Mendelian Genetics PDF
Mendelian Genetics PDF
Mendelian Genetics PDF
C H A P T E R
3
Mendelian Genetics
CHAPTER CONCEPTS
Inheritance is governed by information During gamete formation, chromosomes other segregating homologs during gamete
stored in discrete factors called genes. are distributed according to postulates first formation.
Genes are transmitted from generation
described by Gregor Mendel, based on his Genetic ratios, expressed as probabilities,
to generation on vehicles called nineteenth-century research with the are subject to chance deviation and may be
chromosomes. garden pea. evaluated statistically.
Chromosomes, which exist in pairs, provide Mendelian postulates prescribe that The analysis of pedigrees allows predictions
the basis of biparental inheritance. homologous chromosomes segregate from involving the genetic nature of
one another and assort independently with human traits.
38
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3.2 The Monohybrid Cross Reveals How One Trait Is Transmitted from Generation to Generation 39
A
lthough inheritance of biological traits has been recog-
nized for thousands of years, the first significant the monastery for his studies and research throughout his life.
insights into the mechanisms involved occurred about In 1856, Mendel performed his first set of hybridization
135 years ago. In 1866, Gregor Johann Mendel published the experiments with the garden pea. The research phase of his
results of a series of experiments that would lay the founda- career lasted until 1868, when he was elected abbot of the
tion for the formal discipline of genetics. Mendels work went monastery. Although he retained his interest in genetics, his
largely unnoticed until the turn of the century, but in the ensu- new responsibilities demanded most of his time. In 1884,
ing years the concept of the gene as a distinct hereditary unit Mendel died of a kidney disorder. The local newspaper paid
was established. The ways in which genes, as members of him the following tribute:
chromosomes, are transmitted to offspring and control traits His death deprives the poor of a benefactor, and
were clarified. Research continued unabated throughout the mankind at large of a man of the noblest character, one
twentieth centuryindeed, studies in genetics, most recently who was a warm friend, a promoter of the natural
at the molecular level, have remained continually at the fore- sciences, and an exemplary priest.
front of biological research since the early 1900s.
When Mendel began his studies of inheritance using Pisum Mendel first reported the results of some simple genetic
sativum, the garden pea, chromosomes and the role and mech- crosses between certain strains of the garden pea in 1865.
anism of meiosis were totally unknown. Nevertheless, he Although his was not the first attempt to provide experimental
determined that discrete units of inheritance exist and pre- evidence pertaining to inheritance, Mendels success where
dicted their behavior during the formation of gametes. Subse- others failed can be attributed, at least in part, to his elegant
quent investigators, with access to cytological data, were able model of experimental design and analysis.
to relate their observations of chromosome behavior during Mendel showed remarkable insight into the methodology nec-
meiosis to Mendels principles of inheritance. Once this corre- essary for good experimental biology. He chose an organism
lation was made, Mendels postulates were accepted as the that is easy to grow and hybridize artificially. The pea plant is
basis for the study of what is known as transmission genetics. self-fertilizing in nature but is easy to crossbreed experimental-
ly. It reproduces well and grows to maturity in a single season.
Mendel followed seven visible features (unit characters), each
represented by two contrasting forms, or traits (Figure 31).
How Do We Know? For the character stem height, for example, he experimented
with the traits tall and dwarf. He selected six other visibly con-
In this chapter, we focus on how Mendel was able to derive the
trasting pairs of traits involving seed shape and color, pod shape
essential postulates that explain inheritance. As you study this
and color, and pod and flower arrangement. From local seed
topic, you should try to answer several fundamental questions:
merchants, Mendel obtained true-breeding strainsthose in
1. How did Mendel know that unit factors existed as which each trait appeared unchanged generation after generation
fundamental genetic components if he could not directly in self-fertilizing plants.
observe them? There were several reasons for Mendels success. In addi-
2. How do we know that an organism expressing a dominant tion to his choice of a suitable organism, he restricted his
trait is homozygous or heterozygous? examination to one or very few pairs of contrasting traits in
each experiment. He also kept accurate quantitative records, a
3. In genetic data, how do we know that deviation from
necessity in genetic experiments. From the analysis of
the expected ratio is due to chance rather than another
his data, Mendel derived certain postulates that became
independent factor?
principles of transmission genetics.
4. How do we know how a trait is inherited in humans? The results of Mendels experiments were unappreciated until
the turn of the century, well after his death. However, once
Mendels publications were rediscovered by geneticists investi-
3.1 Mendel Used a Model gating the function and behavior of chromosomes, the implica-
tions of his postulates were immediately apparent. He had
Experimental Approach to Study
discovered the basis for the transmission of hereditary traits!
Patterns of Inheritance
Johann Mendel was born in 1822 to a peasant family in the
central European village of Heinzendorf. An excellent student 3.2 The Monohybrid Cross Reveals
in high school, he studied philosophy for several years after- How One Trait Is Transmitted
ward, and in 1843 he was admitted to the Augustinian
Monastery of St. Thomas in Brno, now part of the Czech
from Generation to Generation
Republic, taking the name Gregor. In 1849, he was relieved of Mendels simplest crosses involved only one pair of contrast-
pastoral duties and accepted a teaching appointment that last- ing traits. Each such experiment is a monohybrid cross,
ed several years. From 1851 to 1853, he attended the Univer- which is made by mating true-breeding individuals from two
sity of Vienna, where he studied physics and botany. He parent strains, each exhibiting one of the two contrasting forms
returned to Brno in 1854, where he taught physics and natural of the character under study. Initially, we examine the first
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882 full
full/constricted all full 2.95:1
299 constricted
Pods
428 green
green/yellow all green 2.82:1
152 yellow
FIGURE 3-1 Seven pairs of contrasting traits and the results of Mendels seven monohybrid crosses of the garden pea (Pisum sativum).
In each case, pollen derived from plants exhibiting one trait was used to fertilize the ova of plants exhibiting the other trait. In the F1
generation, one of the two traits was exhibited by all plants. The contrasting trait reappeared in approximately 1>4 of the F2 plants.
generation of offspring of such a cross, and then we consider shown in Figure 31. In every case, the outcome was similar
the results of selfing, the offspring of self-fertilizing individu- to the tall/dwarf cross just described. All F1 offspring were
als from this first generation. The original parents constitute identical to one of the parents, but in the F2 offspring, an
the P1 , or parental, generation, their offspring are the F1 , or approximate ratio of 3:1 was obtained. That is, three-fourths
first filial generation, and the individuals resulting from the looked like the F1 plants, while one-fourth exhibited the con-
selfed F1 generation are the F2 , or second filial generation. trasting trait, which had disappeared in the F1 generation.
We can continue to follow subsequent generations. We will point out one further aspect of Mendels monohy-
The cross between true-breeding pea plants with tall stems brid crosses. In each cross, the F1 and F2 patterns of inheri-
and dwarf stems is representative of Mendels monohybrid tance were similar regardless of which P1 plant served as the
crosses. Tall and dwarf are contrasting traits of the character source of pollen (sperm) and which served as the source of the
of stem height. Unless tall or dwarf plants are crossed togeth- ovum (egg). The crosses could be made either waypollination
er or with another strain, they will undergo self-fertilization of dwarf plants by tall plants or vice versa. These are called
and breed true, producing their respective traits generation reciprocal crosses. Therefore, the results of Mendels mono-
after generation. However, when Mendel crossed tall plants hybrid crosses were not sex-dependent.
with dwarf plants, the resulting F1 generation consisted only To explain these results, Mendel proposed the existence of
of tall plants. When members of the F1 generation were particular unit factors for each trait. He suggested that these
selfed, Mendel observed that 787 of 1064 F2 plants were tall, factors serve as the basic units of heredity and are passed
while the remaining 277 were dwarf. Note that in this cross unchanged from generation to generation, determining the var-
(Figure 31) the dwarf trait disappears in the F1 , only to ious traits expressed by each individual plant. Using these gen-
reappear in the F2 generation. eral ideas, Mendel proceeded to hypothesize precisely how unit
Genetic data are usually expressed and analyzed as ratios. In factors could account for the results of the monohybrid crosses.
this particular example, many identical P1 crosses were made,
and many F1 plantsall tallwere produced. Of the 1064 F2
offspring, 787 were tall and 277 were dwarfa ratio of Mendels First Three Postulates
2.84:1.0, or about 3:1. Using the consistent pattern of results in the monohybrid
Mendel made similar crosses between pea plants exhibiting crosses, Mendel derived the following three postulates or
other pairs of contrasting traits; the results of these crosses are principles of inheritance.
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3.2 The Monohybrid Cross Reveals How One Trait Is Transmitted from Generation to Generation 41
1. Unit Factors in Pairs recessiveness, combinations (2) and (3) both yield tall plants.
Therefore, the F2 is predicted to consist of 3>4 tall and 1>4
Genetic characters are controlled by unit factors that
dwarf, or a ratio of 3:1. This is approximately what Mendel
exist in pairs in individual organisms.
observed in the cross between tall and dwarf plants. A similar
In the monohybrid cross involving tall and dwarf stems, a pattern was observed in each of the other monohybrid crosses
specific unit factor exists for each trait. Because the fac- (see Figure 31).
tors occur in pairs, three combinations are possible: two
factors for tallness, two factors for dwarfness, or one fac-
tor for each trait. Every individual contains one of these Modern Genetic Terminology
three combinations, which determines stem height. To illustrate the monohybrid cross and Mendels first three
postulates, we must first introduce several new terms as well
2. Dominance/Recessiveness as a symbol convention for the unit factors.
When two unlike unit factors responsible for a single char- Traits such as tall or dwarf are visible expressions of the
acter are present in a single individual, one unit factor is information contained in unit factors. The physical appear-
dominant to the other, which is said to be recessive. ance of a trait is the phenotype of the individual. Mendels
unit factors represent units of inheritance called genes by
In each monohybrid cross, the trait expressed in the F1 modern geneticists. For any given character, such as plant
generation is controlled by the dominant unit factor. The height, the phenotype is determined by alternative forms of a
trait not expressed is controlled by the recessive unit fac- single gene called alleles. For example, the unit factors repre-
tor. Note that this dominance/recessiveness relationship senting tall and dwarf are alleles determining the height of the
pertains only when unlike unit factors are present in pea plant.
pairs. The terms dominant and recessive are also used to The convention we will use is to choose the first letter of
designate traits. In this case, tall stems are said to be the recessive trait to symbolize the character in question
dominant over the recessive dwarf stems. the lowercase italic letter designates the allele for the reces-
3. Segregation sive trait, and the uppercase italic letter designates the allele
for the dominant trait. Thus, for Mendels pea plants, we
During the formation of gametes, the paired unit factors use d for the dwarf allele and D for the tall allele. When
separate or segregate randomly so that each gamete alleles are written in pairs to represent the two unit factors
receives one or the other with equal likelihood. present in any individual (DD, Dd, or dd), these symbols
If an individual contains a pair of like unit factors are called the genotype. This term reflects the genetic
(e.g., both specific for tall), then all gametes receive one makeup of an individual, whether it is haploid or diploid.
tall unit factor. If an individual contains unlike unit fac- By reading the genotype, we know the phenotype of the
tors (e.g., one for tall and one for dwarf), then each individual: DD and Dd are tall, and dd is dwarf. When both
gamete has a 50 percent probability of receiving either alleles are the same (DD or dd), the individual is
the tall or the dwarf unit factor. homozygous or a homozygote; when the alleles are differ-
These postulates provide a suitable explanation for the ent (Dd), we use the term heterozygous or a heterozygote.
results of the monohybrid crosses. Lets use the tall/dwarf These symbols and terms are used in Figure 32 to illus-
cross to illustrate. Mendel reasoned that P1 tall plants contain trate the monohybrid cross.
identical paired unit factors, as do the P1 dwarf plants. The Because he operated without the hindsight that modern
gametes of tall plants all receive one tall unit factor as a result geneticists enjoy, Mendels analytical reasoning must be
of segregation. Similarly, the gametes of dwarf plants all considered a truly outstanding scientific achievement. On the
receive one dwarf unit factor. Following fertilization, all F1 basis of rather simple but precisely executed breeding experi-
plants receive one unit factor from each parent: a tall factor ments, he not only proposed that discrete particulate units of
from one and a dwarf factor from the other, reestablishing the heredity exist, he also explained how they are transmitted from
paired relationshipbut because tall is dominant to dwarf, all one generation to the next.
F1 plants are tall.
When F1 plants form gametes, the postulate of segregation
demands that each gamete randomly receives either the tall or
the dwarf unit factor. Following random fertilization events dur- Now Solve This
ing F1 selfing, four F2 combinations result in equal frequency:
Problem 5 on page 58 involves a Mendelian cross where
1. tall/tall you must determine the mode of inheritance and the
genotypes of the parents in a number of instances.
2. tall/dwarf
3. dwarf/tall Hint: The first step is to determine how many genes
are involved. To do so, convert the data to ratios that
4. dwarf/dwarf are characteristic of Mendelian crosses. In the case of
this problem, ask first whether any of the F2 ratios
Combinations (1) and (4) result in tall and dwarf plants,
match Mendels 3:1 monohybrid ratio.
respectively. According to the postulate of dominance/
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Dd Dd
Genotypes: DD dd
tall tall
Gamete formation
Gamete formation
by F1 generation
DD dd
Dd Dd
D Gametes d
D d D d
F1 generation
D d Setting up a
Fertilization Punnett square
D d
Dd
all tall D
F1 cross
D d
D d D d
D DD Dd
F1 gametes tall tall
d dD dd
Monohybrid Crosses and Punnett Squares
tall dwarf
F2 generation
F1 gametes D d D d F2 results
3/4 tall
F2 genotypes DD Dd Dd dd 2 Dd
F2 phenotypes tall tall tall dwarf
1 dd 1/4 dwarf
Designation Homozygous Heterozygous Heterozygous Homozygous
1:2:1 3:1
FIGURE 3-2 The monohybrid cross between tall (D) and dwarf FIGURE 3-3 A Punnett square generating the F2
(d) pea plants. Individuals are shown in rectangles, and gametes in circles. ratio of the F1 * F1 cross shown in Figure 32.
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O nly recently, well over a hundred osmotic balance that minimizes the loss of coding sequence. This foreign segment
years after Mendel used wrinkled water. The end result is a smooth-textured closely resembles other such sequences,
peas in his groundbreaking hybridization outer coat. called transposable elements. These
experiments, have we come to find out The SBEI gene has been cloned and ana- sequences have the ability to move from
how the wrinkled gene makes peas wrin- lyzed, providing greater insight into the place to place in the genome of organ-
kled. The wild-type allele of the gene relationship between genotypes and isms. Transposable elements have been
encodes a protein called starch-branch- phenotypes. Interestingly, the mutant found in maize (corn), parsley, and snap-
ing enzyme (SBEI). This enzyme cat- gene contains a foreign sequence of some dragons, fruit flies, and humans, among
alyzes the formation of highly branched 800 base pairs that disrupts the normal many other organisms.
starch molecules as the seed matures.
Wrinkled peas, which result from the
homozygous presence of the mutant form
of the gene, lack the activity of this
enzyme. The production of branch points
is inhibited during the synthesis of starch
within the seed, which in turn leads to the
accumulation of more sucrose and a high-
er water content while the seed develops.
Osmotic pressure inside rises, causing the
seed to lose water internally, and ultimate-
ly results in the wrinkled appearance of
the seed at maturation. In contrast, devel-
oping seeds that bear at least one copy of
the normal gene (being either homozy-
gous or heterozygous for the dominant Wrinkled and round garden peas, the phenotypic traits in one of Mendels monohybrid
allele) synthesize starch and reach an crosses.
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3/4 are round (3/4)(3/4) = 9/16 yellow, round yellow or green is independent of
3/4 are yellow and the probability of its bearing round
1/4 are wrinkled (3/4)(1/4) = 3/16 yellow, wrinkled or wrinkled seeds.
On the basis of similar results in numerous dihybrid crosses, every pair of unit factors. For one pair, whichever unit factor is
Mendel proposed a fourth postulate called independent received does not influence the outcome of segregation of any
assortment: During gamete formation, segregating pairs of other pair. Thus, according to the postulate of independent
unit factors assort independently of each other. assortment, all possible combinations of gametes are formed
This postulate stipulates that segregation of any pair of unit in equal frequency.
factors occurs independently of all others. As a result of The Punnett square in Figure 37 shows how independent
random segregation, each gamete receives one member of assortment works in the formation of the F2 generation.
