Neumann Van Padang PDF

Neumann van Padang, History of volcanology in the East Indies, Scripta Geol.
71 (1983) 1
History of the volcanology in the

former Netherlands East Indies
M. Neumann van Padang
Neumann van Padang, M. History of the volcanology in the former Netherlands

East Indies. - Scripta Geol., 71: 1-76, 25 figs., 4 pls, enclosure, Leiden, August
1983.
The description of the volcanoes in the former Netherlands East Indies are analys-
ed in order of their publication, grouping them into three parts. Thefirstgroup
consists of information from old Javanese sources and incidental communications
in travel accounts and the like, dating from the 16th, 17th and 18th century. The
second group includes scientific reports from the 19th century and the last part
deals with the organised volcanological research after 1900 until the Indonesian
Independence. This last part not only lists the volcanoes going from west to east
but also discusses several special topics that were studied, e.g. temperatures in the
crater region, sulphur in Indonesia and the caldera problem. Each chapter begins
with some historical notes, including biographic details of the scientists that car-
ried out the volcanological research.
A list of active volcanoes in Indonesia, including fumarole and solfatare
fields, is given and also an exhaustive bibliography.
M. Neumann van Padang, De Perponcherstraat 131, 2518 ST Den Haag, The

Netherlands.
Foreword 2
List of active volcanoes in Indonesia 3
Incidental communications on volcanoes and their activity before 1800 6

Ancient Javanese sources 7
Sixteenth century 7
Seventeenth century 9
Eighteenth century 10
Nineteenth century communications of experts and laymen 12

Krakatau 14
Volcanoes of Java 15
Mt Tambora 20
Volcanoes of the Banda Sea and Halmahera 21
2 Neumann van Padang, History of volcanology in the East Indies, Scripta Geol. 71 (1983)
Systematic volcanological research after 1900 22

Volcanological Survey 24
Volcanoes of North Sumatra 25
Krakatau 26
Volcanoes of Java 29
Volcanoes of the Lesser Sunda Islands 42
Volcanoes of the Sangihe Islands and Halmahera 45
Umsini 48
Temperatures in the crater region 49
Sulphur in Indonesia 51
Belt of active volcanoes 52
Phreatic eruptions 54
The caldera problem 54
Submarine volcanoes 56
Chemical differentiation of the volcanic rocks 58
Eruption cycles 61
Eruption rains 63
Post-War period 63
Bibliography 63
Plates 76
Foreword
After Professors W. Nieuwenkamp and R. Hooykaas had participated in a Con-

gress on the History of Geological Sciences in Yerevan (Armenia, U.S.S.R.), in
1968, the Geological Section of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Sciences
appointed a commission to nominate co-operators to write a History of the
Geology of the Netherlands and its former colonies.
In 1975, Dr G. ter Bruggen, Mr C.P.M. Frijlinck and Dr W.A. Visser were
nominated to organise the description of the History of the Geology of the
former Netherlands East Indies and in April 1976 Dr M.Neumann van Padang
was invited to co-operate and to write a History of the Volcanology in that re-
gion. He is very much obliged to Drs C.E.S. Arps and C.F. Winkler Prins for their
help in getting this manuscript printed. A special grant of the 'Greshoffs Rhum-
phiusfonds' for the printing of the coloured plates is gratefully acknowledged.
Thanks are due to Dr Maurice Krafft, Director of the Centre de Volcanologie
"Vulcain" in Cernay (France), and his wife Katia for putting at our disposal
beautiful colourslides of volcanoes from Indonesia, from which six were chosen
for the colourplates.
Volcanoes and volcanic phenomena always impressed the Europeans who
visited Indonesia. In many publications we find communications on this subject.
In order to get a good historical picture of what has been written I divided the
matter into:
Neumann van Padang, History of volcanology in the East Indies, Scripta Geol 71 (1983) 3
1 ) Incidental communications on volcanoes and their activity before 1800.

2) Communications of experts and laymen in the 19th century.
3) Systematic research done after 1900 by geologists of the Dienst van de Mijn-
bouw (Mining Department) and after 1920 by the Volcanological Survey.
In the former Netherlands East Indies the names of the volcanoes were of-
ten spelled otherwise than it is done to day. Moreover the Dutch orthography
was used, i.e. oe for u. Presently, in Indonesia the orthography is sometimes dif-
ferent, e.g. the volcano Tjerimai is now written Cereme. Some volcanoes got
other names. In this publication I do not adopt these new names, and in some
cases neither their way of writing, as it would cause confusion. In other cases I
followed the Indonesian orthography, e.g. Papandayan for Papandajan.
In May 1929, A. Lacroix, first president of the International Union of
Geodosy and Geophysics, of which the International Association of Volcanology
is a subdivision, proposed to prepare a Catalogue of the active volcanoes of the
World, in which each volcano should get a number. The volcanoes of Indonesia
got the group number 6 (see enclosure). These volcanoes were subdivided into
nine subgroups, in which those of Sumatra got the number 6,1, those of Java
6,3, etc. A cipher behind these figures indicated the individual volcano. More-
over they were subdivided into
volcanoes with eruptions known in historical time,
o volcanoes in a fumarolic stage, and
+ fumarole and solfatara fields.
A triangle indicates those mountains erroneously considered to be active volca-
noes.
The volcanoes of Indonesia mentioned in the Catalogue are listed in the col-
umn 'Catalogue' of the List of active volcanoes. In the column 'Dutch names and
spelling' those volcanoes are mentioned of which the spelling is different in the
Dutch literature. The third column comprises the volcanoes of which the spelling
of the names is different in the present Indonesian publications (see Kusumadi-
nata, 1974, 1979). A complete list of eruptions of the Indonesian volcanoes till
1941 in chronological order was compiled by Petroeschevsky (1943).
LIST OF ACTIVE VOLCANOES OF INDONESIA
Catalogue Dutch names and spelling New Indonesian names
6,1- Sumatra
1+ PuluWeh PoeloehWeh
2. Silawaih Agam Seulawah Agam
3. Puetsago
4o Burni Geureudong Boerni Geureudong
5. Burni Telong Boerni Telong
6+ Gayolesten Gajo lesten
7o Sibajak Sibayak
8o Sinabung Sinaboeng
9o Pusuk Bukit Poesoek Boekit
10 + Helatoba Tarutung Helatoba Taroetoeng
11 o Bual Buali Boeal Boeali
12 . Sorikmarapi
13 o Talakmau
14. Marapi
15. Tandikat
16. Talang
17. Kerintji Kerinci
18. Sumbing Soembing
19 o Kunjit Koenjit Kunyit
20 o Blerang Beriti
21 o BukitDaun Boekit Daoen
22. Kaba
23. Dempo
24 o Lumut Balai Loemoet Balai
25+ Marga Bajur Marga Bajoer Marga Bayur
26 o Sekintjau Belirang Sekincau Beli rang
27 + Pamatang Bata
28+ Hulubelu Hoeloebeloe
29 o Radjabasa Rajabasa
6.2 Krakatau
6.3 Java
1o Pulosari Poelosari
2o Karang
3+ Kiaraberes Gagak
4+ Perbakti
5. Salak
6. Gedeh Gede
7o Patuha Patoeha
8o Wajang Windu Wajang Windoe WayangWindu
9. Tangkuban Praliu Tangkoeban Prahoe Tangkubanparahu
10. Papandajan Papandayan
11 + Kawah Manuk Kawah Manoek
12+ Kawah Kamodjang Kawah Kamojang
13. Guntur Goentoer
14. Galunggung Galoenggoeng
15 o Telaga Bodas
16+ Kawah Karaha
17. Tjerimai Cereme
18. Slamet
19 o Butak Petarangan Boetak Petarangan
20. Dihg
21 . Sundoro Soendoro
22. Sumbing Soembing
23 o Ungaran Oengaran
24. Merbabu Merbaboe
25. Merapi
26 o Lawu Lawoe
27 o Wilis
28. Kelud Keloed Kelut
29 o Ardjuno Welirang Ardjoeno Welirang Arjuno Welirang
30. Semeru Semeroe
31 . Bromo
32. Lamongan
Neumann van Padang, History of volcanology in the East Indies, Scripta Geol. 71 (1983) 5
33 o Ijang Argapura Hijang Argapoera Iyang Argapura

34. Raung Raoeng
35 . Kawah Idjen Kawah Ijen
6.4- Lesser Sunda Islands
1. Batur Batoer
2. Agung Agoeng
3. Rindjani Rinjani
4. Tambora
5. Sangeang Api
6 o WaiSano
7 + Potjo Leok Poco Leok
8 o Ineri Ini Ri Inieria
9. Ini Lika Inielika
10. Amburombu Amboeromboe Ebulobo
& Pui Poei
11. Ija Iya
12+ Sukaria caldera Soekaria Caldera
13+ NdetuNapu NdetoeNapoe
14. KeliMuti KeliMoetoe Kelimutu
15. Paluweh Paloeweh Rokatenda
16. Egon
17 o Iii Muda Iii Moeda
18. Lewotobi Lakilaki
19. Lewotobi Perampuan Lowotobi Perampoean Lewotobi Perempuan
20. Leroboleng Leweno Lereboleng
21+ RianKotang
22. Di Boleng Iliboleng
23. Lewotolo Warirang Uilewotolo
24 o Labalekan
25. Di Werung Di Weroeng Iliwerung
26. Batu Tara Batoe Tara
27. Sirung Siroeng
28. Yersey
6.5- Banda Sea
1. Emperor of China
2. Nieuwerkerk
3. Api north of Wetar Gunungapi (Utara Wetar)
4. Damar Wurlali
5. Teon Serawerna
6. Nila Laworkawra
7. Serua Seroea Legatala
8 o Manuk Manoek
9. Banda Api
6.6- Celebes Sulawesi
1. Una Una Oena Oena Colo
2. Ambang
3. Soputan Sopoetan
4 o Sempu Sempoe
5+ BatuKolok Batoe Kolok
6+ Tempang
7+ Tampusu Tampoesoe
8+ Lahendong
9+ Sarongsong
10. Lokon-Empung Lokon-Empoeng
11. Mahawu Mahawoe
12 o Klabat
13. Tongkoko
6.7- Sangihe Islands
1. Ruang Roeang
2. ApiSiau ApiSiaoe Karangetang
3 . Banua Wuhu Banoea Woehoe
4. Awu Awoe
5. Submarine volcano
6.8- Halmahera Maluku Utara
1. Dukono Doekono
2 . Malupang Warirang Maloepang Warirang
3. Ibu Iboe
4. Gamkanora
5 o Telaga Ranu Telaga Ranoe
5a oTodoko
6. Peak of Ternate Piek van Ternate Gamalama
AMotir
7 . Makian Kie Besi
6.9- New Guinea Nieuw Guinea Irian Barat
1 Umsini Oemsini
Incidental communications on volcanoes and their activity before 1800
The oldest references to volcanic eruptions are found in ancient Javanese books,
which were studied by van Hinloopen Labberton (1921). The first Europeans to
describe volcanoes were the Portugese, who were in Indonesia before the Dutch
arrived there. They mentioned mainly volcanoes in the eastern part of the archi-
pelago.
In 1596 the Dutch sailor Cornelis de Houtman reached Java. In the 17th
century Pieter van den Broecke (1648), Johann Sigmund Wurffbain (Wurffbain,
1686), and Johann Wilhelm Vogel (1690) mentioned their observations on vol-
canic phenomena. In 1724 the clergyman F. Valentijn published what he knew
of the volcanoes of the archipelago. Franois Valentijn, born in Dordrecht in
April 1666 and deceased in The Hague in August 1727, went to Indonesia in
1685, where he was appointed at Amboina as minister of the Holy Word and
translator of the Bible into the Malay language. In 1705 he went to the Indies
for the second time, first to East Java. Being again in Amboina since 1712 he
began to collect the material for his great work 'Oud en nieuw Oost Indi'. i.e.
'Ancient and new East Indies' (1724-1726). Valentijn wrote principally what he
had heard from other people.
ANCIENT JAVANESE SOURCES
Van Hinloopen Labberton (1921, pp. 135-158) found data on volcanic eruptions
in ancient Javanese sources. Statues and ruins of temples, founded by adherents
of the Shiwa religion on the summits of the not yet extinct volcanoes Ding (6,3
-20), Ungaran (6,3-23), Merbabu (6,3-24), Lawu (6,3-26), Wilis (6,3-27), Ardju-
no (6,3-29), and Argopuro (6,3-33), prove that these volcanoes did not have had
severe eruptions after 400 A.D. An eruption was mentioned of Mt Merbabu (6,3-
24) in 1548 (1470 of Shaaka calendar). This eruption, however, probably was
one of Mt Kelut (6,3-28). Also the eruption of 1586 ascribed to Mt Merbabu was
from an other volcano.
In the ancient Javanese book Pararaton van Hinloopen Labberton (1921,
pp. 148-154) found the following eruptions of Mt Kelut: 1311 (1233 Shaaka),
1334, 1376, 1385, 1395, 1411, 1450, 1451, 1462, and 1481. In a manuscript in
the Kraton of Djokja he moreover found an eruption of 1548, and one of 1 May
1752. A problem with the use of these ancient sources is the fact that eruptions
and earthquakes at the birth and death of princes were used to emphasize their
importance and divine offspring. It is therefore more than likely that the dates
of the eruptions were made to coincide with such events by either changing the
date of the eruption or the date of birth (c.q. death) of the princes (see van
Bemmelen, 1956).
The Central Javanese Empire, which had a flourishing period from 650 till
900 Shaaka, i.e. from 730 till 980 A.D. and of which nothing was heard since
1000 A.D., was according to van Hinloopen Labberton (1921, p. 137) devastat-
ed by an enormous eruption of Mt Merapi in 1006 A.D. An ancient Javanese
stone inscription from the year 963 Shaaka (1041 A.D.) tells that the Island of
Java then looked as a milk sea, that the palace (kraton) was burned and covered
by the mountain, and that the king and many noblemen died. Only the king's
son in law, known as Erlangga, could fly and survived the calamity. According to
Kern Erlangga means 'he who escaped the floods', as 'er' or 'air' means water,
and 'langgah' is Sanskrit for to escape. Van Bemmelen (e.g. 1949a) investigated
the reliability of this story and found that it was supported by the geological evi-
dence (see p. 41).
SIXTEENTH CENTURY
Gunung Api north of Wetar (6,5-3)
Portuguese sailors in 1512 mentioned streams of fire flowing from the summit
along its slope to the sea shore of the small island Gunuape. According to Wich-
mann (1899) this island must have been G. Api, north of Wetar.
Dukono (6,8-1)
In 1550 an eruption of Mt Dukono, then called Tolo after the city of that name
that was destroyed, caused great damage in its environs (Baldasser Diaz, 1559).
Wichmann (1897, p. 159), Hueting (1905, p. 609), Verbeek (1908, p. 171), and
Gogarten (1917, 1918) published their views on this eruption.
Fig. 1. Orientation sketch from the book of Willem Lodewijcksz (1598), whereupon Krakatau
(5) is indicated (from Rouffaer & IJzerman, 1915, p. 61).
Krakatau (6,2)
One of the earliest Dutch communications on volcanoes in Indonesia is that of

