Te c h n o l o g i c a l

Advances in
Nontraditional
Orthodontics
Andrea M. Bonnick, DDSa,b,c,*, Mark Nalbandian, DDS
d
,
Marianne S. Siewe, DDS, MSd

KEYWORDS
 Self-ligation  Lingual braces  Invisalign  SureSmile
 Cone beam computed tomography  Miniscrews
 Distraction osteogenesis  Bioengineering

Technology boldly tells step aside, lead, or follow. Orthodontics has taken a lead
driven by the increasing numbers of adult population seeking care that is esthetic, effi-
cient, and at a reasonable cost.
Most of the recently introduced technologies to current orthodontic therapy for both
children and adults are geared toward reduced orthodontic time, minimal postopera-
tive pain, and enhanced periodontium.

SELF-LIGATING BRACKETS

These are 4-walled rectangular brackets that contain a large lumen and are passively
ligated with extremely low-force archwires with specific expanded arch forms used
in a sequential series during treatment. The aim of self-ligation is to stay within the lowest
force necessary at every phase of treatment. This helps to elicit optimum tooth movement
through enhanced physiologic response of the periodontal ligament and surrounding
supportive hard and soft histologic structures.1 Examples of self-ligation systems are

The authors have nothing to disclose.

a
Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Howard University Hospital, Howard University
College of Dentistry, 2041 Georgia Avenue Northwest, Washington, DC 20060, USA
b
Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Program, Howard University Hospital, 2041 Georgia Avenue
Northwest, Washington, DC 20060, USA
c
Department of Dentistry, Howard University Hospital, 2041 Georgia Avenue Northwest,
Washington, DC 20060, USA
d
Department of Orthodontics, Howard University College of Dentistry, 600W Street, North-
west, Washington, DC 20059, USA
* Corresponding author. Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Howard University
Hospital, Howard University College of Dentistry, 2041 Georgia Avenue Northwest, Washington,
DC 20060.
E-mail address: [email protected]

Dent Clin N Am 55 (2011) 571584

doi:10.1016/j.cden.2011.02.012 dental.theclinics.com
0011-8532/11/$ see front matter 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
572 Bonnick et al

Damon (Ormco Corporation, Glendora, CA, USA), Speed (Stride Industries, ON,
Canada), SmartClip by 3M Unitek (Monrovia, CA, USA) (Fig. 1). When self-ligating
brackets have a wire that pulls through them, they produce less friction than conventional
brackets. Questions that should be answered by this system are
Does this low friction lead to a reduced treatment time and faster tooth movement?
Do self-ligating appliances save chair time compared with elastomeric ligation, and
are they more hygienic?2
According to Hamilton and colleagues,3 the overall treatment time is no different
between self-ligating brackets and conventional preadjusted appliances. However,
further prospective studies are needed to prove the effectiveness of the self-ligation
system in treatment time. Turpin2 points out that in vivo studies would be a better
measure of self-ligation appliance than current in vitro studies. However, the results
of in vitro studies have provided information that could remain useful as long as
they are considered with care. Turnbull and Birnie4 showed that self-ligation is twice
as fast to change archwires than conventional twin brackets and Alastik (3M Unitek,
Monrovia, CA, USA), saving as much as 3 seconds per bracket and, therefore,
reduces chair time. In addition, there is less need for chairside assistance, which
can also save valuable time and reduce cost. A more recent report by Ong and
colleagues5 has shown that self-ligating brackets are no more efficient than conven-
tional ligated brackets in anterior alignment or passive extraction space closure during
the first 20 weeks of treatment in extraction cases.
A study by Pellegrini and colleagues6 demonstrated that self-ligating appliances
(brackets) promote less retention of bacteria, including streptococci, when compared
with conventional appliances that use elastomeric ligatures. Concerning the peri-
odontal status of mandibular anterior teeth in patients with conventional versus self-
ligating brackets, a study by Pandis and colleagues7 showed that the self-ligating

Fig. 1. Self-ligating bracket models without wire and with wire models: (A, B) SmartClip and
(C, D) Damon brackets.
 Advances in Nontraditional Orthodontics 573

brackets had no advantage over the conventional brackets with respect to the status
of the periodontal tissues of the mandibular anterior teeth.