GgWw
GW Gw gW gw
GW
GGWW GGWw GgWW GgWw
yellow, round yellow, round yellow, round yellow, round
Gw
GGWw GGww GgWw Ggww
yellow, round yellow, wrinkled yellow, round yellow, wrinkled
gW
GgWW GgWw ggWW ggWw
yellow, round yellow, round green, round green, round
gw
GgWw Ggww ggWw ggww
yellow, round yellow, wrinkled green, round green, wrinkled
F2 Generation
1/16 GGWW
2/16 GGWw 9/16 yellow, round
2/16 GgWW
4/16 GgWw
1/16 GGww
3/16 yellow, wrinkled
2/16 Ggww
1/16 ggWW
3/16 green, round
2/16 ggWw
The Testcross: Two Characters Although a trihybrid cross is somewhat more complex than
The testcross can also be applied to individuals that express a dihybrid cross, its results are easily calculated if the princi-
two dominant traits but whose genotypes are unknown. For ples of segregation and independent assortment are followed.
example, the expression of the yellow, round seed phenotype For example, consider the cross shown in Figure 38, where
in the F2 generation just described may result from the the gene pairs of theoretical contrasting traits are represented
GGWW, GGWw, GgWW, and GgWw genotypes. If an F2 yel- by the symbols A, a, B, b, C, and c. In the cross between
low, round plant is crossed with a homozygous recessive AABBCC and aabbcc individuals, all F1 individuals are het-
green, wrinkled plant (ggww), analysis of the offspring will erozygous for all three gene pairs. Their genotype, AaBbCc,
indicate the actual genotype of that yellow, round plant. Each results in the phenotypic expression of the dominant A, B, and
of the above genotypes results in a different set of gametes, C traits. When F1 individuals serve as parents, each produces
and in a testcross, a different set of phenotypes in the resulting eight different gametes in equal frequencies. At this point, we
offspring. You should work out the results of each of these could construct a Punnett square with 64 separate boxes and
four crosses to be sure you understand this concept. read out the phenotypesbut such a method is cumbersome
in a cross involving so many factors. Therefore another
method has been devised to calculate the predicted ratio.
gametes). For diploid organisms, this number is called the With this basic information, we can see the correlation
diploid number (2n) and is characteristic of that species. Dur- between the behavior of unit factors and chromosomes
ing the formation of gametes, this number is precisely halved and genes. Figure 310 shows three of Mendels postu-
(n), and when two gametes combine during fertilization, the lates and the chromosomal explanation of each. Unit fac-
diploid number is reestablished. During meiosis, however, the tors are really genes located on homologous pairs of
chromosome number is not reduced in a random manner. It chromosomes [Figure 310(a)]. Members of each pair of
was apparent to early cytologists that the diploid number of homologs separate, or segregate, during gamete formation
chromosomes is composed of homologous pairs identifiable [Figure 310(b)]. Two different alignments are possible,
by their morphological appearance and behavior. The gametes both of which are shown.
contain one member of each pairthus the chromosome com- To illustrate the principle of independent assortment, we
plement of a gamete is quite specific, and the number of chro- must distinguish between members of any given homologous
mosomes in each gamete is equal to the haploid number. pair of chromosomes. One member of each pair comes from
(b) Segregation of unit factors during gamete formation (first meiotic anaphase)
G g G g
or
W w w W
W w w W
Each pair separates Each pair separates
(c) Independent assortment of segregating unit factors (following many meiotic events)
G g G g
W w w W
the maternal parent, while the other member comes from the species, where n = 23. If 223 is calculated, we find that in
paternal parent. (We represent the different parental origins excess of 8 * 106 , or over 8 million, different types of
with different colors.) As shown in Figure 310(c), following gametes are represented. Because fertilization represents an
independent segregation of each pair of homologs, each event involving only one of approximately 8 * 106 possible
gamete receives one member from each pair of chromosomes. gametes from each of two parents, each offspring represents
All possible combinations are formed with equal probability. only one of (8 * 106)2 , or one of only 64 * 1012 potential
If we add the symbols used in Mendels dihybrid cross genetic combinations! No wonder that, except for identical
(G, g and W, w) to the diagram, we can see why equal num- twins, each member of the human species demonstrates a dis-
bers of the four types of gametes are formed. The independent tinctive appearance and individualitythis number of combi-
behavior of Mendels pairs of unit factors (G and W in this nations is far greater than the number of humans who have
example) is due to their presence on separate pairs of homol- ever lived on Earth! Genetic variation resulting from indepen-
ogous chromosomes. dent assortment has been extremely important to the process
Observations of the phenotypic diversity of living organ- of evolution in all sexually reproducing organisms.
isms make it logical to assume that there are many more
genes than chromosomes. Therefore, each homolog must
carry genetic information for more than one trait. The cur- 3.7 Laws of Probability Help
rently accepted concept is that a chromosome is composed to Explain Genetic Events
of a large number of linearly ordered, information-containing
Recall that genetic ratios are expressed as probabilitiesfor
genes. Mendels unit factors (which determine tall or dwarf
example, 3/4 tall:1/4 dwarf. These values predict the outcome
stems, for example) actually constitute a pair of genes locat-
of each fertilization event, such that the probability of each
ed on one pair of homologous chromosomes. The location
zygote having the genetic potential for becoming tall is 3/4,
on a given chromosome where any particular gene occurs is
while the potential for becoming dwarf is 1/4. Probabilities
called its locus (pl., loci). The different forms taken by a
range from 0.0, when an event is certain not to occur, to 1.0,
given gene, called alleles (G or g), contain slightly different
when an event is certain to occur. When two or more events
genetic information that determines the same character
occur independently but at the same time, we can calculate
(seed color in this case). Although we have examined only
the probability of possible outcomes when they occur togeth-
genes with two alternative alleles, most genes have more
er. This is accomplished by applying the product lawthe
than two allelic forms. We conclude this section by review-
probability of two or more events occurring simultaneously is
ing the criteria necessary to classify two chromosomes as a
equal to the product of their individual probabilities. Two or
homologous pair:
more events are independent of one another if the outcome of
1. During mitosis and meiosis, when chromosomes are vis- each one does not affect the outcome of any of the others
ible as distinct figures, both members of a homologous under consideration.
pair are the same size and exhibit identical centromere To illustrate the product law, consider the possible results if
locations. The sex chromosomes are an exception. you toss a penny (P) and a nickel (N) at the same time and
2. During early stages of meiosis, homologous chromosomes examine all combinations of heads (H) and tails (T) that can
form pairs, or synapse. occur. There are four possible outcomes:
duction by an individual of genetically dissimilar gametes. the other coin. Thus, all four possible combinations are pre-
Genetic variation results because the two members of any dicted to occur with equal probability.
homologous pair of chromosomes are rarely, if ever, geneti- If we want to calculate the probability where the possi-
cally identical. Therefore, because independent assortment ble outcomes of two events are independent of one
leads to the production of all possible chromosome combina- another but can be accomplished in more than one way,
tions, extensive genetic diversity results. we apply the sum law. For example, what is the proba-
We have seen that the number of possible gametes, each bility of tossing our penny and nickel and obtaining one
with different chromosome compositions, is 2n , where n head and one tail? In such a case, we do not care whether
equals the haploid number. Thus, if a species has haploid it is the penny or the nickel that comes up heads, provid-
number of n = 4, then 24 = 16 different gamete combina- ed the other coin has the alternative outcome. As we saw
tions can be formed as a result of independent assortment. above, there are two ways in which the desired outcome
Although this number is not high, consider the human can be accomplished, each with a probability of 1/4.
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Thus, according to the sum law, the overall probability is impossible. Two major points are significant before we con-
equal to sider chi-square analysis:
(1>4) + (1>4) = 1>2 1. The outcomes of independent assortment and fertiliza-
One-half of all coin tosses are predicted to yield the desired tion, like coin tossing, are subject to random fluctuations
outcome. from their predicted occurrences as a result of chance
These simple probability laws will be useful throughout our deviation.
discussions of transmission genetics and for solving genetics 2. As the sample size increases, the average deviation from
problems. In fact, we already applied the product law when the expected results decreases. Therefore, a larger sample
we used the forked-line method to calculate the phenotypic size diminishes the impact of chance deviation on the
results of Mendels dihybrid and trihybrid crosses. When we final outcome.
wish to know the results of a cross, we need only calculate the
probability of each possible outcome. The results of this cal-
culation then allow us to predict the proportion of offspring Chi-Square Calculations and the Null Hypothesis
expressing each phenotype or each genotype. In genetics, the ability to evaluate observed deviation is a
An important point to remember when you deal with proba- crucial skill. When we assume that data will fit a given ratio
bility is that predictions of possible outcomes are based on such as 1:1, 3:1, or 9:3:3:1, we establish what is called the
large sample sizes. If we predict that 9/16 of the offspring of a null hypothesis 1H02. It is so named because the hypothe-
dihybrid cross will express both dominant traits, it is very sis assumes that no real difference exists between measured
unlikely that, in a small sample, exactly 9 of every 16 off- values (or ratio) and predicted values (or ratio). The appar-
spring will express this phenotype. Instead, our prediction is ent difference can be attributed purely to chance. The null
that, of a large number of offspring, approximately 9/16 of hypothesis is evaluated using statistical analysis. On this
them will do so. The deviation from the predicted ratio in basis, the null hypothesis may either (1) be rejected or (2)
smaller sample sizes is attributed to chance, a subject we fail to be rejected. If it is rejected, the observed deviation
examine in our discussion of statistics in the next section. As from the expected result is not attributed to chance alone.
you shall see, the impact of deviation due strictly to chance The null hypothesis and the underlying assumptions lead-
diminishes as the sample size increases. ing to it must be reexamined. If the null hypothesis fails to
be rejected, any observed deviations are attributed to
chance.
3.8 Chi-Square Analysis Evaluates One of the simplest statistical tests devised to assess the null
the Influence of Chance on hypothesis is chi-square 1X 22 analysis. This test takes into
account the observed deviation in each component of an
Genetic Data
expected ratio as well as the sample size and reduces them to
Mendels 3:1 monohybrid and 9:3:3:1 dihybrid ratios are a single numerical value. The value for x2 is then used to esti-
hypothetical predictions based on the following assumptions: mate how frequently the observed deviation can be expected
(1) Each allele is dominant or recessive; (2) segregation is to occur strictly as a result of chance. The formula for chi-
operative; (3) independent assortment occurs; and (4) fertil- square analysis is
1o - e22
ization is random. The final two assumptions are influenced
by chance events and are therefore subject to random fluctua- x2 = g
tion. This concept of chance deviation is most easily illus- e
trated by tossing a single coin numerous times and recording
where o is the observed value for a given category, e is the
the number of heads and tails observed. In each toss, there is a
expected value for that category, and g (the Greek letter
probability of 1/2 that a head will occur and a probability of
sigma) represents the sum of the calculated values for each
1/2 that a tail will occur. Therefore, the expected ratio of
category of the ratio. Because (o - e) is the deviation (d) in
many tosses is 1:1. If a coin is tossed 1000 times, usually
each case, the equation reduces to
about 500 heads and 500 tails will be observed. Any reason-
able fluctuation from this hypothetical ratio (e.g., 486 heads d2
and 514 tails) is attributed to chance. x2 = g
e
As the total number of tosses is reduced, the impact of
chance deviation increases. For example, if a coin is tossed Table 3.1(a) shows a x2 calculation for the F2 results of a
only four times, you would not be too surprised if all four hypothetical monohybrid cross. To analyze these data, you
tosses result in only heads or only tails. For 1000 tosses, work from left to right, calculating and entering the appropri-
however, 1000 heads or 1000 tails would be most unexpect- ate numbers in each column. Regardless of whether the devi-
ed. In fact, you might believe that such a result would be ation d is positive or negative, d2 always becomes positive
impossible. Actually, all heads or all tails in 1000 tosses can after the number is squared. In Table 3.1(b) the F2 results of a
be predicted to occur with a probability of (1/2)1000. Since hypothetical dihybrid cross are analyzed. Be sure that you
(1/2)20 is equivalent to less than one in a million times, an understand how each number was calculated in the dihybrid
event occurring with a probability of (1/2)1000 is virtually example.
KLUGMC03_038-060HR 10/18/06 1:01 PM Page 51
3>4 740 3>4(1000) 750 740 750 10 (10)2 100 100/750 0.13
1>4 260 1>4(1000) 250 260 250 10 (10)2 100 100/250 0.40
p 0.48
1>16 56 63 7 49 0.78
p 0.26
The final step in chi-square analysis is to interpret the x2 confirms that p values for both the monohybrid and dihybrid
value. To do so, you must initially determine the value of the crosses are between 0.20 and 0.50.
degrees of freedom (df), which is equal to n - 1, where n is
the number of different categories into which each datum point
Interpreting Probability Values
may fall. For the 3:1 ratio, n = 2, so df = 2 - 1 = 1. For
the 9:3:3:1 ratio, n = 4 and df = 3. Degrees of freedom must So far, we have been concerned with calculating x2 values
be taken into account because the greater the number of cate- and determining the corresponding p values. The most impor-
gories, the more deviation is expected as a result of chance. tant aspect of chi-square analysis is understanding the mean-
Once you have determined the degrees of freedom, we can ing of the p value. Lets use the example of the dihybrid cross
interpret the x2 value in terms of a corresponding probability in Table 3.1(b) (p = 0.26). In these discussions, it is simplest
value (p). Since this calculation is complex, we usually take to think of the p value as a percentage (e.g., 0.26 = 26%). In
the p value from a standard table or graph. Figure 311 our example, the p value indicates that if we repeat the same
shows a wide range of x2 and p values for various degrees of experiment many times, 26 percent of the trials would be
freedom in both a graph and a table. Lets use the graph to expected to exhibit chance deviation as great or greater than
determine the p value. The caption for Figure 311(b) that seen in the initial trial. Conversely, 74 percent of the trials
explains how to use the table. would show less deviation than initially observed as a result
To determine p, execute the following steps: of chance. Thus, the p value reveals that a hypothesis (the
9:3:3:1 ratio in this case) is never proved or disproved
1. Locate the x2 value on the abscissa (the horizontal or absolutely. Instead, a relative standard is set that enables us to
x-axis). either reject or fail to reject the null hypothesisthis standard
is most often a p value of 0.05. When applied to chi-square
2. Draw a vertical line from this point up to the angled line analysis, a p value less than 0.05 means that the observed
on the graph representing the appropriate df. deviation in the set of results will be obtained by chance alone
less than 5 percent of the time. Such a p value indicates that
3. Extend a horizontal line from this point to the left until it
the difference between the observed and predicted results is
intersects the ordinate (the vertical or y-axis).
substantial and thus enables us to reject the null hypothesis.
4. Estimate, by interpolation, the corresponding p value. On the other hand, p values of 0.05 or greater (0.05 to 1.0)
indicate that the observed deviation will be obtained by
We used these steps for the monohybrid cross in Table 3.1(a) chance alone 5 percent or more of the time. The conclusion is
to estimate the p value of 0.48 shown in Figure 311(a). For not to reject the null hypothesis. Thus, for the p value of 0.26,
the dihybrid cross, try this method to see if you can determine assessing the hypothesis that independent assortment
the p value. Since the x2 value is 4.16 and df = 3, an accounts for the results fails to be rejected. Therefore, the
approximate p value is 0.26. Checking this result in the table observed deviation can be reasonably attributed to chance.
KLUGMC03_038-060HR 10/18/06 1:01 PM Page 52
(a) (b)
Degrees of freedom (df)
10 4 3 2 1 Probability (p)
0.0001
0.90 0.50 0.20 0.05 0.01 0.001
0.4
p = 0.48
Fails to reject the null hypothesis
0.7
Rejects the null hypothesis
1.0
40 30 20 15 10 7 5 43 2 1 0.1
x2 values
x2 = 0.53
FIGURE 3-11 (a) Graph for converting x2 values to p values. (b) Table of x2 values for selected values of df and p. x2 values that lead to
a p value of 0.05 or greater (darker blue areas) justify failure to reject the null hypothesis. Values leading to a p value of less than 0.05
(lighter blue areas) justify rejecting the null hypothesis. For example, using the table in part (b), where x2 = 0.53 for 1 degree of
freedom, the corresponding p value is between 0.20 and 0.50. The graph in (a) gives a more precise p value of 0.48 by interpolation.
Thus, we fail to reject the null hypothesis.
A final note is relevant here for the case where the null
hypothesis is rejected, that is, where p 0.05. Suppose we
are testing the null hypothesis that the data represented a
Now Solve This
9:3:3:1 ratio, indicative of independent assortment. If the Problem 18 on page 59 asks you to apply x2 analysis to
null hypothesis is rejected, what are alternative interpreta- a set of data and determine whether the data fit sever-
tions of the data? Researchers will reassess the assumptions al ratios.
that underlie the null hypothesis. In our example, we Hint: In calculating x2, first determine the expected
assumed that segregation operates faithfully for both gene outcomes using the predicted ratios. Then follow a
pairs. We also assumed that fertilization is random and that stepwise approach, determining the deviation in each
the viability of all gametes is equal regardless of geno- case, and calculating d 2>e for each category.
typethat is, that all gametes are equally likely to partici-
pate in fertilization. Finally, following fertilization, we
assumed that all preadult stages and adult offspring are
equally viable regardless of their genotype. If any of these 3.9 Pedigrees Reveal Patterns
assumptions is incorrect, the original hypothesis is not nec-
essarily invalid.
of Inheritance of Human Traits
An example will clarify this. Suppose our null hypothesis is We now explore how to determine the mode of inheritance of
that a dihybrid cross between fruit flies will result in 3/16 phenotypes in humans, where designed crosses are not possible
mutant wingless fly zygotes. However, not as many of the and where relatively few offspring are available for study. The
mutant embryos may survive their preadult development or as traditional way to study inheritance has been to construct a fami-
young adults, compared to flies whose genotype gives rise to ly tree, indicating the presence or absence of the trait in question
wings. As a result, when the data are gathered, there are fewer for each member of each generation. Such a family tree is called
than 3/16 wingless flies. Rejection of the null hypothesis a pedigree. By analyzing a pedigree, we may be able to predict
alone is not cause for us to disregard the validity of the postu- how the trait under study is inheritedfor example, is it due to a
lates of segregation and independent assortment, because dominant or recessive allele? When many pedigrees for the same
other factors are operative. trait are studied, we can often ascertain the mode of inheritance.
KLUGMC03_038-060HR 10/18/06 1:01 PM Page 53
II skip generations
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Web Tutorial 3.4
likely to be even more severely affected, perhaps even fail- result. Such heterozygous individuals have heart attacks
ing to survive. An illustration of this is the dominant gene during the fourth decade of their life, or before. While het-
for familial hypercholesterolemia. Heterozygotes display a erozygotes have LDL levels about double that of a normal
defect in their receptors for low density lipoproteins, the so- individual, rare homozygotes have been detected. They lack
called LDLs. As a result, too little cholesterol is taken up by LDL receptors altogether, and have LDL levels nearly 10
cells from the blood, and elevated plasma levels of LDLs times above the normal range. They are likely to have a heart
attack very early in life, even before age five, and almost
inevitably before they reach the age of 20.
Pedigree analysis of many traits has historically been an
TABLE 3.2 Representative Recessive and extremely valuable research technique in human genetic
Dominant Human Traits studies. However, the approach does not usually provide the
certainty in drawing conclusions afforded by designed cross-
Recessive Traits Dominant Traits
es yielding large numbers of offspring. Nevertheless, when
Albinism Achondroplasia many independent pedigrees of the same trait or disorder are
analyzed, consistent conclusions can often be drawn. Table
Alkaptonuria Brachydactyly
3.2 lists numerous human traits and classifies them according
Ataxia telangiectasia Congenital stationary to their recessive or dominant expression. The genes control-
night blindness ling some of these traits are located on the sex-determining
Color blindness Ehler-Danlos syndrome chromosomes. We will discuss pedigrees for X-linked traits
in Chapter 4.
Cystic fibrosis Hypotrichosis
Chapter Summary 55
Tay-Sachs disease is needed to break down the ganglioside include hand tremors, speech impediments,
(TSD) is an inherit- GM2, a lipid component of nerve cell muscle weakness, and loss of balance.
ed disorder that causes unalterable destruc- membranes. Without functional Hex-A, Tay-Sachs disease is almost a hundred
tion of the central nervous system. This gangliosides accumulate within neurons in times more common in Ashkenazi Jews
condition is particularly tragic because the brain and cause deterioration of the ner- Jews of central or eastern European
infants with TSD are unaffected at birth and vous system. Heterozygous carriers of TSD descentthan in the general population,
appear to develop normally until they are with one normal copy of the gene produce and also has a higher incidence in French
about six months old. Parents, believing only about 50 percent of the normal amount Canadians and in members of the Cajun
that they have a normal child, then must of Hex-A, but they show no symptoms of population in Louisiana. In the United
witness the progressive loss of mental and the disorder. The observation that the activ- States, approximately one in every 27
physical abilities. The disorder is severe, as ity of only one gene (one wild-type allele) Ashkenazi Jews is a heterozygous carrier
afflicted infants eventually become blind, is sufficient for the normal development of TSD. By contrast, the carrier rate in the
deaf, mentally retarded, and paralyzed, and function of the nervous system explains general population and in Jews of
often within only a year or two. Most do not and illustrates the molecular basis of reces- Sephardic (Spanish or Portuguese) origin
live beyond age five. Named for Warren sive mutations. Only when both genes are is approximately one in every 250.
