Post Graduate Diploma IN Bakery Science and Technology
Post Graduate Diploma IN Bakery Science and Technology
Post Graduate Diploma IN Bakery Science and Technology
IN
BAKERY SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
PGDBST 01
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PGDBST-01 Dr. Alka Sharma
STRUCTURE
1.0 OBJECTIVES
1.1. INTRODUCTION
1.1.1. ORIGIN
1.1.2. CLASSIFICATION OF WHEAT
1.1.3. PRODUCTION
1.2. GRAIN SIZE AND MORPHOLOGY
1.2.1. SOURCES OF GRAIN SIZE VARIATIONS
1.2.2. RELATIONSHIP OF GRAIN SIZE WITH ENDOSPERM AND
PROTEIN CONTENT
1.2.3. TECHNIQUES USED TO STUDY THE STRUCTURE OF WHEAT
GRAIN
1.3. PROTEIN QUALITY
1.4. -AMYLASE ACTIVITY
1.5. PHYSICO-CHEMICAL BASIS OF WHEAT GRAIN HARDNESS OR
SOFTNESS
1.6. STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS OF WHEAT GRAIN
1.7. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF WHEAT KERNEL
1.8. SUMMARY
1.9. KEY WORDS
1.10. SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
1.11. SUGGESTED READING
OBJECTIVES
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After studying this unit you should be able to:
Classify wheat and describe its characteristics and uses.
Explain the structure of wheat.
Know the chemical composition of wheat grain.
Understand the factors affecting grain size.
Describe the factors responsible for wheat hardness/softness.
1.1. INTRODUCTION
1.1.1. ORIGIN
Wheat was one of the first of the grains domesticated by humans. Its cultivation began in
the Neolithic period. Bread wheat is known to have been grown in the Nile valley by
5000 BC, and its apparently later cultivation in other regions (e.g., the Indus and
Euphrates valleys by 4000 BC, China by 2500 BC, and England by 2000 BC) indicates
that it spread from Mediterranean centers of domestication. The civilizations of West
Asia and of the European peoples have been largely based on wheat. Since agriculture
began, wheat has been the chief source of bread for Europe and the Middle East. It was
introduced into Mexico by the Spaniards about 1520 AD and into Virginia by English
colonists early in the 17th century.
Wheat is cultivated for food since prehistoric times by the peoples of the temperate zones
and now the most important grain crop of those regions. The great wheat-producing
countries of the world are the United States, China, and Russia, India, W Europe, Canada,
Argentina, and Australia. High-yield wheat, one of the grains resulting from the Green
Revolution, requires optimal growth conditions, e.g., adequate irrigation and high
concentrations of fertilizer.
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Species of wheat are classified according to the number of chromosomes found in the
vegetative cell. There are over 20 species of wheat, differing in their basic number of
chromosomes (diplo-, tetra-, and hexaploid), and several thousand varieties. The most
economically significant species are the ordinary wheat Triticum aestivum subsp. vulgare
(hexaploid) and the hard wheat Triticum durum (tetraploid).
Triticum aestivum: the classes belonging to this species are hard red winter, hard red
spring, soft red winter, soft and hard white. Kernel hardness in protein content vary
widely within this species. Common wheat may be winter or spring growing habit and
may have either red or white kernels. Its flour is superior to that of all other species for
the production of leavened bread. Climatic and soil conditions also have a marked
influence on the suitability of common wheat for specific types of flour.
Triticum compactum (club wheat): Both winter and spring varieties are grown. The
kernels have a soft texture and low protein content and is not well suited for bread flour
but is excellent for certain types of cakes and pastries flour.
Triticum durum: It has spring growing habit. Principle production among this variety is
of amber (white) varieties. The kernels are hard in texture and high in protein content.
Most of this crop is used for the production of semolina or durum flour for the pasta
productions because the qualities of durum gluten make it particularly desirable for this
use.
1.1.3. PRODUCTION
The global area of wheat cultivation covers a total of about 240 x 106 ha, and
approximately 90% of that is occupied by Triticum aestivum which has the greatest
number of crop-yielding varieties of starchy grains. There are numerous varieties of
Triticum durum cultivated in continental climate zones and covering approximately 10%
of the total area.
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Major wheat producers in world (FAO, 1999)
Avg. Yield,
Area Harvested, ha Production, Mt
Mt/ha
World 212,254,522 585,466,595 2.76
China 28,855,019 113,880,088 3.95
India 27,398,000 70,778,496 2.58
USA 21,781,000 62,569,000 2.87
Russian Federation 19,755,200 30,995,150 1.57
Australia 12,338,000 25,012,000 2.03
Canada 10,366,700 26,900,000 2.59
Kazakhstan 8,736,300 11,241,900 1.29
Turkey 8,650,000 16,500,000 1.91
Pakistan 8,229,900 17,857,600 2.17
Argentina 6,072,000 15,100,000 2.49
Ukraine 5,931,600 13,585,300 2.29
France 5,115,195 37,050,000 7.24
Iran, Islamic Rep of 4,739,058 8,673,197 1.83
Morocco 2,690,600 2,153,540 0.80
Germany 2,609,444 19,615,366 7.52
Poland 2,582,969 9,051,339 3.50
Spain 2,422,400 5,083,800 2.10
Italy 2,387,266 7,742,782 3.24
Afghanistan 2,027,000 2,499,000 1.23
United Kingdom 1,847,000 14,870,000 8.05
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1.2. GRAIN SIZE AND MORPHOLOGY
The wheat grain or the wheat kernel is one seeded fruit, called caryopsis. A wheat kernel
is about 5-8 mm in length and 2.5-4.5 mm in width. The wheat kernel has a longitudinal
crease that extends almost to the center of the kernel. The existence of the crease makes
much of handling of the grain more difficult. It has been suggested that one way to
improve wheat would be to eliminate the longitudinal crease. The wheat kernel is
somewhat thicker toward the end where the embryo is located. At the opposite end hairs
of brush are located.