LINGUAL ORTHODONTICS

This concept was initiated after Fujita and Kurz developed lingual brackets in the
1970s and 1980s.8 Not all patients are candidates for lingual orthodontic techniques,
and this is especially true for patients with expected low discomfort tolerance.9
However, the development of indirect bonding techniques, the accuracy of bracket
placement, the new metal alloys for archwires, and the wire bending methods simpli-
fied with the concept of the straight wire technique have contributed significantly to
the reduction of patient discomfort and improved cooperation. In treatment with
lingual orthodontics, patients should be carefully selected and diagnosed because
some are more amenable than others. In patient selection, Echarri9 categorizes favor-
able cases based on the following: Class I skeletal pattern, mesocephalic or mild
brachycephalic, patient ability to open the mouth adequately and extend the neck,
mild incisor crowding with anterior deep bite, long uniform lingual tooth surface with
no restoration on it, good gingival and periodontal health, as well as the patients
keen compliance. Diagnostic considerations for lingual orthodontics should take
into account esthetic factors; good periodontal and gingival health; dental consider-
ations emphasizing on crowns, bridges, and restorations that are unfavorable; den-
toalveolar discrepancy; vertical considerations; anteroposterior discrepancy; and
preprosthetic cases.9
Lingual orthodontics has developed, and its future depends on 3 important issues:
(1) advances in technology related to appliance design and laboratory protocols, (2)
increasing the adult population seeking orthodontic treatment and the patient-
driven demand for more esthetic acceptable appliances, and (3) a change in public
and professional attitudes to lingual orthodontics in a more acceptable way.10

INVISALIGN

Invisalign, first introduced by Align Technology, Inc (Santa Clara, CA, USA) in 1997, is
a technique that uses a series of customized transparent, removable aligners, which
are designed and created using advanced computer technology, to orthodontically
straighten teeth.11 A high-quality set of pretreatment records, including photographs
and radiographs, as well as polyvinyl siloxane impressions and a bite registration
are taken and sent to Align Technology. These models are then digitized and are
made available online in a 3-dimensional (3D) format so that the orthodontist can
formulate a virtual prospective treatment plan using Align Technologys software
known as ClinCheck.12 This software allows the orthodontist to see a 3D representa-
tion of their treatment plan. Aligners are made and delivered to the orthodontist; on
average, 20 to 30 aligners per arch are needed, with each set being replaced every
2 weeks. On average, case completion requires 12 months.11
Align Technology has made great advances in the Invisalign product since its incep-
tion. In addition to Invisalign Full, its foundation product, there are several other cus-
tomizable options available now. Invisalign Express is a shorter-duration product that
is ideal for treating minor crowding cases and for preparing the mouth for restorative
dentistry.11 Invisalign Teen addresses the unique considerations of treating adoles-
cent patients, including compliance issues, as well as growth and development
concerns.11 Invisalign Assist, the companys customer service division, provides prac-
titioners with product support to closely monitor the progress of cases, an ideal option
for novice Invisalign users and for treating esthesis-centered cases.11
574 Bonnick et al

Invisalign also has developed various attachments, which have addressed some of
the concerns voiced about the product in the past, including extrusion attachments
that allow for more controlled and predictable extrusions of the upper and lower ante-
riors. Rotation attachments now allow for improved rotation of upper and lower
canines, and velocity attachments produce more controlled movements of both the
crown and root. Power ridges allow for optimal lingual root torque on upper incisors,
without having to bond attachments.11 Improvements in the ClinCheck software allow
for interproximal reduction to be completed in the later stages of treatment, when the
teeth are more aligned and thus are easier to access.11
There are many considerations to be made when deciding whether to use Invisalign
or conventional braces; however, with the continued improvements seen with Invisa-
lign technology, it has become a feasible and common treatment option.