Tay and Bernard Sachs, who first described disrupted by mutation is the mutant pheno- Although there are currently no effective
the symptoms and associated them with the type evident. treatments for TSD, recent advances in
disorder in the late 1800s, Tay-Sachs dis- The gene responsible for Tay-Sachs dis- carrier screening have helped to reduce the
ease clearly demonstrates a pattern of auto- ease is located on chromosome 15 and prevalence of the disorder in high-risk
somal recessive inheritance. Two codes for the alpha subunit of the Hex-A populations. Carriers can be identified by
unaffected heterozygous parents, who most enzyme. Hex-A, like many enzymes, dis- tests that measure Hex-A activity or by
often have no immediate family history of plays quaternary protein structure, consist- DNA-based tests that detect specific gene
the disorder, have a probability of one in ing of multiple polypeptide subunits. Since mutations. When both parents are carriers,
four of having a Tay-Sachs child. While the gene was isolated in 1985, more than prenatal diagnosis can be utilized with
inheritance clearly displays a classic 50 different mutations have been identified each pregnancy in order to detect affected
Mendelian pattern, the protein product of that lead to TSD. Although the most com- fetuses. In addition, ganglioside synthesis
the affected gene has been identified, and mon form of the disease is the infantile inhibitors and Hex-A enzyme replacement
we now have a clear understanding of the form, where no functional Hex-A is pro- therapy are currently being investigated as
underlying molecular basis of the disorder. duced, there is also a rare late-onset form potential treatments for TSD newborns.
TSD results from the loss of activity of a that occurs in patients with greatly reduced
single enzyme hexosaminidase A (Hex- Hex-A activity. Late-onset TSD is not Reference
A). This enzyme is normally found in lyso- detectable until patients are in their twen- Fernandes, F., and Shapiro, B. 2004.
somes, organelles that break down large ties or thirties, and it is generally much less Tay-Sachs Disease. Arch. Neurol.
molecules for recycling by the cell. Hex-A severe than the infantile form. Symptoms 61:146668.
CHAPTER SUMMARY
1. Over a century ago, Mendel studied inheritance patterns in the 6. The Punnett square and the forked-line methods are used to pre-
garden pea and established the principles of transmission genetics. dict the probabilities of phenotypes (and genotypes) from cross-
2. Mendels postulates help describe the basis for the inheritance of es involving two or more gene pairs.
phenotypic expression. He showed that unit factors, later called 7. Genetic ratios are expressed as probabilities. Thus, deriving out-
alleles, exist in pairs and exhibit a dominant/recessive relation- comes of genetic crosses requires an understanding of the laws
ship in determining the expression of traits. of probability.
3. Mendel postulated that unit factors must segregate during ga- 8. Statistical analysis is used to test the validity of experimental
mete formation, such that each gamete receives only one of the outcomes. In genetics, variations from the expected ratios due to
two factors with equal probability. chance deviations can be anticipated.
4. Mendels postulate of independent assortment states that each 9. Chi-square analysis allows us to assess the null hypothesis,
pair of unit factors segregates independently of other such pairs. which states that there is no real difference between the expected
As a result, all possible combinations of gametes are formed and observed values. As such, it tests the probability of whether
with equal probability. observed variations can be attributed to chance deviation.
5. The discovery of chromosomes in the late 1800s, along with 10. Pedigree analysis is a method for studying the inheritance pat-
subsequent studies of their behavior during meiosis, led to the tern of human traits over several generations. It frequently pro-
rebirth of Mendels work, linking the behavior of his unit factors vides the basis for determining the mode of inheritance of
to that of chromosomes during meiosis. human characteristics and disorders.
KLUGMC03_038-060HR 10/18/06 1:01 PM Page 56
KEY TERMS
albinism, 53 F2 generation (second filial), 40 proband, 53
allele, 41 gene, 41 product law, 44
branch diagram, 46 genotype, 41 Punnett square, 42
chance deviation, 50 heterozygote, 41 recessive, 41
chi-square 1x22 analysis, 50 hexosaminidase A (Hex-A), 55 reciprocal cross, 40
chromosomal theory of inheritance, 47 homozygote, 41 segregation, 41
consanguineous, 53 identical twins, 53 selfing, 40
continuous variation, 47 independent assortment, 45 sib (sibling), 53
degrees of freedom (df), 51 locus, 49 sibship line, 53
dihybrid cross, 43 maternal parent, 49 starch-branching enzyme (SBEI), 43
dinozygotic twins , 53 Mendels 9:3:3:1 dihybrid ratio, 46 sum law, 49
diploid number (2n), 48 monohybrid cross, 39 Tay-Sachs disease, 55
discontinuous variation, 47 monozygotic twins, 53 testcross, 43
dizygotic twins, 53 null hypothesis, 50 traits, 39
dominant, 41 paternal parent, 49 transmission genetics, 39
familial hypercholesterolemia, 54 pedigree, 52 transposable elements, 43
F1 generation (first filial), 40 phenotype, 41 trihybrid cross, 46
forked-line method, 46 P1 generation (parental), 40 unit factor, 41
fraternal twins, 53 probability value (p), 51 unit of inheritance, 39
Apply this approach to the following problems. F1: 3>8 full, round
1. Mendel found that full pods are dominant over constricted 3>8 full, wrinkled
pods while round seeds are dominant over wrinkled seeds. One 1>8 constricted, round
of his crosses was between full, round plants and constricted,
1>8 constricted, wrinkled
wrinkled plants. From this cross, he obtained an F1 generation
that was all full and round. In the F2 generation, Mendel Determine the genotypes and phenotypes of the parents.
obtained his classic 9:3:3:1 ratio. Using this information, Solution: This problem is more difficult and requires keener insight
determine the expected F1 and F2 results of a cross between because you must work backward. The best approach is to consider
homozygous constricted, round plants and full, wrinkled the outcomes of pod shape separately from those of seed texture.
plants. Of all the plants, 3/8 + 3/8 = 3/4 are full and 1/8 + 1/8 = 1/4
Solution: Define gene symbols for each pair of contrasting traits. are constricted. Of the various genotypic combinations that can serve
Use the lowercase first letter of the recessive traits to designate as parents, which combination will give rise to a ratio of 3/4:1/4?
those phenotypes and the uppercase first letter to designate the This ratio is identical to Mendels monohybrid F2 results, and we can
dominant traits. Thus, C and c indicate full and constricted, and propose that both unknown parents share the same genetic character-
W and w indicate round and wrinkled phenotypes, respectively. istic as the monohybrid F1 parents; they must both be heterozygous
Determine the genotypes of the P 1 generation, form the for the genes controlling pod shape and thus are Cc.
gametes, reconstitute the F 1 generation, and read off the Before we accept this hypothesis, lets consider the possible genotyp-
phenotype(s): ic combinations that control seed texture. If we consider this character-
istic alone, we see that the traits are expressed in a ratio of
P1: ccWW CCww 3/8 + 1/8 = 1/2 round: 3/8 + 1/8 = 1/2 wrinkled. To generate
*
constricted, round full, wrinkled such a ratio, the parents cannot both be heterozygous, or their offspring
p p would yield a 3/4 : 1/4 phenotypic ratio. They cannot both be
Gametes: cW Cw homozygous, or all of their offspring would express a single phenotype.
F1: CcWw Thus, we are left with testing the hypothesis that one parent is homozy-
full, round
gous and one is heterozygous for the alleles controlling texture. The
potential case of WW * Ww does not work, since it yields only a sin-
You can immediately see that the F1 generation expresses
gle phenotype. This leaves us with the potential case of Ww * ww.
both dominant phenotypes and is heterozygous for both gene
Offspring in such a mating will yield 1/2 Ww (round):1/2 ww (wrin-
pairs. Thus, you expect that the F 2 generation will yield the
kled), exactly the outcome we are seeking.
classic Mendelian ratio of 9:3:3:1. Lets work it out anyway
just to confirm this, using the forked-line method. Both gene Now, lets combine the hypotheses and predict the outcome of the
pairs are heterozygous and can be expected to assort inde- cross. In our solution, we use a dash () to indicate that the sec-
pendently, so we can predict the F 2 outcomes from each gene ond allele may be either dominant or recessive, since we are only
pair separately and then proceed with the forked-line predicting phenotypes.
method. 1>2 Ww : 3>8 CWw full, round
Every F2 offspring is subject to the following probabilities: 3>4 C
1>2 ww : 3>8 Cww full, wrinkled
Cc * Cc Ww * Ww 1>2 Ww : 1>8 ccWw constricted, round
1>4 cc
p p 1>2 ww : 1>8 ccww constricted, wrinkled
CC WW As you can see, this cross produces offspring according to our
Cc s full Ww s round initial information, and we have solved the problem. Note that in
this solution, we used genotypes in the forked-line method, in
cC wW
contrast to the use of phenotypes in the earlier solution.
cc constricted ww wrinkled 3. Determine the probability that a plant of genotype CcWw will be
produced from parental plants with the genotypes CcWw and Ccww.
The forked-line method then confirms the 9:3:3:1 phenotypic
ratio. Remember that this represents proportions of 9/16:3/16: Solution: The two gene pairs demonstrate straightforward domi-
3/16:1/16. Note that we are applying the product law as we com- nance and recessiveness and assort independently during gamete
pute the final probabilities: formation. We need only calculate the individual probabilities of AU: Please
obtaining the two separate outcomes (Cc and Ww) and apply the confirm that
13>4213>42 product law to calculate the final probability:
3>4 round " 9>16 full, round these divisions
3>4 full Cc * Cc 1>4 CC : 1/2 Cc : 1>4 cc are ratio. If so,
13>4211>42 " 3>16 full, wrinkled Ww * ww 1>2 Ww : 1>2 ww there shouldn't
1>4 wrinkled be any space
p = (1>2 Cc)(1>2 Ww) = 1>4 CcWw
11>4213>42 before and after
3>4 round " 3>16 constricted, round 4. In the laboratory, a genetics student crossed flies that had
colon.
normal, long wings with flies expressing the dumpy mutation
1>4 constricted
11>4211>42 " 1>16 constricted, wrinkled
(truncated wings), which she believed was a recessive trait. In
1>4 wrinkled the F1 generation, all flies had long wings. The following
results were obtained in the F2 generation:
2. In another cross involving parent plants of unknown genotype 792 long-winged flies
and phenotype, the following offspring were obtained. 208 dumpy-winged flies
KLUGMC03_038-060HR 10/18/06 1:01 PM Page 58
The student tested the hypothesis that the dumpy wing is inherit- We consult Figure 311 to determine the probability (p) and
ed as a recessive trait, using chi-square analysis of the F2 data. determine whether the deviations can be attributed to chance.
(a) What ratio was hypothesized? There are two possible outcomes (n), so the degrees of freedom
(df) = n - 1 or 1. The table in Figure 311(b) shows that p is a
(b) Did the analysis support the hypothesis?
value between 0.01 and 0.001; the graph in Figure 311(a) gives
(c) What do the data suggest about the dumpy mutation? an estimate of about 0.001. Since p 6 0.05, we reject the null
Solution: hypothesis. The data do not fit a 3:1 ratio.
(a) The student hypothesized that the F2 data (792:208) fit (c) When we accepted Mendels 3:1 ratio as a valid expression of
Mendels 3:1 monohybrid ratio for recessive genes. the monohybrid cross, numerous assumptions were made. Exam-
(b) The initial step in x2 analysis is to calculate the expected ining our underlying assumptions may explain why the null
results (e) if the ratio is 3:1. Then we can compute deviation hypothesis was rejected. We assumed that all genotypes are
o - e (d) and the remaining numbers. equally viablethat genotypes yielding long wings are equally
likely to survive from fertilization through adulthood as the geno-
type yielding dumpy wings. Further study may reveal that
Ratio o e d d2 d2 /e dumpy-winged flies are somewhat less viable than normal flies.
As a result, we would expect less than 1>4 of the total offspring to
3>4 792 750 42 1764 2.35
express dumpy wings. This observation is borne out in the data,
1>4 208 250 -42 1764 7.06 although we have not proven that this is true.
Total = 1000
d2
x2 = a
e
= 2 .35 + 7.06
= 9 .41
F1 Progeny
P1 Cross Checkered Plain 6. Mendel crossed peas having round seeds and yellow cotyledons
(a) checkered * checkered 36 0 with peas having wrinkled seeds and green cotyledons. All the
F1 plants had round seeds with yellow cotyledons. Diagram this
(b) checkered * plain 38 0
cross through the F2 generation, using both the Punnett square
(c) plain * plain 0 35 and forked-line methods.
KLUGMC03_038-060HR 10/18/06 1:01 PM Page 59
7. Determine the genotypes of the parental plants by analyzing the 18. In one of Mendels dihybrid crosses, he observed 315 round, yel-
phenotypes of the offspring from these crosses: low; 108 round, green; 101 wrinkled, yellow; and 32 wrinkled,
green F2 plants. Analyze these data using chi-square analysis to
Parental Plants Offspring see whether (a) they fit a 9:3:3:1 ratio; (b) the round, wrinkled
traits fit a 3:1 ratio; or (c) the yellow, green traits fit a 3:1 ratio.
(a) round, yellow * round, yellow 3/4 round, yellow 19. A geneticist, in assessing data that fell into two phenotypic class-
1/4 wrinkled, yellow es, observed values of 250:150. He decided to perform chi-square
(b) round, yellow * wrinkled, yellow 6/16 wrinkled, yellow analysis using two different null hypotheses: (a) The data fit a 3:1
ratio; and (b) the data fit a 1:1 ratio. Calculate the x2 values for
2/16 wrinkled, green
each hypothesis. What can you conclude about each hypothesis?
6/16 round, yellow 20. The basis for rejecting any null hypothesis is arbitrary. The
2/16 round, green researcher can set more or less stringent standards by deciding to
(c) round, yellow * wrinkled, green 1/4 round, yellow raise or lower the critical p value. Would the use of a standard of
p = 0.10 be more or less stringent in failing to reject the null
1/4 round, green
hypothesis? Explain.
1/4 wrinkled, yellow 21. Consider three independently assorting gene pairs, A/a, B/b,
1/4 wrinkled, green and C/c, where each demonstrates typical dominance (A, B,
C), and recessiveness (aa, bb, cc). What is the probability of
8. Are any of the crosses in Problem 7 testcrosses? If so, which obtaining an offspring that is AABbCc from parents that are
one(s)? AaBbCC and AABbCc?
9. Which of Mendels postulates can be demonstrated in the cross- 22. What is the probability of obtaining a triply recessive individual
es of Problem 7 but not in those in Problems 1 and 5? State this from the parents shown in Problem 21?
postulate. 23. Of all offspring of the parents in Problem 21, what proportion
10. Correlate Mendels four postulates with what is now known will express all three dominant traits?
about homologous chromosomes, genes, alleles, and the process 24. For the following pedigree, predict the mode of inheritance and
of meiosis. the resulting genotypes of each individual. Assume that the alle-
11. What is the basis for homology among chromosomes? les A and a control the expression of the trait.
12. Distinguish between homozygosity and heterozygosity.
13. In Drosophila, gray body color is dominant over ebony body l
color, while long wings are dominant over vestigial wings. Work 1 2 3 4
the following crosses through the F2 generation, and determine
the genotypic and phenotypic ratios for each generation. Assume ll
that the P1 individuals are homozygous: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
(a) gray, long * ebony, vestigial
(b) gray, vestigial * ebony, long lll
(c) gray, long * gray, vestigial 1 2 3 4 5 6
14. How many different types of gametes can be formed by individ-
uals of the following genotypes? What are they in each case? (a) lV
AaBb, (b) AaBB, (c) AaBbCc, (d) AaBBcc, (e) AaBbcc, and (f) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
AaBbCcDdEe?
15. Using the forked-line method, determine the genotypic and phe-
notypic ratios of these trihybrid crosses: 25. Which of Mendels postulates are demonstrated by the pedigree
(a) AaBbCc * AaBBCC, (b) AaBBCc * aaBBCc, and (c) in Problem 24? List and define these postulates.
AaBbCc * AaBbCc. 26. The following pedigree follows the inheritance of myopia (near-
16. Mendel crossed peas with round, green seeds with peas hav- sightedness) in humans. Predict whether the disorder is inherited
ing wrinkled, yellow seeds. All F1 plants had seeds that were as a dominant or a recessive trait. Based on your prediction, in-
round and yellow. Predict the results of testcrossing these F1 dicate the most probable genotype for each individual.
plants.
17. Shown are F2 results of two of Mendels monohybrid crosses.
State a null hypothesis that you will test using chi-square analy-
sis. Calculate the x2 value and determine the p value for both
crosses, then interpret the p values. Which cross shows a greater
amount of deviation?
(a) Full pods 882
Constricted pods 299
(b) Violet flowers 705 27. Draw all possible conclusions concerning the mode of inheri-
White flowers 224 tance of the trait expressed in each of the following limited pedi-
grees. (Each case is based on a different trait.)
KLUGMC03_038-060HR 10/18/06 1:01 PM Page 60
Number of Progeny
straight straight curled curled
wings, wings, wings, wings,
long short long short
Cross bristles bristles bristles bristles
1 straight, short *
28. Two true-breeding pea plants are crossed. One parent is round, straight, short 30 90 10 30
terminal, violet, constricted, while the other expresses the con-
2 straight, long *
trasting phenotypes of wrinkled, axial, white, full. The four pairs
straight, long 120 0 40 0
of contrasting traits are controlled by four genes, each located on
a separate chromosome. In the F1 generation, only round, axial, 3 curled, long *
violet, and full are expressed. In the F2 generation, all possible straight, short 40 40 40 40
combinations of these traits are expressed in ratios consistent 4 straight, short *
with Mendelian inheritance. straight, short 40 120 0 0
(a) What conclusion can you draw about the inheritance of these 5 curled, short *
traits based on the F1 results? straight, short 20 60 20 60
(b) Which phenotype appears most frequently in the F2 results?
Write a mathematical expression that predicts the frequency 31. To assess Mendels law of segregation using tomatoes, a true-
of occurrence of this phenotype. breeding tall variety (SS) is crossed with a true-breeding short
(c) Which F2 phenotype is expected to occur least frequently? variety (ss). The heterozygous tall plants (Ss) were crossed to
Write a mathematical expression that predicts this frequency. produce the two sets of F2 data shown below:
(d) How often is either P1 phenotype likely to occur in the F2
generation?
Set I Set II
(e) If the F1 plant is testcrossed, how many different phenotypes
will be produced, and how does this number compare to the 30 tall 300 tall
number of different phenotypes in the F2 generation dis- 5 short 50 short
cussed in part (b)?
29. Tay-Sachs disease (TSD) is an inborn error of metabolism that (a) Using chi-square analysis, analyze the results for both data
results in death, usually before the age of five. You are a genetic sets. Calculate x2 values, and estimate the p values in both
counselor, and you interview a phenotypically normal couple cases.
who consult you because the man had a female first cousin (on (c) From the analysis in part (a), what can you conclude about
his fathers side) who died from TSD, and the woman had a the importance of generating large data sets in experimental
maternal uncle with TSD. There are no other known cases in ei- settings?
ther family, and none of the matings were/are between related
individuals. Assume that this trait is rare in this population.
KLUGMC07_136-163hr 10/23/06 4:44 PM Page 136
C H A P T E R
7
Linkage and
Chromosome Mapping
in Eukaryotes
CHAPTER CONCEPTS
Chromosomes in eukaryotes contain many Crossing over between homologs during Genetic maps depict relative locations of
genes whose locations are fixed along the meiosis creates recombinant gametes with genes on chromosomes in a species.
length of the chromosomes. different combinations of alleles that
Unless separated by crossing over, enhance genetic variation.
alleles present on a chromosome Crossing over between homologs serves as
segregate as a unit during gamete the basis for the construction of
formation. chromosome maps.
