cultural competences.136 Personal abilities include extraversion
(abilities of personality such as conviviality, activity, liveliness, carelessness etc.)137,
openness for experiences as well as neuroticism (abilities such as anxiety, shyness,
irrationality etc. due to stimulations and activities in the reticulo-limbic circuit).138
Cross-cultural experiences include organization-initiated multicultural professional
experiences and non-professional multicultural experiences. The group prediction of
dynamic cross-cultural competences includes ambiguity tolerance (a term used in
prejudice researches which follows the perspective to accept other views and
intercultural discrepancies of behavior)139, cultural flexibility and reduced
ethnocentrism (negative attitude towards people who are seen as strange and
different).140
135
Cf. Geletkanycz, M. (1997): The salience of "cultures consequences". p. 615-634
136
Cf. Caligiuri, P./Tarique, I. (2012): Dynamic cross-cultural competencies and global leadership
effectiveness. p. 612-622
137
Cf. Maltby, J. et al. (2011): Differentielle Psychologie, Persoenlichkeit und Intelligenz. p. 365;
Engler, B. (2009): Personality Theories. p. 285-299
138
Cf. Maltby, J. et al. (2011): Differentielle Psychologie, Persoenlichkeit und Intelligenz. p. 365-366
139
Cf. Keup, M. (2010): Internationale Kompetenz. p. 121-122
140
Cf. Sumner, W. (2003): Folkways. p. 13
Regarding content perspective of all studies reviewed, it can be noted that ideal
leadership and, therefore, leadership success are explained and defined
differentiated. Ah Chong and Thomas as well as Caligiuri and Tarique summarize in
their examinations that ideal leadership derives from leadership success. Byrman
and Geletkanycz see leadership style and leadership abilities as ideal leadership.
Ensari and Murphy differentiated managers into prototype and anti-prototype in there
thesis. In the context of these examinations, leadership success is differentiated into
employee related141 and leadership based drivers.142 The conceptual perspective
regarding theoretical basics shows that all examinations mentioned analyze implicit
leadership methods in the framework of the theses. Geletkanycz examines excerpts
from cultural dimensions according to Hofstede. Caligiuri and Tarique discuss
personal abilities, cross-cultural experiences and prediction of dynamic cross-cultural
competences. Furthermore, the examination of Ensari and Murphy reviews the
extended charismatic leadership approach of Conger and Kanungo. With a view to
the construction of the relation framework, it can be recognized that four out of five
examinations look at causal correlations with the help of independent and dependent
variables.143 The thesis of Ah Chong and Thomas reviewed neither linear nor causal
correlations and, thus, focused on the modification of leadership abilities of the two
differentiated groups. The methodical view uses for every thesis cross-sectional
studies in order to review the period of time. The variety of the amounts of random
samples of each of the five examinations is sufficient. The researchers Ah Chong
and Thomas, Geletkanycz as well as Caligiuri and Tarique executed their
examinations in enterprises. Bryman as well as Ensari and Murphy recruited their
participants at universities. Each of the five studies was executed in the framework of
different cultures. Ah Chong and Thomas analyzed two differentiating cultural groups
from New Zealand. The researcher Bryman compared the research results he gained
from Great Britain to existing results from the USA. Ensari and Murphy examined
groups in the USA and in Turkey and compared the results. Geletkanycz examined
twenty different cultures in the framework of her thesis. Caligiuri and Tarique
141
Cf. Ah Chong, L./Thomas, D. (1997): Leadership Perceptions in Cross-Cultural Context. p. 275-293
142
Cf. Bryman, A. (1987): The Generalizability of Implicit Leadership Theory. p. 129-141; Ensari,
N./Murphy, S. (2003): Cross-Cultural Variations in Leadership Perceptions and Attribution of
Charisma to the Leader. S. 52-66; Caligiuri, P./Tarique, I. (2012): Dynamic cross-cultural
competencies and global leadership effectiveness. p. 612-622 and Geletkanycz, M. (1997): The
salience of "cultures consequences. p. 615634
143
Cf. Bryman, A. (1987): The Generalizability of Implicit Leadership Theory. p. 129-141; Ensari,
N./Murphy, S. (2003): Cross-Cultural Variations in Leadership Perceptions and Attribution of
Charisma to the Leader. p. 52-66; Caligiuri, P./Tarique, I. (2012): Dynamic cross-cultural
competencies and global leadership effectiveness. p. 612-622 and Geletkanycz, M. (1997): The
salience of "cultures consequences. p. 615634
examined participants from 41 cultures respectively countries especially the USA

besides, for example, Cuba, Italy, Austria, Great Britain, the Netherlands, Australia,
France and Mexico. Each of the five examinations mentioned in the cluster is a so-
called culture comparative thesis. In the framework of two examinations, students
(m/f) were interviewed, whereas in the other three studies, managers and employees
from different organizations took part.144 The methods of factor and variance analysis
are used in the examinations. Those two analysis tools are used either singular or
combined. With a view to the abstracted valuation, it can be summarized that the
examinations took place in an international context mainly with managers and
employees. Nevertheless, a non-negligible proportion of students was interviewed as
well. Caligiuri and Tarique as well as Geletkanycz focused on the top-down
approach. In concrete, the latter mentioned examination results can be used.
Managers or their employees were interviewed explicitly neither.
(A-c) Bottom-up approaches: Examinations on influence of realized leadership
on leadership success mediated by ideal leadership in a cultural context
With a view to the influence of realized leadership on leadership success mediated
by ideal leadership in a cultural context, Oezbek-Potthoff analyzed only one
examination.145 In the framework of the research, those examinations were confirmed
and no further relevant or continuing theses (against the backdrop of additional
knowledge to be gained) were found.
The cultural factor of the content perspective of the thesis of Sy et al. examines
different ethnic groups in the USA regarding the leadership abilities realized by those
cultural groups as well as their expectations from an ideal manager. In this context,
the ethnic group represents the independent variable which has an effect on the
dependent variable of leadership expectations. This relation is mediated by abilities
such as intelligence, masculinity and dynamic. The central result shows that
employees have determined expectations on the cultural ethnic origin of the ideal
leader. Another significant result in this context is that employees in North America
rather expect a white manager as their ideal leader than an Afro-American or Latin-
American. As there is only one study in this context, it means a challenge to the
scientific transfer. According to Oezbek-Potthoff should, "hnliche Studien [in the
future in] Europa, insbesondere in Lndern, in denen eine groe Anzahl von
144
Cf. Ah Chong, L./Thomas, D. (1997): Leadership Perceptions in Cross-Cultural Context. p. 275-
293; Caligiuri, P./Tarique, I. (2012): Dynamic cross-cultural competencies and global leadership
effectiveness. p. 612-622 and Geletkanycz, M. (1997): The salience of "cultures consequences". p.
615-634
145
Cf. Sy, T. et al. (2010): Leadership Perceptions as a Function of Race-Occupation Fit. p. 902-919
Einwanderern leben, wie zum Beispiel Deutschland, Frankreich oder die

Niederlande, durchgefhrt werden."146
The conceptual perspective shows that the examination is based on the implicit
leading theory regarding the formulation of the hypotheses. The referenced
examination has two frameworks where the relation between the independent and
the dependent variables are mediated by leadership abilities.
With a view to the methodic perspective, it can be worked out that the thesis
mentioned uses a cross-section study for the period of examination. Regarding the
number of organizations interviewed, information on data basis is missing. The
exclusive singular information on the number of respondents (n = 381) allows to draw
conclusions regarding the amount of random samples. In order to verify the
hypotheses, the study used regression analysis as an analysis tool.
With a view to the abstracted valuation, it can be summarized that the examination
took place in an international context but mainly in the USA. In concrete, the result of
the current thesis shows that due to the cultural ethnic origin of managers, they may
have to fulfill corresponding expectations. This fact is confirmed by the execution of a
concrete examination.
(A-d) Bottom-up approaches: Examinations on direct influence of culture on
realized leadership
Regarding the focus on direct influence of culture on realized leadership, Oezbek-
Potthoff examined three studies (see Table 50). In the context of this academic
discussion, those examinations are extended by the results of the GLOBE studies
which are presented with the total analysis and links to the cultural frameworks of
Germany, Spain and France are created.
Besides the discussed classics, there are further developments of findings and
cultural dimensions of Hofstede and Trompenaars in the framework of the so-called
GLOBE research which are presented below regarding Germany, Spain and France
(see Table 52).
The initiated examinations of Robert J. House in the framework of the so-called
GLOBE project (Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness
Research Program) is the basis. Originally, the aim of the studies was to review the
generalization of "Charismatic Leadership". Today, it represents a global research
program with 170 management and social researchers from 62 countries who
examine the correlation between the cultures of societies as well as the leading
culture of organizations (see Table 53 and Table 54).
146
zbek-Potthof, G. (2013): Implizite Fhrung im interkulturellen Kontext. p. 56
There are three significant examination phases which are written down in the three
books:
- "Culture, Leadership, and Organizations: The Globe Study of 62 Societies"147 of
2004,
- "Culture and Leadership Across the World: The GLOBE Book of In-Depth
Studies of 25 Societies (Lea's Organization and Management)"148 of 2007 as well
as
- "Strategic Leadership Across Cultures: Globe Study of CEO Leadership Behavior
and Effectiveness in 24 countries"149 (2013).
The concrete aim of the latter mentioned study is to research the effects of
different leadership styles and behaviors of Chief Executive Officers (CEO) on the
work attitude of the employees within an organization as well as their performance.
This examination is no further reviewed in the framework of this thesis as it aims for
intermediate managers.
The GLOBE study formulated and verified the following fifteen theses with the help
of empirical examinations.150
(1) Cultural norms and rules have an influence on leadership behavior.
(2) This leadership behavior influences the organization, the culture and the
behavior of enterprises.
(3) Cultural values and courses of action of a society have an influence on the
culture and the behavior of organizations.
(4) The culture and the behavior of organizations have an influence on the course
of action of leaders.
(5/6) The culture of a country and the culture of an organization effect implicit
leadership theories causally.
(7) The so-called contingency factors of an organization (such as enterprise
environment, size of enterprise as well as technology) have an influence on the
culture of an organization as well as on the behavior of the organization
members.
(8) The organizational contingency has a causal connection to the behavior of the
leaders.
147
Cf. House, R. et al. (2004): Culture, Leadership, and Organizations the Globe Study of 62
Societies.
148
Cf. Chhokar, J. et al. (2007): Culture and Leadership across the world: The GLOBE Book of in-
depth Studies of 25 Societies
149
Cf. House, R. et al. (2013): Strategic Leadership Across Cultures: Globe Study of CEO Leadership
Behavior and Effectiveness in 24 countries
150
Cf. House, R./Javidan, M. (2004): Overview of GLOBE. p. 17-19
(9) The link between the organizational contingency and the form, culture as well
as practices of the organization is regulated by the culture.
(10) The acceptance of leaders by employees is a function of interaction between
CEILT and leadership behavior.
Cultural Dimensions (GLOBE)
Uncertainty
Power Distance Assertiveness
Avoidance
Performance Institutional
Future Orientation
Orientation Collectivism
In-Group Gender
Human Orientation
Collectivism Egalitarianism
151
Figure 7: Cultural dimensions (GLOBE)
(11) The effectiveness of leadership is a function of interaction between CLT and

leadership behavior.
(12) The acceptance of the leadership by the employees induces effective employee
management.
(13) Effective employee management increases the acceptance of the leadership
over time.
(14) Social actions are in correlation with economic competitiveness.
(15) Social actions and practices are in significant correlation to psychological and
physiological welfare of the members of a society.
The cultural essays embedded in the thesis mentioned include a scientific

comparative and a culturally individual part in the internal construction. Each equally
constructed section puts the nine cultural dimensions (see Figure 7) (1) power
distance, (2) uncertainty avoidance, (3) assertiveness, (4) future orientation, (5)
performance orientation, (6) institutional collectivism, (7) in-group collectivism, (8)
151
Source: Compiled illustration by the author of this research project (2014) referring to GLOBE with
view on House, R./Javidan, M. (2004): Overview of GLOBE. p. 17-19
human orientation and (9) gender egalitarianism 152 [each with a level from 1 to 7 on a
Likert scale] in relation to the criteria "as is" 153 (present) and "should be" 154 (future).
155 156 157
No. Cultural Dimension GE SP FR
1 Power Distance 5,25 5,52 5,28
2 Uncertainty Avoidance 5,22 3,97 4,43
3 Assertiveness 4,55 4,42 4,13
4 Future Orientation 4,27 3,51 3,48
5 Performance Orientation 4,25 4,01 4,11
6 Institutional Collectivism 3,79 3,85 3,93
7 In-Group Collectivism 4,02 5,45 4,37
8 Human Orientation 3,18 3,32 3,40
9 Gender Egalitarianism 3,10 3,01 3,64
158
Table 5: GLOBE dimensions for GE, SP and FR relating to "as is"
(1) Power distance: Power distance is the level up to which the members of an
organization accept, tolerate or even expect that power is not distributed equally
within an organization, i. e. that there is power in the leadership of an
organization. 159
(2) Uncertainty avoidance: Uncertainty avoidance determines the level up to which
organizations in a macro context or their members in a macro context try to avoid
uncertainty. This is realized by the fact that stakeholders rely on social norms and
established processes and that, in addition, they comply with rules and laws. The
operationalized key figure, therefore, expresses how organizations/members of
organizations feel threatened by new, unknown and even uncertain situational
changes. The scale then reaches from complying with rules up to coping with
uncertainties. 160
152
Cf. Chhokar, J. et al. (2007): Culture and Leadership across the world. p. 4
153
"As is" (GLOBE): Common and constant practice and behaviors Cf. Chhokar, J. et al. (2007):
Culture and Leadership across the world. p. 4
154
"Should be" (GLOBE): Common values and standards. Cf. Chhokar, J. et al. (2007): Culture and
Leadership across the world. p. 4
155
Brodbeck, F. et al. (2007): Societal Culture and Leadership in Germany. p. 162
156
OConnell, J. et al. (2007): Managerial Culture and Leadership in Spain. p. 567
157
Castel, P. et al. (2007): Universalism and Exceptionalism: French Business leadership. p. 637
158
Source: Compiled illustration by the author of this book (2014): The specific source with view on
the values are shown after the country name (footnote). If the deviation between the country-based
cultural dimensions are below 0,05, the same background color is used (Cluster)
159
Cf. Dale, C. et al (2004): Power Distance. p. 513
160
Cf. De Luque, M./Javidan, M. (2004): Uncertainty Avoidance. p. 602
(3) Assertiveness: Assertiveness expresses the important level in which members of

organizations act self-confident, aggressive or confrontational within enterprises
or societies. 161
(4) Future orientation: Future orientation shows the level in which members of
organizations show future oriented actions such as planning. 162
163 164 165
No. Cultural Dimensions GE SP FR
1 Power Distance 2,54 2,26 2,76
2 Uncertainty Avoidance 3,32 4,76 4,26
3 Assertiveness 3,09 4,00 3,38
4 Future Orientation 4,85 5,63 4,96
5 Performance Orientation 6,01 5,80 5,65
6 Institutional Collectivism 4,82 5,20 4,86
7 In-Group Collectivism 5,18 5,79 5,42
8 Human Orientation 5,46 5,69 5,67
9 Gender Egalitarianism 4,89 4,82 4,40
166
Table 6: GLOBE dimensions for GE, SP and FR relating to "should be"
(5) Performance orientation: Performance orientation is the level of promotion and

recognition of a society regarding the willingness of the members of the
organization. 167
(6) Institutional collectivism: Institutional collectivism expresses how collective
actions such as allocation of resources is recognized, promoted and rewarded by
the organization. 168
(7) In-group collectivism: In-group collectivism is a measurement in which extent the
members of an organization show cohesion, pride and loyalty towards their
environment or their organization. 169
161
162
Cf. House, R./Javidan, M. (2004): Overview of GLOBE. p. 13
163
Brodbeck, F. et al. (2007): Societal Culture and Leadership in Germany. p. 162
164
OConnell, J. et al. (2007): Managerial Culture and Leadership in Spain. p. 567
165
Castel, P. et al. (2007): Universalism and Exceptionalism: French Business leadership. p. 637
166
Compiled illustration by the author of this book (2014): The specific source with view on the values
are shown after the country name (footnote). If the deviation between the country-based cultural
dimensions are below 0,05, the same background color is used (Cluster)
167
Cf. Javidan, M. (2004): Performance Orientation. p. 12-13
168
169
(8) Human orientation: Human orientation or also social orientation expresses how
the organization promotes and rewards attitudes such as altruism, fairness,
friendliness etc. concerning its members.170
(9) Gender egalitarianism: Gender egalitarianism shows in what extent the society or
organization minimizes differences in the framework of gender roles and,
therefore, maximizes gender egalitarianism.171
For the further course, the comparative review with a view to the countries
Germany, Spain and France is presented whereby Germany is differentiated into the
parts of West and East Germany, i. e. the old and new federal states, within the
GLOBE study (for this part of the evaluation, the share of West Germany is selected).
Mostly, the culture manifests itself into two directions. One perspective according to
GLOBE is "should be" which focuses on values, beliefs, norms as well as implicit
theories. The second view "as is" can be found in everyday practice (in families, at
school, at work as well as in political organizations).172 Table 5 shows that there is no
correlation between the culture-specific established practices (as is) in France,
Germany, and Spain despite a tolerance of 0.5 points for the cultural dimensions.
Table 6 compares the culture-specific values and norms "should be" of the
countries Germany, Spain and France. Considering the cluster building tolerance of
0.05, there are no correlations between Spain and France except for human
orientation.
With a view to content perspective, it can be deduced that in each study a
minimum of two cultures was reviewed differentiated. In the framework of the
presentation of culture, cultural dimensions173 are referenced to on one hand or
cultures are reviewed comparatively.174 The realized leadership subsumes attitudes,
abilities and actions of managers. The central results of the four examinations are
differentiated into two clusters. The result of the three studies according to Den
Hartog et al., Koopman et al. and GLOBE shows that there is a causality between the
cultural background and the realized leadership attitudes. In the framework of their
examination, Pekerti and Sendjaya come to the conclusion that the cultural context
has no influence on leadership attitudes. Thus, it is recognizable that cultural
influences on leadership attitudes are significant in most of the examinations
170
171
172
Cf. Chhokar, J. et al. (2007): Culture and Leadership across the world. p. 4
173
Cf. Den Hartog, D. et al. (1997): Dutch and Polish Perceptions of Leadership and Culture. p. 387-
413 and Koopman, P. et al. (1999): National Cultures and Leadership Profiles in Europe. p. 503-
520 and Chhokar, J. et al. (2007): Culture and Leadership across the world. p. 1-16
174
Cf. Pekerti, A./Sendjaya, S. (2010): Exploring Servant Leadership Across Cultures. p. 754-780
presented. Regarding the conceptual perspective, it can be summarized that the four
examinations reviewed are theoretically based on implicit leadership theories.
With a view to the estimate of the conception of the relation framework, it can be
noted that the thesis of Pekerti and Sendjaya exclusively examines a causal
correlation with the help of independent and dependent variables. In the other
examinations, there is a correlating comparison/analysis of the variables. According
to the methodic perspective, it can be summarized that all four examinations use the
tool of the cross-sectional study in the framework of the research period. Regarding
the context of the data basis, it can be derived that the variance of the number of
random samples is high. The researchers around Den Hartog examined groups from
two different cultures respectively countries: the Netherlands and Poland.
There, six different organizations with a minimum of 270 participants (employees)
each were interviewed. It cannot be deduced from the study of Koopman et al. how
many organizations were in the focus of review but there is the information that, in
total, approx. 6000 leaders from 21 different cultures were interviewed. Pekerti and
Sendjaya record there data in the cultures respectively countries Australia and
Indonesia. In the framework of that scientific discussion, the examinations take place
in two to four organizations of the sectors consumer goods industry,
telecommunication industry and bankers. The key data of the GLOBE study were
already discussed above. The method of analysis used the most is the average
comparison. With an abstracted view, it can be emphasized that the examinations
are a good basis for the current academic frame. The theses are international and
managers as well as employees are interviewed. In concrete, however, there is no
conclusion on an explicit review of finance managers and their employees.
Nevertheless, in the framework of the GLOBE studies, the cultures of Germany,
Spain and France are being reviewed operationalized.
(A-e) Top-down approaches: Examinations on direct influence of culture on
ideal leadership.
With a view to direct influence of culture on ideal leadership, Oezbek-Potthoff
analysis two treatises containing four relevant theses in total.175 In the framework of
the research, those examinations were confirmed and no further relevant or
continuing theses (regarding additional knowledge) were found.
In the framework of content analyses, it can be noted that both research groups
review the cultural context differentiated. On one hand, Gerstner and Day use the
culture dimensions according to Hofstede in their examinations in order to explain
175
Cf. Gerstner, C./Day, D. (1994): Cross-Cultural Comparison of Leadership Prototypes. p. 121-134
and Sy, T. et al. (2010): Leadership Perceptions as a Function of Race-Occupation Fit. p. 902-919
culture. On the other hand, Sy et al. deduce culture due to dividing the different
ethnic groups into clusters.
In the studies mentioned, ideal leadership is recorded as the expectation towards
a typical leader. As a central result of both examination rows, it can be derived that
there are differing expectations regarding the ideal leader depending on the cultural
framework.
According to the conceptual focus, it can be noted that the studies mentioned use
implicit leadership theories as a theoretical basis. The conceptual framework of the
studies is different. In the theses of Gerstner and Day, variables are compared to
each other. Sy et al., in contrary, examine the causal correlations.
For both studies, the tool cross-sectional study is used for the analysis period
regarding methodic perspective. The valuation of the data basis shows that the
number and the composition of random samples recorded are comparative in both
studies. In the framework of the examinations according to Gerstner and Day and Sy
et al., university students (USA) were interviewed. The number of students of both
theses is between 130 and 140 each. The data basis of the three studies of Sy et al.
focusing on the organization reviewed as well as the method of analysis used
(regression analysis) was already described in sub-item c in this chapter. Gerstner
and Day used the method of average comparison for their analysis.
The internationality of the examinations can be deduced abstractedly. Also, there
neither are indications for finance managers and/or their employees nor for the
review of the cultures and countries of Germany, Spain and France.
B) Leadership Needs
The following leadership needs (Table 7) can be deduced from the previous
examinations. Therefore, GLOBE separates so-called universal positive (Table 56)
as well as negative leadership attitudes (Table 57).
Needs Remarks Source

Mentoring and Coaching The employees should get the chance CIMA (2002)
to develop themselves regarding
mentoring and coaching.
Personnel Development Managers should focus on identifying Becker and Kluckow (2011)
talents and developing them further.
Cultural Intelligence (CQ) One of the most important challenges Koopmann et al. (1999);
regarding international management. Den Hartog et al. (1997);
Caligiuri and Tarique (2012)
Motivation of employees The employees would like to have Dorfman (2004)
motivating working conditions.
Coping with organizational Managers should understand each Pekerti/Sendjaya (2010)
and other changes. single phase of change management
and act correspondingly.
Time management for Managers should create time for Haefner (2011)
successful leadership themselves in order to lead effectively.
Recipient oriented Against the background of cultural Dorfman (2004);
communication in a facts, leaders have to communicate Oestreicher, K. (2010)
multicultural environment recipient oriented.
Emotional Intelligence (EQ) Managers need a sensitive nose Ullmann (2013)
(empathy) to be able to realize human
stimuli and signals.
Mental stress and strain It is proven that absence due to mental Kunz (2012)
illness increases more and more.
Creation of a culture of trust Establishing and caring for trust to each Reports of health insurances such as
and independent action other as well as delegation of DAK Gesundheitsreport (health
responsibility. report) (2013)
176
Table 7: Derived needs in the framework of leadership
C) Functional Diversity between Finance Managers

The previous paragraph explains examinations on leadership in general. In the
following, effective leadership with regard to cross-cultural parameters is reviewed. In
order to maximize leadership effectivity, the two factors (C-a) cross functional in (C-b)
multicultural organizations should be reviewed ceteris paribus.
Besides the cultural dimensions, Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner also
executed a cross-cultural independent examination (first based on US American,
later on extended to numerous cultures) with a view to functional diversity for the
sectors human resources, manufacturing, finance, research & development,
marketing, legal, administration and public affairs dependent on the dimensions
universalism versus particularism, individualism versus collectivism, neutrality versus
176
Mode Deduction of needs with a view on the results of the literature analysis
affectivity, specificity versus diffusity as well as achieved status versus ascribed

status.177
Universalism/ Individualism/ Neutral/ Specific/ Achievement/
Function
Particularism Collectivism Emotional Diffuse Ascription
HR 78 42 56 67 54
Production 63 52 54 78 72
Finance 76 51 62 76 63
R&D 74 52 60 66 78
Marketing 53 61 57 79 82
Legal 79 56 62 72 55
Administration 64 32 72 75 80
Public Affairs 53 81 58 92 38
178
Table 8: Functional differences described in cultural dimensions
In Table 8, the results of the studies are demonstrated. The higher the figure
determined per dimension, the more the corresponding first variable is in the focus of
review. Thus, the average of finance population is rather impacted by universalism, i.
e. midway between individualism and collectivism, neutrality, specificity and achieved
status. In this academic discussion, an additional dimension is examined as a basis,
namely the finance function in the sector of multicultural organizations.
D) Definition of Effective Leadership in the Multicultural Sector
Against the backdrop of the executed scientific-literally analyses, a definition for
effective leadership in a multicultural framework is deduced now. Therefore, effective
leadership causally and finally maximizes the productivity of employees (m/f)
considering functional and cultural challenges.
Summarizing Evaluation of the Literature Analysis
As a result of the literature analyses it can be noted that the scientific discussion
against the background of optimizing leadership in a multicultural framework has not
reached the level of coping with and grasping complexity yet as it is necessary in
profit-based organizations in the real economy of today.
The examined and discussed studies show differing approaches in methods,
conceptions, content, data bases, organizations reviewed, cultural and ethnic groups
177
Cf. Trompenaars, F./Hampden-Turner, C. (2009): Riding the Waves of Culture. p. 235-238
178
Cf. with view on Trompenaars, F./Hampden-Turner, C. (2009): Riding the Waves of Culture. p. 236
2.2 Current Training Courses for Multicultural Managers 45
as well as analysis methods used and could, thus, give a complete and diversified
picture.
However, this is not the case as especially regarding the methodic tools, the
accuracy and complexity concerning context as well as the further expansion of the
cultural view of research key issues such as the United States, there is space for
continuing development. In this context in particular, the evaluated examinations
show that leadership theories were developed for singular cultures or countries or
they were compared cross-culturally. Thus, those theses are culture comparative.
Therefore, the multicultural view of leadership (examination top-down and bottom-
up; managers (level n) and subordinated managers or employees (level n-1 each))
does not exist and has become a blind spot regarding that field of research.
Regarding the basis for this scientific discussion, this finally leads to the conclusion
that after the literature review of the cultural examinations and multicultural
leadership, there are cultural discrepancies between the countries to be examined
which, among others, can lead to a decrease in productivity if it is not considered
within a team working together. In addition, there are no further signs regarding
correlation of cultural differences and functional differences (finance managers for
example) for the cross-cultural framework of Germany, Spain and France neither in
general nor in concrete so far.
2.2 Current Training Courses for Multicultural Managers

