OXFORD IB STUDY GUIDES

Jette Hannibal

Psychology
F O R T H E I B D I P LO M A

2
3
Great Clarendon Street, O xford OX2 6D P
O xford University Press is a department of the University of O xford.
It furthers the Universitys objective of excellence in research,
scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide in
O xford New York
Auckland Cape Town Dar es Salaam Hong Kong Karachi
Kuala Lumpur M adrid Melbourne M exico City Nairobi
New Delhi Shanghai Taipei Toronto
With ofces in
Argentina Austria Brazil Chile Czech Republic France Greece
Guatemala Hungary Italy Japan Poland Portugal Singapore
South Korea S witzerland Thailand Turkey Ukraine Vietnam
O xford is a registered trade mark of O xford University Press
in the UK and in certain other countries
Oxford University Press 2 01 2
The moral rights of the author have been asserted
D atabase right Oxford University Press (maker)
First published 2 01 2
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means,
without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as
expressly permitted by law, or under terms agreed with the appropriate
reprographics rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction
outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights D epartment,
O xford University Press, at the address above
You must not circulate this book in any other binding or cover
and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer
British Library Cataloguing in Publication D ata
D ata available
ISBN: 978 -0-1 9-8 38 996-5
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2
Printed in Great Britain by Bell & Bain Ltd, Glasgow
Paper used in the production of this book is a natural, recyclable product made from wood grown in
sustainable forests. The manufacturing process conforms to the environmental regulations of the country
of origin
Acknowledgments
The Publisher would like to thank the following for permission to reproduce photographs:
Cover photo: Garry Gay/Getty Images
P2 9: Patrice Latron/Look At Sciences/Science Photo Library; P1 00: Mom I Love You! S top Smoking! D esign by
Terrence A. Lynch.
All artwork by HL Studios.
Introduction

This stu d y gu id e in psychology has been d esign ed to give stu d ents the opportu nity to
stu d y and to revise each o the learn ing ou tcom es rom the I B psychology gu id e. The
content ollows the stru ctu re o the gu id e or the core (H L/SL), the options (H L/SL), and
qu alitative research m ethod s (H L). An ad d itional section covers how to write papers,
inclu d ing short answer qu estions and essays. I t also inclu d es m od el answers with
exam iners com m ents. Fu rther chapters covering the I nternal Assessm ent and the Extend ed
Essay can be ou nd on the associated website www.oxfordsecondary.co.uk/psychsg

This stu d y gu id e is organized in boxes with head lines and bu llet points to give you a qu ick
overview and acilitate you r learning. All learning ou tcom es are covered with exam ples. I
the learning ou tcom e asks or examples or empirical stu d ies you have to learn at least
two, and this is taken into consid eration in th e stu d y gu id e.

This book is intended as a useul supplement to a course book, it can help students to ocus
and structure the learning process in relation to content and learning outcom es. It is also a
support in revision o the material and the skills that are assessed at the exam s. You are
encouraged to read the IB Psychology Course Companion, which develops the various topics
m ore and puts them into perspective.

The undam ental building blocks o psychology are theories, including concepts and
empirical stu d ies, com bined with critical thinking skills. M any o th e key stu d ies and
theories are provid ed here, with gu id ance on how to evalu ate an d d iscu ss. One o th e main
challenges in stu d ying psychology is to learn what psychologists have to say on variou s
topics based on theoretical propositions and empirical research. Acad em ic psychology
ref ects the com plexity o hu man beings and there are no simple answers to complex
qu estions. Part o the joy o stu d ying psychology is to g et an insight into ascinating
hu man beings, how knowled ge is created and why it is som etim es necessary to review
what we know.

The psychology stu d ent is thereore trained in critical thinking and argu ing based on
evid ence. These core skills are important and shou ld always be the ocu s o learn ing
psychology. Taken together, psychology stu d ents have a u niqu e opportu nity or becom ing
knowled geable, ref ective thinkers, and skilled com m u nicators.

General learning outcomes

General learning outcomes Options
There are general learning outcom es or the levels o analysis The general learning outcom es apply to all the options, i.e.
and the options. They are stated at the beginning o each level abnormal psychology, developm ental psychology, health and
o analysis and option in the description o the content, and they human relationships, and sport psychology. So you could replace
apply to all parts o the content. behaviour with the title o each options.

Levels of analysis You may be asked questions in the general learning outcom es in
You may be asked questions in the general learning outcom es in all levels o analysis, either alone or integrated with the content.
all levels o analysis, either alone or integrated with the content. Since critical thinking (e.g. analysis, evaluation) is assessed in the
options you should consider where it could be relevant to apply
n Discuss how and why particular research m ethods are used
these learning outcom es (e.g. i it is relevant to evaluate the
at the biological/cognitive/sociocultural level o analysis.
m ethodology o a research study).
This learning outcom e is ocused on research m ethods (e.g. n To what extent do biological, cognitive and sociocultural
the experim ent, the observation, the case study, scanning
actors infuence behaviour?
techniques). Characteristics, strengths and limitations o various
research m ethods are outlined in chapter 1 . Apply this knowledge This m eans that you should consider the extent to which these
o m ethodology to particular studies where appropriate. actors could infuence behaviour and integrate research in your
answer.
n Discuss ethical considerations related to research studies at
the biological/cognitive/sociocultural level o analysis.
n Evalu ate psychological research (i.e. theories and /or
stu d ies) relevant to the stu d y o behaviou r.
General ethical considerations are explained in unit 1 .4. Som e o
these considerations may apply to research studies within all the This m eans that you should be able to evaluate particular
levels o analysis. You need to look at a particular study and ask theories and studies (i.e. ocus on strengths and lim itations)
yoursel which ethical considerations could be relevant or the when relevant.
study you use.
Contents

1 Methodology and ethics in empirical research 1

2 Biological level of analysis 6

n Physiology and behaviour
n Genetics and behaviour
3 Cognitive level of analysis 18
n Cognitive processes
n Cognition and emotion
4 Sociocultural level of analysis 34
n Sociocultural cognition
n Social norms
n Cultural norms

5 Abnormal psychology 48
n Concepts and diagnosis
n Psychological disorders
n Implementing treatment

6 Developmental psychology 67
n Cognitive development
n Social development
n Identity development

7 Health psychology 84
n Stress
n Substance abuse, addictive behaviour and obesity
n Health promotion

8 Psychology of human relationships 1 03

n Social responsibility
n Interpersonal relationships
n Violence

9 Sport psychology 1 23
n Emotion and motivation
n Skill development and performance
n Problems in sports
1 0 Qualitative research in psychology 1 45
n Theory and practice in qualitative research
n Interviews
n Observations
n Case studies
11 Writing exam papers in psychology 1 60
n Writing an SAQ (Paper 1 section A)
n Writing essays (Paper 1 section B and paper 2)
n Writing an SAQ in qualitative research methods (HL)

Index 1 71
1.1 Psychology as a science

n Psychology is the scientif c study o human behaviour and an increasing u se o qu alitative m ethod s in psychology.
m ental processes. In the IB Psychology program m e, the ocus Som etim es qu alitative and qu antitative m ethod s are u sed
is on the biological, cognitive and sociocultural levels o within th e sam e stu d y.
analysis when trying to explain psychological phenom ena. n Psych ologists orm u late theories to try to explain
n Scientif c m eans that d ata collection is d one in a systematic psychological phenom ena. Psychological theories are based
way, an d that the research is cond u cted u sing qu antitative on certain assu mptions and each theory inclu d es concepts.
or qu alitative m ethod s. n Empirical research is oten based on a research hypothesis.
n Psychologists u se variou s research m ethod s d epend ing on Som etim es the research hypothesis is based on a theory bu t
the pu rpose o the stu d y. Trad itionally, qu antitive m ethod s som etim es the research stu d y generates a theory.
have been consid ered to be the m ost scientif c bu t there is

What is a research hypothesis? The research process in experimental research

A research hypoth esis is a precise and testable statem ent
that pred icts what is expected to happen to the variables in a Observation o and theorizing about a phenomenon
research stu d y. The research hypothesis may be based u pon
the pred ictions o a theory bu t this is not always the case.
The research hypothesis is either accepted or rejected on the
Formulation o a research hypothesis
basis o the f nd ings o an empirical stu d y.

Collection o empirical data using a scientifc method

What is an empirical research study?
Empirical research is any activity that inclu d es the organized
collection and analysis o empirical d ata. Analysis o the data and discussion o results
The researcher d ecid es on which m ethod ology to u se or d ata
collection in the research stu d y d epend ing on the aim o the
stu d y (or example qu antitative or qu alitative m ethod s). Acceptance or rejection o the research hypothesis

Data m eans inormation. Data is oten m easu rable bu t not

What is a research method? always. For example, qu alitative research d ata is not u su ally
A research method is the way the researchers collect and analyse m easu rable.
data. The data o a research study is analysed and interpreted.
The m ethod may be qu antitative or qu alitative.
Quantitative Evaluating empirical research studies
n The inormation is nu m erical (e.g. experim ents or The way an empirical stu d y has been cond u cted is evalu ated
su rveys). becau se a nu m ber o consid erations can aect the
interpretation o the d ata, su ch as:
n Data analysis is in the orm o statistics (e.g. m ean, n m ethod ological consid erations
stan d ard d eviation, or percentages).
n ethical consid erations
Qualitative
n cu ltu ral con sid erations
n The inormation is in the meaning o the d ata (e.g. d iary
entries or interview d ata).
n gend er consid erations.
n Data an alysis is in the orm o interpretation o the d ata
to see what the d ata reveals.

1
 1 Meth od ol ogy a n d eth i cs i n empi ri ca l resea rch

There are special ethical ru les in relation to animal research, Evaluating psychological theories
bu t the m ost important is that animals shou ld not su er A psychological theory can give insight into psychological
u nnecessary harm . phenom ena which cannot be observed (e.g. m em ory
Consid er som e o these qu estions when evalu ating research processes) or oer som e ord er by d escribing and explain ing
stu d ies: psychological phenom ena in the social world (e.g. preju d ice)
n H as the study been conducted in an ethical way? H ave in a precise and coherent way with the u se o psychological
participants been pu t at risk? The British Psychological concepts.
Society (BPS) and Am erican Psycholog ical Association Som e criteria or evalu ating a psychological theory:
(APA) have cod es o ethics or psychological research. n Does the theory refect the acts? I s the theory
n H as participants' privacy been invaded or have their valid ated throu gh empirical research and observations?
rights been violated? n Is the theory clear and understandable? Are the
n Did the animals suer unnecessarily? Was the research pred ictions possible to grasp?
ju stif ed , that is, were the resu lts so important that they n Is the theory useul or explaining as well as
ju stif ed the u se o animals? predicting? Does the explanation oered make sense in
n Did the study use a representative group o people as relation to what is observed ?
participants? I s there a sam pling bias? I t cou ld be that n Is the theory practically useul? Can it be u sed in
on ly males or only emales participated in the stu d y or real-lie situ ations, su ch as pred icting u nd er what
there cou ld be a cu ltu ral bias, or example only Am erican circu m stan ces people will qu it sm oking? Or can it be
college stu d ents participated . applied to create strategies or behaviou ral change, su ch
n Was the study carried out in a natural environment as ed u cational soap-operas based on social learning
(e.g. in a school) or in an articial environment (e.g. in a theory?
research laboratory)? n Is it possible to test the theory in a scientic way? Can
n Were the tasks given to participants similar to those the theory be su pported in empirical stu d ies?
they would encounter in real lie? Laboratory
experim ents oten ask participants to d o things they
wou ld not d o in real lie (e.g. giving electrical shocks to
an other participant). What is a model?
n Are the ndings o a study supported or challenged by A m od el is a physical representation o what a psychological
those o other studies? I two stu d ies investigate the phenom enon cou ld look like. A m od el is m ostly based on a
sam e phenom enon and get very d ierent resu lts then we theory. I t is a hypothetical constru ct and it shou ld not be
shou ld consid er why that is. m istaken or the real thing.
An example o a m od el is the m u lti-store m od el o m em ory
n Are the ndings socially sensitive? I the research topic
su ggested by Atkinson and Shirin (1 968) which d escribed
is controversial (e.g. d eprivation stu d ies, hom osexu ality,
the m em ory system as having several stores.
genetic research, or intelligen ce) special attention m u st
be given to how the d ata is u sed . Som e topics are Maintenance rehearsal
controversial and research can be m isu sed .

Environmental Retrieval
Attention
What is a psychological theory? stimuli Sensory Short-term Long-term
A psychological th eory is a statem ent abou t a possible memory memory memory
relationship between psychological variables. (SM) (STM) (LTM)
Elaborate
The aim o psychological theories is to:
rehearsal
n summarize, simpliy, and explain psychological phenomena
n make pred ictions abou t the possible relationship between Information retrieval
psychological variables
n enable application to real-lie issu es (e.g. treatm ent
program m es or ed u cational schem es).
Psychological theories are principles and not laws like in
som e scientif c theories.
Psychological theories shou ld be seen as statem ents that are
probable rather than certain.
Psychological theories are always open to som e d egree o
probability or improbability.

2
1.2 Experimental methods

Types Laboratory experim ent (true Field experim ent (quasi Natural experim ent (quasi
experim ent) experim ent) experim ent)

Characteristics n I t takes place in a laboratory n I t takes place in a natu ral n Th e ind epend ent variable (I V)
(artif cial en vironm ent). environm en t. is natu rally occu rring.
n The researcher manipu lates n I m possible to obtain total n Th e researcher d oes not
the I V and controls all other control so there may be manipu late the variables bu t
variables (to avoid conou nd ing variables. record s possible eects o a
conou nd ing variables). n The researcher manipu lates variable (I V) on another (the
n There is a controlled the ind epen d ent variable (I V). d epend ent variable or DV).
environm ent an d stand ard ized
proced u res.

Strengths n I t can establish cause-effect n I t has m ore ecological valid ity n I t has ecological valid ity the
relationships. than laboratory experim ents ocu s is on natu ral behaviou r
n There is variable control and becau se behaviou r occu rs in a in a natu ral environm ent.
accu racy o m easu rem ents natu ral environm ent. n Th ere is very little bias rom
objectivity. n There are ewer d emand d emand characteristics,
n I t is easy to replicate (increase characteristics (especially i especially i participants d o
reliability o resu lts). participants d o not know that not know they are being
they are being stu d ied ). investigated .

Limitations n Artif ciality may resu lt in lack n There is a risk o bias rom n I t is impossible to establish
o ecological valid ity. conou nd ing variables becau se cau se-eect relationship.
n Resu lts may be biased becau se there is less control. n Th e research is im possible to
o d emand characteristics and n I t is nearly im possible to replicate exactly oten case
experim enter eects. replicate exactly. stu d ies.
n Som etim es d eception is n I t is m ore d if cu lt to record n Th ere are ethical issu es o
necessary (ethical issu e). d ata accu rately. consent, d eception, invasion o
n Possible ethical issu es, or privacy.
exam ple problem s with
inorm ed consent, exposu re to
u npleasant situ ations, invasion
o privacy.

Examples from I nvestigating the reaction o I nvestigating whether creating I nvestigating levels o aggression
the sociocultural children ater watching either an in-grou p/ou t-grou p attitu d es in two in children in a small com m u nity
level of analysis ad u lt m od el acting aggressively grou ps o 1 1 -year-old boys wou ld on Saint H elena I sland beore and
toward s a Bobo d oll or not acting resu lt in intergrou p aggression or ater the introd u ction o television
aggressively toward s the Bobo d oll not. Sim ilarly, investigating whether (Charlton et al. 1 997 ).
(Bandura et al. 1 961 ). cooperation cou ld elim inate
aggression (Sheriff et al. 1 95 6,
1 961 ).

True experiment: there is control over variables and the

possibility or rand om allocation to experim ental cond itions.
Quasi experiment: there is no control over variables (e.g. i
they are n atu rally occu rring su ch as gend er, ethnicity, age)
and n o possibility o rand om allocation to cond itions.

3
 1.3 Non-experimental methods

Interviews n Collection o d ata rom ind ivid u als by asking them (sel-report m ethod ) m ostly in a ace-to-ace situ ation
(bu t can also take place by telephone or email).
n Qu alitative approach to research (m ostly) collecting su bjective d ata, interpreted by the researcher.
n N o cau se-eect relationships bu t rather perception and su bjective u nd erstand ing o situ ations and
events.
Structured n Very stru ctu red approach interview sched u le states qu estions and the ord er they will be asked , bu t
interviews possible or interviewer to be f exible. Oten closed qu estions.
Strength: easy to analyse d ata.
Limitation: somewhat articial as the structure imposes many limitations to understanding participants.
Unstructured n Speci cation o topics and allocation o tim e (som ewhat like a conversational interview).
interviews Strength: open to the respond ents own id eas
Limitation: may be d i cu lt to analyse d ata since the interview may take many d ierent d irections.
Semi-structured n I nterview sched u le with speci ed qu estions bu t m ore inormal and f exible.
interviews Strength: possible to maintain ocu s o interview (becau se o the interview sched u le) bu t f exible and
gives opportu nity or respon d ents to talk m ore reely.
Limitation: d ata analysis very tim e consu m ing.

Ethics in n Ethical issu es when interview topic is socially or personally sensitive.

interviews n Proessional competence important so that interviewer can avoid making respondents eel uncomortable.
n I norm respond ents abou t right to withdraw.
n Avoid abu se o inormation.

Survey n Oten u sed to collect d ata rom larger grou ps (small-scale su rveys u nd er 3 00, large-scale su rveys
over 300).
n Qu estionn aires or interviews (sel-report d ata).
n U se o closed or open-end ed qu estions.
Strength: possible to collect d ata in a relatively qu ick and easy way.
Limitation: sel-report d ata may be aected by response bias.

Questionnaire n Data is collected throu gh the u se o written qu estions su rveys:

open-end ed qu estions
closed qu estions
qu antitative and qu alitative d ata.

Qualitative data n Data which express what people think and eel and which are not nu m erical. Qu alitative d ata can be
qualitative tu rned into qu antitative i they are categorized .
analysis n Qu alitative analysis: a kind o analyis that ocu ses on the meaning o what participants say and the way
they experience an event, rather than ind ivid u al word s.
n Qu alitative analysis involves interpretation (oten related to a theoretical ram ework, su ch as thematic
analysis or grou nd ed theory).

Quantitative n N u m erical d ata (nu m bers) express am ou nt, length etc., and the d ata can be m easu red in nu m bers
data or qu antity.
quantitative n Qu antitative analysis u ses the nu m erical d ata or analysis and interpretation. This takes place in the orm
analysis o d escriptive statistics (e.g. m ean and stand ard d eviation) and ineren tial statistics (any statistical test)
which is u sed to make inerences abou t the d ata.

4
1.4 Ethics in research

General ethical principles in research with humans General ethical principles in research with animals
n Inormed consent: Researchers m u st inorm participants n Stress and pain: Researchers shou ld take m easu res to
abou t the natu re o the research stu d y (brief ng). The m inim ize stress and pain .
participants m u st know what the research is abou t and what n Consider alternative ways: Researchers shou ld consid er
will happen in the stu d y so that they can consid er whether whether there are alternatives to animal research.
they will participate or not. I children participate in research
n Approval o research projects by ethical committee:
it is mand atory to obtain parental consent.
Researchers m u st ask or perm ission to cond u ct research with
n Deception should be avoided: Researchers m u st not d eceive an imals. The application m u st inclu d e d etails o th e stu d y
participants d eliberately withou t a valid ju stif cation. Slight inclu d ing potential harm to animals and possible benef ts o
d eception cou ld be u sed i it can be ju stif ed and it d oes not that research.
harm participants.
n Researcher competence: The researcher m u st have skills and
n Protection o participants: As a ru le, participants shou ld experience in d oing research with animals.
su er no physical or psychological harm in the research.
I t is on ly recently that eth ical gu id elines or animal research have
Researchers shou ld avoid invasion o privacy in covert
been orm u lated . M u ch o the research cond u cted beore the
observational stu d ies u nless it is ju stif ed .
1 970s d id not consid er animal su ering a major problem .
n Debriefng: Researchers m u st inorm participants abou t the Animals are u sed in research becau se (1 ) they are easy to
resu lts o th e research and assu re them that they have not control, (2 ) they can be u sed where it is not possible to u se
been harm ed in any way, especially i d eception was u sed . hu mans or ethical reasons, (3) there is som e sim ilarity between
n Right to withdraw: Participants have the right to withdraw animal and hu man physiology.
at any m om ent in the research process. They also have the
right to withdraw their d ata rom th e stu d y when it is
f n ished i they are n ot satisf ed with the d evelopm ent o the
research.
n Confdentiality: Researchers m u st assu re that all d ata
remain anonym ou s so that participants will not be
recognized .

Ethical considerations to include in evaluation o research

n Did the researchers get inorm ed consent rom participants?
n Were participants harm ed in any way?
n Was the stu d y ju stif ed ? I participants or animals have been su bjected to u npleasant experiences it is im portant to consid er i the
resu lts mad e it worthwhile.
n Were there ethical gu id elines when the stu d y was cond u cted ?
n Were the resu lts importan t and have they benef ted hu mans?
n Cou ld the stu d y have been cond u cted in alternative ways?

5
 2.1 Outline principles that defne the biological
level o analysis and explain how these
principles may be demonstrated in research

Principle 1 : There are biological correlates o behaviour. Principle 3: H uman behaviour is, to some extent, genetically
This m ean s that there are physiological origins o behaviou r based.
su ch as neu rotransm itters, horm ones, specialized brain areas, This m eans that behaviou r can, to som e extent, be explained by
and genes. The biological level o analysis is based on genetic inheritance, althou gh this is rarely the u ll explanation
red u ctionism , which is the attempt to explain complex since genetic inheritance shou ld be seen as g en etic
behaviou r in term s o simple cau ses. pred isposition which can be aected by environm ental actors.
n Researchers interested in the genetic origin o behaviou r
Principle 1 demonstrated in: oten u se twins so that they can compare one twin with the
N ewcom er et al. (1 999) perorm ed an experim ent on the role other on a variable su ch as intelligence, d epression or
o the stress horm one cortisol on verbal d eclarative m em ory. anorexia nervosa.
Grou p 1 (high d ose cortisol) had tablets containing 1 60 m g o n I d entical twins (m on ozygotic twins MZ) are 1 00%
cortisol or ou r d ays. Grou p 2 (low d ose cortisol) had tablets genetically id entical as they have d eveloped rom the sam e
with 40 m g o cortisol or ou r d ays. Grou p 3 (control) had egg. They thereore act as a control or each other. Fraternal
placebo tablets. Participants listened to a prose paragraph an d twins (d izygotic twins DZ) have d eveloped rom two
had to recall it as a test o verbal d eclarative m em ory. This d ierent eggs. They share arou nd 5 0% o their genes so
m em ory system is oten negatively aected by the increased they are no m ore sim ilar than siblings.
level o cortisol u nd er long-term stress. The resu lts showed that n Twin research never shows a 1 00% concord ance rate so it is
grou p 1 showed the worst perormance on the m em ory test believed that genes are a pred isposing actor rather than
compared to grou p 2 and 3. The experim ent shows that an the cau se o behaviou r. Thereore it is also im portant to
increase in cortisol over a period has a negative eect on consid er what environm ental actors cou ld inf u ence the
m em ory. expression o the genetic pred isposition.

Principle 3 demonstrated in:

Principle 2 : Animal research can provide insight into human
Bouchard et al. (1 990) perorm ed the M innesota twin stu d y, a
behaviour.
longitu d inal stu d y investigating the relative role o genes in I Q.
This m ean s that researchers u se animals to stu d y physiolog ical
The participan ts were MZ reared apart (M ZA) an d M Z reared
processes becau se it is assu m ed that m ost biological processes
together (M ZT). The researchers ou nd that M ZT had a
in non-hu man animals are the sam e as in hu mans. One
concord ance rate o I Q o 86% com pared to MZA with a
important reason or using animals is that there is a lot o
concord ance rate o I Q o 76%. This shows a link between
research where humans cannot be used or ethical reasons.
genetic inheritance and intelligence bu t it d oes not ru le ou t the
role o the environm ent.
Principle 2 demonstrated in:
Rosenzweig and Bennet (1 972 ) perorm ed an experim en t to
stu d y the role o en vironm ental actors on brain plasticity u sing
rats as participants. Grou p 1 was placed in an enriched
environm ent with lots o toys. Grou p 2 was placed in a
d eprived environm ent with no toys. The rats spent 30 or 60
d ays in their respective environm en ts beore being killed . The
brains o the rats in grou p 1 showed a thicker layer o neu rons
in the cortex compared to the d eprived grou p. The stu d y shows
that the brain grows m ore neu rons i stim u lated .

6
2.2 Explain one study related to localization of
function in the brain

The case study of H.M. When H .M. was 2 7, the neu rosu rgeon William Scoville,
n This case study is important because it provided evidence that perorm ed experim ental su rgery in ord er to stop the seizu res.
there are dierent memory systems in the brain (see unit 3.3). Tissu e rom the m ed ial tem poral lobe, inclu d ing th e
n Milner (1 957 ) was the f rst to report the case o H .M . and hippocampu s, was rem oved on both sid es o his brain.
the proou nd eects on m em ory u nctioning, ollowing an Ater the operation H .M . su ered rom am nesia. H e cou ld not
operation which rem oved the hippocam pu s and ad jacent create new episod ic and semantic m em ories, bu t he was able to
areas in H .M .s brain. learn a ew proced u ral m em ories. H is personality remained
n Corkin et al. (1 997 ) d id a MRI scan o H .Ms brain. Brain u nchanged and there was no general intellectu al impairm ent.
imaging was u sed becau se it allowed the researchers to get This case study shows that the hippocampus is important in
a precise pictu re o the brain d amage. They d iscovered that memory processing and particularly
parts o the temporal lobe, inclu d ing the hippocampu s an d in the storage o new memories.
the amygd ala, were m issing, bu t also that the d amage was H .M . participated in research
not as extensive as previou sly believed . stu d ies u ntil his d eath in 2 008, and
H .M . su ered rom epileptic seizu res ater he ell o a bike, his brain was d onated to science.
aged seven. I t was assu m ed that the seizu res were connected The hippocam pu s
to the accid ent and he becam e increasingly incapacitated .

What can be learned about localization of n H .M. cou ld learn a ew new proced u ral m em ories so this
ind icates that su ch m em ories are not stored via the
function in the brain in relation to memory
hippocam pu s.
from the case study of H.M? n The act that H .M . (and other people with am nesia) had
n The hippocampu s an d the areas arou nd the hippocampu s
d ef cits in one part o the m em ory system bu t n ot in others
play a critical role in converting m em ories o experiences
is evid ence that the brain has several m em ory system s and
rom short-term m em ory (contemporary store) to long-term
that these are su pported by d istinct brain regions.
m em ory (permanent store).
n The stu d y shows that m em ory processes are m u ch m ore
n H .M. cou ld retain m em ories o what had happened beore
com plex than originally believed . Althou gh the
the su rgery. This ind icates that the hippocam pu s is a
hippocam pu s is very im portant in the storage o new
temporary rather than a permanent m em ory store.
m em ories it is not the only stru ctu re involved in the process.

Evaluation of the case study of H.M. Cortical areas are important or long-term m em ory, or
n The operation was based on the assu mption that H .M s acts and even ts (semantic and episod ic m em ories), and
seizu res wou ld stop and it was su ccessu l in this respect, th e u se o that inormation in d aily lie.
bu t the brain d amage cau sed m em ory problem s that had Procedural memories are not processed by the hippocampus.
not been anticipated . n There are ethical considerations in this case study. Since H .M.
n H .M. participated in research or m ore than 5 0 years. H e was not able to remember all the times he participated in
participated in many kind s o tests (e.g. cogn itive tests, research it could be argued that it was unethical. H owever, the
observation s, and neu roimaging stu d ies). fndings o the study are very important and this justifes it.
n This long itu d inal case stu d y has contribu ted enorm ou sly to n I t is not u su ally possible to u se the f nd ings rom a single
the knowled ge o how m em ory processes are related to case stu d y to generalize abou t a larger popu lation, bu t
specif c brain areas, or example: since the f nd ings rom other case stu d ies o people with
The m edial temporal lobes are important or the orm ing, brain d amage like H .M . ten d to su pport th ose rom this
organization, consolidation, and retrieval o mem ories. case stu d y, it may be possible to generalize to som e extent.

Exam Tip This case study can also be used to

answer a question on why particular research methods are
used at the biological level of analysis. It could also be used
to address ethical issues in research.

7
 2.3
0.0 Explain, using one or more examples, the
effects of neurotransmission on human
behaviour

n When a nerve impu lse reaches the end o the neu ron, the tyrosine
neu ron releasin g
neu ron f res and neu rotransm itters are released into the dopam in e L-dopa

syn aptic gap where they travel to the neu ron at the other d opam ine
sid e o the synaptic gap. broken down by
m onoamine oxydase
n I the neu rotransm itter is not absorbed it can be re-u ptaken,
d iu sed ou t or d estroyed . The neu rotransm itter then bind s au toreceptors
to specif c receptors at the other sid e. I a neu rotransm itter
is blocked or replaced (e.g. becau se another chem ical
recaptu red
intereres) then the m essages change. This aects the dopam ine
released
physiological system , cognition, m ood , or behaviou r. d opam ine

G protein receptor targ et neuron

Syna ptic tran sm ission

Dopamine Berridge and Kringelbach (2009) on dopamine in

Dopam ine is a neu rotransm itter involved in goal-d irected pleasure seeking
behaviou r (m otivation) su ch as pleasu re seeking, con trol o M RI scans were u sed to stu d y brain areas involved in the
m ovem ent, em otional response, an d ad d ictive behaviou r. su bjective experience o pleasu re. They ou nd that the
Dopam ine is released in the brains reward system . orbitorontal cortex was active wh en people reported eelin g
pleasu re.
Dopamine and addictive behaviour
The researchers conclu d ed that: d opam ine an d the nu cleu s
n Dopam ine is released in the brains reward system and has
accu m bens is perhaps rather involved in pleasure seeking . This
been associated with pleasu re seeking and ad d ictive
cou ld explain ad d ictive behaviou r (e.g. nicotine ad d iction lead s
behaviou r. Ad d ictive dru gs or su bstances increase the
to craving).
am ou nt o d opam ine in the reward system .
The orbitorontal cortex and natu ral opiod s (en d orphins) are
n Dopam ine can be relased by environm en tal trigg ers (e.g.
perhaps linked to the su bjective experience o pleasu re.
the sight o a cigarette packag e, ood , or a gam bling
machine) becau se this is associated with pleasu re (reward ). Fisher (2004) on dopamine in addiction to love
n N icotine is the psych oactive ingred ient in tobacco, which This is an evolu tionary explanation o behaviou r. Being in love
increases the level o d opam ine in the brains reward circu it has sim ilarities with being ad d icted accord ing to Fisher.
cau sing eelings o pleasu re and relaxation. n Dopam ine increases d esire and reward by triggering th e
sam e em otional ru sh o pleasu re when you see or think o
the loved one as i you were taking a dru g like cocaine.
n Dopam ine can explain the highs o romantic passion (high
levels o d opam ine) an d the lows o rejection (low levels o
d opam ine).

Acetylcholine (ACh) on memory n Group 2: received injection with physostigm ine (blocks
n ACh is a neu rotransm itter which has been linked to prod u ction o cholinesterase (enzym e) which cleans u p ACh
syn aptic plasticity in the hippocampu s and it seem s to play rom the synapses) lead ing to m ore available ACh.
an important role in learning and short-term m em ory via n Group 3: The con trol grou p.
the cholinergic system (Shinoe et al. 2 005 ). Results
n The cholinergic system is a system o nerve cells that u ses n Group 1 had problem s f nd ing their way throu gh the maze
acetylcholine in transm itting nerve signals. Mem ory and made m ore m istakes.
processing and hig her cognitive u nction ing are d epend ent n Group 2 ran qu ickly throu gh the maze and mad e ew
on the cholinergic system . m istakes. The grou p was qu icker than the control grou p.

Martinez and Kesner (1 991 ) ACh in memory ormation Evaluation

Aim To investigate the role o ACh in m em ory ormation The stu d y shows that ACh is important in m em ory since the rats
Procedure Experim ental stu d y u sing rats. They were trained to showed d ierent m em ory capacity d epend ing on ACh level.
ru n a maze. Th ey were d ivid ed into three grou ps. Since this was a controlled laboratory experim ent, it can be
n Group 1 : received injection with scopolam ine (blocks ACh conclu d ed that the level o ACh is one actor that aects
receptor sites, red u cing available ACh). m em ory bu t the neu robiology o m em ory is very complex.

8
2.4 Explain, using examples, the function of two
hormones on human behaviour

Cortisol and memory secretion and this can lead to physiological changes su ch as
Cortisol is a horm one prod u ced by the adrenal cortex in d amaged im m u ne system and impairm en t o learning and
response to stress and to restore hom eostasis (the bod ys m em ory. This is becau se high am ou nts o cortisol resu lts in
normal balance). Chronic stress may resu lt in prolonged cortisol atrophy o the hippocampu s (Sapolsky, 1 996).

Newcomer et al. (1 999) Experiment on cortisol levels in the blood as a consequ en ce o a m inor stressu l event.
and memory 3. A placebo (tablet o n o active ingred ient).
Aim To investigate how levels o cortisol interere with verbal Results The high-level grou p perorm ed worse on the verbal
d eclarative m em ory. d eclarative m em ory test than the low-level grou p. They perorm ed
Procedure A sel-selected sample (recru ited th rou gh below placebo levels ater d ay 1 . The low-level grou p (m ild stress)
ad vertisem ent) o 51 normal and healthy people aged 1 83 0 was showed no m em ory d ecrease.
u sed . I t was a ran d om ized , controlled , d ou ble-blind experim ent Evaluation This was a controlled rand om ized experim ent so it was
ru nning or ou r d ays. All participants gave inorm ed consent. possible to establish a cau se-eect relationship between levels o
There were three experim ental cond itions: 1 . A high level o cortisol and scores on a verbal d eclarative m em ory test. Ethical
cortisol (tablet o 1 60 m g per d ay), equ ivalent to cortisol levels in issu es were observed with inorm ed consent. The negative eect
the blood as a consequ ence o a major stressu l event. 2 . A low o taking high d osages o cortisol was reversible so no harm was
level o cortisol (tablet o 40 m g per d ay), equ ivalent to cortisol d one.

Oxytocin and trust Tru st is an ad aptive m echanism as it helps hu mans to orm

n The horm one oxytocin is secreted by the hypothalam u s an d m eaningu l relation ships at a personal an d proessional
released (1 ) into the blood stream via the pitu itary gland or level. Betrayal d isru pts bond s o tru st and may resu lt in
(2 ) into the brain and spinal cord where it bind s to oxytocin avoid ance o th e person who has betrayed you .
receptors. Oxytocin acts primarily as a neu rotransm itter in n Learning who to tru st and who to avoid is important or
the brain. su rvival and the well-bein g o an ind ivid u al. H u mans shou ld
n Oxytocin has been linked to tru sting other people. also be able to m ove on ater experien ces o breaching
Experim ental manipu lation o oxytocin levels has shown tru st i long-term relationships and m ental well-being are to
increase in tru st. be preserved .
n Accord ing to evolu tionary psychologists, tru st is an n Oxytocin cou ld play a role in red u cing ear reactions via the
important social tool in the relationship between hu mans. amygd ala that may arise as a consequ ence o betrayal.

Baumgartner et al. (2008) The role o oxytocin in trust in Results

economic behaviour n Participants in the placebo grou p were likely to show less tru st
Aim To investigate the role o oxytocin ater breaches o tru st in a ater eed back on betrayal. They invested less.
tru st gam e. Participants in the oxytocin grou p continu ed to invest at
sim ilar rates ater receiving eed back on a breach o tru st.
Procedure
n The participants played a tru st gam e u sed by econom ists and
n The M RI scans showed d ecreases in responses in the
neu roscientists to stu d y social interaction. amygd ala and the cau d ate nu cleu s. The amygd ala is involved
The investor (player 1 ) receives a su m o m oney and m u st in em otional processing and has many oxytocin receptors. The
d ecid e whether to keep it or share it with a tru stee (player cau d ate nu cleu s is associated with learning and m em ory and
2 ). I the su m is shared the su m is tripled . Then player 2 m u st plays a role in reward -related responses and learning to tru st.
d ecid e i this su m shou ld be shared (tru st) or kept (violation o Evaluation
tru st). n Oxytocin cou ld explain why people are able to restore tru st
n M RI scans were carried ou t on 49 participants. They received and orgive in long-term relationships.
either oxytocin or placebo via a nasal spray. n Scanner research is m erely mapping brain activity bu t nothing
n Participants played against d ierent tru stees in the tru st gam e d ef nite can be said abou t what it really m eans at th is point
and against a compu ter in a risk gam e. I n 5 0% o the gam es in science.
their tru st was broken. Th ey received eed back on this rom n Giving oxytocin like this in an experim ent may n ot re ect
the experim enters d u ring the gam es. natu ral physiological processes. The u nction o oxytocin is
very complex and it is too simplistic to say that it is the tru st
horm one.