SURESMILE

SureSmile, a product of OraMetrix (Richardson, TX, USA), is an orthodontic digital

system that uses 3D imaging technology and computer software to facilitate diag-
nosis, treatment planning, and fabrication of customized orthodontic appliances.13
Brackets are first bonded to the teeth as with conventional braces and are leveled
with a straight wire.14
A 3D image is then created with brackets in place 3 to 6 months later using the
OraScanner, a handheld light-based imaging device, which takes pictures of all
surfaces of the teeth.14 Cone beam computed tomography (CBCT) can be used along-
side the OraScanner for an even more accurate representation of the orientation of the
teeth, roots, and adjacent structures.14 The resulting images are viewed using the
therapeutic model, SureSmile software, that allows the operator to view the dentition
from various perspectives and to consider several treatment alternatives by moving
the teeth and extracting the teeth, along with other options.15 Once the treatment
plan has been formulated, the SureSmile Digital Lab sends a set-up model to the prac-
titioner for approval before archwire customization begins.15 The SureSmile archwire
is created using robotics that precisely shapes the wire according to the specifications
outlined in the set-up model and as confirmed/approved by the orthodontist.15
Copper Ni-Ti (nickel-titanium) metal is used during the robotic customization process
to create a shape memory alloy that permanently retains the wire-bending
specifications.15
The ability to diagnose, plan treatment, and simulate the results of various treatment
options, along with the extreme precision produced in the robotic-driven archwire
bending process, improves orthodontic treatment in several critical areas.15 The 3D
models allow for detailed planning so that the teeth move the shortest distance to their
target position, and the robotic wire bending greatly reduces errors that can be intro-
duced to the archwire.15 In fact, a study evaluating the efficiency and effectiveness of
SureSmile showed that the process results in a lower mean ABO OGS (American
Board of Orthodontics Objective Grading System) score and reduced treatment
time as compared with conventional braces.16 This technology improves the repro-
ducibility, efficiency, and quality of orthodontic treatment.13

CONE BEAM COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY

CBCT is an imaging modality originally developed for angiography and later used in
radiation therapy planning in mammography and later intraoperatively in otolaryngo-
logic surgery.17 Although CBCT scanners have been around for more than 25 years,
it was not until 2001 that the US Food and Drug Administration approved the first
 Advances in Nontraditional Orthodontics 575

commercial system for oral and maxillofacial imaging. Some of the necessary techno-
logical advances that made the application of these scanners in the orthodontic office
possible include:

1. The development of compact, cost-efficient, flat-panel digital detectors

2. The development of cost-efficient computers with the processing power to recon-
struct the scans (a typical scan can range in size from 99250 MB of data and
include >500 slices18)
3. The fabrication of highly efficient radiograph tubes
4. The development of machines that can scan limited field of views (FOVs).

The method of image data acquisition for a CBCT scanner involves a single rotation
of an x-ray tube and a rectangular or round 2-dimensional detector. The fan beam CT
scanners used in most hospital settings make use of a thin broad fan-shaped x-ray
beam to acquire axial slices that are integrated yielding volumetric data (Fig. 2).
The advantages of the CBCT include greater efficiency in radiograph use, lower cost
of the equipment, and quicker data acquisition that affects patient comfort. Further-
more, using CBCT, measurements made in any plane are usually precise, given that
the voxels (the 3D equivalent of a pixel) are isotropic.
Although CBCT has various uses in dentistry, some of its benefits in orthodontics
include:
 A 3D rendering of the craniofacial structures without distortion or magnification.
Cross-sectional views can be taken without the interference of other structures