One important aim of this academic examination is to formulate a development
program for finance managers as "Global Leaders can be made. Learning to
connect, create and contribute."179 In the framework of the scientific discussion
concerning intercultural training courses, there are no specific training courses for the
above mentioned peer group.180
The current situation can be realized as such that, on one hand, many
organizations mainly reduce their multicultural personnel development to short-term
training courses which are only executed immediately before a multicultural event
and, thus, those training courses are rather adapted for target groups such as
expatriates.181 On the other hand, the trend is towards general training courses for all
participants (with no relation to professional background and, therefore, special
needs, compare Table 51). Such intercultural training concepts shall raise expertise
and shall also train behavior. As all those things cannot be fully raised, a so-called
179
Cabrera, A./Unruh, G. (2012): Being global. p. 11
180
Cf. White, R./Shullman, S. (2012): Thirty Years of Global Leadership Training. p. 268-278
181
Cf. Bannenberg, A.-K. (2011): Die Bedeutung interkultureller Kommunikation in der Wirtschaft. p. 3
approximate approach shall be chosen. It is recommended in particular that, ideally,

native speakers shall execute those training courses.182 Furthermore, it shall be
considered that developmental cross-cultural experiences occur through both work-
related and non-work-related activities. The results suggest that both selection and
development are critical for building a pipeline of effective global leaders.183
Affective Dimension Cognitive Dimension Behavioral Dimension
ambiguity tolerance understanding the cultural the will to communicate regarding
phenomenon regarding realization, and initiating practice of partial
frustration tolerance
thinking, attitudes, behavior and abilities of the affective dimension
ability to cope with stress and acting
ability to communicate
reduction of complexity
understanding foreign cultural
social competence against the
self-confidence connections of acting
background to build relations to
flexibility understanding own cultural foreign culturally interacting
empathy, distance of roles connections of acting partners
freedom from prejudice, tolerance understanding cultural differences

between the interacting partners
low ethnocentrism
understanding special features of
acceptance/respect towards other
intercultural communication
cultures
processes
intercultural willingness to learn
ability of meta communication
184
Table 9: Structure of intercultural competence (Bolten)
Thus, a general and overall view regarding the key statements and current
knowledge is shown below.
According to Bolten, intercultural competence means preventing problems within
intercultural cooperation. He differentiates them in cognitive as well as affective and
behavioral dimensions (see Table 9). The cognitive level reflects the knowledge of
own, foreign and intercultural processes. The abilities and attitudes of the affective
dimension have to be realized by acting and behaving correspondingly in order to be
able to act interculturally competent and, therefore, successfully.185 In the scientific
182
Cf. Hummel, T. (2011): Unternehmensfuehrung im internationalen Kontext mit Fallstudien,
Uebungsaufgaben und Loesungen. p. 161
183
Cf. Caligiuri, P./Tarique, I. (2012): Dynamic cross-cultural competencies and global leadership
effectiveness. p. 612-622
184
With view on Bolten, J. (2003): Interkultureller Trainingsbedarf aus der Perspektive der Problem-
erfahrungen entsandter Fuehrungskraefte. p. 68
185
Cf. Bolten, J. (2003): Interkultureller Trainingsbedarf aus der Perspektive der Problemerfahrungen
entsandter Fuehrungskraefte. p. 65-80
discussion, this topic can be found in the term "Cultural Intelligence" (see chapter
3.4).
Cross-cultural, informational training Culture-specific, informational training
cross-cultural assimilators culture-specific assimilators
training courses on intercultural communication foreign language lessons

theory, culture anthropology and culture comparative
culture-specific training courses on history, everyday
psychology
live and changing values of cultures
training videos
case study work
Discourse analytically founded training courses
case study work
Cross-cultural interaction-oriented training Culture-specific interaction-oriented training

intercultural workshops multicultural communication workshops
simulations, role plays for intercultural sensitization culture-specific simulations
self-assessment questionnaires negotiation role plays
sensitivity training courses

186
Table 10: Typification of intercultural training courses
On one hand, Podsiadlowski resumes that in the framework of successful

cooperation, various social competences have to be fulfilled which subsume, from
their perspective, empathy, great respect for foreign cultures, interest in the culture of
the host country, mobility, tolerance, understanding each other as well as solidarity.
On the other hand, it works out abilities which influence intercultural competence.
This includes prejudices, intercultural information deficit, intentions of dominance and
superiority, fears of threats, destructive national and cultural stereotyping,
xenophobia as well as fear of foreign cultural issues.
In general, it is necessary to execute determined training measures in order to
build and extend intercultural competences. Intercultural training courses are defined
as so-called personnel development measures for promoting helpful concepts for
intercultural cooperation. The aim is to optimize sustained satisfaction of employees
in intercultural situations by preparing the people involved respectively the working
groups for their future tasks.187
186
entsandter Fuehrungskraefte. p. 73
187
Cf. Podsiadlowski, A. (2004): Interkulturelle Kommunikation und Zusammenarbeit. p. 47
The aim of intercultural training measures is to reflect on adherence to culture and

on thinking, to give impetus and approaches as well as to improve the interaction of
humans of other cultures.188
Bolten separates intercultural training courses into four types, each of which is a
combination of culture-specific and cross-cultural as well as informational and
interaction-oriented training courses (see Table 10). According to Boltens estimation,
cross-culturally informational training courses are barely found in organizations (see
Table 10, on the left in top) but rather in the field of academic training courses. Those
training measures include, for example, seminars on intercultural communication
theories, culture anthropology and cultural comparative psychology as well as
training videos and case study works. The preference of using this training method is
that there is a high cognitive learning effect with a view to understanding intercultural
communication processes. Against the background of practical training courses of
leaders, the disadvantage is that this approach is seen as too abstract.
On the opposite, culture-specific informational training courses (see Table 10, on
the right in top) are found, for example, in the framework of measurements on
personnel development in Germany. This kind of training includes providing
information on the target culture with a special view to abilities of management types
and every day cultural conventions of action. In addition, it is important that the
culture-historical framework is separated and that, based on culture comparative
analyses, trainees have access to different cultures. By executing this kind of
training, it is possible to gain an entire understanding of the cross-cultural system
provided that the training measures are self-explanatory and not exclusively
executed descriptively. There is a risk that the existing stereotypical thinking might be
supported by proceeding purely descriptive or fact-historical respectively by reducing
cultural information to country-specific dos and taboos. Cross-cultural interaction-
oriented training courses (see Table 10, on the left on bottom) include role plays and
simulations of fictitious cultures and focus on affective and behavior-oriented learning
targets. If those training courses are executed in the framework of mixed groups,
participants show signs of interculturality. Due to the fact that those role plays and
simulations are mostly fictitious, they are not really taken serious by the participants.
Thus, this type of training is barely accepted by managers.
Culture-specific interaction-oriented training courses (see Table 10, on the right on
bottom) take mostly place in the framework of so-called off-the-job training courses
where participants come from the target country as well as from the sending country.
188
Cf. Giesche, S. (2010): Interkulturelle Kompetenz als zentraler Erfolgsfaktor im internationalen
Projekt-management. p. 89
This type of training is often executed as a business game or a sensitivity training. 189
The aim is to deal with multicultural prejudices, stereotypes and conventions of
behavior (by doing experimental training courses). If a bi-cultural peer group is
served in the framework of this training, it can lead to a so-called semi-authentic
experience of economy-related, intercultural acting. Most of the time, no culture-
specific knowledge is provided.190
Against the backdrop of the target of deriving a leadership model and development
program for finance managers acting in a multicultural context (Germany, Spain and
France), specific financial orientation lacks.
189
A Sensitivity-Training is, according to Rechtien, W. (2007), p. 52, a dynamic group training with a
special view on self-awareness. It was developed at the Graduate School of Business
Administration (University of California, Los Angeles) in the year 1954. (Origin: Kurt Lewin)
190
entsandter Fuehrungskraefte. p. 72-80.
3. Selected Significant Leadership Roles, Skills and Abilities
In the following subchapters, globalization and leadership regarding the new
challenges for managers as well as selected important leadership roles, attitudes and
skills are discussed.
In the context of psychological and sociological descriptions, the term "role" is
defined as "die Summe der von einer Person erwarteten Verhaltensweisen bezglich
einer bestimmten sozialen Position".191 From the psychological perspective, abilities
describe individual attitudes "die operational oder methodisch vermittelt der Person
und ihrem Verhalten relativ stabil und konsistent zugeordnet werden knnen."192 A
priori, those abilities are subject-centered. With a view to psychological approaches,
the term "skills" means solid "Systeme verallgemeinerter psycho-physischer
Handlungsprozesse, einschlielich der zur Ausfhrung erforderlichen inneren
psychischen Bedingungen und Eigenschaften, die den Ttigkeitsvollzug steuern."193
In contrary to abilities, skills are action-centered.
3.1 Globalization and Leadership New Challenges for Managers
In his model "Foundations of Transnational Leadership" (Figure 8), Fisher-Yoshida

describes interconnections and importance between management, communication
and organizational learning/changes.
The three major issues within this model are "Intercultural Communications",
"Relational Leadership" and "Transformative Learning".
Intercultural Communications
According to the fact that multicultural communication is one of the main drivers of
an effective leadership (cf. chapter 1) this topic will be deeper described. What is
special with view on intercultural communication? What is the relationship between
communication and culture? The following assumptions to culture are showing
different approaches anthropological classification, cultural studies as well as
globalization definition about communication.
191
Kulbe, A. (2009): Grundwissen Psychologie, Soziologie und Paedagogik. p. 117
192
Lang, D. (2009): Soziale Kompetenz und Persoenlichkeit. p. 11
193
Lang, D. (2009): Soziale Kompetenz und Persoenlichkeit. p. 11

52 3 Selected Significant Leadership Roles, Skills and Abilities
Communications
Intercultural
Communications
Transnational
leadership
Relational Transformative
Leadership Leadership
Leadership Learning
194
Figure 8: Foundations of transnational leadership
Due to the anthropological classification of culture "as a shared system of

meaning, communication is a process of transmitting and sharing information among
a group of people. In this case, communication enables culture to be co-constructed
and mutually shared by members of a group."195
Within the cultural studies or examination approach, culture is a controversial site
of intend. Due to this direction, "communication is a process through which
individuals and groups negotiate and struggle over the "agreed upon" and
"appropriate" meanings assigned to reality. Through verbal and nonverbal
communication as well as the use of rhetoric, some views are privileged and
normalized while others perspectives are marginalized or silenced. Thus,
communication is a process of negotiation, a struggle for power and visibility, rather
than a mutual construction and sharing of meaning."196
Inside the globalization definition, culture is considered as a resource. Thus,
"communication can be viewed as a productive process that enables change. We
usually associate the word productive with positive qualities. However, "productive"
here simply means that communication is a generative process. People leverage
194
Cf. Fisher-Yoshida, B./Geller, K. (2009): Transnational leadership development. p. 8
195
Sorrells, K. (2012): Intercultural Communication. p. 10
196
3.1 Globalization and Leadership New Challenges for Managers 53
culture to build collective identities and exploit or mobilize for personal, economic, or
political gain. Communication is a process of utilizing resources."197
The mentioned definitions show the complexity of intercultural communication. To
deal with this fact is a main challenge for global leaders.
Relational Leadership
Surveys with view to relational leadership "today fall somewhere between two
radically different perspectives, each of which speaks its own language and draws
from dissimilar logics of inquiry. On the one side, an entity perspective on relational
leadership (independent of which theoretical school it reflects) considers traits,
behaviors, and actions of individuals or group members as they engage in
interpersonal relationship to influence on another; on the other side, a constructionist
perspective considers processes of social construction and emergent practices that
reflect common understandings through which leadership gains legitimacy and
produces outcomes."198
Transformative Learning
Transformative learning is a sequence of researching, asking, and checking the
preceptions of our experiences. "If we were to take the philosophical perspective that
there are universal truths and constructs that are independent of our knowledge of
them, the goal of education would be to find those truths. We uncritically assimilate
perspectives include distortions, stereotypes, and prejudices. The guide our decision
making and our actions until we encounter a situation that is not congruent with our
expectation. At that point, we my reject the discrepant perspective or enter into a
process that could lead to a transformed perspective."199
Thus, this three mentioned areas of "Intercultural Communications", "Relational
Leadership" and "Transformative Learning" are shown overlapping. The intersection
of the clusters presents the so-called "Transnational Leadership". And this attribute is
an important topic for global acting managers.
In the following Table 11 a brief overview and description for the selected roles,
skills and abilities mental stress, trust and empowerment, mentoring and coaching,
personnel development, emotional as well as cultural intelligence, motivation, change
and time management communication and finally team and team building is given.
197
198
Uhl-Bien, M./Ospina, S. (2012): Advanced Relational Leadership Research. p. XXII
199
Cranton, P./Taylor, E. (2012): Transformative learning theory. p. 5-6
Needs Remark
Mental Stress Abstinence caused by the rise of psychological strain and, therefore, the individual
200
psychological stress in working environment is getting bigger and bigger - especially
regarding multicultural connections. Against this background, managers are to develop
sensitivity with a view to an "early warning system" in order to be able to timely
recognize corresponding signs.
Trust/Empowerment Building a culture of trust and delegating working packages including delegation of
responsibility, is an important attitude for leaders.
Mentoring/Coaching Humans have potential which is minimized also to the outside by, for example,
demotivation. In the role of a mentor and/or a coach, it is the target and the task of a
manager to recognize and develop that potential.
Personnel Against the background of binding personnel and, as a result, minimizing fluctuation of
Development service providers, the realization and execution of personnel development is an
important aspect.
Emotional Intelligence An important requirement for managers is the ability of emotional intelligence, i. e.
"[having] great empathy towards different groups of humans. Only then, they can be
201
successful in the long term".
Cultural Intelligence This ability reviews knowledge, experience and attitude regarding multicultural
202 203
challenges and values with a view to commonalities and differences.
Motivation "The need to control is identified as the most dominant need. Strategies to create a
motivational environment must take into consideration the strong need to control that
204
must exhibit employees."
Change Management As already described in the introduction, organizations are imposed by the
organizational change over time. Optimized by the management, humans must be led
through the seven phases shock, negation, insight, acceptance, trying, recognition and
205
integration during this process of adaption.
Time Management Adaption and further development of individual time management in order to maximize
206
temporary resources for successful leadership.
Communication Recipient-oriented or receiver-based communication with the multifaceted challenge to
reach stakeholders with different cultural backgrounds and values and mostly non-
207
native speakers.
Team An important ability of a manager acting in a global context is to integrate employees
with different cultural backgrounds in a team and to further develop this team.
208
Table 11: Overview and brief description of leadership roles, skills and abilities
200
Cf. Lohmer, M. (2013): Burn-out im Spannungsfeld von Persoenlichkeit und Organisationsstruktur.
p. 8
201
Hummel, T. (2011): Unternehmensfhrung im internationalen Kontext mit Fallstudien, bungs-
aufgaben und Lsungen. p. 67
202
Cf. Jackson, T. (2011): International management ethics. p. 68
203
Cf. Moran, T. et al. (2011): Managing cultural differences. Leadership. Skills and Strategies for
Working in a Global World. p. 110-112
204
Alpander, G./Carter, K. (1995): Motivation. p. 108
205
Cf. Streich, R. (1997): Vernderungsprozessmanagement. p. 243
206
Cf. Kohler, R. (2011): Erfolgreiches Leadership braucht Zeit! p. 80-81
207 st
Cf. Moran, T. et al. (2007): Managing cultural differences. Global Leadership Strategies for the 21
Century. p. 43-48
208
Compiled illustration by the author of this research project (2014)
3.2 Selected Significant Skills for Managers Acting in a Multicultural Context 55
In chapter 1.1, the topic "Global Mindset" was already presented which managers
and employees shall show significantly in this context, according to Hruby. In Figure
2 (overview ROSKAB-Leadership), the groups roles, skills and abilities for managers
sum up the following attributes which extend the transnational leadership model
shown above.
3.2 Selected Significant Skills for Managers Acting in a Multicultural Context
In the following chapters, sensitivity for increased psychological strain of

employees in a multicultural environment (mental stress) as well as building a culture
of trust and of autonomous action (empowering employees) are presented. Thus,
terms are defined and sketched first and a short excursion into the current discussion
is given.
3.2.1 Mental Stress in a Multicultural Framework

31B
According to yearly reports of health insurances, the number of sickness-related

absence days due to the diagnosis "mental illness" (see Figure 9) and, as a result,
also sickness-related absence days compared to other illness groups mentioned (see
Figure 10)209 has been increasing for years.
Currently, inability to work (AU = Arbeitsunfaehigkeit) due to psychological illness
is number two behind the illness "musculoskeletal system".210 Thus, presence and,
as a result, productivity of the corresponding employee decreases causally. Due to
the complexity of the multicultural framework (stress for managers and employees
caused by, for example, a rising number of international business trips, interpersonal
discrepancies due to cultural differences, permanent accessibility with a view to time
differences), there is the risk that psychological strain on employees rises also in this
field.
Thus, in this paragraph, psychological basics for stress, mental stress and, as a
result, individual psychological load are defined and separated. Thereafter, burn-out
is shortly defined and indicators for early detection as well as possibilities for
prevention and intervention are presented.
209
Cf. e. g. DAK Gesundheitsreport 2013
210
Cf. DAK Gesundheitsreport 2013. p. 17
According to Selye, Pionier and discoverers of modern stress research, stress is

"the unspecified reaction of the body to each requirement provided".211 The English
stress psychologist Lazarus separates stress in "the degree and kind of stress
response, even to singularly powerful stress conditions, are apt to vary from person
to person, and these variations need to be understood".212
250 7
Absent days 6,1

6,0
Absent cases 6
5,5
200 204
196
5,0
4,8 5
170
4,5
4,3 4,2
4,1 4,0 4,1 150
150 3,8 140 4
3,6 130
124 125 126 125 122
3,0 116
110
2,8 3
100 2,5 96
89
77
2
50
0 0
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
Figure 9: Absence days (AU) and absence cases per 100 insurance years based on mental stress
213
diagnoses
However, stress is no exclusively subjective phenomenon but has, besides

personal expectations and individual management measures, demonstrably objective
exogenous trigger factors which can be realized, recorded and processed.214 Stress
is always induced if there is a discrepancy between requirement and individual
resource. This imbalance can be initiated by different unplanned or not controllable
stress factors (stressors). In a working environment, stressors are caused by the
factors working task, working role and working conditions among others.215 The
symptoms of stress are of different kind. These symptoms can be abstractedly
211
Selye, H. (1977): Stress. p. 38
212
Lazarus, R. (2006): Stress and Emotion. p. 54
213
Cf. DAK Gesundheitsreport 2013. p. 33
214
Cf. Ulrich, E. (2011): Arbeitspsychologie. p. 485-495
215
Cf. Litzcke, S. et al. (2013): Stress, Mobbing und Burn-out am Arbeitsplatz. p. 2-3
differentiated in the three clusters body function216, behavior217 as well as thoughts

and emotions218.219
"Psychische Belastung wird verstanden als die Gesamtheit aller erfassbaren
Einflsse, die von auen auf den Menschen zukommen und auf ihn psychisch
einwirken."220 In a working environment, psychological strain is caused by the
abilities of working task, organizational and social working conditions221 which
include, for example, time pressure, inconsistent instructions, disturbances and
interruptions of the work flow, information deficit or information overload.222
300
Absent days 100 insurance year mental stress
265
Absent days per 100 insurance years DAK overall 255
250
221
195
200
183
170
161 162 164 163 159
151
150 143
126
116
100 117 120 118
115 116 116 114 114
112
100 107 105 107
100 102 99 103
50
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
Figure 10: Trend of absence days (AU) volume based on mental stress compared to the sum of
223
absence days volume. Index baseline 1997=100
216
Body functions: high blood pressure, increased heart rate and breathing, breathlessness, dry
mouth, circulatory disturbance, increased perspiration, stomach-bowel pain, insomnia, fatigue,
sexual disorders, abnormal estrous cycle, muscle tenseness, headache.
217
Rationalness and feelings: uncertainty, squeamishness, internal strain and overload, aggressive-
ness, hypochondria, depressive illness, dejection, resignation, lack of concentration, nightmares,
cramped perception, focus on the stressor, thinking barriers.
218
Behavior: Avoiding stress triggering situations: aggravate behavior, shivering, stammering, teeth
grinding, social retreat, frequent crying, anger, hate, massive change of the nutrition behavior.
219
Cf. Benkert, O. (2009): StressDepression: warum macht Stress depressiv? p. 33
220
DIN EN ISO 10075-1: 2000-11 (2000): p. 3
221
Cf. Kirchberg, S. et al. (2001): Ratgeber zur Ermittlung gefaehrdungsbezogener Arbeitsschutz-
massnahmen im Betrieb. Schriftenreihe der Bundesanstalt fuer Arbeitsschutz und Arbeitsmedizin.
p. 336
222
223
DAK Gesundheitsreport 2013. p. 35
"Die unmittelbare (nicht die langfristige) Auswirkung der psychischen Belastung im

Individuum in Abhngigkeit von seinen jeweiligen berdauernden und augen-
blicklichen Voraussetzungen, einschlielich der individuellen Bewltigungs-
strategien."224 Strains subsume in this context the multitude of stimuli affecting
humans exogenously whereas load presents the individual reaction induced
endogenously. Thus, psychological load includes, besides objective psychological
strain, also subjective performance conditions and resources (for example, abilities,
skills, social and communicative competences, types of action and coping).
Therefore, objectively identical strains (for example, regarding the difficulty level of
tasks) can possibly individually be realized and coped with completely different. 225
How straining a (working) situation is realized by the individual is thus decided by the
individual reactions to psychologically straining influences and is also depending on
what the person feels, realizes, experiences and thinks. Besides the personal
resources mentioned, intensity and duration of mental stress also influence the
extent of psychological load.226 Psychological overload occurs if psychological
requirements are bigger than personal performance conditions. On the other hand,
working requirements can also underchallenge employees (bore-out).
Burn-out is defined as "eine krperliche, emotionale und geistige Erschpfung
aufgrund beruflicher berbelastung. Dabei handelt es sich nicht um eine
Arbeitsmdigkeit, sondern um einen fortschreitenden Prozess, der mit wechselhaften
Gefhlen der Erschpfung und Anspannung einhergeht."227 Burn-out is a recognized
illness and, therefore, recorded in the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-
10) with the diagnosis code Z73.0 as a distinct disorder ("to be burnt out", "state of
total exhaustion"). Burn-out is a determined process which can be differentiated in
several sequences. In the framework of the scientific discussion, numerous practice-
theories can be derived from.228 In the early stages, the following indicators and
symptoms can be observed: increased commitment to particular goals, hyperactivity,
suppression of failures, restriction of social contact, the job becoming the main focus
of ones life, increased unpaid efforts, exhaustion, chronic tiredness, a lack of energy,
a clear decline in ones ability to master ones work as well as non-observation of
ones own needs.229 As an early warning system, an employee survey that covers the
subject of burn-out, for example, could be carried out once a year.
224
DIN EN ISO 10075-1: 2000-11 (2000): p. 3
225
226
Cf. Joiko, K. et al. (2010): Psychische Belastung und Beanspruchung im Berufsleben. p. 28
227
Cf. Jaggi, F. (2008): Burnout - praxisnah. p. 6
228
229
Cf. Berger, G. et al. (2006): Erfolgsfaktor Gesundheit. p. 65
Two different catalogs of measures can be distinguished here. On the one hand,
one that improves the working situation (cf. Table 59) and that can be initiated and
implemented directly by the organization. And on the other hand, preventive health
measures that the individual can address him or herself (cf. Table 60).230
Sensitivity of managers for increased psychological strain of employees in a
multicultural environment is important to reduce mental stress and increase
productivity. An important ability to enhance this sensitivity is emotional intelligence
(see chapter 3.4.6).
Distinguishable indications for the risk of mental stress are for example the rise of
employee absence and dismissal, conflicts between employees as well as
decreasing of job satisfaction and productivity, subordinate attendance and
commitment to tasks and work packages.
Six main drivers for managers to lower mental stress are (1) to be clear, what is
expected from the subordinates. (2) Buildup of a nurturing environment for the team
members and open chances to learn new abilities and skills as well as give
opportunities to growth. (3) Performing an empowerment of the employees (see
chapter 3.2.2) and (4) go with emotion.231 That means "Let employees work on
projects that they are passionate about. Move employees to different areas if
necessary and be willing to create new positions if there is a need for it."232 (5)
Providing positive feedback or improvement potential to the subordinates. (6) set
reasonable expectations,233 e. g. "When assigning tasks, set ambitious goals but be
realistic. Work volume should be challenging but not overwhelming to the point of
discouragement."234
3.2.2 Building a Trustful Culture and Empowering Employees

32B
The culture of independent action (empowerment) can be defined as "a process of

enhancing feelings or self-efficacy among organizational members through the
identification of conditions that foster powerlessness and through their removal by
both formal organizational practices and informal techniques of providing efficacy
information,"235 or as "the belief that one has control (i. e. the belief that one can
influence decisions),"236 as well as the "Sachverhalt der Ermchtigung/Bevoll-
230
Cf. Berger, G. et al. (2006): Erfolgsfaktor Gesundheit. p. 65-69
231
Cf. McKee, S. (2013): Identify Employee Burnout and Take Action [Internet]
232
233
234
235
Conger, J.et al. (1988): The Empowerment Process. p. 474
236
Parker, L./Price, R.(1994): Empowered managers and empowered workers. p. 913
mchtigung der Beschftigten in einer Organisation."237 The aim with regard to

creating a culture of empowerment is to maintain and increase competitiveness. The
basis of this idea is that employees know best how to work through a task in their
area or solve a problem. High potential can thus be generated when managers
incorporate their employees knowledge for the purposes of service provision. With
this knowledge as a basis, current production processes are rejected and
continuously improved ones are developed by the employees. In light of this fact,
"employee empowerment [is] also instituted to bring about innovation"238 and is not
only important within the framework of production processes, but also in terms of the
products and organizational structure. These adaptations therefore enable higher
quality products to be produced within shorter time frames and lower budgets. A
further goal in creating a culture of empowerment is to increase employee motivation.
By creating a culture of empowerment, employee motivation will increase because
each employee is given the opportunity to develop and self-actualize. According to
Maslow, self-actualization occupies the topmost position in the hierarchical pyramid
of needs and subsequently leads to a significant increase in motivation when
achieved.239 The basic prerequisites for a culture of empowerment are that each
employee should have access to all information and that autonomy is established
through boundaries, i. e. empowerment within a framework, replacing hierarchies
with teams. According to the variation of the different cultural dimension magnitudes
it is necessary to check about the dedicated empowerment level.
Trust can be defined as "a psychological state comprising the intention to accept
vulnerability based upon positive expectations of the intentions or behavior of
another,"240 and constitutes a significant component within the framework of a culture
of empowerment. Where the manager lacks trusts in the work force, information is
not passed on. In this context, trust is that feature that first has to be re-learned in
organizations, since the "Tayloristic employees" way of thinking is anchored in the
minds of the managers and employees.241 The demand for transparency and the
resulting communication policy therefore often tends to be problematic within
organizations.
237
Beisheim, M. (1999): Empowerment als neue personalpolitische Strategie. p. 225
238
Leiba, S./ Hardy, C. (1994): Employee empowerment: a seductive misnomer? p. 262
239
Cf. Holtbrgge, D. (2013): Personalmanagement. p. 16-17
240
Rousseau, D. et al. (1998): Not So Different After All: A Cross-Discipline View of Trust. p. 395
241
Cf. Sauer, M. (2002): Von der fremdbestimmten Arbeit zu "Selbstorganisation" und
"Empowerment". p. 17
Very High 17,9
High 44,2
Neutral 28,1
Low 7,4
Very low 2,5
0 10 20 30 40 50
242
Figure 11: How would you rate the level of trust you have in your manager?
Trust with regard to the transfer of information often fails in terms of the trust vis--
vis loyalty to the organization and employees outward reticence. Further, the thought
that a third party could take advantage of the information provided is often strongly
internalized and can only be erased from employees minds with difficulty. "Micro-
political games" therefore play a role in an empowerment culture that cannot be
neglected."243 According to the web-based study "Ethical Leadership and Trust"244
from 2009 (n = 500; participants from European companies), 62.1% trust their
managers, i. e. the potential to boost trust among 37.9% of the workforces exists.
In the following part, the five approaches build rapport, take a diplomatic approach,
establish credibility, engage in conflict resolution as well as strong communication
are given to managers to build up or maintain trust.
Build Rapport
Developing rapport is a demanding challenge. This issue "requires you to be a
great listener (not just a good one). Managers who are listening take good notes, are
quick to follow through, and are responsible enough to proactively address your
immediate needs and requirements to help you be more successful."245
242
With view on Akker, L. v. et al. (2009): Ethical Leadership and Trust. p. 109
243
Beisheim, M. (1999): Empowerment als neue personalpolitische Strategie. p. 239
244
Cf. Akker, L. v. et al. (2009): Ethical Leadership and Trust. p. 102-122
245
Llopis, G. (2012): Effective managers earn trust quickly by doing 5 things well [Internet]
Take a Diplomatic Approach