9
 2.5 Discuss two effects of the environment on
physiological processes

Effect 1 : Environmental effects on dendritic Three-year-old children

branching (brain plasticity)
n Environm ental stim ulation reers to the way the environm ent
provides stim ulation in the orm o social interaction and
learning opportunities or animals and humans. Experiences
are processed in the brains nervous system , and stim ulating
environm ents will result in increased num bers o synapses
(brain plasticity). Gopnick et al. (1 999) describe neurons as
growing telephone wires that comm unicate with each other.
n An enriched environm ent is characterized by m u ltiple
opportu nities to learn new things. Researchers have u sed
animal m od els to stu d y synaptic changes in the brain
Normal Extreme neglect
becau se it is not possible to u se h u mans in d eprivation
experim ents. Brain scans o brain s o three-year-old children: normal bra in a nd bra in
n I nstead researchers u se case stu d ies o children who have with sign s o extrem e neglect in a ch ild (Perry, 1 997 ).
grown u p in total neglect, i.e. with little or no experience o
langu age, tou ch an d interaction with other hu mans. The
brains o neglected children are oten smaller and there is
scientif c evid ence o altered brain u nction (e.g. in
intelligence and em otions)

Rosenzweig, Bennet and Diamond (1 972) The role o Evaluation

environmental stimulation on brain plasticity n The experim ent was a rigorou sly controlled laboratory
experim ent so it was possible to establish a cau se-eect
Aim To investigate whether environm ental actors su ch as a rich relationship.
or an impoverished environm ent aect d evelopm ent o neu rons in
the cerebral cortex.
n The experim ent u sed animal m od els and thereore it may be
d if cu lt to generalize to hu mans u nless research with hu mans
Procedure provid es the sam e resu lts.
n Rats were placed in either an enriched environm ent (EC) or an
im poverished cond ition (I C).
n Follow-u p o this research ind icated that ju st 2 hou rs a d ay in
an enriched en vironm ent prod u ced the sam e plastic changes
n EC: 1 01 2 rats in a cage provid ed with d ieren t stim u lu s in the brain as in rats that had been constantly in the EC
objects to explore and play with. This grou p also received cond ition. This shows that the brain can chan ge and ad apt to
maze training. new situ ations.
n I C: each rat in an ind ivid u al cage (isolation and no n Since brain plasticity is assu m ed to ollow the sam e pattern in
stim u lation). animals and hu mans the im plications o the stu d y are that
n The rats typically spent 3 0 to 60 d ays in their respective the hu man brain will also be aected by en vironm ental
environm ents beore th ey were killed so the researchers cou ld actors su ch as intellectu al and social stim u lation.
stu d y changes in brain anatomy. n The research challenged the belie that brain weight cannot
Results change. This was an importan t f n d ing.
n The anatomy o the brain was d ierent or rats in the EC an d There are ethical issu es in th e u se o animals in research like this.
the I C. Since the resu lts contribu ted to a m u ch better u nd erstand ing o
n The brains o EC rats had increased thickness and h igher the role o environm ental actors in brain plasticity it can be
weight o the cortex. EC rats had d eveloped m ore argu ed that the research was ju stif ed in spite o the
acetylcholine receptors in the cerebral cortex (important ethical issu es.
neu rotransm iter in learning and m em ory). Reference: Rosenzweig, M .R., Bennet, E.L., and Diam on d , M .C. (1 972 )
Brain cha nges in response to experien ce, Scientif c Am erican , 2 2 6 (2 )
2 22 9.

10
 2 Bi ol og i ca l l evel o a n a l ysi s

Effect 2: Environmental stressors and

hippocampal damage in PTSD patients Bremner et al. (2003) Stress, PTSD and memory
n A stressor is any event that threaten s to d isru pt the bod ys problems related to reduction o hippocampal volume.
normal balance and starts a stress response su ch as
Aim To m easu re the volu m e o the hippocam pu s based on the
secretion o stress horm ones and activation o the ear
theory that prolonged stress may red u ce the volu m e o the
sensor in the brain, the am ygd ala.
hippocampu s d u e to increased cortisol levels.
n A stressor may be an acu te stressor (e.g. being assau lted ,
Procedure
having an accid en t) or it cou ld be a chronic stressor (e.g.
n MRI scans were mad e o the brains o the participants and
anticipation o violence or worrying).
participants completed m em ory tests (e.g. rem em bering a
n The f ght or ight response (coping m echanism ) is a pattern story or a list o word s).
o physiological responses that prepares the bod y to d eal
n The participants were veterans and emale ad u lts who had
with em ergency. Sapolsky (1 996) has shown in an imal
experienced early child hood sexu al abu se. Som e had
stu d ies that long-term stress and a prolonged ow o
d eveloped PTSD, bu t not all.
cortisol can in u ence the size o the hippocampu s, which
plays a major role in m em ory. Results
n The researchers ou nd that there were d ef cits in short-term
Trauma and PTSD m em ory an d then perorm ed M RI scans o the participants
n Trau matic episod es (i.e. rightening situ ations rom which a brains.
person cannot escape) prod u ce intense ear. I n abou t 5 % n They ou n d that the hippocampu s was smaller in PTSD
o the popu lation this may lead to PTSD (post-trau matic patients than in a control grou p. The veterans with m ost
stress d isord er) with eects that can last or a brie period m em ory problem s also had the smallest hippocampu s.
or a lietim e. n The f nd ings showed a clear correlation between nu m ber o
n Com bat veterans and su rvivors o child hood sexu al abu se years o abu se as m easu red by a trau ma test, m em ory
who su er rom PTSD tend to have a nu m ber o stress problem s and hippocampal volu m e.
related problem s su ch as org etu lness and d if cu lty n People su ering rom PTSD oten su er rom other
learning . I n su ch patients stressrelated physiological
psychological d isord ers (e.g. d epression) wh ich cou ld
changes have been observed in the brain, especially in the
perhaps also play a role in the observed changes in
hippocampu s, which play an important role in integrating
the brain.
d ierent aspects o a m em ory at the tim e o recollection.
Evaluation
n The sample was very small so it is d if cu lt to say anything
Prefrontal Cortex Hippocampus
d ef nite abou t the relationship between trau ma an d
hippocam pal volu m e.
n There cou ld be alternative explanation s to d ierences in
hippocam pal volu m e (e.g. that people who su er rom
Amygdala PTSD oten su er rom d epression as well). Depression is
also associated with red u ction o the hippocam pu s.
H owever, the f nd ings o a large red u ction o hippocampal
volu m e in com bat-related PTSD has been replicated many
tim es.

11
 2.6 Examine one interaction between cognition
and physiology in terms of behaviour.
Evaluate two relevant studies.

n Cognitive neu roscience is the scientif c stu d y o biological

correlates o m ental processes (cognition). This area o
research investigates how variou s brain areas are involved
in cognitive processes (e.g. how brain d amage aects
m em ory), bu t in recent years researchers have also
investigated how cog nition and physiological processes
may interact in people who m ed itate.
n A nu m ber o neu roscientists are exam ining how m ed itation
or m ind u lness-based stress red u ction (M BSR) may in u ence
brain u nction s (e.g. th e eect o m ed itation on attention,
em otional reactivity and stress).
n I nteraction o cognition and physiology can be seen in the
sel-regu lation o attention (M BSR) which seem s to have
physiological benef ts (e.g. stress red u ction).

Davidson et al. (2 004) Brain waves and Vestergaard-Poulsen et al. (2 009) ou nd that extensive practice
compassion meditation o m ed itation involving su stained attention cou ld lead to changes
Aim To investigate whether m ed itation can change brain activity. in brain stru ctu re. They ou nd stru ctu ral changes in the lower
brain stem o participants engaged in long-term practice o
n Eight m onks who had practised m ed itation or many years m ed itation compared with age-matched non-m ed itators.
and a control grou p o 1 0 stu d ents who had one week o n M RI scans o two grou ps o participants m ed itators and
train ing participated in the stu d y. Cognitive activities non-m ed iators.
(inclu d ing m ed itation) prod u ce electrical activity when the
neu rons f re. This was record ed by the EEG
n The stu d y ou nd stru ctu ral changes in brain stem regions
(electroencephalograph wh ich record s electrical activity as concern ed with control o respiration and card iac rhyth m
brain waves). (au tonom ic nervou s system ). The connection o neu rons in this
area seem ed m ore complex in people who m ed itated .
n Participants were asked to m ed itate on u ncond itional
compassion, i.e. open the m ind or eelings o love and
n This cou ld explain som e o the benef cial eects ou nd in
compassion or short period s. research on stress red u ction techniqu es su ch as M BSR becau se
cortisol levels are red u ced and the card iac and breathing
n The control grou p participated in a training session where rhythm slow d own.
they were asked to think o som eone they cared abou t and to
let their m ind be invad ed by love and compassion.
n M ed itative practices have alread y been applied in health
psychology, or example David son et al. (2 003 ) ou nd that
n Ater initial training the participants were asked to generate M ind u lness m ed itation cou ld increase positive em otion and
an objective eeling o compassion withou t ocu sing on im m u ne responses.
anyone in particu lar.
n M BSR has also been ou nd to alleviate pain (Grant et al.
n The EEG o the m onks brains showed greater activation as 2 01 0).
well as better organization and coord ination o gam ma waves.
There was a positive correlation between hou rs o practice and
level o gam ma waves. See more on the application of MBSR in unit 7.5.
Evaluation
n The resu lts su pport the id ea that attention and aective
processes are skills that can be trained bu t m ore research is
need ed to establish i the change in brain waves is cau sed by
hou rs o training and not ind ivid u al d ierences beore
train ing.

12
0.0
2.7 Discuss the use of brain-imaging technologies
in investigating the relationship between
biological factors and behaviour

n Brain-imaging techniqu es are u sed in neu roscience to n Brain-imaging technology is a prom ising way to investigate
investigate the relationship between behaviou r and brain the possible relationship between biological actors and
stru ctu res, or example ater brain d amage or to f nd ou t behaviou r, bu t so ar scanning can m erely register
which areas o the brain are involved in which cognitive stru ctu res and activity in the brain. I t is not possible to
activities (cognitive neu roscience). d eterm ine cau se-eect relationships at this point.

MRI scan: magnetic resonance imaging

M RI scans can give d etailed pictu res o internal stru ctu res in Ashtari et al (2 009) u sed M RI to investigate whether
th e bod y. The bod y consists, to a large extent, o water su bstance abu se (mariju ana) can d amage the d eveloping brain
m olecu les. I n the M RI scanner a rad io requ ency transm itter is in ad olescents and you ng ad u lts.
tu rned on and it prod u ces an electromagnetic f eld . n The researchers scanned the brains o 1 4 you ng m en with a
history o heavy mariju ana abu se over a long period . The
Strengths of M RI Lim itations of M RI control grou p consisted o 1 4 you ng m en who had not u sed
They are very mariju ana.
n MRI scans are particularly n

useul to show how the expensive. n The resu lts o the scan ind icated that there were brain
blood ows in the brain and n M ovem ent may aect abnormalities in the rontal, parietal an d tem poral regions
can be used to identiy the pictu res. o the brains o the mariju ana u sers. The d evelopm ent o
problems with blood white matter (myelin) was aected and this cou ld explain
n They cannot say
circulation. They can be used slow inormation processing in the brain.
anything abou t
or the early detection o cau se-eect n The researchers conclu d ed that early mariju ana u se can
Alzheimers disease. relationships. aect brain d evelopm ent negatively bu t since the stu d y
n They are sae to use since no gave correlational d ata m ore research is need ed .
radioactive material is used.

fMRI scan: functional magnetic resonance Strengths of fM RI Lim itations of fM RI

imaging
n I t d oes not u se n The ocu s is m ostly on
The MRI scanner m easu res chang es in blood ow in the active
rad ioactive localized u nctionin g in the
brain. This is associated with u se o oxygen and linked to neu ral
su bstances. brain and d oes not take into
activity d u ring inormation processing. When participants are
accou nt the d istribu ted natu re
asked to perorm a task, the scientists can observe the part o n I t can record activity
o processing in neu ral
the brain that correspond s to that u n ction. M RI scanning is in all regions o th e
networks.
wid ely u sed by cognitive n eu roscientists and other researchers brain .
and its u se has increased enorm ou sly over the last 1 0 years. n The resu lts are correlational so
it is not possible to establish
cau se-eect relationships.

Harris and Fiske (2006) used MRI scans to study students brain n This was ou nd except when participants looked at pictures o
processes as a response to being presented with pictures o extreme people rom extreme outgroups such as the homeless and
outgroups. This study in social cognition aimed to fnd the biological addicts. Brain regions related to disgust were activated and
correlates o stereotypes and prejudice. there was no activity in the prerontal cortex.
n The researchers scanned stu d ents while they were watching n The researchers conclu d ed that this ind icated a
either pictu res o d ierent hu mans or objects. I t was pred icted d ehu manization o th e ou tgrou ps. These grou ps were
that the m ed ial prerontal cortex wou ld be active wh en apparently viewed as disgusting objects and not people.
participants looked at hu mans bu t not when they looked at
objects.

13
 2 Bi ol og i ca l l evel o a n a l ysi s

General issues in brain imaging to consider Exam Tip I you are asked discuss the use o
in a discussion brain- imaging technologies you need to include at least two
n Brain imaging is mainly abou t mapping brain stru ctu res examples. I you are asked to discuss one, then dont
and activity in the brain .
mention more than one since you will receive no credit or
n Another lim itation d eals with localization o u nction. I t mentioning more.
may be possible to id entiy brain stru ctu res that are You can address how and why specifc technologies are
active d u ring a task bu t, since m ost stru ctu res are linked used and strengths/limitations o using them including
to other stru ctu res in networks, it is not possible at this research studies to support your argument. Although brain
point to say d ef nitely where th ings happen in the brain. imaging is exciting as it oers a view into the living brain, it
is still too soon to conclude anything defnite about which
areas are involved in what cognitive processes. The human
brain is very complex and, at this point, brain imaging is
perhaps best used in diagnosis o brain abnormalities.

2.8 With reerence to relevant research studies,

discuss the extent to which genetic
inheritance infuences human behaviour

Gene mapping
Evaluation
Attempt to determine the eect o a particular gene on
n Since a large proportion o the popu lation carries the
behaviou r su ch as psychological traits (tem peram ent),
m u tation o the 5 -H TT gene that makes them su sceptible to
psychological d isord ers (e.g. d epression or schizophrenia) or
d epression ater trau matic events, it can be d if cu lt to
variou s physiological cond itions.
conclu d e that the gene is a major contribu tion to
d epression. People who d id not carry the m u tation also
Caspi et al. (2003) Longitudinal study on the possible becam e d epressed .
role o the 5-HTT gene in depression ater experiences n The stu d y showed a correlation between the presence o a
o stressul events 5 -H TT short allele an d d epression bu t it is not possible to
n The 5 -H TT gene in u ences the level o serotonin, which is establish a cau se-eect relationship.
known to play a role in controlling m ood .
n Genes contribu te to som e extent to behaviou ral traits and
n The researchers com pared participants with a normal 5 -H TT d isord ers bu t it is not clear how environm en tal actors
gene and a m u tation o the 5 -H TT gene with shorter alleles. in u ence genes. Environm ental actors were inclu d ed in the
Both types are qu ite requ ent in hu mans bu t the long allele stu d y (stressu l events) bu t there is no evid ence again st the
is slig htly m ore requ ent (57 %). id ea that it cou ld be the stressu l events (environm ental
n The researchers ou nd that participants who carried a actors) that mad e people d epressed .
m u tation o the 5 -H TT gene and who had experienced n M u ch m ore research is need ed beore a clear relationship
many stressu l events were m ore likely to becom e d epressed between a gene and a behaviou ral trait can be established ..
ater stressu l events than those participants who carried
the normal 5 -H TT gene.
n The 5 -H TT gene cou ld ind icate a vu lnerability to d epression You could also use this study in unit 5.5 to discuss
ater stress and the researchers specu lated whether the etiologies o abnormal behaviour. In this case a possible
gene cou ld m od erate ind ivid u al responses to environm ental explanation o depression which could relate to the diathesis-
actors. stress model.

14
 2 Bi ol og i ca l l evel o a n a l ysi s

Twin studies n I n twin stu d ies, one twin acts as control or the other twin.
n Monozygotic twins (M Z or id entical twins) com e rom the The classic twin stu d y only stu d ied concord ance rates and
sam e egg and share 1 00% o their genes. Dizygotic twins d id not inclu d e environm ental actors. I n som e cases M Z
(DZ or raternal twins) com e rom two d ierent eggs and twins were raised apart and in these cases it was assu m ed
share arou nd 5 0% o their genes. Sibling s share 5 0% o that d ierences were d u e to environm ental actors.
their genes. n I n twin research, sets o M Z are compared with sets o DZ
n The researchers calcu late concord ance rate (the likelihood twins or a particu lar trait or d isord er. H igh concord ance
or probability that i one ind ivid u al has the trait the other rates in M Z twins an d lower concord ance rates in DZ twins
will also have it). The concord ance rate is assu m ed to or the sam e behaviou r ind icate that the trait or d isease is
establish i or to what extent a certain trait is in herited . linked to genes (inherited ). Dierences within pairs o
id entical twins are attribu ted to environm ental actors.

Bouchard et al. (1 990) Twin study investigating nation) genetic inheritance in I Q accou nts or arou nd
genetic inheritance in intelligence two-third s o the observed variance o I Q.
n This stu d y u sed a sel-selected sample o M Z twins who had n They also said that their f nd ings d o not ind icate that I Q
been reared together (MZT) and M Z twins who had been cannot be increased , that is in u enced by environm ental
reared apart (M ZA) to investigate concord ance rates or a actor.
nu m ber o variables su ch as I Q. Evaluation
n The resu lts showed that or I Q (m easu red by a stand ard ized n Correlational d ata cannot establish cau se-eect
intelligence test called WAI S) the concord ance rate was relationships.
69% or MZA and 88% or M ZT. n Concordance rates were high in the study but ar rom 1 00%
n The researchers conclu d ed that environm ental actors d o so it was difcult to determine the relative inuence o genes.
play a role in d evelopm ent o intelligence bu t I Q is to a Calculation o concordance rates is not always reliable.
large extent inherited and that 70% o the observed n There was no control or the eect o environm ental
variation in the sample cou ld be attribu ted to genetic variables in the stu d y and th is aects accu rate estimations
variation. o a genetic contribu tion to intelligence.
n They claim that the resu lts ind icate that in a sam ple like the n The f nd ings rom this sel-selected sam ple make it d if cu lt
one in the stu d y (white, m id d le-class in an ind u strialized to generalize f nd ings.

Problems in genetic research n There are problem s in genetic research (e.g. concord ance
Genetic research cannot at this point d eterm ine the extent to rates in twin stu d ies cannot say anything abou t cau se-eect
which genetic inheritance in u ence behaviou r becau se: relationships). MZ twins being treated in the sam e way as
n Genes interact with environm ental actors in com plex ways. DZ twins may be wrong (the equ al environm ent
I t is d if cu lt to m easu re relative in u ence o genes and assu m ption may be awed ) and this lim its the possibility
environm ental actors. o drawing m eaningu l conclu sions rom twin stu d ies.
n Knowled ge abou t genes is still lim ited .

15
 2.9 Examine
Unit Headone
behaviour
2 lines
evolutionary explanation of

n The theory o evolu tion , su ggested by Charles Darwin, is n Organism s with specif c genetic traits that enhan ce su rvival
based on the assu mption that living organism s ace are said to be natu rally selected . N atu ral selection is a
environm ental challenges. Organism s that ad apt the best cru cial evolu tionary process in Darwins theory.
have a greater chance o passing on their genes to the next
generations.

One evolutionary explanation of behaviour:

Results
disgust in pregnant women n Overall, d isgu st sensitivity related to ood and bod y prod u cts
n N au sea and loss o appetite d u rin g pregnancy may have
in wom en in the f rst trim ester was higher compared to those
been evolved as a way to protect the m other and the etu s
in the second and third trim esters.
against d iseases which cou ld th reaten the etu s. Disgu st
has evolved as a ood -rejection response to prevent n Disgu st was particu larly elevated in relation to ood , which
contam ination and the spread o illness. was exactly what th e researchers had pred icted .
n The theory u nd er investigation is whether d isgu st has n Food -borne d iseases are particu larly d angerou s to wom en in
evolved to com pensate or the m other and the babys the f rst trim ester and thereore it was pred icted that d isgu st
vu lnerability to d isease d u ring the f rst ew m onth s o sensitivity related to ood wou ld be high. This was su pported
pregnancy. by the resu lts.
n The resu lts may ind icate that nau sea and vom iting are
evolved behaviou r becau se they lim it the likelihood that
Fessler et al (2005) Elevated disgust sensitivity in the pregnant wom en will eat d angerou s ood .
frst trimester o pregnancy
Evaluation
Aim To investigate i d isgu st sensitivity in the f rst trim ester o n The d ata was collected throu gh qu estionnaires. Sel-reports
pregnancy was elevated as pred icted . may not be reliable. This is not an eective way o
Procedure m easu ring d isgu st. I t wou ld have been m ore reliable to
n A Web-based su rvey was completed by 691 wom en conront participan ts with real d isgu st-eliciting objects.
recru ited throu gh pregnancy-related Web sites. N o n The eect sizes were not big bu t signif cant. The f nd ings are
compensation was oered or participation. The wom ens su pported by other stu d ies (e.g. Cu rtiss et al. 2 004) showing
m ean age was 2 8.1 years. that images that threaten the im m u ne system are ju d ged as
n On the Web-based qu estionnaire, the participants (1 ) m ore d isgu sting.
in d icated their cu rrent level o nau sea u sing a 1 6-poin t
scale and (2 ) answered qu estions to test their d isgu st
sensitivity in eight d ierent areas (e.g. ood ; contact with
animals, bod y prod u cts, and d ead animals; hygien e;
contact with toilets).

Evaluation of evolutionary explanations See also the evolutionary explanation of the role of
n I t is d if cu lt to test evolu tionary theories and not m u ch is oxytocin in trust in unit 2.4.
known abou t the lie o early hu mans.
n Evolu tionary explanations tend to ocu s on biological
actors and u nd erestimate cu ltu ral in u ences.
n Accord ing to Davey (1 974) d isgu st or spid ers may be
Exam Tip Examine means that you should
explained by peoples need to f nd tan gible cau ses o consider whether this evolutionary theory can be supported
illness and d isease when the cau ses were u n clear. or not. You should also explain general problems in
evolutionary explanations.

16
0.00
2.1 Discuss ethical considerations in research
into genetic infuences on behaviour

Ethical considerations in genetic research

There are specif c issu es o concern in g enetic research within Caspi et al. (2003) Longitudinal study on the possible
the biological level o analysis. This is particu larly tru e in the role o the 5-HTT gene in depression ater experiences
search or genes involved in abnormal behaviou r, bu t it is also o stressul events
relevant in research on genetic in u ence on d isease, n The researchers compared participants with a normal 5 -H TT
intelligence, personality, or health. The main reason s or and a m u tation o the 5 -H TT gene with shorter alleles. Both
concerns are: types are qu ite requ ent in the hu man popu lation bu t the
n Knowled ge abou t the role o specif c genes in behaviou r is long allele is slig htly m ore requ ent (57 %).
still lim ited so researchers shou ld be careu l abou t making n The researchers ou nd that participants who carried a
d ef nite conclu sions. Genetic research is oten red u ctionist m u tation o the 5 -H TT gene and who had experienced
as it d oes not inclu d e en vironm ental actors. many stressu l events were m ore likely to becom e d epressed
n Genetic research is correlational by natu re so one shou ld be ater stressu l events than those participants who carried
careu l to make d ef nite conclu sions abou t the risk o the normal 5 -H TT gene.
d eveloping a d isease. Conclusion
n I t is not certain that genetic research, like the H u man I t is not clear what to d o with knowled ge rom genetic research
Genom e Project, is ethically neu tral. There are historical and genetic screening at this point both at an ind ivid u al level
examples o m isuse o ethically sensible data (e.g. eu genics and in society. For example, being genetically pred isposed to
in N azi Germany) and it is not gu aran teed that d ata cou ld depression d oes not m ean that a person will d evelop
not be m isu sed again (Wallace 2 004). depression. The resu lts o genetic screening or d epression cou ld
cau se personal d istress and have a negative impact on
n Genetic research into com plex behaviou r su ch as
som eones lie (e.g. i based on this th ey d ecid ed not to have
hom osexu ality is controversial becau se o the social
children).
m eaning and signif cance o hom osexu ality. Genetic
research cou ld resu lt in stigmatization and d iscrim ination as
many societies are hom ophobic. The search or the gay
gene has generally raised controversy.

Ethical considerations in all genetic research Inormed consent and the right to reuse or withdraw
The DN A prof le o each hu man is u niqu e, except or M Z twins n Participants have a right to be u lly inorm ed abou t what
who are 1 00% genetically sim ilar. The act that one twin acts the research is abou t, the proced u res, what cou ld be the
as a control in genetic research is the major reason why twin s resu lt o the stu d y and how the inormation will be u sed .
are oten u sed to d eterm ine heritability. Genetic inormation is n Research into g enetic in u ences on behaviou r cou ld
oten seen as special becau se it is assu m ed that genes potentially pose risks to participants and the genetic
d eterm ine behaviou r and genes are associated with personal inormation cou ld be m isu sed .
id entity. I n reality, g en etic inormation can only reveal a n Genetic research can reveal inormation that is u nexpected
potential risk. or a sou rce o d istress to participants (e.g. when a
Anonymity and condentiality participant has no sign o a d isord er bu t the d ata shows a
n Participants in a genetic stu d y m u st be su re that their genetic pred isposition).
anonym ity an d conf d entiality is protected bu t in am ily
and twin stu d ies it can be d if cu lt to ensu re this u lly. This
is also the case in the research o rare d isord ers.
n Participants have a right to know who owns the genetic
inormation and how it will be u sed in the u tu re (e.g. i
their access to insu rance or em ploym ent cou ld be
com prom ised becau se o the genetic d ata).

17
 3.1 Outline principles that dene the cognitive
level o analysis and explain how these
principles may be demonstrated in research

Principle 1 : H uman beings are inormation processors and Principle 2 : The m ind can be studied scientically.
mental processes guide behaviour. Cognitive researchers u se a nu m ber o scienti c m ethod s to
People are active inormation processors. They perceive and stu d y the m ind (e.g. laboratory experim ents, neu roimaging,
interpret what is going on arou nd them . This is oten based on case stu d ies, interviews, and archival research). The m ost u sed
what they alread y know. There is a relationship between research m ethod was, or a long tim e, the laboratory experim ent,
peoples m ental representation and the way people perceive becau se it was consid ered to be the m ost scienti c.
and think abou t the world .

Principle 1 demonstrated in: Principle 2 demonstrated in:

Schema theory d e nes cognitive schemas as m ental Lotus and Palm er (1 974) perorm ed an experim ent to test
representations o knowled ge. M ental representations (schemas) recon stru ctive m em ory in relation to eyewitness testim ony. The
are stored in categories (con cepts) in m em ory. These schemas aim was to see whether m islead ing qu estions cou ld d istort
provid e gu id elines or interpretation o incom ing inormation m em ory. Participants saw a pictu re o a car crash and were
when people try to make sen se o the world . Schemas inf u ence asked to estimate the speed o the car based on qu estions su ch
cognition in that schemas create expectations abou t what will as "H ow ast was the car going when it smashed /hit/bu mped
happen in speci c situ ations (e.g. what a teacher is like or what into the other car? Word s su ch as smashed elicited higher
to expect when you go to a rock concert). Schema theory can, to speed estimations. Becau se the experim ental m ethod was u sed
a large extent, explain reconstru ctive m em ory and stereotyping. it was possible to establish a cau se-eect relationship between
Darley and Gross (1 983) perorm ed an experim ent in which the u se o speci c word s an d estimation o speed . Experim ental
they showed participants vid eos o a girl playing in a poor research on m em ory has been criticized or lacking ecological
environm ent, then in a wealthy environm ent. Then they saw a valid ity.
video o the girl in what cou ld be an intelligence test. When Corkin et al. (1 999) u sed MRI scans to observe the exact
the participants were asked to ju d ge the u tu re o the girl they d amage to H .M.s brain. H .M. su ered rom am nesia d u e to a
all said that the poor girl wou ld d o worse than the wealthy brain operation where the hippocampu s and ad jacent areas
girl. The stu d y d em onstrated how hu man beings actively process had been rem oved to elim inate his epilepsy. The scans
inormation based on a ew salient d etails to orm an overall con rm ed d amage to these areas. Althou gh a small part o the
impression that may not necessarily be correct. hippocam pu s had been spared it was not enou gh to su pport
storage o new explicit m em ories.

Principle 3: Cognitive processes are infuenced by social and

cultural actors. Principle 3 demonstrated in:
Research has shown that cognitive processes such as perception, Bartlett (1 932 ) su ggested that m em ory is gu id ed by schemas
m em ory, and thinking are in f u enced by sociocu ltu ral actors. and that cu ltu re can inf u ence schemas. Previou s knowled ge
Bartlett (1 932 ) introd u ced the concept o cu ltu ral schema in d eterm ines the way people interpret in com ing inormation and
m em ory research. H e suggested that schemas inf uence m em ory m em ory (m em ory d istortion). H e asked British participants to
in that they lead to d istortion or reconstru ctive m em ory. Other read an u nam iliar N ative Am erican story and reprod u ce it. The
researchers su ggest that the environm ent in which people live participants changed d etails o the story to t with their own
lead s to speci c cu ltu ral and social d emand s that inf u ence the cu ltu ral schemas.
way they process inormation. Cole and Scribner (1 974) investigated how m em ory strategies
DiMaggio (1 997 ) su ggests that schemas are (1 ) representations were inf u enced by cu ltu re. The stu d y asked children rom a ru ral
o knowled ge (e.g. stereotypes an d social roles) and (2 ) area in Liberia and children rom the U SA to m em orize item s rom
m echanism s that sim pliy cognition in the orm o cognitive ou r d ierent categories: u ten sils, clothes, tools, and vegetables.
shortcu ts that are shaped by cu ltu re. Schematic cognition is Children rom the U S improved perormance ater practice bu t
shaped and biased by cu ltu re (e.g. cu ltu rally based stereotypes). the Liberian children d id not u nless they had attend ed school.
Learning m em ory strategies, like chu nking, appears to be
d epend ent on schooling and the illiterate children in the stu d y
d id not u se these strateg ies. The researchers conclu d ed that the
way cognitive psychologists stu d y m em ory processes d oes not
always ref ect the way people learn to rem em ber in real lie.

18
3.2 Evaluate schema theory

n A cognitive schema can be d ef ned as a m ental n Schema processing is to a large extent au tomatic, i.e.
representation o knowled ge stored in the brain. A schema processed with little attention. I t involves inormation rom
can be seen as a network o knowled ge, belies, and two sou rces: I npu t rom the sensory system (bottom-u p
expectation s abou t particu lar aspects o the world . processes) and in ormation stored in m em ory (top-d own
processes), wh ich is u sed to interpret the incom ing
inormation (pattern recognition, interpretation).

Bartlett (1 932 ) su ggests that schemas are active recognition

Infuences processing d evices representing an eort ater m eaning. Schemas help
o social inormation people make sense o the world , make pred ictions abou t it and
Society's what to expect, and provid e gu id ance on how to behave.
belies
about the Gender DiMaggio (1 997) suggests that schemas are (1 ) representations
traits o schema Infuences sel-esteem o knowledge (e.g. stereotypes and social roles) and (2)
emales (only behaviour or mechanisms that simpliy cognition in the orm o cognitive
and males attitudes consistent shortcuts. Schematic cognition is shaped and biased by culture
with gender schema (e.g. in culturally based stereotypes). Gender schemas are
are acceptable) examples o cognitive schemas shaped by sociocultural ideas
about what is appropriate or men and women (i.e. norms).

Possible ways in which schemas aect memory

Darley and Gross (1 983) carried out a laboratory experim ent n People tend to rem em ber the m eaning (gist) o som ething,
on schema processing in the social world.
not the actu al word ing.
n I n this laboratory experim ent, the participants saw two
vid eos o a girl. I n vid eo 1 a girl was playing in a poor
n People u se stored knowled ge to make sense o incom ing
environm ent; in vid eo 2 a g irl was playing in a rich in ormation . I the inormation is u nclear or incom plete,
environm ent. Then they saw a vid eo o the girl in what they f ll in the blanks or in terpret u sing their schemas. This
cou ld be an intelligence test. is called reconstru ctive m em ory and resu lts in d istortion.
n When the participants were asked to ju d g e the u tu re o
n People tend to ignore inormation that is not in line with
the girls they all said that the rich girl wou ld d o well an d their schemas (asch ematic inormation). This may lead to
the poor girl wou ld d o less well. bias in inormation processin g (e.g. in stereotyping where
people ignore inormation that is not in line with their
n The stu d y d em onstrates that participants probably u sed
schema).
pre-stored schemas o what it m eans to be poor and rich
and interpreted the am bigu ou s inormation accord ingly.
n People tend to ocu s on in ormation that is in line with their
Participants processed inormation based on a ew salient schemas (sch ematic inormation). This may resu lt in
d etails to orm an overall impression that may not conf rmation bias.
necessarily be correct.

Bartlett (1 932) The War o the Ghosts Evaluation

Aim To investigate whether peoples m em ory or a story is n The resu lts o the stu d y conf rm schema theory
aected by previou s knowled ge (schemas) and the extent to (and reconstru ctive m em ory), bu t it was perorm ed in
which m em ory is reconstru ctive. a laboratory an d can be criticized or lack o ecological
Procedure Bartlett asked British participants to hear a story and valid ity.
reproduce it ater a short time and then repeatedly over a period o n Participants d id not receive stand ard ized instru ctions and
months or years (serial reproduction). The story was an unamiliar som e o the m em ory d istortions may be d u e to participants
Native American legend called The War o the Ghosts. gu essing (d emand characteristics).
Results The participants remembered the main idea o the story (the n I n spite o these m ethod ological lim itations, the stu d y is one
gist) but they changed unamiliar elements to make sense o the o the m ost im portant in th e stu d y o m em ory.
story by using terms more amiliar to their own cultural expectations. Bartlett, F. (1 932 ) Remembering: A study in Experimental and Social
The story remained a coherent whole although it was changed. It Psychology. Cam brid ge: Cam brid ge U niversity Press.
became noticeably shorter or each reproduction. Bartlett concluded
that remembering is an active process. Memories are not copies o
experience but rather reconstructions.

19
 3 Cog n i ti ve l evel o a n a l ysi s

Brewer and Treyens (1 981 ) Experiment on memory o n Som e participants reported things that wou ld be expected
objects in a room in a typical o ce bu t were not present in this one (e.g.
Aim To investigate whether people's m em ory or objects in a teleph one, books).
room (an o ce) is inf u enced by existing schemas abou t what n Many participants also recalled the sku ll (u nexpected
to expect in an o ce. object). The very u nu su al object resu lted in better recall
Procedure than pred icted by schema theory.
n Participants were 30 university students, who arrived Evaluation
individually to the laboratory and were asked to wait in an n The stu d y con rm s schema theory (an d reconstru ctive
oce containing objects (e.g. desk, typewriter, coee-pot, m em ory), bu t it was a controlled laboratory experim ent so
calendar). There were also other objects that did not conorm there are issu es o arti ciality.
to the oce schema (a skull, a piece o bark, a pair o pliers). n The stu d y u sed d eception (participants were not told abou t
n Ater waiting or som e tim e, participants were taken ou t o the real pu rpose o the experim ent) bu t they were
the o ce and asked to write d own everything they cou ld d ebrieed aterward s and not harm ed . The stu d y cou ld not
rem em ber rom the room . have been made without deception so it was justied.
Results n There is sample bias. University students were used as
n Most participants recalled the schematic objects (e.g. d esk, participants so it may be dicult to generalize the results.
typewriter). Brewer, W.F. a nd Treyens, J .C. (1 981 ) Role o schemata in m em ory or
places, Cognitive Psychology, 1 3 , pp. 2 073 0.

Strengths of schema theory Lim itations of schema theory

n Schema theory has proven extrem ely u seu l in explaining n Cohen (1 993) argu ed that: the concept o schema is too
many cognitive processes (e.g. perception, m em ory, and vagu e to be u seu l and it is not clear how schemas are
reasoning). acqu ired in the rst place.
n Schema theory can be u sed to explain the recon stru ctive n Sch ema theory may ocu s too m u ch on the inaccu racies o
natu re o m em ory, or example in eye witness testim ony, m em ory bu t m ost o the tim e people rem em ber accu rately.
stereotyping, gend er id entity (gend er schema) and
cu ltu ral d ierences (cu ltu ral schemas).