136
KLUGMC07_136-163hr 10/23/06 4:44 PM Page 137
W
alter Sutton, along with Theodor Boveri, was instru-
mental in uniting the fields of cytology and genet- 7.1 Genes Linked on the Same
(a) Independent assortment: Two genes on the four types (two parental and two recombinant gametes). In
two different homologous pairs of chromosomes this case, transmission of two linked genes is indistinguish-
A B able from that of two unlinked, independently assorting
A B genes. That is, the proportion of the four possible genotypes is
a b
a b
identical, as shown in Figures 71(a) and (c).
hv bw hv bw
P1
hv bw hv bw
brown eyes, red eyes,
thin veins heavy veins
Gamete formation
hv bw hv bw
Testcross parent
hv bw hv bw
F1
Because of
complete linkage, hv bw hv bw
F1 individuals red eyes, brown eyes,
form only thin veins heavy veins
parental gametes.
Gamete formation
hv bw hv bw hv bw
hv bw hv bw hv bw
hv bw hv bw
hv bw hv bw hv bw
brown, thin red, thin brown, thin
hv bw hv bw hv bw
hv bw hv bw
hv bw hv bw hv bw
red, thin red, heavy red, heavy
When large numbers of mutant genes present in any given observations made by F. A. Janssens and others. Janssens
species are investigated, genes located on the same chromo- had observed that synapsed homologous chromosomes in
some show evidence of linkage to one another. As a result, meiosis wrapped around each other, creating chiasmata
linkage groups can be established, one for each chromo- (sing., chiasma) where points of overlap are evident (see
some. In theory, the number of linkage groups should corre- the photo on p. 136). Morgan proposed that chiasmata
spond to the haploid number of chromosomes. In diploid could represent points of genetic exchange.
organisms in which large numbers of mutant genes are avail- In the crosses shown in Figure 73, Morgan postulated that
able for genetic study, this correlation has been confirmed. if an exchange occurs during gamete formation between the
Genes and Mapping
Web Tutorial 7.2
7.2 Crossing Over Serves as the Basis of Determining the Distance Between Genes During Mapping 141
Cross A Cross B
y w y w w m w m
P1
y w w m
yellow, white wild type white, miniature wild type
y w y w w m w m
F1
y w w m
wild type yellow, white wild type white, miniature
y w y w w m w m
y w y w w m w m
wild type white wild type miniature
F2
y w y w females w m w m
y w y w w m w m
yellow, white yellow white, miniature white
FIGURE 73 Data representing the F1 and F2 results of crosses involving the yellow body (y), white eye (w) mutations (cross A),
and the white eye, miniature wing (m) mutations (cross B), as compiled by Sturtevant. In cross A, 0.5 percent of the F2 flies (males
and females) demonstrate recombinant phenotypes, which express either white or yellow. In cross B, 34.5 percent of the F2 flies
(males and females) demonstrate recombinant phenotypes, which express either miniature or white.
low. However, both of these genes are much farther apart from chromosome, setting 1 map unit (mu) equal to 1 percent
miniature gene because the whiteminiature and recombination between two genes.* In the preceding exam-
yellowminiature combinations show larger recombination ple, the distance between yellow and white is thus 0.5 mu,
frequencies. Because miniature shows more recombination and the distance between yellow and miniature is 35.4 mu. It
with yellow than with white (35.4% versus 34.5%), it follows follows that the distance between white and miniature
that white is located between the other two genes, not outside should be 35.4 - 0 .5 = 34.9 mu. This estimate is close to
of them. the actual frequency of recombination between white and
Sturtevant knew from Morgans work that the frequency of miniature (34.5%). The map for these three genes is shown
exchange could be used as an estimate of the distance
between two genes or loci along the chromosome. He con- *In honor of Morgans work, 1 map unit is now referred to as a cen-
structed a chromosome map of the three genes on the X timorgan (cM).
KLUGMC07_136-163hr 10/23/06 4:44 PM Page 142
(b)
Exchange Gametes
A B A B
A b
A B Meiosis
a B
a b
a b
a b
Segments of two ...and alleles have
nonsister chromatids recombined in two of
are exchanged... the four gametes.
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7.3 Determining the Gene Sequence During Mapping Relies on the Analysis of Multiple Crossovers 143
A B
Three-Point Mapping
Web Tutorial 7.3
A B
a b
a b
A B A b a B a b
FIGURE 76 The consequences of a single exchange between two nonsister chromatids occurring in the tetrad stage.
Two noncrossover (parental) and two crossover (recombinant) gametes are produced.
tetrads. Under these conditions, the general rule is that the the chromatids of a tetrad has facilitated the process of pro-
percentage of tetrads involved in an exchange between two ducing more extensive chromosome maps. As we shall see
genes is twice the percentage of recombinant gametes pro- next, when three or more linked genes are investigated simul-
duced. Therefore, the theoretical limit of observed recombi- taneously, it is possible to determine first the sequence of the
nation due to crossing over is 50 percent. genes and then the distances between them.
When two linked genes are more than 50 mu apart, a
crossover can theoretically be expected to occur between Multiple Crossovers
them in 100 percent of the tetrads. If this prediction were
It is possible that in a single tetrad, two, three, or more
achieved, each tetrad would yield equal proportions of the
exchanges will occur between nonsister chromatids as a
four gametes shown in Figure 76, just as if the genes were on
result of several crossover events. Double exchanges of
different chromosomes and assorting independently. However,
genetic material result from double crossovers (DCOs), as
this theoretical limit is seldom achieved.
shown in Figure 77. For a double exchange to be studied,
three gene pairs must be investigated, each heterozygous for
two alleles. Before we determine the frequency of recombi-
7.3 Determining the Gene Sequence nation among all three loci, lets review some simple proba-
During Mapping Relies on the bility calculations.
As we have seen, the probability of a single exchange occur-
Analysis of Multiple Crossovers ring between the A and B or the B and C genes relates directly
The study of single crossovers between two linked genes pro- to the distance between the respective loci. The closer A is to
vides the basis of determining the distance between them. B and B is to C, the less likely a single exchange will occur
However, when many linked genes are studied, their sequence between either of the two sets of loci. In the case of a double
along the chromosome is more difficult to determine. Fortu- crossover, two separate and independent events or exchanges
nately, the discovery that multiple exchanges occur between must occur simultaneously. The mathematical probability of
A B C
A B C
a b c
a b c
Chiasmata
A b C a B c
Double-crossover gametes
A B C a b c
Noncrossover gametes
FIGURE 77 Consequences of a double exchange between two nonsister chromatids. Because the exchanges involve only two
chromatids, two noncrossover gametes and two double-crossover gametes are produced. The photograph shows several chiasmata found
in a tetrad isolated during the first meiotic prophase. See also the chapter opening photograph on p.136.
KLUGMC07_136-163hr 10/23/06 4:44 PM Page 144
two independent events occurring simultaneously is equal to 3. A sufficient number of offspring must be produced in the
the product of the individual probabilities (the product law). mapping experiment to recover a representative sample
Suppose that crossover gametes resulting from single of all crossover classes.
exchanges are recovered 20 percent of the time (p = 0.20)
These criteria are met in the three-point mapping cross from
between A and B, and 30 percent of the time (p = 0.30)
D. melanogaster shown in Figure 78. In this cross, three
between B and C. The probability of recovering a double-
X-linked recessive mutant genesyellow body color (y),
crossover gamete arising from two exchanges (between A and
white eye color (w), and echinus eye shape (ec)are consid-
B, and between B and C) is predicted to be
ered. To diagram the cross, we must assume some theoretical
(0.20)(0.30) = 0.06, or 6 percent. It is apparent from this
sequence, even though we do not yet know if it is correct. In
calculation that the frequency of double-crossover gametes is
Figure 78, we initially assume the sequence of the three
always expected to be much lower than that of either single-
genes to be ywec. If this is incorrect, our analysis will
crossover class of gametes.
demonstrate this and reveal the correct sequence.
If three genes are relatively close together along one chromo-
In the P1 generation, males hemizygous for all three wild-
some, the expected frequency of double-crossover gametes is
type alleles are crossed to females that are homozygous for all
extremely low. For example, suppose the AB distance in
three recessive mutant alleles. Therefore, the P1 males are
Figure 77 is 3 mu and the BC distance is 2 mu. The expect-
wild type with respect to body color, eye color, and eye shape.
ed double-crossover frequency is (0.03)(0.02) = 0.0006, or
They are said to have a wild-type phenotype. The females, on
0.06 percent. This translates to only 6 events in 10,000. Thus,
the other hand, exhibit the three mutant traitsyellow body
in a mapping experiment where closely linked genes are
color, white eyes, and echinus eye shape.
involved, very large numbers of offspring are required to
This cross produces an F1 generation consisting of females
detect double-crossover events. In this example, it is unlikely
that are heterozygous at all three loci and males that, because
that a double crossover will be observed even if 1000 offspring
of the Y chromosome, are hemizygous for the three mutant
are examined. Thus, it is evident that if four or five genes are
alleles. Phenotypically, all F1 females are wild type, while all
being mapped, even fewer triple and quadruple crossovers can
F1 males are yellow, white, and echinus. The genotype of the
be expected to occur.
F1 females fulfills the first criterion for mapping the three
linked genes; that is, it is heterozygous at the three loci and
can serve as the source of recombinant gametes generated by
crossing over. Note that because of the genotypes of the P1
Now Solve This parents, all three mutant alleles are on one homolog and all
Problem 14 on page 161 asks you to contrast the results three wild-type alleles are on the other homolog. Other
of crossing over when the arrangement of alleles along arrangements are possible. For example, the heterozygous F1
the homologs differs in an organism heterozygous for female might have the y and ec mutant alleles on one homolog
three genes. and the w allele on the other. This would occur if, in the P1
Hint: Homologs enter noncrossover gametes
cross, one parent was yellow, echinus and the other parent
unchanged, and all crossover results must be derived was white.
from the noncrossover sequence of alleles. In our cross, the second criterion is met by virtue of the
gametes formed by the F1 males. Every gamete contains
either an X chromosome bearing the three mutant alleles or
a Y chromosome, which is genetically inert for the three
Three-Point Mapping in Drosophila loci being considered. Whichever type participates in fertil-
The information in the preceding section enables us to map ization, the genotype of the gamete produced by the F1
three or more linked genes in a single cross. To illustrate the female will be expressed phenotypically in the F2 male and
mapping process in its entirety, we examine two situations female offspring derived from it. Thus, all F1 noncrossover
involving three linked genes in two quite different organisms. and crossover gametes can be detected by observing the F2
To execute a successful mapping cross, three criteria must phenotypes.
be met: With these two criteria met, we can now construct a chromo-
some map from the crosses shown in Figure 78. First, we
1. The genotype of the organism producing the
determine which F2 phenotypes correspond to the various
crossover gametes must be heterozygous at all loci
noncrossover and crossover categories. To determine the non-
under consideration.
crossover F2 phenotypes, we must identify individuals
2. The cross must be constructed so that genotypes of all derived from the parental gametes formed by the F1 female.
gametes can be determined accurately by observing the Each such gamete contains an X chromosome unaffected by
phenotypes of the resulting offspring. This is necessary crossing over. As a result of segregation, approximately equal
because the gametes and their genotypes can never be proportions of the two types of gametes and, subsequently,
observed directly. To overcome this problem, each phe- the F2 phenotypes, are produced. Because they derive from a
notypic class must reflect the genotype of the gametes of heterozygote, the genotypes of the two parental gametes and
the parents producing it. the resultant F2 phenotypes complement one another. For
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7.3 Determining the Gene Sequence During Mapping Relies on the Analysis of Multiple Crossovers 145
y w ec y+ w+ ec+
P1
y w ec
Gametes y w ec y+ w+ ec+
y w ec y w ec
F1
y+ w+ ec+
Gametes
y w ec Category,
Origin of F2 Observed total, and
female gametes Gametes phenotype Number percentage
1 y w ec y w ec
y w ec
NCO y w ec 4685 Non-
y w ec crossover
y w ec
2 y w ec y w ec
y w ec
y w ec y w ec 4759 9444
94.44%
y w ec
SCO 3 y w ec y w ec
y w ec Single
y w ec 80
y w ec crossover
y w ec between y
and w
4 y w ec y w ec
y w ec 150
y w ec y w ec 70
1.50%
y w ec
SCO 5 y w ec y w ec
y w ec y w ec 193 Single
y w ec crossover
y w ec between w
and ec
6 y w ec y w ec
y w ec 207 400
y w ec y w ec
4.00%
y w ec
DCO
7 y w ec y w ec Double
y w ec
y w ec 3 crossover
y w ec between y
y w ec and w
and between
8 y w ec y w ec w and ec
y w ec
y w ec y w ec 3 6
y w ec 0.06%
y w ec
Map of y, w, and ec loci
1.56 4.06
FIGURE 78 A three-point mapping cross involving the yellow (y or y + ), white (w or w + ), and echinus (ec or ec + ) genes in D.
melanogaster. NCO, SCO, and DCO refer to noncrossover, single-crossover, and double-crossover groups, respectively.
Centromeres are not included on the chromosomes, and only two nonsister chromatids are shown initially.
KLUGMC07_136-163hr 10/23/06 4:44 PM Page 146
example, if one is wild type, the other is completely mutant. This method is based on the fact that there are only three
This is the case in the cross being considered. In other situa- possible arrangements, each containing one of the three genes
tions, if one chromosome shows one mutant allele, the second between the other two:
chromosome shows the other two mutant alleles, and so on.
(I) wyec (y in the middle)
They are therefore called reciprocal classes of gametes and
phenotypes. (II) yecw (ec in the middle)
The two noncrossover phenotypes are most easily recog-
(III) ywec (w in the middle)
nized because they exist in the greatest proportion. Figure 78
shows that gametes 1 and 2 are present in the greatest num- Use the following steps during your analysis to determine
bers. Therefore, flies that express yellow, white, and echinus the gene order:
phenotypes and flies that are normal (or wild type) for all 1. Assuming any one of the three orders, first determine the
three characters constitute the noncrossover category and rep-
arrangement of alleles along each homolog of the het-
resent 94.44 percent of the F2 offspring. erozygous parent giving rise to noncrossover and
The second category that can be easily detected is repre-
crossover gametes (the F1 female in our example).
sented by the double-crossover phenotypes. Because of
their low probability of occurrence, they must be present in 2. Determine whether a double-crossover event occurring
the least numbers. Remember that this group represents within that arrangement will produce the observed double-
two independent but simultaneous single-crossover events. crossover phenotypes. Remember that these phenotypes
Two reciprocal phenotypes can be identified: gamete 7, occur least frequently and are easily identified.
which shows the mutant traits yellow, echinus but normal 3. If this order does not produce the predicted phenotypes,
eye color; and gamete 8, which shows the mutant trait try each of the other two orders. One must work!
white but normal body color and eye shape. Together these
double-crossover phenotypes constitute only 0.06 percent These steps are shown in Figure 79, using our ywec cross.
of the F2 offspring. The three possible arrangements are labeled I, II, and III, as
The remaining four phenotypic classes represent two cate- shown above.
gories resulting from single crossovers. Gametes 3 and 4, re- 1. Assuming that y is between w and ec, arrangement I of
ciprocal phenotypes produced by single-crossover events alleles along the homologs of the F1 heterozygote is
occurring between the yellow and white loci, are equal to w y ec
1.50 percent of the F2 offspring; gametes 5 and 6, constituting
4.00 percent of the F2 offspring, represent the reciprocal phe- w + y + ec +
notypes resulting from single-crossover events occurring We know this because of the way in which the P1 genera-
between the white and echinus loci. tion was crossed: The P1 female contributes an X chro-
The map distances separating the three loci can now be mosome bearing the w, y, and ec alleles, while the P1
calculated. The distance between y and w or between w and male contributes an X chromosome bearing the w + , y + ,
ec is equal to the percentage of all detectable exchanges and ec + alleles.
occurring between them. For any two genes under consider- 2. A double crossover within that arrangement yields the
ation, this includes all appropriate single crossovers as well following gametes:
as all double crossovers. The latter are included because
they represent two simultaneous single crossovers. For the y w y+ ec and w+ y ec +
and w genes, this includes gametes 3, 4, 7, and 8, totaling Following fertilization, if y is in the middle, the F2
1.50% + 0.06% , or 1.56 mu. Similarly, the distance double-crossover phenotypes will correspond to these
between w and ec is equal to the percentage of offspring gametic genotypes, yielding offspring that express the
resulting from an exchange between these two loci: white, echinus phenotype and offspring that express
gametes 5, 6, 7, and 8, totaling 4.00% + 0 .06% , or 4.06 the yellow phenotype. Instead, however, determination
mu. The map of these three loci on the X chromosome is of the actual double-crossover phenotypes reveals them
shown at the bottom of Figure 78. to be yellow, echinus flies and white flies. Therefore, our
assumed order is incorrect.
Determining the Gene Sequence 3. If we consider arrangement II with the ec/ec + alleles in
In the preceding example, the sequence (or order) of the the middle or arrangement III with the w/w + alleles in the
three genes along the chromosome was assumed to be middle:
ywec. Our analysis shows this sequence to be consistent y ec w y w ec
with the data. However, in most mapping experiments the (II) or (III)
gene sequence is not known, and this constitutes another y + ec + w + y + w + ec +
variable in the analysis. In our example, had the gene we see that arrangement II again provides predicted dou-
sequence been unknown, it could have been determined ble-crossover phenotypes that do not correspond to the
using a straightforward method. actual (observed) double-crossover phenotypes. The pre-
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7.3 Determining the Gene Sequence During Mapping Relies on the Analysis of Multiple Crossovers 147
w y ec w y ec
white, echinus
I
yellow
w y ec w y ec
y ec w y ec w
yellow, white
II
echinus
y ec w y ec w
y w ec y w ec
yellow, echinus
III
white
y w ec y w ec
FIGURE 79 The three possible sequences of the white, yellow, and echinus genes, the results of a double crossover in each case, and
the resulting phenotypes produced in a testcross. For simplicity, the two noncrossover chromatids of each tetrad are omitted.
dicted phenotypes are yellow, white flies and echinus flies chromosome 5. Assume that a female plant is known to be
in the F2 generation. Therefore, this order is also incorrect. heterozygous for all three traits, but we do not know (1) the
However, arrangement III produces the observed pheno- arrangement of the mutant alleles on the maternal and pater-
typesyellow, echinus flies and white flies. Therefore, nal homologs of this heterozygote, (2) the sequence of genes,
this arrangement, with the w gene in the middle, is correct. or (3) the map distances between the genes. What genotype
must the male plant have to allow successful mapping? To
To summarize, this method is rather straightforward: First
meet the second criterion, the male must be homozygous for
determine the arrangement of alleles on the homologs of the het-
all three recessive mutant alleles. Otherwise, offspring of this
erozygote yielding the crossover gametes by locating the recip-
cross showing a given phenotype might represent more than
rocal noncrossover phenotypes. Then, test each of three possible
one genotype, making accurate mapping impossible.
orders to determine which yields the observed double-crossover
Figure 710 diagrams this cross. As shown, we know neither
phenotypesthe one that does so represents the correct order.
the arrangement of alleles nor the sequence of loci in the het-
erozygous female. Several possibilities are shown, but we
A Mapping Problem in Maize have yet to determine which is correct. We dont know the
Having established the basic principles of chromosome map- sequence in the testcross male parent either, and so we must
ping, we now consider a related problem in maize (corn), in designate it randomly. Note that we have initially placed v in
which the gene sequence and interlocus distances are unknown. the middle. This may or may not be correct.