The dorsal side of the wheat grain can be oval, ovate, or elliptical, with a cluster of long
or short brush hairs at the apex, and the oval or circular embryo at the bottom. The dorsal
profile can be ridged or smooth, the ventral part of the profile having a prominent radicle.
The ventral side has a deep groove or crease along the entire longitudinal axis. The shape
of the groove is a characteristic feature of some species and varieties.
The grain coat is made up of the fruit and seed coat, adhering directly to the aleurone
layers of translucent cells, strongly lignified, elongated in shape and encrusted with
mineral substances and of a layer of perpendicular and tubular cells. The seed coat
consists of a compact cell layer and pigment strand, providing the grain with its
characteristic coloring.
The aleurone layer made up of large thick walled cells filled with functional proteins and
nutritional components, encloses the endosperm, and disappears around the embryo.
The endosperm consists of large, thin-walled cells, filled mainly with starch and protein.
In the subaleurone area, especially on the dorsal side of the grain, the dominant cells are
elongated in the direction of the endosperm center. Cells within the endosperm are less
regular in shape. Starch grains are enclosed in the thin layer of adherent protein and
located within a protein matrix which fills the individual cells of the endosperm to
varying degrees. The highest content of protein is observed in the cells of the
subaleurone layer of the endosperm. The closer to the center of the grain, the lower the
protein content.
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1.2.1. SOURCES OF GRAIN SIZE VARIATIONS
There can be numerous factors including genetic, production, and agronomic practices
responsible for causing variation in grain size. Grain pinching is due to environmental
and crop-management stresses, although some varieties show a greater tendency than
others to produce pinched grain. Screenings are grains that are so small, pinched or
cracked that they pass through a standard sieve and lead to reduced price. The following
factors are known to affect grain size, pinching and screenings but there is much that we
do not know.
Immaturity at harvest may result in shriveled and green kernels, thus reduces the size of
kernel, yield and quality of the flour produce.
Carbohydrate supply: A major factor in determining average seed size is the supply of
carbohydrate available to fill the number of grains set. When more grains are set, there is
less carbohydrate to fill each grain, so average size is reduced. Even when there is
adequate soil water during grain filling there is usually some reduction in grain size.
Drought during grain filling leads to a greater reduction in average grain size and an
increase in screenings.
Most wheat varieties released over the past few decades have relatively small grains.
When grain number is increased with nitrogen fertiliser, the average grain weight is
decreased and the chance of screenings is increased.
Haying-off: The process of haying off is when excessive nitrogen leads to decreased
yield with an increase in the percentage of pinched grain. It was widely believed that the
main reason was insufficient soil water after flowering to fill the grain, because soil water
had been depleted to produce extra vegetation. Recent research suggests that lack of soil
water after flowering is probably a secondary cause of haying off. The main reason is that
high-N status leads to reduced soluble carbohydrate stored in the stems at the time of
flowering and so less reserves for grain filling.
Variation within the ear: There is variation in grain size within the ear even in good
growing conditions. Typically the outside grains within a spikelet are smaller than those
closer to the centre. There is also some variation along the length of the ear, with grains
near the top being smaller than the others, but the vertical variation is not as great as the
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sideways variation. The reduced size in both the tip and side spikelets is probably due to
the poorer 'plumbing' to grains that are furthest from the base of the ear. The screenings
are mostly the 3rd or 4th grains on the spikelet.
High temperature: High temperature in the days before flowering leads to a reduced cell
number in the ovules, and hence a reduced potential grain size. High temperatures after
flowering also lead to reduced grain size. Generally high temperatures reduce the
duration of grain filling and hence average grain size.
Loss of leaf area: Leaf diseases such as yellow leaf spot have been a major cause of small
grain.
Improperly adjusted threshing equipment may further reduce the kernel size by breaking
them, leading to a yield loss to the mills. Rapid artificial drying may cause minor fissures
in grain, which result in excessive breakage during subsequent handling.
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Three main branches of microscopy- light, scanning electron and transmission electron
microscopy are successfully used to study the structure and composition of wheat and
wheat-based products. The objectives of the studies vary from gaining fundamental
information on the accumulation of cellular constituents in the developing wheat grain
to providing information which can improve our understanding of differences in
processing ability or overall quality of wheat and wheat-based products. Microscopical
observations should always be linked to other technological, chemical or physical data.
Light microscopy (LM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) have the
advantage that many staining techniques have been developed to assist recognition of
constituents and provide data on chemical composition. However, these techniques
generally require the use of solvents during sample preparation and these can give rise
to artifacts (swelling, shrinking or leaching of soluble material). Few specific stains are
available for use in scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and constituents are generally
identified by their shape or location. The advantage of SEM is that, in some cases,
sample preparation artifacts can be minimized.