Willem Lodewijcksz (1598) who visited Java with Cornelis de Houtman. On 17
June 1596 he saw the densely wooded island Krakatau, which he called Carcata
and Cercata. Sulphurous fumes rose from a barren, reddish coloured spot,
indicating that the volcano was in a solfataric state of activity.
In 1915 the van Linschoten Vereeniging republished the ancient reports of
Willem Lodewijcksz (Rouffaer & IJzerman, 1915). In Fig. 1 Krakatau is indicat-
ed by the cipher 5, showing the high Rakata cone in the southern part of the is-
land.
The first known eruption of Krakatau, that of 1680 till the end of 1681, is
described by Johan Wilhelm Vogel (1704, 1716), employee at the gold mine Sa-
lida on Sumatra. Vogel passed the volcanic island several times during his voy-
ages to and from Batavia. Sailing through Sunda Straits for the third time or
1 February 1681 he was amazed to see the island Cracketow, green and over-
grown with trees on his voyage out, now completely barren and burnt. On foui
spots large lumps of glowing lava were seen thrown out (van den Berg, 1884, p.
9; 1904). The volcano was violently eruptive. The captain of the ship, on which
Vogel was a passenger, told that the large quantities of floating pumice were
thrown out by an eruptive activity which had begun in May 1680.
According to the 'Daghregister van het Kasteel Batavia' (the daily register
of the Castle Batavia) of 24 May 1681 'the old king of Bantam visited the burn-
ing island of Crakatouw', which means that the volcano was still in eruption at
that time (Westerveld, 1951, p. 130).
Also on 19 November 1681, when Elias Hesse (1694; 1931, p. 7) passed the
island of Cracatauw, fire and smoke were thrown out continually (see also
Forbes, 1884, p. 144).
In July 1748 the shipsclerk Cristopher Hinrich Braad on board of the Swe-
dish East-Indianman 'Hoppet', when sailing through Sunda Straits, sketched the
island of Krakatau. The picture is published by Colonel Carl Axel Toren (1953,
p. 25) and Neumann van Padang (1955 a, b). The island was built up of three
volcanoes, drawn as three lumps. Comparing the Swedish sketch with the draw-
ing of Salomon Mller (1844) made in 1836 (see Fig. 4, p. 15), we see that both
were taken from the same direction, i.e. from the southeast, as both show exact-
ly the same sequence of tops. The high left hand cone is Mt Rakata, the two
mountains to the right of it are respectively Danan and Perboewatan. The vault
in the extreme right on the sketch of Braad is Lang Island (Rakata Kecil).
Mt Raung (6,3-34)
On 17 January 1597 Lodewijcksz (1598;in Rouffaer & IJzerman, 1915, p. 180)

saw from the coast of East Java a volcano above Panarucam, throwing out dark
columns of smoke. As the mountain was also seen smoking from Varkenshoek
(south coast of the Island of Bali) on February 2nd this active volcano must have
been Mt Raung.
Lodewijcksz wrote further that an enormous eruption of this volcano in
1586 had killed 10 000 people. Thick ash clouds were thrown out in such quan-
tities that the day turned into night during three days. According to Godinho de
Eredia (in Loureno Caminha, 1807), the catastrophic eruption of 'os Gunos de
Panaruca' did not take place in 1586 but in 1593 (Rouffaer & IJzerman, 1915,
p. 181).
Junghuhn (1853, III, p. 949), Landgrebe (1855, p. 268) and Bosch (1858,
p. 281) followed the idea of Valentijn (1724, IV, 1, p. 77) that the catastrophe
of 1593 was caused by an eruption of Mt Ringgit, but Verbeek & Fennema
(1896, p. 97), Verbeek (1925, p. 189) and Taverne (1926, p. 59) proved that
this was impossible, which was affirmed by the investigations of van Bemmelen
(1938; 1949a, IA, p. 552) who made researches into Mt Ringgit, which appeared
to be a volcanic skeleton already extinct in Pleistocene times.
SEVENTEENTH CENTURY
Banda Api (6,5-9)
Pieter van den Broecke (1648, p. 29) saw Gonnapi, i.e. Gunung Api or 'volcano'
of the island of Banda, throwing out thick ash clouds and glowing stones in April
1615. This eruption was mentioned also by Valentijn (1724, III, 2, p. 16), Tiele
(1884, p. 149) and Wichmann (1899, p. 124).
Twenty years later, on 18 November 1635 Johann Sigmund Wurffbain

(Wurffbain, 1686; van den Berg, 1904) ascended the volcano and described the
summit. From an 80 m large opening in the crater thick clouds of smoke rose,
occasionally accompanied by flames.
In the 'Collection Acadmique Dijon' (vol. 6, 1761, p. 663) an enormous
outburst in the evening of 30 November 1694 of the volcano on the island
Gounapi near Banda is mentioned. Ash, fire, stones, and lava flows destroyed the
vegetation of the island. There was also an eruption in 1586 (op. cit., p. 550).
Valentijn (1724) mentioned the eruptions of Banda Api in 1586, 1598,
1609, 1615, 1632, constantly from 1690 till 1696, and 1712.
Tongkoko (6,6-13)
Mt Kema or 'des Frres' in the region of Menado had an eruption in 1694, ac-
cording to Collection Acadmique Dijon (1761, p. 663). The explosions were
heard as far away as Amboina, at a distance of c. 650 km. This volcano must
have been Mt Tongkoko, situated near the extinct Dua Sudara, i.e. 'deux frres'.
EIGHTEENTH CENTURY
Mt Merapi (6,3-25)
On the 18th of July 1786 F. van Boekhold (1792, p. 10) ascended Mt Merapi
from the north side. Probably he was the first European who reached the sum-
mit, where he found a 'kale klip', a barren rock, evidently a lava dome with
many yellow spots of burning sulphur. The crater wall was grown over with
trees, a token that the volcano had not been active for a very long time.
G. Patuha (6,3-7) and G. Papandayan (6,3-10)
In the beginning of the 18th century the Government at Batavia knew of the ex-
istence of sulphur in the mountains Patoea and Pappandayang. The vaandrig (en-
sign) Cretiaun and the assay-master van Houten were sent to these volcanoes in
1706. They found so much sulphur that the Government charged the Regent of
Bandung to supply 400 picol, i.e. 400 x 56 kg = 22 400 kg, of pure and fine sul-
phur at a price of A daalder (c. 120 cents) per picol to be sent to Tandjung Pura
3
in Krawang (see Hageman, 1870).
G. Awu (6,7-4)
Valentijn (1724, I, 3, p. 53) described the eruption of Mt Awu on the Island of

Sangir as recorded in the 'Taboecan's dagregister' (Journal of Taboecan). It last-
ed from 10 to 16 December 1711. The map of the island (Fig. 2) which Valen-
tijn added, is mainly correct (Kemmerling, 1923).
In the night of December the 10th the whole mountain looked as a field of
fire and enormous explosions were heard. They were followed by streams of
burning water (hot mud flows). In Candahar at the east foot of the volcano no
house remained in tact. The number of dead people was 2030. The soldier Tho-
Fig. 2. The Island of Sangir, as figured by Valentijn (1724; from Kemmerling, 1923, pl. 5).
mas Justus and some natives, sent to investigate what had happened, found 400
intact corpses suffocated by the heat of the fire.
The shortly lasting but violent outburst threw out the crater lake. The mud
flows which originated destroyed the villages at the foot of the mountain. The
following ash and stone eruptions increased the catastrophe.
Mt Ruang (6,7-1)
Valentijn (1724, I, 3) described this volcano, but neither he nor Gemello Carreri
(1719, V, p. 228) mentioned eruptions.
Api Siau (6,7-2)
The Island Sjouw was a high burning mountain (Valentijn, 1724, 1,3) which
threw out ashes, stones and water. Catastrophes were rare. According to Kem-
merling (1923, p. 59) the remark that water was thrown out could be right, as
water was present in the eastern crater when he visited the summit. Valentijn
mentioned an eruption of 16 January 1712.
Gamkonora (6,8-4)
The eruption of 1673 was accompanied by a terrible earthquake. The sea water
inundated the coast, destroyed villages and killed its population (Valentijn,
1724,1, 3, p. 203).
Peak of Ternate (i. Gamalama) (6,8-6)
Valentijn (1724, I, 3, pp. 5-10) mentioned eruptions of 1608, 1635, 1653 and
1773.
Makian, i. Kie Besi (6,8-7)
The big, high mountain of this island burned frightfully in 1646 (Valentijn,
1724, I, 3, p. 90). A terrible earthquake burst the mountain, destroyed many vil-
lages and killed the people. Valentijn was of the opinion that this volcano and
the one of Ternate had the same ground fire: 'magma chamber'.
Koerkofe
This extinct volcanic island in the eastern part of the Moluccas had, according to
Valentijn, an eruption in 1659.
Nineteenth century, communications of experts and laymen
In this period scientists, but also laymen, contributed to a better knowledge and
comprehension of the volcanoes of the East Indies, especially of the Javanese
Neumann van Padang, History of volcanology in the East Indies, ScriptaGeol.71 (1983) 13
ones. To be mentioned are in the first place: Th. Horsfield (1802-1818), F.W.
Junghuhn (1835-1864), R.D.M. Verbeek (1880-1910), and F. Fennema (1886-
1900). The dates indicate the period in which they were active in the East In-
dies.
Dr Thomas Horsfield (Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, 12-5-1773 - London, 24-7-

1859) worked as an army surgeon for the Dutch Government on Java and Suma-
tra, but in 1811 after the British occupation he transferred his services to the
British flag. He was a well known botanist and zoologist, whose study on the
medical herbs of Java was epoch making, and he wrote also on volcanoes. He left
the East Indies in 1819 and was appointed keeper of the Museum of the East In-
dia Company in London.
The physician Dr Franz Wilhelm Junghuhn (Mansfeld, Saxony, 26-10-1809-

Lembang, 24-4-1864), being very much interested in geology and botany, made
an important contribution to the knowledge of the volcanoes of Indonesia, al-
though he had received no formal training in geology. He arrived in Batavia on
13 October 1835 as an army surgeon. His principal, Dr E.A. Fritze, who had the
same interests, took care that he was lent out to the 'Natuurkundige commissie'
in 1838. In 1840 he was instructed to carry out topographical investigations in
the Batak Counties. In 1845 he left the medical service to be appointed as a paid
member of the 'Natuurkundige Commissie'. Junghuhn published several impor-
tant works, in which he described 37 volcanoes of Java, some of which were
already extinct, and discussed 10 volcanoes of Sumatra and 31 of the eastern
part of the archipelago.
Dr Rogier Diederik Marius Verbeek (Doorn, 7-4-1845 - Den Haag, 9-4-1926)

worked as a mining engineer and geologist in the Dutch East Indies. He started
his career in a coalfield of southeast Borneo and later on worked also on other
islands, such as Java and Sumatra. The catastrophic outburst of the Krakatau in
1883 roused his interests in volcanology. In 1898 he became Director of the
Mining Department of the Netherlands East Indies. His excellent geological work
in the East Indian Archipelago, resulting in the important monographs, such as
the one on Java and Madoera, which he wrote together with R. Fennema and in
which 32 volcanoes are described as they found them 50 years after Junghuhn,
and his 'Molukkenverslag', brought him fame. The honorary Doctor's degrees
bestowed on him by the universities of Breslau (1886) and Utrecht (1925) and
by the Institute of Technology of Delft (1915) may serve as an example.
After his retirement, Verbeek (1912-1925) collected and published in spe-
cial issues of the 'Geologisch en Mijnbouwkundig Genootschap voor Nederland
en Kolonin' (Royal Geological and Mining Society of the Netherlands and Colo-
nies) a bibliography of all the papers on geology and volcanology of the Dutch
East Indies that had appeared. N. Wing Easton (1926-1933) continued his work.
Reinder Fennema (Sneek, 21-10-1849 - Lake Posso, Celebes, 27-11-1897) left in

1873 for the Dutch East Indies after finishing his studies as a mining engineer.
From 1875-1878 he was involved in the geological survey of Sumatra's West
Coast and afterwards in the drilling of artesian wells. His interest in volcanoes
started with the study of the causes and effects of the eruption of the Smeroe in
14 Neumann van Padang, History of volcanology in the East Indies, Scripta Geol. 71 ( 1983)
1885. He was also involved in the early exploration for oil on Sumatra, e.g. the
Telaga Said Oilfield. In 1896 he was entrusted with the supervision of the geolo-
gical and mining exploration of the residency of Menado on Celebes, where he
died in 1897 in a sudden storm, while crossing the Lake Posso.
Sir Thomas Stanford Raffles, Lieutenant Governor of Java from 1811 till 1816,
wrote in his History of Java (1817) on some volcanoes. He also gave new life to
the Bataviaasch Genootschap voor Kunsten en Wetenschappen (Batavian Socie-
ty of Arts and Sciences).
In 1816 the Natuurkundige Commissie (Board of Natural Sciences) was
established in order to promote the scientific research of Nature in the Nether-
lands Indies. Since that time volcanic outbursts were regularly published in:
'Tijdschrift voor Nerlands Indi'; 'Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal-, Land- en Vol-
kenkunde'; 'Natuurkundig Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch Indi'; but also in
newspapers, such as the 'Java Bode', 'Javasche Courant' and 'Bataviasche
Courant'.
Since 1850 the 'Natuurkundig Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch Indi' pub-
lished in a special chapter data on volcanic eruptions and earthquakes. In 1850
also the Dienst van het Mijnwezen (Department of Mines) was founded, of which
the division of geology had to look for ores, but also had to do scientific re-
search. Verbeek and Fennema were charged by the Government to compose a
geological map of Java. In 1896 the results of their explorations appeared in a
book called 'Geologische beschrijving van Java en Madoera', in which the volca-
noes were amply described. On his voyage through the Moluccas Verbeek col-
lected data on volcanoes of that region.
KRAKATAU (6,2)
The 33 k m large, about 9 km long and maximal by 5 km wide main island with
2
the nearby Verlaten Island (Pulu Sertung) and Lang Island (Rakata Kecil) was
sketched (see Fig. 3) by Salomon Mller (1844).
The army surgeon F. Epp (1841, 1852, pp. 96-97), who was interested in
volcanoes, visited Krakatau in April 1839. He found active fumaroles.
The notorious eruption of Krakatau in 1883 was excellently described by
Verbeek (1884-1885), and also by Forbes (1884). The main island consisted of
three volcanoes, the 812m high Rakata, the c. 450 m high Danan and the 120 m
high Perboewatan (Figs. 3, 4). On 20 May 1883 Mt Perboewatan began to emit
Fig. 3. The islands of Krakatau in 1836, as sketched by Muller (1844), seen from the south-
east, Pepper Bay (from Neumann van Padang, 1933b, fig. 1).
Fig. 4. The islands of Krakatau according to the topographical sketch of Captain Ferzenaar,
the sketch of Mller (1844) and the data of Verbeek (from Neumann van Padang, 1933b,
fig. 2).
pumice and ash. In June also Mt Danan began to erupt, and in August three cra-
ters were active. During the catastrophic activity of 26-28 August enormous
quantities of ash and pumice were thrown out.
In these three days the greater part of the main island disappeared, accord-
ing to Verbeek by collapse, forming a submarine basin. The emitted material
covered Lang Island, Verlaten Island and the remaining part of Rakata with
pumice tuff to a height of 60 m and more. Verbeek calculated the total amount
of emitted materiaal to be 18 k m , of which 95% existed of new pumice tuff
3
and only 5% of old material. Therefore he was convinced that the caldera origin-
ated by collapse.
The collapse was accompanied by sea waves that harassed the coasts of Ban-
tam and South Sumatra, killed nearly 37 000 human beings and destroyed 297
villages completely or partly.
VOLCANOES OF JAVA
Tjerimai = i. Cereme (6,3-17)
Of this volcano Horsfield (1816a, pp. 169-170) mentioned the eruptions of 1772
and of 1805. Both were followed by a severe pestilence in the lower districts of
the regency of Cheribon.
In August 1837, Junghuhn (1853, II, pp. 160-169) visited the summit of
this volcano. He saw a 300 ft (90 m) deep crater, divided into two parts, separat-
ed by a stony wall (a twin crater). According to him the eruption of 1805 de-
stroyed the vegetation not further down than 90 m below the crater rim. Ver-
beek and Fennema (1896, II, pp. 946-961) also described this volcano.
Butak Petarangan (6,3-19)
Horsfield (1816b, p. 281) mentioned mud eruptions, earth quakes and fissures
from Boedak (see p. 53).
Sundoro (6,3-21)
Horsfield (1816a) gave a description of this nice conical mountain. According to

Junghuhn (1853, II, pp. 275-300) the summit had a flat and shallow crater bot-
tom with two small deep pits and a crevice with fumaroles. He visited the sum-
mit in June 1838 and April 1840. An ash eruption took place in 1818. Verbeek
and Fennema (1896, II, p. 384) also described this volcano.
Papandayan (6,3-10)
Horsfield (1816a, p. 158) considered Mt Papandayan to be one of the largest vol-

canoes of Java. The greater part of it was swallowed in the earth after a short but
very severe eruption in the year 1772. Near midnight between the 11th and 12th
of August an uncommonly luminous cloud was observed. Then the greater part
of the mountain fell in and disappeared in the earth. At the same time immense
quantities of volcanic substances were thrown out and spread in every direction.
An area of 15 miles (24 km) long and full 6 miles (10 km) broad was covered.
Hot substances were piled up to a height of three feet (1 m). Forty villages were
partly swallowed up and partly covered by these ejecta and 2957 inhabitants
perished.
Junghuhn (1853, II, p. 115), however, was of the opinion that next to a
possible crumbling down of the crater wall (kratermuur), diminishing the height
of the mountain by about 1000 feet (300 m), the land had nowhere sunk as
Horsfield communicated. On the contrary, the foreland was heightened c. 50
feet and locally even 100 feet.
According to his calculation less than a quarter of the inhabitants of the
destroyed villages perished, the greater part of them could save themselves. When
he visited the volcano in July 1837, i.e. 65 years after the catastrophe, two-
thirds of the gap in the crater wall were already overgrown with wood.
Verbeek and Fennema (1896, II, pp. 679-686) described the volcano as
they found it more than fifty years later. They thought that the valley on the
northeastern slope of the mountain originated by the pressure of the lava of a
lava lake that filled the crater and broke through the crater wall. Taverne (see
p. 33) rightly contested the theory of the existence of a lava lake. Verbeek and
Fennema were the first to mention the terraces on the valley slopes. A more re-
cent 600 m wide valley was situated within an ancient 950 m wide one. The
southeastern slope of the younger valley was parallel to the higher, more ancient,
wall.
Kawah Idjen = i. Kawah Ijen (6,3-35)
An eruption of Kawah Idjen in 1796, mentioned by Horsfield (1816a), must

have been rather small or based on a mistake, as nine years later - in September
1805 - Leschenault (1811, p. 437) found the crater walls overgrown with shrubs
and ferns, and the outer mountain slopes thickly wooded.
Junghuhn (1853, III, pp. 1020-1030) described his observations of the

Idjen Mountains, the active crater Kawah Idjen and what he found written by
Leschenault and Horsfield.
During the eruptive activity in January 1817, which lasted eight days, the
acid crater lake was thrown out. When Reinwardt (1858) visited the volcano in
1821 the vegetation of the summit was still completely destroyed. Two mud
streams were formed of which one flowed in an easterly direction. It reached the
coast of Java south of Banyuwangi, and destroyed a large area which was still
barren when Junghuhn visited it in 1844. The other flowed in a westerly direc-
tion into the valley of Banyu Pait and eventually reached the north coast.
Verbeek and Fennema (1896, pp. 76-88) also explored and described the
Idjen Mountains and Kawah Idjen.
Pangerango and Gedeh (6,3-6)
According to Junghuhn (1854, IUI) these were two separate volcanoes belonging
to one compound mountain. They form one of the biggest volcanoes of Java,
comparable with the Tengger volcano (6,3-31) in East Java. Junghuhn was of the
opinion that Mt Gedeh was a nice example of an elevation crater, an idea Leo-
pold von Buch introduced in 1825 as Erhebungskrater. According to this theory
volcanic cones originate when vertically rising magma pushed up the originally
flat lying layers. In 1859, five years after Junghuhn's publication, Scrope proved
that volcanic cones originate by the accumulation of the material thrown out
and deposited around the eruption centre.
Contrary to Junghuhn, Verbeek and Fennema (1896, pp. 741-748) consid-
ered Gedeh-Pangerango as a twin volcano of which the latter was the most
ancient one.
Mt Guntur (6,3-13)
In the days of Junghuhn (1853, II, p. 77) Mt Guntur was the most active volca-
no after Mt Merapi and Mt Lamongan. Every year ash and stone eruptions took
place and several lava flows came down. Junghuhn described 16 eruptions for
the period 1800-1843.
According to Verbeek and Fennema (1896, pp. 714-720) the basaltic lava
flows originated in the Masigit crater.
Mt Galunggung (6,3-14)
From Mt Galunggung Junghuhn (1854, pp. 124-160) described amply the erup-
tion of 8 October 1822, when an enormous black cloud of smoke rose from the
crater, and hot water mixed with mud and stones streamed sidewards through an
already existing, about 2 km wide gap in the eastern mountain side to a distance
of 16 km. Thousands of people were killed in the region that was covered with
2.4 k m mud and stones to a height of 12 to 15 m. This 175 k m large region
3 2
was called 'the territory of the 10 000 hillocks'.