20
3.3 Evaluate two models or theories of one cognitive
process with reference to research studies

Model 1 : The multi-store model of memory (Atkinson and Shiffrin, 1 968)

This m od el was one o the rst to give an overview o the basic n The m em ory stores in the m od el are structural components
stru ctu re or architectu re o m em ory and it was inspired by that inclu d e control processes (e.g. attention, coding, and
compu ter scien ce. The m od el seem s rather simplistic, bu t it d id rehearsal). Rehearsal ensures the transer o inormation rom
spark o the id ea o hu mans as inormation processors and it short-term m em ory (working m em ory) to long-term m em ory.
has been one o the m ost inf u ential m od els attem ptin g to n Sensory memory registers sensory inormation and stores it
d escribe the m em ory system . or arou nd 1 4 second s. I normation in the sensory m em ory
is m od ality speci c (i.e. related to d ierent senses). Only a
Rehearsal
small am ou nt o th e sensory inormation will be transerred
in to the short-term m em ory (STM) store (d epend ing on
Sensory SEN SORY Selective SH ORT-TERM Encoding LON G-TERM whether or not it is attend ed to).
input MEMORY attention MEMORY Retrieval MEMORY n STM has lim ited capacity (arou nd seven item s) and lim ited
Decay Displacem ent Loss (not
available) d u ration (arou nd 61 2 secon d s). I normation processed in
STM is transerred into LTM i it is rehearsed . I not, it is
Atkinson a nd Shirin (1 968) lost.
n Th e m u lti-store m od el is based on the assu mption that n LTM is believed to be o ind e nite d u ration and o
m em ory consists o a nu m ber o separate stores and that potentially u nlim ited capacity.
m em ory processes are sequ ential.

Evidence o the multi-store model o memory: the serial

position eect
The serial position eect is believed to be linked to rehearsal, Recency
i.e. people repeat thin gs in ord er to rem em ber. The serial Primary effect
Probability of remembering

position eect su ggests that people rem em ber things better i effect
they are either the rst (primacy eect) or last (recency eect)
item in a list o th ings to rem em ber.

Glanzer and Cunitz (1 966)

Aim To investigate recency eect in ree recall (i.e. in any order).
Procedure This was a laboratory experim ent where participants
rst heard a list o item s and then im m ed iately had to recall Beginning End
them in any ord er. Position of the item on the list

Results Participants recalled word s rom the beginning o the The recency eect cou ld be d u e to the word s still being active
list (primacy eect) and the end o the list (the recency eect) in STM (working m em ory). Reh earsal cou ld be a actor in
best. Th e resu lts showed a U -shaped cu rve. I participants were transer o inormation into LTM.
given a ller task ju st ater hearing the last word s, the primacy Evaluation The study supports the idea o m ultiple stores (STM
eect d isappeared bu t the recen cy eect remained . and LTM). This is a controlled laboratory study with highly
controlled variables, but there is no random allocation o
participants to experim ental conditions so it is not a
true experim ent. There may be problem s with ecological validity.

Evidence o the multi-store model o memory: case n H .M. cou ld store n ew proced u ral m em ories (implicit
studies o individuals with amnesia due to brain damage m em ory) but he was not able to store new explicit m em ories
n Am nesia is caused by d amage to the hippocampus and (semantic or episod ic). This shows that the m em ory system
related networks involved in storage o new m em ories. contains d ierent system s.
n M RI scans shows that H .M . had severe d amage to the
h ippocampu s which is critical in the storage o inormation
into LTM .

21
 3 Cog n i ti ve l evel o a n a l ysi s

Strengths of the m ulti-store m odel of m em ory Lim itations of the m ulti-store m odel of m em ory
n The m od el pioneered the new approach to m em ory where n The m od el is very sim plistic and it cannot accou nt or how
hu mans are seen as inormation processors. interaction between the d ierent stores takes place (e.g .
how inormation rom LTM may ind icate what is important
n The m od el s conceptu alization o m em ory as m u lti-stored
and relevant to pay attention to in sensory m em ory).
is su pported by research.
n Research into th e encod ing o LTM has challenged the
n I t has been possible to make pred ictions based on the
single-store version o LTM. I t is now accepted that LTM
m od el and to d esign experim ents.
contains several stores (e.g. seman tic, episod ic, proced u ral).
n The overall m od el has been m od if ed , or example by
Baddeley and H itch (1 974) with their new version o
short-term m em ory, the working m em ory m od el.

Model 2: The working memory model (Baddeley and Hitch, 1 974)

n Bad d eley and H itch su ggested the working m em ory m od el 2 The phonological store: the inner ear. This can hold
as an alternative to STM. speech-based material active in a phonological orm . I t
n This m od el challenged the view that STM is u nitary and is assu m ed that a m em ory trace can only last rom 1 .5
that inormation processing is passive. to 2 second s i it is not rereshed by the articu latory
control system .
n Working m em ory is seen as an active store u sed to hold
and man ipu late in ormation . The m od el has been n The visuo-spatial sketchpad: the inner eye. This hand les
d eveloped over the years to inclu d e f nd ings rom research visu al and spatial inormation rom either sensory m em ory
(e.g. a ou rth com ponent, the episod ic bu er, has been (visu al inormation) or rom LTM (images).
ad d ed ).
CEN TRAL
Working memory includes our separate components:
EXECU TIVE
n The central executive A controlling system that m onitors
and coord inates the operations o the other components
(slave system s). The central execu tive is modality ree so it
can process inormation in any sensory m od ality bu t it has
lim ited capacity.
n The episodic buffer A lim ited -capacity tem porary storage Phonological Visuo-spatial
Episodic buffer
system or interace between the other system s in working loop sketchpad
m em ory. I t is assu m ed to be controlled by the central
execu tive throu gh conscious awareness . The episod ic bu er
hand les inormation in variou s m od alities. The episod ic
bu er resem bles the concept o episod ic m em ory.
n The phonological loop hand les verbal and auditory Long-term storage memory
inormation . I t is d ivid ed into two components:
1 The articulatory control system : the inner voice.

Evidence o the working model o memory who was asked to repeat the or to repeat nu m bers rom
n There is evid ence o working m em ory in the so-called d u al 1 to 6. The grou p who was asked to repeat rand om
tasks experim en ts. The m od el assu m es that th ere is a nu m bers had the worst perormance. This was interpreted
d ivision o tasks between the d ierent slave system s as overload problem s or the central execu tive.
accord ing to m od ality. n Quinn and McConnel (1 996) asked participants to learn a
n I two tasks are d one sim u ltaneou sly (e.g. in d u al tasks list o word s by u sing either imag ery or rehearsal. The task
experim ents or in m u lti-tasking) it is possible to perorm was perorm ed on its own or in the presence o a concu rrent
well i separate system s are u sed . I concu rrent tasks u se visu al noise (changing patterns o d ots) or a concu rrent
the sam e system , it will aect perormance negatively. verbal noise (speech in a oreign langu age). The resu lts
n Baddeley and H itch (1 974) asked participants to answer showed that learnin g word s by imagery was not aected by
increasingly d if cu lt qu estions abou t sim ple letter a concu rrent verbal task bu t it was d istu rbed by a
com binations that were shown at the sam e tim e. Reaction concu rrent visu al task. The opposite was ou nd in the
tim e increased as the qu estions becam e m ore d if cu lt. Th e rehearsal cond ition. This ind icates that imagery processing
participants were then asked to d o an articu latory u ses the visu o-spatial sketch pad whereas verbal processin g
su ppression task (e.g. repeating the all the tim e, u ses the phonological loop. I two tasks u sed the sam e
repeating nu m bers rom 1 to 6, or repeating rand om component, perormance d eteriorated . The stu d y thu s lend s
nu m bers) while they answered the qu estion . There was no su pport to d ierent m od ality-specif c slave system s and the
signif cant d ierence in reaction tim e between the grou p id ea o lim ited processing capacity.

22
 3 Cog n i ti ve l evel o a n a l ysi s

Strengths of working m em ory Lim itations of working m em ory

n The m od el has been u seu l in u nd erstand ing which parts n The major criticism o the f rst m od els o working m em ory
o the m em ory system may be linked to u nd erlying was the u nclear role o the central execu tive. This has been
problem s in read ing and mathematical skills. d ealt with by inclu d ing the episod ic bu er in the revised
m od el.
n The m od el ocu ses on the processes o integrating
inormation, rather than on the isolation o the su b- n The m od el has been critisized or its emphasis on stru ctu re
system s. This provid es a m u ch better basis or rather than processing.
u nd erstand ing the m ore complex aspects o execu tive
control in working m em ory.

Compare and contrast the two models

M ulti-store m odel Working m em ory m odel
Comparison n Provid es possible architectu re o the m em ory n Provid es possible architectu re o the m em ory
(similarities) system (several stores) system (several stores)
n STM tem porary storage, lim ited capacity and n STM tem porary storage, lim ited capacity and
d u ration d u ration
Contrast n Focu s on the entire m em ory system n Focu s primarily on STM
(differences) n Simplistic m od el o STM not m u ch ocu s on n M u ch m ore complex id ea o STM su ggesting
interaction between stores. possible interactions between the stores, and
n STM tem porary storage and gateway to LTM especially m od ality-based u nctions o short-term
m em ory (visu o-spatial sketchpad and phonological
n N o specif cations o content o STM
loop). The ad d ition o a governing system (central
execu tive) is a strength, althou gh how it works is
not yet well d ocu m ented .
Evaluation n STM and LTM are m ore complex than the m od el n Provid es a better explanation o storage an d
assu m es. processing than the m u lti-store m od el in that it
n There is not enou gh ocu s on the interaction can be applied to u nd erstan d ing, read ing and
between the stores (e.g. how inormation rom LTM m ental calcu lations.
is u sed to d eal with chu nking in STM ). n Early versions o the m od el are vagu e on the role
n Rehearsal is not enou gh to explain transer o o the cen tral execu tive, bu t later d evelopm ent o
inormation to LTM. The m od el cannot explain why the m od el su ggests that cen tral execu tive gu id es
m em ory strategies and elaborate rehearsal attention via two system s (au tomatic and
is ef cient. su pervisory attentional system ).
n The m od el is broad ly accepted and con sid ered
im portant or u nd erstand ing not only m em ory
processes, bu t also cognitive processes su ch as
thinking and problem solvin g (u nctional
approach).

23
 3.4 Explain how biological factors may affect one
cognitive process

Damage to the hippocampus and amnesia H.M.s memory

n H .M . cou ld no longer store new m em ories (anterograd e
Scoville and Milner (1 957) The case study o H.M. am nesia). Most o his m em ories rom beore the operation
n Scoville and M ilner (1 957 ) d escribed the case o H .M . who remained intact (partial retrograd e am nesia).
ell o his bicycle when he was 7 years old , inju ring his
n H e cou ld not transer new semantic an d episod ic m em ories
head . H e began to have epileptic seizu res when he was 1 0.
(explicit m em ories) into LTM.
By the age o 2 7 the epileptic attacks prevented him rom
living a normal lie. n H e cou ld orm new long-term proced u ral m em ories (implicit
m em ories).
n Scoville perorm ed an experim ental su rgery on H .M.s brain
to stop th e seizu res. The seizu res stopped bu t H .M . su ered n H e was able to carry on normal conversations (i.e. had som e
rom am n esia or the rest o his lie. capacity or working m em ory) bu t he wou ld orget what the
conversation was abou t im m ed iately.
n The case stu d y o H .M. provid es inormation on how
particu lar brain areas and networks are involved in m em ory
processing. This helped scientists to orm u late new theories
abou t m em ory u nctioning.

What can be learned about the relationship between Explanation o the relationship between H.M.s brain
the brain and memory rom the case study o H.M.? damage and his memory defcits
n The m em ory system s in the brain constitu te a highly Corkin (1 997) used MRI scans and analysed the extent o the
specialized and complex system . damage to H .M.s brain to fnd out. The scans showed that:
n The hippocampus play a critical role in converting memories n Parts o the temporal lobes inclu d in g the hippocam pu s and
o experiences rom STM to LTM (the permanent store). related structures on both sides were missing. This part o the
n H .M . was able to retain som e m em ories or even ts that brains m em ory system plays a critical role in transorming
happened long beore his su rgery. Th is ind icates that the short-term memories into long-term memories.
m ed ial temporal region with the hippocampu s is not the n These areas are involved in specifc neurotransmitter
site o permanent storage in itsel. I t rather seem s to play pathways in memory (e.g. acetylcholine is believed to play an
a role in how m em ories are organized and then stored important role in learning and episod ic m em ories).
elsewhere in the brain.
H.M.'s brain Normal brain
n The m ed ial temporal region with the h ippocampu s is
important or orm ing, organizing, consolid ating, and
retrieving m em ory. Cortical areas are important or
long-term storage o knowled ge and how to u se this 8cm
knowled ge in everyd ay situ ations.
n The act that H .M. and other people with am nesia have
d ef cits in som e types o m em ories bu t not in others is Temporal
taken as evid en ce that the brain has m u ltiple m em ory lobe
system s that are su pported by d istinct brain regions.
Cerebellum

Hippocampus

24
 3 Cog n i ti ve l evel o a n a l ysi s

High levels o cortisol and memory defcits Lupien et al. (2002) Experiment on cortisol level
Cortisol is a stress horm one secreted by the adrenal gland s in and memory
response to physiological or psychological stress. Du ring Aim The experim ent was a ollow-u p with two grou ps o the
long-term stress too m u ch cortisol is released and this may eld erly people rom the f ve-year stu d y. The aim o the
aect not only im m u ne u nctioning, bu t also m em ory experim ent was to see whether it was possible to reverse
processes. Chronic over-secretion o cortisol may hind er the m em ory problem s with a dru g.
brain in orm ing new m em ories or accessing alread y existing Procedure
m em ories. n Participants were d ivid ed into two grou ps: grou p 1 had a
Sapolsky (1 968) dem onstrated that prolonged stress can m od erate level o cortisol at baseline, and grou p 2 had a
damage the neurons in the hippocampus but this can be high level o cortisol and signs o im paired m em ory at
reversed i normal levels o cortisol are restored. Long-term baseline.
stress could cause irreversible damage. n Both grou ps were f rst given a dru g preventing secretion
Lupien et al. (1 998) ollowed a grou p o eld erly people or o cortisol (m etyrapone). Then they had to d o a m em ory
f ve years to stu d y the role o cortisol on m em ory. They ou nd test. Ater this, both grou ps were given another dru g
that cortisol secretion was too high in abou t 30% o the (hydrocortisone) to restore their level o cortisol to
eld erly popu lation. Those who were exposed to excessive previou s levels. Resu lts were compared with levels in a
cortisol secretion or f ve years showed m em ory impairm en t placebo grou p.
and atrophy (shrinking) o the hippocam pu s. Th ey also ou nd Results The resu lts showed that participants with a
that m em ory im pairm ent can be reversed i the d amage had m oderate level o cortisol who were given m etyrapone had
not progressed to a point o n o retu rn. no problem restoring normal m em ory u nction. Participants
who, rom the start, had a high level o cortisol had no
m em ory improvem ent. H ydrocortisone cau sed even greater
m em ory loss.

Exam Tip The learning outcome explain requires you to show how biological actors
infuence a cognitive process. You are supposed to know two biological actors.
You could also use acethylcholine and explain how this biological actor infuences memory processes
(see more on this in unit 2.3).

25
 3.5 Discuss how social or cultural factors affect one
cognitive process

Cultural and methodological considerations in Cultural and social demands determine

cross-cultural research on memory memory
n Wang and Ross (2 007 ) Cu ltu re is both a system (valu es, n Bartlett (1 932 ) claim s that cu ltu ral an d social d emand s
schemas, m od els, artiacts) and a process (ritu als, d aily can explain the extraordinary ability o Swazi herd sm en to
rou tines, and practices). Cu ltu re aects why people recall ind ivid u al characteristics o their cattle. The Swazi
rem em ber, how they rem em ber, when they rem em ber, what cu ltu re revolves arou nd the possession and care o cattle
they rem em ber and whether they nd it necessary to and it is important or people to recognize their animals.
rem em ber at all. n Misty and Rogoff (1 994) argu e that cu ltu re and m em ory
n When researchers cond u ct cross-cu ltu ral m em ory research are enm eshed skills. Rem em bering is an activity, which is
with participants rom Western and non-Western cu ltu res d eterm ined by the d emand s o the social and cu ltu ral
they oten u se tasks d eveloped in psychology laboratories, con text in which it takes place. Rem em berin g may be a
su ch as ree recall o lists o u nrelated word s. I n su ch tasks, m eans o achieving an important social or cu ltu ral goal. For
the people rom Western cu ltu res generally d o better. example, the I tam u l eld ers in N ew Gu inea have an
This cou ld be becau se su ch tasks are m ean ingless to extraord in ary m em ory or lines o d escent and history. This
non-Western people. kind o knowled ge is im portant to them becau se it can help
resolve property d ispu tes with conf icting clans.

Cole and Scribner (1 974) Cross-cultural study o memory

Aim To investigate ree recall in two d ierent cu ltu res, the U SA n I n the second part o the experim ent, the non-schooled
and the Kpelle people in Liberia. Liberian participan ts recalled objects well becau se they
Procedure For the test in Liberia, the researchers used objects grouped them according to the roles they played in the story.
that wou ld be am iliar to the Liberian children. The list o words n School children in Liberia and the U SA u sed chu nking and
belonged to ou r distinct categories. Am erican children were recalled item s accord ing to categories. The non-schooled
given ree recall tests matching their cu lture. The researchers Liberian children d id n ot u se the categorical stru ctu re o the
presented the word s to the participants and asked them to list to help them rem em ber. This ind icates possible cu ltu ral
rem em ber as many o them as possible in any ord er (ree d ierences in cognitive processes su ch as categorization
recall). I n the second part o the experim ent, the researchers and m em ory.
presented the sam e objects in a m eaningu l way as part o a Evaluation The extent to which it is cu ltu re or schooling (or
story. both) that inf u enced m em ory and categorization in the stu d y
Results is not entirely clear. The experim ental m ethod was u sed and it
n I n the ree recall test, the non-schooled participants hard ly can help to establish cau se-eect relationship, bu t since the
improved their perormance ater the age o 9 or 1 0. They in d epend ent variable was cu ltu re (or schooling) it may be
rem em bered arou nd 1 0 item s on the rst trial, and arou nd d icu lt to say anything d e nite abou t cau se-eect
two m ore ater 1 5 practice trials. Liberian sch ool children relationsh ips.
perorm ed as school children o th e sam e age d id in the
U SA. They also u sed sim ilar m em ory strategies.

More research on culture and memory The stu d y shows that the content and context o a m em ory task
Rogoff and Waddel (1 982 ) ou nd that M ayan children d id are important and that u seu l m em ory strategies are learned in
better in a m em ory task i they were given one that was a sociocu ltu ral context.
m eaningu l to them in local term s. The researchers constru cted
a m iniatu re m od el o a Mayan village, which resem bled the Culture and memory summing up
childrens own village. The researcher then selected 2 0
n The im plication o many cross-cu ltu ral m em ory stu d ies is
m iniatu re objects rom a set o 80 (e.g. animals, u rnitu re, that, alth ou gh the ability to rem em ber is u niversal
people) and placed them in the m od el. Then the objects were (hard ware), speci c orm s o rem em bering (sotware) are
taken ou t o the m od el and replaced am ong the 60 objects. not u niversal bu t rather context-bou nd .
Ater a ew m inu tes, the experim enter asked the children to n A m ethod ological problem exists as m ost m em ory research
reconstru ct the scene they had been shown. Und er these is con d u cted in cu ltu res with ormal schooling system s. This
cond itions, the M ayan children d id slightly better than the makes it d i cu lt to generalize nd ings to cu ltu res with no
children rom the U SA. ormal schooling.

26
0.0
3.6 Unit Headthe
Evaluate 2 lines
extent to which a cognitive
process is reliable

n Memory is not a tape recorder or an exact replica o what extent when we retrieve it.
happened, but rather a reconstruction. Schema theory can n Sometimes memory is distorted or personal reasons, or
explain why this happens. Reconstructive memory indicates example to enhance our own importance (sel-serving bias).
that memory is only reliable to some extent.
Reasons or inaccu racies in m em ory cou ld be:
n Cog n itive resea rch ers have ou n d that m em ories a re n ot n Mem ory is reconstru ctive (e.g. Bartlett, 1 932 ) and
xed a n d ca n be lost, cha n g ed , or even created . M em ories in ormation processing is schema driven (see u nit 3.2 ).
may also be scram bled in the process o retrieving them and
n Mem ories are constru cted ater the act and they are
they can be manipulated (Loftus, 2 003). Eyewitness
su sceptible to post-event inormation and manipu lations
testim ony has been ou nd to be incorrect on nu m erou s
(e.g. Loftus and Palmer, 1 974).
occasions where DN A has revealed that the wrong person
was convicted . All this ind icates that m em ory is n ot always n There is no relationship between peoples belie that their
reliable. m em ory is accu rate and the m em orys accu racy (e.g.
N eisser and H arsch, 1 992 ). (See m ore on f ashbu lb
n We tend to rem em ber the overall m eanin g (gist) o
m em ories in u nit 3.9).
som ething and we reconstru ct th e inormation to som e

Barlett (1 932) The theory of reconstructive Strengths of the theory Lim itations of the
memory of reconstructive theory of reconstructive
This theory assum es that humans are active inormation m em ory m em ory
processors who construct memories as they try to make sense o
what happens based on what they already know. Schemas stored n The m od el can explain n The m od el may ocu s
in LTM help people make sense o the world around them . m em ory d istortions too m u ch on the
Bartlett called this eort ater m eaning. People do not simply well. inaccu racy o m em ory.
rem em ber inormation because the prestored schemas determ ine n I t is su pported by many n Schema processing is
what to rem em ber. H e suggested that the reconstructive nature empirical stu d ies and not u lly u nd erstood .
o mem ory based on schema processing could explain mem ory laboratory experim ents
distortions (see Bartletts study in unit 3.2 ). (e.g Lotu s and Palm er,
1 974).

Lotus and Palmer (1 974) Reconstruction o o the accid ent, i.e. th e verb smashed activates a cognitive
automobile destruction (the rst experiment) schema o a severe accid ent an d thereore speed estimates
Aim To investigate whether the u se o lead ing qu estions wou ld increase. I t is not the actu al d etails o the accid ent that are
aect recall in a situ ation where participan ts were asked to rem em bered bu t rather what is in line with a cognitive schema
estimate speed . This is a situ ation that cou ld happen when o a severe accid ent. This is in line with Bartletts su ggestion o
people appear in cou rt as eyewitness testim onies. reconstru ctive m em ory. I t cou ld also be that participan ts sim ply
Procedure The stu d ent participants saw vid eos o tra c had d i cu lties estimating speed . This cannot be ru led ou t.
accid ents and had to answer qu estions abou t the accid ent. In Evaluation The experim ent was cond u cted in a laboratory.
experiment 1, the participants were asked to estimate speed o There may be a problem o ecological valid ity. N eisser has
the cars based on a critical question: About how ast were the criticized laboratory experim ents on m em ory or being too
cars going when they smashed into each other? Smashed was arti cial. The act that th e experim ent u sed stu d ents as
replaced by words such as hit, collided, bumped or contacted in participants has also been criticized becau se stu d ents are not
other conditions (experiment 2 is not included here). representative o a general popu lation. The lm s shown in the
Results The m ean estimates o speed were high est in the experim ent were mad e or teaching pu rposes and thereore the
smashed cond ition (40.8 mph) and lowest in the con tacted participants experience was not the the sam e as i it had been
grou p (31 .8 mph). The researchers calcu lated a statistical test a real accid ent. The experim ent was rigorou sly controlled so it
and ou n d that their resu lts were signi cant at p 0.005. The was possible to establish a cau se-eect relationship between
resu lts ind icate that m em ory is not reliable and that m em ory the ind epend ent variable (the critical word s) and the
can be manipu lated by u sing speci c word s. The critical word d epend ent variable (estimation o speed ).
in the qu estion consisten tly aected the participants answer to Lotu s, E.F. and Pa lm er, J .C. (1 974) Reconstru ction o au tom obile
the qu estion. One explanation cou ld be that the u se o d estru ction: An exam ple o the I nteraction between lang u age and
m em ory, Journal o Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 1 3,
d ierent word s in f u enced participants m ental representation
5 845 89.

27
 3 Cog n i ti ve l evel o a n a l ysi s

Riniolo et al. (2003) on accuracy o eye witness been repeated in the literatu re u ntil th e d iscovery o the wreck.
testimony in a real lie situation the plunge o Titanic. Reasons or this cou ld be that it was believed that the Titan ic
Aim To investigate the reliability o m em ory or a central d etail o cou ld not sink an d the general belie that m em ory is im paired
eye witnesses to the Titanics nal plu nge (i.e. whether the Titanic when witnessing a trau matic event.
sank intact or broke in two beore it went d own). I t was believed Evaluation The case stu d y only in vestigated m em ory or one
at the tim e that the ship went d own intact. central trait. The eyewitnesses u sed in this archival stu d y were part
Procedure The researchers used archival data, i.e. transcripts rom o a su bgrou p and they are not representative o all the
two hearings in 1 91 2 , one in the U SA and one in the U K. The eyewitnesses. There m ig ht have been bias in the interrogations
researchers id enti ed 2 0 cases (N = 2 0) rom the total am ou nt o toward s con rmation o a pre-existing belie o the intact ship. I t is
91 su rvivors in the hearings who had explicitly ad dressed the state not possible to d eterm ine i post-event inormation cou ld have
o the ship d u rin g its nal plu nge. inf u enced the testim ony. The sample was small and it was not
Results 75 % o the eyewitnesses in this stu d y, i.e. a total o 1 5 , possible to interview the eyewitnesses or clari cation becau se
said that Titanic was breaking apart d u ring sinking and 2 5 % said they were all d ead at that tim e. I t was not possible to m easu re the
Titanic was intact while it was going d own. The majority o the 2 0 perceived trau ma either. I n spite o these m ethod ological
selected eyewitn ess testim onies in this stu d y said that the ship lim itations, this case stu d y contribu tes to ou r knowled ge abou t
broke in two beore the plu nge so central traits o the event were the accu racy o eyewitness testim ony rom people who witnessed
recalled accu rately, althou gh the m em ory was orm ed d u ring a trau matic event in real lie.
trau matic cond itions (high em otional arou sal). Ater the hearings Riniolo, T.C., Koled in, M ., Dra ku lic, G.M ., and Payne, R.A. (2 003), Journal
it was conclu d ed that th e Titanic sank intact and this myth has o General Psychology, 1 30 (1 ): 8995.

Exam Tip You may also use Bartlett (1932) from unit 3.2. You need a
minimum of two studies in an essay so you could choose an experimental study and
one of the studies dealing with memory in real life.

3.7 Discuss the use of technology in investigating

cognitive processes

n The u se o ad vanced technology in research on cognitive research on neru roeconom ics and neu romarketing).
processes provid es insight into the complexity o the n N eu roimaging, su ch as M RI , can register changes in blood
activity o the brains neu ronal network in cognitive f ow in the active brain (oxygen and glu cose consu mption
processes that u nd erpin behaviou r. in the brain). The researchers can then make a map o areas
n Cognition always involves neu ronal activity in the brain. in the brain related to speci c cognitive processes.
Modern technology, e.g. EEG (electroencephalography) and n N eu roimaging has revealed that cognitive processes are
MRI (unctional magnetic resonance imaging), can be used m ed iated by a network o d istribu ted interacting brain
to stu d y cognitive processes while they are taking place regions and each area makes speci c contribu tions.
(e.g. in trad itional cognitive research on m em ory bu t also in

28
 3 Cog n i ti ve l evel o a n a l ysi s

EEG and MEG

EEG (Electroencephalography) reers to the record ing o the
brains electrical signals, i.e. the f ring o the many n eu rons in
the cortex o the brain. Electrod es are placed on the scalp to
register what parts o the brain are active and in what ways.
EEG can be u sed to record electrical activity or research
pu rposes (e.g. which areas are active when a child listens to its
m others voice).
M EG (magnetoencephalography) is a techniqu e u sed to record
magnetic f eld s prod u ced by the natu ral electrical activity in the
brain.

Palva et al. (201 0) Working memory in the rontal and parietal lobes). The activity in the networks in
Aim To investigate the interaction o neu ronal networks in the the occipital lobe cou ld be linked to th e visu o-spatial sketchpad
cerebral cortex in relation to visu al working m em ory. (see m ore on the working m em ory m od el in u nit 3 .3). The
Procedure Data rom EEG and M EG was u sed to id entiy patterns neu roimaging technologies u sed were im portant to d etect specif c
o interaction between the neu rons (neu ronal synchrony) in the brain areas involved in cognitive processin g. This cou ld n ot be
cerebral cortex d u rin g visu al tasks. d one otherwise.

Results The resu lts showed synchronization o neu ronal activity in

d ierent brain areas related to the maintenance and contents o
working m em ory. Specifc networks interacted (e.g. dierent areas o
the brains rontal and parietal lobes played a central role in
coordinating attention and action in working m em ory). H and ling
and maintaining sensory inormation abou t visu al stim u li showed
activity in networks in the occipital lobe.
Phonological loop Visuo-spatial memory Central executive
Evaluation The f nd ings su pport Bad d eleys m od el o working temporal lobes of the right hemisphere dorsolateral prefrontal
m em ory (e.g. the central execu tive cou ld be linked to the activity left hemisphere cortex

MRI
M RI (magn etic resonance imaging) prod u ces three-d im ensional n Corkin et al. (1 997 ) u sed M RI to stu d y H .M .s lesion in th e
images o brain stru ctu res. I t is u sed to d etect stru ctu ral f rst attempt to u se m od ern technology to stu d y his brain.
changes in the brain in cases o brain d amage or illn ess. n The resu lts o th e M RI scan conf rm ed a relationship
n H .M. su ered rom am nesia and was not able to orm n ew between d amage to the m ed ial temporal lobes (inclu d ing
explicit m em ories. This case stu d y d em onstrated that the hippocampu s) and H .M.s am nesia. Althou gh a tiny part
explicit m em ory processes are d epend ent on the o the hippocam pu s remained it was not enou gh to su pport
hippocampu s and ad jacent cortical stru ctu res, bu t the exact normal m em ory u nction.
d amage to H .M.s brain was not known beore researchers
cou ld u se brain imaging.

Strengths of using m odern technology Lim itations of of using m odern technology

n I t provid es the opportu nity to see insid e the working n Scanning takes place in a highly artif cial environm ent and
brain as it operates by mapping active brain areas. I t is som e scanners are extrem ely noisy. This aects ecological
also possible to see synchronization between variou s valid ity.
brain areas involved in cognitive processes. n Scanner stu d ies can map brain areas involved in variou s
n I t is u seu l in d iagnosing brain d isease or d amage that cognitive processes but it is not yet possible to say anything
cau ses problem s in cognitive u nctioning (or exam ple d ef nite abou t what these pictu res actu ally m ean.
m em ory problem s in Alzh eim ers).

29
 3.8 UnitTofactors
Head
what extent
2 lines do cognitive and biological
interact in emotion?

n Damasio (2 000) Emotions are physiological signals as a LeDouxs theory of the emotional brain
reaction to external stim u li, and eelings (consciou s
(1 999)
interpretation o the em otion) arise when the brain H u mans em otional reactions are f exible d u e to evolu tion.
interprets the stim u li. Learning to d etect and respond to d anger is im portant or
n The em otion ear is a u seu l su rvival m echanism as it su rvival (e.g. an instant response is need ed in d angerou s
allows animals (and hu man s) to react qu ickly to any situ ations). H u mans have also evolved em otional eeling,
possible sign o danger by starting the ght or fight i.e. a consciou s experience o the em otion which helps to
reaction. I n hu mans, cognitive actors su ch as appraisal evalu ate the level o d anger beore a response.
may help to m od u late physiological and psychological LeDou xs two pathways o em otions in the brain:
reactions to stim u li.
n Em otional arou sal is a orm o stress that activates the
stress horm ones adrenaline and cortisol. This is a u seu l h
Sensory cortex i
su rvival m echanism . M em ory o a earu l experience is p
stored in the cortex (explicit m em ory) and the em otional p
m em ory o the experience is stored via the amygd ala o
(implicit m em ory). N ormally humans can control irrational long route c
a
ear reactions bu t not always, and in som e cases ear m
may be elicited withou t consciou s control as in panic p
attacks. u
short route s
n Anxiety, phobia, panic d isord ers, and PTSD in hu mans
ind icate a malu nction in the brains ability to control
ear reactions. H u mans with d amage to the amygd ala d o sensory
thalamus amygdala
not experience ear in d angerou s situ ations and this may
end anger su rvival.

emotional emotional
Brain, memory, and stimulus response
emotion
n I nvestigations into the
role o em otion on 1 The short route The amygd ala reacts im m ed iately to
explicit m em ory have sensory inpu t and activates response system s (e.g. the
ocu sed primarily on the physiological stress response g ht or f ight). This is very
interaction o the u seu l in the case o im m ed iate d anger where a qu ick
amygdala (specialized reaction can make the d ierence between lie and d eath.
Am yg d a la H i p p o ca m p u s
or the processing o 2 The long route The sensory inpu t goes via the sensory
em otion) and the hippocampus (necessary or semantic cortex to the hippocampu s. This rou te involves evalu ation
and episod ic m em ory). o the stim u lu s and consid eration o an appropriate
n Phelps (2 004) su ggests that in em otional situ ation s th e response. This cou ld link to the concept cognitive
amygd ala can m od u late m em ory encod ing and storag e appraisal (Lazarus, 1 975).
o explicit m em ories (hippocampal d epend ent m em ories)
so that em otional events receive priority.

Easterbrook (1 959) Cue utilization theory (central d etails) and not pay attention to d etails that are
(central traits and peripheral traits) not central to the em otional arou sal (peripheral d etails).
n The theory pred icts that in situ ations with high levels o n See Riniolo et al. (2 003) on m em ory or central traits in a
em otional arou sal, people will tend to pay m ore attention traumatic event (The Titanics nal plunge) in unit 3.6.
to and encod e d etails o the em otion arou sing stim u lu s

30
 3 Cog n i ti ve l evel o a n a l ysi s

Lazarus (1 975) Appraisal theory

n Accord ing to appraisal theory, cognitive actors can m od u late stress respon ses,
i.e. the physiological and psychological reactions involved in the experience.
n Appraisal can be seen as an evaluation o a situ ation, inclu d ing evalu ation o
ones psychological and material resou rces to cope with the stressu l even t.

Speisman et al. (1 964) Experimental manipulation o Results The participants in the trau ma cond ition showed m u ch
emotions through cognitive appraisal higher physiological m easu res o stress than th e participants in
Aim To investigate the extent to which manipu lation o cognitive the two other cond itions. The resu lts su pport the appraisal theory
appraisal cou ld inf u ence em otional experience. in that the manipu lation o the participants cognitive appraisal
Procedure d id have a signi cant impact on the physiological stress reactions.
The participants in the trau ma cond ition reacted m ore
n I n this laboratory experim ent participants saw an xiety-evoking em otionally.
lm s, (e.g. a lm o an aboriginal initiation cerem ony where
ad olescent boys were su bjected to u npleasant genital cu tting). Evaluation This was a laboratory experim ent with rigorou s control
so it may lack ecological valid ity, bu t research on the role o
n This lm was shown with three d ierent sou nd tracks intend ed appraisal in real-lie em otional events tend s to nd the sam e
to manipu late em otional reactions. The trau ma cond ition relationsh ip as laboratory research.
had a sou nd track with emphasis on the m u tilation and pain;
the intellectu alization cond ition had a sou nd track that gave The stu d y cou ld be a d em onstration o how biological and
an anthropological interpretation o the initiation cerem ony; cog nitive actors interact in em otion and it illu strates LeDouxs
the d enial cond ition showed the ad olescents as being theory o the two pathways in em otional processing.
willing and happy in the cerem ony.
n Du ring each viewing o the lm variou s objective physiological
m easu res were taken, su ch as heart rate and galvanic skin
response.

Summary of the interaction of emotion and The in f u ence is oten bid irectional and this has been explored
cognition within h ealth and abnormal psychology.
Cognitive and biological actors d o, to a large extent, interact n N eu roimaging investigations o em otion have id enti ed
in em otion, bu t in complex ways that are not yet well known. areas in th e prerontal lobes associated with active
Em otions may inf u ence cognitive processes su ch as m em ory, reappraisal o the em otional im portance o events (Ochsner
and cognitive processes su ch as appraisal may inf u ence and Gross, 2 008). This ind icates that it is possible to
em otions, bu t little is known abou t the exact workings o the regu late negative em otions via appraisal.
physiological correlates o em otion.