To take a diplomatic approach means, that a leader should "always be mindful of
doing the right thing and at times making trade-offs in order to be given new
opportunities and have greater influence down the road."246
Establish Credibility
Effective leadership should "establish their credibility [...]. The most effective
managers always follow-up, are true to their word, have a proven track record, and
have a reputation of getting things done."247
Engage in Conflict Resolution

Leaders who tackle problems, issues as well as tasks "with clarity are extremely
effective. These mentioned managers empower others to make suggestions and
recommendations. They are masters at conflict management and are eloquent in
addressing problems and getting others involved to find immediate resolution."248
Strong Communication
Regarding to chapter 1 the communication attribute is so important for leaders to
enhance very fast a trustful situation. "Communication helps break down
departmental silos and creates interdependency between people thus building
strong workplace alliances. It improves relationships and creates an effective
groupthink environment that further promotes teamwork and consensus."249
3.3 Selected Significant Roles for Managers Acting in a Multicultural Context

According to sustainable organizational development with special view on
demographical change it is important to keep and develop company and team
members as well as high potentials.250 In the following two sub-chapters, the selected
roles of mentor, coach and personnel development officer are presented.
3.3.1 Manager as Mentor and Coach

3B
The terms mentoring and coaching are sometimes used indiscriminately in the
literature. In view of this fact, the following definitions are presented in order to
differentiate them. Coaching and mentoring are defined "as learning relationships
246
247
248
249
250
Cf. Czerny, E./Steinkellner, P. (2012): Entwicklungsorientierte Methoden des Personalmanage-
ments. p. 397-401
3.3 Selected Significant Roles for Managers Acting in a Multicultural Context 63
which help people to take charge of their own development, to release their potential
and to achieve results which they value."251 Coaching, on the one hand, "ist eine
intensive und systematische Frderung der Reflexionen und Selbstreflexionen sowie
Beratung von Personen oder Gruppen zur Verbesserung der Erreichung
selbstkongruenter Ziele oder zur bewussten Selbstvernderung und Selbst-
entwicklung."252 Mentoring, on the other hand, focuses "auf den Proze, in dem eine
Person in dienender, gebender, ermutigender Gesinnung der Mentor das
Leiterschaftspotential einer noch zu entwickelnden Person des Protgs entdeckt
und den Protg bei der Verwirklichung des Potentials frdern oder sonst wie
mageblich beeinflussen kann."253
Intercultural Coaching in a German Context

In a survey of coaches on the subject of cross- and intercultural coaching, the four
components, (a) the clients specific intercultural working and life situations, (b) the
coachs intercultural experience as an advantage for the process, (c) coaching in a
foreign language, and (d) forming an intercultural relationship during the coaching
process, could be worked out themselves.254 The prerequisite for intercultural
coaching only exists if the culture is significant in the interpersonal relation, which,
however, cannot always be anticipated a priori.255
The Coach a Highly Competent and Paid Process Supervisor
The job of a successful coach is sufficiently multifaceted. Aside from expertise, a
coach requires knowledge of economics and psychology (empathy) as well as
practical experience and an ability to communicate. The coach must be in a position,
cognitively, to penetrate organizational contexts quickly and derive actions based on
different perspectives.256
Anglo-American approaches most often assume that managers carry out coaching
with their employees. This so-called coaching by superiors should be viewed
critically, at least within a German context, as the hierarchical structure and the
resulting dependencies and role conflicts contradict the basic principles of openness,
discretion and voluntariness.257
Mentors are mostly to be found outside of the disciplinary path in a professional
context, or otherwise on a voluntary basis. Three clusters can be identified with the
251
Conner, M. (2012): Coaching and Mentoring At Work. p. 8
252
Greif, S. in Rauen, C. (2005): Handbuch Coaching. p. 15
253
Clinton, J. (2006): Der Werdegang eines Leiters. p. 132
254
Cf. Blml, F. (2011): Interkulturelles Coaching. p. 130
255
Cf. Blml, F. (2011): Interkulturelles Coaching. p.131-133
256
Cf. Petry, E. (2012): MigrantInnen als Fhrungskrfte. p. 115
257
Cf. Petry, E. (2012): MigrantInnen als Fhrungskrfte. p. 116
following types of mentors. The first cluster subsumes mentors who work intensively
(those who help to keep people young, spiritual leaders, and coaches), the second
cluster includes mentors who are occasionally active (pastors, teachers, and
sponsors), and the third cluster comprises passive mentors (role models,
contemporary and historical types of mentor). Those who help to keep people young
offer intensive training sessions; the spiritual leader encourages people to debate
subjects intensively; and the coach provides support in translating skills into actions.
Sometimes, the mentor assumes the role of the pastor, recommends actions and
provides encouragement. As a teacher they impart knowledge and as a sponsor they
promote networking and influence. The ideal type of mentor should have greater life
and professional experience than the mentee. The mentor can thus fall back on their
experience and understand the phases that the mentee is currently going through
accordingly, because they themselves have already experienced them.258
The coach is, above all, an active listener and process supervisor. But an
intercultural coach provides increased guidance and performs a transfer of
knowledge that the coachee doesnt necessarily possess as a result of his or her
cultural background. Although the coach is not a trainer or a teacher, they provide
recommendations for action, and although they are not a counselor, they provide
advice and look out for the mentees emotional well-being, especially if insecurity and
vulnerability are high as a result of an orientation towards shame, due in turn to the
mentees self-concept and "face" being affected (in spite of this, the coach is not a
pastor or a therapist). The coach passes on worldly wisdom, because the mentee
learns from the whole person.259
The coach is assigned a particularly significant role, for example, in the context of
a migration situation, as they must be able to deal appropriately with the respect
shown them and not use it to manipulate. Other decisive prerequisites include a
distinct ability to reflect on themselves, and the will to interact openly and in a tolerant
manner with regard to their own world view when holding discussions with their
counterpart. The intercultural coach has to confront this complexity and in doing so
not overestimate anyone of the parameters of person, situation or culture. Overall,
intercultural coaching is more challenging than coaching in a monocultural context.
258
Cf. Stanley, P./Clinton, J. (1994): Mentoring. p. 34
259
Cf. Petry, E. (2012): MigrantInnen als Fhrungskrfte. p. 118-119
3.3 Selected Significant Roles for Managers Acting in a Multicultural Context 65
The Intercultural Coaching Process

The acronym COACH can be viewed as both a structural model for the entire
coaching process and as a guideline for each of the individual meetings. The
following phases can be distinguished here:260
- Coming together (getting to know one another and establishing contact)
- Orientation (in terms of content)
- Analysis (examination of the clients concerns and environment)
- Change (turnaround phase)
- Harbor (attainment of goals and completion)
3.3.2 Manager as Development Officer

34B
Personnel development is defined as the "Summe von Manahmen [], die

systematisch, positions- und laufbahnorientiert eine Verbesserung der
Qualifikationen der Mitarbeiter zum Gegenstand haben mit der Zwecksetzung, die
Zielverwirklichung der Mitarbeiter und des Unternehmens zu frdern."261
Furthermore, personnel development includes "alle bildungs- und stellenbezogenen
Manahmen, die zur Qualifizierung aller Mitarbeiter und Fhrungskrfte dienen."262
"Personalentwicklung umfasst [demnach] alle Manahmen der Bildung, der
Frderung und der Organisationsentwicklung, die zielgerichtet, systematisch und
methodisch geplant, realisiert und evaluiert werden."263
In the past, one of the main tasks of the bodies within the company headquarters
that were responsible for personnel abroad consisted of ensuring the transfer of
knowledge from the head office to the foreign companies by seconding experts and
managers there.
260
Cf. Petry, E. (2012): MigrantInnen als Fhrungskrfte. p. 120.
261
Conradi, W. (1983): Personalentwicklung. p. 3
262
Thom, N. (1987): Personalentwicklung als Instrument der Unternehmensfhrung. p. 6
263
Becker, M. (2005): Systematische Personalentwicklung. p. 9
Personal Development 93
Performance based salary 83
Target Setting 73
Competence Management 69
Recruiting 66
Succession planning 66
Knowledge Management 49
264
Figure 12: HR trend report
The more distinct an organizations process orientation, the more individual and
specific the requirements are that are made of intercultural personnel development
measures. Methodologically, this implies a stronger bias towards the open as
opposed to the wide(closed) concept of culture; conceptually, this signifies a
preference for coaches that supervise processes and are flexible in terms of their
development over structured training sessions off-the-job.265
As international business relations become more and more common, the
predictability and controllability of the actions underlying these relations decreases. In
intercultural personnel development, too, measures that are planned over the long
term, such as training sessions to prepare for foreign secondment, are shelved in
favor of occasional assignments such as coaching. This means that questions of
intercultural synergies and shaping of identities can no longer be resolved
methodically with conventional interventionist planning methods.266
The evaluation of the results of a survey (n = 212; participants: personnel officers
from large and medium-sized German companies), presented in Figure 12, on talent
management measures that were implemented within their company, showed that
the subject of personnel development is, with a score of 93%, of significant
importance.
Employee development is so important, because (1) employees care if the
manager has an interest in their future, (2) it enhance loyality and this develops
264
Statistika (2014): Welcher der folgenden Talent-Management-Manahmen hat ihr Unternehmen
bereits umgesetzt? [Internet]
265
Cf. Bolten, J. (2004): Interkulturelle Personalentwicklung im Zeichen der Globalisierung. p. 8
266
Cf. Bolten, J. (2004): Interkulturelle Personalentwicklung im Zeichen der Globalisierung. p. 16
3.4 Selected Significant Abilities for Managers Acting in a Multicultural Context 67
employees productivity. (3) Potential employee basicly want to growth and to be a

important part of the processes, products etc. within the company. 267
3.4 Selected Significant Abilities for Managers Acting in a Multicultural

Context
In the following chapters, the selected abilities of team building in an international

context, sustainable motivation of employees, dealing with organizational change,
time management for successful leadership, receiver-based or recipient oriented
communication, as well as emotional and cultural intelligence for managers working
in a multicultural context, are presented.
3.4.1 Successful Team Building with a View to Multicultural Challenges

35B
The word "team" can be defined as "ein Zusammenschluss von mehreren

Personen zur Lsung einer bestimmten Aufgabe oder zur Erreichung eines
bestimmten Ziels bezeichnet."268 Additionally, it can be defined with a higher degree
of detail "as a distinguishable set of two or more people who interact dynamically,
interdependently, and adaptively toward a common and valued goal or objective or
mission, who have each been assigned specific roles of functions to perform, and
who have a limited life span of membership."269 These definitions do not, however,
take into consideration the multicultural components or the challenges resulting from
them with respect to successful team building and development. Against the
backdrop of globalization, multicultural teams will become a more and more
frequently recognizable organizational form in future.270 As the interface between
these teams is less distinct, appreciable time resources will be used up in defining
common norms and processes for cooperation, task completion and problem solving.
On the other hand, teams that are formed from a multitude of cultures have a range
of significant capabilities.
Not only is the area of consensus smaller in multicultural teams, notions and
specific processes for creating a common working basis diverge too. Communication
is either not assured, or only through an individual, divergent development in the
working language. Cultural values such as individual responsibility, competition, the
ability to take criticism, an atmosphere of constructive debate, or group cohesion that
267
Cf. Lipmann, V. (2013): Why employee development is important, neglected and can cost you
talent. [Internet]
268
Mller, S. (2010): Einfach ein gutes Team. p. 4
269
Salas, E. et al. (1992): Toward an understanding of team performance and training. p. 4
270
Cf. Zeutschel, U./Thomas, A. (2004): Zusammenarbeit in multikulturellen Teams. p. 1-2
help to shape the working environment as "secondary virtues", do not have a widely
shared interface. Understanding with regard to team roles, for example as part of
leadership behavior or the duty to both provide and obtain information, is viewed
differently in different cultures. Different cultural styles of working that manifest
themselves, for example, during the problem-solving process, in time management or
behavior during meetings, must first be identified and then harmonized with one
another.271
Aside from the aforementioned aspects that should be critically evaluated and
reviewed, these heterogeneous teams are able to draw on a great deal of potential
as a result of their diversity. The various culturally determined ways of working and
communication habits can positively influence and complement one another (synergy
effect). Certain independencies from culturally determined norms offer ways of
creating new forms of communication and cooperation. Successful cooperation in a
multicultural team can be carried over in the organization as an example of the
interaction between the team members of the cultural groups involved.
Managers should, in this context, try to avoid making the following mistakes.
Namely, they should not make the assumption that culturally specific discrepancies
can be ignored because all team members have, despite their various national
origins, comparable qualifications (or because all human beings are equal anyway),
or because the common professional goal is in the foreground.272 Furthermore
necessary for an efficient multicultural team leadership is to overcome stereotype,
ethnocentrism and rigidity of thinking.
On the following pages, recommendations for establishing and developing
multicultural teams are presented:273
- Define and explain team assignments and goals
- Kick off teamwork together
- Ensure the flow of information by holding regular work meetings
- Carry out regular reviews and optimize cooperation
- Ensure results and evaluate lessons learned
The significance of complex problem solving in multicultural teams will continue to

increase against the backdrop of globalization or the availability of international
experts. The goal in leading multicultural teams is to make the most of the potential
available when solving problems. A prerequisite for this is, in addition to leadership
271
Cf. Zeutschel, U./Thomas, A. (2004): Zusammenarbeit in multikulturellen Teams. p. 2
272
273
Cf. Zeutschel, U./Thomas, A. (2004): Zusammenarbeit in multikulturellen Teams. p. 10-14
and team competencies, the strong ability to act in an intercultural context. All current
research shows that the ability to act in an intercultural context does not come from
gaining international experience in foreign assignments (learning by doing), but
rather requires targeted further training. The teaching-learning concept applied
should thereby correspond to the state of research of learning and intercultural
psychology.274
3.4.2 Sustainable Motivation of Employees

36B
The term motivation can, on the one hand, be defined as "die Abweichung eines
angestrebten Zustandes (Sollwertes) von einem aktuellen Zustand (Istwert). Diese
Abweichung gibt dem Verhalten Energie, Richtung und Ausdauer."275 Furthermore,
work motivation is "a set of energetic forces that originate both within as well as
beyond an individuals being, to initiate work-related behavior and to determine its
form, direction, intensity and duration."276 On the other hand, the term motivation can
be defined as "an internal process that modifies an organsims responsiveness to a
constant stimulus."277 Antoine de Saint-Exupry pointedly describes the requirement
for creating intrinsic motivation with the following sentence: "Wenn du ein Schiff
bauen willst, dann trommle nicht die Mnner zusammen, um Holz zu beschaffen,
Aufgaben zu vergeben und die Arbeit einzuteilen, sondern lehre die Mnner die
Sehnsucht nach dem weiten, endlosen Meer." This description pinpoints the
quintessence of motivation as part of management psychology on an applicable
level, i. e. getting employees to support the organizations goals from within so that
they can achieve them with their managers and colleagues. The successful initiation
of motivation in individuals is one of the primary leadership requirements for a
manager, which is why the subject of motivation is highly significant in almost all
management theories.278
The various motivation approaches derived from the parameters of perception
filters and evaluation/decision filters can be seen in Table 12.
274
275
Scheffer, D./Kuhl J. (2006): Erfolgreich motivieren. p. 9
276
Latham, G./Pinder, C. (2005). Work motivation theory and research at the dawn of the twenty-first
Century. p. 486
277
Numann, M. (2014): Neurobiology of Social Behavior. p. 4
278
Cf. Dreesmann, H. (2002): Motivation im interkulturellen Kontext. p. 137
Assessment/decision- Perception filter

making filter
Task motivation Context motivation
Extrinsic motivation Results-oriented motivation Effect-oriented motivation

Intrinsic motivation Developmental motivation Integrative motivation
279
Table 12: Motivation approach cluster
As individual and social-psychological motivation research has progressed,

different approaches and theories have been established that focus on the various
forms of motivation. These include goal-oriented (i. e. VIE theory according to
Vroom), effect-oriented (e. g. the target theory according to Locke and Latham),
developmental (i. e. job design according to Herzberg), and integrative motivation (for
example Equity Theory according to Adams).
Results-oriented motivation: Vrooms VIE theory
According to Vrooms VIE theory, an employee is motivated when he or she
perceives goals and results to be positive and attractive for him or herself (valence),
and sees it as highly probable that his or her personal efforts will lead to high work
performance (expectation), and that his or her good work performance leads to the
desired success of the actions taken as well as to his or her personal goals being
achieved (instrumentality). These three variables form a multiplicative context with a
view to motivation.280
Effect-Oriented Motivation: The Target Theory according to Locke and Latham

Determinate and clearly defined goals are more effective than nonspecific ones.
Difficult, challenging goals are more effective than individually easy and commonly
perceived goals. The goals have to be attainable otherwise non-attainment leads to
frustration despite hard efforts. Preference should be given to harmonized and
accepted goals.281
Developmental Motivation Job Design according to Herzberg

In this regard, changes to tasks are at the forefront as motivators. These changes
should be designed to provide greater stimulation and promote growth. Various work
parameters can thereby be derived from which the task development should draw.
Differing skills and abilities can be used (diversity of requirements), employees
recognize the importance and value of their activities (holism), individuals experience
what it is like to be influential and meaningful (autonomy), individual organizational
279
Cf. Scheffer, D./Kuhl J. (2006): Erfolgreich motivieren. p. 10
280
Cf. Kleinbeck, U./Kleinbeck, T. (2009): Arbeitsmotivation. p. 51-54
281
Cf. Kleinbeck, U./Kleinbeck, T. (2009): Arbeitsmotivation. p. 66-68
and social values accord (meaningfulness), and qualifications are developed, mental
flexibility is boosted, and learning targets are agreed (learning and development
opportunities).282
Integrative Motivation: The Equity Theory according to Adams
The central assumption of this motivation theory is that employees put the results
(output) of their contributions in relation to the results and contributions of their
colleagues in the same work situation and thereby expect a "fair trade-off". If this
relationship between input and output is perceived as advantageous in comparison to
other people, these employees will try to preserve this situation. If, however, they
perceive themselves to be at a disadvantage, that is to say, unfairly treated, this
subjective feeling of inequality will lead to dissatisfaction and medium to long-term
demotivation. Where there is an imbalance between input and output, those
concerned will try to compensative for this by choosing one of the following options
for action: changing the input or output, and influencing or changing the reference
person.283
3.4.3 Change Management within an International Framework

37B
Organizational change (or: change management) subsumes "alle geplanten,

gesteuerten, organisierten und kontrollierten Anstrengungen zur zielgerichteten
Organisationsgestaltung mit dem Zweck der Effizienzsteigerung."284 Change
management is initiated by both exogenous and endogenic parameters.
In every organization, there are forces that drive change ("driving forces") and
those that restrain it ("restraining forces"). In order to initiate change, the driving
forces should be maximized and the restraining forces minimized.
282
Cf. Scheffer, D./Kuhl, J. (2006): Erfolgreich motivieren. Mitarbeiterpersnlichkeit und Motivations-
techniken. p. 26-29
283
Cf. Stock-Homburg, R. (2009): Der Zusammenhang zwischen Mitarbeitern und Kunden-
zufriedenheit. p. 66-69
284
Wirtschaftslexikon24 (2014): Organisatorischer Wandel. [Internet]
Phase Description
Unfreezing In this phase, the "driving forces" must be maximized while the "restraining forces" must be
minimized in order to move away from the current balance. This means on the one hand that
employees must be convinced, by way of sound arguments, of the necessity for change, and
on the other that resistance to organizational change must be eliminated. The aim of the first
285
phase is to foster a "readiness for change".
Changing/ In the next phase, the changes themselves are implemented and the new modes of behavior
Moving conditioned. As uncertainties will arise at this point and employees are required to expend
greater energy for the changes, the performance curve will slump to begin with. Towards the
end of the successful change process, it will even back out to a higher level. The process of
behavioral change thereby follows the classic seven-stage pattern: shock, denial,
286
understanding, acceptance, testing, knowledge, and finally integration.
Refreezing The aim of this phase is to firmly cement the changes implemented over the long term:
Employees must not, after a short while, be allowed to "revert back" to the old structures and
ways of behaving. To achieve that, the company has to monitor the new current state and
287
implement further changes where necessary.
288
Table 13: Lewins three-phase model
According to Lewins three-phase model, there are three stages to a successful

change process: unfreezing, changing/moving, and refreezing. These are explained
in brief in the above mentioned section (cf. Table 13).289
The individual is the focus of all considerations regarding activities and therefore
plays an important role in change management: structure and processes within an
organization can only be changed on a sustained basis if employees are able and
willing to support and implement change.
The task for the manager to achieve the mentioned goal is to handle the different
ways to overcome the resistant to change. Three major focuses of resistance to
change from an employee perspective ("self", "others" and "work environment") can
be identified:
Self: Humans basically want to receive information about "What is the individual
advantage?" and "What is the individual profit or loss?" When the characteristic of
change have a negative impact on people, producing an induced deficiency, people
resist the transformation.290
Others: According the mentioned question about what is the individual advantage
and realizing that the change have no impact the employee, humans "tend to
consider how the change will affect their friends, peers, and colleagues. If employees
285
Cf. Wirtschaftslexikon24 (2014): Organisatorischer Wandel. [Internet]
286
287
288
Cf. e. g. Wirtschaftslexikon24 (2014): Organisatorischer Wandel. [Internet]
289
Cf. e. g. Wirtschaftslexikon24 (2014): Organisatorischer Wandel. [Internet]
290
Cf. Lussier, R. (2008): Management Fundamentals. p. 207
analyze the facts and believe that a change will affect other negatively, they may be
resistant to the change."291 For the issues "self" and "others" the Manager has to
communicate clearly and receiver-based to every employee their individual situation
as soon as possible.
Work environment: The employment frame contains the physical structure, the
labor itself, and the clime. Employees "like to be in control of their environment, and
the resist changes that take away their control."292 The Manager has to transfer the
feeling to the employees, that they dont lose the control. A way to perform this task
is to involve selected and for the team important employees into working groups.
3.4.4 Time Management for Successful Leadership

38B
Time management or action orientation involves planning ones time in an

organized and systematic manner in order to make the most of it, although the term
"time management" is in itself absurd, because it is not time per se that is being
planned. Rather, it is about self-management.293 By strictly adhering to the principle
of time management, free time is created that can then be used for effective
leadership. In the following, an orientation scheme "Objective Planning Decision
Implementation Monitoring" is presented:294
Objective:
A continuous orientation towards targets and results is strived for on an individual
level: intentions or goals should be translated into specific courses of action as part
of a realistic analysis of the situation that takes into account individual strengths and
weaknesses as well as the relevant environmental factors. These actions must be
easy to comprehend, measurable, time-phased, and, with a view to their attainment,
verifiable.295
Planning:
Diverse organizational goals are an important factor for the success of the
managers individual career and work planning, whereby the importance of planning
for efficient and effective work and, as a result, for the optimization of resources is
emphatically pointed out here, although the balance between under- and
overplanning should be optimized.296
291
Lussier, R. (2008): Management Fundamentals. p. 207
292
Lussier, R. (2008): Management Fundamentals. p. 207
293
Cf. Vollborn, H. (2008): Zeitmanagement. p. 9
294
Cf. Seiwert, L. (2009): Noch mehr Zeit fr das Wesentliche. p. 39
295
Cf. Seiwert, L. (1990): Mehr Zeit fr das Wesentliche. p. 47-82
296
Decision:
Deciding means setting clear priorities ex ante by defining the action objectives in
order of importance as A, B, and C tasks. Three experience theses subsume that A
tasks make up 65% of goal attainment, although managers only dedicate 15% of
their working time to them, while 65% of time is used for C tasks, which, conversely,
only contribute 15% to goal attainment.297
Implementation Realization and Organization:

In this connection, all recommendations for the timely shaping of specific work
processes within the organization are combined.298
Monitoring:
Monitoring, as a concluding function, constitutes reflection on planning. It involves
reviewing the implementation and comparing it to the plan, identifying deviations, and
initiating any corrective measures.299
Concluding this issue with view to multicultural framework it should be taken into
account that handling with time or a derived time management is influenced by the
different culture (cf. light approaches by Hofstede (see chapter 1.3), more detailed
ideas by Trompenaars (see chapter 1.3) as well as GLOBE cultural dimensions (see
chapter 2.1)).
3.4.5 Receiver-Based Communication within the Multicultural Context

39B
Effective communication is, in a general and abstract way, the delivery of the right
information to the right person at the right time, and in a cost-effective way.300
Intercultural communication, on the other hand, "ist ein symbolischer, transaktioneller
und informationsenthaltender Prozess, in dem das Ausma an Unterschieden
zwischen den Beteiligten manches Mal so gro ist, dass dadurch Missverstndnisse
und unterschiedliche Erwartungen entstehen ber das, was die Beteiligten als
angemessenes Verhalten betrachten."301
Communication is a carrier and further proceedings keep track of the interaction
between individuals. Ideally, this process involves (a) reducing the loss of information
at the interfaces, (b) establishing or deepening a relational context, thereby opening
up (c) the possibility of future communication. The stringent goal of this cultural
adaptation with regard to business negotiations and the exchange of communication
297
298
299
300
Cf. Kerzner, H. (2008): Project Management. p. 227
301
Beniers, C. (2005): Managerwissen kompakt. p. 58
is ultimately to determine synergies. Badly adapted cultural frameworks can be a

good reason for diametrically opposed expectations, even before additional cultural
preferences are able to evolve. Cultural preferences can (consciously or
unconsciously) become an obstacle to successful negotiation and/or communication
in the long term. Language is most likely the biggest hurdle here for successful
communication and proceedings, whereby both negotiating parties have an equal
duty to minimize such barriers. Managers can, despite language barriers being
present, appropriately judge and recognize consensus or cultural differences in terms
of preferences if they are sensitive to the varied cultural backgrounds that exist. This
desirable acculturation must be manifest and lived in the strategies of the
organizations. That way, managers can use these stimuli to draw up their individual
plans with which they proactively deal with discrepancies and challenges. 302
Important topics that should be taken into consideration with respect to
communication in a multicultural context are presented in conclusion:303
- Formation of the group of stakeholders in the individual markets as well as their
value for and influence on the organizational activity, and their expectations and
demands with regard to the communication performance of an organization.
- Regional dimensions and time differences in carrying out communicative

activities.
- Analysis and evaluation of the different cultural dimensions and patterns of

thought (cf. chapter 1.3).
- The role of active listening, that means message gathering as well as "accurate
summarization, and the ability to have the client feel heard"304 is also very
important.
3.4.6 Emotional Intelligence