Verbeek and Fennema (1896, II, pp. 58-84) were of the opinion that 100
million m of water, mud and stones came down through the gap ('dalspleet') in
3
the east-southeastern wall of the volcano from 8 till 12 October 1822. They
thought that the many hillocks were secondary eruption centres above lava
flows. This wrong opinion was caused by a hillock near Tasikmalaya which ex-
isted of lava and the supposition that all the mounts had the same composition.
Telaga Bodas (6,3-15)
When Junghuhn (1854, pp. 120-124) visited the crater in July 1837 he found a
white-coloured aluminous lake with solfataras on its northwestern, northern and
northeastern shores at a height of 5220 ft, i.e. 1592 m. Sulphureous gases were
also seen at some places in the lake, heating the water. Near the death valley
Padjagalan he found dead animals.
Mt Slamet (6,3-18)
In August 1838 and June 1847, Junghuhn (1853, II, pp. 171-205) visited the
volcano, one of the highest and most regularly shaped cones of Java. A mountain
chain connects Mt Slamet with the Ding volcanoes in the east. The small flat
summit had a circular, 214 m large and 46 m deep, crater in its west-southwest-
ern part. North of it a sandy plain was bordered by an 8 to 30 m high wall of
lava beds from which fumaroles emanated. White fumes rose from the crater.
Eruptions were known of August 1772, October 1825 and September 1835.
Verbeek and Fennema (1896, II, pp. 406-433) paid special attention to the
northern slope of the volcano. West of the Slamet cone they recognized the re-
mains of an old volcanic mountain. They described the summit as an old horse-
shoe-shaped crater, open to the northeast, and a deep, 280 m large, active crater
in its southwestern part.
The Ding Volcanoes (6,3-20)
Junghuhn (1853, II, pp. 207-275) was of the opinion that this region was a large
caldera of which the rim was formed by the mountains Prahu, Nogosari, Bismo,
and Srodjo (see Fig. 18 on p. 55). Many volcanoes originated within the caldera.
Apart from extinct ones, he mentioned six active cones, further hot wells and
some death valleys. Verbeek and Fennema (1896, II, p. 385) copied the opinion
of Junghuhn concerning the Ding mountain, changing only some details.
Mt Sumbing (6,3-22)
Junghuhn (op. cit.) only mentioned this volcano. At the foot of the volcano
south and north of Temangung, Verbeek and Fennema (1896, II, pp. 946-957)
found numerous small cones, which they thought to have originated from ex-
plosions at the surface of lava flows, now covered by tephra of later eruptions.
They called them wrongly 'boccas', which are small craters at the top, the flank
or the foot of a volcano.
Mt Ungaran (6,3-23)
The not yet extinct volcano had an indistinct crater, surrounded by three tops.
Solfataras were found on the southern slope of the mountain.
Neumann van Padang, History of volcanology in the East Indies, Scripta Geol. 71 ( 1983) 19
Mt Merbabu (6,3-24)
Junghuhn, who climbed the volcano in November 1836, found a wooded sum-
mit, consisting of several tops. He mentioned some fumaroles and mud wells, but
no eruptions.
Mt Merapi (6,3-25)
In 1838 and 1840 Junghuhn (1853, II, pp. 371-419) found in the northeastern
part of the summit an old crater wall called Pusunglondon, built up of lava lay-
ers. A sandy former crater bottom was situated between this wall and the active
crater, in which a dome-shaped lava plug had risen. Junghuhn mentioned the
shifting of the crater in a westerly direction. The new lava flowed over the
northwestern and western crater rim and the mountain slope, downwards as far
as the upper course of the Blongkeng ravine. Glowing pieces of lava tumbled
down during many years after the eruption of 1832. In 1840 solfataras were
seen between the lava blocks in the crater.
Junghuhn mentioned the eruptions of 1560, 1664, 1678, 1768, 1822-23,
1832, 1837, and 1846-47. They were accompanied by lava flows and lava ava-
lanches, some of which destroyed villages, formed mud flows and caused the loss
of human lifes. The severe eruption of 1664 was also described by Crawfurd
(1820, p. 509).
Mt Kelut (6,3-28)
Junghuhn (1853, III, pp. 643-702) was the first European reacht the crater rim
of Mt Kelut on 16 September 1844. From the northwest rim he saw the crater
lake, untill then unknown, situated between steep, hundreds of feet high walls.
Junghuhn mentioned the eruption in the year 1000 documented by Raffles
(1817, II, p. 95); further that of 1811 and of 1826. The mud flows of these
eruptions, which took place without preliminary symptoms, destroyed many vil-
lages. The eruption of 1848, lasting from 7 till 9 o'clock a.m., was accompanied
by scorching clouds.
Verbeek and Fennema (1896, p. 166) mentioned moreover the eruption of
1864 and the catastrophe of 1875. The rocks of these eruptions were pyroxene-
andesites, and according to Lori (1879) also hornblende-andsites.
Tengger and Mt Bromo (6,3-31 )
The Tengger Mountains were visited by Junghuhn (1853, III, pp. 784-853) in
1844. He published a good sketch of the caldera, which he called a crater. The
sketch agrees very well with the present day topographical map. Of the four
eruption centres in the caldera Mt Bromo was the only active crater. In March
1838 its crater contained a little lake, which already existed in 1825 (van Her-
werden, 1845).
Mt Raung (6,3-34)
Junghuhn (1853, III, pp. 887-910) ascended Mt Rawon, as he called the volcano,
in October 1844. His description agrees with those of later investigators. He

knew of no eruptions, which means that the outburst mentioned by Lodewijcksz
(see p. 8) was unknown or already forgotten at his time. The summit of the vol-
cano being barren and savage, Junghuhn however was of the opinion that a great
eruption must have taken place in one of the last centuries.
Verbeek and Fennema (1896) mentioned two partly collapsed and eroded
crater rims, west of the large Raung crater, with diameters of 3480 m and
3000 m.
Mt Lamongan (6,3-32)
The completely isolated volcano Mt Lamongan rose in a flat country. It was vis-
ited by Junghuhn (1853, III, pp. 1103-1132) in July 1838, November 1844 and
in 1847. The volcano was built up of two cones, of which Mt Tarub was the
most ancient one. Mt Lamongan originated on the south-southwestern slope of
Mt Tarub when its crater was choked.
The volcano was surrounded by a number of small lakes ('ranus') which ac-
cording to Junghuhn were caused by collapse. In his opinion they could not be
explosion holes because ring walls and fumaroles are missing. These 'ranus' in-
deed are maars.
Junghuhn mentioned eleven outbursts between 1799 and 1847.
Mt Patuha (6,3-7)
On 13 June 1887 Kawah Putih one of the craters of Mt Patuha contained a shal-
low lake which was white from the suspended sulphur. A strong ebullition of
gases took place in the western part of the lake (Verbeek & Fennema, 1896).
Wayang-Windu (6,3-13)
According to Verbeek and Fennema these mountains were two border volcanoes
of a caldera of which the plain of Pengalengan was the bottom and of which the
western rim had disappeared.
MT TAMBORA (6,4-4)
Junghuhn (1853, III, pp. 1249-1260) described the catastrophic eruption of Mt

Tambora on Sumbawa, one of the Lesser Sunda Islands, after what he read in
Raffles (1817, pp. 25-28), Ross (1816) and the Javasche Courant of 22 July
1820. He had the wrong idea that the neighbourhood of the sea had influenced
the intensity of this outburst.
The volcano which was thought to be extinct, emitted a dense cloud for the
first time in 1812. On 5 April 1815 eruptive activity started again, followed by a
catastrophic outburst from April 10th till 12th. In these three days the volcano
lost nearly a third of its height, which was reduced to about 2550 m. During the
three following months, till July the 15th, the volcano was active with reduced
power. According to Junghuhn 318 k m of ash and stones were thrown out, de-
3
positing a thick layer of ash on the islands of Sumbawa and Lombok, and caus-
ing the death of 56 000 people. A sea wave, caused by the disappearance of the
protruding Cape Lengan into the Java Sea, lasted only three minutes. It dragged
away houses and trees in the Gulf of Bima and threw big ships on the shore.
Zollinger (1855) visited the volcano in August 1847. He found a great
quantity of light-coloured and black pumice. It had an ovally shaped crater (cal-
dera) with a diameter of an hour's walk (5 km) and a depth of c. 1700 feet (510
m), perpendicular walls, a feeble bowlshaped crater bottom, and solfataras along
an elongated little lake. Zollinger thought that the volcano originally had a
height of 4200 m.
Verbeek (1885, p. 135) thought the quantity of emitted material to be 150
k m . Anyhow, the amount of ash and dust was such that 1816 was called the
3
year without a summer, because in Western Europe and North America there
was snow and frost in June, July and August.
VOLCANOES OF THE BANDA SEA AND HALMAHERA
In 1899 Verbeek (1908) made a study of some of the volcanoes of the eastern
part of the archipelago, where he visited those of the Banda Sea and of Halma-
hera.
G. Api N of Wetar (6,5-3)
On April 8th 1899 steam and S 0 gases rose from the central crater of this is-
2
land volcano north of Wetar.
Damar = i. Wurlali (6,5-4)
This big volcano, also called Dammer and Daam, had a crater Wuarlili or Lool-
suni with solfataras.
Teon = i. Serawerna (6,5-5)
This island, also called Te wer, was a simple volcano.
Nila = i. Laworkawra (6,5-6)
A young cone surrounded by an old mantle.
Serua = i. Legatala (6,5-7)
A truncated cone surrounded by an old rim of lava and breccias.
Manuk (6,5-8)
A truncated cone with a central crater from where S 0 gases rose.

2
Mt Dukono (6,8-1)
A compound volcano of young cones.

Peak of Ternate = i. Gamalama (6,8-6)
The summit of this volcano contained two concentric craters of which the rim of
the inmost one was 15 m higher than the other. Within the inmost crater was a
105 m high eruption cone of loose blocks of lava. This volcano was also describ-
ed by Junghuhn (1854) and Wichmann (1899). The volcano was frequently ac-
tive.
Makian = i. Kie Besi (6,8-7)
According to Verbeek (1908, pp. 141-143) the irregularly shaped square island
had two craters. Eruptions were known of 1646, 1760, 1861, and 1899. Gaade
(1925) published a map of the 1450-1500 m wide and c. 500 m deep crater,
which is the southern crater of Verbeek. Verbeek's northern crater is the upper
part of an erosion valley.
Systematic volcanological research after 1900
Since 1850 the chapter 'Vulkanische verschijnselen en aardbevingen, waargeno-

men in de Nederlandsch Indische Archipel' (Volcanic phenomena and earth-
quakes observed in the Netherlands Indies Archipelago) appeared every year in
the 'Natuurkundig Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch Indi'. After the foundation of
the Volcanological Survey (see below), Kemmerling (192Id) and Taverne (1923-
1925) published in this magazine 'Vulkanologische Berichten' (Volcanological
Tidings), describing the volcanoes investigated in that period.
From 1921 till 1941 thirteen volumes of 'Vulkanologische en Seismolo-
gische Mededelingen' (Volcanological and Seismological Communications) ap-
peared with detailed treatises written by Kemmerling, Taverne, van Es, Stehn,
Neumann van Padang, Esenwein, and Hartmann. The Bulletin of the Netherlands
Indies Volcanological Survey, publishing in English the observed data, appeared
every month in the beginning, then once every two months and since 1931 quar-
terly. Much volcanological information was published in the Proceedings of the
Pacific Sience Congresses. In 1926 Stehn (1928a) communicated at the Pacific
Science Congress in Japan on the volcanological work in the Dutch East Indies
during 1923-1926. The IV Pacific Sei. Congr. took place on Java in 1929.
Papers on Indonesian volcanoes are to be found in the journals 'de Mijn-
ingenieur', 'de Ingenieur in Nederlands Indi' and 'de Tropische Natuur'. In 'de
Bergcultures' articles were published on how the population could be protected
against eruptions.
Also in the Netherlands, essays were written on volcanoes of the East
Indies, especially by Escher, Brouwer, Umbgrove, and Kuenen.
Georges Laure Louis Kemmerling (Maastricht, 26-1-1888 - Amsterdam, 26-5-

1932) studied at the Mining Academy of Freiberg in Saxony and at the Universi-
ty of Freiburg im Breisgau, where he got his Doctor's degree. From 1911 till
1913 he worked as a geologist for the Nederlandsche Koloniale Petroleum Maat-
schappij. After having been assistent to Professor G.A.F. Molengraaff in Delft in