31
 3.9 Unitaect
Evaluate
Head 2one
lines
theory o how emotion may
one cognitive process

Brown and Kulik (1 977) The theory o fashbulb memory (FM)

n Flashbu lb m em ories are a type o episod ic m em ory (explicit Accord ing to the theory, there are six important eatu res abou t
m em ory). I t is assu m ed that they are highly resistant to FM that people rem em ber in d etail:
orgetting , i.e. the d etails o the m em ory will remain intact n place (i.e. where they were when the incid ent happened )
and accu rate becau se o the em otional arou sal at the n ongoing activity (i.e. what they were d oing )
m om ent o encod ing. This is controversial.
n inormant (i.e. how they learned abou t the incid ent)
n FM can be d e ned as a highly accu rate and exceptionally
n own aect (i.e. how they elt their em otional statu s or
vivid m em ory o the m om ent a person rst hears abou t a
aect)
shocking event.
n other aect (i.e. how other people elt)
n The f ashbu lb ind icates that the event will be registered
like a photograph, i.e. it will be accu rate in d etail. n atermath (i.e. importance o the event the consequences).
n Brown and Ku lik su ggested that FM is oten rehearsed
becau se it is important or em otionally salient to the
ind ivid u al and this makes the m em ory m ore accessible and
vivid ly rem em bered over tim e.

N eisser and H arsch (1 992 ) d id a real lie stu d y on peoples

Brown and Kulik (1 977) Research on FM m emory o the Challenger d isaster. The rst d ata were collected
Aim To investigate whether shocking events are recalled less than 2 4 hou rs ater the event and the sam e participants
m ore vivid ly and accu rately than other events. were tested two and a hal years later. M ost participants d id
Procedure Qu estionn aires asked 80 participants to recall not rem em ber anything correctly bu t were very con d ent that
circum stances where they had learned o shocking events they d id .
Results
n The participants had vivid m em ories o where they were, Neisser and Harsch (1 992) Testing the FM theory
what they d id , and what they elt when they rst heard Aim To test the theory o f ashbu lb m em ory by investigating
abou t a shocking pu blic event su ch as the assassination the extent to which m em ory or a shocking event (the
o John F. Ken ned y. Challenger d isaster) wou ld be accu rate ater a period o tim e.
n The participants also said they had f ashbu lb m em ories Procedure
o shocking personal events su ch as the su d d en d eath o n 1 06 stu d ents in an introd u ctory psychology class were
a relative. given a qu estionnaire and asked to write a d escription o
n The resu lts ind icated that FM is m ore likely or how they had heard the news. They also had to answer
u nexpected and personally relevant events. The seven qu estions related to where they were, what they were
researchers su ggested the photographic m od el o d oing, etc., and what em otional eelings they experienced
f ashbu lb m em ory. at the tim e o the event.
n Brown and Ku lik su ggest that FM is cau sed by the n Participants answered the qu estionnaires less than 2 4
physiological em otional arou sal (e.g. activity in hou rs ater the d isaster.
the amygd ala). n Two and a hal years later, 44 o the original stu d ents
Evaluation The reliance on retrospective d ata qu estions the answered the qu estionnaire again. This tim e they were also
reliability o this stu d y. People tend to interpret an event asked to rate how con d en t they were o the accu racy o
rom their cu rrent perspective. Research indicates that their m em ory on a scale rom 1 to 5. The participants were
although an FM is em otionally vivid it is not necessarily also asked i th ey had lled ou t a qu estionnaire o the
accurate in regard to d etails. The photographic m od el o FM su bject beore.
has been challenged . n Som etim e ater the last qu estionnaires, the researchers
perorm ed a sem i-stru ctu red interview to test whether the
N eisser (1 982 ) is critical toward s the id ea o f ashbu lb participants cou ld rem em ber what they had written
m em ories, as certain m em ories are very vivid becau se they are previou sly. Participants then saw their original reports rom
rehearsed and d iscu ssed ater the event. the rst qu estionnaire.

32
 3 Cog n i ti ve l evel o a n a l ysi s

Results Evaluation
n Only 1 1 participants ou t o the 44 rem em bered that they had n The stu d y was cond u cted in a n atu ral environm ent and it has
lled ou t the qu estionnaire beore. higher ecological valid ity than laboratory experim en ts on
n There were major d iscrepancies between the original m em ory. The participants were psychology stu d ents who
qu estionnaire and the ollow-u p two and a hal years later. participated or cou rse cred its and they may not be
The m ean score o correctness o recall o the seven qu estions representative.
was 2 .95 ou t o 7. For 1 1 participants the score was 0, and 2 2 n The d egree o em otional arou sal when witnessing a shocking
scored 2 or less. The average level o con dence in accuracy or pu blic event may be d ierent rom experiencing a trau matic
the questions was 4.1 7. event in you r own personal lie, and the importance o the
n The results challenge the predictions o the FM theory and also events may be very d ierent. This cou ld inf u ence how well
question the reliability o m em ory in general. Participants were people rem em ber a certain event.
con d en t that they rem em bered the event correctly both
tim es and they cou ld n ot explain the d iscrepancies between
the rst and second accou nts.

Strengths of the FM theory Lim itations of the FM theory

n The theory can, to som e extent, explain why very n Flashbu lb reers to the f ashbu lb u sed in photography,
em otional m em ories are oten m ore vivid ly rem em bered bu t the nam e may not be well-chosen as the photograph
over tim e, bu t it cannot explain why these m em ories are taken with a f ashbu lb preserves everything in the scene as
oten no m ore accu rate than any other m em ory (except it was at the tim e the pictu re was taken.
perhaps or som e central d etails). n An FM is a reconstru cted m em ory where the em otional
n The theory has generated many research stu d ies and the importance o the event may inf u ence the way the m em ory
theory has been m od i ed . The id ea that em otional events is reconstru cted particu larly i it is d iscu ssed with other
are better rem em bered than n on-em otional events is people over tim e (conabu lation) or i the m em ory d oes not
su pported , bu t m od i ed with the id ea that the event have particu lar personal relevance.
shou ld have speci c personal relevance.

33
 4.1 Outline principles that dene the sociocultural
level o analysis and explain how these
principles may be demonstrated in research

Principle 1 : H uman beings are social animals with a basic

need to belong. track and hunt animals and fsh on their own, so children in this
This m ean s that they are m otivated to have important culture learn ind ependence. Berry ound that Inuits were alm ost
relationships with other people. non-conorm ing whereas the Tem ne showed a high degree o
conorm ity.

Principle 1 demonstrated in:

I n the belongingness theory, Baumeister and Leary (1 995) Principle 3: H umans have a social sel which refects their
assert that hu mans are m otivated to orm and maintain group memberships.
interpersonal relationships and hu man cu ltu re is, to som e Grou p m em berships give rise to social id entities (ingrou ps) and
extent, ad apted to enable people to satisy the psychological comparison with other grou ps (ou tgrou ps). This m ight lead to
need to live together. bias in inormation processing (sterotyping ) and d iscrim ination.
H owarth (2 002 ) perorm ed ocu s-grou p interviews with
ad olescent girls in Brixton to stu d y how the girls d escribed and Principle 3 demonstrated in:
evalu ated them selves. Sh e ou nd that they had a positive view Social identity theory (SIT) by Tajel and Turner (1 979)
o being rom Brixton which con trasted the view o people su ggests that grou p-based social id en tities are based on
living ou tsid e Brixton. This can be seen as an exam ple o categorization into ingroups (a grou p to which one belongs)
creating a positive social id entity based on grou p belonging. and outgroups (a grou p to which one d oes not belong ).
I ngrou ps are generally seen as m ore positive than ou tgrou ps
Principle 2 : Culture infuences human behaviour. and ingrou p avou ritism is com m on. The ou tgrou p is generally
This m ean s that hu mans create and shape cu ltu re and they are seen in a m ore negative light (ou tgrou p negative bias).
in u en ced by their cu ltu re. Tajel (1 970) su ggested the m inimal grou p parad igm . H e
n Cultu ral norm s provid e general prescriptions or behaviou rs perorm ed experim ents with boys who were ran d om ly d ivid ed
that are expected in a given cu ltu re or society. in to two grou ps. They were told that it was based on their
estimation o d ots or preerence or paintings bu t in reality it
was totally rand om . The boys ju st believed that they had been
Principle 2 demonstrated in:
grou ped accord ing to their estimation and preerence or
Berry (1 967 ) investigated how conorm ity may be related to paintin gs to award points to m em bers o the grou ps; they
cultu re. H e used a m odifcation o the Asch experim ent (see unit consistently d em onstrated ingrou p avou ritism by award ing
4.8) with adults rom two dierent cultures: the Tem ne culture m ore points to m em bers o their own grou p. The experim ents
o Sierra Leone, who rely on agriculture or survival, and adu lt showed that a kind o social id entity can be establish ed even as
I nuits rom the Baf n I slands in Canada, who live on hu nting a consequ ence o a m inimal an d u nimportant task.
and fshing. Tem ne people have to cooperate in order to grow a
successul crop to eed the com m u nity, so they learn conorm ity
and compliance rom an early age. The I nuits m ust be able to

34
4.2 Describe the role of situational and
dispositional factors in explaining behaviour

Attribution theory n The tend en cy to see m otives and d ispositions behin d

Attribu tion th eory (H eider 1 958) is based on the assu mption hu man actions may be so au tomatic that people som etim es
that people are naive scientists who try to explain observable f nd it d if cu lt to overrid e it even where m otives and
behaviou r. An essential eatu re o the original attribu tion d ispositions d ont really apply (e.g. when people attribu te
theory is a u nd am ental d istinction abou t internal and external m otives to objects in compu ter gam es or believe in ate or
cau ses o behaviou r. witchcrat).
Attribu tion th eory is based on the assu mption that people:
What is the cause of the observed behaviour?
n tend to look or cau ses and reasons or other peoples
behaviou r becau se they eel that there are m otives behind
m ost o their own behaviou r It is caused by something It is caused by something
n are intu itive psychologists who constru ct their own cau sal within the person outside the person
theories o hu man behaviou r (personality) internal (situation) external
n constru ct cau sal theories becau se they want to be able actors actors
to u nd erstand , pred ict, and control the environm ent arou nd
them .
Dispositional attribution Situational attribution
Why attributions? (intelligence, personality, (group pressure, social
n People seem to have a pervasive need or cau sal attitude) norms, weather, luck)
explanations becau se this makes the world m ore
pred ictable.
n M ost cu ltu res have constru cted cau sal explanations or the
origin and m eaning o lie, (e.g. in myths and religions).

Empirical research
n Sim mel (1 944) perorm ed an experim ent where he showed m oving geom etric f gu res to
participants and asked them to d escribe the m ovem en ts o the f gu re. The participants all d escribed
them as i the geom etric f gu res had intentions to act in the way they d id .
n Evans-Pritchard (1 976) described how the Azand e people o central Arica believed that it was
witchcrat that killed people when a granary d oorway collapsed . The d oor had been eaten throu gh
by term ites bu t the Azand e believed that it was ate that mad e those people sit in the d oorway ju st
wh en it collapsed .

35
 4.3 Discuss two errors in attributions

Ross (1 977) The fundamental attribution error (FAE)

FAE occu rs when people overestimate personality traits people get what they d eserve (Gilbert 1 995).
(d ispositional actors) and u nd erestimate environm ental actors n I t makes lie m ore pred ictable i peoples behaviou r is
wh en they explain other peoples behaviou r. Accord ing to social mainly cau sed by their personality. This gives the im pression
psychologist Fiske (2 004), people rely too m u ch on personality that people are u nd erstand able and easy to d eal with.
in explain ing behaviou r and they u nd erestimate or never
n Explanations based solely on personality are incomplete. I t
consid er the power o situ ations.
wou ld be wrong not to consid er the power o situ ation.
n I n Western societies it cou ld be becau se o the id eology that

Ross, Amabile, and Steinmetz (1 977) FAE Results The contestants consistently rated the general knowled ge
Aim To investigate whether knowled ge o allocated social roles in o the qu estioners in the experim ental cond ition as su perior. The
a qu iz show wou ld aect participants ju d gem ents o peoples observers d id the sam e.
expertise. This was a clear dem onstration o the FAE. The contestants and the
Procedure Eighteen pairs o stu d en ts rom an introd u ctory class at observers attributed the questioners ability to answer the questions
Stanord University participated in a sim u lated qu iz gam e where to dispositional actors and ailed to take into consideration the
they were rand om ly assigned to the roles o either qu estioner or situational actors that gave the questioners an advantage. The
contestant. I n the experim ental cond ition the role o qu estioner or questioners them selves did not rate their own knowledge as being
contestant was rand om ly allocated to one person in each pair. superior to that o the contestants.
Twenty-ou r observers watch ed the qu iz. The qu estioners were Evaluation The experim ental set-u p was ingeniou s. I t clearly gave
asked to com pose 1 0 qu estions based on their own knowled ge the opportu n ity to d em onstrate attribu tional biases becau se the
and the contestants were asked to answer these qu estions. qu estioners mad e u p th eir own qu estions and this was known by
The questioner was instru cted to ask each question and then wait all participants. The participants were u niversity stu d ents so there
around 30 seconds or a response. I the contestants d id not may be sampling bias and it is d if cu lt to g eneralize the resu lts.
answer correctly the questioner gave the correct answer. Ater the The issu e o ecological valid ity cou ld also be raised .
quiz, all participants and the observers were asked to rate general
knowledge o contestants and questioners.

Empirical research
Suedfeld (2 003) investigated attribu tions mad e by H olocau st Only 34% o the su rvivors mad e d ispositional attribu tions (e.g.
su rvivors. The researcher gave qu estionnaires to m em bers o psychological strength and d eterm ination) compared to 71 % in
H olocau st su rvivor grou ps and age-matched Jewish participants the control grou p. This in d icates that personal experiences
who had not personally experienced the N azi persecu tion d u ring the H olocau st in u enced su rvivors attribu tions becau se
(control). The two grou ps were asked or their views on possible they had witnessed that it was actu ally oten lu ck or help rom
actors in su rvival d u ring the H olocau st. 91 % o the su rvivors others that d eterm ined who su rvived and who d id nt. The
mad e situ ational attribu tions (e.g. lu ck and help rom others) su rvivors had a clear pictu re o the power o the situ ation d u ring
compared to 51 % in the control grou p. the H olocau st.

Cultural bias in the FAE

Cu ltu re seem s to be a d eterm inant in attribu tion style. n N orenzayan et al. (2 002 ) tested whether inormation given
n I n collectivist cu ltu res the emphasis is on the primary social to Korean and Am erican participants wou ld in u ence their
relationships o an ind ivid u al (am ily, social role, cu ltu ral attribu tions. When participants only received inormation
activities). abou t ind ivid u als, both grou ps mad e d ispositional
attribu tions. When situ ational inormation was also
n I n ind ivid u alistic cu ltu res the emphasis on th e ind ivid u al as
provid ed , the Koreans tend ed to inclu d e this inormation in
the primary cause o action leads to dispositional attributions.
their explanations m u ch m ore than the Am ericans d id . This
The individual is seen as the main cause o success and ailure.
ind icates that there may be u niversal eatu res in the FAE
and that available inormation in u ences attribu tions.

36
 4 Th e soci ocu l tu ra l l evel o a n a l ysi s

Strengths of the FAE Lim itations of the FAE

n The theory has prom oted n The theory is cu ltu rally biased with
u nd erstand ing o com m on errors too m u ch ocu s on ind ivid u alism .
in explanation o what happens in n M u ch research on the theory has
the world . been cond u cted in laboratories and
n The theory has proven very robu st with a stu d ent sample (problem s
and has been su pported by many with generalization o f nd ings).
research stu d ies.

The self-serving bias (SSB) Possible explanations

The SSB (i.e. a sel-enhancing strategy) reers to peoples n The SSB cou ld be a way to u phold sel-esteem (sel-
tend ency to evalu ate them selves positively by taking cred it protection). People see them selves as responsible
or their su ccess (I am intelligent) and attribu te their or su ccess bu t not or their ailu res becau se they want
ailures to situational actors ( The teacher is not to see them selves in this way.
competent). n Others have su ggested that the SSB occu rs when people
A special version o the SSB is called sel-hand icapping . For d ont have enou gh inormation and lim it them selves to
exam ple, stu d ents who expect to ail an exam can openly the available inormation. People typically expect to
make situ ational attribu tions beore the exam by sayin g that su cceed and correlate su ccess with their own eort and
they have hang overs or that they havent slept the whole exaggerate the am ou nt o control they have (Miller and
night. Ross, 1 975).

Empirical research Cultural considerations in the SSB

n Lau and Russel (1 980) ou nd that Am erican ootball Cu ltu re-specif c attribu tional styles may be a natu ral part o
coaches an d players were m ore likely to attribu te su ccess enculturation and socialization. Some argue that the SSB is
to d isposition al actors (e.g. talent or hard work) and primarily linked to ind ivid u alist cu ltu res bu t others believe it
ailu re to situ ational actors (e.g. inju ries or bad is can be ound in both individualistic and collectivist cultures.
weather). n Kashima and Triandis (1 986) sh owed slid es rom
n Posey and Smith (2 003) perorm ed an SSB experim ent u nam iliar cou ntries to Am erican and Japanese stu d ents
with children. They were asked to d o maths problem s, and asked them to rem em ber d etails. When the stu d ents
sittin g either with a riend or a non-riend . Althou gh they were asked to explain their perormance, the Am ericans
sat in pairs the children had to d o the maths problem s explained their own su ccess with internal actors, su ch as
alone, bu t the total score o the pair was noted . Ater the ability, and ailu re with external actors. The Japanese
test the children were asked who d id the better job. The tend ed to explain their ailu re with lack o ability. This is
resu lts sh owed that children who worked with riend s called the m od esty bias and is a cu ltu ral variation o the
and ailed were less likely to show the SSB and m ore SSB.
likely to give their riend s cred it when they su cceed ed . n Bond, Leung, and Wan (1 982 ) argu ed that a possible
Children who worked with a non-riend were m ore likely
explanation or the m od esty bias in collectivist cu ltu res
to d em onstrate the SSB.
cou ld be a cu ltu ral norm in Chinese societies to maintain
harm oniou s personal relationships. A person who makes
sel-eacing attribu tions cou ld expect to be better liked .

Strengths of the SSB Lim itations of the SSB

The theory can explain why som e people (m ostly rom The theory is cu ltu rally biased . I t cannot explain why som e
ind ivid u alist cu ltu res) explain th eir ailu res as being cau sed by cu ltu res emphasize a sel-eacing attribu tion (m od esty bias).
situ ational actors.

37
 4.4 Evaluate social identity theory

Social identity theory (SIT)

SIT is a theoretical ram ework d eveloped by Tajfel and Turner n Intergroup discrimination can be one way to uphold a positive
(1 979) or the analysis o intergrou p relations. SIT is linked to social identity or the ingroup (or example when women earn
the id ea o sel-categorization theory (Turner 1 991 ). less than m en or the sam e work or when whites think they
Social identity can be def ned as the part o ones sel-concept are su perior and d iscrim inate against other ethnic grou ps).
based on the knowledge o m em bership in social group(s) in
Ingroup: group members
com bination with the value and emotional signifcance attached
seen as individuals +
to that m em bership.
positive traits (ingroup
n I nd ivid u als strive to maintain a positive sel-concept as well avouritsm)
as a positive social id entity. People make com parisons
between ingrou p and ou tgrou p on valu ed d im ensions to
establish, maintain, and d eend positive ingroup Categorization: people
Social comparison to
distinctiveness (social comparison). are categorized based on
obtain positive
shared characteristics
n When a social comparison resu lts in a positive ou tcom e or distinctiveness o
(group membership)
the ingrou p, the need or a positive social id entity is ingroup
ingroups and outgroups
satisf ed bu t the opposite may also happen (e.g. or
low-statu s m inority grou ps).
Outgroup: group
members seen as similar
+ negative traits
(discrimination)

Tajel (1 970) Experiment in intergroup discrimination other categories (ou tgrou ps).
the minimal group paradigm I n the second experim ent the boys tried to maxim ize the
Aim To investigate i boys placed in rand om grou ps based on an d ierence between th e two grou ps.
arbitrary task (m inimal grou p) wou ld d isplay ingrou p avou ritism The resu lts o both experim ents ind icate that the boys ad opted a
and intergrou p d iscrim ination. strategy o ingroup avouritism . This su pports the pred ictions o
Procedure The participants were 64 schoolboys (age 1 41 5) rom a social id entity th eory.
state school in the U K. They cam e to a psychology laboratory in Evaluation The experim ent contributed to the developm ent o
groups o eight. They all knew each other well beore the social identity theory, which states that the social groups and
experim ent. The boys were shown clusters o varying num bers o categories to which we belong are an important part o our
dots, ashed onto a screen and had to estimate the number o dots sel-concept. Tajel demonstrated that a "minimal group" is all that
in each cluster. The experim enters assigned the boys to groups at is necessary or individuals to exhibit discrim ination against
random categorized as over-estimator, under-estimator etc. outgroups. The experiment has been criticized or artifciality and
Subsequently, the boys had to allocate small am ounts o m oney to demand characteristics. The boys may have interpreted the task as a
the other boys in the experim ent. The only thing they knew o the sort o a competitive gam e and thereore reacted the way they did.
boys was i they belonged to the sam e or a dierent category.
Howarth (2002) perormed ocus group interviews with adolescent
I n a second experim ent, boys were rand om ly allocated to grou ps girls in Brixton to study how the girls described and evaluated
based on their su pposed artistic preerences or two painters. themselves. She ound that the girls had a positive view o being
Then they had to award m oney to the other boys . rom Brixton which contrasted with how people living outside Brixton
Results A large majority o the boys gave m ore m oney to perceived people rom Brixton. This can be seen as an example o
m em bers o th eir own category (ingrou p) than to m em bers o the creating a positive social identity based on group belonging.

Strengths of SIT Lim itations of SIT

n SIT assu m es that intergrou p con ict is not requ ired or n M inimal grou p research has been criticized or artif ciality.
d iscrim ination to occu r. This is su pported by empirical The experim ental set-u p is so ar rom natu ral behaviou r
research, e.g. Tajfel (1 970). that it can be qu estioned whether it re ects how people
n SIT can explain som e o the m echanism s involved in wou ld react in real lie. This cou ld lim it th e pred ictive valu e
establish ing positive d istinctiveness to the ingrou p by o the theory.
maxim izing d ierences to the ou tgrou p. n SIT cannot u lly explain how ingrou p avou ritism may resu lt
n SIT has been applied to u nd erstan d ing behaviou rs su ch as in violent behaviou r toward s ou tgrou ps.
ethnocen trism , in grou p avou ritism , conorm ity to ingrou p n SIT cannot explain why social constraints su ch as poverty
norm s, and stereotyping. cou ld play a bigger role in behaviou r than social id entity.

38
 4.5 Explain the ormation o stereotypes and their
eect on behaviour

How do stereotypes orm? Sociocultural

Devine (1 989) argu ed that it is important to d istingu ish
learning, categorization, and schema between knowled ge o a stereotype and accepting it.
processing Accord ing to h er, the Princeton trilogy d oes not take this
n Stereotypes are a salient part o ou r social and cu ltu ral into accou nt.
environ m ent. We learn them throu gh d aily interactions,
conversations an d throu gh the m ed ia.
n Stereotypes are simplif ed m ental images which act as
n Stereotypes are, to som e extent, based on ind ivid u al tem plates to help interpret the social world (Lipmann,
experiences bu t cu ltu ral and social actors also play a 1 92 2 ).
role, i.e. stereotypes are contextu alized an d not simply
the resu lts o ind ivid u al cognitive processing. Stereotypes
n Stereotyping is, to a large extent, an au tomatic cognitive
can be shared by large sociocu ltu ral grou ps as social process (i.e. it occu rs withou t intention, eort, or
representations. awareness and is not expected to interere with other
concu rrent cognitive processes (Posner and Snyder,
n The m ost com m on cognitive process involved in 1 975).
stereotyping is social categorization (Tajel, 1 969).
Categorization (and stereotyping) seem s to be
Implicit personality
u nd am ental to hu man natu re and it helps to make the
theories (e.g. illusory
world m ore pred ictable. Once stereotypes are orm ed
correlations such as
they act as cognitive schemas in inormation processing.
blondes are stupid)

Empirical research: The Princeton Trilogy.

Study 1 : Katz and Braley (1 933) investigated whether Categorization: people
Generalization: attributes
traditional social stereotypes had a cultural basis by asking are categorized based on
o the category (group)
1 00 male students rom Princeton University to choose fve shared characteristics
are) generalized to all
traits that characterized dierent ethnic groups (or example (group membership)
members o the category
Am ericans, Jews, Japanese, N egroes) rom a list o 84 words. stereotype (schema)
The results showed consid erable agreem ent in stereotypes,
especially o negative traits. Eighty-our per cent o the
stud ents said that N egroes were superstitious and 79% said Ingroup: group members Schema processing:
that Jews were shrewd. They were very positive towards their seen as individuals + memory representations
own group (ingroup bias). Since m ost o the students did not positive traits (ingroup o stereotypes (schemas)
have any personal contact with m em bers o the ethnic avouritsm) inuence perception and
grou ps they had to rate, it was suggested that stereotypes are evaluation o stereotyped
learned (e.g. through the m edia or by gatekeepers, i.e. they individuals. Stereotypes
are oten automatically
are cultural prod ucts). Outgroup: group activated.
Study 2 : Gilbert (1 951 ) replicated the study o Princeton members seen as similar
stud ents. This tim e there was less uniorm ity o agreem ent, + negative traits
especially about unavourable traits, than in the 1 933 study.
The stereotypes still dem onstrated an ingroup bias. Confrmation bias:
Stereotypes about Japanese were extrem ely negative and this people tend to pay
was explained by the negative press about Japan ater Pearl attention to inormation
that confrms their
H arbour, so the original hypothesis abou t stereotypes as
beliesstereotypes
cultural products was confrm ed. Many students expressed
resistant to change
irritation at being asked to make generalizations at all and
(stereotypes as deaults)
this could indicate a social change (e.g. that it was no longer
as acceptable to express stereotypes openly).
Study 3: Karlins et al. (1 969) replicated the stu d y. Many
stu d ents objected to the task bu t this tim e there was greater
agreem ent on the stereotypes assigned to the d ierent
grou ps compared with the 1 951 stu d y. The researchers
interpreted this as a re-em erg ence o social stereotyping bu t
in the d irection o a m ore avou rable stereotypical image.

39
 4 Soci ocu l tu ra l l evel o a n a l ysi s

What is the effect of stereotypes on behaviour? en vironm ent (rich stereotype). Then they saw a vid eo o the
n Social grou ps are categorized into in grou ps and ou tgrou ps. g irl in what cou ld be an intelligence test. When the
Once people are categorized as belonging to one grou p participants were asked to ju d ge the u tu re o the girl they
rather than another they tend to emphasize sim ilarities to all said that th e rich girl wou ld d o well and the poor girl
ind ivid u als in that grou p and exaggerate d ierences wou ld d o less well. Based on a ew salien t d etails rom the
between grou ps. Stereotypes o ou tgrou ps are oten central f rst vid eo, participants orm ed an overall impression o the
to grou p id entity. g irl s potential u tu re based on stereotypes.
n People tend to pay attention to stereotype-consisten t n Steele and Aronson (1 995) perorm ed an experim ent
inormation and d isregard stereotype-inconsistent u sin g Arican Am ericans and Eu ropean Am ericans, who d id
inormation (conf rmation bias). a verbal perormance test based on d if cu lt m u ltiple-choice
qu estions. When told that it was a test on verbal ability,
n N egative stereotypes may be internalized by stereotyped
Arican Am ericans scored lower than Eu ropean Am ericans.
grou ps (stereotype threat).
When told that it was a task u sed to test how certain
problem s are generally solved , Arican Am ericans scored
Empirical research h igher and matched the scores o Eu ropean Am ericans. The
n Darley and Gross (1 983) perorm ed an experim ent where
researchers conclu d ed that the stereotype threat cou ld
the researchers showed vid eos o a g irl to participants. I n
aect behaviou r in any stereotyped grou p i the m em bers
vid eo 1 the girl was playing in a poor environm ent (poor
them selves believe in the stereotype.
stereotype); in vid eo 2 the girl was playing in a rich

4.6 Explain social learning theory, making

reference to two relevant studies

n Band u ra (1 97 7 ) su ggested social learning theory (SLT) as Four important actors in social learning
an extension o existin g learning theories (classical and (observational learning)
operant cond itioning). SLT is based on the assu mption that
people learn behaviou rs, attitu d es, em otional reactions and
Attention
norm s throu gh d irect experiences bu t also throu gh
Paying attention to the model is a condition or learning
observing other hu mans (m od els).
n We learn consequ ences o behaviou r rom watching what
happens to other hu mans (vicariou s reinorcem ent). Once Retention
su ch inormation is stored in m em ory it serves as a g u id e to Remembering what the model did is a condition or imitating
u tu re actions. People are m ore likely to im itate behaviou r the model s behaviour
that has positive consequ ences.
n Social learning can be d irect via instru ctions or ind irect (e.g.
role m od els and no d irect instru ction s). Reproduction
People must have the capacity (e.g. skills) or imitating the
behaviour

Motivation
People must be motivated to imitate behaviour
(e.g. importance o model or reward)

40
 4 Soci ocu l tu ra l l evel o a n a l ysi s

Study 1 : Bandura and Ross (1 961 ) Experimental Study 2: Charlton et al. (2002) Observation o the
investigation on learning aggression rom a model introduction o television in a remote community (St.
Aim To see i children wou ld im itate the aggression o an ad u lt Helena)
m od el and whether they wou ld im itate sam e-sex Aim To investigate whether children in St. H elena wou ld exhibit
m od els m ore than opposite sex m od els. m ore aggressive behaviou r ater the in trod u ction o television
Procedure to the island in 1 995.
n Participants were 36 boys and 36 girls rom the Stanord Procedure
University N u rsery School (m ean age 4.4) who were d ivid ed n The stu d y was a natu ral experim ent. Children (aged three
into three grou ps matched on levels o aggressiveness to eigh t years) were observed beore and ater the
beore the experim ent. introd u ction o television throu gh cam eras set u p in the
n One grou p saw the ad u lt m od el behave aggressively playgrou nd s o two primary schools on the island . The level
toward s a bobo d oll, one grou p saw the m od el assem ble o aggression in television matched what children in the U K
toys, and the last grou p served as control. were exposed to.
n The children were u rther d ivid ed into grou ps so that som e n The researchers also cond u cted interviews with teachers,
saw sam e-sex m od els and som e opposite-sex m od els. parents, and som e o the old er children.
n The laboratory was set u p as a play room with toys and a Results There was no increase in aggressive or antisocial
bobo d oll. The m od el either played with the toys or behaved behaviou r. This was also the case ater f ve years.
aggressively toward s the bobo d oll. Ater seeing this, the Discussion of results
children were brou ght into a room with toys and told not to n The d ata sh owed that children d id not change their
play with th em in ord er to ru strate them . Then they were behaviou r ater television had arrived althou g h they saw
taken into a room with toys and a bobo d oll where they the sam e am ou nt o violent television as British children.
were observed or 2 0 m inu tes throu gh a one-way m irror.
n The parents and teachers said that antisocial behaviou r was
Results not accepted on the island and that there was a high
n Children who had seen an aggressive m od el were d egree o social control in the com m u nity. I t shows that
signif cantly m ore aggressive (physically and verbally) people may learn aggressive behaviou r bu t they may not
toward s the bobo d oll. They im itated the aggressive exhibit it or several reasons.
behaviou r o the m od el bu t also showed other orm s o n Social an d cu ltu ral actors also play a role in what
aggression. behaviou rs are acceptable, so even thou gh the children had
n Children were also m ore likely to im itate sam e-sex m od els. no d ou bt learned aggressive behaviou r, they d id not show
Boys were m ore aggressive overall than girls. it.
Discussion of results Evaluation The stu d y investigated a real-lie event and is high
n This key stu d y su pports social learning theory. Aggressive in ecological valid ity. I t d oes not qu estion SLT bu t rather the
behaviou r can be learned throu gh observational learning. resu lts o Bandura and Ross (1 961 ). The resu lts also conf rm
the id ea that people m u st be m otivated to im itate behaviou r.
n I t is not possible to conclu d e that children always becom e
aggressive when they watch violent m od els (e.g. on
television or at hom e). Generally, research su pports that
children tend to im itate sam e-sex m od els m ore and this is
also the case or ad u lts.
Evaluation The laboratory experim ent is low in ecological
valid ity. The aggression here is artif cial and there may be
demand characteristics. The children were very you ng and it has
been criticized or eth ical reasons.

41
 4.7 Discuss the use of compliance techniques

The norm (or rule) of reciprocity Tiger and Fox (1 971 ) su ggested that reciprocation (m u tu al
The social norm o reciprocity d ictates that we treat other ind ebted ness) cou ld be a resu lt o evolu tion. The eeling o
people the way they treat u s (Cialdini, 1 993). People are u tu re obligation has mad e an important d ierence in hu man
socialized into retu rning avou rs and this poweru l ru le social evolu tion, becau se it m eant that one ind ivid u al cou ld
u nd erpins compliance. Lynn and McCall (1 988) ou nd that oer som ething (e.g. ood , or care) to another ind ivid u al and be
restau rants who oered a m int or a sweet with the bill received conf d ent that he or she cou ld expect som ething in retu rn.
larger tips.

Regan (1 971 ) A laboratory experiment to test reciprocity As a ollow-u p to the experim ent the researcher investigated how
Aim To test whether participants who had received a avou r rom m u ch liking th e coned erate in u enced the participant. The
another wou ld be m ore likely to help this person than i they had participants were asked to f ll ou t ratin g scales ind icating how
not received a avou r. m u ch th ey liked the coned erate. The researcher then com pared
Procedure One participant and a coned erate o the experim enter how many tickets the participants had pu rchased rom the
were asked to rate paintings. I n the experim ental cond ition the coned erate in the control cond ition. Liking was associated with
coned erate let the experim ent and retu rned ater a ew m inu tes bu ying signifcan tly m ore tickets rom the coned erate in this
with two bottles o coca cola. H e had bou ght one or him sel and cond ition. I n the experim ental cond ition it mad e no d ierence
one or the participant. I n the control cond ition, the participant whether the participants liked the person or not.
d id not receive a coke. Participants who received a coca cola who d id not like the
When all the paintings had been rated the experim en ter let the coned erate bou ght ju st as many tickets as those who liked him .
room again . The coned erate told the n aive participant that he This shows the poweru l in u ence o the ru le o reciprocity. Even i
was selling ra e tickets or a new car and that the one who sold people d ont like a person they will retu rn a avou r.
the m ost tickets cou ld win $ 5 0. H e then asked th e participant i Evaluation This was a laboratory experim ent with a high d egree
he wou ld bu y som e tickets and said that even a small am ou n t o control. I t was possible to establish cau se-eect relationships
wou ld help. between receiving a avou r and retu rning a avou r. This
Results The participants in the experim ental cond ition bou ght su pports the principle o reciprocity. There may be issu es o
twice as many ra e tickets than participants in the control artif ciality in the experim ent as well as sample bias. This lim its
cond ition who had not received a avou r f rst. the possibility o generalization. The f n d ings have been su pported
by observations in real lie.

Foot-in-the-door technique (FITD) Evaluation of FITD

With the FITD techniqu e, the real (and large) requ est is n Compliance with a small requ est increases the likelihood
preced ed by a smaller one. The FITD techniqu e has been o compliance with a second , m u ch larger requ est. This
u sed in u nd raising and to prom ote environm ental can perhaps be interpreted in term s o com m itm en t.
awareness. Once people have said yes, they perceive them selves as
Dickerson et al. (1 992 ) did a feld experim ent where they com m itted and want to behave consistently with that
asked university students to conserve water in the dorm itory com m itm ent.
showers. The researchers frst asked a grou p o students to n M u ch research d one in this area has u sed pro-social
sign a poster supporting shorter showers to save water. Then requ ests and it seem s that su ch requ ests are generally
they asked students to do a survey asking them to think m ore likely to be accepted with this techniqu e. I t is m ore
about their own water usage. Finally the students shower likely to be su ccessu l i the second requ est is an
tim e was m onitored. Students who had signed the poster and extension o th e f rst one in stead o being som ething
had done the survey spent an average o 3.5 m inutes less in completely d ierent. Su ch resu lts cou ld perhaps be
the shower compared to the rest o the students in the linked to the principle o peoples need or sel-
d orm itory. consistency.
n The oot-in-the-d oor techniqu e is m ost poweru l when the
persons sel-image is related to the requ est, i.e. a requ est
need s to be kept close to issu es which the person is likely
to care abou t and su pport, su ch as helping other people
or protecting the environm ent.