40B
Emotional intelligence "is the capacity for recognizing our own feelings and those
of others for motivating ourselves, and for managing emotions well in ourselves and
in our relationships."305 A further definition is "the subset of social intelligence that
involves the ability to monitor ones own and others feelings and emotions, to
302
Cf. Auer-Rizzi, W. et al (2007): Unternehmenskulturen in globaler Interaktion. p. 165
303
Cf. Szchnyi, D./Bckenhoff, D. (2004): Organisation der internationalen Unternehmens-
kommunikation. [Internet]
304
Conte, C. (2009): Advanced Techniques for Counseling and Psychotherapy. p. 19
305
Goleman, D. (1998): Working with Emotional Intelligence. p. 317
discriminate among them and to use this information to guide ones thinking and
actions."306 In addition to perceiving cognitive environmental signals, affective
information must also be successfully decoded as part of high EQ. It is assumed that
emotional signals are perceived and processed differently by individuals. 307
Emotional intelligence can be split into three sub-sections (a) recognition and
expression of emotions, (b) regulation of emotions, and (c) the harnessing of
emotions:
a) The identification of ones own emotions is based on a process that begins
when affective contexts are picked up on in the human perception system. EQ
enables a person to correctly perceive individual emotional signals on the one hand,
and to recognize and therefore express them in an appropriate way on the other. A
further important aspect in relation to EQ is the correct perception of emotional
situations among fellow human beings, in order to be able to react appropriately to
the pattern of behavior being sent out by the third party.308 b) Emotionally intelligent
behavior involves the ability to regulate and influence both ones own emotional
reactions as well as those of third parties. This includes, for example, people who
evoke sympathy from their counterparts. c) The harnessing of emotional intelligence
is the ability to make use of emotions strategically to solve determinate problems with
the aid of flexible planning, creative thinking and mood-driven awareness.309
In the following, the importance of EQ for managers acting in a global context
within multicultural organizations is outlined. An important task for managers is to
create and build on trust, solidarity, and motivation in times of frequent organizational
adaptation.
According to the trend study "Unternehmensfhrung 2030" ("Corporate
management in 2030") carried out by personnel-consulting agency Signium
International, managers are becoming global relations managers whose task it is to
create meaning. Intercultural competencies are therefore critical to success. In this
context, the managers task is to strongly reflect themselves and also their external
impact. In prime business schools such as the International Institute for Management
Development (IMD) in Lausanne, Switzerland, psychoanalysis is listed on the
syllabus. This creates new occupational profiles: empathy coach or conflict trainer.310
306
Salovey, P./Mayer, J. (1990): Emotional Intelligence. p. 189
307
Cf. Siebert, K. (2006): Zum Einfluss von Emotionaler Intelligenz auf die bereinstimmung von
Selbst- und Fremdeinschtzungen in der Persnlichkeitsforschung. p. 7
308
309
310
Cf. Terpitz, K. (2011): Neue Manager braucht das Land. [Internet]. p. 2
The increased requirements made with regard to the emotional intelligence of

managers are, above all, the result of globalization and the transition to becoming
more flexible versus security (employment relationship on a temporary basis; one
has to adapt to new people quickly).311 Emotional intelligence is therefore essential
for successfully managing a company: only those who understand their own
emotions as well as those of their fellow human beings are in a position to influence
their employees in such a way as to achieve corporate goals on a sustainable basis,
and thus act in the best interests of the company. Managers with a highly distinct
emotional intelligence surpass the annual sales targets of other managers by up to
20 percent.312
An important subarea in the context of EQ is empathy. This ability is important for
perceiving stress, psychological strain and resulting individual demands on
colleagues and oneself, among other things. Against this backdrop, the skill of
empathy is defined and explained in the next step and perception measures are
presented. Rogers formulated a suitable definition for this management instrument
from the area of conversational therapy literature. According to him, being empathetic
means "den inneren Bezugsrahmen des anderen mglichst exakt wahrzunehmen,
mit all seinen emotionalen Komponenten und Bedeutungen, gerade so, als ob man
die andere Person wre, jedoch ohne jemals die als ob-Position aufzugeben."313
Further approaches come from Hogan "empathy means the intellectual or
imaginative apprehension of anothers condition or state of mind without actually
experiencing that persons feelings,"314 from Hoffmann "empathy as a vicarious
affective response to others,"315 from Stotland, Mathews, Sherman, Hansson &
Richardson "empathy as a state in which an observer reacts emotionally because he
perceives another experiencing or about to experience an emotion,"316 and from
Schmitt "stellvertretende bernahme des anderen Erlebensausdruckes, gleichsam
[] das erfassende Fhlen eines am anderen wahrnehmbaren Gefhls, das aber
wohlwissend - dem anderen gehrt und nicht zu meiner originr-eigenen Empfindung
wird."317
311
Cf. Pinnow, D. (2011): Unternehmensorganisationen der Zukunft. p. 14
312
Cf. Pinnow, D. (2011): Unternehmensorganisationen der Zukunft. p. 187
313
Rogers, C. (1987): Eine Theorie der Psychotherapie, Persnlichkeit und der zwischen-
menschlichen Beziehungen. p. 37
314
Hogan, R. (1969): Development of an empathy scale. p. 308
315
Hoffmann, M. (1977): Empathy, its development and prosocial implications. p. 169
316
Stotland, E. et al. (1978): Empathy, fantasy and helping. p. 7
317
Schmitt, H. (2003): Empathie und Wertkommunikation. Theorie des Einfhlungsvermgens in
theologisch-ethischer Perspektive. p. 159
Depending on cultural background and socio-cultural norms, one finds varying

stages of emotional development in the professional environment.318 Past trends
show, however, that the rational (professional) components were more developed
than the emotional ones. But it is precisely emotions as well as the appropriate
handling of feelings that constitute an important positive factor in the professional
context.319 With the aid of empathy, they can help one to perceive the situations of
third parties and act in a supportive manner where necessary. This ability is therefore
seen as a decisive emotional competency in daily working life, especially for
managers. In this context, empathetic people are mostly perceived as likeable,
whereas individuals who are not interested in the situations and emotions of third
parties are often categorized as emotionally cold and socially incompetent. Empathy
can serve as a means of support in perceiving individual, affective changes in daily
working life (of a psychological nature, etc.) or, for example, in recognizing
interpersonal discrepancies, taking preventive measures to avoid them or
deescalating enduring conflicts. Against this backdrop, the ability to empathize can
contribute to a harmonious organizational environment. Listening on the one hand
and showing understanding for the situation of ones counterpart on the other help in
understanding others circumstances and problems and in coming up with suitable
possibilities for solutions. Consequently, minimizing interpersonal problems and
escalation within working hours results in an increase in work satisfaction and
motivation, and ultimately productivity. The skill of empathy can be learned via
training measures, whereby the following factors must be taken into account: active
listening and communication; training ones active listening skills as well as iteratively
practicing questioning techniques and developing an understanding for the motives
and motivational reasons of ones communication partner. Insight into human nature:
form an initial assessment of ones conversation partner. Obtain a first impression of
a person and see whether this is confirmed.320
3.4.7 Cultural Intelligence

41B
Cultural intelligence can be defined as an individuals capability to adapt

effectively to new cultural contexts, and therefore highlights the ability to adapt ones
behavior appropriately in new cultural situations.321 A further definition presents CQ
318
Cf. Mller-Seitz, G. (2007): Positive Emotionalitt in Organisationen. p. 110
319
Cf. Scherke, K. (2009): Emotionen als Forschungsgegenstand der deutschsprachigen Soziologie.
p. 11-13
320
Cf. Hiller, G./Vogler-Lipp, S. (2010): Schlsselqualifikation Interkulturelle Kompetenz an Hoch-
schulen. p. 279
321
Cf. Genkova, P./Ringeisen, T. (2013): Handbuch Stress und Kultur. p. 483
as a "strategisches Steuerungs- und Fhrungsinstrument fr international ttige

Unternehmen [],"322 which determines "Manahmen zur Sicherung und Ausbaus
des Erfolges auf einer neuen Stufe der Globalisierung."323 Cultural intelligence
signifies the personal quality of being able to act in a variety of cultural contexts. 324
CQ is essentially based on the personal ability to rapidly adapt to different cultural
contexts. Important drivers in this are sovereignty and appropriateness in the area of
verbal and non-verbal communications behavior in a multicultural context.
Consequently, people with high cultural intelligence can adapt more rapidly and are
therefore more effective.325 Cultural intelligence is thus an important driver for the
organizations future orientation.
Cultural
Intelligence
Culture Intercultural Cultural

Code Competence Diversity
326
Figure 13: Three pillars of cultural intelligence
The position and perspectives of the organization in the global world have to be
analyzed, previous experiences reflected upon and evaluated, ones own strengths
defined, and necessary steps for action formulated and implemented: against this
backdrop, a cultural intelligence process may, according to the three-pillar model,
look as follows (cf. Figure 13).327
a) Culture codes: interaction with cross-cultural partners presupposes a priori
knowledge of their ways of thinking and acting as well as of their societal values and
norms. This is why, in the first step, basic information about the rules of play and the
signs and strategies of the target market is communicated.328
b) Intercultural competence: in this cluster, theoretical knowledge about cross-
cultural programming is operationalized for the organizational decision-making and
action levels.329
322
Seelmann-Holzmann, H. (2010): Cultural Intelligence. p. 25
323
324
Cf. Kammhuber. S. (2014): Kulturelle Intelligenz. [Internet]
325
326
327
Cf. Seelmann-Holzmann, H. (2010): Cultural Intelligence. p. 82-95
328
329
c) Cultural diversity: for companies operating globally, making use of the strengths
of their cross-cultural employees constitutes a significant competitive advantage.330
The four steps, or dimensions, of cultural intelligence can be split into CQ drive,
CQ knowledge, CQ strategy, and CQ action.331
CQ drive refers to motivation, i. e. whether being in the company of people from
different cultures gives someone pleasure. CQ knowledge zeroes in on knowledge
and cognition, including an understanding of the legal and economic systems of other
cultures. CQ strategy subsumes meta-knowledge and poses the question of whether
one is aware of which cultural basis of knowledge is being used when one works with
individuals with different cultural abilities. CQ action signifies the capacity to adapt
ones speed of speech, for example, to ones counterpart if the specific cultural
situation requires it.
330
Cf. Seelmann-Holzmann, H. (2010): Cultural Intelligence. p. 84
331
4. Empirical Research: Analysis of Multicultural Leadership
Approaches
This chapter presents the object of the investigation, the objectives and
hypotheses, the methods, and the respondents, and evaluates the peer groups,
reviews the hypotheses, derives a leadership model for managers operating on a
global level, and outlines a development program for finance managers in selected
organizations.
4.1 Object of the Analysis
The object of investigation can be split into content, concept, and method-related
as well as abstract/specific parameters. The content-related component focuses on
the correlation between the variables in a multicultural or cross-cultural context
(finance managers and finance employees). The concept-related reference
framework looks at the direct relationships between the variables without using
mediating variables. The methodological basis is subdivided into the type of study,
the type of data basis, the organizational context and the cultural background as well
as the size of the sample. In terms of the type of study, it is a cross-sectional study
that has a temporal limit of one month. The type of data basis with regard to key data
focuses, like organizational context, on large companies and corporations. In
composing the sample, finance managers and finance employees in multicultural
teams (GE, SP and FR) are considered. Based on an estimate, out of approximately
600 potential participants within a European multi-national company being examined,
approximately 45% are affected. This results in a possible participant number of 270.
75% of this should be achieved, which means a response rate of 203. Added to this
is an assumed margin of error of 10% as a result of spreading the supporting online
questionnaire (a prerequisite for the survey was anonymity), which results in a total
number of participants of 214. The data is recorded by means of two questionnaires
(top-down and bottom-up), each with correlating questions. Finally, the
abstract/specific parameters are considered, whereby the focus here lies on finance
managers and finance employees in a multicultural context (GE, SP and FR).
4.2 Objectives and Hypotheses
Objectives
The main objective is to analyse selected attributes (ROSKAB) of finance
managers in chosen organizations. On the basis of the research, sub goals are:
to develop a leadership model (ROSKAB leadership model)

82 4 Empirical Research: Analysis of Multicultural Leadership Approaches
to derive a proposal for a development program for finance managers in a

multicultural context (Germany, Spain and France).
verify stated four hypotheses
on the basis of the research to suggest recommendation for the chosen
organization
Hypotheses
Against the backdrop of this work, the four hypotheses will be defined and then
proved or disproved (cf. Table 14).
Hypothesis (H) Description
H1 In the selected ten attributes, managers tend to evaluate
themselves better than their employees do.
H2 The degree of similarity in evaluation of selected ten managerial
attributes between German managers and their subordinates is
smaller than the similarity of managers from other countries.
H3 Communication skills displays the biggest difference in perception
of effectivity of communication between managers and employees.
H4 By the means of the manager and subordinate views to the
peculiarities of the ten attributes (roles, skills and abilities) a
cascaded leadership development recommendation is possible.
332
Table 14: Four hypotheses of this research project
4.3 Methodic and Methods

In chapter 1, current studies were theoretically evaluated by means of a literature
analysis. The decision for one or possibly more determinate research strategies
depends, against the backdrop of the empirical study, which research questions
should be answered in light of the researchers possibilities of monitoring and the
topicality of the circumstances. Table 15 shows the study strategies of experiment,
survey, archive analysis, historical data and cases.
All strategies illustrated demonstrate advantages and disadvantages and must be
selected with respect to the specific research objective. The scope of work looks at
leadership in multicultural organizations in general, and at optimizing leadership skills
of finance managers specifically, taking into consideration cross-cultural framework
conditions. The questions that therefore need to be resolved are: "Who influences
332
Source: Compiled illustration by the author of this research project (2014) - Four hypothesis of this
research project
4.3 Methodic and Methods 83
what and where?" (via finance managers and employees), and "How much can be
optimized?" (with regard to finance managers and employees). The strategies for the
survey are applied over the course of this paper with a view to these factors.
Strategy Research question Check possibility Analysis of
for the researcher current trends
Experiment How? Why? Yes Yes
Survey Who? What? Where? How much? No Yes
Archive analysis Who? Was? Where? How much? No Yes / No
Historical data How? Why? No No
Cases How? Why? No Yes
333
Table 15: Presentation of different research strategies
The strategy for the survey is carried out in four phases: explorative interviews,
expert interviews, pre-test, and finally empirical research study (cf. Figure 14). The
results of the literature analysis (strategy: archive analysis) were incorporated
between phases 2 and 3.
1. Explorative
Interviews (n=12)
2. Expert 3. Pre-Test 4. Empirical

Interviews (n=13) (n=18) research study (n=214)
Results of the literature

analysis (n=18)
334
Figure 14: Process of the empircal research study
The explorative interviews (participants shown in Table 19) are open and mostly
unstructured survey interviews that set out to obtain subjectively important and
relevant information, attitudes and corresponding opinions on the set of issues. 335 In
this case, a brainwriting session was carried out with the multicultural participants
(CFO, finance managers, finance employees and a finance professor).
The expert interviews (participants shown in Table 20) constitute a determinate
method in the field of social research, with whose help as part of interviews, "das
333
Cf. Yin, R. (1994): Case Study Research. p. 6
334
335
Cf. Buber, R./Holzmller, H. (2009): Qualitative Markforschung. p. 422
Wissen von Experten ber einen bestimmten sozialen Sachverhalt erschlossen

werden soll."336 In this case, the written results of the explorative interviews were
presented to experts such as CFOs, personnel development officers in the field of
finance, finance managers, finance employees, HR and finance professors,
headhunters, and discussed, and the recommendations combined in a draft
questionnaire.
The actual empirical study is preceded by the pre-test (participants shown in Table
21), the purpose of which is to verify whether the questions are understandable and
coherent as well as to review the criteria and determine how long is needed to fill out
the questionnaire.337 Feedback from the participants from the pre-test phase (finance
managers, finance employees, a commercial employee, personnel development
officers, a marketing manager, an organization consultant, HR professors, and a
business administration student) was incorporated into the final questionnaire.
The actual empirical study (participants shown in Table 22) is carried out with the
adapted questionnaires (based on the results from the pre-test phase). Against the
background of this paper, the questionnaire criteria (top-down and bottom-up) can be
seen in Table 16 below:
Cluster Application in this thesis
Purpose To survey finance managers and employees in multicultural organizations with the
aim of improving leadership roles, skills, and abilities
Method Structured questionnaire (top-down und bottom-up)
Sections 11 sections, one part of which is general and ten specialized
Types of Dichotomy and classification questions as well as those with scaled responses
questions
Questions A total of 30 questions per paper questionnaire for which the five-part Likert scale
is used in answering 22 of the questions
Specifications strongly disagree, disagree, neither, agree and strongly agree
Form Paper format and supporting digital format
Language English
338
Table 16: Questionnaire criteria within this thesis
Table 17 shows the general questions that every participant (managers and
employees from finance departments) should answer. The main group of participants
was multicultural finance teams within a European multi-national company. As it
could not be ruled out that respondents from other organizations and functions would
336
Glser, J./Laudel, G. (2009): Experteninterview und qualitative Inhaltsanalyse. p. 12
337
Cf. Bortz, J./Dring, N. (2006): Forschungsmethoden und Evaluation fr Human- und Sozial-
338
4.3 Methodic and Methods 85
also take part, filtering was carried out accordingly for question numbers (QNr) 1 to 3
in order to keep the error of margin low in favor of high validity.
QNr Question Selection of answers
1 How big is the company you work for? big company (> 250 employees); medium
company; small company
2 In which area do you work? Finance; Other
3 What is your national background? German; Spanish; French; Other
4 Are you male or female? M; F
5 How old are you? 19-25; 26-40; 41-60; 61+
6 What is your level of education? Non-academic; Academic
7 How long is your professional work 0-5; 6-10; 11-20; more
experience in years (in total)?
Do you want to review a (former) boss Current or former employee; current or former boss
or a (former) employee?
339
Table 17: General questionnaire catalog
The special questions (cf. Table 18) are each constructed in such a way that, apart
from QNr 8 and QNr 31, the top-down questions each have a corresponding bottom-
up question with the specifications strongly disagree, disagree, neither, agree, and
strongly agree. The cluster, the question numbers, the questions for the managers as
well as the corresponding ones for the employees are shown in each line.
ROSKAB QNr Top-down view questions QNr Corresponding bottom-up
attribute (Manager Survey) questions (Employee Survey)
8 Which nationality has the 31 What nationality has your
(former) employee(s) you (former) boss you want to
consider? review?
Personnel 9 I have the feeling that the work 32 My work is challenging,
Development for my subordinates is stimulating and rewarding.
challenging, stimulating and
rewarding.
Personnel 10 I identify the needs of my 33 I believe my boss identifies my
Development talented subordinates for needs for development and
development and implement implements solutions.
solutions.
Mentoring / 11 I give my subordinates feedback 34 I receive feedback and
Coaching regularly. appreciation from my supervisor
regularly.
Mentoring / 12 I take a supportive role in the 35 My boss takes a supportive role
Coaching subordinates' professional in my professional growth and
growth and development. development.
339
Team / 13 My subordinate has good 36 I have good working relationships

Team building working relationships within the with my team members.
team.
Team / 14 My subordinate has good 37 I believe there is a feeling of
Team building working relationships within the team spirit.
team.
EQ 15 I have excellent empathic skills in 38 My boss knows about my
dealing with my subordinates. feelings, wishes and moods.
EQ 16 I have excellent empathic skills in 39 We have a trustful culture within
dealing with my subordinates. the team.
CQ 17 Employees are treated fairly 40 Employees are treated fairly
regardless of race, gender, regardless of race, gender,
religion etc. religion etc.
CQ 18 I feel there is a good cultural fit 41 I feel there is a good cultural fit
between my subordinates within between me and our team.
the team.
CQ 19 I value the contributions of all of 42 My boss considers all
my subordinated regardless of contributions as valuable
their cultural background. regardless of my cultural
background.
Trust & 20 My subordinates can disagree 43 I can disagree with my boss
Empowerment with me without fear of getting in without fearing of getting into
trouble. trouble.
Trust & 21 I trust my subordinates that they 44 My work contributes considerably

Empowerment will do a good job when to the company in achieving its
delegating tasks. goals.
Trust & 22 I empower my subordinates to 45 My boss empowers me to enable
Empowerment enable them to take effective effective decision-making.
decisions.
Communication 23 I listen to my subordinates. 46 My boss listens to me.
Communication 24 I provide my subordinates with 47 My boss provides me with regular
regular information about the information about the company's
company's mission and its goals. mission and its goals.
Time 25 I am very busy and therefore I 48 My boss is very busy and doesnt
Management dont have enough time for my have any time for me.
subordinate.
Change 26 I explain clearly to my 49 My boss explains clearly to me
Management subordinates why plans change. why plans change (e. g. new
strategy).
Change 27 I explain clearly to my 50 My boss explains clearly to me
Management subordinates what are the what are the changes and the
changes and the next steps next steps (roadmap).
(roadmap).
4.4 Presentation of the Respondents 87
Change 28 I involve my subordinates before 51 My manager involves me before

Management making significant changes (e. g. making significant changes.
new strategy).
Mental stress 29 In a typical working week, my 52 In a typical working week, I feel
subordinates feel stressed every stressed out every day at work.
day at work.
Mental stress 30 My subordinates enjoy coming to 53 I enjoy coming to work every
work every morning. morning.
340
Table 18: Corresponding questionnaire catalog
After the data basis has been collected via the "survey" strategy, by means of the
questionnaires, the data is evaluated, whereby there are different statistical
approaches and methods for doing so. In empirical social research, the processes
are split up into qualitative and quantitative methods. In this paper, the single-factor
analysis of variance (ANOVA), which belongs to the group of univariate analysis, is
applied for the empirical part. This analysis examines the effects of the independent
variables on the continuous variables. An important basic prerequisite for this is
statistical significance and correlation.341
4.4 Presentation of the Respondents

The selected respondents can be split into four different phases: explorative
interviews, expert interviews, pre-test and the empirical research study.
The roles of the respondents who took part in phase 1 (explorative interviews) are
shown in Table 19. The roles and cultural backgrounds are distributed
correspondingly so as to include different rational tendencies. A brainstorming
session (personal conversations, telephone conversations and emails) aimed at
posing open questions about the roles, skills, and abilities that make a successful
manager, took place. The results served as a basis for the expert interviews.
340
341
Cf. Backhaus, K. et al. (2006): Multivariate Analysemethoden. p. 122-130
Role Company size Cultural background Number n Percent

CFO > 250 German 1 8,3%
Finance Manager > 250 German 2 16,7%
Finance Manager > 250 Spanish 1 8,3%
Finance Manager > 250 French 2 16,7%
Finance Employee > 250 German 2 16,7%
Finance Employee > 250 Spanish 1 8,3%
Finance Employee > 250 French 2 16,7%
Professor Finance > 250 German 1 8,3%
Sum 12 100,0%
342
Table 19: Respondents Phase 1 - Explorative Interviews
In the context of phase 2 of the empirical study, experts (see Table 20 for their
roles) were questioned in a semi-structured manner. The results were assimilated
into the questionnaire for the pre-test phase.
Role Company size Cultural background Number n Percent
HR Business Partner > 250 German 2 15,4%
CFO > 250 Spanish 1 7,7%
CFO > 250 German 1 7,7%
Finance Manager > 250 French 1 7,7%
Professor Finance > 250 German 2 15,4%
Professor HR > 250 German 1 7,7%
Personal Developer > 250 German 1 7,7%
Finance Employee > 250 Spanish 1 7,7%
Headhunter Finance < 250 German 3 23,1%
Sum 13 100%
343
Table 20: Respondents Phase 2 - Expert Interviews
As part of the pre-test phase, a draft of the prepared questionnaire was send to
the appropriate participants (see Table 21) for them to discuss. These respondents
were required to go through this questionnaire and provide feedback. Their
suggestions for improvement were then incorporated into the final questionnaire.
Role Cultural background Number n Percent
Finance Manager German 1 5,6%
Finance Manager Spanish 1 5,6%
Finance Manager French 1 5,6%
Finance Employee German 2 11,1%
Finance Employee Spanish 1 5,6%
Finance Employee French 2 11,1%
342
343
4.5 Results of the Research and Review of the Hypotheses 89
Commercial British 1 5,6%

Personal Developer German 2 11,1%
Marketing manager German 1 5,6%
Organization Consultant German 1 5,6%
Professor HR German 2 11,1%
Business Student German 3 16,7%
Sum 18 100,0%
344
Table 21: Respondents Phase 3 - Pre-Test
As part of the questionnaire, finance managers and subordinate employees

operating in a multicultural345 environment within the company (> 250 employees)
were surveyed. The distribution of the respondents with respect to their roles and
cultural backgrounds can be seen in Table 22.
Role Cultural background Number n Percent
Finance Manager German 53 24,7%
Finance Manager Spanish 9 4,2%
Finance Manager French 3 1,4%
Finance Employee German 110 51,4%
Finance Employee Spanish 15 7,0%
Finance Employee French 24 11,2%
Finance Manager Sum 65 30,4%
Finance Employee Sum 149 69,6%
Sum German 163 76,2%
Sum Spanish 24 11,2%
Sum French 27 12,6%
Overall Sum 214 100,0%
346
Table 22: Respondents Phase 4 - Empirical Study (first overview)
4.5 Results of the Research and Review of the Hypotheses
In the following sections, a detailed discussion of the results of the empirical study
the two questionnaire types will be analysed by the statistical analysis software
Microsoft Excel and IBM SPSS. The results of the data will be presented in tables
and figures and discussed in detail and a review of the four hypotheses put forward
are presented.
344
345
With special view to Germany, Spain and France
346
4.5.1 Evaluation of the Empirical Results

42B
After the data was collected from the questionnaires the first step of the analysis
was the coding of the data for the statistical analysis. In Table 23 the coding of each
item and one created variables is presented.
QNr Question/Variable Coding of Answer Option Scale
0 Position 1 = Employee; 2 = Manager Ordinal
1 Company size 1 = Big (>250 employees); 2 = Medium; 3 = Ordinal
Small
2 Work Area 1 = Finance; 2 = Other Nominal
3 Nationality 1= German; 2 = Spanish; 3 = French; 4 = Other Nominal
4 Gender 1 = M; 2= F Nominal
5 Age Group 1 = 19-25; 2 = 26-40; 3 = 41-60; 4 = 61+ Ordinal
6 Education 1 = Non-academic; 2 = Academic Nominal
7 Experience Group 1 = 0-5; 2 = 6-10; 3 = 11-20; 4 = 20+ Ordinal
8 Reviewed Nationality 1 = German; 2 = Spanish; 3 = French; 4 = Other Nominal
22 ROSKAB Questions 9 - 53 1 = strongly disagree; 2 = disagree; Ordinal
Questions 3 = neither; 4 = agree; 5 = strongly agree
CultPos Building the variable 1 = GEEmp>SPMgr; 2 = GEEmp>FRMgr Nominal
"CultPos" from the 3 = SPEmp>GEMgr; 4 = SPEmp>FRMgr
variables Position, 5 = FREmp>GEMgr; 6 = FREmp>SPMgr
Nationality and Review 7 = GEMgr>SPEmp; 8 = GEMgr>FREmp
9 = SPMgr>GEEmp; 10 = SPMgr>FREmp
11 = FRMgr>GEEmp; 12 = FRMgr>SPEmp
347
Table 23: Data coding for statistical analysis
The socio-demographic indications from the first 8 questions were coded on a

nominal and if feasible on an ordinal scale. In order to connect the two
questionnaires the variable Position was created, with 1 expressing that the
questionnaire was filled out from employees and 2 from managers of the researched
company.
The first question in the questionnaire, the CompanySize variable, was anchored
with 1 for big companies up to 3 for small companies on an ordinal scale. For the
variable WorkArea just two scales were necessary because in case a respondent
didnt had a financial profession he or she was automatically excluded from the
survey, since just participants with financial background were the focus group.
For the national background the variable Nationality was coded into a 4 nominal
scales but just three were necessary for the reason that just German (GE), Spanish
347
(SP) and French (FR) nationalities were of interest in this study. Participants with
other nationalities were as well excluded.
The gender of the participants was coded on a two point, nominal scale with 1 for
male and two for female participants. The age was coded on a four point ordinal
scale, anchored in 1 for the youngest age group (19-25 years) and 4 for participants
with 61 and older ones (61+).
For the education item, participants had the opportunity to identify themselves as
non-academics or academics. The first were coded with 1 and the second with 2.
The last socio-demographic indication referred to the work experience, which was
coded with 1 for an experience from 0-5 years up to 4 for an experience with more
than 21 years, 21+. In the 8th item, participants should indicate if they will rate a
German, Spanish or a French opposite, i. e., employees rated a manager of a certain
nationality or vice versa. The code for the nationalities was 1 for Germans, 2 for
Spanish and 3 for French.
For the next 22 questions derived from the 10 attributes of the ROSKAB model,
the participants could rate statements on a 5 point ordinal scale. Number one was
anchored in "strongly disagree" and 5 in "strongly agree" to the certain attribute-
statement.
The last variable in Table 23 is the variable Cultural Position "CultPos" which was
compound from the variables Position, Nationality and Review, in order to analyze
the top-down and bottom-up difference between managers and employees. Since
there are in total 12 possible combinations from these 3 variables, 12 levels were
coded with 1 for German employees rating Spanish manager "GEEmp>SPMgr" to 12
for French manager rating Spanish employees "FRMgr>SPEmp".
After coding the data, the socio demographic indications were analyzed with cross
table using the variable position as analysis variable. In the descriptive results of this
analysis are shown in Table 24:
Position
Nr. Item Level Employee Manager Total Percent
1 Company Big 147 61 208 97,2%
Size Medium 0 3 3 1,4%
Small 2 1 3 1,4%
2 Work Area Finance 149 65 214 100,0%
3 Nationality German 110 53 163 76,2%
Spanish 15 9 24 11,2%
French 24 3 27 12,6%
4 Gender Male 100 43 143 66,8%
Female 49 22 71 33,2%
5 Age Group 19-25y 10 2 12 5,6%
26-40y 75 32 107 50,0%
41-60y 60 31 91 42,5%
60+ 4 0 4 1,9%
6 Education Non-
17 10 27 12,6%
Academic
Academic 132 55 187 87,4%
7 Experience 0-5y 28 12 40 18,7%
Group 6-10y 28 12 40 18,7%
11-20y 51 21 72 33,6%
20+ 42 20 62 29,0%
8 Reviewed German 26 7 33 15,4%
Nationality Spanish 66 28 94 43,9%
French 57 30 87 40,7%
Sum 149 65 214 100,0%
348
Table 24: Distribution of socio-demographic items to item position
With view on the first item the majority of the participants were employees (69.6%)
working in big companies. In general, the majority of the participants worked in big
companies (97.2%) in the field of finance (100%). The largest nationality group were
Germans 76.2%.
The gender distribution shows that 66.8% of the respondents are males and
33.2% females. 92.5% of them were in an age group between 26 and 60 years.
87.4% of the participants had an academic background and the majority possessed
11 and more years of professional experience (62.6%).
The last variable shows the largest reviewed nationality and position were Spanish
employees (66) followed from French employees (57). The smallest reviewed group
were German manager (7).
348
Question Position Gender Age Education Experience
QNr9_32 0.084 -0.063 0.23** 0.15* 0.17*