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The stains commonly used for examination with transmitted bright-field illumination
are listed in Table 1 together with their substrates. Fluorescence microscopy has been
widely used and may rely on auto fluorescence or application of fluorescent dyes. The
use of fluorescent dyes coupled to specific antibodies or lectins is rapidly expanding
and several are listed in Table 2. Other coupled antibody techniques have developed
whereby coloured reaction products are produced. Polarized light can be used to study
the extent of starch gelatinization or to provide detail of cell wall structure.
Table 1. List of stains commonly used for bright-field microscopy of wheat and wheat
products
Substrate Stain Comments
Starch Periodic acid-Schiff Covalent, irreversible; may require
(PAS) reaction aldehyde blockade if aldehyde fixed
Protein Fast green, Ponceau 2R and other anionic Ionic, reversible Intensity influence by
dyes pH and differentiation
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Yeast Methylene blue, pH 4.6 Yeast stained blue: gluten unstained
owing to low pH
Table 2. List of stains and conditions commonly used for fluorescent microscopy of
wheat and wheat products
Substrate Stain Comments
Starch Periodic acid-Schiff (PAS) More sensitive than bright-
reaction field PAS for thin sections
Protein Acid fuchsin More sensitive than bright-
field stain for thin sections
Coupled antibody or lectin Potentially more specific
Lipid Aqueous phosphine 3R As aqueous solution, lipid
distribution less likely to be
altered compared to Sudan
dyes
Cell Walls Autofluorescence Walls containing lignin or
phenolic acids autofluoresce
Coupled lectin Specific for selected
glycoprotein
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Transmission Electron Microscopy
Samples for TEM require fixation and thin sectioning. Initial fixation is usually with
glutaraldehyde followed by fixation with osmium tetroxide. The fixed tissue blocks are
rinsed, dehydrated and embedded with a resin prior to sectioning. Heavy metal salts are
used to stain the sections and enhance contrast; more recently, antibody staining has been
developed whereby the antigenic sites are located at TEM level by the presence of colloidal
gold particles, which are coupled to the antibodies.
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dilute bases) is a mixture of heterogeneous proteins. Glutenin and gliadin form a
compound called gluten, which is important in dough and is 10-15% in wheat grain.
Storage proteins in endosperm of wheat grain represent over 80% of the whole quantity
of proteins in grain. Approximately 50% of storage proteins are soluble in 70% ethanol
on normal temperature and they are classified as gliadins, whereas proteins not soluble in
ethanol are classified as glutenins.
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The FN instrument records the time in seconds required to warm and stir the mixture 60
seconds-and the time it takes a plunger to fall through the thickening mixture. The more
enzyme activity, the faster the mixture liquefies or thins, and shorter the time it takes the
plunger to drop a measured distance. Falling Number readings range from the minimum
60 seconds for a very damaged sample to over 400 seconds for a very sound sample. The
minimum FN generally accepted is 250 seconds. The relationship between FN and
sprout-damaged kernels is unpredictable.
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T. aestivum 14-16 Bread
T. durum 12-14 Pasta products
T. compactum 7-12 Biscuits
Theories of hardness
Starch granule-protein matrix adhesion:
Hardness in wheat is related to the degree of adhesion between starch and protein. It may
be the water-soluble protein concentrated at the starch protein interface, which is
responsible for the adhesion of starch and protein. Soft wheat starch contains water
soluble protein (friabilin) located on the surface of the starch granule. A protein band of
apparent molecular weight of 15 kDa inhibits starch protein adhesion and produces a soft
texture. Starch granules are more easily separated from their protein matrix in soft wheat
endosperm and that hard wheat starch granules have generally high protein adhering than
soft wheat starch.
Porosity of endosperm or continuity of protein matrix:
An alternative theory is that wheat endosperm hardness causes the porosity of
endosperm. Voids in porous material can concentrate stress and cause a reduction in
mechanical strength. In some cases such pores may be associated with interfaces of
planes of weakness between particle and matrix in particulate composite materials. Such
porosity is also being observed in wheat endosperm and proposed as a mechanism in
determining its hardness. Vitreous hard kernels had higher density than soft kernels and
that low density was attributed to the presence of air spaces or voids within the
endosperm. The degree of compactness of protein matrix also affect hardness as hard
wheat has a continuous protein matrix which physically entraps the starch granules (result
in difficult separation of starch from protein) than that of soft wheat containing many air
spaces.
Effect of Hardness on Conditioning:
1. Rate of movement of moisture into grain (is rapid in soft, mealy grains)
2. Moisture level tolerance with regard to flour yield (is more in hard grains)
Effect of hardness in milling:
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1. Cleanliness of separation of endosperm from bran (bran clean up is better in hard
grains)
2. Moisture level tolerance (is more in hard wheat)
3. Reduction of endosperm (is better in hard variety)
4. Sieving behavior of flour (is better in hard variety)
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modified bran layers of the dorsal surface at the proximal end of the grain. The scutelum
is adjacent to the endosperm and contains the remaining two thirds of the grains thiamin
content. At the distal end of the grain are a number of hair ( trichomes ) which form a
large part of the dust created during grain handling.