1914, he went back to the former Netherlands East Indies where he was em-
ployed in the Mining Department in 1916.
In 1917, after getting acquainted with the volcanoes Batur and Agung, he
became interested in volcanology. He described the volcanoes of Western Suma-
tra and the catastrophic eruption of Mt Kelut in May 1919. He made a special
study of its mud flows, and of the glowing avalanches of Mt Merapi. In 1920 he
was appointed Director of the newly established Volcanological Survey. In May
1926 a serious illness caused him to take a leave to Holland. This illness, of
which he never recovered, prevented his return to the Indies.
Berend George Escher (Gorinchem, 4-4-1885 - Oosterbeek, 11-10-1967) was an

influential promotor of the foundation of a volcanological survey in the Nether-
lands East Indies. After having studied geology at Zrich (Switzerland), where he
got his Doctor's degree in 1911, he became an assistant to Professor Dubois in
Amsterdam and custodian at the Technical University in Delft. Being on Java in
1918 and 1919, he got interested in volcanic phenomena, particularly in those of
Krakatau and Mt Kelut. After he was nominated to the Chair of Geology at Lei-
den University in 1922, becoming at the same time Director of the'Rijksmu-
seum van Geologie en Mineralogie' (National Museum of Geology and Mineralo-
gy), his interest in volcanoes remained. From 1948 till 1956 he was President of
the Volcanological Section of the International Union of Geodesy and Geo-
physics.
Charles Edgar Stehn (Altona, Germany, 10-11-1884 - Dehra Dunn, India, May
1945) studied geology in Bonn, where he obtained his Doctor's degree in July
1914. In November 1921 he went to the former Netherlands East Indies where
he became assistant to Dr G.L.L. Kemmerling, Director of the Netherlands In-
dies Volcanological Survey, in February 1922. Four years later, in May 1926, he
himself was appointed Director of the Survey. The Second World War brought
an end to his successful career. Being a German he was put in an internment
camp by the Dutch authorities and later transported to Dehra Dunn in British
India, where he died.
During his 18 years with the Volcanological Survey he made 150 volcano-
logical tours, studied 41 active volcanoes and published 34 papers.
Reinout Willem van Bemmelen, born at Batavia (Jakarta) in the former Nether-
lands East Indies on 14 April 1904, studied mining engineering and geology in
Delft, where he obtained his Doctor's degree in 1927. In the Netherlands East
Indies he worked as a geologist on Sumatra and Java. He was especially interest-
ed in tectonophysics and volcanology. After the Second World War he was nom-
inated professor of geology at the University of Utrecht. For his outstanding
scientific achievements he received many honours, a.o. the 'Van Waterschoot van
der Gracht Medal' of the Royal Geological and Mining Society of the Nether-
lands in 1970, the 'Wollaston Medal' of the Geological Society of London in
1977, and the honorary doctor's degree from the University of Uppsala, also in
1977. The results of van Bemmelen's work can be characterized by three key
words: 1) Geology of Indonesia, 2) Undation Theory, and closely related with
the latter 3) Gravity tectonics (see Katili & Hartono, 1979).
Maur Neumann van Padang, born in Padang Pandjang in the former Netherlands
East Indies on 18 April 1894, studied mining engineering in Delft and geology in
Berlin, where he obtained the Doctor's degree in October 1924. As an Assistent
of Professor Hans Reck he was charged with the study of the volcanic islands of
Santorini in Greece.
He arrived in the Netherlands Indies in May 1928, where he was appointed
to the Volcanological Survey.
After the war he was pensioned off. Back in Holland Professor B.G. Escher,
President of the International Volcanological Association, charged him with the
compilation of a 'Catalogue of the active volcanoes of Indonesia', which appear-
ed in 1951. In 1954 he was appointed Editor of the 'Catalogue of the active vol-
canoes of the World', which he was till 1967. In that time he succeeded in get-
ting 21 parts of the Catalogue published. In 1969 he was invited to participate,
as honorary vice president, in the First International Scientific Congress of the
volcano of Thera (Santorini).
VOLCANOLOGICAL SURVEY
In 1918 Escher developed a 'Program of activities to be done by a division or

commission of volcanology in order to establish a Volcanological Survey'. This
Survey had to observe the dangerous volcanoes regularly, make maps of the
crater regions and take temperatures of the fumaroles at the summit of the vol-
canoes. He further pleaded to found a volcanological institute with its own ar-
chives, library and museum.
Escher's suggestions had success. In 1918 the 'Natuurkundige Vereeniging'
(Physical Society) at Batavia established a Volcanological Commission ('Vulka-
nologische Commissie') that charged the geologist Dr G.L.L. Kemmerling to
study some volcanoes of the West Coast of Sumatra. The results of his investiga-
tions were published in the first Vulkanologische Mededeeling (Volcanological
Communication) in 1921.
Already in September 1909 the Loemadjang Commissie was established
that led to the formation of the Semeroefonds (Semeroe Fund) on 15 April
1910 (Vissering, 1910, p. 89; Neumann van Padang, 1950, p. 541). This founda-
tion, however, only had the purpose of helping the victims of disasters and not
to study volcanic phenomena. It came into being after a catastrophe in the night
of 29 to 30 August 1909 caused by mud flows which destroyed c. 8 k m of ara- 2
ble land with 38 villages, killing 208 persons. These mud flows originated on the
slopes of Mt Semeru by long lasting heavy rains.
After the catastrophic eruption of Mt Kelut in 1919a 'Vulkaanbewakings-
dienst' (Volcano-Watching Service) was founded as a subdivision of the Dienst
van de Mijnbouw (Department of Mines). This survey studied how the popula-
tion could be protected from volcanic eruptions: 1) by studying the type of the
volcano, 2) by finding out a possibility to predict an eruption, 3) by investi-
gating the menaced regions, 4) by developing a system to warn and evacuate the
population of these regions, and 5) by trying to reduce the effect of an eruption.
Since December 1922, when the 'Vulkaanbewakingsdienst' was called 'Vul-
kanologisch Onderzoek' (Volcanological Research), the volcanoes of the archi-
pelago, especially of Java, were visited and studied regularly. Some volcanoes
were guarded permanently from fixed observation centres. That was the case
with Mt Tangkubanparahu (6,3-9) and Mt Papandayan (6,3-10) because of the

poisonous gases, dangerous for the tourists who visited the craters. Warning-
boards were placed on the spots the tourists had to ayoid.
Mt Merapi (6,3-25) and Mt Kelut (6,3-28) were guarded permanently be-
cause of the catastrophic eruptions and Kawah Idjen (6,3-35) because of the
danger the crater water, rich in sulphureous acid, could cause when it flowed to
the lowland uncontrolled.
To find a relation between the temperature changes of the solfataras in the
crater and the activity of the volcano, the temperatures were measured regularly,
in some cases daily. The assumption that a rise of these temperatures preceded
an eruption was not confirmed in the controlled cases (see p. 49).
Seismographs had to register the movement of the magma. In 1927 seismo-
graphs were present at the observation stations of the volcanoes Merapi, Papan-
dayan and Kelut. The observation station Maron at the west-southwest foot of
Mt Merapi, at a distance of 6 km from the summit, had an Omori tromometer, as
used in Japan. It registered horizontal shocks. The observation stations of Mt
Papandayan and Mt Kelut, situated near the crater on the summit of these vol-
canoes, had Wiechert seismographs which registered vertical shocks. In March
1929 Mt Papandayan also got a Wiechert seismograph to note horizontal shocks.
In 1923 Taverne published a synopsis of what the 'Vulkaanbewakings-
dienst had done over the past five years together with the 'Koninklijk Magne-
tisch en Meteorologisch Observatorium' (Royal Magnetic and Meteorological Ob-
servatory) at Batavia (Visser, 1921).
The 'Vulkaanbewakingsdienst' remained long (until 1940) the only gov-
ernmental volcanological service, by which all the volcanoes of the country were
studied and kept under close observation. Elsewhere, e.g. Japan, Hawaii and
Italy, universities carried out volcanological research and founded volcanological
stations.
VOLCANOES OF NORTH SUMATRA
In July 1904 Volz (1912, pp. 228-233) visited several volcanoes.
Seulawah Agam (6,1-2)
He mentioned an eruption in the 300 m wide Van Heutz crater in January 1839.
Burni Geureudong (6,1-4)
This twin volcano was visited in the same year. Active solfataras were found in
the crater which was open on its northeastern side. The two maars on the south-
eastern slope were also observed by Tichelman (1933). The earthquake of Octo-
ber 1935 did not alter the condition of the hot wells, the solfataras and the gey-
sers.
Burni Telong (6,1-5)
According to Volz this parasitic cone of the Geureudong (6,1-4) had an eruption
in 1856.
Mt Sinabung (6,1-8)
This is a regularly built simple volcano with a twin crater within an old crater
wall. Solfataric activity was strong. In 1912 the summit of the volcano was map-
ped. Of the four craters, I to IV, the dimensions and depths were given by Neu-
mann van Padang (1951, p. 13). Shifting of the explosion centre of crater HI
caused its elongated shape in a northwestern direction and the origin of crater
IV. According to Hoekstra (1893) the volcano emitted ash clouds in 1881 (see
also Umbgrove, 1931, p. 237).
KRAKATAU (6,2)
On the occasion of the first 'Nederlandsch Indisch Natuurwetenschappelijk Con-

gres' (Netherlands East Indies Natural Science Congress) Escher ( 1919c) wrote
an excursion guide for the participants who visited the islands. He sketched the
changes the volcano underwent in the course of time (Fig. 5).
The IV Pacific Science Congress took place on Java in 1929. For the parti-
cipants of the excursion to Krakatau Stehn (1929c) wrote a book in which he
described amply what Verbeek and Escher had written. Then followed a descrip-
tion of the activity of Anak Krakatau that began on 29 December 1927 with
submarine eruptions from a spot in the caldera sea near the steep northeastern
submarine ridge in the basin. The eruption products built up a cone which rose
above the sea level on 26 January 1928 as a low elongated island. It was called
Anak Krakatau (child of Krakatau). Surf eroded this island and in February it
already had disappeared.
The eruptions continued and on 28 January 1929 a new crater rim appear-
ed, Anak Krakatau II, which lasted till July the 3rd. Stehn made a special study
of the ebullitions: the up W e l l i n g s of the sea, the water cones and the water
fountains that accompanied the eruptions. In the Bulletins of the Netherlands
Indies Volcanological Survey of the years 1929 till 1940 the activity and the
origin of Anak Krakatau III and IV since 12 August 1930 were described. A
violent eruption of Anak Krakatau was observed in May 1933 by Stehn. The
eruption clouds, reaching a height of 4000 m and even more, were accompanied
by rumblings and electric discharges.
The fact that 50 years earlier the catastrophic outburst of Krakatau had
taken place was commemorated by Stehn (1933e) in 'Die Umschau' and by Neu-
mann van Padang (1933b) in 'Tropische Natuur'. Moreover Neumann van Padang
Fig. 5. The history of the volcano Krakatau, as sketched by Escher (1931b).

IA - The hypothetical big original volcano.
IB - Three small islands, remnants of the foot of the original volcano, remained on the bor-
der of a large caldera.
II - A basaltic volcano, Rakata, originated on the southern border of the caldera.
IIIA- North of Rakata, the andesitic volcanoes Danan and Perboewatan originated,
HIB - Situation after the catastrophic eruption of 1883, showing the sea above the new
caldera.
IV - This figure was added in 1930 to the figure of Escher (1919c) after the origin of the
eruption centre Anak Krakatau in the middle of the caldera.
Neumann van Padang, History of volcanology in the East Indies, Scripta Geol. 71 (1983)
Fig. 6. Map of the Krakatau islands with depth of the caldera bottom; depth figures from
Escher, 1928 (from Neumann van Padang, 1933b, enclosure).
tried to explain the peculiar shape of the caldera, which was not funnelshaped
and circular, but irregular with submarine valleys in southeastern and southwest-
ern directions, i.e. in the prolongation of the NW-SE directed Semangka Rift
zone on Sumatra, and perpendicular to it (see Fig. 6). On the intersection of
these two rift zones a weak spot originated where the hypomagma rose and
formed a magma chamber, the shape of which was strongly influenced by the
presence of the ruptures. The shape of the caldera indicates moreover that the
basin originated by collapses along these tectonic fractures.
In two diagrams Neumann van Padang (1936c) showed the changes of
Anak Krakatau (A.K.) from January 1929 till December 1935. Diagram I shows
the origin and disappearance of A.K.II and A.K.III and the growth of A.K.IV.
The NE-SW directed sections in diagram 2, made through the same place of the
crater, show that the crater rim of A.K.III was situated more than 100 m NE of
that of A.K.II whereas the explosion centre had moved 125 m to the south, i.e.
in the opposite direction. The eruptions did not always take place at the same
spot. On July 8th the eruption took place not only in the crater of the island but
also at a place about 500 m south of it (Stehn, 1935b, pp. 166-167).
VOLCANOES OF JAVA
The volcanoes of Java had always aroused special interest because their eruptions
could cause major catastrophes on this rather densely populated island (see p. 7,
41). Java also being the administrative center of the former Netherlands East In-
dies, it was only natural that new methods were first applied here.
Taverne (1926) observed the volcanoes of Java from an aeroplane. From
this height he got a good view of the volcanoes and their environs. Often details
were seen which could not be found on ordnance maps.
After having mentioned the influence of eruptions on the morphology of
the landscape, he described the different shapes of volcanoes. Taverne distin-
guished monoconic and polyconic volcanoes. The monoconic or simple volca-
noes had kept their conical shape. To these he reckoned the Mts Slamet, Tjeri-
mai, Sundoro, Sumbing, Merapi, Kelut, Raung, and Tangkubanparahu. Of the
polyconic or compound volcanoes Gede-Pangerango, Patuha-Kawah Putih,
Guntur, Tarub-Lamongan, and Merapi-Kawah Idjen the transformations were
great.
These transformations took place above fissures, generally diagonal to the
main direction of the folding. Such fissures were also recognizable in monoconic
volcanoes, e.g. in the shifting of the crater in the summit of Mt Slamet, already
mentioned by Verbeek. The volcanoes Sumbing - Sundoro and Merbabu - Merapi
are situated above SW-NE directed fissures.
In a list and a graph Taverne mentioned the eruptions that took place on
Java from 1800 till 1924. As the volcanoes Semeru, Lamongan and Bromo were
very active in that period, the number of years in which eruptions took place
was great in East Java, 124 against 57 in West Java. The repose periods between
the eruptions were of unequal duration.
Mt Kelut (6,3-28)
In the night of the 22nd to 23rd of May 1901 an eruption of Mt Kelut took
place. L. Houwink (1901) was charged to investigate what happened and to ad-
vise what could be done to prevent catastrophes. According to him 12 days be-
fore the eruption raised activity was observed in the crater lake. The ejected lake
formed lahars (mud flows) that filled the ravines to a height of 58 m, and reach-
ed the village Blitar in a short time. Relatively little damage was done because of
the many bifurcations of the lahars. More damage occurred in the following
months when the rains removed the deposited mud. Houwink was of the opinion
that Blitar could only be saved when the crater lake was removed.
Six months before, in May 1900, J. Homan van der Heide (1904) was in-
structed to investigate if the crater lake could serve as a water reservoir that
would supply the necessary irrigation water during the dry monsoons. He advis-
ed to throw up a dam in the ravine through which the crater water flowed away.
Eighteen years later, in the night of 19 to 20 May 1919a catastrophic erup-
tion took place, described by Kemmerling (1921b). He paid much attention to
the destructive mud flows, and distinguished cold, hot, eruption and rain lahars.
At the end of his work he described the eruptions of 1000, 1334, 1586, 1752,
1776, 1811, 1826, 1835, 1848, 1864, and 1901.
The first lahars which came down were cold, consisting of the upper part of
the crater lake, not yet heated by the eruption material. Then the hot lahars fol-
lowed, containing hot eruption material. All the lahars also contained old mate-
rial from the bed and the walls of the ravines. Approximately 30 to 40 million
m of water passed the 20 to 30 m wide and 80 to 100 m deep Durga Cleft and
3
streamed into the valley of Lahar Badak. Within 45 minutes 131.2 k m of culti- 2
vated land was covered by mud and debris to a height of lV4- 2 /2m, and to a dis-
1
tance of 35 to 40 km from the crater. More than 5000 people were killed and
104 villages were totally or partly destroyed.
Later on in the same year lahars were formed by heavy rains (rain lahars),
causing also great damage. In the beginning these were still hot, as they contain-
ed hot material from the ravines; gradually they cooled.
Lahars also occurred on volcanoes without a crater lake. They are known
from the volcanoes Merapi (6,3-25), Semeru (6,3-30), Lamongan (6,3-32), and
Raung (6,3-34).
After the crater lake was thrown out in 1919 the volcano ejected ash and
bombs during several hours. Kemmerling estimated the total amount to be 100
million m of ash and 40 million of debris. The rock consisted of hornblende-
3
containing hypersthene-andesite. hypersthene-augite-andesite, pyroxene-ande-

site, and hornblende-augite-andesite. The inclusions were diorites.
Junghuhn mentioned a height of 4257 ft (= 1297 m) for the level of the
crater lake in 1844. His heights being too low according to the Topografische
Dienst (Ordnance Survey) the water level at that time must have been at a height
of 1375 m, and the lowest part of the crater rim 1405 m a.s.l. In 1873, when the
ordnance map of Mt Kelut 1:20 000 mentioned the real heights, the western cra-
ter rim was 145 m lower, and the water level 123 m lower than in 1844. The
Durga Cleft, which the crater water had to pass to flow into the Lahar Badak,
must have originated after the great eruption of 1848 (Kemmerling, 1921b, p.
102), and that of 1864 (Hageman. 1865).
The catastrophe of 29 January 1875 was not caused by an eruption. The

western crater wall was pushed away by the pressure of the crater lake. Then
40 million m of water came down (Cool, 1908).
3
Safety measures
In 1905 the first measures were taken to protect Blitar against cold lahars by
building a dam near the bifurcation of Lahar Badak into Lahar Tomas and Lahar
Blitar. The dam was destroyed in 1919.
From 1907 till 1908 a 7 m deep gully was dug in the lowest part of the
western rim. The lake was kept at this level by a concrete dam with locks. But
there was still 40 million m of water in the crater. In 1907 the mining engineer
3
Hugo Cool suggested to dig a tunnel in the crater wall in order to keep the crater
empty. This suggestion was received with approval, but it was never carried out.
A week after the eruption of 1919, in the course of lectures held in Batavia,
Buitenzorg and Bandung, Escher (1919b, d, e, 1920a; see also Stehn, 1929a, p.
19; Neumann van Padang, 1950, p. 553, 1958, pp. 79, 88-92, 1960a) recom-
mended to remove the water from the crater. A committee appointed by the
Government suggested 1 ) to lower the surface of the lake and to keep it low by
means of a pumping installation, or 2) to build a drainage tunnel.
In July 1919, some two months after the eruption, van Rummelen (1953,
p. 8) drew up a project to drain the crater by means of siphons. On 19 July 1919
he mailed an official letter to the Minister for the Colonies on this matter. As a
result, the Mining Department decided to have a drainage tunnel dug, because
the crater was empty and they hoped to be ready before water in the crater
could cause any danger.
In September 1919 the tunnel was started in the left wall of Lahar Badak at
a height of 1110 m. H.G. von Steiger was charged with the execution. This pro-
ject, however, had to be altered because of a lava plug which rose in the crater in
December 1920. In March 1923 the lake water had already risen to 67 m above
the level of the tunnel.
Fig. 7. The tunnels in the eastern crater wall of Mt Kelut (from van Hettinga Tromp, 1926;
see also Stehn, 1929c, p. 19).
After a thorough geological survey by Taverne (1924b, pp. 51-67), H. van

