Composite Construction
Composite Construction
Composite Construction
INTRODUCTION
The design of structures for buildings and bridges is mainly concerned with the
provision and support of horizontal surfaces. In buildings, the floors are usually made of
concrete, reinforced by steel to resist tension. As spans increase though, it is cheaper to
support the slab, for example by beams, rather than to thicken the slab. In building
structures the grid of beams is in turn supported by columns. Both the beams and columns
can be conveniently constructed using structural steel sections, normally hot-rolled I- and
H-shapes respectively. It used to be customary to design the bare steelwork to carry all the
loads, but since the 1950s it has become increasingly common to connect the concrete
slabs to the supporting beams by mechanical devices. These eliminate, or at least reduce,
slip at the steel-concrete interface, so that the slab and the steel beam section act together
as a composite unit, commonly termed a composite beam(Figure 1.1).
2.1 Architectural
Designing composite structures offers a lot of architectural variations to combine
different types of composite elements.
In addition to reductions in the dimensions of the beams;
Longer spans
Thinner slabs
More slender columns
Offer flexibility and more generous opportunities for design such as Column free
rooms can be used more flexibly.
2.2 Economical
Enormous cost saving results from smaller dimensions (higher stiffness results in
less deflections, longer spans and less overall height) and quicker erection.
Reduction in depth reduces the total height of the building, saving the area of
cladding.
Longer spans with the same depth (compared to other methods of construction).
Additional storeys with the same total height of building.
Composite structures are easy to erect and have quicker times of erection. Hence
earlier completion of the building, resulting saving of costs.
Lower financing costs.
Ready for use earlier, thus increasing rental income.
2.3 Functionality
Conventional steel structures use applied fire protection systems to insulate the
steel from the heat of the fire. Modern steel and composite structures can provide fire
resistance by using principles of reinforced concrete structures in which the concrete
protects the steel because of its high mass and relatively low thermal conductivity.
Just as composite slabs may resist fire, composite beams can also be used with
unprotected flanges, but then the space between the flanges has to be filled with concrete
and additional reinforcement. This not only maintains relatively low temperatures in the
web and upper flange, but also provides flexural strength, compensating for the reduction
contribution from the hot lower flange.
2.5 Assembly
Composite floors are now the preferred approach for a wide range of structures,
offering the designer and clients the following advantages:
Steel cross
section IPE 400 IPE 550 HE 360 B
Construction
height [mm] 560 710 520
Load
capacity 100% 100% 100%
Construction
height 100% 127% 93%
In Table 2.1, a composite beam is compared with two types of steel beams without
any shear connection to the concrete slab. The load capacity is nearly the same but a
difference in stiffness and construction height is shown.
Generally the cross section dimensions of composite structures are much less than
reinforced concrete or a bare steel framework.
Column
Dimensions
[cm] 70 / 70 80 / 120
Beam
Dimensions
[cm] 160 / 40 160 / 120
Table 2.2, for example compares the sizes of quite large composite columns and
beams with reinforced concrete counterparts under the same loading conditions.
3. METHODOLOGY
So comparing these two methods a combination of both presents itself as the most
economic way. More than only picking out the advantages of each method, even new
advantages can be gained. So for example, in composite construction higher bearing
capacities can be achieved than in steel and concrete. But also stiffness and plastic
redistribution can be improved by combining steel with concrete. On one hand this
enables advantage to be taken of the plastic reserves of the system and on the other hand,
to reduce safety factors due to the good-natured inherent ductility of the failure modes.
Speaking about composite construction in the following, it should be mentioned that
in many cases actually mixed building technology is the most efficient solution. Strictly
composite only means the interaction of two materials within one construction element
(e.g. a concrete-filled tubular steel column) whereas the philosophy of mixed building
technology includes the combination of construction elements or members built up with
different construction methods (e.g. concrete column in combination with a composite
beam and a prefabricated slab).
Building up a composite structure in a very economic way can be divided into the
following operations:
First of all a conventional skeleton structure in steel, braced or unbraced, will be
erected. If hollow steel sections are used for the columns the reinforcement cages
already can be positioned in the shop.
Also all brackets, fin plates and vertical shear studs (non-headed bolts or shot-
fired nails) for the load transfer between the steel and the concrete encasement
have to be prepared in the shop to speed up the erection on site requiring a
detailed planning stage. After arranging the columns the bare steel beams are
simply hinged in between.