The main constituents of endosperm cells are starch granules and proteins, but small
lipid droplets can be seen associated with the protein. The subaleurone cells are last to be
initiated during grain filling and tend to be smaller then the other endosperm cells (60 m
in dia and 20-60 m radially) and have thicker cell walls (8 m). Below these cells are
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prismatic cells which are longer radially (150-200 m). The central endosperm cells are
first to be formed and are considerably larger (150 m in dia) and have thinner walls (2
m). The protein content of subaleurone cells is greater then in central endosperm, and
in high protein kernels the main constituent of these cells is protein, with a few
intermediate sized (10-15 m) starch granules located at the periphery of the cell. The
starch granule in wheat are frequently classified into two size groups: large, elliptically
shaped A granules (30-40 m in dia) and small, round B granules (<10 m in dia) which
are form later in grain filling process.
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Carbohydrates %
Starch 60-70 0 0 78-84
Sugars 3.0-6.0 3.0-5.0 22-28 3.0-4.0
Pentosans 6.0-9.5 30-40 9-11 2.5-3.0
Cellulose 2.5-3.3 12-20 3-5 0.13-0.18
Chemical Composition (%) of Endosperm, Bran and Germ (on 14% moisture basis)
Components Whole Endosperm Germ Aleurone Bran
wheat
Protein 8.2-12.1 5.8-16.2 24.3-31.1 18.4-24.3 2.85-7.60
Ash 1.8 0.5-0.8 3.65-9.47 11.1-17.2 1.7-5.1
Fiber 9.0 1.4 8.6 43.0 17.1-73.3
Lipids 1.8 1.6-2.2 5.05-18.8 6.0-9.89 0.0-1.03
Starch 59.2 63.4-72.6 0.0 0.0 0.0
1.8.SUMMARY
Wheat is the most important grain crop of temperate regions. It is member of family
Poaceae and most significant species are Triticum aestivum subsp. vulgare which
constitutes 90% of whole production and used mainly for bread .Remaining production is
of T. durum and. T. compactum used for production of pasta; cakes and pastries
respectively. Morphologically, wheat grain can be divided into 3 parts i.e. bran,
endosperm and germ. Bran is removed during milling. Chemically, whole wheat grain
consists of starch (60-70%), protein (10-12%) and minerals (1.4-2.3%), pentosans (6.0-
9.5%), cellulose (2.5-3.3%), sugars and fats. Pentosans although their content is low (2-
3% in endosperm) are important owing to their water absorbing capacity. Proteins of
wheat are classified into albumin, globulin, prolamin and glutenin as per their solubility.
Alpha amylase enzyme is present in embryo or germ of sound wheat kernels and it is a
critical component for various properties of dough and flour. It affects bread making
property, gas retention, dough handling and bread texture. It can be determined by falling
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no. instrument. Other important factor that influences bread making property is hardness
that is genetically controlled and is related to the degree of adhesion between starch and
protein.
1.9.KEY WORDS
Wheat: monocot, and its fruit, the grain/kernel, one seeded.
Microscopy: a technique used for viewing magnified images.
SEM: Scanning electron microscopy.
Endosperm: inner part of wheat mainly composed of starch and protein.
Germ: small portion of cereal grain rich in fat, protein and some vitamins.
Bran: outer layer encasing interior endosperm and germ of cereal grain.
Aleurone: layer of large cells under the bran coat and outside the endosperm
of cereal grain.
Gluten: a combination of two proteins, gliadin and glutenin, found in the
endosperm of wheat grain.
Glutenin: an alcohol insoluble protein fraction of wheat gluten.
Gliadin: an alcohol soluble protein fraction of wheat gluten.
Friabilin:a water soluble protein located on the surface of the starch granule.
E.A.A.: dietary essential amino acids, like lysine, methionine.
Scutellum: area surrounding embryo of cereal grain.
Pericarp: consists of 2 to 4 layers next to the outer husk and outside the testa,
of low digestibility, removed during milling, major constituent of bran.
Pentosans: a complex carbohydrate yields five carbon sugars i.e. pentoses on
hydrolysis.
Amylase: a starch digesting enzyme.
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1.10.5. Describe the factors responsible for wheat hardness/softness.
1. Norman, N.P and Joseph, H.H. (1997) Food Science, Fifth edition, CBS
Publication, New Delhi.
2. Sivasankar, B. (2002) Food Processing and Preservation, Prentice Hall of
India Pvt.Ltd, New Delhi.
3. Salunkhe, D. and Despande, S.S. (2001) Foods of Plant origin: Production,
Technology & Human Nutrition, An AVI Publications, New York.
4. Samuel, A.M. (1996) The Chemistry and Technology of Cereal as Food and Feed,
CBS Publishers & Distribution, New Delhi.
5. Pomeranz, Y. (1998) Wheat: Chemistry and Technology, Vol. I, 3rd Ed., Am.
Assoc. Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, MN, USA.
6. Eliasson, A.C. and Larsson, K. (1993) Cereals in Breadmaking, Marcel Dekker,
Inc. New York.
7. Hoseney, R.C. (1986) Principles of Cereal Science and Technology, Am. Assoc.
Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, MN, USA.
8. Pomeranz, Y. (1976) Advances in Cereal Science and Technology, Am. Assoc.
Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, MN, USA.