Fig. 2. Illustration of the difference between fan beam CT and CBCT technology. (Adapted
from Farman AG, Scarfe WC. The basics of maxillofacial cone beam computed tomography.
Semin Orthod 2009;15:4; with permission.)
576 Bonnick et al

superimposed on them (for this same reason, certain landmarks on a lateral

cephalometric projection may not be visible or difficult to locate based on defini-
tion, ie, location of porion)
 Detection of affected teeth, their axial inclination, and proximity to total struc-
tures/other teeth can be better visualized (Fig. 3)
 Measurement of the airway is much more accurate than with 2D lateral
cephalography
 Treatment planning for orthodontic miniscrews is made simpler. Evaluations of
root proximity, bone thickness, and adjacent vital structures can be performed
 Assisting in creating physical biomodels in the treatment of patients with cranio-
facial syndromes
 An improved ability to detect occult pathologic condition (Fig. 4).
Although CBCT provides many benefits to the field of orthodontics, it is a radiologic
survey and as such, should be prescribed only when the need is evident. Furthermore,
effective radiation doses from a CBCT can be many times that of the conventional
panoramic and lateral cephalometric radiography, which exposes the patient to 7.5
to 25.4 mSv.19 When this value is compared with the effective dose from a CBCT radio-
graphic survey, which exposes the patient to anywhere from 58.9 to 1025.4 mSv,
depending on things such as the type of beam and filtration and the size of the
selected FOV,19 it becomes evident as to why this diagnostic tool must be used spar-
ingly. Furthermore, the average natural background radiation in the United States is
approximately 3000 mSv.19 White and Pae20 provide a useful algorithm (not included)
to assist in the decision-making process when selecting radiographs for the ortho-
dontic patient.
Along with the advent of CBCT technology in the dental field, several medicolegal
questions have also been raised. Although it is nearly impossible to summarize this
topic in 1 paragraph, the following suggestions can be made:
 Verify with state law as to who may legally own and operate a CBCT unit
 All of the image volume must be read by someone competent to do so (often this
means that a radiologist must be asked to do so)

Fig. 3. An affected maxillary canine causing resorption of the root of the adjacent lateral
incisor (arrow). (Adapted from Alqerban A, Jacobs R, Souza PC, et al. In-vitro comparison
of 2 cone-beam computed tomography systems and panoramic imaging for detecting simu-
lated canine impaction-induced external root resorption in maxillary lateral incisors. Am J
Orthod Dentofacial Orthop 2009;136:764.e7; with permission.)
 Advances in Nontraditional Orthodontics 577

Fig. 4. The differential diagnosis of this floating tooth in the maxilla includes (1) localized
severe periodontal bone loss, (2) Langerhans cell histiocytosis, and (3) a malignancy. (Adap-
ted from Miles DA. Interpreting the cone beam data volume for occult pathology. Semin
Orthod 2009;15:75; with permission.)

 When a radiologist is consulted, the dentist must make sure that the radiologist is
licensed in the state in which the referring doctor practices. If the dentist consults
with an out-of-state radiologist, the dentist must make sure the radiologist
carries malpractice coverage that will cover him/her for out-of-state practice.21
In conclusion, the introduction of CBCT to the field of dentistry has proved CBCT to
be a wonderful tool with great promise; however, the use of this technology must be
exercised by competent individuals to maximize its benefits to patients and to avoid
any foreseeable pitfalls.

MINISCREWS

Over the past few decades, the profession of orthodontics has witnessed an increase
in the number of adult patients seeking treatment.22 Unlike most adolescent patients,
many adult patients present with missing teeth and/or teeth with reduced periodontal
support. Traditional forms of anchorage may not be possible in such patients or even
may not be accepted, as in the case of a headgear, which may be objectionable
because of its impact on esthetics. With the advent of temporary anchorage devices
(TADs), a biomechanically difficult or impossible situation may become easier to
manage. A TAD is defined as a device fixed to bone with the purpose of reinforcing
dental anchorage or eliminating the need for dental anchorage. The device is removed
after it has fulfilled its purpose. Based on this definition, dental implants (endosseous
578 Bonnick et al

implants) do not qualify as a TAD because they are not removed after obtaining the
desired tooth movement. Examples of TADs (also called miniscrews or microscrews)
are shown in Fig. 5.
Most orthodontic miniscrews range in diameter from 1.2 to 2.0 mm and are between
4 and 10 mm in length.23 The dimensions of a selected miniscrew must be taken into
consideration during its placement to avoid vital structures. Possible consequences of
improper TAD placement include24:
 Damage to tooth roots or the periodontal ligament
 Damage to nerves (of concern is the greater palatine nerve in the palate and the
inferior alveolar and mental nerves in the mandibular buccal region)
 Soft tissue emphysema caused by the use of an air syringe during device
placement
 Nasal cavity and maxillary sinus perforation
 Miniscrew slippage/fracture
 Tissue overgrowth/infection (periimplantitis), usually occurs when the miniscrew
is placed in alveolar mucosa.

