Learning Strategies

By: Jason R. Freeman

What are learning strategies?
As students shift from the skills emphasis of elementary grades to the content
emphasis of secondary grades, they face greater demands to read information from
textbooks, take notes from lectures, work independently, and express understanding in
written compositions and on paper and pencil tests (Schumaker & Deshler, 1984). For
students who haven't acquired such important academic skills, the task of mastering
content often comes with failure, particularly in inclusive general education classes. In
response to this challenge, many students with learning problems, including those with
learning disabilities (LD), have acquired and use specific learning strategies to become
successful despite their knowledge and skill deficits.
Simply put, a learning strategy is an individual's approach to complete a task. More
specifically, a learning strategy is an individual's way of organizing and using a
particular set of skills in order to learn content or accomplish other tasks more
effectively and efficiently in school as well as in nonacademic settings (Schumaker &
Deshler, 1992). Therefore, teachers who teach learning strategies teach students how to
learn, rather than teaching them specific curriculum content or specific skills.
What does the research say about learning strategies?
Much of the research and development of learning strategies for students with
learning disabilities has come from researchers and educators affiliated with The
University of Kansas, Center for Research on Learning. In general, their research
suggests that use of learning strategies can improve student performance in inclusive
settings or on grade appropriate tasks. In reading, for example, results from a study of
the use of the Word Identification Strategy indicated that the number of oral reading
errors decreased while reading comprehension scores increased for all students on
ability level and grade level materials (Lenz & Hughes, 1990). Another study revealed
that students using the Test Taking Strategy improved average test scores in inclusive
classes from 57% to 71% (Hughes & Schumaker, 1991).
Other researchers in the area of learning strategies have also found positive results.
For example, Graham, Harris, and colleagues (e.g., Graham, Harris, MacArthur, &
Schwartz, 1991) have validated strategies for improving the quality of student
compositions, planning processes, and revisions. In another line of research, Palincsar
and Brown (e.g., Palincsar & Brown, 1986) successfully tested and replicated reciprocal
teaching, a strategy to improve student reading performance. Scruggs and Mastropieri
(e.g., Scruggs & Mastropieri, 1992) have validated several approaches to teach students
how to construct and use mnemonics. Strategies tested by Miller and Mercer (e.g.,
Miller & Mercer, 1993) have resulted in improved student performance in math
calculations as well as in solving word problems.
How do teachers teach learning strategies?
Educators at the University of Kansas, Center for Research on Learning, have
validated an instructional sequence in which students learn each strategy following
these teacher-directed steps: (a) pretest, (b) describe, (c) model, (d) verbal practice, (e)
controlled practice, (f) grade-appropriate practice, (g) posttest, (h) generalization
(Schumaker & Deshler, 1992). After a teacher assesses the current level of student
performance on a strategy pretest, students commit to learning a new strategy. The
teacher then describes the characteristics of the strategy and when, where, why, and how
the strategy is used. Next, the teacher models how to use the strategy by "thinking
aloud" as the strategy is applied to content material. During the verbal practice step,
students memorize the strategy steps and other critical use requirements. Afterwards,
controlled practice activities enable students to become proficient strategy users with
ability level materials. Teachers provide specific feedback on performance, and then
students use the strategy with grade-appropriate or increasingly more difficult materials.
Finally, after a posttest, teachers facilitate student generalization of strategy use in other
academic and nonacademic settings.
Each strategy has multiple parts that students remember with the aid of a mnemonic.
For example, in the Paraphrasing Strategy (Schumaker, Denton, & Deshler, 1984)
students learn a reading comprehension strategy that is remembered by the acronym
RAP:
Read a paragraph
Ask yourself, "What were the main idea and details in this paragraph?"
Put the main idea and details into your own words.
If students need to learn prerequisite skills, such as finding main ideas and details,
teachers teach those before teaching the strategy, and reinforce student mastery of those
skills during strategy instruction. Students typically learn to use a learning strategy in
small groups, sometimes in a resource room, through short, intensive lessons over
several weeks.
What resources are available for teachers?
The learning strategies curriculum developed at the University of Kansas is
organized into three strands: (a) information acquisition, (b) information storage, and (c)
expression and demonstration of understanding. The information acquisition strand
features the Word Identification Strategy, the Paraphrasing Strategy, and others. The
Word Identification Strategy (Lenz & Hughes, 1990) enables students to decode
multisyllabic words. Students use the Paraphrasing Strategy (Schumaker, Denton, &
Deshler, 1984) to improve reading comprehension of main ideas and details through
paraphrasing.
The information storage strand includes the FIRST-letter Mnemonic Strategy, the
Paired Associates Strategy, as well as others. Students who master the FIRST-letter
Mnemonic Strategy are able to scan textbooks to create lists of critical information and
devise first letter mnemonics to remember the material (Nagel, Schumaker, & Deshler,
1986). To better study and recall content, the Paired Associates Strategy enables
students to pair pieces of new information with existing knowledge by using a visual
device (Bulgren, Hock, Schumaker, & Deshler, 1995).
The expression and demonstration of understanding strand includes the Sentence
Writing Strategy, the Test Taking Strategy, and others. The Sentence Writing Strategy is
designed to teach students how to write simple, compound, complex, and compound-
complex sentences (Schumaker & Sheldon, 1985). The Test Taking Strategy is an
integrated strategy used by students to focus attention on critical aspects of test items,
systematically answer questions, and improve test performance (Hughes & Schumaker,
1991).
In large measure, the learning strategies research conducted over the last 20 years at
the University of Kansas, Center for Research on Learning, has been funded by the U.S.
Office of Special Education Programs. Additional funding has come from sources
including the State of Kansas, The Casey Family Foundation, and the National Council
for Learning Disabilities. The content of this publication does not necessarily reflect the
views or policies of the funding agencies, nor does the mention of trade names,
commercial products, or organizations imply their endorsement. (Freeman, 2001)
 Teaching and Learning Strategies