Prefabricated concrete elements or profiled steel sheeting are spanning from beam to
beam, serving both as shuttering and as a working platform.
Finally, by concreting the slabs and the columns in one process the stiffness and
resistance of the columns and beams increases and the joints are automatically
transformed from hinges to semi-continuous restraints.
3.1 Construction elements
Figure 3.1 shows the principles of the composite construction method. Slabs spanning
between a grid of beams which are supported by the columns. So the floor itself consists
of the floor beams and the slab. Figure 3.1 illustrates the different construction elements
on site. The following subsections deal with the individual construction elements
commonly used in composite or mixed building technology.
3.1 Slabs
For all these variations, illustrated in Figure 3.3, there is the possibility to use
normal or light weight concrete. In the case of fully prefabricated slabs attention has
to be paid to the fact that only a small part of in situ concrete within the clearances
can be activated by the beams to act compositely.
Local heating of the beam flanges acting as supports may cause a failure of
anchorage and reduced shear resistance of the concrete ribs.
Attention has to be paid to the differential thermal strains very close to the ends.
The impact of beam deflection on fracture of the slabs is strongly reduced when
the beams are pre-cambered to become straight again by slabs self weight- and
when the common deflection criteria for steel structures are met. It is also good
practice to use an intermediate rubber or felt layer between the slabs and steel
beam bottom plate. Concrete fillings of the ends of the hollow cores do have a
favourable effect on the resistance to shear failure. Therefore, bending is still the
governing design criterion for usually slender prestressed slabs.
Figure 3.4: Pre-stressed prefabricated hollow core slam.
The grades of steel used for decking are specified in BS EN 10326[ 8 ]. The
common grade in the UK is S350.
Decking is generally rolled from 0.9 to 1.2 mm thick strip steel. The spanning
capability of a given decking profile clearly increases as the steel thickness increases.
There are two generic types of shallow decking; re-entrant (dovetail) profiles and
trapezoidal profiles as shown in fig 3.6
3.3 Beams
The second element within the floor are the beams supporting the slabs and
carrying the loads to the columns. Depending on the grid of beams the slabs therefore are
spanning in one direction. Following the philosophy of mixed structures those beams can
be realised in steel, concrete, steel-concrete composite or even other materials or their
combination. In the following only steel-concrete composite floor beams will be treated
in detail.
In a composite beam within the sagging moment region the concrete slab is
activated in compression by shear connectors. Headed studs dominate in practical
application. The advantage is the combination of a relatively large stiffness with a very
large deformation capacity. Therefore, in contrast to block dowels, headed studs can be
arranged with constant spacing in between which considerably facilitates the application.
The disadvantage lies in the problems of weldability, especially when using galvanised
plates or coated steel flanges but also regarding water in between the sheeting and the
flange.
They are commonly used where large normal forces are combined with the wish
for small sections. As the composite columns may be prefabricated or at least prepared in
the shop the construction time can be drastically reduced compared to in-situ concrete. A
decisive advantage over bare steel columns is the very high fire resistance of composite
columns without any preventive measures.
Stiffness: A joint with vanishing rotational stiffness and which therefore carries
no bending moment is called a hinge. A rigid joint is one whose rigidity under
flexure is more or less infinite and which thus ensures a perfect continuity of
rotations. In between these two extreme boundaries we speak about semi-rigid
joints.
Moment resistance: In contrast to a hinge, a joint whose ultimate strength is
greater than the ultimate resistance (ultimate strength) of the parts whose linkage
it ensures is called a full strength joint. Again a partial strength joint represents a
middle course between these extremes. (For simplicity from now on resistance
will mostly be used for the ultimate resistance value; the terms resistance and
strength are used in the Eurocodes with an identical meaning)
Rotation capacity (ductility): Brittle behaviour is characterised by fracture under
slight rotation, usually without plastic deformations. Ductile behaviour is
characterised by a clear non-linearity of the moment-rotation curve with a large
plateau before fracture. It usually indicates the appearance of plastic deformations.
The ductility coefficient is the ratio between the ultimate rotation and the elastic
rotation limit. Semi ductility falls between the brittle and ductile behaviour.