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PGDBST 01
PGDBST- 01 B.S.Khatkar
STRUCTURE
2.0 OBJECTIVES
2.1 INTRODUCTION
2.2 BOTANICAL AND PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
2.2.1 WHEAT SPECIES
2.2.2 WHEAT VARIETIES
2.2.3 TEST WEIGHT
2.2.4 KERNEL WEIGHT
2.2.5 KERNEL SIZE AND SHAPE
2.2.6 KERNEL HARDNESS
2.3 CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS
2.3.1 MOISTURE CONTENT
2.3.2 PROTEIN CONTENT
2.3.3 PROTEIN QUALITY
2.3.4 -AMYLASE ACTIVITY
2.3.5 ASH CONTENT
2.4 SUMMARY
2.5 KEY WORDS
2.6 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
2.7 SUGGESTED READINGS
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2.0 OBJECTIVES
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The criteria of wheat quality are at least as varied as its uses. Wheat
that is suitable for one product may not have properties suitable for another
product. The wheat generally found suitable for bread making has been
reported to be unsuitable for biscuit production. Incompatible use of wheat
may cause production losses and inferior quality of end product. The
functional parts of wheat kernel also have different uses; for example germ is
used as a diet supplement or extraction of tocopherols (vitamin E), bran is
used as feed for animals and endosperm for flour.
Several classes of wheat like durum, hard and soft are established by
the different grain quality standard institutes around the world. The qualities
of the different classes fit them for specific end uses (i.e. durum wheat is used
for pasta products, hard wheat is used for bread production, whereas soft
wheat is generally preferred for cookies, biscuits, cakes, etc). The differences
between wheat of these classes are generally based on industrial application
oriented, as apposed to the differences within classes due to variety, or with
in varieties due to environmental conditions. A number of the classes also
share common characteristics and uses.
Three species of wheat are grown in the world. (i) Triticum aestivum
(ii) Triticum compactum and (iii) Triticum durum. The grains of these three
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1. Triticum aestivum
This wheat is grown mainly in U.S.A. and Canada. Both winter and
spring varieties are grown there. The kernels of club wheat have a soft texture
and low protein content. Club wheat is not well suited for bread flour but is
excellent for certain type of cake and pastry flours, where low protein content
and weaker glutens are required.
Kernels of this type of wheat are generally very hard in texture and
rather high in protein content. Most of the durum wheat crop is used for the
production of semolina or durum flour for pasta products because the
qualities of durum gluten make it particularly desirable for this use but it is
less suitable for bread making. Durum wheat class is preferred for pasta
products mainly because of the following reasons:
Test weight or weight per unit volume is most widely used and
simplest criteria of wheat quality. Test weight usually determines the
plumpness of the grain. It is basically a rough measure of density of grain in
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terms of weight per unit volume i.e. the weight (lb) per volume bushel. In the
United States, test weight is expressed in terms of pounds per bushel,
whereas other countries using metric systems, it is expressed in kilogram per
hectoliter. The hectoliter weight (hL), indicating the weight in kg/hL (100 L).
Wheat varieties vary widely in size and shape of their kernel. This
variation is seen even within the varieties. The variation in wheat generally
depends upon many internal and external factors which are associated with
the grain during its growth and maturing stages. Kernel size is closely related
to kernel weight and would be expected to have an effect on flour yield. The
size distribution of kernels in a wheat sample can be determined using a stack
of sieves. The theoretical flour yield can be determined by the total value of
multiplying the percentage of above each sieve by a factor. The factor can be
calculated using multiple regression analyses for a mill. Wheat kernels are
usually classified into three categories based on visual observation and
thousand kernel weight, as small (< 32.0g), medium (32.0-38.0g) and bold
(>38.0g), whereas on the basis of shape they are classed as round, ovate,
oblong (broader on both sides) and elliptical (elongated and bulged in the
center). The shape of the wheat grain has great influence on the milling
quality of the grain.
Wheat grain is generally classified into two-category (a) hard and (b)
soft. Kernel hardness is a relative term, which is related to the disintegration of
the endosperm during its separation from bran and germ. Hard grains when
reduced to flour, there endosperm is cracked along the aleurone line and
therefore yield more flour. On the other hand, most of the part of aleurone layer
in soft wheat remains attached with endosperm that induces inconsistency in the
flow of the flour while milling.
good flow properties. A hard wheat requires more grinding force and thus
produces flour with high starch damage suitable for breadmaking. On the other
hand, soft wheat needs lesser grinding force and hence produces flour with
lesser starch damage.
The following equation models can predict the flour yield of wheat
varieties:
70.0
Predicted flour yield (%)
R = 0.72
60.0
50.0
50.0 60.0 70.0
wet mass, which is called wet gluten. The wet gluten can be washed out using
potable water. The wet gluten is dried to form a free flowing light coloured
powder. Depending upon the variety, it has been noticed that wide variation
in the quality of extracted gluten occurs. Baking tests is conducted directly on
the wet gluten samples in order to assess the quality of gluten. Ten grams of
wet gluten is taken and volumes of the gluten dough are measured. The
gluten balls are baked for 20 min at 220 C. Volume of the baked gluten can
be determined immediately after baking. Photographs of two baked gluten
samples are compared in Figure 2.2. The left sample picks up water rapidly
and performs well in baking test, while the right one represents gluten that
picks up water and agglomerates slowly and performs poorly in baking test.