QNr10_33 0.33** -0.002 0.18** 0.016 0.113
QNr11_34 0.36** 0.115 0.080 0.004 0.073
QNr12_35 0.41** 0.077 0.073 -0.069 0.049
QNr13_36 -0.18** -0.020 0.092 0.21** 0.16**
QNr14_37 0.019 -0.15** 0.109 0.20** 0.111
QNr15_38 0.33** 0.100 0.043 0.062 0.055
QNr16_39 0.26** -0.099 0.086 0.069 0.14*
QNr17_40 0.23** 0.015 0.063 0.036 0.025
QNr19_42 0.27** -0.038 0.100 0.077 0.15*
QNr20_43 0.39** 0.038 0.016 0.072 -0.040
QNr21_44 0.14* -0.018 0.23** 0.013 0.24**
QNr22_45 0.36** -0.044 0.115 0.092 0.086
QNr23_46 0.44** 0.071 -0.011 0.037 -0.015
QNr25_48 -0.24** -0.065 0.044 -0.16* 0.070
QNr26_49 0.35** 0.043 0.033 -0.078 0.084
QNr27_50 0.39** 0.079 0.052 -0.036 0.088
QNr28_51 0.29** -0.020 0.108 0.025 0.106
QNr29_52 -0.36** -0.075 0.081 0.084 0.115
QNr30_53 0.113 -0.063 0.087 0.104 0.14*
** Significance at the 0.01 level (2-tailed); * Significance at the 0.05 level (2-tailed)
349
Table 25: Correlation between socio-demographical items and the 22 Questions
In order to show a significant influence of the independent socio-demographic

variables on the 22 dependent items derived from the 10 attributes of the ROSKAB
model, a complete Pearson correlation analysis was executed but in Table 25 just
variables with significant influence are shown. Stronger correlations (r => +/- 0,3) are
bolded and their significance is expressed with one or two asterisk.
As presented in Table 25 the independent variables Position and Experience have
the biggest influence on the 22 dependent variables. The highest positive and
significant influence (r = 0.44**) has the variable Position on ROSKAB questions
23_46, affirming that managers are listening to their employees. Further high and
significant coincidence were made from the group of managers to statements like
playing a supportive role in their subordinates professional growth (r = 0.41**) and
explaining clearly the roadmap of the company (r = 0.39**).
The highest significant congruence expressed from employees was to the
statement "In a typical working week, I feel stressed out every day at work" (r = -
0.36**) with a significance level of 0.05 (2-tailed), i. e., managers have less affirmed
349
the statement that "in a typical working week, my subordinates feel stressed every
day at work".
Nr. ROSKAB Abilities Question N M SD Var
1 Personnel Development (PD) QNr9_32 212 3.77 0.942 0.887
2 Personnel Development (PD) QNr10_33 214 3.45 1.094 1.197
3 Mentoring & Coaching (M&C) QNr11_34 214 3.68 1.032 1.065
4 Mentoring & Coaching (M&C) QNr12_35 214 3.43 1.131 1.278
5 Team / Team building (TB) QNr13_36 214 4.08 0.821 0.674
6 Team / Team building (TB) QNr14_37 214 3.88 0.834 0.695
7 Emotional Intelligence (EQ) QNr15_38 214 3.29 1.069 1.144
8 Emotional Intelligence (EQ) QNr16_39 214 3.77 0.781 0.609
9 Cultural Intelligence (CQ) QNr17_40 214 4.12 0.890 0.793
12 Trust & Empowerment (T&E) QNr20_43 214 3.62 1.110 1.233
15 Communication (Com) QNr23_46 214 3.70 1.055 1.114
16 Communication (Com) QNr24_47 214 3.70 1.015 1.029
17 Time Management (TM) QNr25_48 214 2.70 1.037 1.074
18 Change Management (CM) QNr26_49 214 3.43 0.951 0.904
21 Mental stress (MS) QNr29_52 214 2.78 0.847 0.717
22 Mental stress (MS) QNr30_53 214 3.39 0.880 0.774
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Table 26: Descriptive Statistic for the 22 ROSKAB Questions
For an overall overview, Table 26 shows the mean results for the variable Position
over the 22 statements of the ROSKAB leadership model. The results show that high
conformity were made from all participants to the ninth statement (M = 4.12) stating
that "employees are treated fairly regardless of race, gender, religion, etc." and to the
fifth statement which expressed a good working relation to the team (M = 4.08).
The lowest affirmations were made to the statements 17 and 21, which mean that
the participants disagree to the presented statement. Number 17 referred to the time
the manager has for his subordinates, i. e. the participants disagree with this
statement, stating that managers have time for their subordinates. Statement number
21 enquired managers awareness that subordinates are stressed during the week.
Since the overall mean was low (M = 2.78) one could state that all participants
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disagree that they are stressed but the previously executed Correlation analysis
revealed that this is not the case for the subgroup of employees.
One of the main analyses of this scientific research was the execution of a single-
factor analysis of variance (ANOVA), with the 22 questions of the ROSKAB model as
dependent variable and the variable Position as independent variable. The ANOVA
examines the significant difference between groups of the independent variable.
In the next figures the mean (M) differences and standard deviations (SD) are
depicted for the two subgroups of the variable Position. Each figure depicts the
results of one attribute of the ROSKAB leadership model. In Table 31, for example,
two questions for the attribute Personnel Development (PD) are shown. The asterisk
after a question reveals a significant difference between the subgroup of the variable
Position at a 0.01 level (**) and at the 0.05 level (*). More details are presented in
Table 63, in the appendix of this work.
In Figure 15, it is to observe that the top-down result of the managers group result
higher for both PD questions. The first expressed that managers are more likely to
think that their subordinates have a challenging, stimulation and rewarding work
(Question QNr9_32; M = 3.89) and that they identify the needs of their subordinates
for development and implement solutions (Question QNr10_33; M = 4.00). ANOVA
analysis revealed for the second statements a significant difference between the two
groups at a 0.01 level.
3,89 4,00
3,72 3,77
3,45
3,21
1,16 1,09 SD
1,00 0,94
0,79 0,66
Employee Manager Total Employee Manager Total

QNr09_32 QNr10_33**
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Figure 15: Mean and standard deviation of Personnel Development (PD)
For the second attribute (see Figure 16, Mentoring & Coaching (M&C), again the
sub-group of manager expressed a higher affirmation to the two postulated
questions, expressing for the first that they think to give regular feedback to their
subordinates (M = 4.25) and that they take a supportive role in the subordinates
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professional growth and development (M = 4.12). ANOVA analysis revealed for both
PD statements a significant difference at a 0.01 level.
4,25 4,12
3,68
3,43 3,43
3,12
1,16 SD
1,08 1,03 1,13
0,61 0,65

QNr11_34** QNr12_35**
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Figure 16: Mean and standard deviation of Mentoring & Coaching (M&C)
On the contrary to the last two abilities the Team Building (TB) attribute (see
Figure 17) disclose that question QNR13_36 was more positively and significantly
affirmed from the subgroup of employees (M = 4.17). In general, for this question
employees attest the highest congruence, expressing that they have a good working
relation with their team members. To the "team spirit" statements of the second
question both groups agreed but the difference was very small and furthermore
insignificant.
4,50 4,17 4,08
3,86 3,87 3,91 3,88
4,00
3,50
3,00
2,50
2,00 M
1,50 SD
0,81 0,81 0,82 0,82 0,88 0,83
1,00
0,50
0,00
QNr13_36** QNr14_37
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Figure 17: Mean and standard deviation of Team/Team Building (TB)
For the Emotional Intelligence (EQ) again manager expressed higher and very
significant affirmations to both questions with very low SD values (see Figure 18). For
the first questions manager expressed that they agree to the statement that they
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have "excellent empathic skills in dealing with their subordinates" (M = 3.82) and
even higher for the statement that they "foster an environment where diverse
individuals can work together trustfully and effectively (M = 4.08).
4,08
3,82 3,77
3,64
3,29
3,05
1,15 SD
1,07
0,86 0,78
0,58 0,44

QNr15_38** QNr16_39**
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Figure 18: Mean and standard deviation of Emotional Intelligence (EQ)
From the 3 statements of the Cultural Intelligence (CQ) attribute two were highly
significant for the manager subgroup but the means of all participants were very
affirming. The highest coincidence for the whole survey was expressed from
managers to the statement that "employees are treated fairly regardless of race,
gender, religion, etc." (M = 4.43).
4,43
4,12 4,23
3,99 3,86 3,91 3,87 3,83
3,65
M
SD
0,92 1,02 0,98

0,89 0,81 0,77
0,73 0,65 0,75
Employee Manager Total Employee Manager Total Employee Manager Total

QNr17_40** QNr18_41 QNr19_42**
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Figure 19: Mean and standard deviation of Cultural Intelligence (CQ)
The second-highest value from the same group was reached for the third question
of the CQ attribute (M = 4.23) (see Figure 19), expressing that they value the
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contribution of all subordinates regardless of their cultural background. For the third
ranked statement managers expressed agreement to the statement that there is a
good cultural fit between their subordinates within the team (M = 3.91) but the
between group difference for this statement was small and insignificant.
4,28
4,05 3,98
3,81 3,88
3,62
3,33 3,43
3,19
M
SD
1,11 1,11 1,05 1,01
0,80 0,82 0,77
0,62 0,65

QNr20_43** QNr21_44* QNr22_45**
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Figure 20: Mean and standard deviation of Trust & Empowerment (T&E)
For the Trust & Empowerment (T&E) attribute (see Figure 20), managers
expressed throughout high agreement to each of the three questions. The highest
agreement was expressed for the first statement which stated that "subordinates can
disagree with me without fear of getting in trouble" (M = 4.28). Since there is a mean
difference of 0.95 points, there must be a big disagreement between manager and
employees regarding this statement.
A mutual agreement, with slightly higher agreement from the manager group (M =
4.05), was found for the second statement of the T&E attribute, which stated that
manager trust their subordinates when delegating tasks. A high significant difference
was found for the third question, were managers affirmed that they empower their
employees to take effective decisions (M = 3.98). Employees didnt agree nor
disagree to this statement but had with a mean difference of 0.79 a high
disagreement in comparison to the group of manager.
In Figure 21 the abilities Communication (Com) & Time Management (TM) are
depicted. For all attributes questions significant mean difference was found for all
statements at a 0.01 level. Among the Com attribute manager express higher
affirmation with low standard deviation and among the TM attribute the group of
employees. The highest congruence was expressed from managers to the statement
"I listen to my subordinates" (M = 4.40). This sub-group had also the impression that
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they provide their subordinates regular information about the companys mission and
its goals (M = 4.37). As to see in this figure, employees differ from managers
impression strongly.
4,40 4,37
3,70 3,70
3,39 3,40
2,87
2,70
2,32
M
SD
1,05 1,06 1,02 1,01 1,00 1,03 1,04

0,66 0,60

QNr23_46** QNr24_47** QNr25_48**
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Figure 21: Mean and standard deviation of Communication & Time Management (Com&TM)
For the TM attribute "My boss is very busy and doesnt have any time for me" the
employees scored higher (M = 2.87) but in general the expressed mean was very low
(M = 2.70) and for the group of managers it was the lowest expressed value at all (M
= 2.32) with higher standard deviation as for other questions (SD = 1.03). ANOVA
analysis revealed for the Com as for the TM statements a significant difference at a
0.01 level.
3,94 3,97
3,43 3,43 3,35

3,21 3,20
2,92
2,72
M
SD
0,98 0,95 0,94 0,90 1,00 0,99
0,82
0,63
0,50

QNr26_49** QNr27_50** QNr28_51**
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Figure 22: Mean and standard deviation of Change Management (CM)
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358
Regarding the Change Management (CM) attribute (cf. Figure 22) managers had
throughout the highest affirmation. They had the impression that they explain clearly
to their subordinates what are the changes and the next steps (M = 3.97) and why
plans change (M = 3.94).
Slightly indifferent, with higher standard deviation (SD = 0.82), were managers to
the statement "I involve my subordinates before making significant changes" (M =
3.35). Employees tended to disagree or be indifferent to this statement (M = 2.72).
ANOVA analysis revealed for all CM statements a significant difference at a 0.01
level.
For the last attribute, Mental Stress (MS) (see Figure 23), employees were
indifferent to the statement "In a typical working week, I feel stressed out every day at
work" (M = 2.98) and managers even expressed disagreement that their
subordinates "feel stressed every day at work" (M = 2.32). On the other hand
managers affirmed the statement that their "subordinates enjoy coming to work every
morning" (M = 3.54). ANOVA analysis show just for the first statement a significant
difference on 0.01 level.
From the descriptive results of the ANOVA analysis the mean differences between
the two subgroups of the variable Position could be depicted as presented in the
above figures. In the following table (see Table 27) the absolute mean differences for
each statement (|M|Statement), between the two subgroups are ranked in order to depict
highest disagreements between the top-down view (manager survey) and the
bottom-up view (employee survey).
3,54
3,32 3,39
2,98
2,78
2,32
M
SD
0,84 0,85 0,90 0,81 0,88
0,66

QNr29_52** QNr30_53
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Figure 23: Mean and standard deviation of Mental Stress (MS)
The absolute mean differences (|MD|) was calculated as the difference between
the mean of employees and managers indications related to one of the 22
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statements. For question "QNr23_46" the absolute mean difference was |MD|= 1.011
(MManager = 4.40 MEmployees = 3.39).
Rank ROSKAB Question |MD|Statement
1 Com QNr23_46** 1,011
2 M&C QNr12_35** 1,002
3 Com QNr24_47** 0,967
4 T&E QNr20_43** 0,948
5 M&C QNr11_34** 0,817
6 T&E QNr22_45** 0,797
7 PD QNr10_33** 0,785
8 CM QNr27_50** 0,768
9 EQ QNr15_38** 0,762
10 CM QNr26_49** 0,724
11 MS QNr29_52** 0,657
12 CM QNr28_51** 0,629
13 CQ QNr19_42** 0,580
14 TM QNr25_48** 0,543
15 CQ QNr17_40** 0,444
16 EQ QNr16_39** 0,439
17 TB QNr13_36** 0,313
18 T&E QNr21_44* 0,241
19 MS QNr30_53 0,216
20 PD QNr9_32 0,171
21 CQ QNr18_41 0,049
22 TB QNr14_37 0,035
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Table 27: Abilities absolute mean differences for variable position
As to see from the above Table 27 the first question of the Communication
attribute has the biggest absolute mean difference (|MD|Com = 1.011) and the lowest
one was revealed for the last Team Building attribute (|MD| Com = 0.035), i. e., for
statement QNr14_37 the lowest disagreement was found between the two subgroups
of the independent variable Position.
In order to be able to compare the differences by attribute the mean of the
absolute differences per attribute (M|MD|Attribute) were calculated and presented in
Table 28. The biggest disagreement between the groups of the variable Position can
be found for the attribute Communication (M|MD|Com = 0.989), followed by the
attribute Mentoring and Coaching (M|MD|M&C = 0.909).
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Rank ROSKAB Question M|MD|Attribute

1 Com QNr23_46** 0,989
2 M&C QNr12_35** 0,909
3 CM QNr27_50** 0,707
4 T&E QNr20_43** 0,662
5 EQ QNr15_38** 0,601
6 TM QNr25_48** 0,543
7 PD QNr10_33** 0,478
8 MS QNr29_52** 0,437
9 CQ QNr19_42** 0,358
10 TB QNr13_36** 0,174
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Table 28: Sum of abilities mean absolute differences for the variable position
As to see the attribute Team/Team Building (TB) displayed the lowest mean
absolute difference value over all 10 attributes, (M|MD|TB = 0.174), expressing that for
this attribute the participants show the lowest between group disagreement.
Since one of the main goals of this research is to design a leadership model based
on cultural differences between managers and their subordinates, a more in-depth
analysis of the cultural differences was executed. In order to be able to execute this
analysis the variable CultPos was created in order to be able to examine participants
bottom-up and top-down reciprocal evaluations.
The variable CultPos was built from three variables (Position, Nationality and
Review). Level 1 represents: "a German employee evaluates a Spanish manager"
(see coding system Table 23). The variable CultPos had in total 12 levels, which was
the number of possible evaluation combinations for the two subgroups:
German Finance Spanish Finance French Finance

Top-down
Manager Manager Manager
German Finance Spanish Finance French Finance

Bottom-up
Employee Employee Employee
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Figure 24: Schematic overview of the top-down and bottom-up questionaire return quote
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For this analysis an analysis of variances (ANOVA) was applied with the variable
CultPos as independent variable and the 22 statements of the two questionnaires as
dependent variables. The differences between the two groups will enable the
researcher to find differences between the groups of managers and employees and
derive a sustainable leadership model.
From the pool of participants there were 110 employees (see Table 29) who could
evaluate Spanish or French managers and just 3 French managers who could
evaluate their Spanish or German subordinates. In total there were 4 Spanish
employees who evaluated French manager but no French manager who evaluated
Spanish employees (see Figure 24; cf. bold arrow). For this reason the absolute
mean difference between managers and employees of these two Nations couldnt be
displayed in the following tables (cf. Table 30 until Table 40). For further details, the
descriptive variables in Table 64, especially the means of each of the 12 subgroups
are shown.
Position Total
Employee Manager
Nationality German 110 53 163
Spanish 15 9 24
French 24 3 27
Sum 149 65 214
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Table 29: Absolute amount of rated combinations
In the following 10 tables the mean difference per attribute statement was
calculated and presented in one table. The Mean Difference (MD) was calculated
MD= MManager MEmployees, hence a positive outcome means that the mean of
managers was higher and a negative one the opposite.
Reference Description
ROSKAB 1 Personnel Development
ROSKAB 2 Mentoring and Coaching
ROSKAB 3 Team / Teambuilding
ROSKAB 4 Emotional Intelligence
ROSKAB 5 Cultural Intelligence
ROSKAB 6 Trust and Empowerment
ROSKAB 7 Communication
ROSKAB 8 Time Management
ROSKAB 9 Change Management
ROSKAB 10 Mental stress
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Table 30: ROSKAB number reference overview
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In the last two rows the mean of the absolute mean differences (M|MD|) were
calculated for one attribute of the ROSKAB model.
The results in Table 31 display that the smallest difference was found between
French manager and German employees (MD = 0.12). These two groups disagree
least for the first statement of the PD attribute, expressing that their work is
"challenging, stimulating and rewarding".
MD GE Mgr SP Mgr FR Mgr
SP Emp 0,15 GE Emp 0,78 GE Emp 0,12
QNr9_32 FR Emp 0,24 FR Emp 0,67 SP Emp n/a
ROSKAB 1 FR Emp 0,59 FR Emp 0,67 SP Emp n/a
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Table 31: Mean of absolute differences between attribute PD
Spanish manager and German employees are the two groups which disagree
most for the second PD statement, that managers identify the needs of talented
employees (MD = 1.09), i. e., German employees have the opinion that their Spanish
superior dont identify their talents for development and implementing solutions.
Overall, one can see that French manager have the lowest disagreement between
their German employees (M|MD| = 0.29) and the highest between Spanish manager
and German employees (M|MD| = 0.94).
For the M&C attribute (cf. Table 32) the highest agreement could be found for the
first statement "give/receive positive feedback" between Spanish manager and
French employees (MD = 0.09) and the lowest agreement between German manager
and French employees for the second statement, stating that manager take a
"supportive role for professional growth and development" (MD = 1.25).
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Table 32: Mean of absolute differences between attribute M&C
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365
366
As overall result it could be revealed that the highest agreement can be again
found between French manager and German employees (M|MD| = 0.37) and the
lowest one for the opposite constellation (M|MD| = 1.24).
For the TB attribute very high agreement between managers and employees (see
Table 33, |MD| < 0.69) was detected. The highest agreements could be found
between French employees and German manager (MD = -0.03), as well as for the
opposite constellation (MD = 0.03) for the statement that there is a "good working
relationship within the team". For the first constellation the employees rated slightly
higher and for the second the managers in the same but opposite direction.
SP Emp -0,38 GE Emp -0,69 GE Emp 0,03
QNr13_36 FR Emp -0,03 FR Emp -0,20 SP Emp n/a
SP Emp 0,13 GE Emp -0,13 GE Emp -0,04
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Table 33: Mean of absolute differences between attribute TB
The lowest agreement was found for the same statement between Spanish
manager and German employees (MD = -0.69). Since the mean difference is
negative, it can be stated that employees have a more positive impression of the
relationship within the team.
For the TB attribute the overall result depict, that again between French manager
and German employees the highest agreement was detected (M|MD| = 0.03) and the
lowest between Spanish manager and German employees (M|MD| = 0.41).
Comparing the two statements of attribute EQ in Table 34 one can see that
manager rate themselves higher than their subordinates have done (MD > 0). The
biggest disagreement can be found for the statement that manager have "excellent
empathic skills" (MD = 1.20) between Spanish manager and French employees. The
highest agreement could be found for the same two groups for the second statement,
stating that manager "foster an environment where diverse individuals can work
together trustful and effectively" (MD = 0.33).
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Table 34: Mean of absolute differences between attribute EQ
The overall result for the emotional intelligence displays that low mean deviations
could be found between the EQ attribute. The lowest disagreement could be
detected between Spanish manager and German employees (M|MD| = 0.41) and the
highest one between Spanish manager and French employees (M|MD| = 0.77).
As in Table 35 displayed manager predominantly gave higher rates to the 3
statements of the CQ abilities. Just for the second statement Spanish employees
rated higher than their German manager, expressing that there is a good cultural fit
between the employee and their team (MD = -0.11). The highest disagreement could
be found for the last statement ("My boss considers all contributions as valuable
regardless of my cultural background") between the Spanish manager and French
employees (MD = 1.04). The lowest over the CQ and over all 10 abilities, was
detected between German manager and Spanish employees (MD = 0.00). With this
result it can be stated that there is a non-existing difference for the third statement
between these two groups.
SP Emp -0,11 GE Emp 0,43 GE Emp 0,37
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Table 35: Mean of absolute differences between attribute CQ
For the overall rate of the CQ attribute one can see that the highest disagreement
is between the cultural groups of Spanish manager and French employees (M|MD| =
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0.65) and the lowest one between German manager and Spanish employees (M|MD|
= 0.10).
The results of the T&E attribute in Table 36 displays that predominantly manager
rated higher. Just for the second statement "My work contributes considerably to the
company in achieving its goals", German employees rated higher than French
manager (MD = -0.33). Spanish employees rated also higher than their German
manager but the difference is negligible and the lowest difference over all three
statements (MD = -0.02). The biggest difference was found for the first statement,
expressing that managers subordinates can disagree with their superior without fear
of getting in trouble (MD = 1.40). This statement was found to be the second-biggest
disagreement over all statements.
SP Emp -0,02 GE Emp 0,35 GE Emp -0,33
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Table 36: Mean of absolute differences between attribute T&E
Over all 3 statements the biggest disagreement could be found in the mean of the
absolute differences between German manager and French employees (M|MD| = 0.)
and the lowest one between German manager and Spanish employees (M|MD| =
0.37).
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Table 37: Mean of absolute differences between attribute Com
Comparing the 22 statements in this survey one can see many high mean
differences between manager and employees of different culture constellations for
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371
the communication attribute. The lowest, but still high disagreement was found
between French employees and Spanish manager for the second statement (see
Table 37), stating that manager provide their employees "with regular information
about the company's mission and its goals" (MD= 0.53).
The highest disagreement over the communication attribute and over all 22
statements as well, was detected for the statement that manager listen to their
subordinates (MD = 1.43) followed by the second-highest disagreement between
French employees and their superiors, German manager (MD = 1.29) for the second
statement.
For the overall differences of attribute Com it can be seen that the highest
disagreement was between Spanish manager and German employees (M|MD| =
1.22) and the lowest one between Spanish manager and French employees (M|MD|
= 0.68).
The time management attribute was the only one containing just one statement. It
expressed from employees point of view that their superior "is very busy and doesnt
have any time for me". As the results in Table 38 show, all employees scored higher
(MD < 0) than their superiors, which makes this statement the only one over all 22
where all employees had higher mean values than their superior.
MD QNr25_48 GE Mgr SP Mgr FR Mgr
QNr25_48 SP Emp -0,82 GE Emp -0,77 GE Emp -0,57
ROSKAB 8 FR Emp -0,31 FR Emp -0,91 SP Emp n/a
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Table 38: Mean of absolute differences between attribute TM
The highest agreement was found between French manager and German
employees (MD = -0.31) and the lowest one between Spanish manager and French
employees (MD = -0.91).
For the change management attribute in Table 39 the opposite result was found.
All managers rated higher than their subordinates, resulting in just positive mean
differences over all statements and cultural constellations (MD > 0). Among these
issues the highest agreement was detected between German manager and Spanish
employees, as well as between Spanish manager and French employees (MD =
0.36). The first comparison group revealed high agreement for the first statement
(managers explain clearly to their subordinates why plans change) and the second
group for the second statement which stated that superior explains clearly to their
subordinates what are the changes and the next steps.
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Table 39: Mean of absolute differences between attribute CM
The highest disagreement was found between German manager and Spanish
employees for the last statement of the CM attribute, which stated that managers
involve employees before making significant changes (MD = 0.99).
For the overall differences, it can be seen that the biggest disagreement could be
found between Spanish Managers and German employees (M|MD| = 0.86) and the
lowest one for two comparison groups. The first one being Spanish manager rating
French employees and French manager rating German employees ((M|MD| = 0.67).
The last attribute in this analysis was the assessment of the mental stress
between the 6 evaluated groups. As to observe in Table 40 employees rated for the
first statement overall higher than the managers they needed to evaluate (MD < 0).
For the second statement the highest mean values alternate for different employer
and manager constellations.
SP Emp -0,52 GE Emp -0,68 GE Emp -0,72
QNr29_52 FR Emp -0,55 FR Emp -1,11 SP Emp n/a
SP Emp 0,10 GE Emp -0,46 GE Emp 0,14
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Table 40: Mean of absolute differences between attribute MS
A very high agreement could be found between German manager and Spanish
employees for the second statement, which stated that "I enjoy coming to work every
morning" (MD = 0.10). The highest disagreement could be detected for the first
statement saying that "In a typical working week, I feel stressed out every day at
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work" (MD = -1.11). Hence, it can be stated that employees feel more stressed out at
work as their managers think.
For the overall comparison it can be stated that the lowest disagreement can be
found between German manager and Spanish employees (M|MD| = 0.31) and the
highest one between Spanish manager and French employees (M|MD| = 0.84).
In order to have a full comparison between the 6 groups of respondents, the sum
over all 22 absolute mean differences (|MD|) was calculated. In general, the results
in the previous tables show that there is not a cultural manager and employee
constellation which have the best fit. Employees of different cultures agree or
disagree with managers for different statements. Summing up the absolute mean
differences Table 41 displays that the highest agreement could be found between
German manager and Spanish employees (|MD|= 10.81) followed by French
manager and German employees (|MD| = 11.14).
GE Mgr SP Mgr FR Mgr
FR Emp 15,14 FR Emp 14,03 SP Emp n/a
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Table 41: Sum of statements absolute mean differences for the variable CultPos
The highest disagreement was detected if Spanish manager rated German

employees and vice versa (|MD| = 15.98). Since there was no French manager who
could rate Spanish employees, no overall comparison between the GE, SP and FR
manager can be made. It just can be said that between German manager and their
subordinates a lower sum of absolute mean differences could be found than between
Spanish manager and their subordinates.
4.5.2 Review of the Hypotheses