42
 4 Soci ocu l tu ra l l evel o a n a l ysi s

Cultural norms and reciprocity Exam Tip The learning outcome is discuss the use
Ting-Toomey (1 986) com pared reciprocity in three
o compliance techniques. This means that it is sufcient to
ind ivid u alist cu ltu res (Au stralia, the U SA, and France) with
discuss two compliance techniques. The command term
reciprocity in two collectivist cou ntries (Japan and China). She
discuss invites you to give a balanced review o actors that
ou nd that the principle o reciprocity is u niversal. This cou ld
su pport the evolu tionary argu m ent bu t reciprocity is d isplayed
could be relevant in understanding how compliance
d ierently in the two types o cu ltu re. I n ind ivid u alist cu ltu res: techniques are used as well as the implications o their use.
reciprocity is volu ntary so people are ree to choose i they
want to retu rn a avou r. I n collectivist cu ltu res: obligatory
reciprocity is th e norm . I t is seen as a m oral ailu re i
reciprocity is not honou red .

4.8 Evaluate research on conformity to group norms

Sheri (1 936) Experimental investigation o conormity Asch (1 951 ) Experimental investigation o conormity
to perceived group norm to the majority.
Sheri u sed the au tokinetic eect (an optical illu sion where a Aim To investigate whether perceived
f xed pinpoint o light in a completely d ark room appears to grou p pressu re by a majority can
m ove becau se o the eye m ovem ents). H al o th e participants in u ence a m inority in an experim ental
f rst watched the light alone and gave a verbal estimate o how set-u p that is n ot am bigu ou s.
m u ch and in what d irection th e light m oved . Sh eri ou nd that Procedure Seven male colleg e stu d ents A B C
ater a nu m ber o trials participants began to estimate based were placed arou nd two wh ite card s.
on their own ram e o reerence. Then the experim ent continu ed One card had three lines (A, B, C) and another had one line.
in grou ps with three to ou r participants who took tu rns to They had to say ou t lou d which o the three lines on the right
estimate in rand om ord er. The participants now u sed each had the sam e leng th as the line on the let. There was one real
others estimates as a ram e o reerence and these converged participan t (naive participant) in the experim ental setu p and
into m ore or less id entical estimates. A grou p norm had six were coned erates who were instructed to give unanim ous
d eveloped , which participants conorm ed to once it had been wrong answers. This was done during 1 2 o the 1 8 trials in the
established . experim ent. A control group o 37 participants mad e the
Then the other hal o the participants perormed the estimation estimates alone or comparison.
task alone. Sheri ound that participants continued to estimate Results I n the control grou p 35 participants d id not make a
based on the group norm when they did the task alone. The single error so in total 0.7 % errors were mad e compared to
results showed that social norms emerge to guide behaviour when 37 % errors in the experim ental grou p.
people fnd themselves in uncertain situations. Strengths of Asch's study
Strengths of Sherifs study n A high d egree o control ensu res that a cau se-eect
n Sheris stu d y is one o the m ost in u ential experim ents in relationship can be established between variables.
social psychology. I t has generated a large am ou nt o n Aschs resu lts have been replicated several tim es so the
research. resu lts are reliable.
n The study demonstrates how a group norm can be established n The resu lts o the experim ent in term s o conorm ity rates
and continue to inuence a persons judgement even when the can, to som e extent, explain why people conorm to social
social inuence is no longer present. and cu ltu ral norm s in real lie.
Limitations of Sherifs study n Conorm ity may be u niversal to som e d egree bu t
n The experim en t was cond u cted in a laboratory. The task was conorm ity rates vary cross-cu ltu rally.
artif cial and am bigu ou s and this cou ld in u ence the Limitations of Asch's study
resu lts. n Laboratory experiments are artifcial and somewhat difcult
n Ethics: participants were not inorm ed abou t the pu rpose o to generalize to real lie (issues o ecological validity).
the experim ent (inorm ed consent) bu t this was not the n The experim ent was cond u cted in the U SA with male
norm at the tim e o Sheris experim ent. stu d ents as participants so this aects g eneralization.
n The resu lts can only explain how a majority may in u ence
a m inority bu t n ot the other way rou nd .
n The participants were d eceived abou t the pu rpose o the
experim ent and th ey were exposed to em barrassing
proced u res. This raises ethical issu es.

43
 4 Soci ocu l tu ra l l evel o a n a l ysi s

Can conormity research reveal anything about n Moscovici (1 976) argu es that trad itional conorm ity
conormity in real lie? research cannot explain the m inority in u ences on the
n Moghaddam et al. (1 993) argue that the research may have majority, which have been observed in real lie (e.g. variou s
a social and cultural bias. First, Sheris study was conducted su ccessu l ind epend ence m ovem ents).
in the USA in a time when conormity was the norm and this n Research shows that ingrou p m inorities have a greater
may have changed since. Nicholson et al. (1 985) suggest chance o exerting in u ence than ou tgrou p m inorities.
that participants now tend to conorm less in Asch-like
experiments. This could indicate that levels o conormity are
context-dependent and may change over time. Second,
conormity patterns may be dierent in other cultures.

4.9 Discuss actors infuencing conormity

Inormational conorm ity N ormative conorm ity Conorm ity

(inormational inf uence) (normative social infuence) (reerent inormational infuence)

n Wh en an ind ivid u al tu rns to n When an ind ivid u al conorm s in ord er n When an ind ivid u al id entif es with a
m em bers o a grou p to obtain to be accepted or liked by other particu lar social grou p (ingrou p) and
in ormation abou t what is right (e.g. m em bers o the grou p. conorm s to a prototypical grou p
when the available inormation is n People have a need or social norm increase in sim ilarity between
am bigu ou s). approval and acceptance. ingrou p m em bers as well as
Example o research stu d y: Sheri d ierence to ou tgrou p.
n n Exam ple o research stu d y: Asch
(1 935). (1 951 ).

Situational actors in conormity: group size and group unanimity

n Group size: Asch made variations o the original study by n Group unanim ity: Asch introd u ced social su pport to the
altering the am ount o conederates. When there was only naive participant, either another naive participant or a
one conederate the participant answered correctly. With two coned erate who had been instru cted to go along with the
conederates the m inority participants errors rose to 1 3.6%. naive participant. The presence o a su pporter red u ced
With three conederates the errors jumped to 31 .8%. Further errors rom 35 % to arou nd 5.5 %. This is particu larly the
increases in conederates did not increase errors so Asch case i the su pporter respond s beore the majority. This
conclu ded that the size o opposition is important only up to eect was seen even i the su pporter was m ore incorrect
a point. Asch suggested that with larger groups, participants than the majority, so it seem s that breaking grou p
may becom e resistant to conorm i they suspect that u n anim ity is the main actor in red u cing conorm ity.
m em bers o the majority are working together on pu rpose.

44
 4 Soci ocu l tu ra l l evel o a n a l ysi s

Cultural norms as a actor in conormity

n Bond and Smith (1 996) perorm ed a m eta-analysis o 1 33 Child -rearing practices em phasize sel-reliance becau se this
studies in 1 7 dierent countries on the Asch paradigm . They is need ed within this cu ltu re. This cou ld perhaps explain
ound higher conorm ity levels in collectivistic cultures than why th e I nu its tend to conorm less.
in individualistic cultures. The level o conorm ity (i.e. n Kagitcibasi (1 984) stu d ied socialization patterns in nine
percentage o incorrect answers) ranged rom 1 5 % in an d ierent cou ntries (I nd onesia, Sou th Korea, the Philippines,
experim ent with Belgian students (Doms, 1 983) to 5 8% Sinagapore, Taiwan, Thailan d , Tu rkey, the U SA, and
am ong Indian teachers in Fiji (Chandra, 1 973). They also Germany). The stu d y inclu d ed 2 0,000 interviews with
ound that generally the conorm ity was higher when the parents on the qu alities they consid ered m ost d esirable in
majority group was large. children (e.g. i they wanted their children to be
n Berry (1 967 ) u sed a variation o Aschs conorm ity ind epend ent and sel-reliant or i they wanted them to be
experim ent to stu d y whether conorm ity rates am ong the obed ient). Paren ts rom Tu rkey and I nd onesia ou nd it
Tem ne in Sierra Leone in Arica and the I nu its o Baf n important that children obeyed them and d id not emphasize
I sland in Can ad a cou ld be linked to social norm s and ind epend ence and sel-reliance. The opposite pattern was
socialization practices. H e ou nd that the Tem ne, who had ou nd in the U SA. Parents in Singapore, Taiwan, and
an agricu ltu ral economy, had high conorm ity levels. The Thailand also tend ed to emphasize sel-reliance rather than
culture emphasized obed ience in child -rearing practices obed ience. The consequ ence o m od ernization is, to som e
becau se the cu ltu re is dependent on cooperation in arm ing. extent, a breaku p o the extend ed am ily system seen in
The Inuits are hunters and oten hunt alone. They collectivist cu ltu res and placing m ore emphasis on
thereore need to be able to make d ecisions or them selves. ind ivid u al eort and responsibilities.

4.10 Defne the terms culture and cultural norms

Culture Cultural norms

I t is d if cu lt to give an exact d ef nition o cu ltu re bu t here n Cu ltu ral norm s can be d ef ned as the ru les that a specif c
are three d ef nitions rom cu ltu ral researchers: grou p u ses or stating what is seen as appropriate and
n Lonner (1 995): Culture can be defned as the common rules inappropriate behaviou rs, valu es, belies, and attitu d es.
that regulate interactions and behaviour in a group as well n Cu ltu ral norm s give people a sense o ord er and con trol
as a nu m ber o shared valu es and attitu d es in the grou p. in their lives as well as a sen se o saety and belonging.
n H ostede (1 995): Cu ltu re can be d ef ned as a collective Cu ltu ral norm s may encompass com m u nication style,
m ental program m ing that is the sotware o the m ind whom to marry and how, child -rearin g practices, or
that gu id es a grou p o people in their d aily interactions interaction between generations.
and distinguishes them rom other groups o people. n Cu ltu ral norm s can be explicit (e.g. legal cod es) or
n Matsumoto (2 004): Cu ltu re can be d ef ned as a implicit (i.e. conventional practices and ritu als).
d ynam ic system o ru les, explicit and implicit, established
by grou ps in ord er to ensu re their su rvival, involving
attitu d es, valu es, belies, norm s, and behaviou rs.

45
 4.11 Examine the role of two cultural dimensions
on behaviour

A d im ension o cu ltu re is an aspect o cu ltu re that can be Two examples are:

m easu red relative to oth er cu ltu res. The conceptu al ram ework 1 Collectivism and individualism: This relates to the
cu ltu ral d im ension s was su ggested by H ofstede (1 980) in his relationship between the ind ivid u al and the grou p. I n
su rvey o 88,000 I BM employees working in 66 cou ntries ind ivid u alist cou ntries (e.g. France, Germany, Denmark, and
across the world . H osted e argu es that d ierences in behaviou r the U SA) people tend to see them selves as ind ivid u als who
are a consequ ence o cu ltu re. m u st take care o them selves. Ties between ind ivid u als are
n Cu ltu re shou ld be seen as a collective phenom enon that loose and volu ntary. Typical valu es are reed om , personal
may d istingu ish one grou p rom another on specif c challenge, and personal tim e. I n collectivist cou ntries (e.g.
d im ensions. Cu ltu re is seen as m ental program m ing or Japan, M exico, and Korea) the ind ivid u al is tied to social
m ental sotware. grou ps su ch as am ilies or clans throu ghou t their lietim e.
n An ind ivid u al s m ental sotware will d eterm ine the way the This extend ed social grou p provid es saety in retu rn or
person acts and thinks and the m ental sotware is resistant loyalty.
to change. Unlearning what is once learned and 2 Long-term orientation and short-term orientation
internalized is very d if cu lt. (H ofstede and Bond 1 988): This relates to a cu ltu ral
n Accord ing to H osted e, u nd erstand ing th e in u ence o d im ension ou nd in Asian cou ntries. China was not
cu ltu ral d im ensions on hu man behaviou r can acilitate inclu d ed in H osted es original stu d y bu t H ofstede and
international u nd erstand ing and com m u nication. Bond (1 988) su ggested this d im ension based on the
Conu cian work d ynam ism . Valu es su ch as persistence,
loyalty, tru stworthiness, respect or trad ition, and
conservation o ace are central to this d im ension.

Cultural dimension: collectivism versus individualism d om in ating con ict resolu tion style and less likely to ad opt an
Wei et al. (2 001 ) su rvey on collectivism vs. ind ivid u alism on avoid ing con ict resolu tion style than Asian managers. Asian
con ict resolu tion styles managers d id not always ad opt an avoid ant con ict resolu tion
Aim To investigate the extent to which the d im ension o style as pred icted by the collectivism-ind ivid u alism d im ension. I n
ind ivid u alism vs. collectivism in u enced con ict resolu tion som e cases, Am erican man agers who had been in Singapore or
com m u nication styles. several years had ad opted a m ore Asian con ict resolu tion style.

Procedure A grou p o 600 managers working in companies in Discussion of results Th e collectivism vs. ind ivid u alism d im ension
Singapore was rand om ly selected or this su rvey. The participants in relation to con ict resolu tion styles was only som ewhat
were d ivid ed into ou r grou ps: Japanese, Am ericans, Chinese conf rm ed . The researchers conclu d e that con ict resolu tion styles
Singaporean s working in m u ltinational companies an d Chinese are complex and cannot be red u ced to cu ltu ral d im en sions alone.
Singaporean s working in local compan ies. Qu estionn aires an d For exam ple, d ierences ou nd within th e grou ps o Asian
correlational analysis were u sed to f nd possible relationsh ips managers were larger than between grou ps.
between scores on cu ltu ral d im en sion and con ict resolu tion style. Evaluation: The su rvey u sed a large and representative cross-
Results Generally, the higher the score in the ind ivid u alist cu ltu ral sam ple o managers in Singapore so the resu lts can be
d im ension the m ore likely the manager was to ad opt a generalized . The stu d y relies on sel-reports so there may be issu es
d om inating con ict resolu tion style. Am erican managers o reliability o the d ata bu t overall the resu lts are reliable.
(ind ivid u alist d im ension) were generally m ore likely to ad opt a

Cultural dimension: long-term orientation versus short- situ ation between a Japanese su pervisor and a Canad ian visiting
term orientation assistant teacher. The sam e qu estion was answered by 30
Basset (2 004) qu alitative research to com pare perception o stu d ents (1 5 Chinese and 1 5 Au stralian), each rom their own
con ict resolu tion in Au stralian and Chinese stu d ents cu ltu ral perspective: Discu ss how this con ict m ight be resolved
Aim To investigate d ierences in Chinese and Au stralian stu d en ts in China (or Au stralia).
perception o con ict resolu tion in relation to (1 ) the collectivist Results Generally, the d ata conf rm ed H osted es ind ivid u alist and
vs. ind ivid u alist d im ension and (2 ) long-term vs. short-term collectivist d im ensions bu t not all d ata cou ld be explained by this.
orientation. As or long-term orientation vs. short-term orientation, the Chinese
Procedure The investigation was a qu alitative cross-cu ltu ral stu d y. d ata conf rm ed the importance o this d im ension in
The stu d ents were bachelor stu d ents o bu siness and u nd erstand ing behaviou r.
managem ent. They were asked to analyse a potential con ict

46
 4 Soci ocu l tu ra l l evel o a n a l ysi s

Implications of research like this for negotiations with

China Australia
Chinese partners
n The Chinese are n Policies and proced u res n Friend sh ip is important. Banqu ets are seen as a relation ship
concerned about d ictate the way bu ild ing exercise. Gits act as expression o riend ships and
ace-saving and employees and the sym bols o hope or good u tu re bu siness.
interpersonal organization operates
n Guanxi is a network o relationships built by an individual
relationships. They want rather than cu ltu re and
through the exchange o gits and avours to attain m utual
to solve problem s and trad ition.
benefts. This practice is based on the Conucian work ethics.
enhance relationships at n I ssu es su ch as saving ace
a dinner table.
n Batonda and Perry (2 002 ) argu e that th e consequ ence o
are not important since
Gu anxi or d oing bu siness in China is that the Chinese
n I t is im portant to pay parties will pu sh or
avou r a process-oriented approach where Westerners tend
attention to a arbitration and mediation
to avou r a m ore action-based approach.
relationship; perhaps i they eel that they are
inviting the person to being treated u nairly.
d inner or oering gits
cou ld help the
relationship.

4.1 2 Explain, using examples, emic and etic concepts

Pike (1 967 ) su ggested the em ic and the etic concepts to Etic

ad dress the issu es o cu ltu re specif c versu s u niversal , i.e. n Etic research compares psycholog ical phenom ena across
what is consistent across cu ltu res. cu ltu res to f nd ou t what cou ld be u niversal in hu man
behaviou r.
n The pu rpose o research is to compare and con trast
Emic cu ltu ral phenom ena across cu ltu res to investigate
n Em ic research stu d ies one cu ltu re alone to u nd erstand whether phenom ena are cu ltu re-specif c or u niversal.
cu ltu re-specif c behaviou r. Example 1 : Kashima and Triandis (1 986) ou nd a d ierence
n Researchers attempt to study behaviour through the eyes o in the way people explain their own su ccess when they
the people who live in that cu ltu re. The way the compared Japanese and Am erican participants. The
phenom enon is lin ked to the cu ltu re (stru ctu re) and the Am erican participants tend ed to explain their own su ccess by
m eaning it has in this particu lar cu ltu ral (context) is dispositional attribu tions whereas the Japanese participants
emphasized. The ocus is on the norms, values, motives, and mad e situ ational attribu tions. The Am erican participants
customs o the members o the culture as they interpret and dem onstrated the sel-serving bias and the Japanese the
understand it them selves, explained with their own words. sel-eacin g bias, wh ich has also been observed in other
Example 1 : Bartlett (1 932 ) m entioned the extraord inary Asian cou n tries where people are socialized to see
ability o Swazi herd sm en to recall ind ivid u al characteristics them selves as part o a social grou p.
o their cattle. H e explained that the Swazi cu ltu re revolves Example 2 : Berry (1 967 ) used a variation o Aschs
around the possession and care o cattle and it is important conorm ity experim ent to study whether conorm ity rates
or people to recognize their animals becau se this is part o among the Tem ne in Sierra Leone in Arica and the I nuits o
their ortu ne. Bafn Island in Canada could be linked to social norm s and
Example 2: Yap (1 967) suggested the term culture-bound socialization practices. H e ou nd that the Tem ne, who had an
syndrome (CBS) as a culture-specifc psychological disorder agricultural economy, had high conorm ity rates. The cu lture
which can only be ully understood within a specifc cultural emphasized obed ience in child-rearing practices because the
context. Among the Yoruba people o West Arican it is believed culture is dependent on cooperation in arm ing. The I nuits are
that spirits may come into the possession o a persons soul and hunters and oten hunt alone. They thereore need to be able
that the person can be treated by healing and spells spoken by to make d ecisions or them selves. Child-rearing practices
a medicine man or a healer (Ayode, 1 979). emphasize sel-reliance because this is needed within this
culture. This could explain why the Inuits score low on
conorm ity.

47
 5.1 Examine the concepts o normality
and abnormality

Defning normality Evaluation o the mental health model o normality

n The majority o people wou ld be categorized as abnormal
Mental health model o normality (Jahoda, 1 958) i the criteria were applied to them . I t is relatively easy to
The m od el su ggests criteria or what m ight constitu te normal establish criteria or what constitu tes physical health bu t
psychological health (in contrast to abn ormal psychological it is im possible to establish and agree on what constitu tes
health). Deviation rom these criteria wou ld m ean that the psychological health.
health o an ind ivid u al is abnormal :
n Accord ing to Szasz (1 962 ) psycholog ical normality and
n the absence o m ental illness
abnormality are cu ltu rally d e ned concepts, which are not
n realistic sel-perception and contact with reality based on objective criteria.
n a strong sense o id entity and positive sel-esteem n Taylor and Brown (1 988) argu e that the view that a
n au tonomy and ind epend ence psychologically h ealthy person is one that maintains close
n ability to maintain healthy interpersonal relationships contact with reality is not in lin e with research nd ings.
(e. g. capacity to love) Generally people have positive illu sions abou t them selves
and th ey rate them selves m ore positively than others
n ability to cope with stressu l situ ations
(Lewinsohn et al. 1 980).
n capacity or person al growth and sel-actu alization.
n The criteria in the model are culturally biased value
judgements, i.e. they refect an idealized rather than realistic
perception o what it means to be human in a Western culture.

Defning abnormality Evaluation o the mental illness criterion

n Proponents o the m ental illness criterion argu e that it is an
The mental illness criterion (the medical model) ad vantage to be d iagnosed as sick becau se it shows that
n The m ental illn ess criterion sees psychological d isord ers people are not responsible or their acts.
(abnormality) as psychopathology. Pathology m eans
n Althou gh the origin o som e m ental d isord ers (e.g.
illness so it is literally illness in the psyche.
Alzheim ers d isease) can be linked to physiological changes
n This criterion is linked to psychiatry, which is a branch o in the brain, m ost psychological d isord ers cannot.
m ed icine. Patients with psycholog ical problem s are seen as
n Critics o the m ental health illness criterion argue that there is
ill in the sam e way as th ose who su er rom physiological
a stigma (i.e. a mark o inamy or disgrace) associated with
illnesses.
m ental illness.
n Diagn osis o m ental illness is based on the clinicians
n Szasz (1 962 ) argu es that it is not possible to id entiy the
observations, the patien ts sel-reports, a clinical in terview
biological correlates o m ental illness. Thereore,
and d iagnostic manu als (classi cation system s) that
psychological d isord ers sh ou ld rather be seen as problem s
classiy symptom s o speci c d isord ers to help d octors nd
o livin g.
a correct d iagnosis.

Abnormality as statistical deviation rom the norm

Sixty-eight percent
n Deviance in this criterion is related to the statistical average. IQ of people score
The d e nition implies that statistically com m on behaviou r Ninety-six percent within 1 5 points (+/)
can be classi ed as normal . Behaviou r that is d eviant rom of all people fall of 1 00
the norm is consequ ently abnormal . I n the normal within 30 points (+/)
d istribu tion cu rve m ost behaviou r alls in the m id d le. of 1 00
n An intelligence qu otient o 1 5 0 d eviates rom the norm o 68%
1 00. I t is statistically rare bu t it is consid ered d esirable to
have high in telligence. M ental retard ation is also rare bu t
this is consid ered u nd esirable.
96%
n Obesity is becom ing increasingly statistically normal bu t 0.1 % 0.1 %
obesity is consid ered to be u nd esirable. 2% 1 4% 34% 34% 1 4% 2%

Evaluation o the statistical criterion

n The u se o statistical requ ency and d eviation rom the n What may be consid ered abnormal behaviou r can d ier rom
statistical norm is n ot a reliable criterion to d e ne abnormal one cu ltu re to another so it is im possible to establish u niversal
behaviou r since what is abnormal in a statistical sense may stand ard s or statistical abnormality. The m od el o statistical
both be d esirable and u nd esirable. d eviation rom the norm always relates to a speci c cu ltu re.

48
 5 Abn orma l psych ol ogy

Abnormality as deviation rom social norms Evaluation o the deviation rom social norms criterion
n Social norm s constitu te inormal or ormal ru les o how n This criterion is not objective or stable sin ce it is related to
ind ivid u als are expected to behave. Deviant behaviou r is socially based d e nitions that change across tim e and
behaviou r that is consid ered u nd esirable or anti-social by cu ltu re. Becau se the norm is based on m orals and attitu d es,
the majority o people in a given society. I nd ivid u als who it is vu lnerable to abu se. For exam ple, political d issid ents
break ru les o cond u ct or d o not behave like the majority are cou ld be consid ered abnormal and sen t to hospitals or
d e ned as abnormal accord ing to this criterion. treatm ent as occu rred in the orm er Soviet Union.
n Social, cu ltu ral and historical actors may play a role in what n U sing this criterion cou ld lead to d iscrim ination against
is seen as normal or abnormal within a certain society. For m inorities inclu d ing people who su er rom psychological
exam ple, hom osexu ality was seen as abnormal in Britain d isord ers.
arou nd 1 900 where the am ou s writer Oscar Wild e was n Psychological d isord ers may be d e ned and d iagnosed in
imprisoned or hom osexu ality. H om osexu ality was classi ed d ierent ways across cu ltu res and what seem s to be a
as abnormal (sexu al d eviation) in the Am erican Diagnostic psychological d isord er in one cu ltu re may not be seen in the
and Statistical M anu al DSM-I I (1 968). I n later revisions o sam e way in another cu ltu re. The Am erican classi cation
the man u al hom osexu ality in itsel was not seen as system DSM inclu d es d isord ers called cu ltu re-bou nd
abnormal only eeling d istressed abou t it. syndrom es. This ind icates that it is impossible to set
u niversal stand ard s or classiying a behaviou r as abnormal.

5.2 Discuss validity and reliability of diagnosis

Diagnosis Diagnostic manuals

n Diagnosis within abnormal psychology m eans id entiying n DSM-IV, now in its ourth revised version, is developed by the
and classiying abnormal behaviou r on the basis o Am erican Psychiatric Association. The manual lists what it
sym ptom s, the patients sel-reports, observations, clinical term s m ental disorders. For each o the 300 disorders there
tests or other actors su ch as inormation rom relatives. is a list o symptom s that the clinician could look or in order
n Clinicians u se psychological assessm ent and d iagnostic to diagnose correctly. A new th version is on its way. The
man u als to make d iagnosis. The d iagnostic manu als help to diagnostic manual does not identiy causes o psychological
classiy and stand ard ize d iagnosis. disorders (etiology) but m erely describes symptom s.
n Diagnosis involves matching the resu lts o the psychological
n ICD-1 0 (The International Classication o Diseases) is
assessm ent with classi cation system s su ch as DSM-I V-TR published by WH O (World H ealth Organization).
and I CD-1 0. The pu rpose o d iagnosis is to nd a treatm ent The manual uses the term m ental disorder. The diagnostic
or the patient and to make a progn osis. manual includes reerence to causes o the disorders
(etiology).

Reliability of diagnosis n Reliability o d iagnosis is a necessary prerequ isite or

n Reliability in d iagnosis m eans that clinician s shou ld be able valid ity. Rosenhahn (1 973) perorm ed a classic stu d y that
to reach the sam e correct d iagnosis consistently i they u se challenged reliability and valid ity o psychiatric d iagnosis
the sam e d iagnostic proced u re (e.g. stand ard ized clinical and showed the consequ ences o being labelled as insane.
interview, observation o the patients sym ptom s, I n this stu d y eight pseu d o-patients were d iagnosed as
neu ropsychological exam ination with scanners and su ering rom severe psychological d isord ers bu t th ey were
d iagnostic manu als). This is called inter-ju d ge reliability. in reality imposters.
n Reliability can be improved i clinicians u se stand ard ized
Cooper et al. (1 972) The US-UK Diagnostic Project
clinical interview sched u les, which d e ne and speciy sets o
n The aim o the stu d y was to investigate reliability o
symptom s to look or. The ind ivid u al psychiatrist m u st still
d iagnosis o d epression and schizophrenia.
make a su bjective interpretation o the severity o the
patients symptom s.
n The researchers asked Am erican and British psychiatrists to
d iagnose patients by watching a nu m ber o vid eotaped
n The introd u ction o d iagnostic man u als has increased
clinical interviews.
reliability o d iagnosis over the year even thou gh the
manu als are not withou t f aws.

49
 5 Abn orma l psych ol ogy

n The British psychiatrists d iagnosed the patients in the Fernando (1 991 ) Diagnosis is a social process and it is
interview to be clinically d epressed twice as oten. The not objective
Am erican psychiatrists d iagnosed the sam e patients to be n Clinical assessm ent, classi cation and d iagnosis can never
su ering rom schizophrenia twice as oten. be totally objective accord ing to Fernand o since there are
n The results indicated that the sam e cases did not result in value judgements involved . Th e d iagnostic process in
sim ilar diagnosis in the two countries. This points towards psychiatry is not the sam e as making a m ed ical d iagnosis.
problem s o reliability as well as cultural dierences in There may also be problem s in u nd erstand ing sym ptom s
interpretation o symptom s and thus in diagnosis. rom ind ivid u als in d ierent cu ltu res.

Validity of diagnosis
n Valid ity o d iagnosis reers to receiving the correct n The general practitioners (GPs) had 80% reliability in
d iagnosis. This shou ld resu lt in the correct treatm ent and a id entiying healthy ind ivid u als and 5 0% reliability in
prognosis (pred ictive valid ity). Valid ity presu pposes d iagnosis o d epression. M any GPs had problem s making a
reliability o d iagnosis. correct d iagnosis or d epression.
n I t is m u ch m ore d i cu lt to provid e a correct d iagnosis and n Generally GPs were more likely to identiy alse positive signs
give a prognosis or a psychological d isord er than or a o depression ater the rst consultation. Mitchel et al. argued
physical d isord er becau se it is not possible to observe that GPs should see patients at least twice beore making a
objective signs o the d isord er in the sam e way. diagnosis since accuracy o diagnosis was improved in studies
n The DSM -I V manu al d oes not inclu d e etiology bu t only that used several examinations over an extended period.
symptom s. Som etim es patients have symptom s that relate n Evaluation of the study: (1 ) The strengths o meta-analysis
to d ierent psychological d isord ers so it can be d i cu lt to are that it can combine data rom many studies and it is
make a valid d iagnosis. possible to generalize to a larger population; (2 ) Limitations o
Mitchel et al. (2 009) M eta-an alysis o valid ity o d iagnosis meta-analysis are that it may suer rom the problem o
o d epression publication bias; since data rom many dierent studies are
n The stu d y u sed d ata rom 41 clinical trials (with 5 0,000 used there may also be problems o interpretation o the data
patients) that had u sed sem i-stru ctu red interviews to because it is not certain that each study uses exactly the same
assess d epression. denitions.

Rosenhahn (1 973) On being sane in insane places n A ollow-up study was done later where the sta at a specic
Aim To test reliability and valid ity o d iagn osis in a natu ral psychiatric hospital were told that impostors would present
setting. Rosenhahn wanted to see i psychiatrists cou ld d istingu ish themselves at the hospital and that they should try to rate each
between abnormal and normal behaviou r. patient whether he or she was an impostor. O the 1 93 patients,
Procedure This was a covert participant observation with eight 41 were clearly identied as impostors by at least one member
participants consisting o ve m en and three wom en (inclu d ing o the sta, 23 were suspected to be impostors by one
Rosenhahn him sel). Their task was to ollow the sam e instru ctions psychiatrist, and 1 9 were suspected by one psychiatrist and one
and present them selves in 1 2 psychiatric hospitals in the U SA. The sta member. There were no impostors.
participants were told to report hearing voices. Evaluation
Results n This controversial study was conducted nearly 40 years ago but
n All participants were admitted to various psychiatric wards and it had an enormous impact in psychiatry. It sparked o a
all but one were diagnosed with schizophrenia. The last one discussion and revision o diagnostic procedures as well as
was diagnosed with manic depression. discussion o the consequences o diagnosis or patients. The
developm ent o diagnostic manuals has increased reliability and
n All pseu d o-patients behaved normally while th ey were
validity o diagnosis although the diagnostic tools are not
hospitalized becau se they were told that they wou ld only get
without faws.
ou t i th e sta perceived them to be well enou gh.
n The m ethod u sed raises ethical issu es (the sta were not told
n The pseu d o-patients took notes when they were hospitalized
abou t the research) bu t it was ju sti ed since the resu lts
bu t this was interpreted as a symptom o their illness by the
provid ed evid ence o problem s in d iag nosis which cou ld
sta. I t took between 7 to 5 2 d ays beore the participants
ben e t others. There were seriou s ethical issu es in the
were released . They cam e ou t with a d iagnosis (schizophrenia
ollow-u p stu d y since the sta thou ght that impostors wou ld
in rem ission) so they were labelled .
present, bu t they were real patients and may not have had the
treatm ent that they need ed .

Exam Tip This study can be used as empirical research in unit 5.1 to
examine concepts of normality and abnormality.

50
5.3 Discuss cultural and ethical considerations in
diagnosis

Cultural considerations in diagnosis

Ballanger et al. (2 001 ) su ggest that variations in d iagnosis Cu ltu re may inf u ence psychiatric d iag nosis in several ways.
across cu ltu res d o not necessarily ref ect social or m ed ical 1. Dierent cu ltu ral grou ps have d ierent attitu d es to
reality. There may be u nknown actors inf u encing d iagnosis, psychological d isord ers that m ight inf u ence the reporting
e.g. d ierent m ethod s o clinical assessm ent, d ierences in o symptom s an d d iagnosis (e.g. d u e to stigmatization).
classication, lack o cu ltu rally appropriate instru m en ts 2 . Cu ltu ral bias in d iagnosis (i.e. the clinician d oes not observe
su ch as stand ard ized clinical interviews, or problem s in relation certain symptom s becau se he or she is not am iliar with the
to translation o the clinical interviews. For these reasons, expression o d istress in a particu lar cu ltu re).
d iagnosis is also linked to cu ltu ral variation in the prevalence
3. Cu ltu re-bou nd syndrom es (d isord ers that are speci c to a
o d isord ers.
particu lar cu ltu re) cou ld be d i cu lt to recog nize or
clinicians. This cou ld prevent people rom being treated .

Emic or etic in diagnosis? Misdiagnosis due to cultural dierences in expression

n The universalist approach (etic) to diagnosis emphasizes the o symptoms
cross-cultural equivalence o diagnostic concepts and n Jacobs et al. (1 998) investigated a sample o I nd ian
underlying processes. Symptom s and disorders are wom en in a general practice in Lond on. The d octors were
maniestations o universal underlying processes. not likely to d etect d epression i the wom en d id n ot d isclose
n The relativist approach (emic) to diagnosis emphasizes a all their sym ptom s. The sam e has been ou nd in research
undamental role o culture in psychopathology. Culture shapes with cu ltu ral m inorities in the U SA and in Au stralia.
symptoms and how people experience distress as well as their n People rom trad itional cu ltu res may not d istingu ish
belies about causes and consequences o such problems. between em otions and physical symptom s. For example,
n Clinicians cou ld u se u niversal clinical interviews and a Chinese people have lower rates o d epression and tend to
classi cation system like the DSM-I V (i.e. taking an etic d eny d epression or express it somatically (Zhang et al.
approach); or they cou ld u se cu ltu rally speci c instru m ents 1 998). I n the 1 980s, ou r ths o psychiatric patients in
that are d eveloped to be u sed in a speci c cu ltu re (i.e. China were d iagnosed with neu rasthenia, a d isord er that
taking an emic approach). I n reality, m ost clinicians u se the inclu d es somatic, cognitive and em otional sym ptom s in
u niversal classi cation system s. ad d ition to any d epressive symptom s. This concept ts well
with the trad itional Chinese explanation o d isease as a
n Kirmayer (2 001 ) argues that even though DSM-IV includes
d isharm ony o vital organs and im balance o Qi (the
suggestions or a cultural interpretation o disorders, it still
Chinese term or lie orce or energy f ow).
represents Western concepts o illness and thereore it may
not be easily applied to other cultures. n Bhugra et al. (1 997 ) carried ou t a ocu s grou p interview
with Pu njabi wom en in Lond on. The wom en knew the term
n Bhui (1 999) argu es that d iagnostic system s are necessary
d epression bu t the old er ones u sed term s like weight on
or comparisons between d ierent cu ltu res, and thereore it
my heart or pressu re on the m ind . They also talked abou t
is necessary to d e ne concepts o d epression in accord with
sym ptom s o gas and heat. These term s are in
psychiatric and ind igenou s belie system s.
accord ance with trad itional I nd ian m ed icine m od els o hot
and cold .

Case: culture and depression in China Neurasthenia the Chinese version o depression?
n One o the m ost discussed cross-cultural dierences in n N eu rasthenia is a d iagnosis that is not present in the DSM
psychopathology was that depression was apparently very system . I t is a Chinese d iagnostic category signiying a
rare in China. Zhang et al. (1 998) reported a survey in 1 2 weakness o nerves.
regions in China in 1 993 where only 1 6 out o 1 9,2 23 people n The d iag nosis cou ld be seen as a Ch inese variation o
said they had suered rom a m ood disorder at som e point in d epression characterized by bod ily sym ptom s, atigu e and
their lie. This suggests a prevalence rate substantially lower d epressed eelings. This d isord er is m u ch m ore com m on in
than in the U SA. China than d epression. One reason cou ld be that this
n Accord ing to Tseng and H su (1 970) the Chinese are very d iagnosis is less stigmatizing in the Chinese cu ltu re.
con cerned with the bod y and tend to maniest neu rasthenic n Anoth er reason cou ld be that the concept o neu rasthenia
sym ptom s su ch as exhau stion, sleep problem s, ts better with the trad itional way o explaining cau ses o
con centration d i cu lties, and other sym ptom s sim ilar to the d isease in term s o d isharm ony o vital organs and
physical aspects o d epression and anxiety. im balan ce o Qi. Diagnosis in trad itional Chinese m ed icin e
m eans nd ing h ow Qi is blocked or im balances o Qi.