Hettinga Tromp (1926) worked out a project to lower the surface of the lake
gradually by driving horizontal tunnels (Fig. 7) and to remove the water by
means of siphons. The water level was so brought to a height of 1133 m a.s.l.,
leaving back 1.8 million m of water in the crater, that was less than 1/20 of the
3
quantity it could contain. Due to intercrateral downfall the water content was
reduced to 1.6 million m in 1936.
3
Together with Government Officials a 'Handbook for safety measures for

the Kelut' was composed by Stehn.
On 31 August 1951, after a repose of 32 years, a new eruption took place.
Since the quantity of water in the crater was small, no mud flows of any consid-
erable size were formed. Damage was only caused by ejected material in the sur-
roundings of the crater to a distance of 6 km, an area of virgin forest land. Only
some people who happened to be near the summit were killed, among these
three observers of the Volcanological Survey doing their duty (see van IJzen-
doorn, 1953; van Rummelen, 1953).
Mt Raung (6,3-34)
The ovally shaped crater had, according to the mapping of the Topografische
Dienst (Ordnance Survey), a diameter of 2280 m in a NW-SE direction and of
1760 m perpendicularly to it. Brouwer (1915, p. 58) thought the 600 m deep
crater to have orriginated by collapse.
Verbeek (1908) already remarked that the flows on the outer slope must
have come from a higher point. This is in harmony with a legend (Sthr, 1864,
p. 452) that said that the summit had been much higher, which means that a
catastrophic eruption must have taken place in historical times (see p. 9).
Brouwer (1914. 1915, pp. 60-65) described seven eruptions, those of 1597,
1638, 1730, between 1787 and 1799, between 1800 and 1808, 1815/ 1816, and
1849, all mentioned by Bosch (1858). Brouwer mentioned moreover the erup-
tions of 1864, 1881, 1896/97, 1902, 1903/04, and 1913. In 1913 a 100 m high
one was formed at the bottom of the great crater.
He examined the rocks of the volcano wall, which were olivinebasalt,
pyroxene-andesite with olivine, augite-andesite, hypersthene-augite-andesite, and
amphibole-hypersthene-andesite.
Taverne (1924b, pp. 50-51 ; 1925b, pp. 162-164) described the weak erup-
tions of 1923 and 1924. He was of the opinion that the mud flows that destroy-
ed the village Tambon in 1638 came from Mt Ranti and not from the Raung as
Bosch (1858, p. 279) asserted.
Richard (1935) succeeded in reaching the caldera bottom in June 1932. In
August he mapped the region. The temperatures of the fumaroles were low, 92-
128C. The young volcanic cone which originated in 1913 and increased in
height and diameter by the eruptions of 1927, 1928 and 1929, was situated
somewhat excentrically to the east. In 1933 its height was about 110 m. The
rock samples Richard collected were described and chemically analysed by
Koomans (1935) as basalts and andesites.
In the western foreland of Mt Raung is a region with thousands of small
hillocks. The highest part of the landscape begins in the horseshoe-shaped de-
pression of Mt Gadung, a volcanic skeleton west of Mt Raung. Junghuhn (1853,
III, p. 886) regarded these hills rightly to be remainders of erosion. Verbeek and
Fennema (1896, p. 95) were of the opinion that they were hornitos, i.e. small
lava cones built up on a lava flow (see also p. 17).
Kemmerling (192le, p. 13) considered these hills to be monadnocks, i.e.
remainders of an eroded peneplain, that existed before the origin of the volca-
noes. With reference to the arrangement of the hills Neumann van Padang
(1938b, and 1939a; see also van Bemmelen, 1949a, I, p. 194-195) argued that
the collaps of the western sector of the above mentioned volcano caused a land-
slide that covered the landscape to a length of 50 km and a width of 10 to 20
km. The hillocks were the remnants of this landslide. Here therefore is a similar
landsacpe as exists in the foreland of Mt Galunggung (see pp. 17, 34).
Telaga Bodas (6,3-15)
Taverne (1924a) who visited Telaga Bodas in 1923 was of the opinion that it
formed a compound volcano with Mt Galunggung (6,3-14). He distinguished in
Telaga Bodas four craters of which K.I till K.III originated by shifting from
south to north. K.IV (Kawah Saat) south of K.I was the youngest eruption
centre.
In an unpublished report of 1939 Neumann van Padang concluded on p-
trographie arguments that K.IV was situated in the crater bottom of the oldest
Tjamar crater, as its rocks consisted of basalt, while the rocks of K.III consisted
of the younger augite-hypersthene-andesite.
Ten years before Taverne visited the crater, Wolvekamp (1915) had to in-
vestigate if an eruption of this volcano could have the same catastrophic result as
that of Mt Galunggung in 1822 (see p. 17). The volcanic activity was very low in
1913 and Wolvekamp even was of the opinion that the water of the crater lake
could be used to irrigate the rice fields. A sample of the mud contained 36% of
sulphur (see also p. 51).
In 1819 Reinwardt (1858) found much sulphur in the crater water, in 1837
the water was not very sulphureous (Junghuhn, 1854), in 1853 Maier found less
than 2 7o of S in the water. In 1918 a large part of the crater bottom was dry
l
(Kemmerling, 192Id, p. 36) and the quantity of sulphur in the mud was great.
Mt Papandayan (6,3-10)
Taverne (1924b, pp. 36-40; 1925b, pp. 102-137; 1926) described the phreatic
eruptions of Kawah Baru and Kawah Nangklak in the years 1923 till 1925.
According to Taverne (1926) the breach in the northeastern wall of the
volcano originated by explosions of his crater K.5, which he supposed to have
been behind the strongly weathered Warirang terrace, excentric of the present,
still active crater. The valley in the northeastern wall he thought to have been
already in existence. He rightly disputed the idea of Verbeek and Fennema
(1896) that a lava lake in the crater would have destroyed the northeastern wall
and caused the origin of the breach, as fresh lava was nowhere found in the val-
ley. The opinion that glowing clouds killed 2957 persons in 1772, however, can-
not be right, as no lavadome, necessary to form glowing clouds, or remainders
of it are found in the crater.
For the participants of the IV Pacific Science Congress who intended to

visit the volcano, Neumann van Padang (1929a, b) wrote the excursion guide.
According to him the northeastern crater wall was weakened by NE-SW directed
volcano-tectonic fractures, already observed by Verbeek and Fennema, and
moreover by N-S directed ones. Long lasting solfataric activity and strong weath-
ering undermined the region so much that explosions not stronger than the
phreatic ones which took place in 1923-1925 (Taverne) were sufficient to cause
the collapse of that part of the crater wall and mountain slope. These eruptions
might have been in Taverne's K.5. Through this opening sulphur mud from the
crater and strongly weathered white-coloured old lava bricks, rich in silicic acid,
came down as an avalanche and caused the catastrophe.
Mt Galunggung (6,3-14)
The original crater of Mt Galunggung (van Es, 1924) was situated on the summit
of the volcano. By shifting in a southeasterly direction crater II originated. It
probably contained a lake, the water of which was thrown out by each eruption,
forming a valley in the east-southeastern slope of the mountain, that gradually
became deeper and larger. A renewed shifting in a southeasterly direction form-
ed the Warirang crater or crater III.
Van Es described the eruption of July 1918. Contrary to the opinions of
Junghuhn and Verbeek & Fennema (see p. 17), van Es thought that an obliquely
directed glowing cloud was shot through the horseshoe-shaped breach, destroy-
ing within one minute everything to a distance of 10 miles. In his opinion the
destroyed region was independent of the direction of the ravines. Therefore the
destruction could not be explained by mud flows.
Escher (1925) made a thorough study of the 'dix milles monticules' in the
foreland of Mt Galunggung. All these hills consisted of fine material mixed with
small and big lava blocks. Of the 3648 mounts which Escher counted, 2571, that
is more than 2/3 of them, were lower than 10 m, 6 between 50 and 60 m, and 2
had a height of 60 to 70 m. The content of all these hills together was 142 mil-
lion m . The volume missing from the breach in the mountain was 2.866 k m ,
3 3
i.e. 20 times as much. As the hillocks and their subsoil have the same composi-
tion Escher thought that they together are the equivalent of the failing part in
the volcano wall, firstly formed by erosion and finally by a big landslide. This
landslide happened when crater III destroyed the southeastern wall of crater II.
The material of the wall together with the enormous quantity of water of the
crater lake formed the landscape with the 10 000 hillocks. According to Jung-
huhn this happened in 1822.
Tangkubanparahu (6,3-9)
Taverne (1925b, pp. 174-193) described the crater and its eruptions which took
place at intervals of 17, 50 and 14 years. So there was evidently no regularity.
He distinguished four craters situated on a W-E directed line (1926, pp. 71-78).
In June 1924 three pupils of the H.B.S. (high school) perished in an erosion
gully of the crater Kawah Ratu, presumably because of the inhalation of too
much H S gas. One year later in this same crater the corpse of a man was found.
2
That is why since June 1925 on all the approaches to the crater signs were
placed to warn the tourists of the danger they could meet.
Fig. 8. The crater region of Mt Tangkubanparahu (from Stehn, 1929a, p. 10).
In the excursion guide Stehn (1929a) recognized two volcanic valleys (X

and XII) and ten craters or their remnants (Fig. 8), of which the most western
Pangguyangan Badak crater was the oldest one, as Taverne (1926) already stated.
Studying the geological history of this volcano and its environs van Bemme-
len (1934a,' fig. 22, 1934b, 1949a, p. 641) found that the young volcanoes of
the Sunda Complex crowned the Bogor Zone, an anticlinorium of strongly fold-
ed Neogene strata. This Sunda Complex with Mt Tangkubanparahu collapsed
after the accumulation of too much volcanic material on the plastic strata. This
was historically the first case that Haarmann's (1930) gravitational tectogenesis,
called secundary tectogenesis by van Bemmelen, was applied to the volcanoes of
Java. Moreover, this explanation of the tectonic history of the Sunda Volcano
Complex was the first application of the method of tephrachronology, i.e.
chronology based on the study of successive deposits of volcanoclastics. Van
Bemmelen (1934a, b) studied the relation between the folding phases of the
Tambakan Mountains and the eruption products of Mt Tangkubanparahu and
the Sunda Volcano during its break down. He distinguished four stages of evolu-
tion:
1) Quarternary growth of the volcano;
2) Slight doming up by endogenic magmatic forces at the end of the Quarter-
nary;
3) First collapse in recent, prehistoric time; formation of the Lembang Fault;
4) Second collapse in historical time; formation of arcuate rifts through the
summit.
In February 1937, a 30 m long tunnel shaped shelter was built in the south-
ern rim of the Kawah Upas at a height of 1893 m. Its volume being 47 m , it 3
had enough oxygen to keep 3 to 4 persons of the Volcanological Survey 16, re-
spectively 12, hours out of danger.
Kawah Kamodjang (6,3-12)
Taverne (1926, pp. 27-30) described in detail the morphology of Kawah Kamo-
djang. He did not consider this scfatara field to belong to the Guntur complex,
since it is separated from it by an old 2000 m high volcanic ridge, which was
already changed by erosion.
Verbeek and Fennema (1896, p. 721) were of the opinion that Kawah
Kamodjang was situated on the southeastern side of a caldera with a radius of
1900 m.
Stehn (1929b) described the fumarole fields and mud wells of this region.
The temperatures found here were 90-94C. In 1918 van Dijk proposed to gain
energy from the volcanoes in the Dutch East Indies. This matter was critically
discussed by Escher (1920d), Taverne (1925c), Stehn (1927b), and van Bemme-
len (1928). In February 1926 test borings were started (Stehn, 1929b, p. 7). The
boreholes I, II and IV were abandonned, borehole I because of the spurting mud
well which originated close by. Borehole II touched a powerful blower at a
depth of 18.60 m, but after closing the bore pipe the gases disappeared some-
where underground. Borehole IV was driven to a depth of 105 m. The tempera-
ture of the escaping steam was 140C, but the pressure was very low and there-
fore the steam was useless.
Boring III near Kawah Panggilingan emitted nearly pure steam from a depth
of 60 m with a pressure of 2y2atm. The amount of steam streaming forth was
calculated to be 8000 kg/hour, able to generate electric energy of 900 kw.
In September 1926 boring V was drilled to a depth of 128 m. Here the
temperature of the gas was 123C. In December 1928 the pressure of the es-
caping gas was about 5 atm, and the temperature was 140C. The pressure and
the temperature of the two successful borings III and V were taken daily until
April 1934, when the observation station was temporarily closed. The tempera-
tures were checked again in April 1938 and May 1939. Both had not altered
much (Neumann van Padang, 1960b).
The investigations of the gases in Kawah Kamodjang showed that in 12
years of observation the temperature and the pressure of the gases in boring III
were higher in the beginning and decreased but little since 1928. In boring V the
temperature of the gases remained almost constant, the pressure however dimin-
ished considerably from 4 and almost 6 atm to Vi atm.
Mt Merapi (6,3-25)
The eruption of 1930 - The catastrophic outburst of Mt Merapi in 1930 was the
cause that in 1931 and following years many articles appeared on this volcano
(Escher, 1931a, c, 1933a; Grandjean, 1931; Harloff, 1931 ; Hartmann, 1933,
1935b, d; Kemmerling, 1931a, b). The great outburst was also described by Neu-
mann van Padang (1931a, b, c, d ; 1932, 1933a, 1958, 1960a), discussing several
subjects connected with the eruption.
Shift of eruption centre - The shifting of the eruption centre in a westerly direc-
tion took place from 1883 till 1930 over a horizontal distance of 450 m. In
1883 a lava dome was observed in the summit. In 1911 another and higher one
(West Dome) originated west of it at a distance of 130 m from the centre of the
dome of 1883 (see Fig. 9). In 1922 lava broke through the volcano wall, 180 m
Fig. 9. Cross section through the summit of MtMerapi, showing the dome of 1883 ('Oost-
dom'), the West dome, the lava of 1922, the outflow of 1930, and the situation after the erup-
tion of December 1930 (from Neumann van Padang, 1936b, fig. 5).
west of the West Dome, and in November 1930 the lava appeared on the western
slope at a height of 2725 m, 450 m west of the first dome. Because of this shift-
ing only the western slope and foot of the volcano were in danger of being de-
stroyed.
The seismograph - The importance of a seismograph to predict an eruption

shows part of the seismogram of 23-24 November 1930 (Fig. 10). It is registered
by the Omori tromometer at the observation station Maron, 6 km WSW of the
summit of the Volcano Merapi. After the micro-seisms in the first two weeks of
November, on November the 22nd the first quake of importance took place,
that was five hours before the first detonations were heard. The seismogram now
became more turbulent. When the lava broke its way through the wall of the vol-
cano, accompanied by detonations, roaring and avalanches, from 22 till 25 No-
vember the strongest tremors were registered. As soon as the glowing lava had
appeared on the mountain slope, the tremors became weaker (Neumann van Pa-
dang, 1933a, p. 9-18, 1958, p. 113).
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Four years later, on 17 November 1934, a very strong seismic restlessness