43B
For the present scientific study four hypotheses were postulated. The two
questionnaire delivered valuable data which was analysed in the previous subchapter
and will build the base of the hypotheses assessment. The four hypotheses to be
assessed are:
H1: In the selected ten attributes, managers tend to evaluate themselves better
than their employees do.
H2: The degree of similarity in evaluation of selected ten managerial attributes
between German managers and their subordinates is smaller than the similarity of
managers from other countries.
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4.6 Deduction of a Leadership Model for Finance Managers 111
H3: Communication skills display the biggest difference in perception of effectivity

of communication between managers and employees.
H4: By the means of the manager and subordinate views to the peculiarities of the
ten attributes, a cascaded leadership development recommendation is possible.
The outcome for the first hypothesis (H1) was expected because each manager
has an advantage if he presents himself in the best way possible. From the results
presented in Figure 15 to Figure 23 it was shown that 19 of 22 statements were
higher assessed from managers than from the employees group. For this reason the
first hypotheses is approved.
H2 was postulated because compared with Spain and France, Germany is the
biggest exporting country.376 It was expected that German manager have higher
cultural experience and therefore can better manage intercultural teams.
From the results of Table 41 one can see that between German managers and
one subordinates group the lowest disagreement could be found. Since a full
manager comparison was not possible H2 just partly can be accepted.
H3 as to see in Table 27 the Communication attribute displayed the biggest
statement difference between managers and employees. For this reason the third
hypothesis can be approved.
H4 could be anticipated and is proved with view to the operational ROSKAB
leadership deficiency assessment (see Table 66). The main improvement potential is
embedded within the attributes time management and multicultural communications.
Medium improvement possibilities are within emotional intelligence, trust and
empowerment, mental stress, mentoring/coaching, personnel development as well as
change management. No huge potential is seen in cultural intelligence and
team/team building.
4.6 Deduction of a Leadership Model for Finance Managers

The evaluation of the results of the literature analysis as well as of the empirical
study (cf. single questions related answers Table 27 and ROSKAB cluster analysis
Table 28 as well as the employee and manager questionnaires in the appendix)
leads to the following ROSKAB leadership model (Figure 25) being derived.
Description of the Model
The starting point of the model describes the managers basic and compelling
attitude and wish to even want to lead people. Knowledge of leadership theories and
experience are not in themselves sufficient as a basis. The goal is to motivate
376
Cf. Statistika (2014): Die 20 grten Exportlaender weltweit im Jahr 2012 [Internet]
employees on a sustainable basis (cf. chapter 3.4.2) so that the likelihood of their
being committed and therefore productive is high. With respect to maximizing this
productivity, this goal can be achieved via the direct and indirect methods that are
shown as steps in Figure 25. The direct method can lead to short but also long-term
success, whereas the indirect method tends to lead more to medium and long-term
success.
Sustainable Result:
Personnel Motivation High probability for
Development engaged and
Mentoring productive
Direct Method employees
Coaching
Sustainable
Creation of a trustful
Change Motivation
culture and empowerment
of employees Management
within the multicultural
Sensitivity to mental frame
stress within a
multicultural context Multicultural
Communications
Emotional
Intelligence (EQ) Multicultural Bold = Critical Enabler
teambuilding
Time Management
and Manager Skills
for time to lead
development
Manager Roles
Requirement: The Cultural Intelligence
Managers attitude CQ
Manager Abilities
and wish to lead Indirect Method
people
377
Figure 25: ROSKAB Leadership Model
In the mentioned illustration of the ROSKAB leadership model (Figure 25), the
results of the critical enablers for effective leadership are presented firstly in bold and
secondly by means of a stylized traffic light signaling their abilities or meaning. Red
means that action to improve leadership is absolutely necessary (the perceptions of
managers and employees correlate either in the strongly disagree or disagree
category (negative characteristic) or deviate significantly from one another
(managers own perception and the employees external perception). Yellow should
be seen as critical, i. e. as an area for the development of leadership (roles, skills,
abilities), and should be addressed in a timely manner. The green light signifies that
there is a positive consensus of perception between the manager and employee for
each of the roles, skills or abilities considered.
377
4.7 Scheme for a Development Program for Finance Managers 113
The first step within the scope of the direct method is having the basic time for
leadership (ability). This can be achieved through good time management (cf.
chapter 3.4.4). The next step is emotional intelligence (ability), which serves as a
basis for emotional perception (cf. chapter 3.4.6). These fine antennae constitute the
prerequisites for sensitivity to mental stress (role) in a multicultural context (cf.
chapter 3.2.1). On the way to becoming motivated, employees need to feel in control
in their area. This can be achieved by creating a trusting environment and by
empowering employees (role) (cf. chapter 3.2.2). The next two steps and embedded
skills follow the individual psychological aspects of mentoring and coaching (cf.
chapter 3.3.1) and personnel development (cf. chapter 3.3.2). In observing these
steps, which should not necessarily be viewed selectively as individual steps,
motivation and, as a result, commitment and productivity can be maximized.
For the indirect method, all steps can be attributed to manager abilities. The first
step shows basic cultural intelligence (cf. chapter 3.4.7). The knowledge, experience
and attitude for perceiving different cultural abilities and how best to deal with them.
This is followed by the ability and flair for forming and developing multicultural teams
(cf. chapter 3.4.1). A further important topic is adapted multicultural communication in
a cross-cultural environment. The final step with respect to the indirect method is
dealing with change management in a multicultural context so as to achieve a
maximum level of employee motivation, commitment and productivity (cf. chapter
3.4.5).
Managers should use both of the methods illustrated convincingly to achieve
effective leadership on both a sustainable and authentic basis. In observing both the
short-term (direct method) and medium and long-term courses of action, the
probability of maximizing employees motivation and commitment and consequently
their productivity in multicultural contexts and teams on a sustainable basis is
sufficiently high.
4.7 Scheme for a Development Program for Finance Managers

As part of these study results, the deficiencies in the leadership roles, skills and
abilities of finance managers are illustrated in Table 42. After the leadership roles,
skills, and abilities, there are traffic signals for visualization according to cultural
background that illustrate the discrepancies from Figure 25 in more detail (based on
Table 66). Development program recommendations for the leadership roles, skills,
and abilities that have been assessed as yellow and red are listed next to this.
Role, Skill or Deficiency Development program recommendation

Ability of the assessment
Manager GE SP FR
Personnel Strengthen the manager awareness of the development needs as
Development
378 well as the career and personal wishes of the employees.
Mentoring and Sharpen the willingness of manager to be a business and sparring

Coaching
379 partner for the subordinates. Training the established methods.
380
Teambuilding
Emotional Training of the financial manager to be aware of them as

Intelligence
381 prerequisite and further to be empathic for the subordinates.
Cultural Special training with view on the related cultural dimensions

Intelligence
382 (Hofstede, Trompenaars and GLOBE) and specific separabilities.
Trust and Learn to trust the subordinates. Thinking positive and have a good
Empowerment
383 attitude with view on the ability of the employees.
384
Communication Learning a sustainable receiver-based and listening
communication - in the multicultural frame (dos and donts).
Time Training of workload optimization and delegation of issues. The

Management
385 important aim is to have time to lead the subordinates.
Change Study the different change management theories and models with
Management
386 view on the phases of the change process.
387
Mental Stress Improving the own antenna for the psychical exposure in the
frame of the employees and the manager (burn out prevention).
388
Table 42: Deficiency assessment and development recommendations for leadership ROSKAB
The recommendations presented in Table 42 draw on the current simplified

training measures for managers in a multicultural environment presented in chapter
2.2.
4.8 Recommendations
The literature analysis was based on sufficiently general and broadly structured
studies whose main focus was not the functional focus of managers and employees
378
Refering to Table 31
379
380
381
382
383
384
385
386
387
388
4.8 Recommendations 115
in a financial environment within large organizations (large companies and concerns).

The empirical study placed the focus on the latter parameters mentioned as well as
on the examination within the French, German, and Spanish cultures. The author of
this scientific study hereby puts forward two recommendations for discussion:
The first recommendation is to contrast the results of this study with principles for
other functional groups in further scientific studies in order to discover which of the
two objects of investigation stated (cross-functional vs. cultural focus) is, for example,
more dominant.
Furthermore, and as a second recommendation, specific development programs
for finance managers in multicultural teams (France, Germany, and Spain) should be
worked out from the scheme for a development program for finance managers (cf.
chapter 4.7) and developed.
5. Summary
The aim of this research paper was to derive a leadership model and an outline for
a leadership development program with respect to managers and employees in
(multicultural) finance teams in profit-based organizations (large companies and
organizations) in France, Germany, and Spain.
To this end, a literature analysis of the current scientific discussion relevant to this
topic was carried out in the initial theoretical section. The result was that the scientific
debate with regard to optimizing leadership in a multicultural framework has not yet
reached the degree of maturity that is currently desired for this paper and
consequently for the target organization. This leads to the conclusion that, according
to the literature assessment of the cultural studies and multicultural leadership,
culturally related discrepancies that could lead to a decrease in productivity, among
other things, if they are not taken into consideration during team cooperation, prevail
between the countries in question. Furthermore, from todays perspective, there are
no further indications and/or correlation with regard to cultural differences and
functional differences in general, nor specifically for the multicultural frameworks of
Germany, Spain and France.
In the next theoretical section an overview of the following roles, skills, and abilities
from the literature and empirical studies were presented with a view to topicality and
internationality: personnel development, mentoring and coaching, sensitivity to
mental stress within a multicultural context, creation of a trustful culture and
empowerment of employees, cultural intelligence, sustainable motivation, change
management within a multicultural framework, multicultural team building and
development, time management for time to lead, multicultural communication, and
emotional intelligence.
The empirical study was based on a questionnaire for finance managers and
finance employees in multicultural teams (n = 214), the questions for which were
structured correlatively and the results derived from them illustrated in the ROSKAB
leadership model (roles, skills, and abilities) and in the leadership development
program.
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12B Appendix
Questionnaire Finance Manager
Dear participant,
Thank you very much for taking part in my survey. By sharing your point of view, you contribute significantly to my
PhD thesis which is investigating the critical enablers for an effective multicultural leadership. I kindly ask you to
answer the following anonymous questionnaire, which will only take 5 minutes. As the main focus of my PhD
thesis relates to the examination of
- Manager and subordinates relationships (only in finance environment)
- in a multicultural context (only relationships between German, French and Spanish nationalities).
So when you responding to the questionnaire please reference a relationship with a manager or a subordinate in
the finance role who is of a different nationality to yourself (German, French or Spanish).
Thank you very much for your contribution which is much appreciated. Best regards, Reinhold Kohler
How big is the company you work for?

O big company (> 250 employees) O medium company O small company
In which area do you work?

O Finance: O Other: ..
What is your national background?

O German O Spanish O French O Other:.
Are you male or female? How old are you?

OM OF O 19-25 O 26-40 O 41-60 O 61+
What is your level of education?

O Non-academic O Academic
How long is your professional work experience in years (in total)?

O 0-5 O 6-10 O 11-20 O more
Which nationality has the (former) employee(s) you consider?

1. Personal Development
I have the feeling that the work for my subordinates is challenging, stimulating and rewarding.
strongly disagree disagree neither agree strongly agree
O O O O O
I identify the needs of my talented subordinates for development and implement solutions.
O O O O O
2. Mentoring / Coaching
I give my subordinates feedback regularly.
O O O O O
I take a supportive role in the subordinates' professional growth and development.
O O O O O
3. Team / Team building
My subordinate has good working relationships within the team.
O O O O O
I believe there is a feeling of team spirit.
O O O O O

138 Appendix
4. EQ Emotional Intelligence
I have excellent empathic skills in dealing with my subordinates.
O O O O O
I foster an environment where diverse individuals can work together trustful and effectively.
O O O O O
5. CQ Cultural Intelligence
Employees are treated fairly regardless of race, gender, religion etc.
O O O O O
I feel there is a good cultural fit between my subordinates within the team.
O O O O O
I value the contributions of all of my subordinated regardless of their cultural background.
O O O O O
6. Trust & Empowerment
My subordinates can disagree with me without fear of getting in trouble.
O O O O O
I trust my subordinates that they will do a good job when delegating tasks.
O O O O O
I empower my subordinates to enable them to take effective decisions.
O O O O O
7. Communication
I listen to my subordinates.
O O O O O
I provide my subordinates with regular information about the company's mission and its goals.
O O O O O
8. Time Management
I am very busy and therefore I dont have enough time for my subordinate.
O O O O O
9. Change Management
I explain clearly to my subordinates why plans change.
O O O O O
I explain clearly to my subordinates what are the changes and the next steps (roadmap).
O O O O O
I involve my subordinates before making significant changes (e. g. new strategy).
O O O O O
10. Mental stress
In a typical working week, my subordinates feel stressed every day at work.
O O O O O
My subordinates enjoy coming to work every morning.
O O O O O
Appendix 139
Questionnaire Employee:
Dear participant,
Thank you very much for taking part in my survey. By sharing your point of view, you contribute significantly to my
PhD thesis which is investigating the critical enablers for an effective multicultural leadership. I kindly ask you to
answer the following anonymous questionnaire, which will only take 5 minutes. As the main focus of my PhD
thesis relates to the examination of
- Manager and subordinates relationships (only in finance environment)
- in a multicultural context (only relationships between German, French and Spanish nationalities).
So when you responding to the questionnaire please reference a relationship with a manager or a subordinate in
the finance role who is of a different nationality to yourself (German, French or Spanish).
Thank you very much for your contribution which is much appreciated. Best regards, Reinhold Kohler
How big is the company you work for?

O big company (> 250 employees) O medium company O small company
In which area do you work?

O Finance: O Other: ..
What is your national background?

Are you male or female? How old are you?

OM OF O 19-25 O 26-40 O 41-60 O 61+
What is your level of education?

O Non-academic O Academic
How long is your professional work experience in years (in total)?

O 0-5 O 6-10 O 11-20 O more
What nationality has your (former) boss you want to review?

1. Personal Development
My work is challenging, stimulating and rewarding.
O O O O O
I believe my boss identifies my needs for development and implements solutions.
O O O O O
2. Mentoring / Coaching
I receive feedback and appreciation from my supervisor regularly.
O O O O O
My boss takes a supportive role in my professional growth and development.
O O O O O
3. Team / Team building
I have good working relationships with my team members.
O O O O O
I believe there is a feeling of team spirit.
O O O O O
140 Appendix
4. EQ Emotional Intelligence
My boss knows about my feelings, wishes and moods.
O O O O O
We have a trustful culture within the team.
O O O O O
5. CQ Cultural Intelligence
Employees are treated fairly regardless of race, gender, religion etc.
O O O O O
I feel there is a good cultural fit between me and our team.
O O O O O
My boss considers all contributions as valuable regardless of my cultural background.
O O O O O
6. Trust & Empowerment
I can disagree with my boss without fearing of getting into trouble.
O O O O O
My work contributes considerably to the company in achieving its goals.
O O O O O
My boss empowers me to enable effective decision-making.
O O O O O
7. Communication
My boss listens to me.
O O O O O
My boss provides me with regular information about the company's mission and its goals.
O O O O O
8. Time Management
My boss is very busy and doesnt have any time for me.
O O O O O
9. Change Management
My boss explains clearly to me why plans change (e. g. new strategy).
O O O O O
My boss explains clearly to me what are the changes and the next steps (roadmap).
O O O O O
My manager involves me before making significant changes.
O O O O O
10. Mental stress
In a typical working week, I feel stressed out every day at work.
O O O O O
I enjoy coming to work every morning.
O O O O O
Appendix 141
Cultural dimensions (Hofstede)

389
Table 43: Power distance index (Hofstede)
Land/Region Punktwert Position Land/Region Punktwert Position
Malaysia 104 1 /2 Portugal 63 37/38
Slowakei 104 1 /2 Belgien Flmisch 61 39/40
Guatemala 95 3 /4 Uruguay 61 39/40
Panama 95 3 /4 Griechenland 60 41/42
Philippinen 94 5 Sdkorea 60 41/42
Russland 93 6 Iran 58 43/44
Rumnien 90 7 Taiwan 58 43/44
Serbien 86 8 Tschechien 57 45/46
Surinam 85 9 Spanien 57 45/46
Mexiko 81 10/11 Malta 56 47
Venezuela 81 10/11 Pakistan 55 48
Arabische Lnder 80 12/14 Kanada Quebec 54 49/50
Bangladesh 80 14/14 Japan 54 49/50
China 80 15/16 Italien 50 51
Ecuador 78 15/16 Argentinien 49 52/53
Indonesien 78 17/18 Sdafrika 49 52/53
Indien 77 17/18 Trinidad 47 54
Westafrika 77 19 Ungarn 46 55
Singapur 74 20 Jamaika 45 56
Kroatien 73 21 Estland 40 57/59
Slowenien 71 22/25 Luxemburg 40 57/59
Bulgarien 70 22/25 USA 40 57/59
Marokko 70 22/25 Kanada gesamt 39 60
Schweiz Franzsisch 70 22/25 Niederlande 38 61
Vietnam 70 26 Australien 36 62
Brasilien 69 27/29 Costa Rica 35 63/65
Frankreich 68 27/29 Deutschland 35 63/65
Hongkong 68 27/29 Grobritannien 35 63/65
Polen 68 30/31 Finnland 33 66
Belgien Franz. 67 30/31 Norwegen 31 67/68
Kolumbien 67 32/33 Schweden 31 67/68
Salvador 66 32/33 Irland 28 69
Trkei 66 34/36 Schweiz Deutsch 26 70
Ostafrika 64 34/36 Neuseeland 22 71
Peru 64 34/36 Dnemark 18 72
Thailand 64 34/36 Israel 13 73
Chile 63 37/38 sterreich 11 74
389
142 Appendix
390
Table 44: Individualism index (Hofstede)
USA 91 1 Russland 39 37/38
Australien 90 2 Arabische Lnder 38 39/40
Grobritannien 89 3 Brasilien 38 39/40
Kanada gesamt 80 4/6 Trkei 37 41
Ungarn 80 4/6 Uruguay 36 42
Niederlande 80 4/6 Griechenland 35 43
Neuseeland 79 7 Kroatien 33 44
Belgien Flmisch 78 8 Philippinen 32 45
Italien 76 9 Bulgarien 30 46/48
Dnemark 74 10 Mexiko 30 46/48
Kanada Franzsisch 73 11 Rumnien 30 46/48
Belgien Franzsisch 72 12 Ostafrika 27 49/51
Frankreich 71 13/14 Portugal 27 49/51
Schweden 71 13/14 Slowenien 27 49/51
Irland 70 15 Malaysia 26 52
Norwegen 69 16/17 Hongkong 25 53/54
Schweiz Deutsch 69 16/17 Serbien 25 53/54
Deutschland 67 18 Chile 23 55
Sdafrika 65 19 Bangladesh 20 56/61
Schweiz Franzsisch 64 20 China 20 56/61
Finnland 63 21 Singapur 20 56/61
Estland 60 22/24 Thailand 20 56/61
Luxemburg 60 22/24 Vietnam 20 56/61
Polen 60 22/24 Westafrika 20 56/61
Malta 59 25 Salvador 19 62
Tschechien 58 26 Sdkorea 18 63
sterreich 55 27 Taiwan 17 64
Israel 54 28 Peru 16 65/66
Slowakei 52 29 Trinidad 16 65/66
Spanien 51 30 Costa Rica 15 67
Indien 48 31 Indonesien 14 68/69
Surinam 47 32 Pakistan 14 68/69
Argentinien 46 33/35 Kolumbien 13 70
Japan 46 33/35 Venezuela 12 71
Marokko 46 33/35 Panama 11 72
Iran 41 36 Ecuador 8 73
Jamaika 39 37/38 Guatemala 6 74
390
Appendix 143
391
Table 45: Masculinity index (Hofstede)
Slowakei 110 1 Singapur 48 38
Japan 95 2 Israel 47 39/40
Ungarn 88 3 Malta 47 39/40
sterreich 79 4 Indonesien 46 41/42
Venezuela 73 5 Westafrika 46 41/42
Schweiz Deutsch 72 6 Kanada Quebec 45 43/45
Italien 70 7 Taiwan 45 43/45
Mexiko 69 8 Trkei 45 43/45
Irland 68 9/10 Panama 44 46
Jamaika 68 9/10 Belgien Flmisch 43 47/50
China 66 11/13 Frankreich 43 47/50
Deutschland 66 11/13 Iran 43 47/50
Grobritannien 66 11/13 Serbien 43 47/50
Kolumbien 64 14/16 Peru 42 51/53
Philippinen 64 14/16 Rumnien 42 51/53
Polen 64 14/16 Spanien 42 51/53
Sdafrika 63 17/18 Ostafrika 41 54
Ecuador 63 17/18 Bulgarien 40 55/58
USA 62 19 Kroatien 40 55/58
Australien 61 20 Salvador 40 55/58
Belgien Franzsisch 60 21 Vietnam 40 55/58
Neuseeland 58 22/24 Sdkorea 39 59
Schweiz Franzsisch 58 22/24 Uruguay 38 60
Trinidad 58 22/24 Guatemala 37 61/62
Tschechien 57 25/27 Surinam 37 61/62
Griechenland 57 25/27 Russland 36 63
Hongkong 57 25/27 Thailand 34 64
Argentinien 56 28/29 Portugal 31 65
Indien 56 28/29 Estland 30 66
Bangladesh 55 30 Chile 28 67
Arabische Lnder 53 31/32 Finnland 26 68
Marokko 53 31/32 Costa Rica 21 69
Kanada gesamt 52 33 Slowenien 19 70
Luxemburg 50 34/36 Dnemark 16 71
Malaysia 50 34/36 Niederlande 14 72
Pakistan 50 34/36 Norwegen 8 73
Brasilien 49 37 Schweden 5 74
391
144 Appendix
392
Table 46: Uncertainty avoidance index (Hofstede)
Griechenland 112 1 Schweiz Franzsisch 70 35/38
Portugal 104 2 Taiwan 69 39
Guatemala 101 3 Arabische Lnder 68 40/41
Uruguay 100 4 Marokko 68 40/41
Belgien Flmisch 97 5 Ecuador 67 42
Malta 96 6 Deutschland 65 43
Russland 95 7 Thailand 64 44
Salvador 94 8 Bangladesh 60 45/47
Belgien Franzsisch 93 9/10 Kanada Quebec 60 45/47
Polen 93 9/10 Estland 60 45/47
Japan 92 11/13 Finnland 59 48/49
Serbien 92 11/13 Iran 59 48/49
Surinam 92 11/13 Schweiz Deutsch 56 50
Rumnien 90 14 Trinidad 55 51
Slowenien 88 15 Westafrika 54 52
Peru 87 16 Niederlande 53 53
Argentinien 86 17/22 Ostafrika 52 54
Chile 86 17/22 Australien 51 55/56
Costa Rica 86 17/22 Slowakei 51 55/56
Frankreich 86 17/22 Norwegen 50 57
Panama 86 17/22 Neuseeland 49 58/59
Spanien 86 17/22 Sdafrika 49 58/59
Bulgarien 85 23/25 Kanada gesamt 48 60/61
Sdkorea 85 23/25 Indonesien 48 60/61
Trkei 85 23/25 USA 46 62
Ungarn 82 26/27 Philippinen 44 63
Mexiko 82 26/27 Indien 40 64
Israel 81 28 Malaysia 36 65
Kolumbien 80 29/30 Grobritannien 35 66/67
Kroatien 80 29/30 Irland 35 66/67
Brasilien 76 31/32 China 30 68/69
Venezuela 76 31/32 Vietnam 30 68/69
Italien 75 33 Hongkong 29 70/71
Tschechien 74 34 Schweden 29 70/71
sterreich 70 35/38 Dnemark 23 72
Luxemburg 70 35/38 Jamaika 13 73
Pakistan 70 35/38 Singapur 8 74
392
Appendix 145
393
Table 47: Long-term orientation (Hofstede)
China 118 1 Slowakei 38 20/21
Hongkong 96 2 Italien 34 22
Taiwan 87 3 Schweden 33 23
Japan 80 4/5 Polen 32 24
Vietnam 80 4/5 sterreich 31 25/27
Sdkorea 75 6 Australien 31 25/27
Brasilien 65 7 Deutschland 31 25/27
Indien 61 8 Kanada Quebec 30 28/30
Thailand 56 9 Neuseeland 30 28/30
Ungarn 50 10 Portugal 30 28/30
Singapur 48 11 USA 29 31
Dnemark 46 12 Grobritannien 25 32/33
Niederlande 44 13/14 Zimbabwe 25 32/33
Norwegen 44 13/14 Kanada 23 34
Irland 43 15 Philippinen 19 35/36
Finnland 41 16 Spanien 19 35/36
Bangladesh 40 17/18 Nigeria 16 37
Schweiz 40 17/18 Tschechien 13 38
Frankreich 39 19 Pakistan 0 39
Belgien gesamt 38 20/21
393
146 Appendix
Selection of current studies regarding leadership within a multicultural context