51
 5 Abn orma l psych ol ogy

Kleinman (1 982) Neurasthenia at a psychiatric hospital n N eu rasthenia cou ld be a speci c Chinese way o expressing
in China d epression in somatic ways since the majority o th e
n The aim o the stu d y was to investigate i neu rasthenia in patients in the stu d y only presented physical sym ptom s.
China cou ld be sim ilar to d epression in DSM-I I I . n I t wou ld be d i cu lt to com pare these d ata to Western d ata
n Kleinman interviewed 1 00 patients d iagnosed with becau se patients d o not make the sam e complaints d u ring
neu rasthenia u sing stru ctu red interviews based on DSM-I I I d iagnosis. This shows one o the concerns in cross-cu ltu ral
d iagnostic criteria. d iagnosis. Somatization is perhaps the cu ltu ral m od e o
n H e ou nd that 87 % o the patients cou ld be classi ed as d istress in China bu t in the West the m ost com m on m od e o
su ering rom d epression; 90% complained o head aches, d istress is psychologization (e.g. reerence to m ood ).
78% o insom nia (sleep problem s), 73% o d izziness, and n The im plication o su ch n d ings are that Western clinicians
48% o variou s pains. Depressed m ood was only given as shou ld pay attention to somatization wh en they work with
th e main complain t in 9% o the cases. Chinese patients bu t they shou ld at the sam e tim e be
careu l not to overd iag nose d epression ju st becau se the
patient complain s o pain.

Ethical considerations in diagnosis n Considerations of normality and abnormality: Ethical

n Correct diagnosis and treatment: Ethical consideration in issu es in d iag nosis cou ld also reer to considerations o
diagnosis could reer to reliability and validity o a diagnosis. normality and abnormality (see u nit 5.1 ). I t wou ld be
A reliable and valid diagnosis is the prerequisite or a correct ethically wrong to d iagnose a patient with a psychiatric
treatment bu t u nortu nately the d iagnostic process is not d isord er i the patient is not ill an d in need o treatm ent. I t
withou t problem s. Many d isord ers are not easy to id entiy wou ld also be ethically wrong not to make a correct
correctly because they oten occur together with symptoms o d iagnosis i a patient needs treatm ent.
other d isord ers (the problem o com orbid ity). For exam ple, n Stigmatization: Rosenhahn (1 975) claimed that a psychiatric
many patien ts with bu lim ia also su er rom d epression. diagnosis carries a personal, legal, and social stigma . H e
n Biases in diagnosis: There may be various biases in the dem onstrated that a diagnosis o a serious m ental illness
diagnostic process (e.g. gender bias, ethnicity bias or age (schizophrenia) could be based on lim ited inormation. H e
bias) preventing a correct diagnosis. Clinicians may also be also argued that a psychiatric diagnosis is oten associated
infuenced by conrmation bias, i.e. having made a diagnosis with signicant consequences in term s o being considered
they may not perceive inormation that contradicts it. deviant (social stigma).

Jenkins-Hall and Sacco (1 991 ) Ethnicity bias For example, a black patient wou ld be d iagnosed as
in diagnosis? d epressed even in the absence o d epressed sym ptom s.
n The research ers presented vid eotapes o a person in therapy
to a nu m ber o Eu ropean Am erican male and emale Broverman et al. (1 970) Gender bias in diagnosis?
th erapists. The vid eos presented d ierent situ ations (e.g. n Rosser (1 992 ) argued that many psychiatrists are males
th e patient was male or emale, black or white, with whose perspective is situated within normative gender roles
d epressed symptom s or non-d epressed symptom s). and a patriarchal culture. For example , i a woman is
unhappy about her role as housewie and m other because
n The resu lts showed that white therapists were m ore likely to
she is stressed and bored, a male psychiatrist could diagnose
make a alse-positive d iagnosis i the patient was black.
her with depression. This would be an example o
overdiagnosis.

52
5.4 Describe symptoms and prevalence of one
disorder from two of the following groups:
anxiety disorders, affective disorders, eating
disorders

Prevalence is a statistical concept in m ed icine (or psychiatry). I t their lietim e. Prevalence rates change cross-cu ltu rally and
reers to the percentage o ind ivid u als within a popu lation who between gend ers.
are aected by a specif c d isord er either cu rrently or d u ring

Affective disorder: major depression 1 7.1 %. The N ational I nstitu te o Men tal H ealth (N I M H ) in
the U SA ou nd that lietim e prevalence o d epression was
Symptoms 1 6.6% with 1 3.2 % or males and 2 0.2 or emales (Kessler
Typical symptom s o major d epression (d epressive episod es et al. 2 005).
withou t mania) accord ing to the DSM-I V-TR inclu d e n Andrade and Caraveo (2 003) ou nd that lietim e
n Physiological: Fatigue or loss o energy, signifcant weight
prevalence o d epression varies across cu ltu res (e.g. 3% in
loss or gain, loss o appetite, headaches, and pain.
Japan and 1 7 % in the U SA).
n Cognitive: Feelings o worthlessness or excessive g u ilt; n Poongothai et al. (2 009) ound an overall prevalence rate o
d if cu lties concentrating; negative attitu d es toward s the
depression in the city o Chennai in South India o 1 5.9. The
sel, the world and the u tu re. (Feelings o gu ilt and
study was based on 2 5,455 participants. Depression was
worthlessness seem to be sym ptom s that are primarily
assessed through a sel-report instrument (The Patient H ealth
experienced in Western cu ltu res).
Questionnaire). Depressed mood was the most common
n Emotional: Distress and sadness, loss o interest in the world. symptom (30.8%) ollowed by atigue (30.0%). Suicidal
n Behavioural: Distu rbed sleep patterns, sel-d estru ctive thoughts were less common (1 2 .4%). Generally, depression
behaviou r (su icid al thou ghts), and avoid ance o social rates were higher in the low income group (1 9.3 %) compared
company. to the higher income group (5.9). Prevalence o depression
was also higher among divorced (2 6.5%) and widowed
Prevalence (2 0%) compared to currently married respondents (1 5.4%).
n The N ational Com orbid ity Stu d y (1 994) ou nd that n Kessler et al. (1 993) ou n d a lietim e prevalence or major
prevalence or lietim e major d epression in the U SA was d epression o 21 .3% in wom en compared to 1 2 .7 % in m en.

Eating disorder: bulima nervosa an d the U K. APA (2 000) estimated 1 3% o you ng ad u lt

emales to have Bu lim ia. Th e d isord er occu rs m u ch less
Symptoms requ ently in m en.
Typical symptom s o bu lim ia accord ing to the DSM -I V-TR n Drewnowski et al. (1 988) cond u cted a telephone su rvey
inclu d e:
with a representative sam ple o 1 ,007 male and emale
n Physiological: N u tritional d ef ciencies and horm onal
stu d ents in the U SA. They ou nd that 1 % o the wom en
changes cou ld lead to d istu rbances in the m enstru al cycle,
and 0.2 % o the m en were classif ed as bu lim ic. Bu lim ia
atigu e, d igestive problem s, m u scle cramping.
nervosa was m ost prevalent am ong u nd ergrad u ate wom en
n Cognitive: Distorted bod y image, low sel-esteem , sense o living on campu s (2 .2 %).
lack o control d u ring binge-eating episod es. n Keel and Klump (2 003) perorm ed a m eta-analysis o
n Emotional: Fear o becom ing at (at phobia), bod y research on bulim ia nervosa and ound an increase in people
d issatisaction, and d epressed m ood . diagnosed with bulim ia rom 1 970 to 1 993. There are no
n Behavioural: Sel-starvation in com bination with recu rrent incidence data or bulimia prior to 1 970. The diagnostic
binge eating episod es and compensatory behaviou r su ch as criteria or bulim ia have becom e m ore stringent over the
vom iting and m isu se o laxatives to avoid weight gain. years and this has resulted in the increase o incidences.
According to the researchers, sel-report surveys tend to
Prevalence produce higher estimates o bulim ia nervosa prevalence than
n Fairburn and Beglin (1 990) ou nd that bu lim ia nervosa structured clinical interviews.
aected between 1 and 2 % o you ng wom en in the U SA

53
 5.5 Analysethinking
Critical etiologies (in terms
(analysis, of biological,
evaluation etc.)
cognitive and/or sociocultural factors) of
one disorder from two of the following
groups: anxiety disorders, affective disorders,
eating disorders
Etiology m eans the scienti c stu d y o cau ses or origins o biological in origin, the treatm ent shou ld also be biological (the
d iseases or abnormal behaviou r. The reason psychiatrists are biom ed ical m od el). This u nit will analyse etiologies o one
interested in etiology is the assu mption that treatm ent shou ld aective d isord er (major d epression) and one eating d isord er
be related to the cau se o th e d isord er, e.g. i the d isord er is (bu lim ia nervosa).

Affective disorder: major depression

Biological factors develop depressive symptoms. The results did not support that
levels o serotonin could infuence depression and they argued
Neurotransmitters: The serotonin hypothesis that it is necessary to revise the serotonin hypothesis.
n The serotonin hypothesis su ggests that d epression is cau sed Kirsch et al. (2 002 ) ou nd that there was pu blication bias in
by low levels o serotonin (Coppen, 1 967 ). Serotonin is a research on eectiveness o SSRI in d epression. I n act, i the
neu rotransm itter prod u ced in speci c neu rons in the brain resu lts o all stu d ies (in clu d ing the ones that had not been
and th ey are called serotonergic neu rons becau se they pu blished ) were pooled it wou ld seem that the placebo eect
prod u ce serotonin. accou nted or 80% o the anti-d epressant response. O the
n Anti-d epressan ts in the orm o selective serotonin reu ptake stu d ies u nd ed by pharmaceu tical com panies, 57 % ailed to
inhibitor (SSRI ) block the reu ptake process or serotonin. show a statistically signi cant d ierence between anti-
This resu lts in an in creased am ou nt o the serotonin in the d epressant and a neu tral placebo. This an d sim ilar stu d ies cast
syn aptic gap. The theory is that this increases serotonergic d ou bt on th e serotonin hypothesis.
nerve activity lead ing to improvem ent in m ood .
Evaluation of the serotonin hypothesis of depression:
n SSRI dru gs su ch as Prozac, Zolot, and Paxil are now am ong n There is som e evid ence that serotonin may be involved in
the m ost com m only sold anti-d epressants and this has been d epression and that this may be linked to stress and stress
taken as ind irect su pport o the serotonin hypothesis. horm ones su ch as cortisol.
Accord ing to Lacasse and Leo (2 005) this is an example o n Sci en ti c resea rch ha s a il ed to sh ow a cl ea r li n k
backward reasoning. Assu m ption s abou t the cau ses o between seroton i n l evels a n d d epression . Th e a ct that
d epression are based on how people respond to a treatm ent anti-d epressant dru gs like the SSRI s can regu late serotonin
and th is is logically problematic. level s a n d prod u ce a n eect d oes n ot m ea n that low
Henninger et al. (1 996) perormed experiments where they seroton i n l evels ca u se d epressi on .
reduced serotonin levels in healthy individuals to see i they would

Genetic predisposition twins share only arou nd 5 0%. The assu mption is that i a
This theory o genetic pred isposition is based on the pred isposition or a psychiatric d isord er is inherited , th en
assu m ption that d isord ers have a genetic origin. I n ord er to concord ance rates shou ld be higher in M Z twins than in DZ
stu d y this, researchers stu d y twins and am ilies. I n the twin twins. I one twin is d iagn osed with a d isord er and the other
m ethod both m onozygotic twins (M Z) and d izygotic twins (DZ) twin is also d iagnosed with the sam e d isord er, the twins are
are compared . M Z twins share 1 00% o their genes bu t DZ said to be concord ant.

Nurnberger and Gershon (1 982 ) reviewed seven twin studies on Sullivan et al. (2 000) con d u cted a m eta-an a lysis o twin stu d ies
major depression. The results indicated that genes could be a actor in clu d in g 21 ,000 twin s to in vestigate th e g en etic in f u en ce on
in depression. The concordance rates or major depression were major d epression . Th ey ou n d that M Z twin s were m ore tha n
consistently higher or MZ twins (65% on average across the studies) twice a s likely to d evelop major d epression i th eir co-twin ha d
than or DZ twins (1 4%). This supports the theory that genetic th e d isord er com pa red to DZ twin s. On avera g e th e stud y sh owed
actors could predispose people to depression. Since the concordance that g en etic in f u en ce in d evelopin g major d epression wa s
rate is ar below 1 00% nothing denite can be said about genetic between 31 % a n d 42 %. Th e stu d y a lso sh owed that non-sha red
inheritance except that environmental and individual psychological en viron m en ta l actors were im portan t. Th e resea rch ers con clu d ed
actors could also play an important role in etiology. There is also the that major d epression is a am ilia l d isord er with a strong g en etic
problem with co-morbidity: people suering rom depression oten com pon en t a n d that it is a com plex d isord er resu ltin g rom th e
suer rom other psychological disorders as well (e.g. anxiety, and in teraction o g en etic a n d en viron m en tal in f u en ces.
eating disorders).

54
 5 Abn orma l psych ol ogy

Evaluation of the genetic theory of depression environm ental actors su ch as continu ou s stress seem to play an
There seem s to be a gen etic vu lnerability to d epression (as seen important role in the d evelopm en t o the d isord er as well.
in the twin stu d ies) bu t d epression is a complex d isord er and

Exam Tip You could also use information from Unit 2.8 on the possible
role of the 5- HTT gene in vulnerability to depression (Caspi et al. 2003).

Cognitive factors n Boury et al. (2 001 ) investigated Becks theory and ou nd a

This approach to etiology d eals with the role o thinkin g and signi cant correlation between am ou nt o negative
negative cognitive schemas called d epressogenic schemas. au tomatic thou ghts and the severity o d epression. The
stu d y also showed that the d u ration o d epression was
Beck (1 976) Cognitive theory o depression inf u enced by the requ ency o negative cognitions. The
(negative cognitive triad) researchers argu ed that it is d i cu lt to d eterm ine whether
n Accord ing to this theory d epression is cau sed by inaccu rate cognitive d istortions cau sed d epression or i d epression
cognitive responses to events in the orm o negative resu lted in cognitive d istortions.
thinking abou t onesel and the world . Peoples consciou s Evaluation of Beck's cognitive theory of depression
thou ghts are in f u enced by negative cogn itive schemas n The theory has resu lted in a valu able instru m ent to m easu re
abou t the sel and the world (d epressogenic schemas). This d epression (The Beck Depression I nventory: BDI ) and an
resu lts in n egative au tomatic thou ghts and d ysu nctional eective psychological treatm en t (cognitive behaviou ral
belies. This explanation is contrary to trad itional theories therapy). Th e theory has also generated a large am ou nt
abou t d epression where negative thinking is seen as a o research.
symptom o d epression and not th e cau se. n The theory is eective in describing many characteristics o
n Becks theory can be seen within th e diathesis-stress model depression. For example, depressed individuals are
o d epression. Depressive thinking an d belies considerably m ore negative in their thinking than non-
(d epressogenic schemas) are assu m ed to d evelop d u ring depressed individuals. People who suer rom depression
child hood and ad olescence as a u nction o negative generally think m ore negatively about them selves and the
experiences with parents or other im portant people. The world, even when they are not depressed.
d epressogenic schemas constitu te a vu lnerability (d iathesis) n The lim itation o Becks th eory is perhaps that it is d i cu lt
that inf u ences an ind ivid u al s reaction when aced with
to con rm that it is the negative thinking pattern s that
stressors (e.g. negative lie events or rejection). Su ch events
cau se d epression bu t there has been som e empirical
tend to prod u ce negative au tomatic thou ghts (cognitive
su pport o the cau sal aspects o the theory. Lewinshohn et
biases) based on three th em es: negative thou ghts abou t the
al. (2 001 ) ou nd that negative thinking, d issatisaction with
sel, the world , and the u tu re (negative cognitive triad ).
onesel and high levels o lie stressors preced ed episod es o
Negative views about d epression. The stu d y was a longitu d inal prospective stu d y
the world with 1 ,5 00 ad olescents. The participants who started ou t
Everybody
hates me with high levels o d ysu nctional belies were m ore likely to
because I am d evelop major d epression ater a stressu l lie event. This
worthless
con rm s that d ysu nctional belies (cognitive vu lnerability)
may play a role in triggering d epression ater major stress
Negative views about Negative views about since participants who scored low or m ed iu m in
oneself the future d ysu nctional belies d id not d evelop d epression ater a
I am Ill never be good at
worthless anything because stressu l lie event.
everyone hates me

55
 5 Abn orma l psych ol ogy

Sociocultural factors m ore likely to be diagnosed with depression than m en and

n Social actors su ch as poverty or living in a violent one reason could be linked to the stress o being responsible
relationship have been linked to d epression . Wom en are or many young children and lack o social support.

Brown and Harris (1 978) Social actors in depression three children u nd er 1 4 years at hom e, u nemploym ent and early
Aim: To investigate how d epression cou ld be linked to social maternal loss, in com bination with acu te or ong oing seriou s
actors and stressu l lie events in a sample o wom en rom social stressors, were likely to provoke d epressive episod es.
Lond on (vu lnerability-stress m od el o d epression). Evaluation The stu d y was exceptional in that it showed that
Procedure I n Lond on, 45 8 wom en were su rveyed on their lie an d social actors (and not only personality actors) were involved in
d epressive episod es. The researchers u sed in terviews where they d evelopm ent o d epression. The resu lts were extrem ely im portant
ad dressed particu lar lie events and how the wom en had coped . at establishing a new approach in u nd erstand ing d epression .
Results I n the previou s year, 37 wom en (8% o all the wom en) Etiology o d epression now oten inclu d es consid eration o social
had been d epressed . O these, 33 (90%) had experienced an actors. The sample in the stu d y was gend er biased (on ly emale
ad verse lie event or a seriou s d i cu lty. Working-class wom en respond en ts) so it is not possible to generalize the nd ings
with children were ou r tim es m ore likely to d evelop d epression to m en. The sem i-stru ctu red interview was u seu l to gather
than m id d le-class wom en with children. The researchers ou nd in-d epth inormation o how the wom en perceived their own
that vu lnerability actors su ch as lack o social su pport, m ore than situ ation.

Evaluation of the sociocultural theory of depression expectations o wom en taking care o the children and the
The theory has received su pport not only rom the key stu d y by hou sehold . Wom en are also m ore likely to be exposed to
Brown and H arris (1 978). I t is gen erally accepted that social violence, which cou ld explain the higher prevalence o
stressors (e.g. war, u rbanization, or restricted g end er roles) play d epression in wom en.
a role in m ental health. I n the case o wom en, there are cu ltu ral

Eating disorder: Bulimia nervosa

Bu lim ia nervosa is a seriou s psychological d isord er compensatory behaviou rs su ch as d ieting, vom iting, excessive
characterized by binge eating episod es ollowed by exercise and m isu se o laxatives (see u nit 5.4 or symptom s).

Biological factors Evaluation The results indicate a heritability o 55 %, but this

leaves 45% or other actors. Genetic vulnerability may predispose
Kendler et al. (1 991 ) Twin research to study genetic an individual but other actors trigger the disorder and it is
vulnerability in bulimia nervosa important to investigate environm ental actors that m ight interact
Aim To investigate risk actors and genetic inheritance in bu lim ia with the genetic predisposition. The study was a natural
nervosa. experim ent so the researchers did not manipulate variables and
Procedure A sam ple o 2 ,1 63 emale twins participated in the there was no control, so it is not possible to establish a cause-eect
stu d y. One o the twin s in each pair had d eveloped bu lim ia. The relationship. The participants were all wom en so the nd ings
study was longitudinal and the researchers conducted interviews cannot be gen eralized to m en. I t is also qu estionable wheth er
with the twins to see i the other twin would develop bulim ia and i twin s are representative o the popu lation. The stu d y d oes not
concordance rates were higher in m onozygotic twins (MZ) than in take environm ental actors into accou nt. I t cou ld be that twins
dizygotic twins (DZ). grow u p in the sam e d ysu nction al environm ent. I t is very d i cu lt
Results Overall the concord ance rate or bu lim ia was 2 3 % in M Z to nd ou t the relative importance o genetic inheritance and
twins compared to 9% in DZ twins. environm ental actors.

Cognitive factors body shape (1 ) most sim ilar to their own shape, (2 ) m ost like
their ideal body shape, and (3) the body shape o the
Body-image distortion hypothesis opposite sex to which they would be m ost attracted. Wom en
n Bruch (1 962 ) claim ed that many patients with eating consistently indicated that their current body shape was
d isord ers su er rom th e cognitive d elu sion that they are heavier than the m ost attractive body shape. Their ideal body
at. I t may be that when patients evalu ate their own bod y shape was also m uch thinner than the one they had chosen
size, they are inf u enced by em otional appraisal rather than as sim ilar to their own body shape. Men chose very sim ilar
their perceptu al experience. gures or all three body shapes. The researchers concluded
n Fallon and Rozin (1 985) showed nine pictures o dierent that m ens perceptions helped them stay satised with their
body shapes, rom very thin to very heavy, to 475 U S body shape whereas wom ens perceptions put pressure on
undergraduates o both sexes and asked them to indicate the them to lose weight. These sex dierences could probably be

56
 5 Abn orma l psych ol ogy

linked to a higher prevalence o dieting, anorexia, and weight to stay thin and they base their sel-worth on being
bulim ia among Am erican wom en than among Am erican thin, i.e. they have a weight-related sel-schema that distorts
m en. the way they perceive and interpret their experiences. For
som e people, their concerns and prioritization o weight
Weight-related schemata model control may refect a wider lack o sel-esteem and a
n Fairburn (1 997) suggested that people with eating disorders vulnerability to cultural m essages about body weight. They
had distorted weight-related schema and low sel-esteem . The think they will eel better i they lose weight but this
distorted belies and attitudes towards body shape and obsession with weight control may lead to depression and
weight develop partly because o the high status given to intensied eelings o low sel-esteem because weight control
looking thin and attractive. Individuals strive to control body is the major way o maintaining sel-worth.

Sociocultural factors o intense weight and body-image concern that places them at
n Perceptions o the perect bod y are inf u enced by cu ltu ral risk or disordered eating behaviour such as bulimia nervosa.
id eals. I n the West, images o the id eal bod y shape or Jaeger et al. (2 002 ) cond u cted a cross-cu ltu ral investigation o
wom en have changed over the years rom an hou rglass the relationship between bod y d issatisaction and the
shape to a slim m er shape. d evelopm ent o bu lim ia nervosa.
n According to Wardle and Marsland (1 990) body shape can n A cross-cu ltu ral sample o 1 ,751 emale m ed ical and nu rsing
be a major criterion in sel-evaluation and evaluation o others. stu d en ts rom 1 2 nations participated .
Many people have prejudices against overweight people. n The participants saw a series o 1 0 bod y silhou ettes,
Levine et al. (1 994) investigated the relationship between d esigned to be as cu ltu re-n eu tral as possible in ord er to
sociocu ltu ral actors and eating attitu d es and behaviou rs. m easu re bod y d issatisaction . The participants BMI was
n In the USA, 385 middle school girls (aged 1 01 4 years) taken, and they answered qu estions on bod y d issatisaction,
answered questions about eating behaviour, body satisaction, sel-esteem , and d ieting behaviou r.
concern with being slender, parents and peers atitudes, and n The m ost extrem e body dissatisaction was ound in northern
magazines with regard to weight management techniques Mediterranean countries, ollowed by northern European
and the importance o being thin. countries. Countries in the process o westernization showed
n The majority o the respond ents said they received clear an interm ediate am ount o body dissatisaction. N on-western
m essag es rom ashion magazin es, peers and am ily countries showed the lowest levels. Body dissatisaction was
m em bers that it is important to be slim . They also said that the m ost important actor in dieting behaviour in m ost
the sam e sou rces encou raged d ieting or other m ethod s to countries and it was ound to be independent o sel-esteem
keep a slend er gu re. and BMI.
n The stu d y ou nd two important actors in the drive or n The resu lts ind icated that the bod y shapes represented in
thinness and d istu rbed patterns o eatin g: (1 ) read ing the m ed ia cou ld en cou rage d issatisaction with bod y shape
magazines con taining inormation abou t id eal bod y shapes and d ieting behaviou r.
and weight managem ent and (2 ) weight-related or n The study used culture as a variable but it is impossible rom
shape-related teasing or criticism by am ily. these results to say that culture causes bulim ia because
n The results indicate that body dissatisaction and weight culture is not a controlled variable. The study only ocused
concerns refect sociocultural ideals o a emale role and raises on sociocultural actors and other actors (e.g. biological)
the possibility that some adolescent girls live in a subculture were not considered. The results cannot be generalized to
m en.

57
 5.6 Discuss cultural and gender variation in
prevalence of disorders

Prevalence is a statistical concept in m ed icine (or psychiatry). I t section. (See also u nits 5.5 on cu ltu ral consid erations in
reers to the percen tage o ind ivid u als within a popu lation who diagnosis especially cu ltu re and d epression in China and 5.6
are aected by a speci c d isord er at a given tim e. Two d isord ers on prevalence).
(major d epression and bu lim ia nervosa) will be ad dressed in th is

Cultural variation in prevalence of depression n Marsella et al. (2 002 ) argue that depression has long been
n Weisman et al. (1 996) ound cross-cultural variation in data a major topic o concern in Western m edical history but it
rom 1 0 countries. The study ound that the lietime seem s that depression is now becom ing the worlds orem ost
prevalence o depression ranged rom 1 9.0 % (Beirut in psychiatric problem because o global challenges such as war,
Lebanon) to 1 .5 % (Taiwan). Korea had rates o depression natural disasters, racism , poverty, cultural collapse, ageing
twice as high as those in Taiwan (2 .9%) although they are populations, urbanizations, and rapid social and
both Asian countries. Paris had a rate (1 6.4%) close to that technological changes. There is growing evidence that rates
o Beirut although Beirut had experienced war or 1 5 years. o depression are increasing, particularly in individuals born
Wom en had a higher rate than m en in all countries. The ater the Second World War.
researchers argue that dierent risk actors, social stigma,
cultural reluctance to endorse mental symptom s as well as
m ethodological lim itations o the study may account or
some o the dierences.

Possible explanations o cultural variation in the prevalence o depression

Differences in social and cultural background Variation in sym ptom s cou ld ind icate that symptom s o
n Dutton (2 009) nd s that cu ltu ral variation in prevalence o d epression can be cu ltu rally inf u enced . See Kleinman
major d epression cou ld be d u e to cu ltu ral d ierences in (1 982 ) on neu rasthenia as an alternative d iagnosis or
stress, stand ard s o living, and reporting bias. People in d epression which cou ld explain a cu ltu ral variation in the
som e cou ntries have m u ch hard er lives. They may be prevalence o d epression (u nit 5.3).
exposed to war, civil war, rapid political and econom ic
changes, crim e, and d iscrim ination. Unem ploym ent an d U rbanization
stand ard s o living also d ier across cu ltu ral grou ps. n Marsella (1 995) proposed that u rban settings are
associated with increased stress d u e to problem s o hou sing ,
n Sartorius et al. (1 983) ou nd that there are su bstantial
work, marriage, child rearing, secu rity, and other u rban
cu ltu ral d ierences in the stigma associated with m ental
d i cu lties. U rban crowd ing, poor working cond itions or
health problem s. I t cou ld be that ind ivid u als in cu ltu res
u nd eremploym ent, chronic hu nger, gend er d iscrim ination,
wh ere psychological d isord ers are associated with stigma
lim ited ed u cation and hu man rights violation s are all
(e.g. the M id d le East or China) are m ore likely to report
thou ght to weaken both ind ivid u als and the social su pport
physical pain instead o psychological problem s.
that cou ld serve as bu ers against m ental health problem s.

Gender variation in prevalence of depression n Wom ens lietim e prevalence or major d epressive d isord er in
n Accord ing to N olen-H oeksema (2 001 ) wom en are abou t the U SA was ou nd to be 21 .3% compared to 1 2 .7 % or
twice as likely as m en to d evelop d epression. She argu es m en (Kessler et al. 1 993). Females are m ore likely to
that in spite o three d ecad es o research on gend er report physical and psychological symptom an d to seek
d ierence in d epression, it has not been possible to nd a m ed ical help.
variable that single-hand ed ly can accou nt or the gend er n Accord ing to Piccinelli and Wilkinson (2 000) the gend er
d ierence in d epression. d ierences in d epression are genu ine and not ju st a resu lt
o d ierences in d iagnostic proced u res.

58
 5 Abn orma l psych ol ogy

Possible explanations or gender variation in Sociocultural factors

prevalence o depression n Womens low power and status: N olen-H oeksema
(2 001 ) Wom en have less power and statu s than m en in
Biological factors: hormones m ost societies. They are m ore likely to experience sexu al
n Biological explanations or wom ens higher vu lnerability abu se, constrained choices, poverty, and lack o respect.
to d epression have ocu sed on the eect o sex horm ones These actors can contribu te d irectly to d epression
(oestrogen and progesterone) on m ood . Accord ing to becau se they make wom en eel that th ey are not in
N olen-H oeksema (2 001 ) there is little scienti c su pport control o th eir lives. Wom ens social roles carry a nu m ber
to the theory that wom en are m ore d epressed than m en o chronic strains, which cou ld contribu te d irectly or
only becau se o d ierences in sex horm ones. ind irectly to d epression. H igher rates o d epression in
n Ad verse experiences in child hood (e.g. child hood sexu al wom en cou ld be d u e to the act that wom en ace a
abu se) have been linked to increased risk o d eveloping nu m ber o ch ronic bu rd ens in everyd ay lie as a resu lt o
d epression partly becau se o long-term d ysregu lation o their social statu s and roles. This is su pported in Brown
the stress response system (H PA axis). Weiss et al. (1 999) and H arris (1 978) in u nit 5.5.
su ggested that wom en are m ore likely than m en to have n The role strain hypothesis suggests that social roles and
a d ysregu lated response to stress becau se they are m ore cultural infuences contribute to the higher ratio o emale
likely to have been exposed to regu lar episod es o depression. In many cultures married women have no paid
trau mas early in lie. employm ent and they have to rely on the role o housewie
n N olen-H oeksema (2 001 ) su ggests that wom en and m en or identity and sel-esteem . This may be rather rustrating
experience the sam e stressors bu t wom en seem to be at tim es and it is not highly valued in m odern society.
m ore vu lnerable to d evelop d epression becau se o Bebbington (1 998) ound that marriage could have
gend er d ierences in biological responses to stressors, negative eects on women. The researcher speculated that
sel-concepts or coping styles. Experiences o continu ou s many wom en have lim ited choices ater marriage. Staying
stress cou ld in crease physiological and psychological at hom e and looking ater small children is generally
reactivity to stress and lead to hyperactitviy o the stress associated with higher levels o depression.
system . This cou ld increase vu lnerability to d epression
(d iathesis-stress m od el).

Cultural variation in prevalence of bulimia Explanations o cultural variation in prevalence

n Cu ltu ral belies and attitu d es have been id enti ed as o bulimia
actors lead ing to the d evelopm ent o eating d isord ers
The Westernization hypothesis
(etiology). Prevalence o eating d isord ers varies am ong n Accord ing to Rubinstein and Caballero (2 000) eating
d ierent ethnic and cu ltu ral grou ps and across tim e within
d isord ers seem to have becom e m ore com m on am ong
su ch grou ps. Bu lim ia nervosa was rst id enti ed and
you nger emales ater the Second World War, where emale
classi ed as a speci c d isord er in 1 979.
beau ty id eals have grad u ally becom e thinner. This is
n Makino et al. (2 004) compared prevalence o eating ref ected in the increase o articles on d ieting in wom ens
d isord ers in Western and non-Western cou ntries based on a magazines in the sam e period as well as in thinner icons o
review o pu blished m ed ical articles. They ou nd that emale beau ty (e.g. Miss Am erica).
prevalence rates in Western cou ntries or bu lim ia n ervosa n One explanation or the developm ent o eating disorders such
ranged rom 0.3 % to 7.3% in emales and rom 0% to
as bulim ia in non-Western countries is a perceived social
2 .1 % in males. Prevalence rates or bu lim ia in non-Western
pressure to conorm to the standards o emale beauty
cou ntries ranged rom 0.46% to 3.2 % in emales. The stu d y
imposed by modern industrial society or Western culture.
conclu d ed that prevalence o eating d isord ers appears to be
increasing in non-Western cou ntries bu t it is still lower than
in Western cou ntries.

Nasser (1 994) u sed qu estionnaires to investigate eating attitu d es bod y was still consid ered attractive and d esirable, and was
in a sample o 3 51 girls in second ary school in Egypt. H e ou nd associated with prosperity, ertility, su ccess, and econ om ic secu rity.
that 1 .2 % o th e girls u l lled the criteria or a d iag nosis o The researcher conclu d ed that no society is tru ly im m u ne to the
bu lim ia nervosa and 3.4% qu ali ed or a partial d iagnosis. The d evelopm ent o eating d isord ers becau se o the globalization o
resu lts ind icate that eating d isord ers are em erging in cu ltu res that cultu re throu gh the m ed ia.
d id not know su ch d isord ers in the past where a rou nd emale

59
 5 Abn orma l psych ol ogy

Becker et al. (2002) Impact o introduction o Western n The researchers su ggested that increasing globalization and
television on disordered eating patterns among Fijian exposu re to Western m ed ia cou ld explain the increase in
adolescent girls symptom s related to eating d isord ers in non-Western
n The f eld stu d y investigated changes in eating patterns in cou ntries. The specif c com bination o binge eating and
1 995 ater television had been introd u ced to a rem ote pu rg ing to control weight, which is the core sym ptom o
province in Fiji, and again in 1 998 when television had bu lim ia nervosa, only appeared ater introd u ction o
been available or three years). Th e trad itional Fiji bod y television. This cou ld su pport that bu lim ia is a cu ltu re-
id eal at the tim e was robu st and the pressu re to be thin bou nd syndrom e.
ou nd in many Western cou ntries was absent. n The stu d y d id not u se clinical d iagnoses, which is a
n The stu d y u sed qu antitative (su rvey) and qu alitative lim itation. There may be a tend ency to report sym ptom s
m ethod s (sem i-stru ctu red interviews) on issu es su ch as (e.g. pu rg ing) in anonym ou s sel-reports bu t a clear
television viewing, d ieting, bod y satisaction, and pu rging. d iagnosis cannot be mad e. The qu estionnaires revealed
Ad olescent girls rom two second ary schools participated . clinical signs (vom iting and bod y d issatisaction) associated
with eating d isord ers and in particu lar bu lim ia. The stu d y
n The results showed an increase in dieting and sel-induced
only inclu d ed girls so nothing can be con clu d ed on changes
vom iting to control weight rom 0% in 1 995 to 1 1 .3% in
in eating behaviou r am ong males (sample bias).
1 998.

Gender variation in prevalence of bulimia

Makino et al. (2 004) reviewed stu d ies on eating d isord ers in 1 1 Western cou ntries.
They ou nd that m ore emale participants su ered rom eating d isord ers and had
abnormal eating attitu d es than male participants.
Males Females
n M en are generally less likely to d evelop eating d isord ers, n There has been a steady increase in diagnosis o bulim ia
perhaps d u e to less pressu re on m en to conorm to an id eal nervosa in the U K rom 1 988 to 2 000 (Currin et al. 2 005)
bod y weig ht or shape (Rolss et al. 1 991 ). M en who d evelop but since 1 996 there has been a decline. This m eta-analysis
eating d isord ers tend to resem ble emales in term s o used data rom general practitioners (GPs) in the U K. The
d issatisaction with their bod y (Olivardia et al. 1 995 ). study ound that incidence o bulim ia nervosa per 1 00 was
n Certain su b-popu lation s o m en with jobs that requ ire 94 cases or emales and fve cases or males. Overall emales
weight restrictions (e.g. wrestlers and jockeys) seem to be at are more likely to be diagnosed with bulimia than males.
increased risk o d eveloping eating d isord ers. There may be n Currin et al. (2005) ound that the highest risk or bulimia
a possible link between male hom osexu ality and eating nervosa is in young women between 1 0 and 1 9. Certain
d isord ers becau se o a higher emphasis on attractiveness sub-populations such as ballerinas and models have been
and slim ness in gay su bcu ltu res (Silberstein et al. 1 989). associated with increased risk or developing eating disorders
because o high pressure to be thin.