This analysis differs from the preceding example in two ways. The offspring are arranged in groups of two for each pair of
First, the previous mapping cross involved X-linked genes. reciprocal phenotypic classes. The two members of each reci-
Here, we consider autosomal genes. Second, in the discussion procal class are derived from no crossing over (NCO), one of
of this cross we have changed our use of symbols, as first sug- two possible single-crossover events (SCO), or a double
gested in Chapter 4. Instead of using the gene symbols and crossover (DCO).
superscripts (e.g., bm+ , v + , and pr +), we simply use + to To solve this problem, refer to Figures 710 and 711 as you
denote each wild-type allele. This system is easier to manipu- consider the following questions.
late but requires a better understanding of mapping procedures. 1. What is the correct heterozygous arrangement of alleles in
When we look at three autosomally linked genes in maize, the the female parent? Determine the two noncrossover class-
experimental cross must still meet the same three criteria we es, those that occur with the highest frequency. In this case,
established for the X-linked genes in Drosophila: (1) One parent they are + v bm and pr+ + . Therefore, the alleles on the
must be heterozygous for all traits under consideration; (2) the homologs of the female parent must be arranged as shown
gametic genotypes produced by the heterozygote must be appar- in Figure 711(a). These homologs segregate into gametes,
ent from observing the phenotypes of the offspring; and (3) a unaffected by any recombination event. Any other arrange-
sufficient sample size must be available for complete analysis. ment of alleles will not yield the observed noncrossover
In maize, the recessive mutant genes brown midrib (bm), classes. (Remember that + v bm is equivalent to pr + v bm,
virescent seedling (v), and purple aleurone (pr) are linked on and that pr + + is equivalent to pr v + bm+).
KLUGMC07_136-163hr 10/23/06 4:44 PM Page 148
(a) Some possible allele arrangements and gene sequences in a heterozygous female
v bm v pr bm v pr v
pr bm bm pr
pr v bm pr bm v bm
v pr
? ? ? pr v bm
v bm 230
467 Noncrossover
42.1% (NCO)
pr 237
bm 82
161 Single crossover
14.5% (SCO)
pr v 79
v 200
395 Single crossover
35.6% (SCO)
pr bm 195
pr v bm 44
86 Double crossover
7.8% (DCO)
42
7.3 Determining the Gene Sequence During Mapping Relies on the Analysis of Multiple Crossovers 149
(a) v bm
v bm Noncrossover phenotypes provide the basis
of determining the correct arrangement of
and
alleles on homologs
pr
pr
(b)
v bm
bm Expected double-crossover phenotypes
and if v is in the middle
pr v
pr
(c)
bm v v Expected double-crossover phenotypes
if bm is in the middle
and
pr bm
pr
(d)
v bm v pr bm Expected double-crossover phenotypes
and if pr is in the middle
(This is the actual situation.)
pr
(e)
v bm v pr Given that (a) and (d) are correct, single-
crossover phenotypes when exchange
and
occurs between v and pr
bm
pr
(f)
v bm
v Given that (a) and (d) are correct, single-
and crossover phenotypes when exchange
occurs between pr and bm
pr bm
pr
(g) v pr bm
Final map
22.3 43.4
FIGURE 711 Producing a map of the three genes in the testcross of Figure 710, where neither the arrangement of alleles nor the
sequence of genes in the heterozygous female parent is known.
events. A case in point is a double exchange that occurs between less than the expected number of DCOs. In the maize cross, for
the two loci in question. As shown in Figure 712(a), if a double example, only 7.8 percent DCOs are observed when 9.7 percent
exchange occurs, the original arrangement of alleles on each non- are expected. Interference (I), the phenomenon where a
sister homolog is recovered. Therefore, even though crossing over crossover event in one region of the chromosome inhibits a sec-
has occurred, it is impossible to detect. This phenomenon is true ond event in nearby regions, causes this reduction.
for all even-numbered exchanges between two loci. To quantify the disparities that result from interference, we
Furthermore, as a result of complications posed by multiple- calculate the coefficient of coincidence (C):
strand exchanges, mapping determinations usually underesti-
Observed DCO
mate the actual distance between two genes. The farther apart C =
two genes are, the greater the probability that undetected Expected DCO
crossovers will occur. While the discrepancy is minimal for two In the maize cross, we have
genes relatively close together, the degree of inaccuracy increas-
es as the distance increases, as shown in the graph of recombi- 0.078
nation frequency versus map distance in Figure 712(b). There, C = = 0.804
0.097
the theoretical frequency where a direct correlation between
recombination and map distance exists is contrasted with the Once we have found C, we can quantify interference using
actual frequency observed as the distance between two genes the simple equation
increases. The most accurate maps are constructed from experi- I = 1 - C
ments where genes are relatively close together.
In the maize cross, we have
Interference and the Coefficient of Coincidence
I = 1.000 - 0.804 = 0.196
As shown in our maize example, we can predict the expected
frequency of multiple exchanges, such as double crossovers, If interference is complete and no double crossovers occur,
once the distance between genes is established. For example, then I = 1 .0 . If fewer DCOs than expected occur, I is a posi-
a b
a b
(b)
50
% Recombinant chromatids
40
(Hypothetical)
30
(Actual)
FIGURE 712 (a) A double crossover is undetected
20 because no rearrangement of alleles occurs. (b) The
theoretical and actual percentage of recombinant
10 chromatids versus map distance. The straight line shows
the theoretical relationship if a direct correlation
between recombination and map distance exists. The
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 curved line is the actual relationship derived from
Map distance (map units) studies of Drosophila, Neurospora, and Zea mays.
KLUGMC07_136-163hr 10/23/06 4:44 PM Page 151
tive number and positive interference has occurred. If more ther apart. In the maize cross in Figures 710 and 711, the
DCOs than expected occur, I is a negative number and nega- three genes are relatively far apart and 80 percent of the
tive interference has occurred. In the maize example, I is a expected double crossovers are observed.
positive number (0.196), indicating that 19.6 percent fewer
double crossovers occurred than expected.
Positive interference is most often observed in eukaryotic
systems. In general, the closer genes are to one another along 7.5 Drosophila Genes Have Been
the chromosome, the more positive interference occurs. In
fact, interference in Drosophila is often complete within a dis-
Extensively Mapped
tance of 10 mu, and no multiple crossovers are recovered. In organisms such as Drosophila, maize, and the mouse,
This observation suggests that physical constraints preventing where large numbers of mutations have been discovered and
the formation of closely aligned chiasmata contribute to inter- where mapping crosses are possible, extensive chromosome
ference. This interpretation is consistent with the finding that maps have been constructed. Figure 713 shows partial maps
interference decreases as the genes in question are located far- for the four chromosomes (I, II, III, and IV) of Drosophila.
I (X) II III IV
yellow body, y
0.0 scute bristles, sc 0.0 aristaless antenna, al 0.0 roughoid eyes, ru 0.0 cubitus interruptus
0.2 veinlet veins, ve veins, ci
1.3 Star eyes, S 1.4 Roughened eye, R 0.2 grooveless scutellum, gvl
1.5 white eyes, w
1.4 bent wings, bt
3.0 facet eyes, fa
5.5 echinus eyes, ec 2.0 eyeless, ey
6.1 Curly wing, Cy
7.5 ruby eyes, rb shaven bristles, sv
13.0 dumpy wings, dp 11.0 female sterile, 3.0
crossveinless sparkling eyes, spa
13.7 fs(3)G2
wings, cv 16.5 clot eyes, cl 17.0 raisin eye, rai
20.0 cut wings, ct 19.2 javelin bristles, jv
22.0 Sternopleural
21.0 singed bristles, sn bristles, Sp 26.0 sepia eyes, se
27.5 tan body, t 26.5 hairy body, h
27.7 lozenge eyes, lz
31.0 dachs tarsus, d
33.0 vermilion eyes, v 36.0 corrugated, corr 35.5 eyes gone, eyg
36.1 miniature 39.3 daughterless, da
wings, m 40.5 Lyra wings, Ly
41.0 Jammed wings, J 41.0 Dichaete bristles, D
43.0 sable body, s 43.2 thread arista, th
44.0 scarlet eyes, st
44.0 garnet eyes, g 48.5 black body, b
51.0 reduced bristles, rd 50.0 curled wings, cu
51.5 scalloped
wings, sd
54.5 purple eyes, pr
56.7 forked bristles, f
57.5 cinnabar eyes, cn 58.2 Stubble bristles, Sb
57.0 Bar eyes, B
58.5 spineless brisles, ss
59.5 fused veins, fu
61.0 withered wing, whd
62.5 carnation eyes, car 62.0 stripe body, sr
66.0 bobbed hairs, bb 66.2 Delta veins, DI
67.0 vestigial wings, vg
68.1 little fly, lf 69.5 Hairless bristles, H
72.0 Lobe eyes, L 70.7 ebony body, e
75.5 curved wings, c 74.7 cardinal eyes, cd
77.5 obtuse wing, obt
83.1 adipose, adp FIGURE 713 A partial
genetic map of the four
90.0 disrupted wing, dsr 88.0 mahogany eyes, mah
91.1 rough eyes, ro
chromosomes of D.
91.5 smooth
melanogaster. The circle on
abdomen, sm 95.5 suppression of purple, su-pr
100.5 plexus wings, px each chromosome represents
100.7 claret eyes, ca
104.0 heavy wing veins, hv the position of the centromere.
104.5 brown eyes, bw 106.2 Minute bristles, M(3)g Chromosome I is the X
107.0 speck body, sp chromosome. Chromosome IV
is not drawn to scale.
KLUGMC07_136-163hr 10/23/06 4:44 PM Page 152
Virtually every morphological feature of the fruit fly has been human chromosomes (23), and by 1960, almost no linkage or
subjected to mutations. The locus of each mutant gene is first mapping information had become available.
localized to one of the four chromosomes (or linkage groups) In the 1960s, a new technique, somatic cell hybridization,
and then mapped in relation to all other genes present on that proved to be an immense aid in assigning human genes to their
chromosome. Based on cytological evidence, the relative respective chromosomes. This technique, first discovered by
lengths of these genetic maps correlate roughly with the rela- Georges Barsky, relies on the fact that two cells in culture can
tive physical lengths of these chromosomes. be induced to fuse into a single hybrid cell. Barsky used two
mouse-cell lines, but it soon became evident that cells from dif-
ferent organisms could also be fused. When fusion occurs, an
initial cell type called a heterokaryon is produced. The hybrid
7.6 Lod Score Analysis and Somatic cell contains two nuclei in a common cytoplasm. By using the
Cell Hybridization Were proper techniques, it is possible to fuse human and mouse cells,
Historically Important in Creating for example, and isolate the hybrids from the parental cells.
As the heterokaryons are cultured in vitro, two interesting
Human Chromosome Maps changes occur. The nuclei eventually fuse, creating a
In humans, where neither designed matings nor large numbers synkaryon. Then, as culturing is continued for many genera-
of offspring are available, the earliest linkage studies were tions, chromosomes from one of the two parental species are
based on pedigree analysis. Attempts were made to establish gradually lost. In the case of the humanmouse hybrid,
whether a trait was X-linked or autosomal. For autosomal human chromosomes are lost randomly until eventually the
traits, geneticists tried to distinguish whether pairs of traits synkaryon has a full complement of mouse chromosomes and
demonstrate linkage or independent assortment. In this way, it only a few human chromosomes. As we shall see, it is the
was hoped that a human gene map could be created. preferential loss of human chromosomes (rather than mouse
The difficulty arises, however, when two genes of interest are chromosomes) that makes possible the assignment of human
separated on a chromosome such that recombinant gametes are genes to the chromosomes on which they reside.
formed, obscuring linkage in a pedigree. In such cases, the The experimental rationale is straightforward. If a specific
demonstration of linkage is enhanced by an approach that relies human gene product is synthesized in a synkaryon containing
on probability, called the lod score method. First devised by J. one to three human chromosomes, then the gene responsible
B. S. Haldane and C. A. Smith in 1947, and refined by Newton for that product must reside on one of the human chromo-
Morton in 1955, the lod score (log of the odds favoring linkage) somes remaining in the hybrid cell. On the other hand, if the
assesses the probability that a particular pedigree involving two human gene product is not synthesized in a synkaryon, the
traits reflects linkage or not. First, the probability is calculated gene responsible is not present on those human chromosomes
that family data (pedigrees) concerning two or more traits con- that remain in this hybrid cell. Ideally, a panel of 23 hybrid-
form to the transmission of traits without linkage. Then the cell lines, each with just one unique human chromosome,
probability is calculated that the identical family data following would allow the immediate assignment of any human gene for
these same traits result from linkage with a specified recombi- which the product could be characterized.
nation frequency. The ratio of these probabilities expresses the In practice, a panel of cell lines, each with several remaining
odds for and against linkage. human chromosomes, is most often used. The correlation of the
Accuracy using the lod score method is limited by the extent presence or absence of each chromosome with the presence or
of the family data, but nevertheless represents an important absence of each gene product is called synteny testing. Con-
advance in assigning human genes to specific chromosomes sider, for example, the hypothetical data provided in Figure
and constructing preliminary human chromosome maps. The 714, where four gene products (A, B, C, and D) are tested in
initial results were discouraging because of the methods relationship to eight human chromosomes. Lets analyze the
inherent limitations and the relatively high haploid number of gene that produces product A.
23 + +
34 + +
41 + + +
FIGURE 714 A hypothetical grid of data used in synteny testing to assign genes to their appropriate human chromosomes.
Three somatic hybrid-cell lines, designated 23, 34, and 41, have each been scored for the presence or absence of human
chromosomes 18, as well as for their ability to produce the hypothetical human gene products A, B, C, and D.
KLUGMC07_136-163hr 10/23/06 4:44 PM Page 153
7.6 Lod Score Analysis and Somatic Cell Hybridization Were Historically Important in Creating Human Chromosome Maps 153
1. Product A is not produced by cell line 23, but chromosomes Using a similar approach, we can assign gene B to chromo-
1, 2, 3, and 4 are present in cell line 23. Therefore, we rule some 3. Perform this analysis for yourself to demonstrate that
out the presence of gene A on those four chromosomes and this is correct.
conclude that it must be on chromosome 5, 6, 7, or 8. Gene C presents a unique situation. The data indicate that it
is not present on chromosomes 17. While it might be on
2. Product A is produced by cell line 34, which contains
chromosome 8, no direct evidence supports this conclusion,
chromosomes 5 and 6 but not 7 and 8. Therefore, gene A
and other panels are needed. We leave gene D for you to
is on chromosome 5 or 6, but cannot be on 7 or 8 because
analyzeon what chromosome does it reside?
they are absent even though product A is produced.
Using this technique, researchers have assigned literally
3. Product A is also produced by cell line 41, which con- hundreds of human genes to one chromosome or another.
tains chromosome 5 but not chromosome 6. Using sim- Some of the assignments shown in Figure 715 were either
ilar reasoning we see that gene A must be on derived or confirmed with the use of somatic cell hybridiza-
chromosome 5. tion techniques. To map genes for which the products have yet
Chromosome 1
sn 6 GDH
5
4
3
3 Rh
X Chromosome 2
2 1
2 p
1
p DMD
2
2 1 AMY 1,2
1 2
3 PGM -1
1
1 1
1 1
1
2
1 2 1
PGK
3
2
q 1 3 AT3
q 2
2 4
2 3 4
5 5
6 HGPRT
7 1
8 CB
HEMA 3 PEPC
G6PD 2
1 2 FHM
4 3
4
to be discovered, researchers have had to rely on other This pattern represents first-division segregation because
approaches. For example, by using recombinant DNA tech- the two alleles are separated during the first meiotic division.
nology in conjunction with pedigree analysis, it has been pos- However, a crossover event will alter this pattern, as shown
sible to assign the genes responsible for Huntington disease, in Figure 716(b), aa+ +aa+ + , and Figure 716(c),
cystic fibrosis, and neurofibromatosis to their respective + +aaaa+ + . Two other recombinant patterns occur but are
chromosomes, 4, 7, and 17. not shown: + +aa+ +aa and aa+ + + +aa. These depend on
the chromatid orientation during the second meiotic division.
These four patterns reflect second-division segregation
7.7 Linkage and Mapping Studies because the two alleles are not separated until the second mei-
otic division. Usually, the ordered tetrad data are condensed to
Can Be Performed in Haploid reflect the genotypes of the identical ascospore pairs, and six
Organisms combinations are possible.
Many of the single-celled eukaryotes are haploid during the
vegetative stages of their life cycle. The alga Chlamydomonas First-Division Second-Division
and the mold Neurospora demonstrate this genetic condition. Segregation Segregation
But these organisms do form reproductive cells that fuse dur- aa+ + a+a+ +aa+
ing fertilization, producing a diploid zygote. However, this
structure soon undergoes meiosis, resulting in haploid vegeta- + +aa +a+a a+ +a
tive cells that then propagate by mitotic divisions. In genetic To calculate the distance between the gene and the cen-
studies, small haploid organisms have several important tromere, a large number of asci resulting from a controlled
advantages compared with diploid eukaryotes. They can be cross are counted. We then use these data to calculate the dis-
cultured and manipulated in genetic crosses much more easily. tance (d):
1>2 1second-division segregant asci2
In addition, a haploid organism contains only a single allele of
each gene, which is expressed directly in the phenotype. This d =
greatly simplifies genetic analysis. As a result, organisms total asci scored
such as Chlamydomonas and Neurospora serve as the sub-
The distance (d) reflects the percentage of recombination and
jects of research investigations in many areas of genetics,
is only half the number of second-division segregant asci.
including linkage and mapping studies.
This is because crossing over in each occurs in only two of the
In order to perform genetics experiments with such organ-
four chromatids during meiosis.
isms, crosses are made, and following fertilization, the mei-
To illustrate, we use a for albino and + for wild type in
otic structures may be isolated. Because all four meiotic
Neurospora. In crosses between the two genetic types, suppose
products give rise to spores, the structures bearing these
we observe 65 first-division segregants, and 70 second-division
products (asci) are called tetrads. The term tetrad has a dif-
segregants. The distance between a and the centromere is
ferent meaning here than earlier when it was used to
describe a precise chromatid configuration in meiosis. Indi- (1>2) (70)
d = = 0.259
vidual tetrads are isolated, and the resultant cells are grown 135
and analyzed separately from those of other tetrads. In the
results we are about to describe, the data reflect the propor- or about 26 mu.
tion of tetrads that show one combination of genotypes, the As the distance increases to 50 mu, all asci should reflect
proportion that show another combination, and so on. Such second-division segregation. However, numerous factors pre-
experimentation is called tetrad analysis. vent this. As in diploid organisms, mapping accuracy based
on crossover events is greatest when the gene and centromere
are relatively close together.