Table 48: Studies about the direct influence to the precepted leadership to the ideal leadership within
394
the cultural context
Autor(en) Daten-grundlage1 Theoretische Unabhngige Abhngige Zentrale Ergebnisse
(Jahr) / Grundlage2 / Variable(n) Variable(n)
Journal Analyse-
methode3
Abdalla/Al- N = 11, CEILT, ILT/ Betrachtete Variablen: - berprfung der
Homoud nKatar= 101, KorrA, FA Fhrungskrftestile: Fhrungskrftemerkmale
(2001)/APIR nKuwait= 78, - Charismatic/value-based aus der GLOBE-Studie auf
Fhrungskrfte, - Considerate ihren Einsatz in
Banken, Tele- - Autocratic arabischen Lndern
kommunikation, - Self-protective - Entwicklung einer neuen
staatliche - Traditional-tribalistic Fhrungskrfteskala fr
Behrden, Kuwait und Katar bzw. fr
QS, KWT, Q arabische Lnder
Brodbeck et N = k.A., CEILT, ILT/CA Betrachtete Variablen: - Unterscheidung
al. (2000)/ n = 6.052, Leadership prototype europischer
JOOP Fhrungskrfte, abilities Fhrungskrftekonzepte
Konsum- - Fnf verschiedene
gterindustrie, europische Cluster
Banken,
Telekommu-
nikation, QS, 22
europische
Lnder
Den Hartog et N = 3, CEILT, ILT/DS Betrachtete Variablen: - Bestimmte
al. (1999)/LQ n = 15.022, Fhrungskrftestile: Fhrungskrftemerkmale
Fhrungskrfte, - Charismatic/transformational sind in verschiedenen
Banken, - Team-oriented Lndern gleichermaen
Konsumgter- - Participative leadership einsetzbar
industrie, - Bestimmte
Telekommu- Fhrungskrftemerkmale
nikation, QS, werden eher mit Top-
60 Lnder Managementebenen in
Verbindung gesetzt als mit
niedrigeren
Managementebenen
N = k.A., CEILT, ILT/VA Leadership prototype -
n = 2.161, abilities
Internet-User,
-, QS, NL
Eden/Leviatan N = 1, IPT/FA Betrachtete Variablen: Berechnung von vier
(1975)/JAP n = 235, Fhrungskrftemerkmale: Fhrungskrftemerkmalen
Studenten, -Support anhand von zwlf Items
394
zbek-Potthof, G. (2013): Implizite Fhrung im interkulturellen Kontext. p. 44-45
Appendix 147
Universitt, QS, IL -Work facilitation

-Interaction facilitation
-Goal emphasis
Epitropaki/Mar N = -, ILT/KorrA, FA Betrachtete Variablen: - berprfung der
tin (2004)/JAP n = 500, - Leadership prototype abilities Fhrungskrfteskala von
Brger, -, QS, GB (sensitivity, intelligence, dedication, Offermann/Kennedy/Wirtz
charisma, strength) (1994)
- Leadership antiprototype abilities - Die Konstrukte der
(tyranny, masculinity) Fhrungskrfteskalen
N = 7, ILT/KorrA, FA Betrachtete Variablen: unterscheiden sich
nStudie1 =439, - Leadership prototypeneu abilities - Leadership prototypeneu:
nStudie2 = 271, (sensitivity, intelligence, dedication, sensitivity, intelligence,
Mitarbeiter, dynamism) dedication, dynamism
Fertigungs- - Leadership antiprototypeneu abilities - Leadership
industrie, Dienst- (tyranny, masculinity) antiprototypeneu: tyranny,
leistung, LS, GB masculinity
Holmberg/ N = 14, CEILT, ILT/DS Betrachtete Variablen: - berprfung der
kerblom(200 n = 900, Leadership prototype abilities Fhrungskrftemerkmale
6)/SJM Fhrungskrfte, der GLOBE-Studie fr
Banken, Kosum- Schweden
gterindustrie, - Ergebnis der Studie
Telekommu- zeigt, dass typische
nikation, QS, S schwedische Fhrungs-
krftemerkmale vorhanden
sind
Ling/Chia/Fan N = k.A., ILT/FA Betrachtete Variablen: - Entwicklung einer
g (2000)/JSP n = 622, - Personal morality Fhrungsskala fr China
Studenten, - Goal effectiveness - Berechnung neuer
Arbeiter, Lehrer, -, - Interpersonal competency Fhrungsmerkmale, die
QS, CN - Versatility fr die chinesische
implizite Fhrungstheorie
von Relevanz sind
1
Remark: N = Anzahl der Unternehmen, n = Anzahl der Befragten, Position der Befragten, Branche
der Befragten, Typ der Befragung (QS = Querschnittstudie, LS = Lngsschnittstudie), Land: GB =
2
Grobritannien, IL = Israel, KWT = Kuwait, NL = Niederlande, Q = Katar, S = Schweden; CEILT =
CulturallyEndorsedImplicit Leadership Theorie, ILT = Implizite Fhrungstheorie, IPT = Implizite
3
Persnlichkeitstheorie; CA = Clusteranalyse, DS = Deskriptive Statistiken, FA = Faktorenanalyse,
KorrA = Korrelationsanalyse, VA = Varianzanalyse.
148 Appendix
Table 49: Studies about the direct influence of ideal leadership to the leadership success within the
395
cultural context
Autor(en) Daten- Theoretische Unabhngige Abhngige Zentrale Ergebnisse
(Jahr) / Journal grundlage1 Grundlage2 / Variable(n) Variable(n)
Analyse-
methode3
Ah N = 4, ILT/FA Betrachtete Variablen: - berprfung der
Chong/Thomas n = 156, - Leadership perceptions Fhrungskrfte-
(1997)/LQ Mitarbeiter, - Satisfaction erwartungen von
Banken, Mitarbeitern aus
Dienstleistung, einem Land mit zwei
QS, NZ verschiedenen
ethnischen Gruppen
- Beide Gruppen
haben andere
Vorstellungen von
Fhrungskrftemerkm
alen
Bryman (1987)/ N = 1, ILT/FA, VA Consideration (+) Performance -
JSP n = 132, cue
Studenten,
Initiating structure
Universitt, QS,
(+)
GB
Tolerance of
freedom (+)
Ensari/Murphy N = 2, CL, ILT/VA Prototypicality Effectiveness - Untersuchung, ob
(2003)/OBHDP n = 187, USA (+) sich die
Studenten, Wahrnehmung von
Antiproto-typicality
Universitt, amerikanischen und
USA (n.s.)
QS, TR, USA trkischen Studenten
bzgl. der
Prototypicality TR
charismatischen
(+)
Fhrungskrfte
Antiproto-typicality unterscheiden
TR (n.s.) - Ergebnis der Studie

zeigt, dass es keine
Unterschiede gibt
1
Anmerkungen: N = Anzahl der Unternehmen, n = Anzahl der Befragten, Position der Befragten,
Branche der Befragten, Typ der Befragung (QS = Querschnittstudie, LS = Lngsschnittstudie), Land:
2
GB = Grobritannien, NZ = Neuseeland, TR = Trkei, USA = die Vereinigten Staaten; CL =
3
Charismatische Fhrung, ILT = Implizite Fhrungstheorie; FA = Faktorenanalyse, VA =
Varianzanalyse.
395
zbek-Potthof, G. (2013): Implizite Fhrung im interkulturellen Kontext. p. 51
Appendix 149
396
Table 50: Studies about the direct influence of culture to the precepted leadership
Autor(en) Daten- Theoretische Unabhngige Abhngige Zentrale Ergebnisse
(Jahr) / Journal grundlage1 Grundlage2 / Variable(n) Variable(n)
Analyse-
methode3
Den Hartog et al. N = 6, CEILT, ILT/ Betrachtete Variablen: - Untersuchung, ob sich
(1997)/EJWOP nNL = 287, MWV - GLOBE culture dimensions die Fhrungskrfte-
nPL = 277, - Leadership abilities/ behaviors erwartungen zwischen
Fhrungskrfte, den niederlndischen
Konsum- und polnischen
gterindustrie, Fhrungskrften
Telekommu- unterscheiden
nikation, QS, 21 - Ergebnis der Studie
europische zeigt, dass
Lnder unterschiedliche
Erwartungen vorhanden
sind
Koopman et al. N = 2, CEILT, ILT/ Betrachtete Variablen: - berprfung der
(1999)/EJWOP n = 279, MWV - GLOBE culture dimensions Fhrungskrfteeigen-
Mitarbeiter, -, - Leadership abilities schaften entsprechend
QS, RI der Kulturdimensionen
ergibt, dass keine
einheitliche europische
Kultur vorhanden ist
-Europische Lnder
unterscheiden sich in
ihren Erwartungen von
Fhrungskrfteeigen-
schaften
Pekerti/Sendjaya N = 2, CEILT, ILT/VA Culture Voluntary - berprfung, ob
(2010)/IJHRM n = 279, (Australian, subordination australische und
Mitarbeiter, -, Indonesian) indonesische Mitarbeiter
Authentic self
QS, RI (n.s.;+;n.s.; die Fhrungskrfte-
n.s.;+;+;n.s.) merkmale
Convenantal
unterschiedlich
relationship
bewerten
N = 4, Transcendent - Beide Kulturen haben
n = 190, al spirituality die gleichen
Mitarbeiter, -, Vorstellungen von den
Responsible Fhrungskrfte-
QS, AUS
morality merkmalen
- Unterschiede sind bei
Transforming
der Gewichtung einiger
influence
Merkmale vorhanden
1
Anmerkungen: N = Anzahl der Unternehmen, n = Anzahl der Befragten, Position der Befragten,
Branche der Befragten, Typ der Befragung (QS = Querschnittstudie, LS = Lngsschnittstudie), Land:
396
zbek-Potthof, G. (2013): Implizite Fhrung im interkulturellen Kontext. p. 58-59
150 Appendix
2
AUS = Australien, NL = Niederlande, PL = Polen, RI = Indonesien; CEILT = Culturally Endorsed
3
Implicit Leadership Theorie, ILT = Implizite Fhrungstheorie; MWV = Mittelwertvergleich, VA =
Varianzanalyse.
Typology of management studies in the cultural frame

397
Table 51: Overview of typology of management studies in the cultural frame
Ansatz Objekt Annahme ber Annahme zum Art der Studie
kulturelle Gltigkeits-
Differenzen bereich
beschrnkt- Studie in einer Identitt Universalismus nationale Studien
vergleichender Kultur angenommen unterstellt
Ansatz
ethno- Studie in einer Suche nach Universalismus Wiederholungsstudien
zentrischer zweiten Kultur Gemeinsamkeiten in Frage gestellt
Ansatz
polyzentrischer Studie in Suche nach Universalismus Einzelstudien in
Ansatz mehreren Differenzen verneint mehreren Kulturen
Kulturen
vergleichender Studie in Suche nach sich Vergleich mehrerer
Ansatz mehreren Differenzen und entwickelnder Kulturen
Kulturen Gemeinsamkeiten Universalismus
geozentrischer multinationale Suche nach nicht Studie des

Ansatz Organisationen Gemeinsamkeiten ausdehnender Managements in
Universalismus mehreren Kulturen
synergetischer interkulturelle Benutzung von Zu schaffender Studie der

Ansatz Interaktionen Gemeinsamkeiten Universalismus interkulturellen
und Differenzen Interaktion im
als Ressource Arbeitsbereich
397
Holzmller, H. (1995): Konzeptionelle und methodische Probleme in der interkulturellen
Management- und Marketingforschung. p. 59
Appendix 151
Results and overviews: GLOBE-Study

398
Table 52: Involved countries in the GLOBE Study
1. Albania 32. Japan
2. Argentina 33. Kazakhstan
3. Australia 34. Kuwait
4. Austria 35. Malaysia
5. Bolivia 36. Mexico
6. Brazil 37. Morocco
7. Canada[English-speaking] 38. Namibia
8. China 39. The Netherlands
9. Columbia 40. New Zealand
10. Costa Rica 41. Nigeria
11. Czech Republic 42. The Philippines
12. Denmark 43. Poland
13. Ecuador 44. Portugal
14. Egypt 45. Qatar
15. El Salvador 46. Russia
16. England 47. Singapore
17. Finland 48. Slovenia
18. France 49. South Africa [Black Sample]
19. Georgia 50. South Africa [White Sample]
20. German-East [former GDR] 51. South Korea
21. German-West [former FRG] 52. Spain
22. Greece 53. Sweden
23. Guatemala 54. Switzerland [German-speaking]
24. Hong Kong 55. Switzerland [French-speaking]
25. Hungary 56. Taiwan
26. India 57. Thailand
27. Indonesia 58. Turkey
28. Iran 59. United States
29. Ireland 60. Venezuela
30. Israel 61. Zambia
31. Italy 62. Zimbabwe
398
Cf. Dorfman, P. et al. (2004): Leadership and Cultural Variation. p. 669-719
152 Appendix
399
Table 53: GLOBE Study. Societal clusters
Eastern Europe Albania, Georgia, Greece, Hungary, Kazakhstan, Poland, Russia, Slovenia
Germanic Austria, Germany [former GDR East], Germany [former FRG West], the
Netherlands, Switzerland
Latin Europe France, Israel, Italy, Portugal, Spain, Switzerland [French-speaking]
Nordic Europe Denmark, Finland, Sweden
Latin America Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Columbia, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala,
Mexico, Venezuela
Anglo Australia, Canada [English-speaking], Ireland, New Zealand, South Africa
[White-sample], United Kingdom, United States
Confucian Asia China, Hong Kong, Japan, Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan
Southern Asia India, Indonesia, Iran, Malaysia, Philippines, Thailand
Middle East Egypt, Kuwait, Morocco, Qatar, Turkey
Sub-Saharan Namibia, Nigeria, South Africa [Black sample], Zambia, Zimbabwe
Africa
400
Table 54: Leadership prototype scales. First order factors and leader attribute items
Administratively Competent Decisive Nonparticipative
Orderly Willful Nondelegator
Administratively Skilled Decisive Micromanager
Organized Logical Nonegalitarian
Good Administrator Intuitive Individually Oriented
Autocratic Diplomatic Performance Oriented
Autocratic Diplomatic Improvement-Oriented
Dictatorial Worldly Excellence-Oriented
Bossy Win-Win Problem Performance-Oriented
Elitist Solver
Effective Bargaining
Autonomous Face Saver Procedural
Individualistic Indirect Ritualistic
Independent Avoids Negatives Formal
Autonomous Evasive Habitual
Unique Procedural
Charismatic I: Visionary Human Orientation Self-Centered
Foresight Generous Self-Centered
399
Cf. Dorfman, P. et al. (2004): Leadership and Cultural Variation. p. 669-719
400
Hanges, P./Dickson, M. (2004): The Development and Validation of the GLOBE Culture and
Leadership Scales. p. 131
Appendix 153
Prepared Compassionate Nonparticipative

Anticipatory Loner
Plans Ahead Asocial
Charismatic II: Inspirational Integrity Status Consciousness
Enthusiastic Honest Status Conscious
Positive Sincere Class-Conscious
Morale Booster Just
Motive Arouser Trustworthy
Charismatic III: Self-Sacrificial Malevolent Team I: Collaborative Team
Risk Taker Hostile Orientation
Self-Sacrificial Dishonest Group-Oriented
Convincing Vindictive Collaborative
Irritable Loyal, Consultative
Conflict Inducer Modesty Team II: Team Integrator
Normative Modest Communicative
Secretive Self-Effacing Team Builder
Intra-Group Competitor Patient Informed, Integrator
401
Table 55: Global Culturally Endorsed Implicit Leadership [CLT] Dimensions
[1] Charismatic/Value Based [2] Team Oriented
Charismatic 1: Visionary Team 1: Collaborative team orientation
Charismatic 2: Inspirational Team 2: Team integrator
Charismatic 3: Self-sacrifice Diplomatic
Integrity Malevolent [reverse scored]
Decisive Administratively competent
Performance oriented
[3] Self-Protective [4] Participative
Self-centred Autocratic [reserve scored]
Status conscious Administratively competent
Conflict inducer
Face Saver
Procedural
[5] Human Oriented [6] Autonomous
Modesty Autonomous
Human oriented
401
Hanges, P./Dickson, M. (2004): The Development and Validation of the GLOBE Culture and
Leadership Scales. p. 137
154 Appendix
402
Table 56: Universal positive leader abilities
Leader Attribute Questionnaire Items Corresponding Primary Leadership
Dimension
Trustworthy Integrity
Just Integrity
Hones Integrity
Foresight Charisma 1: Visionary
Plans ahead Charisma 1: Visionary
Encouraging Charisma 2: Inspirational
Positive Charisma 2: Inspirational
Dynamic Charisma 2: Inspirational
Motive arouser Charisma 2: Inspirational
Confidence builder Charisma 2: Inspirational
Motivational Charisma 2: Inspirational
Dependable Malevolent [reverse scored]
Intelligent Malevolent [reverse scored]
Decisive Decisiveness
Effective bargaining Diplomatic
Win-Win problem solver Diplomatic
Administrative skilled Administratively competent
Communicative Team 2: Integrator
Informed Team 2: Integrator
Coordinator Team 2: Integrator
Team builder Team 2: Integrator
Excellence oriented Performance oriented
402
Dorfman, P. et al. (2004): Leadership and Cultural Variation. p. 677
Appendix 155
403
Table 57: Universal negative leader abilities
Leader Attribute Questionnaire Items Corresponding Primary Leadership
Dimension
Loner Self-protective
Asocial Self-protective
Noncooperative Malevolent
Irritable Malevolent
Nonexplicite Face saver
Egocentric
Ruthless
Dictatorial Autocratic
404
Table 58: Ranking of societal clusters using absolute CLT scores
Charismatic Team Participative Human Autonomous Self-
Value-Based Oriented Oriented Protective
higher higher higher higher higher higher
Anglo L. America Germanic E Southern Asia E. Europe Southern Asia
L. America Nordic E Sub-Sahara A Germanic E Middle East
Southern Asia Anglo Anglo Confucian A Confucian A
Germanic E Southern Asia E. Europe
Nordic E Nordic E
Anglo
Middle East
L. Europe
Sub-Sahara A
L. America
Sub-Sahara A E. Europe L. America Confucian L. America

L. Europe Southern L. Europe A.L. America Sub-Sahara A
E. Europe Asia Sub-Sahara A Middle East L. Europe
Confucian A. Nordic E E. Europe
Anglo Germanic E
Sub-Sahara A
Germanic E
Confucian A
403
404
156 Appendix
Middle East Middle East E. Europe L. Europe Anglo

Southern Nordic E Germanic E
Asia Nordic E
Confucian A.
Middle East
lower lower lower lower lower lower

Appendix 157
Prevention of mental stress at the workplace

405
Table 59: Measures to improve the work situation (behavioral prevention)
Arbeitsplatzgestaltung
Geregelte Dienstzeiten
Krperlich Angebot zur entlastenden Krperarbeit
Massageangebote
Minipausen, Ruherume, Pausenkultur
Entspannung und
Organisations- und Teamkultur
Organisationsentwicklung
Fhrungsstil
Konfliktkultur
Seelisch/geistig
Stresskultur
Arbeitsumfeldgestaltung
Systematische Suchtprophylaxe
Gesundheitsaktionen
Gesundheitsfrdernde Ernhrungsangebote
Krperlich Geeignetes Getrnkeangebot
Pausenkultur und zeitliche Struktur
Rumliche Bedingungen fr Pausen
Sinnstiftung/gemeinsame Werte
Klausurtage
Ernhrung und Strkung
Fallbesprechungen
Supervision
Seelisch/geistig Kollegiale Beratung
Mitarbeitergesprche
Zielvereinbarungen
Feste und Feiern
Wertschtzung und Dank
Betriebssport
Gesundheitszirkel in Zusammenarbeit mit Kassen
Krperlich Arbeitssicherheit
Hilfsmitteleinsatz
Bewegung und Entlastung Training in Kinsthetik und Rckenschule
Arbeit an gemeinsamen Zielen
Kreativitt frdern
Seelisch/geistig
Mitarbeitende beteiligen, z.B. ber
Gesundheitszirkel
405
Berger, G. et al. (2006): Erfolgsfaktor Gesundheit. p. 67-71
158 Appendix
406
Table 60: Individual measures (behavioral prevention)
Kurzentspannung statt Zigarette
Mentale Hilfen
Balance Distanz/Nhe
In der Situation
Atemtechnik/-bungen
Aromen einsetzen
Musik
Entspannung
Meditation
Atemarbeit
Andacht
Lebenshaltung
Progressive Muskelrelaxation nach Jacobsen
Autogenes Training
Augenentspannung
Kohlenhydrat-, eiwei- und vitaminreiche Kost
In der akuten Getrnkekonsum erhhen
Belastung Aromatische Tees statt Alkohol
Ernhrung Ses mit Verstand
Essen und Trinken mit allen Sinnen
Lebenshaltung 5x am Tag Gemse und Obst
2 Liter Getrnke am Tag
Rckengerechtes Verhalten
Richtiger Hilfsmitteleinsatz
Kinsthetisches Arbeiten
In der Situation
Untersttzung einholen
Entlastende bungen
Positive Selbstgesprche
Bewegung und Entlastung
Schwimmen
Walking/Jogging
Lebenshaltung/ Rad fahren
Bewegung Wandern
Gymnastik
Massagen
406
Berger, G. et al. (2006): Erfolgsfaktor Gesundheit. p. 67-71
Appendix 159
407
Table 61: Descriptive statistic for socio-demographic items
Socio-Demographics N Min Max M SD Variance
Position 214 1 2 1.30 0.461 0.212
Company Size 214 1 3 1.04 0.262 0.069
Work Area 214 1 1 1.00 0.000 0.000
Nationality 214 1 3 1.36 0.697 0.486
Gender 214 1 2 1.33 0.472 0.223
Age Group 214 1 4 2.41 0.627 0.393
Education 214 1 2 1.87 0.333 0.111
Experience Group 214 1 4 2.73 1.075 1.156
Reviewed Nationality 214 1 3 2.25 0.707 0.499
408
Table 62: ANOVA descriptives with dependent variable "Reviewed Nationality"
10 ROSKAB Questions Position N M SD
PD QNr9_32 Employee 147 3.72 0.999
Manager 65 3.89 0.793
Total 212 3.77 0.942
PD QNr10_33 Employee 149 3.21 1.160
Manager 65 4.00 0.661
Total 214 3.45 1.094
M&C QNr11_34 Employee 149 3.43 1.080
Manager 65 4.25 0.613
Total 214 3.68 1.032
M&C QNr12_35 Employee 149 3.12 1.162
Manager 65 4.12 0.650
Total 214 3.43 1.131
TB QNr13_36 Employee 149 4.17 0.812
Manager 65 3.86 0.808
Total 214 4.08 0.821
TB QNr14_37 Employee 149 3.87 0.816
Manager 65 3.91 0.879
Total 214 3.88 0.834
EQ QNr15_38 Employee 149 3.05 1.150
Manager 65 3.82 0.583
Total 214 3.29 1.069
EQ QNr16_39 Employee 149 3.64 0.856
Manager 65 4.08 0.444
Total 214 3.77 0.781
CQ QNr17_40 Employee 149 3.99 0.923
407
408
160 Appendix
Manager 65 4.43 0.728

Total 214 4.12 0.890
CQ QNr18_41 Employee 149 3.86 0.814
Manager 65 3.91 0.655
Total 214 3.87 0.768
CQ QNr19_42 Employee 149 3.65 1.020
Manager 65 4.23 0.745
Total 214 3.83 0.980
T&E QNr20_43 Employee 149 3.33 1.106
Manager 65 4.28 0.801
Total 214 3.62 1.110
T&E QNr21_44 Employee 149 3.81 0.819
Manager 65 4.05 0.623
Total 214 3.88 0.772
T&E QNr22_45 Employee 149 3.19 1.049
Manager 65 3.98 0.649
Total 214 3.43 1.013
Com QNr23_46 Employee 149 3.39 1.051
Manager 65 4.40 0.657
Total 214 3.70 1.055
Com QNr24_47 Employee 149 3.40 1.020
Manager 65 4.37 0.601
Total 214 3.70 1.015
TM QNr25_48 Employee 149 2.87 0.998
Manager 65 2.32 1.032
Total 214 2.70 1.037
CM QNr26_49 Employee 149 3.21 0.983
Manager 65 3.94 0.634
Total 214 3.43 0.951
CM QNr27_50 Employee 149 3.20 0.937
Manager 65 3.97 0.499
Total 214 3.43 0.900
CM QNr28_51 Employee 149 2.72 0.999
Manager 65 3.35 0.818
Total 214 2.92 0.989
MS QNr29_52 Employee 149 2.98 0.842
Manager 65 2.32 0.664
Total 214 2.78 0.847
MS QNr30_53 Employee 149 3.32 0.902
Manager 65 3.54 0.812
Total 214 3.39 0.880
Appendix 161
409
Table 63: ANOVA results for independent variable position
SS df MS F Sig.
QNr9_32 Between 1.321 1 1.321 1.493 0.223
Within 185.811 210 0.885
Total 187.132 211
QNr10_33** Between 27.905 1 27.905 26.047 0.000
Within 227.128 212 1.071
Total 255.033 213
QNr11_34** Between 30.181 1 30.181 32.550 0.000
Within 196.572 212 0.927
Total 226.752 213
QNr12_35** Between 45.463 1 45.463 42.488 0.000
Within 226.841 212 1.070
Total 272.304 213
QNr13_36** Between 4.433 1 4.433 6.750 0.010
Within 139.217 212 0.657
Total 143.650 213
QNr14_37 Between 0.056 1 0.056 0.080 0.777
Within 148.023 212 0.698
Total 148.079 213
QNr15_38** Between 26.257 1 26.257 25.610 0.000
Within 217.355 212 1.025
Total 243.612 213
QNr16_39** Between 8.735 1 8.735 15.299 0.000
Within 121.045 212 0.571
Total 129.780 213
QNr17_40** Between 8.930 1 8.930 11.838 0.001
Within 159.912 212 0.754
Total 168.841 213
QNr18_41 Between 0.107 1 0.107 0.181 0.671
Within 125.486 212 0.592
Total 125.593 213
QNr19_42** Between 15.212 1 15.212 17.028 0.000
Within 189.391 212 0.893
Total 204.603 213
QNr20_43** Between 40.678 1 40.678 38.863 0.000
Within 221.901 212 1.047
Total 262.579 213
QNr21_44* Between 2.624 1 2.624 4.478 0.035
Within 124.217 212 0.586
Total 126.841 213
409
162 Appendix
QNr22_45** Between 28.726 1 28.726 32.099 0.000

Within 189.723 212 0.895
Total 218.449 213
QNr23_46** Between 46.234 1 46.234 51.311 0.000
Within 191.023 212 0.901
Total 237.257 213
QNr24_47** Between 42.280 1 42.280 50.646 0.000
Within 176.977 212 0.835
Total 219.257 213
QNr25_48** Between 13.329 1 13.329 13.111 0.000
Within 215.531 212 1.017
Total 228.860 213
QNr26_49** Between 23.703 1 23.703 29.755 0.000
Within 168.881 212 0.797
Total 192.584 213
QNr27_50** Between 26.686 1 26.686 38.776 0.000
Within 145.898 212 0.688
Total 172.584 213
QNr28_51** Between 17.906 1 17.906 19.919 0.000
Within 190.580 212 0.899
Total 208.486 213
QNr29_52** Between 19.523 1 19.523 31.082 0.000
Within 133.155 212 0.628
Total 152.678 213
QNr30_53 Between 2.118 1 2.118 2.759 0.098
Within 162.691 212 0.767
Total 164.808 213
Appendix 163
410
Table 64: Descriptives of "CultPos" as dependent variable
Question CultPos N M SD Min Max
QNr9_32 GEEmp>SPMgr 57 3.72 1.013 2 5
GEEmp>FRMgr 52 3.88 0.922 2 5
SPEmp>GEMgr 11 3.64 1.027 2 5
SPEmp>FRMgr 4 3.00 0.816 2 4
FREmp>GEMgr 14 3.64 1.082 1 5
FREmp>SPMgr 9 3.33 1.225 2 5
GEMgr>SPEmp 28 3.79 0.957 2 5
GEMgr>FREmp 25 3.88 0.726 1 5
SPMgr>GEEmp 4 4.50 0.577 4 5
SPMgr>FREmp 5 4.00 0.000 4 4
FRMgr>GEEmp 3 4.00 0.000 4 4
Total 212 3.77 0.942 1 5
QNr10_33 GEEmp>SPMgr 57 3.16 1.293 1 5
GEEmp>FRMgr 53 3.21 1.063 1 5
SPEmp>GEMgr 11 3.45 0.820 2 5
SPEmp>FRMgr 4 3.75 0.957 3 5
FREmp>GEMgr 15 3.07 1.163 1 4
FREmp>SPMgr 9 3.33 1.414 1 5
GEMgr>SPEmp 28 4.00 0.720 2 5
GEMgr>FREmp 25 4.00 0.707 1 5
SPMgr>GEEmp 4 4.25 0.500 4 5
SPMgr>FREmp 5 4.00 0.000 4 4
FRMgr>GEEmp 3 3.67 0.577 3 4
Total 214 3.45 1.094 1 5
QNr11_34 GEEmp>SPMgr 57 3.44 1.069 1 5
GEEmp>FRMgr 53 3.45 1.030 1 5
SPEmp>GEMgr 11 3.27 1.272 1 5
SPEmp>FRMgr 4 3.00 1.414 2 5
FREmp>GEMgr 15 3.13 1.125 1 5
FREmp>SPMgr 9 4.11 0.928 2 5
GEMgr>SPEmp 28 4.21 0.686 2 5
GEMgr>FREmp 25 4.36 0.569 3 5
SPMgr>GEEmp 4 4.25 0.500 4 5
SPMgr>FREmp 5 4.20 0.447 4 5
FRMgr>GEEmp 3 3.67 0.577 3 4
Total 214 3.68 1.032 1 5
QNr12_35 GEEmp>SPMgr 57 3.12 1.181 1 5
GEEmp>FRMgr 53 3.13 1.177 1 5
SPEmp>GEMgr 11 3.09 1.221 1 5
410
164 Appendix
SPEmp>FRMgr 4 3.25 1.500 2 5