Starting analysing full-scale joints it could be seen very quickly that the number of
influencing parameters is too large. So world-wide the so-called component method is
accepted as the best method to describe the joint behaviour analytically. In contrast to the
common finite element method (FEM), which often fails to consider local load
introduction problems, the joint here is divided into logical parts exposed to internal
forces. So while the FEM works on the level of strains and stresses, the component
method concentrates on internal forces and deformations of so-called component springs.
In recent years all over the world extensive testing programs have been performed
for studying the non-linear behaviour of individual components and their assembly to
gain the non-linear moment-rotation reaction of the whole joint formed by these
components. Further as the connection between beams and hollow column sections is
problematic with regard to the transfer of vertical shear forces due to the inaccessibility of
the columns interior, several efforts have been made to develop a connection providing
sufficient bearing capacity which either can be prepared already in the shop or which can
easily be placed in site. The problem increases due to the eccentricity of the imposed
loads due to tolerances in combination with the relatively thin steel sheets. An example of
a connection type is illustrated in figure 3.15.
Figure 3.15: Example for the vertical shear transfer between beams and
composite columns
A simple bracket can be welded to the column surface supporting either the
beams upper or lower flange. Bearing on the lower flange requires fire protection to the
bracket and in those cases where no suspended ceiling is used the architect might refuse
to use such an ugly bracket. Using a bracket for the upper flange, one has to put up a
more difficult erection, especially when aiming at a rigid connection in the final state.
Summarising it should be emphasised that the most economic way of erection is
to start with single span steel beams (propped or unpropped) hinged to the columns. By
placing contact pieces and reinforcement semi-continuous restraints are very simply
formed after hardening of concrete at the final state.
Composite member:
A structural member with components of concrete and of structural or cold-
formed steel, interconnected by shear connection so as to limit the longitudinal slip
between concrete and steel and the separation of one component from the other.
Shear connection:
An interconnection between the concrete and steel components of a composite
member that has sufficient strength and stiffness to enable the two components to be
designed as parts of a single structural member.
Composite beam:
A composite member subjected mainly to bending.
Composite column:
A composite member subjected mainly to compression or to compression and
bending.
Composite slab:
A bi-dimensional horizontal composite member subjected mainly to bending in
which profile steel sheets:
are used as permanent shuttering capable of supporting wet concrete,
reinforcement and site loads, and
Subsequently combine structurally with the hardened concrete and act as part or
all of the tensile reinforcement in the finished slab.
Composite frame:
A framed structure in which some or all of the elements are composite members
and most of the remainder are structural steel members.
Composite joint:
A joint between composite members, in which reinforcement is intended to
contribute to the resistance and the stiffness of the joint.
5. APPLICATIONS
Composite slabs have traditionally found their greatest application in steel framed
office buildings, but they are also appropriate for the following types of building:
Other commercial buildings
Industrial buildings and warehouses
Leisure buildings
Stadiums
Hospitals
Schools
Cinemas
Housing; both individual houses and residential buildings
Case Studies:
A further example for a composite structure is the new parking deck in Innsbruck
(Austria), which shows how the technology leads to new solutions in the design phase as
well as in the execution and construction. The structural requirements and boundary
conditions are pointed out briefly and their solution is explained by a suitable system
choice.
The parking house is a 4 storey building with ground dimensions of 60 x 30m.The
particularity is the 26 cm thick slim floor slab which is semi continuously connected with
the composite columns.
Maximum span length of composite slim floor beams: 10.58m.
Also a particularity of the building is the 4,8 m cantilever and the very slim
columns (composite columns: =355 mm).
This building is an example of simplifying the process of erection. By using
columns over 2 storeys and partially prefabricated slabs the time of erection could be
minimized.
Fig. 5.6 Fig. 5.7
Figure 5.8: Shows the cross section of the slim-floor beam and slab.
Future developments:
A lot of research all over Europe has improved existing composite systems and
has led to the development of new technologies e.g. Slim-floor slabs with semi
continuous connections to the columns, new steel sheets or systems to minimize the time
of erection and assembly.
Other developments concerning the real behaviour of composite structures and
elements are published in COST-C1 project.
CONCLUSION:
Composite construction is popular for buildings and bridges as well
because of the following aspects:
Economy
Architecture
Functionality
Service and building flexibility
Assembly
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