Gene-to-Centromere Mapping We can also analyze haploid organisms to distinguish
When a single gene in Neurospora is analyzed (Figure 716), between linkage and independent assortment of two genes
the data can be used to calculate the map distance between the mapping distances between gene loci are calculated once
gene and the centromere. This process is sometimes referred linkage is established. As a result, detailed maps of organisms
to as mapping the centromere. It is accomplished by experi- such as Neurospora and Chlamydomonas are now available.
mentally determining the frequency of recombination using
tetrad data. Note that once the four meiotic products of the
tetrad are formed, a mitotic division occurs, resulting in eight
ordered products (ascospores). If no crossover event occurs 7.8 Other Aspects of Genetic
between the gene under study and the centromere, the pattern Exchange
of ascospores contained within an ascus (pl., asci) appears as
Careful analysis of crossing over during gamete formation
shown in Figure 716(a), aaaa+ + + + .*
allows us to construct chromosome maps in both diploid and
haploid organisms. However, we should not lose sight of the
*The pattern (+ + + +aaaa) can also be formed. However, it is indis- real biological significance of crossing over, which is to gen-
tinguishable from (aaaa+ + + +). erate genetic variation in gametes and, subsequently, in the
KLUGMC07_136-163hr 10/23/06 4:44 PM Page 155
First-division segregation
a a
(b) a
a
a
a
One form of
a
crossover in a a
a
four-strand a
stage a
Second-division segregation
(c)
a a
An alternate a a
a
crossover in a a
four-strand a
a a
stage a
a
Second-division segregation
offspring derived from the resultant eggs and sperm. Because somes. That this is the case was demonstrated independently
of the critical role of crossing over in generating variation, in the 1930s by Harriet Creighton and Barbara McClintock in
the study of genetic exchange is a key topic for study in Zea mays, and by Curt Stern in Drosophila.
genetics. But many important questions remain. For example, Since the experiments are similar, we will consider only the
does crossing over involve an actual exchange of chromo- work with maize. Creighton and McClintock studied two
some arms? Does exchange occur between paired sister chro- linked genes on chromosome 9. At one locus, the alleles
matids during mitosis? We shall briefly consider possible colorless (c) and colored (C) control endosperm coloration.
answers to these questions. At the other locus, the alleles starchy (Wx) and waxy (wx)
control the carbohydrate characteristics of the endosperm.
Cytological Evidence for Crossing Over The maize plant studied is heterozygous at both loci. The key
Once genetic mapping was understood, it was of great interest to this experiment is that one of the homologs contains two
to investigate the relationship between chiasmata observed in unique cytological markers. The markers consist of a densely
meiotic prophase I and crossing over. For example, are chias- stained knob at one end of the chromosome and a translocated
mata visible manifestations of crossover events? If so, then piece of another chromosome (8) at the other end. The
crossing over in higher organisms appears to result from an arrangements of alleles and cytological markers can be
actual physical exchange between homologous chromo- detected cytologically and are shown in Figure 717.
KLUGMC07_136-163hr 10/23/06 4:44 PM Page 156
translocated segment
Case l Case ll
knob
C wx c Wx c wx C Wx
c Wx c wx c wx c wx
Colored, starchy Colorless, starchy Colorless, waxy Colored, starchy
FIGURE 717 The phenotypes and chromosome compositions of parents and recombinant offspring in Creighton and McClintocks
experiment in maize. The knob and translocated segment are the cytological markers that established that crossing over involves an
actual exchange of chromosome arms.
Creighton and McClintock crossed this plant to a plant replication, each pair of sister chromatids has one member
homozygous for the colored allele (c) and heterozygous for with one strand of DNA labeled with BUdR and the other
the endosperm alleles. They obtained a variety of different member with both strands labeled with BUdR. Using a dif-
phenotypes in the offspring, but they were most interested ferential stain, chromatids with the analog in both strands
in a crossover result involving the chromosome with the stain less brightly than chromatids with BUdR in only one
unique cytological markers. They examined the chromo- strand. As a result, SCEs are readily detectable if they occur.
somes of this plant with the colorless, waxy phenotype In Figure 718, numerous instances of SCE events are
(case I in Figure 717) for the presence of the cytological clearly evident. These sister chromatids are sometimes
markers. If physical exchange between homologs accompa- referred to as harlequin chromosomes because of their
nies genetic crossing over, the translocated chromosome patchlike appearance.
will still be present, but the knob will notthis is exactly While the significance of SCEs is still uncertain, several
what happened. In a second plant (case II), the phenotype observations have led to great interest in this phenomenon.
colored, starchy should result from either nonrecombinant We know, for example, that agents that induce chromosome
gametes or from crossing over. Some of the plants then damage (viruses, X-rays, ultraviolet light, and certain chem-
ought to contain chromosomes with the dense knob but not
the translocated chromosome. This condition was also
found, and the conclusion that a physical exchange takes
place was again supported. Along with Sterns findings
with Drosophila, this work clearly established that crossing
over has a cytological basis.
It is quite often said that Mendel was very studied, no fewer than four (that is, ai, ing simultaneously. It is therefore not so
fortunate not to run into the complication vfa, vle, fale) ought to have resulted in astonishing that Mendel did not run into
of linkage during his experiments. He linkages. However, as found in hundreds the complication of linkage, although he
used seven genes, and the pea has only of crosses and shown by the genetic map did not avoid it by choosing one gene
seven chromosomes. Some have said that of the pea, a and i in chromosome 1 are so from each chromosome.
had he taken just one more, he would have distantly located on the chromosome that
STIG BLIXT
had problems. This, however, is a gross no linkage is normally detected. The same
oversimplification. The actual situation, is true for v and le on the one hand, and fa Weibullsholm Plant Breeding Institute,
most probably, is shown in Table 7.1. This on the other, in chromosome 4. This Landskrona, Sweden,
shows that Mendel worked with three leaves vle, which ought to have shown and Centro Energia Nucleate na
genes in chromosome 4, two genes in linkage. Agricultura, Piracicaba, SP, Brazil.
chromosome 1, and one gene in each of Mendel, however, seems not to have
chromosomes 5 and 7. It seems at first published this particular combination and Source: Reprinted by permission from Nature,
glance that, out of the 21 dihybrid combi- thus, presumably, never made the appro- Vol. 256, p. 206. 1975 Macmillan Magazines
nations Mendel theoretically could have priate cross to obtain both genes segregat- Limited.
TABLE 7.1 Relationship between modern genetic terminology and character pairs used by Mendel
CHAPTER SUMMARY
1. Genes located on the same chromosome are said to be linked. Al- 5. Cytological investigations of both maize and Drosophila reveal
leles located on the same homolog, therefore, may be transmitted that crossing over involves a physical exchange of segments
together during gamete formation. However, crossing over be- between nonsister chromatids.
tween homologs during meiosis results in the reshuffling of alleles 6. An exchange of genetic material between sister chromatids
and thereby contributes to genetic variability within gametes. can occur during mitosis as well. These events are referred
2. Early in the twentieth century, geneticists realized that crossing to as sister chromatid exchanges (SCEs). An elevated fre-
over provides an experimental basis for mapping the location of quency of such events is seen in the human disorder Bloom
linked genes relative to one another along the chromosome. syndrome.
3. Somatic cell hybridization techniques have made possible link- 7. Evidence now suggests that several of the genes studied by
age and mapping analysis of human genes. Mendel are, in fact, linked. However, in such cases, the genes are
4. Mapping studies may also be performed with haploid organisms sufficiently far apart to prevent the detection of linkage.
such as Chlamydomonas and Neurospora.
KEY TERMS
Bloom syndrome, 157 harlequin chromosomes, 156 noncrossover gametes, 137, 140
bromodeoxyuridine (BUdR), 156 heterokaryon, 152 parental gametes, 137
chiasmata, 140 Huntington disease, 154 reciprocal classes, 146
chromosomal theory of inheritance, 142 interference (I), 150 recombinant gametes, 137, 140
chromosome map, 141 linkage, 137 second-division segregation, 154
coefficient of coincidence (C), 150 linkage group, 140 sister chromatid exchanges (SCEs), 156
complete linkage, 000 linkage ratio, 138 somatic cell hybridization, 152
crossing over, 137 lod score method, 152 synkaryon, 152
crossover gametes, 137 mapping the centromere, 154 synteny testing, 152
cystic fibrosis, 154 multiple-strand exchange, 150 tetrad, 154
double crossover (DCO), 143 neurofibromatosis, 154 tetrad analysis, 154
first-division segregation, 154
2. In Drosophila, Lyra (Ly) and Stubble (Sb) are dominant muta- Case A
tions located at locus 40 and 58, respectively, on chromosome III. br Ly Sb
A recessive mutation with bright red eyes is discovered and
shown also to be located on chromosome III. A map is obtained
by crossing a female who is heterozygous for all three mutations
to a male that is homozygous for the bright-red mutation (which
we will call br), and the data in the table are generated. Deter-
mine the location of the br mutation on chromosome III.
Double crossovers
Phenotype Number br Sb
(1) Ly Sb br 404
and
(2) + + + 422
(3) Ly + + 18 Ly
(4) + Sb br 16
(5) Ly + br 75 Case B
Ly br Sb
(6) + Sb + 59
(7) Ly Sb + 4 and
(8) + + br 2
Total = 1000
Second, find the correct sequence of the three loci along the Ly br Sb
chromosome. This is done by determining which sequence yields
the observed double-crossover phenotypes, which are the least
frequent reciprocal phenotypes (7 and 8). If the sequence is cor-
rect as written, then the double crossover depicted here,
Once this sequence is found, determine the location of br relative
Ly Sb br
to Ly and Sb. A single crossover between Ly and br, as shown here,
Ly br Sb
Remember to add the double crossovers because they represent 3. Refer to Figure 713, and predict what gene (which we called
two single crossovers occurring simultaneously. You need to br) was discovered on chromosome III in Problem 2. Suggest an
know the frequency of all crossovers between Ly and br, so they experimental cross that could confirm your prediction.
must be included. Solution: Inspection of Figure 713 reveals that the mutation
Similarly, the distance between the br and Sb loci is derived scarlet (st) is present at locus 44.0, so it is reasonable to hypothe-
mainly from single crossovers between them. size that the bright-red eye mutation is an allele at the scarlet
locus.
Ly br Sb To test this hypothesis, you could perform complementation
analysis (see Chapter 4) by crossing females expressing the
bright-red mutation with known scarlet males. If the two muta-
tions are alleles, no complementation will occur and all progeny
will reveal a bright-red mutant eye phenotype. If complementa-
This event yields Ly br + and + + Sb phenotypes (phenotypes 5 tion occurs, all progeny will express normal brick-red (wild-
and 6). Therefore, the distance equals type) eyes, since the bright-red mutation and scarlet are at
different loci (they are probably very close together). In such a
(75 + 59 + 4 + 2)/1000 = 140/1000 = 0.14 = 14 mu case, all progeny will be heterozygous at both the bright-red eye
and the scarlet loci and will not express either mutation because
The final map shows that br is located at locus 44, since Lyra and they are both recessive. This type of complementation analysis is
Stubble are known. called an allelism test.
40 (4) 44 (14) 58
Ly br Sb
These genes are 30 mu apart on chromosome III. What did termination of sex was made in the F2 data. (a) Using proper
crossing over in the female contribute to these phenotypes? nomenclature, determine the genotypes of the P1 and F1 parents.
12. With two pairs of genes involved (P, p and Z, z), a testcross (to (b) Determine the sequence of the three genes and the map dis-
ppzz) with an organism of unknown genotype indicated that the tance between them. (c) Are there more or fewer double
gametes were produced in these proportions: PZ = 42.4%; crossovers than expected? (d) Calculate the coefficient of coinci-
Pz = 6 .9%; pZ = 7 .1%; and pz = 43.6%. Draw all possible dence; does this represent positive or negative interference?
conclusions from these data.
13. In a series of two-point map crosses involving five genes located Phenotype Offspring
on chromosome II in Drosophila, the following recombinant
(single-crossover) frequencies were observed: sc s v 314
+ + + 280
pradp 29
+ s v 150
prvg 13
sc + + 156
prc 21
sc + v 46
prb 6
+ s + 30
adpb 35
sc s + 10
adpc 8
+ + v 14
adpvg 16
vgb 19 16. A cross in Drosophila involved the recessive, X-linked genes
yellow body (y), white eyes (w), and cut wings (ct). A yellow-
vgc 8 bodied, white-eyed female with normal wings was crossed to a
cb 27 male whose eyes and body were normal, but whose wings were
cut. The F1 females were wild type for all three traits, while the
(a) If the adp gene is present near the end of chromosome II F1 males expressed the yellow-body, white-eye traits. The cross
(locus 83), construct a map of these genes. was carried to F2 progeny, and only male offspring were tallied.
(b) In another set of experiments, a sixth gene (d) was tested On the basis of the data shown here, a genetic map was con-
against b and pr, and the results were d b = 17% and structed. (a) Diagram the genotypes of the F1 parents. (b) Con-
dpr = 23%. Predict the results of two-point maps between struct a map, assuming that w is at locus 1.5 on the X
d and c, d and vg, and d and adp. chromosome. (c) Were any double-crossover offspring expect-
14. Two different female Drosophila were isolated, each heterozy- ed? (d) Could the F2 female offspring be used to construct the
gous for the autosomally linked genes black body (b), dachs map? Why or why not?
tarsus (d), and curved wings (c). These genes are in the order
dbc, with b closer to d than to c. Shown below is the genotypic Phenotype Male Offspring
arrangement for each female, along with the various gametes y + ct 9
formed by both. Identify which categories are noncrossovers
(NCO), single crossovers (SCO), and double crossovers (DCO) + w + 6
in each case. Then, indicate the relative frequency in which each y w ct 90
will be produced.
+ + + 95
Female A Female B + + ct 424
d b + d + +
+ + c + b c y w + 376
:
:
Gamete formation y + + 0
+ w ct 0
(1) d b c (5) d + + (1) d b + (5) d b c
(2) + + + (6) + b c (2) + + c (6) + + + 17. In Drosophila, Dichaete (D) is a mutation on chromosome III
(3) + + c (7) d + c (3) d + c (7) d + + with a dominant effect on wing shape. It is lethal when ho-
mozygous. The genes ebony body (e) and pink eye (p) are re-
(4) d b + (8) + b + (4) + b + (8) + b c cessive mutations on chromosome III. Flies from a Dichaete
stock were crossed to homozygous ebony, pink flies, and the
15. In Drosophila, a cross was made between females expressing the F1 progeny with a Dichaete phenotype were backcrossed to
three X-linked recessive traits, scute bristles (sc), sable body (s), the ebony, pink homozygotes. Using the results of this back-
and vermilion eyes (v) and wild-type males. All females were cross shown in the table, (a) diagram the cross, showing the
wild type in the F1 , while all males expressed all three mutant genotypes of the parents and offspring of both crosses. (b)
traits. The cross was carried to the F2 generation, and 1000 off- What is the sequence and interlocus distance between these
spring were counted, with the results shown in the table. No de- three genes?
KLUGMC07_136-163hr 10/23/06 4:44 PM Page 162
+ + yellow, oval 44 6
is to be mated to detect recombinants among her offspring, what red, oval 5 43
male genotype would you choose as her mate?
yellow, long 5 47
20. In Drosophila, a heterozygous female for the X-linked recessive
traits a, b, and c was crossed to a male that phenotypically Total 100 100
expressed a, b, and c. The offspring occurred in the phenotypic
ratios in the following table, and no other phenotypes were 26. In a plant heterozygous for two gene pairs (Ab/aB) , where the
observed. (a) What is the genotypic arrangement of the alleles of two loci are linked and 25 mu apart, two such individuals were
these genes on the X chromosome of the female? (b) Determine crossed together. Assuming that crossing over occurs during
the correct sequence, and construct a map of these genes on the the formation of both male and female gametes and that the A
X chromosome. (c) What progeny phenotypes are missing, and and B alleles are dominant, determine the phenotypic ratio of
why? the offspring.
27. In a cross in Neurospora involving two alleles, B and b, the
+ b c 460 tetrad patterns in the following table were observed. Calculate
the distance between the gene and the centromere.
a + + 450
a b c 32 Tetrad Pattern Number
+ + + 38 BBbb 36
a + c 11 bbBB 44
+ b + 9 BbBb 4
bBbB 6
21. Are sister chromatid exchanges effective in producing genetic
variability in an individual? in the offspring of individuals? BbbB 3
22. What conclusion can be drawn from the observations that in
male Drosophila, no crossing over occurs and that during meio- bBBb 7
sis, synaptonemal complexes (ultrastructural components found
between synapsed homologs in meiosis) are not seen in males 28. In Creighton and McClintocks experiment demonstrating that
but are observed in females where crossing over occurs? crossing over involves physical exchange between chromosomes
23. An organism of the genotype AaBbCc was testcrossed to a triply (see Section 7.8), explain the importance of the cytological
recessive organism (aabbcc). The genotypes of the progeny are markers (the translocated segment and the chromosome knob) in
in the following table. the experimental rationale.
KLUGMC07_136-163hr 10/23/06 4:44 PM Page 163
29. A number of humanmouse somatic cell hybrid clones were ex- rated the mutant into a stock containing the recessive gene black
amined for the expression of specific human genes and the pres- (b, body color, located on chromosome II) and the recessive
ence of human chromosomesthe results are summarized in gene pink (p, eye color, located on chromosome III). A female
this table. Assign each gene to the chromosome upon which it is from the homozygous black, pink, short stock was then mated to
located. a wild-type male. The F1 males of this cross were all wild type
and were then backcrossed to the homozygous b, p, sh females.
Hybrid-Cell Clone The F2 results appeared as shown in the table that follows, and
no other phenotypes were observed. (a) Based on these results,
A B C D E F the student was able to assign sh to a linkage group (a chromo-
Genes (expressed or not) some). Determine which chromosome, and include step-by-step
ENO1 (enolase-1) - + - + + - reasoning. (b) The student repeated the experiment, making the
reciprocal cross: F1 females backcrossed to homozygous b, p, sh
MDH1 (malate dehydrogenase-1) + + - + - + males. She observed that 85 percent of the offspring fell into the
PEPS (peptidase S) + - + - - - given classes, but that 15 percent of the offspring were equally
divided among b+p , b+ + , +shp, and +sh+ phenotypic males
PGM1 (phosphoglucomutase-1) - + - + + - and females. How can these results be explained, and what
information can be derived from these data?