The following guidelines, when followed, help minimize the potential complications
associated with miniscrew placement and maximize the chances of attaining initial
stability of the miniscrew:
 The use of radiographs to properly select the location of miniscrew placement
 Thorough knowledge of regional anatomy
 Use of pilot holes in the retromolar region or for TADs to be placed in the
symphysis
 Placement of TADs in attached gingiva, where possible

Fig. 5. (A) The Straumann Orthosystem palatal implant (Institut Strausmann AG, Basel,
Switzerland). (B) Button-top TADs (Rocky Mountain Orthodontics, Denver, CO, USA) in 6,
8, and 10 mm and contra-angle driver. (C) Titanium bone plates for skeletal anchorage.
(Adapted from Crismani AG, Bernhart T, Bantleon HP, et al. Palatal implants: the Straumann
Orthosystem. Semin Orthod 2005;11:19; with permission; and Sugawara J, Nishimura M.
Minibone plates: the skeletal anchorage system. Semin Orthod 2005;11:48; with permission.)
 Advances in Nontraditional Orthodontics 579

 Keeping the path of insertion unchanged throughout the placement

 Using an angle of insertion of 60 to 70 25
 Controlled insertion of the TAD using minimal pressure
 Minimizing torsional stress via wiggling of the hand driver off the miniscrew when
insertion is completed. This process is done by first disassembling the driver
handle from the shaft then the shaft from the miniscrew
 Instructing the patient on proper home care, including the use of chlorhexidine
rinses.
Possible sites for miniscrew placement in the maxilla include the infrazygomatic
crest, palate, infranasal spine (anterior nasal spine), retromolar area, and alveolar
process.22 In the mandible, miniscrews may be placed in the retromolar area,
symphysis, and alveolar process.22 When placing TADs in the alveolar process, it
has been advocated that there be at least 3 mm of interradicular space for safe
placement.26 Furthermore, angulation of the miniscrew during placement can reduce
the chance of root damage and increase the surface area that traverses the cortical
bone and thereby enhancing primary stability of the miniscrew. Lee and colleagues23
have demonstrated areas within both arches where the interradicular space is greater
than 3 mm (Fig. 6).
It should be noted that these values are averages from a sample and each patient
should be treated on an individual basis. Factors to take into consideration are
curved/dilacerated teeth and crowded dentitions. Once placed, miniscrews may be
loaded immediately (because primary cortical stability is the most important factor
in their retention) because immediate loading stimulates bone adaptation.27 However,
immediate loading results in a minute amount of screw movement, which should be

Fig. 6. Locations where the interradicular space is greater than 3 mm. CEJ, cemento-enamel
junction. (Adapted from Lee KJ, Joo E, Lee JS, et al. Computed tomography analysis of
tooth-bearing alveolar bone for orthodontic miniscrew placement. Am J Orthod Dentofacial
Orthop 2009;135:491; with permission.)
580 Bonnick et al

taken into consideration during screw placement to ensure it is at a safe distance from
vital structures.27
Orthodontic miniscrews have a broad range of applications. A few situations in
which they have proved to be effective include molar uprighting, molar intrusion, molar
protraction, molar distalization, nonsurgical treatment of open bites, and the correc-
tion of occlusal cants. By possessing a sound knowledge of the regional anatomy
and following sound principles, TADs can be used to maximize their potential benefits
and minimize complications.