The Educational Development team advocates for the use of teaching and learning
strategies that foster a learner-centred environment. We develop resources, facilitate
training sessions, and conduct consultations on the implementation of the strategies
listed below in a variety of settings.
Giving "Good" Student Feedback
Good feedback ensures that students are able to move forward efficiently on future
work. The best feedback is specific, actionable, timely and respectful: find out how to
incorporate these characteristics into your teaching practice.
Mid-semester Feedback
Gathering mid-semester feedback allows instructors to gain insight into how students
are navigating the learning environment. The feedback can be used to understand what
approaches are working within the class, and any alterations that could be made to
continually improve the learning environment.
Group Work
The design of group work activities and projects can help students develop many
attributes, including problem-solving abilities, planning and organization, and
communication skills; yet, group work can present many challenges for both the
students and the instructor. There are considerations to keep in mind as you include
group work into your course and assessments.
Discussions
Discussions are one way to actively involve students in the learning process.
Discussions provide students opportunity to enhance their communication skills,
problem solve, apply and synthesize key concepts and consider diverse points of view.
Teaching Large Classes
Teaching large classes comes with its own set of challenges and opportunities. Learn
about some of the factors to be considered when planning the learning environment in
large classes.
Active Learning Strategies
Active learning strategies encourage students to engage with the course material in a
manner that fosters deep learning and enhances retention. There are some sample
strategies that could be included in any learning environment. (UofG OpenEd, 2015)
Bibliografa
Freeman, J. (1 de Febrero de 2001). LD OnLine. Obtenido de LD OnLine :
http://www.ldonline.org/article/Learning_Strategies
UofG OpenEd. (28 de Septiembre de 2015). Obtenido de University of Guelph :
http://opened.uoguelph.ca/student-resources/Teaching-and-Learning-Strategies
Accomplish.
1: to bring about (a result) by effort have much to accomplish today
2: to bring to completion : fulfill accomplish a job
3: to succeed in reaching (a stage in a progression)
would starve before accomplishing half the distance W. H. Hudson 1922
Mnemonics.
A technique of improving the memory
Resource.
1
a : a source of supply or support : an available means usually used in plural
b : a natural source of wealth or revenue often used in plural
c : a natural feature or phenomenon that enhances the quality of human life
d : computable wealth usually used in plural
e : a source of information or expertise
2: something to which one has recourse in difficulty : expedient
3: a possibility of relief or recovery
4: a means of spending one's leisure time
5: an ability to meet and handle a situation
Paraphrasing.
1: a restatement of a text, passage, or work giving the meaning in another form
The teacher asked the students to write a paraphrase of the poem.
2: the use or process of paraphrasing in studying or teaching composition
paraphrase, which aims rather at recapturing the general impression of a foreign
work Times Literary Supplement
Focus.
1
a : a point at which rays (as of light, heat, or sound) converge or from which
they diverge or appear to diverge; specifically : the point where the geometrical
lines or their prolongations conforming to the rays diverging from or converging
toward another point intersect and give rise to an image after reflection by a
mirror or refraction by a lens or optical system
b : a point of convergence (see convergence 1) of a beam of particles (such as
electrons)
2
 a : focal length
b : adjustment for distinct vision; also : the area that may be seen distinctly or
resolved into a clear image
c : a state or condition permitting clear perception or understanding tried to
bring the issues into focus
d : direction 6c the team lost focus
3: one of the fixed points that with the corresponding directrix defines a conic
section
4: a localized area of disease or the chief site of a generalized disease or
infection
5
a : a center of activity, attraction, or attention the focus of the meeting was drug
abuse put immigration into focus as a hot topic for commentators
b : a point of concentration
6: the place of origin of an earthquake or moonquake
7: directed attention : emphasis The focus is on helping the homeless.
Endorsement.
1: the act or process of endorsing
2
a : something that is written in the process of endorsing
b : a provision added to an insurance contract altering its scope or application
3: sanction, approval went ahead without the endorsement of his boss
4: money earned from a product recommendation made millions in salary and
endorsements
Advocates.
1: one who pleads the cause of another; specifically : one who pleads the cause
of another before a tribunal or judicial court
2: one who defends or maintains a cause or proposal an advocate of liberal arts
education
3: one who supports or promotes the interests of a cause or group a consumer
advocate an advocate for women's health
He has paid respectful attention to the home schooling movement by meeting
with its advocates and endorsing their cause. Elizabeth Drew
Gathering.
 1: assembly, meeting
2: a suppurating swelling : abscess
3: the collecting of food or raw materials from the wild
4: collection, compilation
5: a gather in cloth
Assessments.
1: the action or an instance of making a judgment about something : the act of
assessing something : appraisal assessment of damages an assessment of the
president's achievements
2: the amount assessed : an amount that a person is officially required to pay
especially as a tax the tax assessment on property
Synthesize.
1: to combine or produce by synthesis
2: to make a synthesis of
3: to produce (something, such as music) by an electronic synthesizer