started at 17.49 h on the seismogram of Babadan, the observation station 4 km
WNW of the crater. That is why Stehn (1935a, p. 123) brought the observation
posts Babadan and Krindjing into a state of alarm and warned the government
and the population of the threatened regions that he expected an outburst. Be-
cause of the rain fall the volcano was invisible. All the attention therefore was
concentrated on the vibrations of the seismograph and the sounds. At 18.18ha
heavy roaring and thundering noise was heard. As it approached with great
Fig. 11. The lava outflow on the western slope of Mt Merapi on 2 December 1930, seen from
Maron (from Neumann van Padang, 1933a, flg. 1).
quickness the alarm signal was given that glowing avalanches came down. Within
seven minutes they covered a distance of 7 km in the Senowo ravine. As the in-
habitants had left in time the villages in the danger zone, no human lifes were
lost.
The preliminary stage - The volcanic activity of Mt Merapi began in 1930 with a
preliminary stage which lasted two and a half weeks. Than the main eruption
took place during two days, followed by lava outflows during nine months. The
existance of such a preliminary stage is important. It has been proven for all the
studied great eruptions. This is of great importance, because it gives the staff of
the Volcanological Survey time to take the necessary measures to warn the po-
pulation of the menaced regions.
The glowing avalanches - Special attention was given to the problem of the nues
ardentes, a phenomenon Lacroix (1904) mentioned for the first time when he
described the eruption of Montagne Pele on Martinique in 1902. He was of the
opinion that a cloud of gas, laden with volcanic ash and debris, was shot in a
more or less horizontal direction with a of velocity about 150 m/s, reaching and
destroying St Pierre at a distance of 6 km from the summit within 40 seconds.
During the activity of Mt Merapi in 1930 the glowing clouds were down-
wards rolling clouds which originated above avalanches of glowing magma debris,
from which the comprising gases escaped explosively (Neumann van Padang,
1933a, p. 22).
In 1930 the new lava appeared on the volcano slope for the first time on
November the 25th (Fig. 11). It flowed downwards slowly, whereby the lower
edge crumbled and hurled down. In the first half of December about 6 million
vrr of viscous lava had appeared, having the shape of a large flat lava dome. On
18 December the increased activity began which lasted two days. Thick ash
clouds were seen above the volcano. Between 8 and 9 o'clock the first glowing
avalanches and clouds came down. In the following two days a 1350 m long
breach was formed in the volcano wall. The glowing avalanches originated by the
downfall of a great part of the new lava mass. They followed the 60 to 100 m
40 Neumann van Padang, History of volcanology in the East Indies, Scripta Geol. 71 ( 1983)
deep ravines and their curves, while the clouds which developed by the explo-
sions in the avalanches whirled on top of them and kept their own direction. In
the curves they shot forward, dashed against the air in front of them, where
they were hindered in their movement, and thus came sooner to a standstil then
the heavy masses in the ravines.
The direction of the valleys was of paramount importance to the spreading
of the material and the shape of the destroyed regions. Therefore it was possible
to indicate on a map the regions that might be destroyed, so that the Govern-
ment Officials could know from where the population had to be removed in case
of danger.
Safety measures - The volcanic activity of November 1930 was immediately re-
ported by the observation station at Maron. The inhabitants of the highest ham-
lets were advised to leave. In that area, therefore, the casualties were small. The
eruption, however, was much greater than was expected, and the catastrophe
took place in the lower regions, at 8 to 10 km distance from the summit, where
1369 people were killed. The 3000 fugitives were helped by the Government
with accomodation, cloths, food, and household goods. A part of the population
moved to other regions.
Observation station - Maron being destroyed, a new observation post was built at
Babadan, 4 km WNW of the summit. From here the crater could be seen very
well. By telephone the Director of the Volcanological Survey and the Govern-
ment Officials could be informed of what happened. Subsidiary stations were es-
tablished at Krindjing and Ngepos. A 'Handbook for the volcano station Merapi'
was composed by Stehn (1935c), Director of the Volcanological Survey, togeth-
er with Government and Army Officials. A new Handbook was composed in
1941 by van Bemmelen ( 1941 ).
Refuge tunnel - Near the station a bomb proof shelter in the form of a tunnel
was constructed in which the personnel could find safety within 15 seconds. The
inside of the tunnel, built of reinforced concrete, was 12/i m long and 2 A m
l l
wide and high. The entrance could be made air tight. By means of a peep-hole it
was possible to establish if it was safe to leave the tunnel. Cylinders containing
compressed oxygen made it possible to remain in the tunnel for a prolonged pe-
riod. Water, food and tools were available. A seismograph was placed in the back
of the tunnel (Neumann van Padang, 1933a, p. 110, 1960a, p. 187).
Maps of the menaced regions - In order to have an idea which regions were in
danger when a major eruption would take place a map was projected on which
they were indicated. Such a map for Mt Merapi was composed by Neumann van
Padang (1933a, pl. I, 1958, p. 113, 1960a). Neumann van Padang (1937b, d)
projected similar maps for the regions that were in danger when Mt Raung (6,3-
34) had a catastrophic eruption, and for the foot of Mt Tjerimai (6,3-17).
Stehn (1936a, b) drew such maps with instructions what had to be done to
safeguard the population at the foot of Mt Kelut (6,3-28) and Mt Semeru (6,3-
30). Earlier Stehn (1930c, 1933a, b, 1934a) reported which practical utility the
Volcanological Survey had had for the population of the East Indies.
Mud flows - Just as happened at Mt Kelut (6,3-28) the rains that fell during the
months after the great eruption formed mud flows (lahars) that caused great
damage at the foot of the volcano. Bridges were swept away, rice fields covered
with sand and debris. Schmidt (1934) made a thorough study of these rain lahars
and their origin.
Outburst of 1006 -Van Bemmelen (1941, pp. 70-72, fig. 17; 1949a, I, pp. 560-
561, fig. 272) advanced volcanological arguments to prove the truth of the cata-
clysmic outburst of 1006 A.D. (see p. 7). He showed that the present summit of
Mt Merapi is surrounded on all sides by an older part, deeply carved by erosion
and built up of olivine-basalt, and presumably in later stages also of augite-
hypersthene-andesites.
The western part of this volcano subsided with respect to the eastern por-
tion along a number of arcuate, more or less hyperbolic slipfaults, which are con-
cave to the west. The sliding movement was obstructed in the west by the buried
edge of the Menoreh Mts. The Gendol Hills were caused by the crumpling of the
foot of the older (11th century) Merapi. At the same time the central part of the
older Merapi was destroyed causing the disaster in Central Java (see Fig. 12).
Fig. 12. Geological sketchmap and section of Mt Merapi and its western foot (from van Bem-
melen, 1956, fig. 272, p. 561).
42 Neumann van Padang, History of volcanology in the East Indies Scripta Geol. 71 (1983)
The present active Merapi cone rises above the ruins of the destroyed vol-
cano. The amount of magma produced by the new volcano in the last century
and a half has been estimated by van Bemmelen (1941, p. 71) to be about
1 k m . If the mountain has maintained the activity in the last nine centuries,
3
about 6 k m must have been produced during that time. This estimation accords
3
fairly well with the present size of the active cone. Therefore it is quite likely
that the older Merapi represents the remnants of the volcano destroyed by the
terrific outburst in 1006 A.D.
VOLCANOES OF THE LESSER SUNDA ISLANDS
Mt Tambora (6,4-4)
Pannekoek van Rheden (1918) visited the volcano in October 1912 and August-
September 1913 and mentioned its geographical position and height as it was
ascertained by the Topographische Dienst' (Ordnance Survey). The 8747 Rhine-
land feet (2746 m) high mountain was situated at 814'30"S and 1757'30"E.
The highest part of the crater rim rose 2800 m, the lowest part c. 2500 m a.s.l. A
stratovolcano with numerous adventive cones originated above a c. 1800 m high
shield volcano (aspite). Pannekoek van Rheden estimated that the great eruption
of 1815 had destroyed 30 k n r of the mountain.
Petroeschevsky (1949) visited the volcano in May 1947. He repeated in
detail what the former authors had written and calculated the total amount of
ejected ash and pumice at c. 100 k m . Junghuhn estimated it at 318 k m and
3 3
Verbeek at 150 k m (see p. 20). These estimates were so different because:

3
1) the ash was spread over a very large, inaccurately fixed region, and
2) it happened 40 years before Junghuhn, 70 years before Verbeek and 130
years before Petroeschevsky made their calculations, so that personal opinions
about thickness and extension of the deposit could not be avoided.
Mt Tambora produced pumice in large quantities comparable to those of
Krakatau. Floating islands of pumice 3 miles long were observed in April 1815.
Four years after the eruption these pumice islands still inconvenienced the navi-
gation.
According to Petroeschevsky (1949, p. 696), the total number of victims
was 92 000, i.e. 48 000 on Sumbawa and 44 000 on Lombok. This is more than
assumed by Junghuhn.
In 1947 the diameter of the caldera was estimated to be 6 km, and the
depth 600-700 m. Solfataric activity was almost exclusively located at the foot
of the caldera wall, as Pannekoek van Rheden observed.
A. Kraeff (in Petroeschevsky, 1949, pp. 701-703) determined the rocks
Petroeschevsky collected. They were olivine-basalts, leucite-basanites and leucite-
tephrites already mentioned by Pannekoek van Rheden, and further glassy lava
bombs rich in bytownite and biotite.
Neumann van Padang (1971) compared the catastrophic eruptions of Mt
Tambora with similar eruptions of Krakatau and Santorini.
1 ) All three volcanoes have remains of former volcanoes, destroyed in pr-histor-
ie time. Here it is the Kadiende Nae Mountain (Pannekoek van Rheden, 1918,
p. 120).
2) After a period of dormancy of many centuries, activity began again in 1812.

Three years later the preliminary explosions began on 5 April 1815.
3) Then followed the catastrophic main eruption which took place from April
10 till 12th, followed by the collapse of the central part of the volcano and the
formation of a caldera.
4) Pumice was produced in great quantities. Remarkably the pumice is not
found in great thickness in the surroundings of Mt Tambora as was the case with
Krakatau and Santorini.
5) The catastrophic eruption was accompanied by sea waves. They were small
here as the Tambora caldera was formed above sea level.
Paluweh= i. Rokatinda(6,4-15)
Paluweh had a partly barren, partly wooded summit when Kemmerling saw the
island, which was already mentioned on Portuguese sea charts. Francis (1856,
p. 141) called it Luca Raja, Buddingh (1861, p. 279) Palowe. In August 1928
the volcano was in eruption. A great quantity of ash and pumice was thrown out
(Stehn, 1928c, p. 75). From August till 29 September 1928 Neumann van Pa-
dang (1930) visited the island and mapped it.
Paluweh (see Fig. 13) culminates in the 875 m high stratovolcano Hi, situ-
ated excentrically on the southern half of the island. Several small adventive
cones disturbed the regular feature of the crater region Rokatenda. In the col-
lapsed area south of the summit, where the renewed activity took place, six
ancient craters and three lava domes were found. Three new craters were formed
south of the summit and around an old cone. On September the 9th a fourth
crater originated.
Fig. 13. The Island of Paluweh

and its eruption centres (from
Neumann van Padang, 1930,
16, fig. 5).
The eruptions of August 1928 were accompanied by sea waves, which over-
flowed the coast of the island itself to a height of 5-10 m and killed 128 people.
The amount of ash and pumice, that destroyed the southwestern part of the is-
land, was estimated to be 19V2 million m , corresponding to c. 4.6 million m of
3 3
lava. In addition 8 million m of lava formed a new lava dome.

3
Kemmerling (1927, 1929a, 1936) visited the volcanoes of Flores in 1924

and 1925 and described 14 volcanoes:
Wai Sano (6,4-6) - This is an elliptic lake situated in a 2% to 3Vi km large caldera.
Solfataras were found there.
Potjok Leok (6,4-7) - It is an irregular caldera with fumaroles.
Inielika (6,4-9) - This is a volcanic cone rising from the bottom of the caldera
Lobobutu. On the complex summit 10 craters were found. The only known
eruption took place in November 1905.
Inieria (6,4-8) - The very regular, 2205 m high ash cone has a small crater. The
pyroxene-andesitic lava was described by Pannekoek van Rheden (1913).
Ebulobo or Amburombu (6,4-10) - The volcano is principally built up of effusive

rocks. A lava dome occupied the 250 m wide crater.
Iya or Endeh Api (6,4-11) - This volcano is situated at the extreme south of the
peninsula of Endeh. Sulphureous gases rose in the rather deep crater. The rocks
are hypersthene-andesites and hypersthene-basalts with or without olivine
(Gisolf, in Kemmerling, 1929a, p. 123-126).
Sukaria (6,4-12)-The large caldera has a diameter of 8 km. It originated in a

complex of several volcanoes (Fig. 14).
Kelimutu (6,4-14) - This volcano has three craters, each of which has a lake with
a different colour, being blue, green and red. The green lake contained free sul-
phur, the red lake iron.
Egon (6,4-16) - It has a complicated summit consisting of a somma wall with a

diameter of 1250 m. A lava dome formed the north side of the summit. In April
1925 the 200 m deep crater contained a shallow green lake.
Dobo - Kemmerling (1926a) mentioned the volcano Dobo as being active. This
however was an error caused by a wrong communication.
LewotobiPerampuan (6,4-19)-It has a truncated shape and is a twin volcano

with Lewotobi Lakilaki (6,4-18), which has a pointed cone.
Leroboleng (6,4-20) - Its last eruption took place in 1881.
Stehn (1940) described his inquiries into the volcanoes Hi Muda (6,4-17), Lewo-
tobi Lakilaki, Lewotobi Perampuan, Leroboleng, and Riang Kotang (6,4-21).
Fig. 14. The eastern part of central Flores, with the volcanoes la, the Sukaria Caldera and Ka-
limutu (from Kemmerling, 1929b).
Hartmann (1935a, c, 1936a, b) visited the volcanoes Batu Tara (6,4-26), Sirung
(6,4-27), Hi Werung (6,4-25), Hi Labalekan (6,4-24), and Lewotolo (6,4-23).
VOLCANOES OF THE SANGIHE ISLANDS AND HALMAHERA
Mt Ruang (6,7-1)
Koperberg (1910, pp. 236-239) published his investigations on the activity of Mt

Ruang, adding some notes on Api Siau (6,7-2) and Soputan (6,6-3). According
to Koperberg parts of the edge of the lavadome of Mt Ruang tumbled down the
mountain slope in 1870. Bergsma (1872, p. 260) mentioned strong eruptions on

27 August 1870, causing a great loss of houses, annimals and crops.
The next great eruptive activity took place from 22 till 25 April 1904 (Ko-
perberg, 1910, p. 246). On 9 May 1904 there was a 300-350 m wide and 200 m
deep crater in the summit. In the course of 1904 the volcano was repeatedly ac-
tive. A new lava dome was formed from where a lavastream flowed over the
southern slope as far as the sea. The lava dome was destroyed by violent explo-
sions which set in on 29 May 1914 (Brouwer, 1916). A new crater was formed,
which in July 1915 was 400 m wide and 150 m deep. Glowing avalanches on the
eastern and southeastern slopes set the forest on fire. The lavas of Mt Ruang
were remarkably uniform in character and composition. They were essentially
hypersthene-andesites with occasionally olivine and amphibole. The lava of 1914
had a silica content of 57-60% Si0 , and was less fluid than that of 1904.
?
Fig. 15. The summit of Mt Ruang and the lava flow of January 1949 (from Neumann van
Padang, 1959, fig. 5); contour intervals 10 m.
When Kemmerling (1923, p. 85) visited the crater in April 1921 he found it
as Brouwer described it. The viscous lava built a dome, which at last flowed over
the crater rim and came down the mountain slope very slowly, about 9 m per
day. Kemmerling (1923, pp. 78-86) described and critically evaluated the de-
scriptions of the 16 eruptions between 1808 and 1918.
In September 1946 Petroeschevsky visited the volcano. He found sol-
fataras with a temperatur of 480C in crater K3, and therefore expected a
coming eruption. Since the activity of this volcano can be compared with that of
Mt Merapi in central Java, the slopes and the foot of Mt Ruang were continually
in danger of being destroyed. Consequently, Petroeschevsky advised the Gov-
ernment to declare the island unfit for habitation and to evacuate the 900 peo-
ple who had settled there again after 1937 (Neumann van Padang, 1959, p. 113).
The expected eruption took place nearly three years later, in January 1949.
Stone eruptions were seen from 5 till 13 January, and on January the 19th a lava
flow started to move in a northeastern direction (Fig. 15).
Fig. 16. The crater region of the Peak of Ternate in 1939 (from Neumann van Padang, 1951,
p. 265).
Peak of Ternate = i. Gamalama (6,8-6)
This volcano was described by Gogarten (1918) and Kemmerling (1920). The 61
eruptions known till 1939 had changed the shape of the crater region. When
Neumann van Padang (1951, p. 265) visited the summit in July 1939 the crater
region was mapped again. In the southern part of a large 300 by 250 m oval
crater K . l (Fig. 16) a 180 by 140 m large and 90 m deep crater K.2 originated.
North of K.2 two small shallow crater pits K.3 and K.4 were visible. A segment
of an old crater wall was visible about 400 m south and 50 m lower than the
above mentioned crater K . l , indicating that the volcanic activity moved in a
northerly direction.
Makian = i. Kie Besi (6,8-7)
The island was mapped by Gaade (1925). The caldera, i.e. the southern crater of
Verbeek (see p. 22), had a diameter of 1450-1500 m. Verbeek's northern crater,
however, proved to be the upper part of a basin shaped valley.
Poei or Medja
Van Bemmelen (1949a, I, pp. 189-190) still mentioned Poei and Motir as active.
Poei, however, is an entirely overgrown cone with a 200-250 m large and 25-
30 m deep crater (Neumann van Padang, 1951). The eruption of 1671 related to
this volcano by Veth (1876), Wichmann (1891) and Pannekoek van Rheden
(1920) was according to Kemmerling (1929a, p. 52) one of Mt Iya. Forrest
(1779, p. 39) mentioned an eruption of the volcano of Motir, but Gogarten
(1918, p. 157) and Petroeschevsky, who visited the volcano in March 1949,
declared the volcano to be entirely extinct.
UMSINI
When Feuilletau de Bruin (1936) visited the solfataras in the crater of the Peak
of Ternate in 1915 his porters told him that similar fumes occurred in a basin of
Mt Umsini in the Arfak Mountains of New Guinea. That is why Stehn (1936a,
p. 6) added Umsini as volcano no. 114 to the list of active volcanoes, although
with a question mark. Wichmann (1899, p. 141) already considered Umsini to be
a volcano which presumably had an eruption in May 1864, but later on (1925,
p. 87) he denied the existence of this volcano.
Van Bemmelen (1949a, I, p. 388) was of the opinion that the volcanic
Ternate Zone geotectonically could be traced eastward along the northern edge
of the Vogelkop (Birdhead) in the Tamrau-Arfak range with the Umsini volcano.
This volcano was listed as 6,9-1 in the Catalogue of the active volcanoes of the
World (Neumann van Padang, 1951). Hdervri (1976a, b) thought that 'if the
underthrusting of the oceanic lithosphre is really in progress along the northern
and northeastern coast of Birdhead Peninsula, as it is suggested by Hamilton on
his tectonic map of 1974, then the possibility for the existence of volcanoes in
the N and NE part of Birdhead Peninsula is given.' In April 1954 J.L.H. Bemel-
mans, however, communicated in a lecture at Delft that he tried in vain to find
this volcano, and on aerial photographs no cone or crater was visible in the
Arfak Mountains. Sumadirdja ( 1977) wrote that there was a height Umcina at
105'S- 133 57 / 'E in the Arfak Mts but there was no volcanic activity and
0 1
2
Sumartadipura (1977) stated that no volcanic formations were visible on the

aerial photographs of 1959. That is why this 'volcano' has to be deleted from the
list.
TEMPERATURES IN THE CRATER REGION
The Volcanological Survey in the former Netherlands East Indies had the aim to
protect the population against the danger caused by volcanic eruptions. The
phenomena studied at volcanoes with recent eruptions were important because
of the fact that they might give information of a coming eruption. The general
opinion has always been that one of the preliminary events of an eruption con-
sists of an increase in temperature of the solfataras in the crater region (Sapper,
1931). Such a rise would have been a simple, clear and useful indication of an
approaching eruption. Then the Volcanological Survey could warn the popula-
tion at the foot of the volcano in time for a coming danger. That is why the tem-
peratures of the solfataras of several volcanoes of Java were regularly measured.
The above mentioned supposition, however, appeared not to be true. In all the
cases the temperatures of the solfataras had been controlled, no rise was observ-
ed in the period before the volcano had an outburst.
Mt Papandayan (6,3-10)-The phreatic eruptions of Mt Papandayan in 1923-