Chromosomes (present or absent)
1 - + - + + - Phenotype Female Male
2 + + - + - + wild 63 59
3 + + - - + - pink* 58 65
4 + - + - - - black, short 55 51
5 - + + + + + black, pink, short 69 60
30. A female of genotype *Pink indicates that the other two traits are wild type (normal).
Similarly, black, short offspring are wild type for eye color.
a b c
+ + + 32. In Drosophila, a female fly is heterozygous for three mutations,
produces 100 meiotic tetrads. Of these, 68 show no crossover Bar eyes (B), miniature wings (m), and ebony body (e). (Note
events. Of the remaining 32, 20 show a crossover between a and that Bar is a dominant mutation.) The fly is crossed to a male
b, 10 show a crossover between b and c, and 2 show a double with normal eyes, miniature wings, and ebony body. The results
crossover between a and b and between b and c. Of the 400 of the cross are shown below. Interpret the results of this cross. If
gametes produced, how many of each of the 8 different geno- you conclude that linkage is involved between any of the genes,
types will be produced? Assuming the order abc and the allele determine the map distance(s) between them.
arrangement shown above, what is the map distance between
these loci? miniature 111 Bar 117
31. D. melanogaster has one pair of sex chromosomes (XX or XY) wild 29 Bar, miniature 26
and three autosomes (chromosomes II, III, and IV). A genetics
student discovered a male fly with very short (sh) legs. Using Bar, ebony 101 ebony 35
this male, the student was able to establish a pure-breeding stock Bar, miniature, ebony 31 miniature, ebony 115
of this mutant and found that it was recessive. She then incorpo-
KLUGMC16_357-375v2 9/1/06 2:14 PM Page 357
C H A P T E R
16
Cell-Cycle Regulation
and Cancer
CHAPTER CONCEPTS
Cancer is a group of genetic diseases over how cells spread and invade Mutations in proto-oncogenes and tumor
affecting fundamental aspects of cellular surrounding tissues. suppressor genes contribute to the
function, including DNA repair, the cell cycle, The development of cancer is a multistep
development of cancers.
apoptosis, differentiation, cell migration and process requiring mutations in genes Oncogenic viruses introduce oncogenes into
cellcell contact. controlling many aspects of cell infected cells and stimulate cell
Most cancer-causing mutations occur in proliferation and metastasis. proliferation.
somatic cells; only about 1 percent of Cancer cells show high levels of genomic Environmental agents contribute to cancer
cancers have a hereditary component. instability, leading to the accumulation of by damaging DNA.
Mutations in cancer-related genes lead to multiple mutations in cancer-related
abnormal proliferation and loss of control genes.
357
KLUGMC16_357-375v2 9/1/06 2:15 PM Page 358
C
ancer is the second leading cause of death in Western
countries, surpassed only by heart disease. It strikes 16.1 Cancer Is a Genetic Disease at the
people of all ages, and one out of three people will Level of Somatic Cells
experience a cancer diagnosis sometime in his or her life- Perhaps the most significant development in understanding the
time. Each year, more than 1 million cases of cancer are causes of cancer is the realization that cancer is a genetic disease.
diagnosed in the United States and more than 500,000 peo- Genomic alterations that are associated with cancer range from
ple die from the disease (Table 16.1). single-nucleotide substitutions to large-scale chromosome
Over the last 30 years, scientists have discovered that can- rearrangements, amplifications, and deletions (Figure 161).
cer is a genetic disease, characterized by an interplay of However, unlike other genetic diseases, cancer is caused by muta-
mutant forms of oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes tions that occur predominantly in somatic cells. Only about 1 per-
leading to the uncontrolled growth and spread of cancer cent of cancers are associated with germ-line mutations that
cells. While some of these mutations may be inherited, as increase a persons susceptibility to certain types of cancer.
we will see, most all of them that lead to disease occur in Another important difference between cancer and other genetic
somatic cells that then divide and lead to tumors. Comple- diseases is that cancers rarely arise from a single mutation, but
tion of the Human Genome Project is opening the door to a from the accumulation of many mutationsas many as six to ten.
wealth of new information about the mutations that trigger The mutations that lead to cancer affect multiple cellular func-
a cell to become cancerous. This new understanding of can- tions, including repair of DNA damage, cell division, apoptosis,
cer genetics is also leading to new gene-specific treatments, cellular differentiation, migratory behavior, and cellcell contact.
some of which are now entering clinical trials. Some scien-
tists predict that gene therapies will replace chemotherapies
within the next 25 years.
What Is Cancer?
The goal of this chapter is to highlight our current under- Clinically, cancer is defined as a large number of complex dis-
standing of the nature and causes of cancer. As we will see, eases, up to a hundred, that behave differently depending on the
cancer is a genetic disease that arises from mutations in cell types from which they originate. Cancers vary in their ages
genes controlling many basic aspects of cellular function. of onset, growth rates, invasiveness, prognoses, and responsive-
We will examine the relationship between genes and can-
(a)
cer, and consider how mutations, chromosomal changes,
and environmental agents play roles in the development of
cancer.
1 2 3 4 5
How Do We Know?
In this chapter, we will focus on cancer as a genetic dis- 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
ease, with an emphasis on the relationship between can-
cer and DNA damage, as well as on the multiple genetic
13 14 15 16 17 18
steps that lead to cancer. We also discuss how cancer cells
show defects in cell-cycle regulation. We conclude with an
investigation of the roles played by viruses and environ- x y
19 20 21 22
mental agents in the development of cancer. As you study
this topic, you should try to answer several fundamental (b)
questions:
1. How do we know that cancers arise from a single cell that
contains mutations? 1 2 3 4 5
2. How do we know that cancer development requires more
than one mutation?
6 7 8 9 10 11 12
3. How do we know that cancer cells contain defects in DNA
repair? 13 14 15 16 17 18
4. How do we know that most cancers are not
hereditary? 19 20 21 22 x
5. How do we know that some viruses contain genes that FIGURE 161 (a) Spectral karyotype of a normal cell. (b)
contribute to the development of cancer? Karyotype of a cancer cell showing translocations, deletions, and
aneuploidycharacteristic features of cancer cells.
KLUGMC16_357-375v2 9/1/06 2:15 PM Page 359
Age
Cancer Site Gender Birth to 39 4059 6079 Birth to Death
ness to treatments. However, at the molecular level, all cancers points in their c-myc and immunoglobulin gene DNA sequences;
exhibit common characteristics that unite them as a family. however, all lymphoma cells within that patient contain identical
All cancer cells share two fundamental properties: (1) abnor- translocation breakpoints. This demonstrates that all cancer cells
mal cell growth and division (cell proliferation), and (2) abnor- in each case of Burkitts lymphoma arise from a single cell, and
malities in the normal restraints that keep cells from spreading this cell passes on its genetic aberrations to its progeny.
and invading other parts of the body (metastasis). In normal Another demonstration that cancer cells are clonal is their pat-
cells, these functions are tightly controlled by genes that are tern of X-chromosome inactivation. As explained in Chapter 5,
expressed appropriately in time and place. In cancer cells, these female humans are mosaic, with some cells containing an inacti-
genes are either mutated or are expressed inappropriately. vated paternal X chromosome and other cells containing an inac-
It is this combination of uncontrolled cell proliferation and tivated maternal X chromosome. X-chromosome inactivation
metastatic spread that makes cancer cells dangerous. When a occurs early in development and occurs at random. All cancer
cell simply loses genetic control over cell growth, it may grow cells within a tumor, both primary and metastatic, within one
into a multicellular mass, a benign tumor. Such a tumor can female individual, contain the same inactivated X chromosome.
often be removed by surgery and may cause no serious harm. This supports the concept that all the cancer cells in that patient
However, if cells in the tumor also acquire the ability to break arose from a common ancestral cell.
loose, enter the bloodstream, invade other tissues, and form
secondary tumors (metastases), they become malignant. Cancer As a Multistep Process, Requiring
Malignant tumors are difficult to treat and may become life Multiple Mutations
threatening. As we will see later in the chapter, there are mul- Although we know that cancer is a genetic disease initiated by
tiple steps and genetic mutations that convert a benign tumor mutations that lead to uncontrolled cell proliferation and
into a dangerous malignant tumor. metastasis, a single mutation is not sufficient to transform a
normal cell into a tumor-forming (tumorigenic), malignant
The Clonal Origin of Cancer Cells cell. If it were sufficient, then cancer would be far more preva-
Although malignant tumors may contain billions of cells, and lent than it is. In humans, mutations occur spontaneously at a
may invade and grow in numerous parts of the body, all can- rate of about 10-6 mutations per gene, per cell division, mainly
cer cells in the primary and secondary tumors are clonal, due to the intrinsic error rates of DNA replication. As there
meaning that they originated from a common ancestral cell are approximately 1016 cell divisions in a human body during
that accumulated numerous specific mutations. This is an a lifetime, a person might suffer up to 1010 mutations per gene
important concept in understanding the molecular causes of somewhere in the body, during his or her lifetime. However,
cancer and has implications for its diagnosis. only about one person in three will suffer from cancer.
Numerous data support the concept of cancer clonality. For The phenomenon of age-related cancer is another indication
example, reciprocal chromosomal translocations are characteris- that cancer develops from the accumulation of several muta-
tic of many cancers, including leukemias and lymphomas (two genic events in a single cell. The incidence of most cancers
cancers involving white blood cells). Cancer cells from patients rises exponentially with age. If only a single mutation were
with Burkitts lymphoma show reciprocal translocations sufficient to convert a normal cell to a malignant one, then can-
between chromosome 8 (with translocation breakpoints at or cer incidence would appear to be independent of age. The age-
near the c-myc gene) and chromosomes 2, 14, or 22 (with related incidence of cancer suggests that up to 10 independent
translocation breakpoints at or near one of the immunoglobulin mutations, occurring randomly and with a low probability, are
genes). Each Burkitts lymphoma patient exhibits unique break- necessary before a cell is transformed into a malignant cancer
KLUGMC16_357-375v2 9/1/06 2:15 PM Page 360
cell. Another indication that cancer is a multistep process is the (a) Double minutes (b) Heterogeneous staining region
delay that occurs between exposure to carcinogens (cancer-
causing agents) and the appearance of the cancer. For example,
an incubation period of five to eight years separated exposure
of people to the radiation of the atomic explosions at Hiroshima
and Nagasaki and the onset of leukemias.
The multistep nature of cancer development is supported by
the observation that cancers often develop in progressive steps,
from tumors containing mildly aberrant cells to those that are
increasingly tumorigenic and malignant. This progressive
nature of cancer is illustrated by the development of colon can-
cer, as discussed later in this chapter (see Section 16.6).
Each step in tumorigenesis (the development of a malignant
FIGURE 162 DNA amplifications in neuroblastoma cells. (a) Two
tumor) appears to be the result of one or more genetic alterations cancer genes (MYCN in red and MDM2 in green) are amplified as small
that release the cells progressively from the controls that normal- DNA fragments that remain separate from chromosomal DNA within the
ly operate on proliferation and malignancy. As we will discover nucleus. These units of amplified DNA are known as double minute
in subsequent sections of this chapter, the genes that undergo chromosomes. Normal chromosomes are stained blue. (b) Multiple
mutations leading to cancer (called oncogenes and tumor sup- copies of the MYCN gene are amplified within one large region called a
pressor genes) are those that control DNA damage repair, the cell heterogeneous staining region (green). Single copies of the MYCN gene
cycle, cellcell contact, and programmed cell death. are visible as green dots at the ends of the normal parental chromosomes
We will now investigate each of these fundamental processes, (white arrows). Normal chromosomes are stained red.
the genes that control them and how mutations in these genes
may lead to cancer. CML cells, constantly stimulating these cells to proliferate even in
the absence of external growth signals.
In keeping with the concept of the cancer mutator phenotype, a
16.2 Cancer Cells Contain Genetic number of inherited cancers are caused by defects in genes that
control DNA repair. For example, xeroderma pigmentosum (XP)
Defects Affecting Genomic
is a rare hereditary disorder that is characterized by extreme sen-
Stability and DNA Repair sitivity to ultraviolet light and other carcinogens. Patients with
Cancer cells show higher than normal rates of mutation, chro- XP often develop skin cancer. Cells from patients with XP are
mosomal abnormalities, and genomic instability. In fact, many defective in nucleotide excision repair, with mutations appearing
researchers believe that the fundamental defect in cancer cells is in any one of seven genes whose products are necessary to carry
a derangement of the cells normal ability to repair DNA dam- out DNA repair. XP cells are impaired in their ability to repair
age. This loss of genomic integrity leads to a general increase in DNA lesions such as thymine dimers induced by UV light. The
the mutation rate in every gene, including specific genes that
control aspects of cell proliferation, programmed cell death, and
Normal Translocation
cellcell contact. In turn, the accumulation of mutations in genes chromosome 9 t(9;22)
controlling these processes leads to cancer. The high level of
genomic instability seen in cancer cells is known as the mutator
phenotype. Normal
chromosome 22
Genomic instability in cancer cells manifests itself by the pres-
ence of gross defects such as translocations, aneuploidy, chromo-
some loss, DNA amplification, and chromosome deletions
(Figures 161 and 162). Cancer cells that are grown in cultures
q11.2 (BCR)
in the lab also show a great deal of genomic instability
(BCR) (ABL)
duplicating, losing, and translocating chromosomes or parts of
chromosomes. Often cancer cells show specific chromosomal Philadelphia
defects that are used to diagnose the type and stage of the cancer. chromosome
For example, leukemic white blood cells from patients with q34.1 (C-ABL)
chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML) bear a specific translo-
cation, in which the C-ABL gene on chromosome 9 is translocat-
FIGURE 163 A reciprocal translocation involving the long arms of
ed into the BCR gene on chromosome 22. This translocation
chromosomes 9 and 22 results in the formation of a characteristic
creates a structure known as the Philadelphia chromosome
chromosome, the Philadelphia chromosome, which is associated with
(Figure 163). The BCR-ABL fusion gene codes for a chimeric chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML). The t(9;22) translocation
BCR-ABL protein. The normal ABL protein is a protein kinase results in the fusion of the C-ABL proto-oncogene on chromosome 9
that acts within signal transduction pathways, transferring growth with the BCR gene on chromosome 22. The fusion protein is a
factor signals from the external environment to the nucleus. The powerful hybrid molecule that allows cells to escape control of the
BCR-ABL protein is an abnormal signal transduction molecule in cell cycle, contributing to the development of CML.
KLUGMC16_357-375v2 9/1/06 2:15 PM Page 361
16.3 Cancer Cells Contain Genetic Defects Affecting Cell-Cycle Regulation 361
C,S C
C C C C,P C C C C C C C
C
FIGURE 164 Pedigree of a family with HNPCC. Families with HNPCC are defined as those in which at
least three relatives in two generations have been diagnosed with colon cancer, with one relative diagnosed
at less than 50 years of age. Colon cancer: C; stomach cancer: S; endometrial cancer: E; pancreatic cancer:
P; bladder/urinary cancer: B. Blue symbols indicate family members with colon cancer; diagonal stripes
mean that diagnosis is uncertain; orange symbols indicate other tumors. Symbols with slashes indicate
deceased individuals. Reprinted with permission from Aaltonen et al. Clues to the pathogenesis of familial
colorectal cancer. Science 260: 812-816. Copyright 1993 AAAS.
The Cell Cycle and Signal Transduction nucleus even in the absence of external growth signals. In
The cellular events that occur from one cell division to the addition, malignant cells may not respond to external signals
next comprise the cell cycle (Figure 165). The interphase from surrounding cellssignals that would normally inhibit
stage of the cell cycle is the interval between mitotic divi- cell proliferation within a mature tissue.
sions. During this time, the cell grows and replicates its DNA.
During G1, the cell prepares for DNA synthesis by accumu- Cell-Cycle Control and Checkpoints
lating the enzymes and molecules required for DNA replica-
In normal cells, progress through the cell cycle is tightly regu-
tion. G1 is followed by S phase, during which the cells
lated, and the completion of each step is necessary prior to ini-
chromosomal DNA is replicated. During G2, the cell contin-
tiating the next step. There are at least three distinct points in
ues to grow and prepare for division. During M phase, the
the cell cycle at which the cell monitors external signals and
duplicated chromosomes condense, sister chromosomes sepa-
internal equilibrium before proceeding to the next stage of the
rate to opposite poles, and the cell divides in two.
cell cycle. These are the G1/S, the G2/M, and M checkpoints
In early to mid-G1, the cell makes a decision either to enter
(Figure 165). At the G1/S checkpoint, the cell monitors its
the next cell cycle or to withdraw from the cell cycle into qui-
size and determines if its DNA has been damaged. If the cell
escence. Continuously dividing cells do not exit the cell cycle
has not achieved an adequate size, or if the DNA has been
but proceed through G1, S, G2, and M phases until they
damaged, further progress through the cell cycle is halted until
receive signals to stop growing. If the cell stops proliferating,
these conditions are corrected. If cell size and DNA integrity
it enters the G0 phase of the cell cycle. During G0, the cell
are normal, the G1/S checkpoint is traversed, and the cell pro-
remains metabolically active but does not grow or divide.
ceeds to S phase. The second important checkpoint is the
Most differentiated cells in multicellular organisms can
G2/M checkpoint, where physiological conditions in the cell
remain in this G0 phase indefinitely. Some, such as neurons,
are monitored prior to entering mitosis. If DNA replication or
never reenter the cell cycle. In contrast, cancer cells are
repair of any DNA damage has not been completed, the cell
unable to enter G0 and continuously cycle. Their rate of pro-
cycle arrests until these processes are complete. The third
liferation is not necessarily any greater than a normal prolifer-
major checkpoint occurs during mitosis and is called the M
ating cell; however, they are not able to become quiescent at
checkpoint. At this checkpoint, both the successful formation
the appropriate time or place.
of the spindle-fiber system and the attachment of spindle fibers
Cells in G0 can often be stimulated to reenter the cell cycle
to the kinetochores associated with the centromeres are moni-
by external growth signals. These signals are delivered to the
tored. If spindle fibers are not properly formed or attachment is
cell by molecules such as growth factors and hormones that
inadequate, mitosis is arrested.
bind to cell-surface receptors, which then relay the signal
In addition to regulating the cell cycle at checkpoints, the
from the plasma membrane to signal transduction molecules
cell controls progress through the cell cycle through two
located in the cytoplasm. Ultimately, signal transduction initi-
classes of proteins: cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases
ates a program of gene expression that propels the cell out of
(CDKs). The cell synthesizes and destroys cyclin proteins in
G0 back into the cell cycle. Cancer cells often have defects in
a precise pattern during the cell cycle (Figure 166). When a
signal transduction pathways. Sometimes, abnormal signal
cyclin is present, it binds to a specific CDK, triggering activ-
transduction molecules send continuous growth signals to the
ity of the CDK/cyclin complex. The CDK/cyclin complex-
es then selectively phosphorylate and activate other
proteins that in turn bring about the changes necessary to
G1/S checkpoint
advance the cell through the cell cycle. For example, in
Cell monitors size and G1 phase, CDK4/cyclin D complexes activate proteins
DNA integrity that stimulate transcription of genes whose products (such
G1 S as DNA polymerase d and DNA ligase) are required for
Decision to reenter DNA replication during S phase. Another CDK/cyclin
cell cycle
Pro complex, CDK1/cyclin B, phosphorylates a number of
iescence
G0 rat
ion as nuclear membrane breakdown, chromosome condensa-
tion and cytoskeletal reorganization. Mitosis can only be
Qu
16.3 Cancer Cells Contain Genetic Defects Affecting Cell-Cycle Regulation 363
G1 S G2 M
Phases of the cell cycle
development of cancer in several ways. For example, if genes process called apoptosis, or programmed cell death. Apop-
that control the G1/S or G2/M checkpoints are mutated, the tosis is a genetically controlled process whereby the cell
cell may continue to cycle before repairing DNA damage. commits suicide. Apoptosis is also initiated during normal
This may lead to the accumulation of mutations in genes multicellular development in order to eliminate certain cells
whose product control cell proliferation or metastasis. Simi- that do not contribute to the final adult organism. The steps in
larly, if genes that control progress through the cell cycle, apoptosis are the same for damaged cells and for cells elimi-
such as those that encode the cyclins, are expressed inappro- nated during development: Nuclear DNA becomes fragment-
priately, the cell may cycle continuously and may be unable to ed, internal cellular structures are disrupted, and the cell
exit the cell cycle into G0. dissolves into small spherical structures known as apoptotic
As already described, if DNA replication, repair, or chromo- bodies (Figure 167). In the final step, the apoptotic bodies
some assembly is aberrant, normal cells halt their progress are engulfed by the immune systems phagocytic cells. A
through the cell cycle until the condition is corrected. This series of proteases called caspases are responsible for initiat-
reduces the number of mutations and chromosomal abnormal- ing apoptosis and for digesting intracellular components.
ities that accumulate in normal proliferating cells. However, if Apoptosis is genetically controlled in that regulation of spe-
DNA or chromosomal damage is so severe that repair is cific gene products such as the Bcl2 and BAX proteins can
impossible, the cell may initiate a second line of defensea trigger or prevent apoptosis. By removing damaged cells,
(a) (b)
FIGURE 167 (a) A normal white blood cell (bottom) and a white blood cell undergoing apoptosis (top).