DISTRACTION OSTEOGENESIS

Distraction osteogenesis was first described by Codvilla in 1905 after using the tech-
nique to elongate the femur. The technique of osteodistraction, sometimes referred to
as callostasis, was pioneered by Ilizarov and evolved from the procedures of osteot-
omy, bone segment fixation, and skeletal traction. Craniofacial distraction osteogen-
esis was first introduced to clinical application by McCarthy, and since then, multiple
modifications and clinical applications have been reported in the literature.28
Distraction osteogenesis is a technique of growing new bone (bone regeneration
and osteosynthesis) between the surfaces of bone segments that are gradually sepa-
rated by mechanical stretching or incremental traction of the preexisting bone tissue.
Distraction osteogenesis is indicated (1) for the lengthening of alveolar bone accom-
panied by proportionate stretching of adjacent soft tissue in preparation for implant
placement, (2) for the correction of transverse discrepancies, (3) as a treatment option
for the management of mandibular and midface hypoplasia in adults and children, (4)
as an alternative surgical option for obstructive sleep apnea, (5) for acquired mandib-
ular retrognathia secondary to trauma of the condylar complex leading to the loss of
growth center or bony ankylosis, and (6) for continuity defects caused by ablative
surgery for odontogenic cysts and tumors. Distraction osteogenesis has also become
a very viable treatment option for congenital craniofacial anomalies such as hemifacial
microsomia, Treacher Collins syndrome, Pierre Robin syndrome, and Goldenhar
syndrome.
The most beneficial indication of distraction osteogenesis for a general dentist is the
vertical augmentation of the alveolar bone for implant placement; this process also
has the added benefit of soft tissue augmentation. This benefit avoids the need for
bone graft, as well as associated donor-site morbidity, infection, and possible
scarring.
The distractors can be external (Fig. 7) or internal (Fig. 8). The external devices are
attached to the bone by percutaneous pins connected externally to fixation clamps.
These clamps are joined together by a distraction rod that when activated pulls the
clamps and the attached bone segments apart, generating new bone in its path. Rela-
tive to the direction of the lengthening, the devices are divided into monofocal, bifocal,
and trifocal.29
The internal devices are located subcutaneously or within the oral cavity. They can
be placed extramucosally or submucosally and are attached to the bone with a linear
distractor that is similar to an orthodontic expansion device.
Intraoral distractors are more convenient socially and leave no residual skin scars. In
the esthetic zone, the distractors can be camouflaged with temporary restorations.
The surgical procedure can be performed under sedation or general anesthesia. A
limited vestibular incision is made, and a full-thickness mucoperiosteal flap is devel-
oped, the osteotomy is outlined, and the segments are separated by chisels. It is
important to avoid overzealous stripping of the periosteum to preserve the blood
 Advances in Nontraditional Orthodontics 581

Fig. 7. (A, B) Extraoral distractors.

supply of the bone. Clinically, distraction osteogenesis consists of 5 sequential

periods: osteotomy, latency, distraction, consolidation, and remodeling.
Latency is the time required for reparative callus formation between the osteotom-
ized bone segments. A period of 3 to 7 days is required depending on the age of the
patient. Distraction activation is the period when traction force is applied to the
segments. A rate of 1.0 mm/d is considered optimal, less than 1.0 mm/d can lead
to premature ossification, and 2.0 mm/d causes fibrous connective tissue formation
leading to delayed bone healing.30 The period of consolidation starts when the desired
expansion is achieved and lasts for 8 to 12 weeks. The ability of the distractor to main-
tain the stability of the newly formed bone is important for regeneration by direct
osteogenesis. Unstable devices with unstable bone segments lead to increased endo-
chondral bone formation and decreased bone regeneration. Remodeling begins after
the distractor device is removed and continues up to 1 year.
Complications are reported as both mechanical and surgical. Common reports are
fracture of the transport segment, breakage of the distractor, and control of vector
forces for optimal outcome.31

Fig. 8. Intraoral maxillary and mandibular alveolar distraction devices. (Courtesy of Synthes
CMF; with permission.)
582 Bonnick et al

The application of distraction osteogenesis offers excellent solutions for surgical

orthodontics, the management of developmental anomalies of the craniofacial skel-
eton, alveolar augmentation for rehabilitation of the edentulous patient, and recon-
struction of continuity defects without donor-site morbidity.