1925 have been studied by Taverne (1924b, 1925b, 1926). Since 1920 the tem-
peratures of the fumaroles were regularly measured. No relation could be found
between the important fluctuation of the temperatures of Kawah Mas or the
other fumaroles in the crater of Papandayan and the explosions of 1923 till
1925 in Kawah Baru and Kawah Nangklak.
Mt Merapi (6,3-25) - Since 1924, though with intervals of many months, the
temperatures of the solfataras in the summit of the volcano were controlled reg-
ularly (Neumann van Padang, 1933a, 1963a). To get a good idea of the changes
of the temperatures they were put in a graph (1933a, pl. II).
The temperatures of the solfataras of the East summit dome fell from
260C in 1924 to 150C in 1930. Those of the West dome, west of the East
dome sank from 210C in 1924 to 95C in 1930, and so on. The strong rise in
temperature in the Batang region in June 1925, when a temperature of 700C
was measured and at the same time many other solfataras in the summit were
very hot, did not lead to an eruption. The eruption of November 1930 (see p.
36) began when most of the temparatures at the top were very low (45-170C),
with exception of those in the Senowo breach, where a temperature of 600C
was found since 1927.
After a repose period of 9 years Mt Merapi erupted again in December 1939
(Stehn, 1939a, p. 2, table 3: Neumann van Padang, 1963a). In general the tem-
peratures had decreased since Ocober 1938, and a few days before the new
eruption cycle, which lasted from December 1939 till September 1940, all the
temperatures were very low.
MtSlamet (6,3-18)-The summit of Mt Slamet is occupied by one crater and

three old crater rims. Several fumaroles with temperatures of 60 to 95C were
found in the steep northern crater wall K.2 at a distance of 400 m from the
centre of the active crater K.4 and 200 m from its northern wall. Neumann van
Padang (1933c, 1963a, p. 332) published a table with the temperatures of these
fumaroles from 1923 till 1932 and the data of the eruptions in this period. The
temperatures were sometimes lower, sometimes a little higher. No relation could
be found between the temperatures and the eruptions.
Anak Krakatau (6,2)-The activity which ended on 17 February 1932 was fol-
lowed by a repose period of nine months. From 9 to 12 November the island
was surveyed and mapped (Stehn, 1932a; Neumann van Padang, 1933b). The
crater lake had a length of 400 m, a width of 125 m and a depth of only 4.10 m.
No traces of fumarolic activity were found along the border of the lake, no ebul-
litions were seen in the water. At a depth of 20 cm in the sand near the lake a
temperature of only 31C was found.
Two days after the inspection, on November the 14th, 100 to 300 m high
eruption clouds were reported. This eruption phase lasted till December, but it
was followed by nine other phases till June 1934. In May 1933 the ash clouds
reached a height of 6800-7000 m (Stehn, 1933a). This very strong period of
activity began without a perceptible increase of temperature in the crater region.
From 1-7 June 1939 Anak Krakatau had a weak volcanic activity (Stehn,
1939b, p. 22). From June 14th till 17th the island was surveyed by personnel of
the Volcanological Survey. Dense steam was still rising from the crater lake on
June the 14th. The next day the lake had a temperature of 55C. On the day
that followed, the temperature of the lake water had fallen to 47C. The gas
ebullitions were less. On June the 17th the temperature of the lake water was
30C. Gas ebullitions were feeble. It is worth mentioning that it had not rained
during that time, so that this fall in temperature was not caused by rain water.
At 16 o'clock of that day the surveyor Umar Ali had a look at the crater.
There was no steam nor gas ebullition to be seen. So he continued to work.
About one hour later the magnetic needle of the boussole tranche montagne be-
gan to swing to and fro. This suspicious phenomenon was the reason why he
packed the instruments at once and why the observer and the personnel fled to
the motor boat which was waiting near the coast. Then the first eruption clouds
rose from the crater, followed by others. Bombs, ashes and hot gases covered the
island, so that the surveying personnel left Anak Krakatau just in time. This new
phase of strong activity had eruptions that reached a height of more than
3000 m. Again we see that the activity did not begin with a rise of temperature,
nor with an increase of fumarolic activity.
Recapitulating we see that eruptions of Mt Merapi, Mt Papandayan, Mt Slamet,

and Anak Krakatau were not preceded by an increase in temperature of the cra-
ter fumaroles.
At the I.U.G.G. Congress at Berkeley in 1963 Dr G.A.Taylor remarked
that the eruptions on New Britain in 1941 were neither preceded by rising tem-
peratures. No change occurred in the temperatures of the crater of Mt Matupi
(5,2-14) before it erupted. At the volcano Langilar (5,2-1) the temperatures were
almost constant during the six months period of observation in the year it erupt-
ed in 1954 (Neumann van Padang, 1963a, p. 336).
SULPHUR IN INDONESIA
The results of the inquiry into the quantity of sulphur that occurred in the cra-
ters of the volcanoes of Indonesia was published anonimously in 1925. Sulphur-
containing volcanoes on Java were Kawah Putih (6,3-7), Tangkubanparahu (6,3-
9), Telaga Bodas (6,3-15), Kawah Karaha (6,3-16), Papandayan (6,3-10), Tjeri-
mai (6,3-17), Ding (6,3-20), Welirang (6,3-29), and Kawah Idjen (6,3-35). In
Sumatra much sulphur was found in the crater of Sorikmarapi (6,1-12). Van
Bemmelen (1949a, II, pp. 179-185) gave a review of what is published about
sulphur.
That Kawah Putih, one of the craters of Mt Patuha, contained much sul-
phur was already known in 1707 (seep. 10). Reinwardt (1858) found here a
bluish lake with deposits of sulphur, Junghuhn (1854, IUI) only wrote that the
lake was copper green and yellowish. Verbeek and Fennema (1896, II) found the
bottom of Kawah Putih on 13 June 1887 covered with a shallow lake, which was
white because of sulphur, and the water of which tasted of alum. A rather strong
ebullition of gas was visible in the western part. Van Bemmelen (op. cit. p. 182)
mentioned the occurrence of a deposit of sulphureous mud corresponding with
c. 500 000 metric tons (= 500 Gg) of pure sulphur in 1925. After exploitation
by the 'Zwavelonderneming Kawah Poetih' there were still c. 30 Gg in 1941.
The sulphur content in the crater of G. Tangkubanparahu was of minor im-
portance (14 Gg of S).
Telega Bodas contained a sulphur mud deposit similar to that of Kawah
Putih. The last exploration has demonstrated the existence of about 300 Gg.
The mud in the craters of Mt Ding proved to contain c. 150 Gg of S.
In the crater of the 3156 m high Mt Welirang sulphur occurred as incrusta-
tions of solfataras. Natives exploited it, but only small quantities could be won
(Hartmann, 1932).
Of Kawah Idjen the available quantity amounted to about 60 Gg of sul-
phureous mud corresponding with 36 Gg of S.
The only known sulphur deposit of Sumatra is situated in the crater of
Sorikmarapi (6,1-12). According to the investigation of the Netherlands Indies
Government in 1920 there were 220 Gg of sulphur mud with an average of 56%
of S and 320 Gg of sulphur mud with an average of 27% of S. Moreover, on the
northeastern slope of the volcano 14 Gg mud with an average of 93% of S was
found. Kemmerling (1921a, pp. 51-76), who visited the crater in August 1918,
already mentioned the great quantity of sulphur, which he estimated to be
\Vi million kgt.
In Celebes (Sulawesi) considerable deposits of sulphur mud were found in
Kawah Masem - a crater of Mt Soputan (6,6-3) -, Batuh Kolok (6,6-5), and G.
Mahawu (6,6-11).
Molengraaff (1918) mentioned a sulphur deposit of some importance on
Pulu Damar (6,5-4).
The total reserves of sulphur in Indonesia (van Bemmelen, 1949a, II, p.
179) amount to:
Java 600 Gg,
Sumatra 250 Gg,
Celebes 150Gg.
BELT OF ACTIVE VOLCANOES
Kemmerling (1926a) published a list of 90 active volcanoes which he divided in:

A) volcanoes with eruptions known in historic time, and B) volcanoes in a fuma-
role stage.
They are found on the rim of a large continental shield. In 1912 Molen-
graaff for the first time distinguished in the East Indian Archipelago two stable
regions and a labile region with a strong relief of the sea bottom between them.
One of the stable regions is the above mentioned continental shield, formed by
the continuation of the Asiatic continent. The volcanoes are situated in a small
strip (Fig. 17) on the west side of Sumatra to the island of Krakatau. Here it
bends to the east and runs over Java and the Lesser Sunda Islands to the Ban-
da Archipelago, where it curves first to the north and then to the west. In 1922,
Molengraaff explained this arc of the Banda archipelago by the drift in a north-
western direction of the Australian continent. The length of the volcanic zone is
about 4700 km, i.e. a distance from Madrid to the Urals.
Van Bemmelen (1951, p. 18) considered this volcanic belt to be one of the
geotumors, which originated between the Sunda mainland and the Indian Ocean.
The geanticlines formed mountain chains and island arcs with geosynclines or ba-
sins between them. West and south of this Sunda Land is a backdeep, the oil-
bearing basins of East Sumatra and North Java, followed by the above-mention-
ed volcano belt of Sumatra and the geanticline south of Java. Outwards follows
an interdeep, the non-volcanic outer arc (including the islands west of Sumatra),
the foredeep, and finally the 'foreland' formed by the bottom of the Indian
Ocean, and farther to the east the Australian Continent.
Escher (1933d, pp. 682-683) argued that considerable plutonic chambers
are necessary to get volcanism. These chambers can only be expected where ten-
sion prevails in the earth's crust, formed by vortex currents in the substratum.
About 400 km N of the eastern end of this belt there are two volcanic
zones: the eastern Halmahera zone with a length of 200 km, and the other, c.
400 km long, beginning in the Minahassa (North Celebes) and running over the
Sangihe Islands to the volcanoes of the Philippines.
Stehn (1927a) published a list of 103 active volcanoes, 13 more than Kem-
merling (1926a) did. These were 60 A and 43 B volcanoes. In 1936 (Stehn,
1936a) appeared a corrected and more extensive list. The number of active vol-
canoes had risen to 125. Moreover group B was subdivided into B - volcanoes in
a fumarole stage, and C - solfatara and fumarole fields. The archipelago had
76 A, 29 B and 20 C volcanoes.
Van Bemmelen (1943a, p. 5-14) listed 130 volcanoes: I numbered consecu-
tively, II tabulated geographically and HI alphabetically. His volcanoes no. 63
PoeiorMedja and no. 101 the volcanic island Motir, however, are extinct ones
(see p. 48).
Petroeschevsky (1943) published a register of the activity of these volca-
noes from the year 1000 till 1941. Since 1841 there were 1007 volcanic erup-
tions, that is an average of 10 volcanoes in eruption in one year.
Neumann van Padang (1951, p. 262) called Telaga Ranu caldera (6,8-5)
Todoko volcano after its southern summit, as Stehn (1936a, p. 6) and van Bem-
melen (1943a, p. 11; and 1949a, I, p. 189) had done before, but according to
Verstappen (1964, p. 309) Telaga Ranu and Toduku (6,8-5a) are two separate
Fig. 17. Belt of active volcanoes in Indonesia (from van Bemmelen, 1943b,fig.2; see also 1949a).
53
volcanoes. In view of the solfataras found in the 2 km large caldera, Toduku is to

be considered a B-type volcano.
PHREATIC ERUPTIONS
Butak Petarangan (6,3-19) - Violent shocks in 1928 at the southern foot of

Butak Petarangan formed cracks, which were followed by mud and stone erup-
tions. Three vents with a diameter of 10-20 m originated. A great part of the
hamlet Timbang was destroyed (Stehn, 1928a, p. 59). Highly concentrated suf-
focating gases flowed out from the craters.
In October 1939, the same region was affected by earthquakes followed by
mud eruptions (van Bemmelen, 1949a). The explosion holes originated on N-S
directed open fissures, in which the surface water sank to a great depth, where it
exploded. Horsfield (1816b, p. 281) already mentioned mud eruptions of the
volcano 'Boedak', in connection with earthquakes and cracks in the earth.
Pematang Bata (6,1-27) - Enormous phreatic eruptions took place in the Suoh
plain in South Sumatra (Stehn, 1933f, 1934b). This square shaped marshy plain
was geologically mapped by van Bemmelen (1933). It was a volcano-tectonic de-
pression surrounded by faults. Along the northwestern boundary hot springs and
solfataras were found. Near the spot called Pematang Bata, in July 1933 two
large explosion craters originated, one being l%-2 km large, the other % - l km.
More than hundred smaller explosion craters were encountered over a length of
5 km and an average breadth of 1 Vi km. The mud was thrown up to a height of
1100 m. The wooded plain was changed into a barren, mud-covered field.
This phreatic activity was also preceded by an earthquake, which had split
the bottom of the Suoh plain. Water of the marshy field sank in the fractures to
a depth where it came into contact with layers heated by the underlying magma.
The water turned into steam and escaped explosively.
THE CALDERA PROBLEM
In the years before and after 1929, the problem of the origin of calderas was the
topic of lively discussions among the Dutch volcanologists.
Akkersdijk (1929) was of the opinion that:
1 ) The Tengger Caldera consisted of one main volcano with several adventive
cones.
2) During a violent outburst the summit had collapsed forming a large caldera
including the Valley of Sapikerep.
3) A group of nested volcanoes had re-occupied the caldera and the valley of
Sapikerep.
4) A second violent outburst formed the present Sandsea caldera and the Tjemo-
rolawang ridge.
5) Finally the present group of nested volcanoes in the Sandsea Caldera was
formed and the Valley of Sapikerep originated as well as the basin of Ngadisari
(see Fig. 18).
Escher (1927, 1929, and 1930) thought the Tengger Caldera to have origi-
nated by coring out of a central vent by the action of an ashladen gasstream dur-
Neumann van Padang, History of volcanology in the East Indies, Scripta Geol 71 (1983) 55
Fig. 18. Map of Mt Tengger and the shape of the calderas according to Escher and Akkersdijk
(from Akkersdijk, 1929, fig. 1).
ing the intermediate gas phase as Perret (1924) described from the eruption of
Mt Vesuvius in 1906. Escher thought a cylindrical vent with a diameter of 1 to
2 km and a depth of 15 to 50 km could form a caldera of 10 km in diameter and
250 m deep after the walls had crumbled off and filled the vent. He (1927) dis-
tinguished six stages in explaining the origin of the Tengger Caldera.
A) Origin of a twin volcano, as Verbeek and Fennema supposed.
B) Formation of the valley of Sapikerep by erosion.
C) A gas phase in the eastern (Ngadisari) crater which formed a steep, funnel-
shaped vent, and ended in the formation of a caldera.
D) A funnel-shaped vent was blown out in the western crater, ending in the for-
mation of the Sandsea Caldera.
E) Lava in the western caldera flowed through the eastern caldera into the Val-
ley of Sapikerep.
F) Finally erosion altered the shape of the Valley of Sapikerep and secondary
cones originated in the Sandsea Caldera.
Van Bemmelen (1929, 1930, 1931, 1932) objected in general the theory of
the Perret phase as a possibility to form a caldera because of: the scarcity of old
material in the ejectamenta, the improbable excessive length of the vent, the in-
effectiveness of the coring out mechanism for great dimensions. Moreover, this
hypothesis only explains calderas of the central type.
According to him the hollow form of the surface could be explained better
by collapse. During the paroxysmal eruptions huge amounts of magma were
blown out. The removal from the magma hearth occurred quicker than the refil-
ling from deeper sources. Consequently, the roof of the magma chamber was de-
prived of its support and collapsed. Already Verbeek was of the opinion that the
Krakatau caldera originated by collapse (see p. 15).
Sandberg (1927, 1930a, b, 1931, 1932) defended the theory that calderas
and craters were genetically the same phenomenon. Van den Bosch (1929, 1930,
1931) also took part in the discussion on the origin of calderas.
SUBMARINE VOLCANOES
Nieuwerkerk (6,5-2), Emperor of China (6,5-1), Yersey (6,4-28)- In September

1925 broken water was seen at the place where Nieuwerkerk was inserted as a
coral reef in the sea chart no. 112 of 1893. Because of the soundings conse-
Fig. 19. Sea chart with the sub-

marine volcanoes Nieuwerkerk
and Emperor of China (from
Neumann van Padang, 1938a,
p. 80).
quently carried out at this place, which showed a depth of 2300 m, this reef was
expunged from the sea chart of 1927. Boerema (1930) was of the opinion that
the disturbance could only have been caused by the activity of a submarine vol-
cano. Stehn (1930b, p. 147) accepted this opinion and put this spot, and those
of the 'coral reefs' Emperor of China and Yersey, in his list of active volcanoes.
A few years later soundings were carried out by the Snellius Expedition; van
Riel (1934) found at these places, where 37 years before coral reefs were insert-
ed in the sea chart, submarine mountains rising 1500 to 1900 m above their sur-
roundings (Fig. 19).
Drawing cross sections through these submarine mountains for his descrip-
tions of the submarine volcanoes of the world, Neumann van Padang (1938a)
found that Emperor of China gave the impression of being a shield volcano,
whilst Nieuwerkerk appeared to be a twin volcano (Fig. 20), of which the sum-
mits rose at a mutual distance of more than 7 km from each other.
Banua Wuhu (6,7-3) - is a submarine volcano west of the Island of Mahengetang.