Apoptotic bodies appear as grape-like clusters on the cell surface. (b) The relative concentrations of the
Bcl2 and BAX proteins regulate apoptosis. A normal cell contains a balance of Bcl2 and BAX, which
form inactive heterodimers. A relative excess of Bcl2 results in Bcl2 homodimers, which prevent
apoptosis. Cancer cells with Bcl2 overexpression are resistant to chemotherapies and radiation therapies.
A relative excess of BAX results in BAX homodimers, which induce apoptosis. In normal cells, activated
p53 protein induces transcription of BAX and inhibits transcription of Bcl2, leading to cell death. In many
cancer cells, p53 is defective, preventing the apoptotic pathway from removing the cancer cells.
KLUGMC16_357-375v2 9/1/06 2:15 PM Page 364
programmed cell death reduces the number of mutations that the proto-oncogene resulting in a protein product that acts
are propagated to the next generation, including those in can- abnormally. In other cases, proto-oncogenes are overex-
cer-causing genes. The same genes that regulate cell-cycle pressed or cannot be transcriptionally repressed at the correct
checkpoints can trigger apoptosis. As we will see, these genes time. In these cases, the proto-oncogene is continually in an
are mutated in a many cancers. on state, which may constantly stimulate the cell to divide.
When a proto-oncogene is mutated or aberrantly expressed
and contributes to the development of cancer, it is known as
16.4 Many Cancer-Causing Genes an oncogene (cancer-causing gene). Oncogenes are those that
have experienced a gain-of-function alteration. As a result,
Disrupt Control of the Cell Cycle only one allele of a proto-oncogene needs to be mutated or
Two general categories of genes are mutated or mis-expressed mis-expressed in order to trigger uncontrolled growth. Hence,
in cancer cellsthe proto-oncogenes and the tumor suppres- oncogenes confer a dominant cancer phenotype.
sor genes (Table 16.2). Proto-oncogenes are genes whose Tumor suppressor genes are those whose products normal-
products are important for normal cell functions and promote ly regulate cell-cycle checkpoints and initiate the process of
cell growth and division. They do this by encoding transcrip- apoptosis. In normal cells, proteins encoded by tumor sup-
tion factors that stimulate expression of other genes, signal pressor genes halt progress through the cell cycle in response
tranduction molecules that stimulate cell division, or cell- to DNA damage or growth-suppression signals from the
cycle regulators that move the cell through the cell cycle. extracellular environment. When tumor suppressor genes are
When normal cells become quiescent and cease division, they mutated or inactivated, cells are unable to respond normally
repress the expression or activity of most proto-oncogene to cell-cycle checkpoints, or are unable to undergo pro-
products. In cancer cells, one or more proto-oncogenes are grammed cell death if DNA damage is extensive. This leads to
altered in such a way that their activities cannot be controlled a further increase in mutations and to the inability of the cell
in a normal fashion. This is sometimes due to a mutation in to leave the cell cycle when it should become quiescent.
Ha-ras Signal transduction molecule, binds Point mutations Colorectal, bladder, many
GTP/GDP types
c-erbB Transmembrane growth factor receptor Gene amplification, Glioblastomas, breast cancer,
point mutations cervix
c-myc Transcription factor, regulates cell cycle, Translocation, amplification, Lymphomas, leukemias, lung
differentiation, apoptosis point mutations cancer, many types
Cyclins Bind to CDKs, regulate cell cycle Gene amplification, overexpression Lung, esophagus, many types
CDK2, 4 Cyclin-dependent kinases, regulate Overexpression, mutation Bladder, breast, many types
cell-cycle phases
p53 Cell-cycle checkpoints, apoptosis Mutation, inactivation by viral Brain, lung, colorectal,
oncogene products breast, many types
16.4 Many Cancer-Causing Genes Disrupt Control of the Cell Cycle 365
When both alleles of a tumor suppressor gene are inactivated, 1. Growth factor binds to
Growth
and other changes in the cell keep it growing and dividing, factor cell surface receptor
cells may become tumorigenic.
The following are examples of proto-oncogenes and tumor Receptor PLASMA MEMBRANE
suppressor genes that contribute to cancer when mutated.
There are more than 200 oncogenes and tumor suppressor
genes now known, and more will likely be discovered as can-
AU: already appeared as K-Term. Set normal font?
with the Bcl2 protein and the cell remains viable. When the oping retinoblastomas as well as an increased chance of devel-
levels of BAX protein increase in response to p53 stimulation oping other cancers. All somatic cells of patients with heredi-
of Bax gene transcription, BAX homodimers are formed and tary retinoblastoma contain one mutated allele of the RB1 gene.
these homodimers activate the cellular changes that lead to However, it is only when the second normal allele of the RB1
cellular self-destruction (Figure 167). In cancer cells that gene is lost or mutated in certain retinal cells that retinoblas-
lack functional p53, BAX protein levels do not increase in toma develops. In individuals that do not have this hereditary
response to cellular damage and apoptosis may not occur. condition, retinoblastoma is extremely rare, as it requires at
Hence, cells lacking functional p53 are unable to arrest at least two separate somatic mutations in a retinal cell in order to
Web Tutorial 16.1
cell-cycle checkpoints or to enter apoptosis in response to inactivate both copies of the RB1 gene (Figure 169).
DNA damage. As a result, they move unchecked through the The retinoblastoma protein (pRB) is a tumor suppressor
Retinoblastoma
cell cycle, regardless of the condition of the cells DNA. Cells protein that controls the G1/S cell-cycle checkpoint. The pRB
lacking p53 have high mutation rates and accumulate the protein is found in the nuclei of all cell types at all stages of the
types of mutations that lead to cancer. Because of the impor- cell cycle. However, its activity varies throughout the cell
tance of the p53 gene to genomic integrity, it is often referred cycle, depending on its phosphorylation state. When cells are
to as the guardian of the genome. in the G0 phase of the cell cycle, the pRB protein is nonphos-
phorylated and binds to transcription factors such as E2F, inac-
The RB1 Tumor Suppressor Gene tivating them (Figure 1610). When the cell is stimulated by
The loss or mutation of the RB1 (retinoblastoma 1) tumor growth factors, it enters G1 and approaches S phase. Through-
suppressor gene contributes to the development of many can- out the G1 phase, the pRB protein becomes phosphorylated by
cers, including those of the breast, bone, lung, and bladder. The the CDK4/cyclin D1 complex. Phosphorylated pRB is inactive
RB1 gene was originally identified as a result of studies on and releases its bound regulatory proteins. When E2F and
retinoblastoma, an inherited disorder in which tumors develop other regulators are released by pRB, they are free to induce
in the eyes of young children. Retinoblastoma occurs with a the expression of over 30 genes whose products are required
frequency of about 1 in 14,000 to 20,000 individuals. In the for the transition from G1 into S phase. After cells traverse S,
familial form of the disease, individuals inherit one mutated G2, and M phases, pRB reverts to a nonphosphorylated state,
allele of the RB1 gene and have an 85 percent chance of devel- binds to regulatory proteins such as E2F, and keeps them
1
RB
B1
/
RB1 RB1
1/
RB
RB
RB
RB1
1
1/
/RB
/R
1
RB
B1
1
RB
1/
RB
1
Uncontrolled growth,
/RB
/RB
1
tumor formation
RB1
RB1
Uncontrolled growth,
tumor formation
KLUGMC16_357-375v2 9/1/06 2:15 PM Page 367
FIGURE 1611 A model for the multistep development of colon cancer. The first step is the loss or inactivation of one allele of the APC
gene on chromosome 5. In FAP cases, one mutant APC allele is inherited. Subsequent mutations involving genes on chromosomes 12, 17,
and 18 in cells of benign adenomas can lead to a malignant transformation that results in colon cancer. Although the mutations on
chromosomes 12, 17, and 18 usually occur at a later stage than those involving chromosome 5, the sum of changes is more important than the
order in which they occur.
KLUGMC16_357-375v2 9/1/06 2:15 PM Page 369
Human papillomavirus 16, 18 Cervical cancer E6, E7 Inhibit p53 and pRB tumor
suppressors
Human T-cell leukemia virus Adult T-cell leukemia pX Stimulates cell cycle
These are exhilarat- limitations. They do not detect mutations health and life insurance. One study
ing times for genet- in regulatory regions outside the coding shows that a quarter of eligible patients
ics and biotechnology. Close on the heels regionmutations that could cause aber- refuse BRCA gene testing because of con-
of the completion of the Human Genome rant expression of these genes. Also, little cerns about cost, confidentiality, and
Project has come a rush of optimism is known about how any particular muta- potential discrimination.
about future applications of genetics. Sci- tion manifests itself in terms of cancer Genetic testing is such a new develop-
entists and the media predict that gene risk, and the effects of each mutation may ment that the health system has lagged
technologies will soon diagnose and cure be modified by environmental factors and behind the science. Because genetic test-
diseases as diverse as diabetes, asthma, by interactions with other susceptibility ing has both psychological and medical
heart disease, and Parkinson disease. genes. ambiguities, genetic counseling is impera-
The prospect of using genetics to pre- Many patients at risk for familial breast tive for patients and their families. How-
vent and cure a whole range of diseases is cancer opt to undergo genetic testing. ever, there are insufficient numbers of
exciting. However, in our enthusiasm, we These patients feel that test results will genetic counselors with experience in
often forget that these new technologies help them to prevent breast or ovarian genetic testing, and even in the most qual-
have significant limitations and profound cancers, will guide them in childbearing ified hands, issues are complex and
ethical concerns. The story of genetic test- decisions, and allow them to inform fami- difficult. Physicians often have limited
ing for breast cancer illustrates how we ly members at risk. But none of these ben- knowledge of human clinical genetics and
must temper our high expectations with efits is clear-cut. feel inadequate to advise their patients.
respect for uncertainty. A woman whose BRCA test results are The federal government and the insurance
Breast cancer is the most common can- negative may be relieved and feel that she industries have yet to develop comprehen-
cer among women and the second leading is not subject to familial breast cancer. sive policies concerning genetic tests and
cause of all cancer deaths (after lung can- However, her risk of developing breast genetic information. Given the unclear
cer). Each year, more than 190,000 new cancer is still 12 percent (the population interpretation of BRCA genetic tests, the
cases are diagnosed in the United States. risk), and she should continue to monitor relatively ineffective treatment options,
Breast cancer is not limited to women; for the disease. Also, a negative BRCA and the potential for psychological and
about 1400 men are also diagnosed with genetic test does not eliminate the possi- societal side effects, it is not surprising
the disease each year. A womans lifetime bility that she bears an inherited mutation that only about 60 percent of familial
risk of developing breast cancer is about in another gene that increases breast can- breast cancer patients and their families
12 percent, and the risk increases with cer risk or that BRCA1 or BRCA2 gene decide to take the genetic tests.
age. mutations exist in regions of the genes The unanswered questions about
Approximately 5 to 10 percent of breast that are inaccessible to current genetic BRCA1 and BRCA2 genetic testing are
cancers are familial, defined by the tests. many and important. What cancer risks
appearance of several cases of breast or A woman whose test results are positive are associated with which mutations?
ovarian cancer among near blood relatives faces difficult choices. Her treatment Should all people have access to BRCA
and the early onset of these diseases. In options are poor, consisting of close tests or only those at high risk? How can
1994, two genes were identified that show monitoring, prophylactic mastectomy, or we ensure that the high costs of genetic
linkage to familial breast cancers. Germ- oophorectomy (removal of breasts and tests and counseling do not limit this new
line mutations in these genes (BRCA1 and ovaries respectively) and taking drugs technology to only a portion of the popu-
BRCA2) are associated with the majority such as tamoxifen. Prophylactic surgery lation? As we develop genetic tests for
of familial breast cancers. The molecular reduces her risks but does not eliminate more and more diseases over the next few
functions of BRCA1 and BRCA2 are still them, as cancers can still occur in tissues decades, our struggle with these issues
uncertain, although they appear to be that remain after surgery. Drugs such as will continue to grow.
tumor suppressor genes whose products tamoxifen reduce her risks but have seri-
are involved in repairing damaged DNA. ous side effects. Genetic tests affect not Reference
Women who bear mutations in BRCA1 or only the patient but also the patients
Surbone, A. 2001. Ethical implications of
BRCA2 have a 36 to 85 percent lifetime entire family. People often experience
genetic testing for breast cancer sus-
risk of developing breast cancer and a 16 fear, anxiety, and guilt on learning that
ceptibility. Crit. Rev. in Onc./Hem. 40:
to 60 percent risk of developing ovarian they are carriers of a genetic disease.
149157.
cancer. Men with germ-line mutations in Studies show that people who refuse
BRCA2 have a 6 percent lifetime breast genetic test results often suffer from even
cancer riska hundredfold increase over more anxiety than those who opt to learn Web Sites
the general male population. the results. Confidentiality is also a major Genetic Testing for BRCA1 and BRCA2:
BRCA1 and BRCA2 genetic tests detect concern. Patients fear that their genetic Its Your Choice [online]. National
any of the over 2000 different mutations test results may be leaked to insurance Institutes of Health, 2002. http://
that are known to occur within the coding companies or employers, jeopardizing cis.nci.nih.gov/fact/3_62.htm
regions of these genes, but the tests have their prospects for jobs or affordable
KLUGMC16_357-375v2 9/1/06 2:15 PM Page 372
CHAPTER SUMMARY
1. Cancer is a genetic disease, predominantly of somatic cells. 7. Proto-oncogenes are normal genes that promote cell growth and
About 1 percent of cancers are associated with germ-line muta- division. When proto-oncogenes are mutated or mis-expressed
tions that increase the susceptibility to certain cancers. in cancer cells, they are known as oncogenes.
2. Cancer cells show two basic properties: abnormal cell prolifera- 8. Tumor suppressor genes normally regulate cell-cycle check-
tion and a propensity to spread and invade other parts of the points and apoptosis. When tumor suppressor genes are mutated
body (metastasis). Genes controlling these aspects of cellular or inactivated, cells cannot correct DNA damage. This leads to
function are either mutated or expressed inappropriately in can- accumulation of mutations that may cause cancer.
cer cells. 9. Inherited mutations in cancer-susceptibility genes are not suffi-
3. Cancers are clonal, meaning that all cells within a tumor orig- cient to trigger cancer. A second somatic mutation, in the other
inate from a single cell that contains a number of mutations. copy of the gene, is necessary to trigger tumorigenesis. In addi-
4. The development of cancer is a multistep process, requiring mu- tion, mutations in other cancer-related genes are necessary for
tations in several cancer-related genes. the development of hereditary cancers.
5. Cancer cells show high rates of mutation, chromosomal abnor- 10. RNA and DNA tumor viruses contribute to cancers by stimulat-
malities, and genomic instability. This leads to the accumulation ing cells to proliferate, introducing new oncogenes, interfering
of mutations in specific genes that control aspects of cell prolif- with the cells normal tumor suppressor gene products, or stimu-
eration, apoptosis, differentiation, DNA repair, cell migration lating the expression of a cells proto-oncogenes.
and cell-cell contact. 11. Environmental agents such as chemicals, radiation, viruses, and
6. Cancer cells have defects in the regulation of cell-cycle pro- chronic infections contribute to the development of cancer. The
gression, cell-cycle checkpoints, and signal transduction most significant environmental factors that affect human cancers
pathways. are tobacco smoke, diet, and natural radiation.
KEY TERMS
acute transforming retroviruses, 369 G2/M checkpoint, 362 protein kinase, 360
aflatoxin, 370 hepatitis B virus, 369 proto-oncogenes, 364
apoptosis, 363 hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer provirus, 369
basal lamina, 367 (HNPCC), 361 programmed cell death, 363
benign tumor, 359 human T-cell leukemia virus ras gene family, 365
Burkitts lymphoma, 359 (HTLV-1), 369 RB1 (retinoblastoma 1), 366
carcinogens, 360 loss of heterozygosity, 368 retinoblastoma, 366
caspases, 363 M checkpoint, 362 retinoblastoma protein (pRB), 366
cell adhesion molecules, 367 malignant tumors, 359 retroviruses, 369
cell proliferation, 359 metalloproteinases, 367 reverse transcriptase, 369
chronic myelogenous leukemia metastases, 359 Rous sarcoma virus (RSV), 369
(CML), 360 metastasis, 359 signal transduction, 362
cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs), 362 mutator phenotype, 360 tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases
cyclins, 362 oncogene, 364 (TIMPs), 367
Epstein-Barr virus, 369 papilloma viruses (HPV 16, 18), 369 transformed, 368
extracellular matrix, 367 p53 gene, 365 tumorigenesis, 360
familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP), 368 Philadelphia chromosome, 360 tumor suppressor genes, 364
G1/S checkpoint, 362 polyp, 368
Mutation
*NA indicates not applicable, as the regulatory mutation is inferred, and the position has not been identified.
tobacco products that killed her husband. What would you tell BRCA1 gene is likely to be a tumor suppressor gene or an onco-
the jury? (Science only pleaseno personal expositions on gene. (c) Although the mutations in Table 16.5 are clearly delete-
lawyers or the legal system!) rious and cause breast cancer in women at very young ages, each
29. Table 16.5 summarizes some of the data that have been collected of the kindred groups had at least one woman who carried the
on BRCA1 mutations in families with a high incidence of both mutation but lived until age 80 without developing cancer. Name
early-onset breast and ovarian cancer. Table 16.6 shows neutral at least two different mechanisms (or variables) that could under-
polymorphisms found in control families (with no increased fre- lie variation in the expression of a mutant phenotype and propose
quency of breast and ovarian cancer). (a) Note the coding effect an explanation for the incomplete penetrance of this mutation.
of the mutation found in kindred group 2082 in Table 16.5. This How do these mechanisms or variables relate to this explanation?
results from a single base-pair substitution. Draw the normal dou- 30. Examine Table 16.6. (a) What is meant by a neutral polymor-
ble-stranded DNA sequence for this codon (with the 5 and 3 phism? (b) What is the significance of this table in the context of
ends labeled), and show the sequence of events that generated examining a family or population for BRCA1 mutations that pre-
this mutation, assuming that it resulted from an uncorrected mis- dispose an individual to cancer? (c) Is the PM2 polymorphism
match event during DNA replication. (b) Examine the types of likely to result in a neutral missense mutation or a silent muta-
mutations that are listed in Table 16.5 and determine if the tion? (d) Answer part (c) for the PM3 polymorphism.