Figure 2.2. Photographs of good (left) poor (right) quality baked glutens.
The glutens performing the best in the baking test (i.e. those glutens
resulting above 125 cm3 baked volume) all agglomerate well and develop
into uniform ball easily when extracted from flour dough with water.
Generally, gluten that agglomerate well and develop into a smooth uniform
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ball during the washing cycle yields higher wet gluten and performs well in
baking test.
Gluten quality = 43.7 + 22.0 WG, where WG = wet gluten content (%). Here,
gluten quality is expressed as baked volume of wet gluten. The equation
parameter wet gluten (WG) can easily be estimated in any wheat-processing
laboratory. The equation will give fairly good assessment of baking quality of
gluten and wheat. The model does not have any requirement of sophisticated
equipment or expensive ingredient. The test is rapid and will take only 10
minutes to predict and explain variability in the industrial potential of
commercial wheat.
2.3.4 -AMYLASE ACTIVITY
Many baking experts are of the opinion that the level of diastatic
activity of a flour is perhaps as important to its baking performance as its
protein, moisture and ash content. In recognition of this fact, several methods
of measuring this activity are in use in milling and baking laboratories.
Traditionally, these methods are of three types, namely (1) the determination
of maltose production under specified conditions, (2) measurement of gassing
power developed in a small sample of fermenting dough, and (3)
measurement of viscosity changes by the amylograph in a flour slurry
subjected to uniform heating. A relatively new technique, the "Falling
Number" test, is more frequently used recently. It provides a quick means for
determining possible sprout damage in wheat. The method is based on the
ability of -amylase to liquefy gelatinized starch. As a suspension of flour or
starch is heated, the individual starch granules swell by taking up water and
cause the suspension to thicken and become more viscous. In the swollen or
gelatinized state, the starch cells become susceptible to attack by -amylase,
which splits up the long molecular chains of the starch. The reduction of the
swollen gelatinized starch granules into dextrins and maltose causes a drop in
the viscosity of the starch suspension. The rate and extent to which the
viscosity of the heated suspension is reduced is a measure of the -amylase
activity. In the falling number method, the level of enzyme action is defined
as "the time in seconds required stirring and allowing the stirrer to fall a
measured distance through the hot aqueous flour gel undergoing
liquefaction".
Wheat usually contains 1.4 to 2.0 % ash on 14% moisture basis. Ash
colour is closely related to the colour influencing components such as bran of
flour. The bran, outer covering and aleurone layer have higher ash content
than endosperm in wheat. Small or shriveled kernels have more bran on a
- 16 -
percentage basis. Ash content reflects the quantity of mineral matter present
in the flour. Higher bran contamination in flour indicates higher ash content.
Milled products, which contain higher levels of ash content, are darker in
colour. Thus, the primary objective of milling is to thoroughly separate
endosperm from bran and germ. The efficiently of separation can be judged
by several indirect methods based on measuring any constituent that is more
concentrated in bran and germ. Since the mineral content of the bran is about
20 times that of the endosperm, the ash test fundamentally indicates the
purity of flour or thoroughness of separation of bran and germ from rest of
the wheat kernel. The ash test assumed greater importance in the milling
trade than any other test for the control of milling operations. There are many
factors which influence flour ash like environmental factors including rainfall
and temperature, genetic make up of wheat variety and milling conditions
such as tempering and grinding.
2.4 SUMMARY
Ash content : It reflects the quantity of mineral matter present in the flour.
PGDBST- 01 B.S.Khatkar
STRUCTURE
3.0. OBJECTIVES
3.1. PREPARATION OF WHEAT FOR MILLING
3.2 AIMS OF FLOUR MILLING
3.3 THE MILLING PROCESS
3.3.1 GENERAL PRINCIPLE
3.3.2 CLEANING
3.3.3 TEMPERING/CONDITIONING
3.3.4 BREAKING OR BREAK SYSTEM
3.3.5 SIEVING
3.3.6 PURIFICATION
3.3.7 SIZING
3.3.8 REDUCTION
3.4. FLOUR STREAMS AND EXTRACTION RATES
3.5. MILLING MACHINERY
3.6. MILLING BY-PRODUCTS
3.7. SOFT WHEAT MILLING
3.8. DURUM WHEAT MILLING
3.9. SUMMARY
3.10. KEY WORDS
3.11. SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
3.12. SUGGESTED READINGS
2
3.0 OBJECTIVES
Pre cleaning of wheat at the mill should be done before storage in the
mill bins or silos. Magnets, large-capacity sieve cleaners, and strong
aspiration remove large chaff, dust and metals from wheat grains. Pre
cleaning removes contaminants from wheat to allow its longer storage, more
efficient usage of storage space, and subsequently better and uninterrupted
flow from the bins. The exhaust system including ducts, suction fans, and air
filters or dust collectors should be kept clean and in good conditions to avoid
loss of material and dust explosions.