Its eruptions formed a 90 m high island in 1835, but only a few rocks were left
in 1848 (Wichmann, 1898). The volcano also had eruptions in 1889,1895,
1904, and from July 1918 till April 1919. The 70 m long and 12 m high island
of 1919 (Brouwer, 1921a; Kemmerling, 1923) had disappeared before 1935.
Wichmann (1898) and Brouwer (1921b) made a study of the rocks, which were
a hypersthene-andesite and a hornblende-andesite.
Fig. 20. Cross section through

the volcanoes Nieuwerkerk and
Emperor of China (from Neu-
mann van Padang, 1938a, p.
80).
CHEMICAL DIFFERENTIATION OF THE VOLCANIC ROCKS
Paluweh (6,4-15) - The rocks collected on the Island of Paluweh were studied by
Esenwein (1930). The chemical analyses and the Ls-, Fs- and Qs-diagrams of the
examined samples showed the rocks of Paluweh to belong to a relatively little
differentiated volcanic series.
The most recent lavas, hornblende-hypersthene-vitrophyre-andesites with
59.06 to 60.08% S i 0 , were clearly richer in S i 0 than the older lavas which are
2 2
hornblende-augite-hypersthene-basalts with 48.58 to 58.34% S i 0 (Fig. 21).

2
Mt Ding (6,3-20) - Umbgrove (1929) established the relative age of the volca-
noes of Ding by comparing their contacts. He concluded that G. Prahu and G.
Bismo were the oldest volcanoes, then G. Srodjo originated, followed by the vol-
canoes Pagerkandang and G. Pangonan, and finally the volcanoes Prambanan and
Pakuwodjo-Kendil came into existence. Neumann van Padang (1936a) examined
the age by studying the ptrographie and chemical composition of the rocks and
came practically to the same result (Fig. 22). The most ancient layers consisted
of basalt with 51.19% S i 0 ; they are found in the wall of Telaga Mendjer.
2
Afterwards the andesites with olivine crystals of G. Bismo originated, which are
slightly richer in silica. The cones of andesite without olivine followed, found in
Pagerkandang (53.08% S i 0 ) , Pangonan (55.64% S i 0 ) and G. Srodjo (55.76%
2 2
Si0 ).
2
Northwest of and a little outside the Ding Mts originated the Butak Peta-
rangan volcano, consisting of andesite with hornblende crystals (57.5% Si0 ). 2
The volcanic cones G. Kendil and G. Pakuwodjo, of which the latter still had an
eruption in 1826, were the last to develop. Their lava consists of biotite-
andesites with 60.48% and 62.93% S K V
The successive volcanoes of the Ding Mts thus in the course of time be-
came richer in silica.
Mt Slamet (6,3-18) - The rocks of Mt Slamet consist of olivine-basalt. They were

studied microscopically and chemically by Neumann van Padang (1939b). The
chemical analyses showed that: the ancient lava flows were poorest in silica with
Fig. 21. Chemical differentiation of the rocks of Paluweh (from Esenwein, 1930, fig. 7
p. 134).
Fig. 22. The Dieng Mts (from Neumann van Padang, 1936a, fig. 1).
48.98 to 50.48% S i 0 , the lavas of the summit contained 52.28-52.77%Si0 , the

2 2
lava of the 1932 eruption was richest in silica with 54.06% S i 0 . The magma dif-
2
ferentiation of this volcano had the same trend as that of Paluwah and the
Ding Mts.
G. Talakmau - This compound volcano (Fig. 23) was visited by Neumann van Pa-
dang (1940, 1951, p. 22) in March 1938. By studying the rocks of the different
summits he found that the rocks of the morphologically youngest eruption cen-
tre, lava dome C, were richer in silica (61.40% SiO^) than the rocks of crater B
(59.69% SKX), while the rocks of the morphologically oldest crater A had the
least S i 0 . Here also, the magma became richer in silica in the course of time.
2
Fig. 23. The summit of the volcano Talakmau with the craters A and B and lavaplug C (from
Neumann van Padang, 1951).
Mt Ruang (6,7-1) - Here the lava of 1914 was richer in silica than that of 1904
(see p. 45) showing the same tendency.
Krakatau (6,2) - Van Bemmelen (1943b, p. 58, fig. 7; 1949a, I, p. 205) discussed
the connection between the Krakatau activity and the chemical composition of
its magma, which varied from basaltic with 50.25% S i 0 to highly acid. It
2
proved that the cataclysmic volcanic outbursts, which were connected with
collapse and caldera formation, occurred when the magma had a silica content of
c. 70%. Each new cycle of regrowth began with basic eruptions. In his fig. 7 (see
Fig. 24) he showed the relationship between the silica content of the eruption
products in the course of the volcanic cycle.
This empirical consideration had, according to van Bemmelen (1943b, p.
60), the practical bearing that a repetition of a major outburst, followed by col-
lapse and tidal waves, is not to be feared as long as the chemical composition of
the magma had not changed from basaltic to acid.
Fig. 24. Evolution of the magma of the Krakatau group with regard to the silica content of its
eruption products (from van Bemmelen, 1943b, fig. 7).
From the preceding we see:

a) that the volcanoes of Indonesia were built up of a magma that gradually be-
came richer in silica, and
b) that the possibility of a catastrophic eruption grew as the silica content be-
came higher. This question was important for the Volcanological Survey because
it enabled them to predict the severity of an outburst.
ERUPTION CYCLES
Merapi-The eruption of Mt Merapi began on 22 November 1930. Till 18 De-

cember lava with relatively little gas was poured out. On 18 an 19 December a
magma rich in gas erupted, threw out a part of the volcano wall and formed
glowing avalanches and glowing clouds, which destroyed 20 k m of arable land.
2
The fact that the catastrophic eruption took place nearly one month after the
beginning of the activity, attracted the attention of Neumann van Padang
(1931b, 1933a, c). If this phenomenon, that a main eruption is preceded by a
preliminary stage, is normal, it would be of great importance for the Volcanolo-
gical Survey to safeguard the population. Something similar had happened
during the outburst of Mt Merapi in 1920. According to Kemmerling (1921c)
lava avalanches began on July the 25th. On 12 October, i.e. 2Vi months later, the
great main eruption followed.
Krakatau - The notorious Krakatau eruption of 1883 began with a preliminary

stage on May the 20th (see p. 14). More than three months later, on August the
26th, the catastrophic main phase took place, which lasted two days. A con-
cluding phase followed till the end of February 1884.
Vesuvius - The volcanic activity of Mt Vesuvius (1,1-2) began with a preliminary

stage in August 1903. About 2 h years later, on 8 April 1906, the main stage
x
followed, the intermediate gas phase of Perret (1924), who described this erup-
tion amply.
Montagne Pele - On 24 April 1902 Montagne Pele (16-12) began with the ejec-
tion of black ash clouds (Lacroix, 1904). Two weeks later, on May the 8th, the
catastrophic main eruption followed, that destroyed St Pierre.
The fact, that the main eruption takes place some time after the beginning of the
activity, is of great importance for the Volcanological Survey. It gave them time
to take measures to protect the population against disasters.
Neumann van Padang (1931c, p. 676-679) suggested an explanation why
the main eruption did not occur in the beginning of the activity. The general
idea is that the magma rises from a great depth to form a magma chamber at a
depth of 2-5 km below the surface of the earth. At this depth there is a pressure
of 600 to 1500 atm and a temperature of 80-170C, whilst the magma itself has
a temperature of more than 1000C. Therefore the cooling by the surroundings
is great. During the repose period, the border zone of the magma chamber (R in
Fig. 25) cools down and becomes rigid (a in Fig. 25). During the cooling, crystals
develop and at the same time the gases, dissolved in the magma, rise. A zone G ,
rich in gases, is formed between the cooled and rigid border zone R and the orig-
inal magma mass M. The increasing concentration of gas in zone G causes pres-
sures that will set the upper part of the magma in motion and squeeze the still
liquid part of the border zone R into the crater pipe. Depending on the quantity
and concentration of the gas, this magma will appear effusively or explosively, as
a preliminary stage. The underlying magma takes the place of the magma that is
thrown out. Finally the magma G , rich in gas, will reach the surface, often in a
catastrophic outburst.
Fig. 25. Schematic cross section through the upper part of a magma chamber (from Neumann
van Padang, 1931c, fig. 1).
R is the cooled, but still liquid, hot border zone;
a is the most cooled down outside border;
G is the magma rich in gases, that is formed underneath the border zone R;
M is the original magma;
the arrows indicate the direction of the convection currents.
ERUPTION RAINS
The relation between eruptions and rains that are caused by the eruption, and
which would not have fallen otherwise, was studied by Neumann van Padang
(1934a, b, 1935, 1937c). If great volcanic eruptions would always be accompa-
nied by rains, mud flows will inevitably originate causing damage in the foreland
of the volcano. Eruption rains will always originate when the eruptions take
place under water, e.g. with submarine volcanoes as is the case with Krakatau.
Volcanoes with a crater lake, e.g. Mt Kelut, will also cause eruption rains. In all
the other studied cases the eruptions were not accompanied by eruption rains.
In August 1883 the submarine eruptions of Krakatau caused eruption
rains in the neighbourhood of the volcano. At a great distance in South Sumatra
and West Java it rained in 1883 in the week before and after the eruption. But
from August the 26th till 31st, i.e. during and immediately after the catastrophic
eruption, no rain was observed (see Neumann van Padang, 1934a, p. 171, fig. 2).
The moisture which might have been present in the atmosphere was absorbed by
the ashes and could not come down as rain.
During the eruptions of Mt Slamet since 1926 it rained less during the erup-
tions than before and after its activity.
POST-WAR PERIOD
After the war, from 1945 till 1954, the Volcanological Survey in Bandung sent
Petroeschevsky to several volcanoes, such as Krakatau, Mt Ruang Motir, Tam-
bora, and some more. Together with Klomp he described the volcanic activity
in Indonesia.
The eruption in 1951 of Mt Kelut was described by van Rummelen (1953)
and van IJzendoorn (1953).
Professor B.G. Escher in Leiden, being president of the Volcanological
Section of the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics, charged Dr M.
Neumann van Padang to compile a Catalogue of the active volcanoes of Indone-
sia (1951). As editor of the Catalogue Neumann van Padang later on participated
in several congresses of the I.U.G.G. and published several articles on the subject.
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76 Neumann van Padang, History of volcanology in the East Indies, Scripta Geol. 71 (1983).
Plate 1
The volcanic eruptions of Mt Merapi (6,3-25) in 1865 by day and by night, as painted by the
reknown Raden Saleh. The paintings belong to the collections of the Rijksmuseum van Geolo-
gie en Mineralogie (National Museum of Geology and Mineralogy of the Netherlands).
Plate 2
Photographs by M. and K. Krafft.
Above : The active volcano Mt Dukono (6,8-1) on Halmahera Island is notorious for its great
eruption of 1550.
Below : Two of the three coloured crater lakes of the volcano Kelimutu (6,4-14) on the Les-
ser Sunda Island Flores. The green lake is rich in free sulphur, while the dark red lake
contains iron.
Plate 3
Above : The volcano Mt Agung (6,4-2) on Bali. The last eruption of this volcano in 1963
caused much damage and a large number of casualties.
Below : The extinct cone 'Batok' belongs to the Tengger caldera complex on eastern Java and
displays a regular pattern of erosion gullies (see Fig. 18).
Plate 4
Above : The violent eruption in 1982 of the regularly active volcano Mt Galunggung (6,3-14)
on western Java produced enormous quantities of volcanic ash.
Below : Anak Krakatau (in 1979), the central crater of the Krakatau caldera (6,2) arose
above sealevel in 1927 and has grown ever since to a volcano with a diameter of ca
1 km in 1982 (see Fig. 5).
Enclosure. Map of the active volcanoes of Indonesia (from Neumann van Padang, 1951). Neumann van Padang, History of volcanology in the East Indies, Scripta Geol. 71 (1983)
N.B. = Northern latitude, Z . B . = Southern latitude.

Plate 1
Plate 2
Plate 3
Plate 4

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Neumann van Padang, History of volcanology in the East Indies, Scripta Geol.

History of the volcanology in the

M. Neumann van Padang

Neumann van Padang, M. History of the volcanology in the former Netherlands

M. Neumann van Padang, De Perponcherstraat 131, 2518 ST Den Haag, The

Incidental communications on volcanoes and their activity before 1800 6

Nineteenth century communications of experts and laymen 12

Systematic volcanological research after 1900 22

After Professors W. Nieuwenkamp and R. Hooykaas had participated in a Con-

1 ) Incidental communications on volcanoes and their activity before 1800.

LIST OF ACTIVE VOLCANOES OF INDONESIA

Catalogue Dutch names and spelling New Indonesian names

Catalogue Dutch names and spelling New Indonesian names

Catalogue Dutch names and spelling New Indonesian names

33 o Ijang Argapura Hijang Argapoera Iyang Argapura

Catalogue Dutch names and spelling New Indonesian names

Incidental communications on volcanoes and their activity before 1800

ANCIENT JAVANESE SOURCES

Gunung Api north of Wetar (6,5-3)

One of the earliest Dutch communications on volcanoes in Indonesia is that of

On 17 January 1597 Lodewijcksz (1598;in Rouffaer & IJzerman, 1915, p. 180)

Banda Api (6,5-9)

Twenty years later, on 18 November 1635 Johann Sigmund Wurffbain

G. Patuha (6,3-7) and G. Papandayan (6,3-10)

in Krawang (see Hageman, 1870).

Valentijn (1724, I, 3, p. 53) described the eruption of Mt Awu on the Island of

Api Siau (6,7-2)

Peak of Ternate (i. Gamalama) (6,8-6)

Nineteenth century, communications of experts and laymen

Dr Thomas Horsfield (Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, 12-5-1773 - London, 24-7-

The physician Dr Franz Wilhelm Junghuhn (Mansfeld, Saxony, 26-10-1809-

Dr Rogier Diederik Marius Verbeek (Doorn, 7-4-1845 - Den Haag, 9-4-1926)

Reinder Fennema (Sneek, 21-10-1849 - Lake Posso, Celebes, 27-11-1897) left in

Tjerimai = i. Cereme (6,3-17)

Butak Petarangan (6,3-19)

Horsfield (1816a) gave a description of this nice conical mountain. According to

Horsfield (1816a, p. 158) considered Mt Papandayan to be one of the largest vol-

Kawah Idjen = i. Kawah Ijen (6,3-35)

An eruption of Kawah Idjen in 1796, mentioned by Horsfield (1816a), must

Junghuhn (1853, III, pp. 1020-1030) described his observations of the

Pangerango and Gedeh (6,3-6)

was called 'the territory of the 10 000 hillocks'.

Telaga Bodas (6,3-15)

The Ding Volcanoes (6,3-20)

Tengger and Mt Bromo (6,3-31 )

in October 1844. His description agrees with those of later investigators. He

Junghuhn (1853, III, pp. 1249-1260) described the catastrophic eruption of Mt

VOLCANOES OF THE BANDA SEA AND HALMAHERA

G. Api N of Wetar (6,5-3)

land volcano north of Wetar.

Damar = i. Wurlali (6,5-4)

Teon = i. Serawerna (6,5-5)

This island, also called Te wer, was a simple volcano.

Nila = i. Laworkawra (6,5-6)

A young cone surrounded by an old mantle.