60
5.7 Examine biomedical, individual and group
approaches to treatment

Biomedical treatment of depression n Anti-d epressants are often u sed in the treatm ent of bulimia
n The biom ed ical approach to treatm ent is based on the nervosa becau se som e patients also su ffer other d isord ers
assu mption that if a m ental problem is cau sed by biological su ch as d epression (com orbid ity).
malfu nctioning, the cu re is to restore the biological system n Anti-d epressants are also u sed to treat m inor d epressive
with dru gs. For example, the serotonin hypothesis of symptom s bu t the Am erican Food and Dru g Ad m inistration
d epression su ggests that depression is linked to low levels (FDA, 2 004) warned that u se of anti-d epressants for
of the neu rotransm itter serotonin (see u nit 5.5 ). Anti- children and ad olescents cou ld perhaps lead to an
d epressant treatm ent shou ld therefore aim to regu late increased risk of su icid e.
serotonin levels.

Selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitors (SSRI)

n Drugs that interfere with serotonin re-uptake (SSRI) are used in N eale et al. (2 01 1 ) con d u cted a m eta-analysis of pu blished
the treatment of depression. They interfere with serotonin stu d ies on the ou tcom e of anti-d epressants versu s placebo.
levels and affect mood and emotional responses positively in The stu d y focu sed on: (1 ) patients who started with anti-
most people. Anti-depressants normally take seven to 1 4 days d epressants and then changed to placebo, (2 ) patients who
to relieve depressive symptoms. only received a placebo, and (3 ) patients who only
took anti-d epressants.
n Currently the m ost widely used drugs are SSRI. They all
The stu d y fou nd that patients who d o not take anti-
increase the level of available serotonin by blocking the
d epressants have a 2 5 % risk of relapse, compared to 42 % or
reuptake process for serotonin. This results in an increased
higher for those who have been on m ed ication and then
am ount of serotonin in the synaptic gap. The theory is that
stopped it.
this increases serotonergic nerve activity leading to
According to the researchers, anti-depressants may interfere with
improvem ent in mood in depressive patients.
the brains natural self-regulation. They argue that drugs
n SSRI are popu lar becau se they have fewer sid e effects than affecting serotonin or other neurotransm itters may increase the
previou s dru gs su ch as the tricyclic antid epressants bu t n ot risk of relapse. The drugs reduce symptom s in the short term
everyone can u se SSRI . The m ost com m on sid e effects are but, when people stop taking the drug, depression may return
head ache, nau sea, sleeplessness, agitation, and sexu al because the brains natural self-regulation is disturbed.
problem s.

Individual treatment
I n ind ivid u al therapy, the therapist works one-on-one with a client. One of the m ost
wid ely u sed ind ivid u al therapies is cogn itive behaviou ral therapy (CBT).

CBT H ow CBT works

n The therapy is linked to Becks explanation of d epression Step 1 : Identify and correct faulty cognitions and unhealthy
(see u nit 5.5 ) where au tomatic negative thinking is behaviour (cognitive triad)
assu m ed to cau se d epression. CBT aim s to change negative The therapist encou rages the client to id entify thinking patterns
th inking patterns (cognitive restru ctu ring). associated with d epressive feelings. These false beliefs are
n CBT inclu d es arou nd 1 2 to 2 0 weekly sessions com bined challenged (reality testing) to give the client the possibility to
with d aily practice exercises, with a focu s on helping people correct them (cognitive restru ctu ring).
with major d epression to id entify au tomatic negative Step 2 : Increase activity and learn alternative problem
th inking patterns and change them . solving strategies
The therapist encou rages the client to grad u ally increase
activities that cou ld be reward ing su ch as sport, goin g to
concerts, or m eeting other people (behaviou ral activation).

61
 5 Abn orma l psych ol ogy

n Paykel et al. (1 999) cond u cted a controlled trial o 1 5 8 The stu d y showed that CBT was an eective treatm ent or
patients who had experienced one episod e o major eating d isord ers. CBT was eective in grou p settings. CBT-BN
d epression. The patients received antid epressant m ed ication was particu larly eective in the treatm ent o bu lim ia bu t also
bu t som e o them also received cognitive therapy. The CBT other eating d isord ers that involve bing eing.
grou p had a relapse rate o 2 9% compared to those who Wilson (1 996) reported that 5 5 % o participants in CBT
only had m ed ication. Paykel argu es that cognitive therapy program m es no longer pu rged at the end o therapy, and th ose
appears to be eective to prevent relapse, particu larly in who continu ed to pu rge d id so m u ch less (86% red u ction in
com bination with m ed ication. pu rging).
H ow CBT works in treating bulimia (Fairburn, 1 997 ) Fairburn et al. (1 995) ou n d that ater nearly six years, 63% o
CBT is consid ered the best psychological treatm ent or bu lim ia. the participants in their stu d y had not relapsed .
The treatm ent involves:
Interpersonal psychotherapy (IPT)
n replacing binge eating with a pattern o regu lar eating
Klerman et al. (1 984) d eveloped I PT as a short-term , stru ctu red
(three planned m eals and two planned snacks) and trying
psychotherapy or d epression, bu t it has been ad apted
to avoid vom itin g or other compensatory behaviou rs
or bu lim ia nervosa by Fairburn et al. (1 993). The aim o
n th erapy sessions with the client and later with im portant the therapy is to help clients id entiy and m od iy cu rrent
rien d s and relatives who will su pport behaviou ral change interpersonal problem s as th ese problem s are assu m ed to
n th erapy sessions that ad dress both behaviou r (e.g. ood that maintain the eating d isord er. The therapy d oes not ocu s
provokes anxiety or d esire to binge and pu rse) and cognitive d irectly on eating d isord er symptom s.
d istortions (e.g. concerns abou t weight and bod y shape) Elkin et al. (1 989) ou nd that I PT was eective in relieving
n maintenance o the program m e an d consid erations o major d epression and to prevent relapse when treatm ent was
strategies to prevent relapse. continu ed ater recovery.
H ay et al. (2 004) stu d ied the eectiveness o CBT in the Fairburn et al. (1 993) compared I PT with CBT and ou nd that
treatm ent o bu lim ia and binge eating. The aim o th is m eta- I PT was less eective than CBT at post-treatm ent, bu t ollow-u p
analysis was to evalu ate th e eectiveness o CBT, and a speci c stu d ies ater one and six years ou nd that the two treatm ents
orm o CBT d eveloped or the treatm ent o bu lim ia (CBT-BN ). were equ ally eective.

Group treatment d isord er). Grou p therapy is generally less expensive than
I n grou p therapy, the therapist m eets with a grou p o people ind ivid u al therapy. Grou p therapy based on m ind u lness is
(e.g. a am ily or a grou p o ind ivid u als su ering orm the sam e becom ing increasingly popu lar and stu d ies ind icate that it may
be a u seu l approach.

Mindulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT) to treat em otional and behaviou ral extrem es better ater the treatm en t
depression and had reached a greater sel-acceptance. Generally, they elt
M BCT is based on Kabat-Zinns m ind u ln ess-based stress less em otional stress and were m ore able to manage stress and
red u ction program m e (see u nit 7.3). The MBCT is d eveloped by the sym ptom s o bu lim ia.
Segal, Williams and Teasdale (2 001 ). The aim o this
psychosocial grou p-based therapy is to prevent people Kuyken et al. (2 008) Randomized controlled trial of MBCT
becom ing d epressed again (relapsing ) ater su ccessu l and anti-depressive medication
treatm ent or major d epression. n Th e stu d y investigated the eectiveness o MBCT in a
rand om ized controlled stu d y with 1 2 3 participants with
H ow MBCT works
a history o three or m ore episod es o d epression. All
n MBCT is based on Bu d d h ist m ed itation and relaxation
participants received anti-d epressive m ed ication.
techniqu es. These help people to d irect their ocu s and
concentrate so they are able to observe intru sive thou ghts n Participants were random ly allocated to two groups. Over the
and grad u ally becom e m ore able to prevent the escalation 1 5-m onth study, the control group continued their m edication
o negative thou ghts. and the experim ental group participated in an MBCT course
and gradually dim inished their m edication.
n The goal o M BCT is to teach people to recognize the signs
o d epression and ad opt a d ecentred perspective, where n People in the control grou p who received anti-d epressive
people see their thou ghts as m ental events rather than m ed ication had a relapse rate o 60% com pared to the
som ething central to their sel-concept or as accu rate experim ental grou p o 47 %. Participants in the MBCT
ref ections o reality. grou p overall reported a higher qu ality o lie, in term s o
en joym ent o d aily living and physical well-being. Anti-
Mindfulness-based treatment of bulimia d epressive m ed ication was signi cantly red u ced in the
Proulx (2 008) u sed an eight-week m ind u lness-based MBCT grou p an d 75 % o the patients stopped taking the
intervention to treat six college-age wom en su ering rom m ed ication.
bu lim ia. Participants were interviewed ind ivid u ally beore and
ater treatm ent. They all reported that they cou ld control

62
5.8 Evaluate the use of biomedical, individual and
group approaches to the treatment of one
disorder

Evaluation of a biomedical treatment of depression

n Dru gs are nearly always part o the treatm ent or severe n Som e researchers and psychiatrists now criticize the heavy
d epression. The biom ed ical approach to the treatm ent o u se o m ed ication on the grou nd s that it is not well known
d epression is u nd er d ebate. The m ost com m on treatm ent how it aects the brain long term (see N eale et al. 2 001 ).
or d epression in clu d es dru gs. Anti-d epressants may red u ce There is also increasing criticism o the role o
d epressive symptom s bu t they have sid e eects and d o not pharmaceu tical companies and their marketing o anti-
cu re patients. Stu d ies ind icate that the placebo eect cou ld d epressants, which has led to an increase in the prescription
accou nt or the eectiveness o m ed ication. o SSRI .

Kirsch et al. (2008) Meta-analysis o clinical trials

Leuchter et al. (2002) Changes in brain unction n This m eta-analysis u sed clinical trials o the six m ost u sed
during treatment with placebo anti-d epressants (inclu d ing Prozac) approved between 1 987
n The study exam ined brain unction in 51 patients with and 1 999.
depression who received either a placebo or an active n The study analysed all clinical trials o anti-depressants
m edication. An EEG was used to compare brain unction in subm itted to the FDA (U S Food and Drug Adm inistration).
the two groups. The design was double-blind and ran over
nine weeks. The study used two dierent SSRI, which were
n The resu lts showed that the overall eect o new-generation
randomly allocated to the participants. anti-d epressant m ed ication (SSRI ) was below the
recom m end ed criteria or clinical signif cance. This ind icates
n Resu lts showed a signif cant increase in activity in the that placebo may be ju st as eective.
prerontal cortex n early rom th e beginning in the trial in
the placebo grou p. This pattern was d ierent rom the
n The highest eect o th e m ed ication was in the m ost severe
patients who were treated with the SSRI bu t patients in cases o d epression bu t the researchers specu late whether
both grou ps got better. This ind icates that m ed ication is this is a real eect or d u e to a d ecrease in responsiveness to
eective bu t placebo seem s ju st as eective. placebo rather than an increase in responsiven ess to
m ed ication.
n The fndings rom the study are intriguing. The dierence in
activity in the brain indicates that the brain is perhaps able to
n Accord ing to the researchers, the placebo eect may
heal itsel since there was a positive eect in both groups. accou nt or any observed eect and they are very sceptical
Believing they are being treated could be enough or some abou t the increasing u se o anti-d epressants on the basis o
patients. the resu lts o the clinical trials.

Evaluation of an individual approach to the n The com bination o behaviou ral techniqu es with cognitive
restru ctu ring in CBT seem s to be eective, even in the
treatment of depression
absence o m ed ication (Luty et al. 2 007 ). Stu d ies that
n I nd ivid u al treatm ents are normally eective. Cognitive
com bine m ed ication with CBT have good resu lts, see u nit
theories have been criticized or ocu sing too m u ch on
symptom s (d istorted thinking patterns) rather than cau ses 5.7 (Paykel et al. 1 999).
o d epression.

Luty et al. (2007) Randomized controlled trial o IPT n The resu lts ind icate that psychotherapy alone cou ld relieve
and CBT sym ptom s o d epression even when no dru gs are given.
n The stu d y investigated the relative eectiveness o the two
treatm ents or major d epression. Elkin et al. (1 989) Controlled outcome study o
n A 1 6-week therapy with 8 to 1 9 ind ivid u al session s was
treatment or depression.
n The study is one o the best controlled outcome studies in
attend ed by 1 7 7 patients d iagnosed with major d epression.
depression. It involved 280 patients diagnosed with major
Patients were rand om ly allocated to either CBT or I PT. They
depression who were randomly assigned to either (1 ) an
d id not receive m ed ication and those who eventu ally
anti-depressant drug plus the normal clinical management, (2)
d ecid ed to u se it were not inclu d ed in the stu d y.
a placebo plus the normal clinical management, (3) CBT or (4)
n Generally the results showed no dierence in eect o the two IPT. The treatment ran or 1 6 weeks and the patients were
orms o psychotherapy but CBT was more eective in severe assessed at the start, ater six weeks, and ater 1 8 months.
depression. Only 2 0% o patients with severe depression
responded to IPT, whereas 57% o patients responded to CBT.

63
 5 Abn orma l psych ol ogy

n The resu lts showed a red u ction of d epressive symptom s of n The recovery rate for therapy (psychological and dru g) was
over 5 0% in the therapy grou ps and in the dru g grou p. only 5 0% in this stu d y so neither of the treatm ents can
Only 2 9% recovered in the placebo grou p. There was no gu arantee recovery for all patients.
d ifference in the effectiveness of CBT, I PT or anti-d epressant
treatm ent. Th is ind icates that psychotherapy m ight be an
alternative in som e cases.

Evaluation of a group approach to treatment n Mod ern form s of grou p therapy inclu d e id eas from
Bu d d hism and id eas from cognitive therapy. I t seem s to be
of depression
n Group therapy has been used to treat depression but it may a prom ising way to treat d epression bu t it may be su itable
only for clients wh o are not severely d epressed .
not be appropriate as the only therapy and it should only be
used when clients are positive about treatm ent in a group.

McDermut et al. (2001 ) Meta-analysis on effectiveness n The conclu sion was that there is sou nd empirical su pport
of group therapy for depression that grou p therapy is effective for relieving d epressive
n The study was a m eta-analysis based on 48 studies published symptom s. Truax (2 001 ) com m ented on the resu lts saying
between 1 970 and 1 998. The patients m ean age was 44 that grou p therapy shou ld only be u sed when clients are
years and 78% of patients were wom en. All but one study positive abou t treatm ent in a grou p. The m eta-analysis d id
included a cognitive and/or behavioural treatment group. not inclu d e severely d epressed and su icid al patients in the
n Resu lts showed that 45 of the 48 stu d ies reported that stu d y so it is not possible to conclu d e anything in relation
grou p psych otherapy was effective for red u cing d epressive to this grou p.
sym ptom s. The overall resu lts showed that grou p
psychoth erapy was m ore effective than no treatm ent Exam Tip Kuyken et al. (2008) on MBCT in unit
arou nd 1 9 weeks after the end of treatm en t. N in e stu d ies
5.7 can also be used to answer a question on the
showed that ind ivid u al and grou p psychotherapy were
efectiveness o group therapy.
equ ally effective.

64
5.9 Discuss the use o eclectic approaches to
treatment

Eclectic approaches to the treatment o

psychotherapy (I PT) alone had a relapse rate o 1 6.7 %;
depression com bination o dru g and I PT had a relapse rate o 1 2 .5 %.
n The m ost com mon approach to the treatm ent o depression is
antidepressive m edication. This oten relieves the depressive
n There was no signif cant d ierence between dru g therapy
symptom s although it may take weeks beore there is an alone or dru g therapy in com bination with psychotherapy.
eect and dropout rates are quite high because o the
adverse eects o anti-depressants.
n Althou gh nearly 5 0% to 60% o d epressed ou tpatients This study could also be used in unit 5.7 to
experience an improvem ent in m ood to the f rst trial o address the efectiveness o biological treatment and
antid epressants, only 1 in 3 patients will experience a u ll individual treatment o depression.
and complete recovery with no symptom s (Keller et al.
2 004). The risk o relapse is also high and there is risk o
repeated d epressive episod es (chronic d epression). The
com bination o psychotherapy and dru gs seem s to be Pampallona et al. (2 004) Meta-analysis o efcacy o drug
particu larly valu able in the prevention o relapse. treatment alone versus drug treatm ent and psychotherapy
in depression
n The aim o the stu d y was to analyse whether com bining
Klerman et al. (1 974) Treatment o depression by drugs
anti-d epressants and psychotherapy was m ore eective in
and/or psychotherapy
the treatm ent o d epression.
n The aim o this controlled stu d y was to test the ef cacy o
treatm ent with anti-d epressants and psychotherapy, alone n 1 6 rand om ized controlled stu d ies were cond u cted in clu d ing
or in com bination. 93 2 patients taking antid epressants only and 91 0 receiving
com bined treatm ent. The patients had all been rand om ly
n Participants were 1 5 0 emales d iagnosed with d epression.
allocated to the treatm en ts.
Patients were d ivid ed into three grou ps: (1 ) anti-
d epressants alone, (2 ) anti-d epressants and psychotherapy, n The resu lts showed that patients in com bined treatm ent
and (3) no m ed ication bu t m ore psychotherapy or (4) im proved signif cantly m ore compared to those receiving
placebo and no psychotherapy. dru g treatm ent alone. This was particu larly tru e in stu d ies
that ran over m ore than 1 2 weeks and there was also a
n The resu lts showed that relapse rates were highest or
signif cant red u ction in dropou ts.
patients in the placebo grou p alone (36%). The grou p with
anti-d epressants alone had a relapse rate o 1 2 %; th e

Why eclectic approaches could be more efcient than medication alone Exam Tip Kuyken et al. (2008)
n There is always a risk that patients stop taking their m ed icine (e.g. anti-
rom Unit 5.7 and Luty et al. (2007),
d epressants). This cou ld be becau se the patient eels som ewhat better ater a
Elkin et al. (1989) rom Unit 5.8 can
while and then stops, or it cou ld be becau se he or she experien ces too many
also be used in a discussion o the use
negative sid e eects.
o eclectic approaches to treatment.
n According to Pampallona et al. (2 004) this could be a very good reason or the
clinician to com bine anti-depressants with psychotherapy. Their review o
randomized controlled trials shows that the com bination o drugs and
psychotherapy generally leads to greater improvem ent. The study also showed that
psychotherapy helps to keep patients in treatm ent.

65
 5.1 0 Discuss the relationship between etiology
and therapeutic approach in relation to
one disorder
n Etiology m ean s explaining the cause o a d isord er. This is n Scienti c research has ailed to show a clear link between
oten very d i cu lt within abnormal psychology. There are serotonin levels and d epression. The act that anti-
no simple explanations o complex psychological d isord ers. d epressan t dru gs like SSRI can regu late serotonin levels and
Logic su ggests that the cau se o a d isord er shou ld d ictate prod u ce an eect d oes not m ean that low serotonin levels
the treatm ent. This is d one in m ed icine bu t it is not possible cau se d epression.
in the case o psychiatric d isord ers such as major d epression
becau se the cau ses o d isord ers are not well known and
cu res have yet to be ou nd .

Etiology and therapeutic approach in major Etiology: the serotonin hypothesis

depression n The serotonin hypothesis su ggests that d epression is cau sed
n Treatm ent o major d epression oten involves anti- by low levels o serotonin in the brain (Coppen, 1 967 ).
d epressant m ed ication that intereres with n Anti-d epressants in the orm o SSRI block the re-u ptake
neu rotransm ission (e.g . serotonin and d opam ine) in the process or serotonin. This resu lts in an increased am ou nt o
brain. This can be seen as an attempt to regu late what is serotonin in the synaptic gap. The theory is that this
believed to be an im balance in the serotonin system . improves m ood .
n Som e psychiatrists qu estion the u seu lness o anti- n SSRI su ch as Prozac, Zolot and Paxil are now am ong the
d epressants that interere with serotonin balances in the m ost sold anti-d epressan ts, and the dru g companies spent
brain on the grou n d s that: m illions o d ollars on ad vertising cam paign s all over the
the serotonin system in the brain is very complex and world . This has been taken as in d irect su pport o the
not m u ch is known abou t the dru gs long-term eect serotonin hypothesis. Accord ing to Lacasse and Leo (2 005)
the dru gs d o not cu re d epression and have sid e eects
this is an example o backward reasoning. Assu m ptions
abou t the cau ses o d epression are based on how people
stu d ies show that placebo m ight be ju st as eective
respond to a treatm ent and this is logically problematic. For
psychotherapy (particu larly CBT) is ju st as eective and exam ple, it is clear that aspirin can cu re head aches bu t this
in som e cases m ore eective. d oes not prove that low levels o aspirin in the brain cau se
head aches.
n H enninger et al. (1 996) perorm ed experim ents where they red u ced serotonin
levels in healthy ind ivid u als to see i they wou ld d evelop d epressive symptom s.
The resu lts d id not su pport that levels o serotonin cou ld inf u ence d epression and
they argu ed that it is necessary to revise the serotonin hypothesis.

Elkin et al. (1 989) Controlled outcome study o treatment or

depression
n The stu d y is one o the best controlled ou tcom e stu d ies o d epression. A
sample o 2 80 patients d iagnosed with major d epression were rand om ly
assigned to either an anti-d epressant dru g plu s the normal clin ical
managem ent, a placebo plu s the normal clinical manag em ent, CBT
(cognitive-behaviou ral therapy) or I PT (interpersonal therapy). The treatm ent
ran or 1 6 weeks and the patients were assessed at the start, ater 6 weeks,
and ater 1 8 m onths.
n The resu lts showed a red u ction o d epressive symptom s o over 5 0% in the
therapy grou ps and in the dru g grou p. On ly 2 9% recovered in the placebo
grou p. There was no d ierence in the eectiveness o CBT, I PT or anti-
d epressant treatm ent. For the m ost severely d epressed patients, m ed ication
and clin ical managem ent was m ost eective in red u cing symptom s bu t this
d oes not prove that serotonin cau ses d epression.

66
6.1 Evaluate theories of cognitive development

Brain development and neuroplasticity n The n eu ral connections (d endritic bran ching) in the brain
grow in size and complexity ater birth and myelination
(covering the neu ron with myelin white matter) is
Developm ental cognitive neu roscience is an area o research accelerated . Synaptic growth is m ost signi cant in
that stu d ies the relationship between brain d evelopm ent and child hood and ad olescence.
cognitive competence. Research in this eld explores the
n I nteraction with loving and responsive caregivers
d eveloping brain in ord er to u nd erstand healthy d evelopm ent
contribu tes to healthy brain d evelopm ent. Variou s actors
bu t also how variou s actors may interere with normal brain
su ch as early social d eprivation, inad equ ate nu trition, or
d evelopm ent and lead to problem s in cogn itive u nctioning.
living in a pollu ted environm ent may interere with normal
brain d evelopm ent. This can have ad verse eects on
n The basic u nctional elem ents o th e brain are neu rons that cognitive, em otional, and social d evelopm ent.
connect to each other (synaptic growth) to orm
a network o neu rons (inormation processing networks). Neuron Dendrites
N eu ronal networks chang e as a resu lt o learning,
Myelin
experience, and age. Each hu man brain has a u niqu e neu ral Nucleus
architectu re d u e to d ierences in ind ivid u al experience.

Cell body Axon

Brain development and cognitive functioning

n The brain d ou bles in size rom birth to you ng ad u lthood Giedd (2 004) perorm ed M RI scans in a longitu d inal stu d y o
and the brain s su race old s becom e m ore com plex, h ealthy children. H e ou nd that 95 % o th e brain stru ctu re is
especially in the areas that process cognitive and em otional orm ed when the child is arou nd ve or six years old , bu t areas
in ormation . The growth in com plexity o the neu ronal in the prerontal cortex (PFC) start growing again in
network perm its the neu rons to process increasingly ad olescence. The PFC is the last part o the brain to matu re. I t
complex inormation. is responsible or cognitive processes su ch as planning, im pu lse
control, d irection o attention, and d ecision making.
n Developmental neuroscientists use brain imaging (e.g. PET
and M RI ) to stu d y the relationships between brain
d evelopm en t and cognitive processes in inants and you ng
children. Waber (2 007 ) peorm ed the MRI Study of N ormal Brain
Development, a lon gitu d inal representative stu d y o 45 0
h ealthy children aged 61 8 that began in 1 999. Th e research
Chugani (1 999) u sed PET scans to investigate glu cose
inclu d es MRI scans o the brain and a battery o tests to
m etabolism in the brains o newborn hu man babies. H e ou nd :
m easu re the childrens cognitive u nction (e.g. m ental
n There was little activity in the cerebral cortex (execu tive processing speed , m em ory, read ing, and calcu lation) as well as
u nction) I Q and psychosocial u nction. The rst analysis o d ata showed
n There was activity in the brain stem an d the thalam u s that age pred icts perormance on every m easu re o cognitive
(inborn ref exes su ch as grasping) u nction. There was a steep increase in cognitive u nction rom
n There was activity in the lim bic system (amygd ala, age six bu t this levelled o in th e majority o cases between 1 0
hippocampu s, and the cingu late cortex). Th ese areas are and 1 2 years o age. This ind icates that as children matu re the
associated with emotional processing, memory, and bonding. speed o m ental processing generally increases.
They are used in observing and reading the emotional content
o aces and in communicating via acial expressions and eye
contact. Lack o stim u lation in these areas in early lie can Strathearn et al (2 001 ) ou nd that child neglect is associated
lead to abnormal behaviou r and attachm ent d i cu lties. with signi cantly d elayed cognitive d evelopm ent and head
growth in you ng children.
The research ou nd that the lower levels o the brain are
developed rst (m easu red as activity) and over tim e glu cose
consu mption can be registered in higher levels o the brain. For
example, rom age six to nine m onths there is increasing Chugani et al. (2 001 ) ou nd that Romanian children who had
activity in the rontal lobes, prerontal areas o the cortex and spent tim e in institu tions beore being ad opted showed d e cits
evid ence o improved cognitive competen ce. in cogn itive tasks d epend ent on prerontal u n ction su ch as
attention and social cognition.

67
 6 Devel opm en ta l psych ol ogy

Strengths of neurobiological theories Limitations of neurobiological theories

n N eu roscientif c evid ence provid es a valu able insight into n I t is not possible at this point to establish a d irect cau se-
how the brain d evelops rom the sim ple to th e m ore eect relationship between brain d evelopm ent and
complex and this can, to som e extent, be linked to cognitive growth.
increasing cognitive competen ce. M u ch o the em pirical research within
cognitive d evelopm ental neu roscience is correlational.
n Animal research shows that an enriched environm ent
resu lts in synaptic growth (or example Rosenzweig and n Little is known abou t the exact neu ral basis o cognition in
Bennet, 1 972 , on brain plasticity, see u nit 2 .5 or m ore on n ormally d eveloping children bu t longitu d in al brain
this). This is also the case in hu mans. imaging stu d ies like the M RI Stu d y o N ormal Brain
Developm ent will perhaps provid e m ore knowled ge on this.
n Developm ental cognitive neu roscience has provid ed
evid ence o the d evastating eects o neglect on the
d eveloping brain, which is u seu l or treating children with
cognitive, em otional, and behaviou ral problem s d u e to
long- term stress (see m ore in u nits 6.4 and 6.6).

Piagets theory of cognitive development Key concept: schema

Accord ing to Piaget, there are qu alitative d ierences n Knowled ge is seen as cognitive stru ctu res or m ental
between the way ad u lts and children think. Action an d represen tations (schemas) that change over tim e. The baby
sel-d irected problem solving are at the heart o learning and u ses an innate genetically based repertoire o schemas
cognitive d evelopm ent in children. Formal logic is seen as the (su cking, grasping) to explore the world .
highest and last stage in intellectu al d evelopm ent. n Knowled ge com es rom the babys action s u pon objects in
n The child is seen as an active scientist: H e or she the environm ent. At later stages, action is replaced by
actively con stru cts knowled ge abou t the social and thinking, which Piag et sees as a kind o action.
physical world as he or she interacts with it n Schemas are integrated and m od if ed as a resu lt o
(constru ctionist approach). Each child bu ild s his or her experience (ad aptation) and new schemas em erge when
own m ental representation o the world (schemas) u sed existing schemas are inad equ ate.
to interpret and interact with objects, people, and events.
Piaget u sed the term operation to d escribe physical or Assimilation: New inormation is
sym bolic manipu lations (thinking) o things. integrated into existing cognitive
schemas (or example dog is
n Stage theory: Childrens cog nitive d evelopm ent categorized as animal .
progresses throu gh stages over tim e. Accord ing to Piaget, Adaptation Knowledge is consolidated.
the content and sequ ence o stages in cognitive (learning) can
d evelopm ent is the sam e or all hu mans (u niversal take two orms
theory). Children cannot learn or be tau ght h ow to Accomodation: Existing schemas
u nction at higher levels o cognition beore they have are modifed to ft new inormation
passed throu gh the lower levels. or new schemas are created. New
knowledge is created.

Piagets method n u sing a small and non-representative sample

Piaget based his theory on observations and open-end ed n lack o scientif c rigou r and cross-sectional d esign which
interviews. This clin ical m ethod en abled Piaget to gain insight makes it d if cu lt to make conclu sions abou t chan ges over
into the children's ju d gem ent and explanations o events. H e tim e (a longitu d inal d esign wou ld be better to d o this)
presented children with a nu m ber o tasks d esigned to d iscover n askin g qu estion s that are too com plex or children.
th e level o logical reasoning u nd erpinning their thinking. H e
was interested in the way they arrived at their conclu sions. H is
m ethod has been criticized or:

68
 6 Devel opm en ta l psych ol ogy

Piagets stages o cognitive development

Stage Some characteristics
Sensorimotor Baby goes rom refexive instinctual action (sucking, grasping) to constructing knowledge via
(02 years) coordination o sensory experiences with physical actions.

Preoperational Thinking is intuitive and dominated by the appearance o things and ocusing on one dimension
(27 years) at a time. Shows egocentrism (diculty seeing things rom the perspective o others) and lack o
conservation (cannot see that things remain constant in spite o change in visible appearance).
Not able to use ormal logic.
Concrete operational Can carry out mental operations but needs to see the objects being concretely manipulated (e.g.
(711 years) understanding what happens in the conservation test and why objects remain the same in spite o
changing orm).
Formal operational Ability to use abstract reasoning and logic. Can deal with hypothetical problems and mentally
(11 1 5 years) manipulate ideas, numbers, and concepts. Can use deductive reasoning.

Egocentrism in the preoperational stage

Egocentrism is the idea that a child can only see the world rom his or
Pia g et's m ou n ta in ta sk
her own viewpoint and is not able to understand that others might see
things dierently. Piaget and Inhelder (1 956) showed preschool
children a scene with three mountains, each with a distinctive landmark.
A doll was placed opposite to the child. The researchers asked the child
to choose a picture that represented what the doll would see rom the
other side. The child then changed position and was asked the same
question. Children between our and ve years old picked the picture o
the mountains showing the mountains rom their own perspective.
Children who were around six years tended to do the same but showed
awareness that there could be other viewpoints.

H ughes (1 975) mad e a variation o the stu d y. The children were asked to hid e a d oll rom two
policem en d olls. H e ou nd that, in this version, you nger children were able to take the perspective
o the d olls m ost o the tim e. The explanation was that the task was mad e m ore relevant to the
children. The resu lts ind icate that it is possible or children to take the perspective o others i they
u nd erstand the task.

Conservation in the preoperational stage

Piaget d id a nu m ber o tests like this one: A child is presented with two glasses o water. The
researcher asks i there is the sam e am ou nt o liqu id in the two. The child will say yes. The sam e
qu estion is asked ater the water rom one o the glasses is pou red into a tall glass. The child will
now typically say that there is m ore water in the tall glass becau se it is taller. Piaget argu ed that
this is becau se the child is not able to m entally reverse the operation and in this way u nd erstand that it
m u st be the sam e am ou nt o water. H e or she ocu ses on only one d im ension o the situ ation (th e size o
the glasses) and cannot conserve the qu antity o water. Piagets nd ings have been replicated many
tim es, also in cross-cu ltu ral stu d ies. The researcher asks the sam e qu estion twice in the rst situ ation
and in the second and this has been criticized or creating d emand characteristics.

69
 6 Devel opm en ta l psych ol ogy

McGarrigle and Donaldson (1 974) argu ed that d emand Then a glove pu ppet called nau g hty ted d y appeared and
characteristics cou ld f aw the conservation task. They u sed an m essed u p the two rows so that one appeared longer. The sam e
experim ental set-u p with two rows o cou nters in parallel lines. qu estion as beore was asked . M ost children between ou r and
First children were asked whether the two rows contained the six years old said that there was the sam e am ou nt o cou nters.
sam e or a d ierent nu m ber. Children said th ey were the sam e. This ind icates that i a less arti cial task is u sed , children can
conserve earlier than pred icted by Piaget.

Strengths of Piagets theory Lim itations of Piaget's theory

n Piaget has contribu ted su bstantially to the stu d y o n Piaget ocu sed primarily on cogn itive d evelopm ent as a
cognitive d evelopm ent. H is work laid th e ou nd ation or process located within the ind ivid u al child and placed less
m u ch o the early work on cognitive d evelopm ent. im portance on how contextu al (e.g. social and cu ltu ral)
actors contribu ted to cognitive growth.
n Piagets work has had a major inf u ence on ed u cation (e.g .
d iscovery learning and the teacher as acilitator rather n Researchers have qu estioned the tim ing o Piagets stages.
than transm itter o knowled ge). Piagets theory has Vygotsky criticized Piaget or u nd erestimating the role o
generated a lot o research over tim e. instru ction in cognitive d evelopm ent.
n Piaget showed that the way children think is qu alitatively n Piagets m ethod s have been criticized or lack o scienti c
d ierent rom the way ad u lts think. rigou r and sampling bias. H e also u sed tasks that were too
d i cu lt or children to u nd erstand and this cou ld explain
som e o the resu lts.

Vygotskys sociocultural approach to cognitive n I children receive instru ctions rom other, m ore skilled
development ind ivid u als they can u nd erstand and accomplish things that
Vygotsky was a Ru ssian psychologist. Like Piaget he thou ght they wou ld not be able to achieve alone. The zone of
that childrens thinking is d ierent rom ad u lts. proximal developm ent reers to the gap that exists or an
ind ivid u al child between what he or she is able to d o alone
n Children grow u p in a speci c historical, social, and cu ltu ral (zone o com petence) and what he or she can achieve with
context and their knowled g e and intellig en ce d evelop help rom som eone who has m ore knowled ge. The concept
within the ram ework o that cu ltu res characteristics (e.g. o scaffolding reers to the assistance that a m ore skilled
history, arteacts, lang u age, science). ind ivid u al can provid e to increase a child s perormance on
n The historical and cu ltu ral characteristics o each society a particu lar task.
inf u ence the way people com e to act u pon and think abou t
the world . Vygotsky talks abou t cu ltu ral tools that Evaluation o Vygotskys theory
ind ivid u als m u st learn to hand le in ord er to u nction in that n According to Wood (1 998) Vygotskys perspective on cognitive
cu ltu re. For exam ple, tod ay an im portant cu ltu ral tool in the development can hardly be called a ull-fedged theory, but his
West cou ld be the compu ter. id eas have been integrated into the d evelopm ent o other
n Vygotsky emphasizes language and instruction as the m ost theories (e.g. Bruner, 1 966) and visions abou t ed u cation
important actors in intellectu al and personal developm ent. (e.g. collaborative learning).
I nstru ction throu gh cooperation and interaction is the n Vygotsky has inspired sociocu ltu ral approach es to learning
main vehicle or the cu ltu ral transm ission o knowled ge. This based on the assu m ption that cognitive d evelopm en t and
is a contrast to Piagets view o children,, who mu st d iscover learning m u st be seen in relation to an ind ivid u al s
everything by them selves throu gh concrete or historical, social, and cu ltu ral context (see Cole and
m ental operations. Scribner, 1 974, in u nit 3.5 ).

Biological theories Piaget (cognitive) Vygotsky (sociocultural)

n The brain develops according to a n Children pass through stages as n Children can learn more at each
genetically determined programme they construct their ability to stage than predicted by Piaget
but environmental actors reason through individual action. through instruction rom adults
infuence the end result. n Instruction (teaching) is only because o the potential o the
n Healthy brain development is a possible i the child is cognitively zone o proximal development.
prerequisite or optimal cognitive ready (i.e. the necessary cognitive n Observation, social interaction,
unctioning. structures have developed). cooperation, and cultural practices
n Negative environmental and social n Constructivist theory (and ocus on are important in cognitive
actors can interere with normal development o independent development.
brain development. thinking based on individual n Social constructivist theory (and
experience). related to Marxist thinking).