PIEZOCISION

It is described as a minimally invasive, periodontally accelerated, orthodontic tooth

movement procedure.32 It was designed because of the growing number of adult
patients seeking orthodontic treatment and their recurring request for a faster treat-
ment approach. Early surgical techniques developed to accelerate tooth movement
have been found to be quite invasive and were unaccepted by patients and the dental
community. Dibard and colleagues32 have developed a minimally invasive tech-
nique that combines piezoelectric incisions and microincisions with selective
tunneling that helps to produce hard and soft tissue grafting. This technique is an
orthodontic-guided procedure that is designed for orthodontic purposes but per-
formed by a periodontist. Therefore, it is very versatile and requires a team approach
for treatment. It is indicated for patients with Class II and deep bite, anterior and poste-
rior dental crossbite, moderate to severe crowding, soft tissue deficiency, thin or
recessive gingiva, and a need for bone or connective tissue grafts. The new approach
has led to reduced orthodontic treatment time, minimal postoperation discomfort,
great patient acceptance, and enhanced or stronger periodontium.32
Histochemical studies have shown that piezocision is less invasive and less trau-
matic than corticotomy procedures, and bone can regenerate in up to 8 weeks.
However, one problem associated with it is that it can create gingival defect.

BIOENGINEERING

Bioengineering is considered a collaborative field, combining principles of engineering

with those of the life sciences. Stem cells and regenerative medicine have a profound
impact on the practice of orthodontics and dentistry. For a cell to be defined as a stem
cell, 2 conditions must be met. First, it must possess the ability to self-replicate, and
second, it must be able to differentiate into at least 2 different cell types. Stem cells
may be derived from one of many sources. They may be embryonic stem cells (refer-
ring to the inner cell mass of the blastocyst during embryonic development), umbilical
cord stem cells, amniotic fluid stem cells, or adult stem cells.33 The adult stem cells
may be further divided into bone marrowderived mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs),
tooth-derived stem cells, adipose-derived stem cells, and induced pluripotent stem
cells (somatic cells that have been coaxed to act as embryonic stem cells).33 To
date, tooth-derived stem cells have been isolated from dental pulp, deciduous teeth,
and the periodontium.34
The current benchmark for adult stem cells is the bone marrowderived MSCs. They
are presently being evaluated for potential contributions in cartilage defects in arthritis,
bone defects, adipose tissue grafts in plastic and reconstructive surgery, cardiac
infarcts, diabetes, liver disease, and neurologic regeneration such as in the treatment
in Parkinson disease.33 Among the craniofacial tissues that have been engineered
using stem cells, there have been several recent milestones that should be of interest
to orthodontists and the dental profession. Alhadlaq and Mao35 have successfully
engineered a mandibular condyle using rat MSCs that is similar in shape to that of
humans. Further achievements include the engineering of distinct elements of the
periodontium, craniofacial bone, cranial sutures, and adipose tissue.34 Several
 Advances in Nontraditional Orthodontics 583

researchers have successfully developed a tooth crown with distinct layers resem-
bling the enamel, dentin, and pulp.33
Tooth-derived stem cells have the potential to solve many problems faced today in
both dentistry and medicine. This potential coupled with the relative ease of acquiring
tooth-derived stem cells, via extractions of noninfected primary or permanent teeth
(either wisdom teeth or healthy teeth extraction for orthodontic reasons), make dental
stem cells an attractive option. Future trends need to emphasize methods for preser-
vation of tooth-derived stem cells, promotion of research in the multifaceted field of
biomedical engineering, and its incorporation into the curriculums of dental schools
and postdoctoral orthodontic residencies.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors would like to acknowledge Davina Bailey, Dental Student, Howard
University College of Dentistry.

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