TEMPERING/CONDITIONING (16-24h)
SIEVING FLOUR
BROKEN KERNELS
5
REDUCING ROLLS
SIEVING FLOUR
REDUCING ROLLS
GERM FLOUR
Figure 3.1 ROLLER FLOUR MILLING PROCESS
3.3.2 CLEANING
Dry scouring of the wheat removes any dirt adhering to the kernel. In
the scorer a rotor bounces the wheat against the wall of the machine, which
may be of a perforated sheet metal, a steel wire woven screen, or an emery
surface.
7
3.3.3 TEMPERING/CONDITIONING
The initial grinding stages in the milling process are named breaks.
The breaks are used in the grinding steps of the milling process to separate
the bran, germ, and endosperm from each other. The success or failure is
measured in the level of achieving, as efficiently as possible, complete
separation between the kernel parts. Between corrugated rolls there always
exists a small gap, which is absent in smooth reduction rolls. In the
conventional milling of hard and durum wheats, the objective is to produce
minimal amounts of flour in the breaks but a maximum of clean endosperm
chunks. However, with soft wheat, because of the softer, less dense
endosperm, the percentage of flour extracted from the breaks in conventional
milling is higher than that from hard and durum wheats.
9
The corrugations on the roll surface are grooves with front and back
angles. The corrugations are cut in a spiral with relation to the roll axis
ranging in the order of 4-16%. The inclination would be expressed in inches
per foot or in percent per roll length. The number of corrugations on the first
break rolls would be about 4/cm. In later stages there is a gradual increase in
the number of corrugations per inch (smaller corrugations) on the roll
surface.
The objective of break rolls is to open the kernel. The shape and depth
of the first break roll corrugations should be such that the kernels fits into it.
Optimum results in the first break are achieved when the kernels are opened
exactly at the crease by the fast-moving roll. The second break rolls and the
subsequent break rolls scrape the endosperm from the bran. As the bran
flakes get smaller toward the final breaking stages and the endosperm layer
attached to it becomes thinner, gradually smaller corrugations or a larger
number of corrugations per inch of roll surface are used.
3.3.5 SIEVING
3.3.6 PURIFICATION
Purifier machine is one in which air currents are drawn from one to
three layers of sieves while sieves are in reciprocating motion. The material
that is separated using purifier is composed of particles of the same size range
but having different densities. The purifiers main purpose is to separate
particles into fractions of pure endosperm, a mixture of particles to which
bran is attached, and bran particles. This is achieved by using sieves and air
currents. The purifiers classify the material into several fractions according to
size, shape, and specific gravity. The heavier endosperm particles move
closer to the sieve surface while the material with more bran floats on top. At
the head end of the purifier the purest and most dense endosperm particles
pass through the sieves. Materials with more bran attached pass to sizing rolls
through the coarser sieves.
3.3.7 SIZING
The objective of the sizing is to reduce the particle size and separate
the attached bran fraction from the endosperm. Material from the sizing
stages can be diverted to purifiers, to middlings for final reduction, or to flour
as a final product. However, the miller tries to refrain from severe grinding in
the sizing stage to avoid production of flour that may be contaminated by the
presence of bran. Some millers use corrugated rolls on sizing stages, while
others use smooth rolls. Smooth rolls have advantage of delicate effect and
produce lower-ash flour than corrugated ones. When corrugated rolls are used
in sizings stages, the corrugation features are adjusted to the particle size and
the bran adhering to them.
11
3.3.8 REDUCTION
Coarse and fine pure endosperm particles from breaks, purifiers and
sizing in the mill are reduced to flour particles using reduction or smooth
rolls. The speed differential between reduction rolls is kept in the range of
1.15:1-1.8:1, i.e., much lower than in breaks or other corrugated rolls (2.5:1).
The low differential causes higher pressure and lower shear forces between
the rolls. High pressure is exerted on the material in the reduction stages.
However, the pressure should be optimized for each reduction stage. The
reduction system may affect the quality of the end product as high
compression and shear forces are applied. The adhesion between the starch
granules and the protein matrix of the endosperm cells is stronger in hard
wheat than in soft wheat. Therefore, flours from soft wheat disintegrate easier
in milling and produce finer flours than those of hard wheats. Millers adjust
roll settings to produce flours of coarser granulation from weaker wheats and
finer granulation from stronger wheats to achieve optimum results in baking.
different ratios to produce simultaneously two or more final flours that differ
in colour, ash content, protein content, dough-handling properties, and bread
baking characteristics.
Flour streams from the head end middlings, primary sizings, and in
some cases that of second and third breaks originate from the centre of the
wheat kernel. The blend of these flour streams is called patent flour. Patent
flour is about 75% of the total flour, is the whitest, and contains the lowest
relative amount of ash (0.38-0.42%). Other flour streams are distinguished
from the former by higher ash and protein contents, darker colour, and
inferior baking qualities. These flour streams can be combined to make up
first-clear flour. First-clear flour is about 20% of the total flour and
contains about 0.75% ash. Second-clear flour, made up the rest of the
streams, is 3% of total flour and contains up to 1.2% ash. Blending part or all
of the first clear into the patent flour makes the bakers patent.
is carried in fixed bearings, but pivot arms, which may be adjusted to vary the
distance between the rolls, support the lower roll. Adjustment of the gap
between rolls gives different degrees of grinding. Cleaning brushes are
mounted in the frame to remove any material that adheres to the surface of
the break rolls. Steel scrapers or hard strips are used instead of brushes in the
case of reduction rolls. The rolls rotate in opposite directions at differential
speed. The lower roll moves at lower speed than the upper roller, thus
shearing action is produced on the grains. The break rolls have flutes or
corrugations along the length of the roll, whereas reduction rolls have smooth
surface.