FREmp>GEMgr 15 2.87 1.060 1 4
FREmp>SPMgr 9 3.44 1.130 2 5
GEMgr>SPEmp 28 4.14 0.705 2 5
GEMgr>FREmp 25 4.12 0.666 2 5
SPMgr>GEEmp 4 4.00 0.000 4 4
SPMgr>FREmp 5 4.40 0.548 4 5
FRMgr>GEEmp 3 3.67 0.577 3 4
Total 214 3.43 1.131 1 5
QNr13_36 GEEmp>SPMgr 57 4.19 0.990 1 5
GEEmp>FRMgr 53 4.30 0.503 3 5
SPEmp>GEMgr 11 4.27 0.467 4 5
SPEmp>FRMgr 4 3.50 1.732 1 5
FREmp>GEMgr 15 3.87 0.915 1 5
FREmp>SPMgr 9 4.00 0.500 3 5
GEMgr>SPEmp 28 3.89 0.737 2 5
GEMgr>FREmp 25 3.84 0.943 2 5
SPMgr>GEEmp 4 3.50 1.000 3 5
SPMgr>FREmp 5 3.80 0.447 3 4
FRMgr>GEEmp 3 4.33 0.577 4 5
Total 214 4.08 0.821 1 5
QNr14_37 GEEmp>SPMgr 57 3.88 1.001 1 5
GEEmp>FRMgr 53 4.04 0.553 3 5
SPEmp>GEMgr 11 3.91 0.539 3 5
SPEmp>FRMgr 4 3.25 0.957 2 4
FREmp>GEMgr 15 3.47 0.834 2 5
FREmp>SPMgr 9 3.78 0.833 2 5
GEMgr>SPEmp 28 4.04 0.922 2 5
GEMgr>FREmp 25 3.76 0.879 2 5
SPMgr>GEEmp 4 3.75 0.500 3 4
SPMgr>FREmp 5 4.00 0.000 4 4
FRMgr>GEEmp 3 4.00 1.732 2 5
Total 214 3.88 0.834 1 5
QNr15_38 GEEmp>SPMgr 57 3.05 1.171 1 5
GEEmp>FRMgr 53 3.02 1.152 1 5
SPEmp>GEMgr 11 3.36 1.120 2 5
SPEmp>FRMgr 4 2.50 1.000 2 4
FREmp>GEMgr 15 3.13 1.125 1 4
FREmp>SPMgr 9 3.00 1.323 2 5
GEMgr>SPEmp 28 3.89 0.629 3 5
GEMgr>FREmp 25 3.72 0.542 3 5
SPMgr>GEEmp 4 3.50 0.577 3 4
SPMgr>FREmp 5 4.20 0.447 4 5
Appendix 165
FRMgr>GEEmp 3 3.67 0.577 3 4

Total 214 3.29 1.069 1 5
QNr16_39 GEEmp>SPMgr 57 3.63 1.011 1 5
GEEmp>FRMgr 53 3.68 0.779 1 5
SPEmp>GEMgr 11 3.64 0.809 2 5
SPEmp>FRMgr 4 3.25 0.500 3 4
FREmp>GEMgr 15 3.60 0.632 2 4
FREmp>SPMgr 9 3.67 0.866 3 5
GEMgr>SPEmp 28 4.07 0.466 3 5
GEMgr>FREmp 25 4.08 0.400 3 5
SPMgr>GEEmp 4 4.00 0.000 4 4
SPMgr>FREmp 5 4.00 0.707 3 5
FRMgr>GEEmp 3 4.33 0.577 4 5
Total 214 3.77 0.781 1 5
QNr17_40 GEEmp>SPMgr 57 3.96 1.052 1 5
GEEmp>FRMgr 53 3.96 0.876 2 5
SPEmp>GEMgr 11 4.27 0.647 3 5
SPEmp>FRMgr 4 4.25 0.500 4 5
FREmp>GEMgr 15 3.80 1.014 1 5
FREmp>SPMgr 9 4.11 0.601 3 5
GEMgr>SPEmp 28 4.46 0.693 2 5
GEMgr>FREmp 25 4.40 0.866 1 5
SPMgr>GEEmp 4 4.25 0.500 4 5
SPMgr>FREmp 5 4.40 0.548 4 5
FRMgr>GEEmp 3 4.67 0.577 4 5
Total 214 4.12 0.890 1 5
QNr18_41 GEEmp>SPMgr 57 3.82 0.966 1 5
GEEmp>FRMgr 53 3.96 0.619 2 5
SPEmp>GEMgr 11 4.00 0.447 3 5
SPEmp>FRMgr 4 3.75 0.957 3 5
FREmp>GEMgr 15 3.60 0.986 1 5
FREmp>SPMgr 9 3.78 0.833 2 5
GEMgr>SPEmp 28 3.89 0.629 3 5
GEMgr>FREmp 25 3.72 0.614 2 5
SPMgr>GEEmp 4 4.25 0.500 4 5
SPMgr>FREmp 5 4.40 0.894 3 5
FRMgr>GEEmp 3 4.33 0.577 4 5
Total 214 3.87 0.768 1 5
QNr19_42 GEEmp>SPMgr 57 3.63 1.096 1 5
GEEmp>FRMgr 53 3.70 0.992 1 5
SPEmp>GEMgr 11 4.18 0.603 3 5
SPEmp>FRMgr 4 3.25 1.258 2 5
FREmp>GEMgr 15 3.33 1.047 2 5
166 Appendix
FREmp>SPMgr 9 3.56 0.882 2 5

GEMgr>SPEmp 28 4.18 0.548 3 5
GEMgr>FREmp 25 4.32 0.852 1 5
SPMgr>GEEmp 4 4.25 0.500 4 5
SPMgr>FREmp 5 4.60 0.548 4 5
FRMgr>GEEmp 3 3.33 1.528 2 5
Total 214 3.83 0.980 1 5
QNr20_43 GEEmp>SPMgr 57 3.35 1.142 1 5
GEEmp>FRMgr 53 3.25 1.125 1 5
SPEmp>GEMgr 11 3.64 1.120 2 5
SPEmp>FRMgr 4 3.25 1.258 2 5
FREmp>GEMgr 15 3.20 1.207 1 5
FREmp>SPMgr 9 3.56 0.527 3 4
GEMgr>SPEmp 28 4.18 0.819 2 5
GEMgr>FREmp 25 4.44 0.712 3 5
SPMgr>GEEmp 4 4.75 0.500 4 5
SPMgr>FREmp 5 3.80 1.304 2 5
FRMgr>GEEmp 3 4.00 0.000 4 4
Total 214 3.62 1.110 1 5
QNr21_44 GEEmp>SPMgr 57 3.65 0.790 1 5
GEEmp>FRMgr 53 4.00 0.707 3 5
SPEmp>GEMgr 11 3.91 0.831 2 5
SPEmp>FRMgr 4 4.00 0.816 3 5
FREmp>GEMgr 15 3.93 0.594 3 5
FREmp>SPMgr 9 3.22 1.481 1 5
GEMgr>SPEmp 28 3.89 0.685 3 5
GEMgr>FREmp 25 4.24 0.523 3 5
SPMgr>GEEmp 4 4.00 0.816 3 5
SPMgr>FREmp 5 4.20 0.447 4 5
FRMgr>GEEmp 3 3.67 0.577 3 4
Total 214 3.88 0.772 1 5
QNr22_45 GEEmp>SPMgr 57 3.23 1.035 1 5
GEEmp>FRMgr 53 3.17 1.087 1 5
SPEmp>GEMgr 11 3.36 1.286 1 5
SPEmp>FRMgr 4 3.00 1.414 2 5
FREmp>GEMgr 15 3.00 0.756 2 4
FREmp>SPMgr 9 3.22 1.093 2 5
GEMgr>SPEmp 28 3.93 0.716 2 5
GEMgr>FREmp 25 4.12 0.666 2 5
SPMgr>GEEmp 4 4.00 0.000 4 4
SPMgr>FREmp 5 3.80 0.447 3 4
FRMgr>GEEmp 3 3.67 0.577 3 4
Total 214 3.43 1.013 1 5
Appendix 167
QNr23_46 GEEmp>SPMgr 57 3.32 1.105 1 5

GEEmp>FRMgr 53 3.40 1.098 1 5
SPEmp>GEMgr 11 3.27 0.786 2 4
SPEmp>FRMgr 4 3.25 1.258 2 5
FREmp>GEMgr 15 3.53 0.990 1 5
FREmp>SPMgr 9 3.78 0.833 2 5
GEMgr>SPEmp 28 4.29 0.713 2 5
GEMgr>FREmp 25 4.44 0.651 3 5
SPMgr>GEEmp 4 4.75 0.500 4 5
SPMgr>FREmp 5 4.60 0.548 4 5
FRMgr>GEEmp 3 4.33 0.577 4 5
Total 214 3.70 1.055 1 5
QNr24_47 GEEmp>SPMgr 57 3.49 1.037 1 5
GEEmp>FRMgr 53 3.28 1.026 1 5
SPEmp>GEMgr 11 3.73 1.191 2 5
SPEmp>FRMgr 4 3.50 1.000 3 5
FREmp>GEMgr 15 3.07 0.961 1 5
FREmp>SPMgr 9 3.67 0.707 3 5
GEMgr>SPEmp 28 4.39 0.737 2 5
GEMgr>FREmp 25 4.36 0.490 4 5
SPMgr>GEEmp 4 4.50 0.577 4 5
SPMgr>FREmp 5 4.20 0.447 4 5
FRMgr>GEEmp 3 4.33 0.577 4 5
Total 214 3.70 1.015 1 5
QNr25_48 GEEmp>SPMgr 57 2.77 1.086 1 5
GEEmp>FRMgr 53 2.91 0.946 1 5
SPEmp>GEMgr 11 3.18 0.603 2 4
SPEmp>FRMgr 4 3.00 1.414 1 4
FREmp>GEMgr 15 2.67 1.113 1 4
FREmp>SPMgr 9 3.11 0.782 2 4
GEMgr>SPEmp 28 2.36 0.826 1 5
GEMgr>FREmp 25 2.36 1.150 1 5
SPMgr>GEEmp 4 2.00 0.816 1 3
SPMgr>FREmp 5 2.20 1.789 1 5
FRMgr>GEEmp 3 2.33 1.155 1 3
Total 214 2.70 1.037 1 5
QNr26_49 GEEmp>SPMgr 57 3.18 1.037 1 5
GEEmp>FRMgr 53 3.13 0.962 1 5
SPEmp>GEMgr 11 3.64 0.809 2 5
SPEmp>FRMgr 4 3.75 0.500 3 4
FREmp>GEMgr 15 3.20 1.146 1 5
FREmp>SPMgr 9 3.22 0.833 2 4
GEMgr>SPEmp 28 4.00 0.667 2 5
168 Appendix
GEMgr>FREmp 25 3.88 0.726 2 5

SPMgr>GEEmp 4 4.00 0.000 4 4
SPMgr>FREmp 5 4.00 0.000 4 4
FRMgr>GEEmp 3 3.67 0.577 3 4
Total 214 3.43 0.951 1 5
QNr27_50 GEEmp>SPMgr 57 3.21 0.921 1 5
GEEmp>FRMgr 53 3.15 0.988 1 5
SPEmp>GEMgr 11 3.18 0.874 2 5
SPEmp>FRMgr 4 3.25 0.500 3 4
FREmp>GEMgr 15 3.20 1.146 1 5
FREmp>SPMgr 9 3.44 0.726 2 4
GEMgr>SPEmp 28 3.93 0.539 3 5
GEMgr>FREmp 25 4.04 0.539 3 5
SPMgr>GEEmp 4 4.00 0.000 4 4
SPMgr>FREmp 5 3.80 0.447 3 4
FRMgr>GEEmp 3 4.00 0.000 4 4
Total 214 3.43 0.900 1 5
QNr28_51 GEEmp>SPMgr 57 2.79 0.959 1 4
GEEmp>FRMgr 53 2.72 1.007 1 5
SPEmp>GEMgr 11 2.36 0.924 1 3
SPEmp>FRMgr 4 3.50 1.000 3 5
FREmp>GEMgr 15 2.80 1.207 1 5
FREmp>SPMgr 9 2.33 0.866 1 4
GEMgr>SPEmp 28 3.36 0.870 1 5
GEMgr>FREmp 25 3.32 0.802 2 4
SPMgr>GEEmp 4 3.75 0.957 3 5
SPMgr>FREmp 5 3.20 0.447 3 4
FRMgr>GEEmp 3 3.33 1.155 2 4
Total 214 2.92 0.989 1 5
QNr29_52 GEEmp>SPMgr 57 2.93 0.863 1 5
GEEmp>FRMgr 53 3.06 0.745 2 4
SPEmp>GEMgr 11 2.91 0.944 1 4
SPEmp>FRMgr 4 3.00 0.816 2 4
FREmp>GEMgr 15 2.87 1.125 1 5
FREmp>SPMgr 9 3.11 0.782 2 4
GEMgr>SPEmp 28 2.39 0.786 1 4
GEMgr>FREmp 25 2.32 0.557 2 4
SPMgr>GEEmp 4 2.25 0.500 2 3
SPMgr>FREmp 5 2.00 0.707 1 3
FRMgr>GEEmp 3 2.33 0.577 2 3
Total 214 2.78 0.847 1 5
QNr30_53 GEEmp>SPMgr 57 3.21 0.818 1 4
GEEmp>FRMgr 53 3.53 0.992 1 5
Appendix 169
SPEmp>GEMgr 11 3.36 0.674 2 4

SPEmp>FRMgr 4 3.00 0.816 2 4
FREmp>GEMgr 15 3.00 1.000 1 4
FREmp>SPMgr 9 3.44 0.882 2 5
GEMgr>SPEmp 28 3.46 0.838 2 5
GEMgr>FREmp 25 3.64 0.810 2 5
SPMgr>GEEmp 4 2.75 0.957 2 4
SPMgr>FREmp 5 4.00 0.000 4 4
FRMgr>GEEmp 3 3.67 0.577 3 4
Total 214 3.39 0.880 1 5
411
Table 65: ANOVA Results for independent variable CultPos
Question SS df MS F Sig.
QNr9_32 Between 8.202 10 0.820 0.921 0.515
Within 178.930 201 0.890
Total 187.132 211
QNr10_33 Between 30.910 10 3.091 2.800 0.003
Within 224.123 203 1.104
Total 255.033 213
QNr11_34 Between 38.090 10 3.809 4.098 0.000
Within 188.662 203 0.929
Total 226.752 213
QNr12_35 Between 48.538 10 4.854 4.403 0.000
Within 223.766 203 1.102
Total 272.304 213
QNr13_36 Between 10.182 10 1.018 1.549 0.124
Within 133.467 203 0.657
Total 143.650 213
QNr14_37 Between 6.792 10 0.679 0.976 0.466
Within 141.287 203 0.696
Total 148.079 213
QNr15_38 Between 30.325 10 3.032 2.886 0.002
Within 213.287 203 1.051
Total 243.612 213
QNr16_39 Between 9.711 10 0.971 1.642 0.097
Within 120.070 203 0.591
Total 129.780 213
QNr17_40 Between 11.185 10 1.119 1.440 0.165
Within 157.656 203 0.777
Total 168.841 213
411
170 Appendix
QNr18_41 Between 5.183 10 0.518 0.874 0.559

Within 120.411 203 0.593
Total 125.593 213
QNr19_42 Between 24.064 10 2.406 2.706 0.004
Within 180.539 203 0.889
Total 204.603 213
QNr20_43 Between 46.051 10 4.605 4.317 0.000
Within 216.529 203 1.067
Total 262.579 213
QNr21_44 Between 11.755 10 1.176 2.074 0.028
Within 115.086 203 0.567
Total 126.841 213
QNr22_45 Between 30.877 10 3.088 3.342 0.000
Within 187.572 203 0.924
Total 218.449 213
QNr23_46 Between 49.550 10 4.955 5.359 0.000
Within 187.707 203 0.925
Total 237.257 213
QNr24_47 Between 47.236 10 4.724 5.574 0.000
Within 172.021 203 0.847
Total 219.257 213
QNr25_48 Between 16.783 10 1.678 1.606 0.107
Within 212.077 203 1.045
Total 228.860 213
QNr26_49 Between 27.705 10 2.771 3.411 0.000
Within 164.879 203 0.812
Total 192.584 213
QNr27_50 Between 27.692 10 2.769 3.880 0.000
Within 144.892 203 0.714
Total 172.584 213
QNr28_51 Between 24.227 10 2.423 2.669 0.004
Within 184.259 203 0.908
Total 208.486 213
QNr29_52 Between 21.062 10 2.106 3.248 0.001
Within 131.616 203 0.648
Total 152.678 213
QNr30_53 Between 11.219 10 1.122 1.483 0.148
Within 153.590 203 0.757
Total 164.808 213
** Significance at the 0.01 level (2-tailed); * Significance at the 0.05 level (2-
tailed)
Appendix 171
412
Table 66: Operational ROSKAB deficiency assessment
ROSKAB CultPos M M|MD| M/M|MD|
Number Manager Manager**
--> GEMgr f(M SPEmp + M FREmp)/2 3,45 0,37 9,32
ROSKAB 1 --> SPMgr f(M FREmp + M GEEmp)/2 3,39 0,81 4,19
--> FRMgr f(M SPEmp + M GEEmp)/2 3,46 0,29* 11,93
--> GEMgr f(M SPEmp + M FREmp)/2 2,93 -0,57 -5,14
ROSKAB 8 --> SPMgr f(M FREmp + M GEEmp)/2 2,94 -0,84 -3,50
--> FRMgr f(M SPEmp + M GEEmp)/2 2,96 -0,57* -5,19
ROSKAB
--> SPMgr f(M FREmp + M GEEmp)/2 3,17 0,71 4,46
10
*) M|MD|--> FRMgr (as mentioned only one value available: GEEmp)
**) M/M|MD|. Operational range: red: <4; yellow: 4,01-7.00; green: >7,00
412
172 Appendix
Formulas:
Mean = x/N
Mean Deviation = |x |/N
Absolute Mean Difference: MD = E[|X Y|]
Pearson Correlation: r = [n(xy) (x)(y)]/{[nx2 (x)2]*[ny2 (y)2]}0,5

Alphabetical Index
A
Achievement (Trompenaars) 18-21, 43-44
Affective Dimensions 46
Ambiguity Tolerance 46
ANOVA 87, 95
Ascription (Trompenaars) 18-21, 43-44
Assertiveness (GLOBE) 37-39
B
Behavioral Dimensions 46
C
Change Management 3, 8, 43, 54, 71-73, 86-87, 99-100, 108, 113-114
Coaching 3, 43, 53-54, 62-66, 85, 94-96, 103-105, 112-114
Cognitive Dimensions 46
Collectivism (Hofstede) 13-15, 17, 142
Collectivism (Trompenaars) 18-21, 43-44
Collectivism (GLOBE) 37-39
Communications 3, 8, 47-48, 51-54, 74-75, 86, 94, 101-103, 107-108, 112-114
Comparing Methods 23-24
Constructivist-technomorphic organizations 1
Context Motivation 70
Culture 11-22
Cultural Dimensions
Hofstede 13-17
Trompenaars 18-21, 43-44
GLOBE 35-40
Cultural Intelligence 3, 43, 46-47, 53-54, 78-80, 97-98, 106-107, 112-114
Culturally Endorsed Implicit Leadership Theory 30
Cross Section Study 27, 35, 41-42, 81
D
Descriptive Methods 23
Development Program 113-115
Developmental Motivation 70-71

174 Alphabetical Index
D
Diffuse (Trompenaars) 18-21, 43-44
E
Effectiv oriented Motivation 70
Emotional (Trompenaars) 18-21, 43-44
Emotional Intelligence 3, 43, 54, 59, 75-78, 94, 96-97, 106, 112, 114
Empathy 43, 47, 54, 63, 76-78
Empirical Study 81-111
Empowerment 3, 54, 59-61, 86, 98, 103, 107, 112-114
Ethnocentrism 32, 46, 68, 150
External Control (Trompenaars) 18-21
Extraversion 32
Extrinsic Motivation 70
F
Feminity (Hofstede) 13-17, 143
Flexibility 46
Frustration Tolerance 46
Functional Dimensions (Trompenaars) 43-44
Future Orientation (GLOBE) 37-39
G
Gender Egalitarianism (GLOBE) 37-40
Global Organization 7
H
Human Orientation (GLOBE) 37-40
Hypothesis 81-82, 110-111
I
Individualism (Hofstede) 13-15, 17, 142
Individualism (Trompenaars) 18-21, 43-44
In-Group Collectivism (GLOBE) 37-39
Institutional Collectivism (GLOBE) 37-39
Integrative Motivation 70-71
Alphabetical Index 175
I
Intercultural Communications 51-53
Internal Control (Trompenaars) 18-21
International Classification of Diseases 58
Interviews 85, 86, 89-90
Intrinsic Motivation 70
L
Leadership
Charismatic 35
Model 111-113
Needs 42-43
Relational 51-53
ROSKAB 3, 111-113
Transnational 51-53
Leadership Development Program 113-115
Limbic Circuit 32
Long Term Orientation (Hofstede) 13-14, 16-17, 145
Longitudinal Section Study 30
M
Manager
Abilities 67-80
Roles 62-67
Skills 55-62
Masculinity (Hofstede) 13-17, 143
Mental Illness 54-59
Mentoring 3, 43, 53-54, 62-65, 85, 95-96, 103-105, 112-114
Meta Communication 46
Meta Methods 23-24
Methods 23-24
Comparing 23-24
Descriptive 23
Meta 23-24
Narrative 23
Motivation
Context 70
M
Motivation
Developmental 70-71
Effect oriented 70
Extrinsic 70
Integrative 70-71
Intrinsic 70
Task 70
Result oriented 70
N
Narrative Methods 23
Neuroticism 32
Neutral (Trompenaars) 18-21, 43-44
O
Objectives 3, 81-82
Organizations
Big 7
Constructivist-technomorphic 1
Global 7
Medium 7
Profit based 2, 7-8, 30, 44
Small 7
Systemic-evolutionary socio-technical 1
P
Particularism (Trompenaars) 18-21, 43-44
Pearson Correlation 93, 172
Performance Orientation (GLOBE) 37-39
Personnel Development 3, 43, 45, 47-48, 53-54, 65-67, 85, 94-95, 112-114
Power Distance (GLOBE) 37-39
Power Distance (Hofstede) 13-14, 17, 141
Psychological Strain 54-59, 77
Q
Questionnaire 24, 29, 84-90, 137-140
Alphabetical Index 177
R
Rating 23, 25-26
Respondents 87-89
Result oriented Motivation 70
Reticulo-limbic circuit 32
ROSKAB Leadership Model 111-113
S
Self Confidence 46
Sequential (Trompenaars) 18-21
Short Term Orientation (Hofstede) 13-14, 16-17, 145
Single Factor Variance Analysis 27, 31, 34, 87, 95
Society 7-13
Specific (Trompenaars) 18-21, 43-44
Stress 43, 46, 54-60, 77, 87, 93-95, 100, 103, 109-110, 112-114
Study
Cross Section 27, 35, 41-42, 81
Logitudinal Section 30
Survey 24, 53, 66, 81-87, 137-140
Synchronic (Trompenaars) 18-21
System-evolutionary sociotechnical system 1
T
Tast oriented Motivation 70
Team 3, 67-69, 86, 96, 101-103, 105, 112-114
Time Management 43, 54, 73-74, 86, 99, 112-114
Time Orientation (Trompenaars) 18, 20
Training 45-49, 113-114
Transformative Learning 51-53
Transnational Leadership 51-53
Trust 3, 43, 54, 59-62, 86, 98, 112-114
U
Uncertainty Avoidance (GLOBE) 37-39
Uncertainty Avoidance (Hofstede) 13-14, 16-17, 144
Universalism (Trompenaars) 18-21, 43-44
V
Variance Analysis 27, 31, 34, 87, 95

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Optimization of Leadership Style

Dissertation Comenius University Bratislava, Slovakia, 2014

ISBN 978-3-658-11425-1 ISBN 978-3-658-11426-8 (eBook)

Library of Congress Control Number: 2015951463

Printed on acid-free paper

Springer Gabler is a brand of Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden

List of Figures .......................................................................................................... IX

List of Tables ........................................................................................................... XI

4BList of Abbreviations .............................................................................................. XV

1. Leadership in Multicultural Organizations ......................................................... 7

2. Latest State of the Scientific Discussion .........................................................23

3. Selected Significant Leadership Roles, Skills and Abilities ...........................51

4. Empirical Research: Analysis of Multicultural Leadership Approaches .......81

Alphabetical Index .................................................................................................173

Table 33: Mean of absolute differences between attribute TB ................................. 105

FRMgr French Manager

Liquidation national oriented Alignment of dedicated organizational areas

Negative personnel adjustments Positive personnel adjustments

The organization either restructures loss-making sectors indeed or anticipated and

After examining the abilities and competences respectively key competences of

Cultural Intelligence Managers Emotional Intelligence

In the framework of introduction, this approach separates the problems, objectives

multicultural framework follow. Afterwards, there is the presentation of methods and

1.1 Distinction of Global Organizations and Global Influences on

Distinction of Global Organizations

The composite term "profit-based" has its etymological origin in Anglo-American

R. Kohler, Optimization of Leadership Style, DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-11426-8_1,

organizations are confronted with stronger organizational changes and, as a result,

1.2 Effective Leadership in Multicultural Organizations

multicultural organizations is a process with mutual influence between managers and

employees in order to reach a defined goal in an environment with changing

instruments such as individual and social psychological motivation, influence on

1.3 Definition of Culture in a Society and the Idea of Cultural Dimensions

Cluster 2: Collectivist Analysis of Culture Definitions

on interpreting the world around it."42 Cluster 2b demonstrates definitions which

management attitude and expectation, i. e. to be led, derived and separated legalities

Cultural Dimensions According to Hofstede

(1) Power Distance

(4) Uncertainty Avoidance

(5) Long-Term and Short-Term Orientation

Cultural Dimensions (Hofstede)

Power Distance (PD) 34 55 65

Uncertainty Avoidance (UA) 58 77 77

Long-Term Orientation (LTO) 26 16 33

Cultural Dimensions According to Trompenaars

Individualism vs. Sequential vs.

Internal Control vs.

Social interaction between human beings

(1) Universalism versus Particularism

(5) Achieved Status versus Ascribed Status

(6) Attitude of Time

(7) Internal versus External Control

2.1 Scholarly Literature Analysis

Procedure for Selecting Literature

R. Kohler, Optimization of Leadership Style, DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-11426-8_2,

and extent of the random samples.87 By analyzing the comparative values

# Journal/Book Title ISSN/ RT 94F93F93 F

considerations).101 Generally recognized, there are various possibilities of

Trends regarding Multicultural and Functional Leadership