3.5.2 SIFTER
3.5.3 PURIFIER
progressively coarser material from head to tail end. The compartment above
the sieves is connected to an air trunk. The sieve bottom is kept open to the
atmosphere. Air currents are drawn through the total area. Valves, set in
sections of the compartment and the main air trunk, allow adjustments to be
made to the air volume passing through the machine. A drive oscillates the
frame longitudinally. This motion agitates and stratifies the stock on the sieve
into layers, the heavier endosperm particles moving closest to the sieve
surface. The combination of oscillation and slope of the sieve causes the
stock to travel slowly along its length.
The by-products of flour milling include bran, wheat germ, and the
"clean-out" of the cleaning house. These products represent about 25% of the
original grain and thus they are of considerable economic significance to the
miller. Impurities of the cleaning house are called "screenings. This is
processing into animal feeds. The fine and coarse bran is separated and used
for animal feed and are also used to fortify bakery and other food products to
enhance the fibre contents.
3.9 SUMMARY
Sizing : The objective of the sizing is to reduce the particle size and
separate the attached bran fraction from the endosperm.
5. What do you understand by the term extraction rate? How it influences the
composition of wheat flour?
19
2. Pomeranz, Y. (1989) Wheat is Unique. AACC Inc. St. Paul MN. USA
PGDBST- 01 B.S.Khatkar
STRUCTURE
4.0 OBJECTIVES
4.2 TEMPERING
4.3 AUTOMATION
4.7 SUMMARY
4.0 OBJECTIVES
4.2 TEMPERING
4.3 AUTOMATION
The full potential of such systems has not yet been fully utilized.
Many millers have already installed, or are planning to install, such yield-
management systems in economically developed countries. In developing
countries like India such automated systems are still a distant dream. It may
take some more time to adopt and take advantage of these systems.
roll pair and the three reduction passes are built on a second roll pair. The
reduction rolls may be either smooth or corrugated. The capacity of the mill
is generally more than 100 g/min. Buhler laboratory mill can produce a
straight-grade flour comparable in quality to commercial flour. The flour
extraction rate of the Buhler laboratory mill is generally less than of
commercial extraction rates. Laboratory mills should be adjusted so as
commercial flour extraction rates should be achieved to correctly evaluate the
commercial potential of wheat. With minor modifications to the Buhler mill
it is possible to achieve commercial flour extraction rates.
Manual mills consist of at least one roll stand and sifter. Feed is added
manually. These mills have the advantage of flexibility, but they require
skilled operators to achieve consistent results. Batch mill roll gaps and speeds
are adjustable, but better precision of milling results can be achieved by using
several roll stands with fixed settings. Sieving is generally performed on a
multisieve laboratory box sifter. Sieves are removed and changed as the
milling progresses. Purifiers are usually not used in experimental flour
milling.
milling. Therefore, pilot scale mills have been designed to bridge this gap.
Ideally, pilot mills retain sufficient flexibility to permit large-scale
experimentation with a variety of commercial millflows, thereby providing a
vehicle for testing experimental results obtained with small-scale laboratory
mills.
Cumulative ash curves are also widely used for assessing comparative
milling quality of different wheats. Cumulative ash curves are generated, as
in commercial milling, by arranging millstreams in ascending order of ash on
a constant moisture basis and tabulating cumulative ash and cumulative
extraction for each successive millstream. Wheats that exhibit the lowest
12
initial flour ash and the slowest rate of ash increase with increasing flour
extraction are preferred because they produce the highest proportion of patent
flour.
The following equation models can predict the flour yield of wheat
varieties:
0.72 and 0.56 between measured and predicted flour yields for hard and
7 0 .0
6 0 .0
5 0 .0
5 0 .0 6 0 .0 7 0 .0
4.7 SUMMARY
7. Describe the procedure of experimental milling and also give a brief account
of laboratory mills commonly used in research laboratories for assessing
milling potential of wheat varieties.
8. How milling results are interpreted for the purpose of evaluating the milling
quality of wheats?
1. Pomeranz, Y. (1998) Wheat: Chemistry and Technology, Vol. I, 3rd Ed., Am.
Assoc. Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, MN, USA.
2. Pomeranz, Y. (1989) Wheat is Unique. AACC Inc. St. Paul MN. USA
3. Hoseney, R.C. (1986) Principles of Cereal Science and Technology, Am.
Assoc. Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, MN, USA.
4. Bushuk W, Rasper V (1994) Wheat: Production, Composition and
Utilization. Blackie Acad and Professional, Glasgow
5. Pomeranz, Y. (1976) Advances in Cereal Science and Technology, Am.
Assoc. Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, MN, USA
6. Samuel, A.M. (1996) The Chemistry and Technology of Cereal as Food and
Feed, CBS Publishers & Distribution, New Delhi.
7. Heyne EG (1987). Wheat and wheat improvement. American Society of
Agronomy. Haworth Press Inc, Canada
8. Dobraszczyk BJ, Dendy DAV (2001). Cereal and Cereal Products: Chemistry
and Technology. Aspen Publisher, Inc Maryland