70
6.2 Discuss how social and environmental
variables may affect cognitive development

n Cognitive d evelopm ent is aected by a nu m ber o social n A relevan t social variable cou ld be socioeconom ic statu s
and environm ental variables that interact with the child s (SES), i.e. am ily incom e and ed u cational level). Ad equ ate
genetic in heritance in com plex ways that are not yet u lly parenting and healthy nu trition acilitates cognitive
u n d erstood . Stim u lation, ad equ ate nu trition, and parental d evelopm ent.
nu rtu rance are important actors in brain d evelopm ent and n Relevant environm ental variables in f u encin g cognitive
thereore also in d eveloping cognitive competence. d evelopm ent are, or example, access to stim u lating toys
and good schools. Living in a pollu ted environm ent may
aect brain d evelopm ent negatively.

Social variables n One eect o poverty is chronic malnou rishm ent, which is
linked to less activity and interest in learning. M aln u trition
is associated with impaired or d elayed brain d evelopm ent. A
SES is a total m easu re o a persons social and econom ic n u m ber o cognitive d e cits have been reported in
position based on incom e, ed u cation, and occu pation. SES has malnou rished children.
been ou nd to correlate with parentin g (social variable) and n Bhoomika et al. (2 008) stu d ied the eect o malnu trition
environm ental enrichm ent (environm ental variable). Farah et
on cognitive perormance in a sample o 2 0 I nd ian children
al. (2 005) ou nd that low SES children perorm ed worse on all
in two age grou ps, one aged rom ve to seven and another
tests o cognitive perormance compared to m id d le SES
aged between eight and ten. The d ata was compared to
children.
those in a control grou p. Malnou rished children in both age
grou ps scored lower in tests o attention, working m em ory,
n Findings rom neuroscientists show that children growing up in and visu ospatial tasks. Old er children showed less cognitive
very poor amilies experience high levels o stress and this could impairm ent, which su ggests that the eects o maln u trition
impair brain developm ent and general cognitive unctioning. on cognitive competence may resu lt in d elayed cogn itive
n Krugman (2 008) argu ed that children born to poor parents d evelopm ent d u rin g child hood bu t it is not a permanent
(low SES) have a 5 0% chance o remaining in lielong poverty g eneralized cognitive im pairm ent.
becau se the brains o poor children do not develop optimally
and they thereore m iss social and econom ic opportunities.

Environmental variables and institu tionalization) known to be related to cognitive

Animal research su ggests that th ere is a speci c relationship u nction.
between early experience and brain d evelopm ent. Research
showed that manipu latin g environm ental variables, su ch as toys
and other animals to play with, inf u enced the nu m ber o
Farah et al. (2008)
Aim To investigate the relationship between environmental
neu rons as well as the animal s behaviou r (see Rosenzweig
Bennet, and Diamond (1 972 ) on d endritic branching in u nit
stimulation and parental nurturance on cognitive developm ent.
2 .5 ). An imal research has also d em onstrated that stress (e.g . Procedure
d u e to maternal separation) intereres with normal brain n This was a longitu d inal d esign with 1 1 0 Arican-Am erican
d evelopm ent. This kind o research can not take place u sing m id d le-school children (m ean age 1 1 .8 years). Children were
hu mans or ethical reasons. recru ited at birth and evalu ated at age ou r and eight years
in the hom e.
Liu et al. (2 000) perorm ed an experim ent with rats and ou nd n I nterviews and observational checklists were u sed to
that prolonged maternal separation and brie hand ling aect m easu re en vironm ental stim u lation (e.g. variety o
later lie stress regu lation ability and m em ory ability as a resu lt experience, encou ragem ent to learn colou rs, m u sic, and art)
o their impact on hippocampal d evelopm ent. Brie separations and parental nu rtu rance (e.g. warm th and aection,
seem ed to be positive becau se they resu lted in intensi ed em otional and verbal responsivity, and paternal
nurtu rin g behaviou r ater the separation. The m ore the m other involvem ent).
rat licks h er pu p ollowing a brie stressor, the better regu lated n The research ers also perorm ed cognitive tests on langu age
the pu ps response to stressors and the better its learn ing and m em ory in the laboratory.
ability. Results There was a positive correlation between environm ental
stim u lation and langu age d evelopm ent. Ag e was also a actor.
I t is perhaps not possible to generalize d irectly to hu mans rom There was also a positive correlation between parental
animal research bu t it is possible to m easu re som e o the sam e nu rtu rance and long-term m em ory perormance.
natu rally occu rring variables in hu man experiences (e.g. neglect

71
 6 Devel opm en ta l psych ol ogy

Evaluation
Exam Tip The discussion reers to how and why
n The d ata shows the importan ce of environm ental and
social factors in cognitive d evelopm ent althou gh it is not
cognitive development may be inuenced by social and
possible to establish a cau se-effect relationship since the environmental actors. It could be relevant to include
stu d y d id not manipu late variables. knowledge rom unit 6.3 on how cognitive development is
dependent on brain development (e.g. with reerence to how
n The children in this sample were from a low economic status
neglect could afect cognitive development).
and the sample is not representative, although 1 7% of
American children live below the poverty line according to the
2 004 census.
n Low SES is associated with a number of adverse factors that
can affect cognitive development, (e.g. physical and mental
health problems, social and psychological stress, and poverty.
n The correlation between parental n u rtu rance and m em ory
has also been fou nd in animal research. Prolonged stress
d u e to maternal separation affects the hippocam pu s, which
is vital in m em ory processing.

72
6.3 Examine attachment in childhood and its role
in the subsequent ormation o relationships

Attachment in childhood n Parental sensitivity is important in the d evelopm ent o

Attachm ent theory was su ggested by Bowlby (1 951 ) and it has attachm en t. Attachm ent can be observed rom around the
becom e one o the m ost inf u ential theories in u nd erstand ing age o seven m onths. From this age, the baby shows
childrens em otional and social d evelopm ent as well as ad u lt separation distress when the primary attachm ent gure
love relationships. (oten the m other) leaves the child. The strange situation
(Ainsworth et al., 1 978) can test i attachm ent has orm ed.
n Attachm ent can be dened as the em otional bond between
an individual and an attachm ent gure (caregiver who is
responsive and sensitive to the childs needs).

Ainsworth: Attachment classifcation and the Attachment and internal working model
Strange Situation paradigm Bowlby (1 973) claim s that there is a continuity between
child hood and ad u lt relationships, i.e. early attachm en t
patterns orm ed with parents continu e in later relationships
Ainsworth (1 969) carried ou t the Gand a Project which was becau se they create an internal working m odel. The internal
an observational stu d y o 2 8 m others interacting with their working m od el is a m ental representation o the sel, abou t
child perorm ed in U gand a over nin e m onths (longitu d inal). the attachm en t g u re, and how oth ers will react (social lie).
The observations were natu ralistic (in the am ily living n Internal working model: The ch ild s experiences with
room ). Ain sworth interviewed the m others and m easu red attachm ent gu res d u ring inancy, child hood , and
maternal sensitivity to the inants signals and need s as ad olescence resu lt in expectations (m ental
these were consid ered to be important actors in the representations or schemas) that persist relatively
d evelopm ent o attachm ent. The stu d y was replicated in the u nchanged throu ghou t the rest o lie. I the child is
U SA in 1 971 with 2 6 am ilies. con d ent that the attachm ent gu re is available when
need ed , the child will eel loved , secu re and worthy o
Ainsworth et al (1 978) su ggested a classi cation system love and attention. Accord ing to Bowlby, the internal
with three attachm ent patterns based on The Strange working m od el tend s to be reprod u ced in later
Situ ation parad igm , a proced u re with several sequ ences relationships (parenting, romantic love).
perorm ed in a laboratory to test a child s attachm ent pattern n Attachment history: The internal working m od el ref ects
to the m other. Key eatu res o the proced u re are: the variou s experiences concern ing accessibility and
1 the child s reaction to the m others d epartu re responsiveness o the attachm ent gu res that an
2 h ow the child reacts to her when she retu rns ind ivid u al has experienced . Dierences in experience
with attachm ent gu res may explain d ierent
3 h ow the child reacts to a stranger.
attachm ent patterns as well as attachm ent d isord ers. The
Dierent patterns o responses to the Strange Situ ation are Strange Situ ation Parad igm was d eveloped by Ainsworth
assu m ed to show three particu lar attachm ent patterns: et al. (1 978) to test i attachm ent has orm ed .
n Secure attachment (type B): This pattern is displayed by
70% o American inants. The inant shows distress when
the mother leaves the room and quickly seeks contact with
her when she retu rns. The inan t is easily soothed by the Social and cultural actors in attachment
m other. Attachm en t research has primarily been cond u cted in the
West bu t cross-cu ltu ral research tend s to nd sim ilar
n Ambivalent attachment (type C): This pattern is
attach m ent categories bu t d ierent d istribu tions. Van
displayed by 1 0% o Am erican inants. The inant shows
Ijzendorn and Kroonenberg (1 988) reviewed 32 stu d ies
distress when the mother leaves the room . The baby seeks
rom eight cou ntries inclu d ing 2 ,000 inants. I n Japan,
contact on her return but at the sam e tim e rejects it.
am bivalent attachm ent (type C) was m ore com m on than in
n Avoidant attachm ent (type A): This pattern is d isplayed the West, bu t there was no avoid ant (type A). Secu re
by 2 0% o Am erican inants. The inant d oes not show attach m ent (type B) was the m ost com m on in the West.
d istress when the m other leaves the room and avoid s Dierences in attachm ent patterns are associated with
contact when she retu rns. The baby is not araid o a d ierences in child -rearing practices.
stranger. Mothers to avoid ant children tend to be
u n respon sive and u ninterested in the child s signals.

Campos et al (1 983) perorm ed a review o Am erican

stu dies on inant attachm ent patterns and ou nd the
ollowing d istribu tion: secu re (62 %), am bivalen t (1 5 %), and
avoid ant (1 5 %).

73
 6 Devel opm en ta l psych ol ogy

Continuity in attachment patterns in romantic love

n H azan and Shaver (1 987 ) su ggested that romantic love is an attachm ent process
which is experienced d ierently by d ierent people becau se o variations in their
attachm ent histories.
n People have orm ed in ner working m od els o them selves and social interaction
with partners based on their attachm ent history. Th ese inner working m od els are
an important sou rce o continu ity between early and later eelings and behaviou r.

Hazan and Shaver (1 978) were characterized by ear o intimacy, em otional highs and
The research consisted o two d ierent stu d ies. lows, and well as jealou sy. Ambivalent lovers believed that
Aim To investigate: romantic love is characterized by obsession, em otional highs
and lows, extrem e sexu al attraction, and jealou sy.
1 whether the sam e d istribu tion o child hood attachm ent
patterns was maniested in a stu d y on ad u lt love relationships
n Th e best pred ictors o ad u lt attachm ent type were
respon d ents perception o the qu ality o their relationship
2 whether the d ierence in attachm ent patterns cou ld be lin ked
with each parent as well as parental relationships. The resu lts
to d ierent attachm ent histories
showed that loving and aectionate parenting correlated
3 whether respond ents d escriptions o their love relationships positively with secu re attachm ent. Participants classi ed as
cou ld be classi ed as secu re, avoid ant, or am bivalent. avoid an t reported cold and rejecting m others.
Procedure Evaluation
n The stu d y was a love qu iz (su rvey with orced choices) in a n Th e resu lts su pported that th ree d ierent attachm ent styles
local newspaper. The researchers u sed 62 0 participants (2 05 cou ld be ou nd in ad u lt love. The stu d y con rm ed Bowlbys
males, 41 5 emales, m ean age 36, 91 % were h eterosexu al). theory abou t continu ity o attachm ent (inner working m od el).
n The qu estionnaire inclu d ed statem ents characterizing the n Th e stu d y had a biased sel-selected sample so resu lts cou ld
most important love relationship and childhood relationship not be generalized . M ore emales than males respond ed
with parents (attachm ent history). (gend er bias). This cou ld aect the estimates o prevalence o
n Ainsworth et al.s (1 978) attachm ent categories were each attachm ent type. U se o qu estionnaires with orced
translated into term s appropriate to ad u lt love. I t was choices may may lim it the valid ity o the nd ings.
assu m ed that belies abou t romantic love cou ld be m easu red n H azan and Shaver (1 988) was a sem inal stu d y, which
as an inn er working m od el . conceptu alized ad u lt romantic relationships as an attachm ent
Results process. The stu d y provid ed a brid ge between inant
n Arou n d 5 6% o the respond ents classi ed them selves as attachm ent theory and theories o romantic love. The nd ings
secu re, 2 5 % as avoid ant, and 1 9% as am bivalent. have been replicated and researchers have linked ad u lt
attachm ent to existing theories o love.
n Secure lovers d escribed their m ost im portant love
relationsh ips as tru sting, happy, and riend ly. Avoidant lovers

Conclusion
n There are d ierent attachm ent styles which seem to be related to an ind ivid u al s
attachm ent history. Peoples inner working m od els in clu d e d ierent belies abou t
romantic love, whether they are worthy o love, and what to expect rom a partner.
n Feeney, N oller and Callan (1 994) ou nd that attachm ent patterns in stable
cou ples tend to be secu re. Attachm ent patterns seem to be f exible and may
change when events in the social environm ent d iscon rm existing expectations.
Becom ing involved in a stable, satisying relationship can lead to change in
internal working m od els o sel and others. Likewise, a secu re person wh o is
involved in a negative relationship may becom e insecu re.

74
6.4 Discuss potential effects of deprivation or
trauma in childhood on later development

H ealthy d evelopm ent is inf u enced by actors su ch as access to institutionalization, growing up in poverty, and parental
loving caregivers, ad equ ate nu trition, sensory and cognitive problem s (e.g. alcoholism or m ental illness.
stim u lation , and lingu istic inpu t. n Trauma in childhood can be seen as experiencing a powerul
A child reared in a severely deprived setting will not experience shock (e.g. d ivorce, death o a parent, physical or sexual
such actors and this can aect the childs development abuse, natural disasters, or war. Su ch experiences may have
negatively. H owever, even children who are exposed to deprivation long-lasting eects on developm ent.
may eventually develop normally (see units 6.5 and 6.6). n I t is not possible to make a clear-cu t d istinction between
n Deprivation in childhood can be seen as living in a state o eects o d eprivation or trau ma: they are m u ch the sam e.
various orm s o neglect to provide basic need s physical, Experiences o d eprivation can also be trau matizing or the
em otional, or social. Deprivation is oten related to child .

Potential effect of trauma: PTSD speci c PTSD symptom s su ch as withdrawal rom those who
wanted to h elp them . They also had d i cu lties rem em bering
Children who have experienced severe and repeated trau ma
the trau ma, elt cu t o rom others, and showed lack o
may develop post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), which could
em otion .
interere with normal d evelopm ent. I let u ntreated children
may exhibit im pu lsivity, agitation, hyper-vigilance, avoid ance Yehuda et al. (2 001 ) stu d ied the m ental health o 51 children
behaviour, and emotional numbness. o H olocau st su rvivors who were raised by trau matized parents
and mad e comparisons to a control grou p. The m ean age o the
Carion et al. (2 009) perorm ed MRI scans and ou nd that
sample was 40.9 years. The resu lts sh owed that children o
children su ering rom PTSD ater experiencing extrem e
H olocau st su rvivors were m ore likely to d evelop PTSD (33.3 %
stressors su ch as abu se or witnessing violence perorm ed worse
compared to 1 2 .2 % in the control grou p). Child hood trau ma
on a simple verbal m em ory test and showed less hippocam pal
was associated with parental PTSD and the resu lts ind icate that
activity com pared to a control grou p. The participants who
PTSD can be transm itted rom parent to child .
perorm ed worst on the test were those who also showed

Potential effects of deprivation: cognitive impairment and attachment disorder

The English and Romanian adoptees study institu tions beore being ad opted . Th is was particu larly the
This is a longitudinal study o 32 4 Romanian adoptees that entered case or those children who had also su ered rom severe
the U K between February 1 990 and Septem ber 1 992 . The aim was malnu trition.
to investigate potential long-term eects o severe deprivation in n These children also had a m u ch smaller head circu m erence at
childhood. All the children had been reared rom inancy in very the tim e they entered the U K and this cou ld also be observed
deprived institutions in Romania and adopted into U K am ilies at at age six. This cou ld su gg est n eu ral d amage.
various ages up to 42 m onths. n This is su pported by Perry and Pollard (1 997 ) who u sed CT
Rutter et al. (2 004) in vestigated a sample o 1 44 children who scans and ou nd that the brain size o a severely d eprived
were, at that tim e, six years o age. The parents were interviewed three-year-old was signi cantly smaller than average (see also
at hom e and answered qu estionnaires on the am ily and the u nit 6.1 and u nit 2 .5 ).
child s behaviou r. Three m onths later the child was assessed u sing n Cognitive u nctioning at age six was not associated with th e
observations and stand ard cognitive and d evelopm ental m easu res
ed u cational level o the ad optive parents. This su pports that
inclu d ing tests on general cognitive u nctioning and attachm ent
cognitive impairm ent cou ld be related to neu ral d amage.
behaviou r. The ocu s was on cognitive impairment and
attachment disturbance in children wh o had spen t m ore than six Cognitive impairm ent related to tim e of
m on ths in the institu tions. The stu d y ou nd no major d e cits in institutionalization
children who had spent less than six m onth s th ere.
Time spent in depriving % of the children with
Cognitive impairment institution cognitive impairment
n Cognitive im pairm ent was ou nd in 1 5.4% o th e ad optees
From 62 4 m onths 12%
rom Romania bu t in only 2 .3 % o the ad optees rom the U K.
n There was a persistent cognitive d e cit at age six in the From 2 4 42 m onths 3 6%
children who remained longest in the d eprived Romanian

75
 6 Devel opm en ta l psych ol ogy

Attachment disorder
Disinhibited attachm ent behaviour related to
n Data was collected in sem i-stru ctu red interviews with parents
tim e of institutionalization
to assess the child s behaviou r toward the paren t and other
ad u lts in both novel and am iliar situ ations. Time spent in depriving % o the children with
n There was a relationship between length o institu tion al institution disinhibited attachment
d eprivation and attach m ent d isord ers. N o signif cant d ef cits behaviour
were ou nd in the children who entered the U K below the age From 62 4 m onths 1 6%
o six m onths.
From 2 4 42 m onths 33 %
n A nu m ber o children showed an insecu re attachm en t pattern
called disinhibited attachment disorder characterized by:
Conclusion
lack o preerence or contact with caregivers versu s relative n Accord ing to Rutter et al. (2 004) a lack o personalized
strangers (i.e. lack o d ierentiation am ong ad u lts) caregiving may well be the key actor that pu ts children s social
d ef nite lack o checking back with the parent in anxiety- d evelopm ent at risk. Th is is in line with Bowlby (1 969) who
provoking situ ations. argu ed that em otionally available caregivin g is a cru cial actor
in d eterm ining a child s d evelopm ent and u tu re m ental health
(see m ore on this in u nit 6.3 ).
n Generally the d ata revealed a major d egree o recovery in
children su ering rom proou nd institu tional d eprivation: the
eects were not f xed and irreversible. Most o them d id not
show cognitive im pairm ent and d isinhibited attachm ent (see
m ore on resilien ce in u nits 6.5 and 6.6).

6.5 Defne resilience

(e.g. the child s temperam ent, intelligence, and health).

n Rutter (1 990): Resilience can be seen as maintainin g
Schoon and Bartley (2 008) highlighted the importance o
ad aptive u nctioning in spite o seriou s risk actors.
examining the actors and processes that enable individuals to
n Wyman et al. (2 000): Resilience can be d ef ned as a beat the odds instead o ocusing on adaptive unctioning o the
child s achievem ent o positive d evelopm ental ou tcom es individual as this could lead to the misunderstanding that
and avoid ance o malad aptive ou tcom es u nd er ad verse resilience is a matter o personality traits and that everyone can
cond itions. make it i they try hard enough. Such a dispositional approach can
lead to blaming the victim o adverse circumstances. Instead,
Approaches to resilience research there should be a ocus on how to promote resilience by removing
n Focus is on risk actors in developm ent as well as protective obstacles and creating opportunities.
actors. A risk (or protective) actor in psychosocial
developm ent cou ld be the early relationships with caregivers
as these relationships provide the oundations or
developing secure attachm ents, eelings o sel-worth, and
Werner (2005)
Werner perorm ed a large-scale longitu d inal stu d y (Kau ai
regulations o em otions.
stu d y) with a m u lti-racial cohort o children born in 1 95 5 on
n The child is seen as part o m u ltiple system s where risk the H awaiian island o Kau ai. Children who had experienced
actors and protective actors are inclu d ed in the overall ou r or m ore risk actors by the age o two were likely to have
u nd erstand ing o d evelopm en t. d eveloped behaviou ral problem s by the age o 1 0 as well as
n Focu s on how to prom ote resilience by preventative m ental or d elinqu ency problem s. One third o the children had
interven tions to help children at risk (e.g. parenting d eveloped into normal healthy ind ivid u als at the age o 40.
program m es, acad em ic program m es, am ily su pport). This ind icates that m u ltiple risk actors may be a major threat
Wright and Masten (2 006) claim ed that resilience shou ld not to ch ildren bu t also that ad versity can be overcom e by bu ild in g
be seen as an individual trait. I nd ivid u al resilience m u st be resilience.
stu d ied in the context o ad versity and risk in relation to
m u ltiple contextual actors that interact (e.g. am ily, school,
neighbou rhood , com m u nity, and cu ltu re) with ind ivid u al actors Exam Tip The points made here on resilience and
the research can be included in a discussion on how to
promote resilience.
76
6.6 Discuss strategies to build resilience

n Ad versity in child hood can be seen as a situ ation where a

child s basic em otional, social, physiological, or cognitive The program m e consisted o preschool or two and a hal
n eed s are n ot m et. hou rs every d ay or two years. The teachers mad e h om e
n Early risk factors inclu d e poor attachm ent to caregivers, visits once a week and the parents participated in m onthly
poor parenting skills, and m u ltiple am ily (e.g. poverty, m eetings with sta. This was to increase parents
and violent neighbou rhood s). Su ch risk actors may involvem ent in the childrens ed u cation.
d irectly aect the child s d evelopm ent and lead to Results There were a nu m ber o positive ou tcom es in the
psychological and social problem s (e.g. d epression, low treatm ent grou p compared to the control, su ch as
ed u cation, early pregnancy, d elinqu ency). signif cantly lower rates o crim e and d elinqu ency, lower
n Resilience program m es typically target the prom otion o rates o teenage pregnancy, and d epend ence on welare.
protective factors su ch as parenting skills, acad em ic The rates o prosocial behaviou r, acad em ic achievem ent,
tu toring (e.g. read ing skills), training o social skills, and em ploym ent, incom e, and am ily stability were also higher
sel-regu lation . I t has been ou nd that early interventions in the treatm ent grou p.
have better long-term resu lts than program m es Evaluation The in tervention program m e is a f eld
introd u ced later in lie. experim ent and not all variables can be controlled . The
resu lts so ar show positive correlations between the
intervention on a nu m ber o variables bu t it is d if cu lt to
d eterm ine cau se-eect relationsh ips. The control grou p d id
The Triple P Positive Parenting Programme not show the sam e positive d evelopm ent, so it may be
u nethical not to inclu d e that grou p in th e program m e.
The Triple P is based on social learning principles. I ts g oal is
to target behaviou ral, em otional, and d evelopm ental
problem s in ch ildren aged 01 6 years, throu gh enhancing
the knowled ge, skills, and conf d ence o parents. I t inclu d es
The Big Brothers Big Sisters (BBBS)
a short, vid eo-based program m e an d grou p-based
interventions. mentoring programme

This is a resilien ce-based m entoring program m e or high-risk

n Sanders et al. (2002 ) ound that this programme was
children and ad olescents in the U SA. The program m e is
eective in red u cing childrens d isru ptive behaviou r. A
based on the id ea that social su pport rom a caring ad u lt to
nu m ber o rand om ized controlled trials show su ccess in
a high-risk child or ad olescent can prom ote a healthy
prom oting eective parentin g and childrens prosocial
d evelopm ent in spite o environm ental risk actors.
behaviou r throu gh The Triple P.
n These f nd ings are su pported by Love et al. (2 005) who
ou n d that parents who had participated in a parental Tierney et al. (1 985) stu d ied the im pact o mentoring on
skills training program m e were m ore su pportive, better at the behaviou r o 95 9 high-risk children and ad olescents,
stim u latin g langu age d evelopm ent, and u sed less aged 1 01 6, rom low-incom e am ilies. M any had
corporal pu nishm ent. experienced am ily violence or su bstance abu se. H al o
them were assigned a m entor and hal o them acted as
control. The researchers were in terested in the ou tcom e o
m entoring on actors su ch as antisocial behaviou r, acad em ic
The High/Scope Perry Preschool Project to perormance, relationships with am ily m em bers and riend s,
prevent juvenile delinquency and sel-concept.
Th e resu lts showed a positive ou tcom e i the ad u lt provid ed
The project is an on going longitu d inal stu d y (f eld a caring relationship and had positive expectations. The
experim ent) that began in 1 962 . The project is based on an program m e d id not target any specif c problem behaviou r
active learning m od el with ocu s on childrens intellectu al bu t was m erely investigating whether social su pport rom an
and social d evelopm ent. ad u lt cou ld prom ote resilience.
Aim To stu d y how ju venile d elinqu ency can be prevented in a
high-risk popu lation.
Procedure Participants were 1 2 3 h igh-risk Arican-Am erican Exam Tip A discussion o two strategies to build
children o low SES, with low I Q scores and at risk o ailing
resilience is enough. In an essay on strategies to promote
sch ools. At between three and ou r years o age they were
resilience, it would be a good idea to outline what is meant by
split into two grou ps: 5 8 children in the program m e grou p
resilience and how adversity in childhood may endanger healthy
and 65 acting as control.
development. Then reer to two diferent strategies and discuss
them (or ollow what the command term invites you to do).

77
 6.7 Discuss the formation and development of
gender roles

Sex Gender Role Gender role

Biological sex determined The social and psychological A set o social and Gender role characterizes
by chromosomes (XY or characteristics associated behavioural norms linked to a activities as masculine or
boys and XX or girls) with being male or emale. specic sociocultural setting. eminine.

Gender role theories n David Reim er was a twin boy who accidentally lost his penis
Evolutionary theory u nd er a rou tine circu m cision, when he was 8 m on ths. Dr.
n Biological and psychological d ierences in m en and wom en John M oney su ggested that the parents change the sex o
are natu ral and resu lt in d ierent gend er roles. Men are the boy through surgery, horm one replacem ent and raise him
natu rally m ore competitive and aggressive becau se this as a girl. David Reim er was changed into a girl, Brend a.
increases chances o attracting a partner and provid ing n M oney u sed the id entical twin as a matched control an d
resou rces or ospring . Wom en are nu rtu ring becau se this is believed that this case wou ld su pport the biosocial theory.
need ed to attract a partner and take care o ospring. I n M oney's scienti c articles the sex change seem ed to be a
n Evaluation The theory is controversial. There are cross- su ccess bu t he ailed to pu blish evid ence that wen t against
cultural dierences as well as sim ilarities in gender roles so it his theory. Brend a (David ) was not happy and elt d ierent
is more logical to assum e that gender roles should be seen as rom the other girls.
an interaction o biological and sociocultural actors. n At the age o 1 5 her parents revealed the tru th. Brend a
d ecid ed to becom e a male again and had recon stru ctive
Theory o psychosexual dierentiation su rgery to create a penis.
n Gend er role id entity is related to genetic sex d eterm ined by
n Evaluation This case stu d y seriou sly qu estions the biosocial
chrom osom es (XX or girls and XY or boys). Du ring
theory that socialization can overrid e biological make-u p. I n
prenatal d evelopm ent, sex horm ones are released . These
act, it rather lend s su pport to the theory o horm onal
prenatal horm ones cau se the external genitals o the oetu s
psychosexu al d ierentiation.
and th e internal reprod u ctive organs to becom e mascu line
or em inine. I ts the presence or absence o male horm ones
(androgens) that makes a d ierence in psychosexu al Social learning theory
d ierentiation . Banduras (1 97 7 ) th eory assu m es that gend er roles are learned
n Androgens (e.g. testosterone) in the male oetu s stim u late throu gh th e observation o sam e-sex m od els, d irect tu ition,
the d evelopm ent o male sex characteristics and m od elling.
and have a mascu linizing eect on the brain o the 1 Direct tuition: Acceptable gend er behaviou r is
d eveloping boy. reward ed (social approval) by signi cant others
n I n this theory hu mans are born with innate pred isposition s (parents, peers) and gend er inappropriate behaviou r is
to act and eel emale or male d u e to the presence or d iscou raged (social d isapproval).
absence o pren atal an drog ens. Socialization plays a 2 Modelling o gend er role behaviou r by sam e-sex
su bsid iary role. m od els: the child observes how others behave an d then
n The theory is su pported by animal research. Female rat im itates (m od els) that behaviou r.
oetu ses injected with testosterone ten d to behave like Smith and Lloyd (1 978): the Baby X experiment asked ad u lts
male rats as ad u lts. They d o not exhibit normal emale to interact with inants dressed in u nisex snowsu its o either
sexu al behaviou r in ad u lthood even i th ey are injected with blu e or pink. The snowsu its were rand om ly d istribu ted and not
the emale horm on e oestrogen at that tim e. always in line with the inan ts tru e sex. The ad u lts played with
the inants accord ing to what they believed was the gend er o
The biosocial theory o gender role development the child (colou r o snowsu it). This ind icates that a babys
n Money and Ehrhardt (1 972 ) claim that children are gend er perceived gend er is part o the babys social environ m ent
neu tral at birth . Developm ent o g en d er id entity and becau se people treat the child accord ing to perceptions o
ad herence to gend er role is primarily a consequ ence o gend er. This cou ld inf u ence the child s own perception o
socialization. gend er and becom e a d eterm ining actor in the d evelopm ent o
n The theory is based on case stu d ies o ind ivid u als born with the child s gend er role id entity.
am bigu ou s genitals called intersex in m ed ical literatu re.
Money ou nd ch ildren who had been born as emales
genetically bu t were raised as boys and thou ght o
them selves as boys. Money theorized that hu mans are not
born with a gend er id entity and thereore it is possible to
reassign sex within the rst two years o lie.

78
 6 Devel opm en ta l psych ol ogy

Sroue et al. (1 993) observed children arou nd the ages o 1 0 and 1 1 and ou nd that
those who d id n ot behave in a gend er-stereotyped ways were the least popu lar. These
stu d ies ind icate that children establish a kind o social control in relation to gend er
roles very early and it may well be that peer socialization is an im portant actor in
gend er role d evelopm ent.

Strengths of social learning theory Lim itations of social learning theory

n I t pred icts that children acqu ire internal stand ard s or n I t cannot explain why there seem s to be consid erable
behaviou r throu gh reward s and pu nishm ent, either by variation in the d egree to which in d ivid u al boys and girls
personal or vicariou s experien ce. conorm to gend er role stereotypes.
n A nu m ber o empirical stu d ies su pport the notion o n I t su ggests that gend er is m ore or less passively acqu ired
m od elling. bu t research shows children are active participants in the
socialization process.

Gender schema theory n Martin and H alvorson (1 978) ou nd that children actively
n Gend er schema theory is based on the assu mption that constru ct gend er id en tity based on their own experiences.
cognitive processes play a key role in the d evelopm ent o The tend en cy to categorize on the basis o gend er lead s
gend er id entity and gend er roles. them to perceive boys and girls as d ierent.
n Accord ing to M artin and H alvorson, ch ildren have a gend er
Gend er schemas are generalized id eas abou t what is schema or their own sex (the ingrou p) and or the opposite
appropriate behaviou r or males and emales. People are sex (the ou tgrou p).
categorized as eith er male or emale and given speci c gend er n Gend er sch emas d eterm in e what children pay attention to,
attribu tes (g en d er stereotypes). Gend er schemas thu s organize whom they interact with, and what they rem em ber. Gend er
kn owled ge and in ormation processing. schemas thu s serve as an internal, sel-regu lating stand ard .
This cou ld be the reason that gend er schemas may becom e
a sel-u l lling prophecy or a stereotype threat.
n The m ost important actor in the d evelopm ent o gend er
role id entity is childrens ability to label them selves as boys
Martin and H alvorson (1 983) perorm ed an experim ent with
or girls, i.e. the establishm ent o gend er id entity. Gend er
boys and girls aged between ve and six years. They saw
schemas gu id e su bsequ ent inormation processing.
pictu res o males and emales in activities that were either in
n Children are m otivated to be like others in their grou p line with gend er role schemas (e.g. a girl playing with a d oll) or
(conorm ity) and they tend to observe sam e-sex role m od els inconsistent with gend er role schemas (e.g. a girl playing with
m ore careu lly. Cu ltu ral belies abou t emale and male a gu n). A week later, the children were asked to rem em ber
gend er roles are inclu d ed in gend er schemas and what they had seen on the pictu res. The children had d istorted
inf u ence the way children think abou t them selves and m em ories o pictu res that were not consistent with g end er role
their possibilities. schemas. They rem em bered the pictu re o a girl playing with a
gu n as a boy playing with a gu n. This shows how inormation
Infuences processing
may be d istorted to t with existin g schemas.
o social inormation
Society's
belies
about the Gender Fagot (1 985 ) observed gend er policing in children aged
traits o schema Infuences sel-esteem between 21 and 2 5 m onths. She ou nd that boys mad e u n o
emales (only behaviour or other boys who played with d olls or who played with a girl. The
and males attitudes consistent girls d id not like it when a girl played with a boy. This ind icates
with gender schema that gend er schemas had been established and that peers can
are acceptable) reinorce gend er schemas (gend er stereotypes), wh ich cou ld
then act as an internal sel-regu lating stan d ard .

Strengths of gender schema theory Limitations of gender schema theory

n It can explain why childrens gender roles do not change n There is too much ocus on individual cognitive
ater middle childhood. The established gender schemas processes in the development o gender roles. Social and
tend to be maintained because children pay attention cultural actors are not taken into account.
to and remember inormation that is consistent with n It is not really possible to explain how and why gender
their gender schemas (conrmation bias). schemas develop and take the orm they do.
n The theory depicts the child as actively trying to make
sense o the world using its present knowledge and gender
schemas serve as an internal, sel-regulating standard.

79
 6.8 Explain cultural variations in gender roles

Goffman (1 97 7 ) pred icted that gend er roles will shit as

Matsumoto (1 994) d e nes cu ltu re as a set o attitu d es, valu es, societies sh it rom a belie that gend er roles are based on
belies, and behaviou rs shared by a grou p o people and biological d ierences to a belie in general social equ ality.
com m u nicated rom on e generation to the next thou gh cu ltu ral
Su pport or this cou ld be research on new male gend er roles in
practices an d langu age.
Western cu ltu res:
n Reinicke (2 006) ou n d that you ng athers in Denmark nd
n I gender roles were based on biology alone it would be child care important. Being a ather is an important part o
natural to assume that gender roles are universal and based their id entity and they want to be close to their ch ildren.
on evolution. For example, women have traditionally done
n Engle and Breaux (1 994) ou nd that, i athers participated
m ost o the household work and spent m ore tim e on
in program m es on parenting and child d evelopm ent, they
childcare than m en, but does this indicate that housework
becam e m ore involved with their children.
and child caring is based on wom ens biology?
n I gender roles were based on culture it would be natural to
assum e that gender roles vary across cultures according to a Sociocultural actors and gender roles
specic cultures belies and expectations with regard to m en Societies that accept social inequ ality seem to accept not
and wom ens roles (gender role ideology). In m ost cultures, only class d ierences bu t also social d ierences between
wom en have had the major responsibility or taking care o m en and wom en. I n societies wh ere males control resou rces
the children and house work. and d om inate the political system , wom en are m ore likely to
conorm to the stereotypical g end er role.
n Eaglys (1 987 ) social role theory su ggests that gend er
stereotypes arise rom the d ierent roles occu pied by males Gend er equ ality may be the road to chan ge in trad itional
and emales. Wom en and m en are seen as best su ited or stereotyped gend er roles. The wom ens m ovem ent or social
the roles they occu py respectively and this gives rise to equ ality started in ind ivid u alistic societies and id eas o
belies abou t how wom en and m en behave and eel social equ ality o m en and wom en have been ad opted in
respectively. Som e o these stereotypes may becom e m ost ind ivid u alist societies.
cognitive schemas, which are resistant to change (see m ore
on stereotypes in u nit 4.7 ).
n I n m od ern societies, physical strength is n o longer the only
way to assu re bread winning. Wom en and m en are m ore
likely to have the sam e jobs and share th e responsibility or
the am ily.

Mead (1 935) compared gen d er roles in three N ew Gu inean tribes.

She argu ed that mascu line and em inine roles are not related to biology bu t gend er role id eology. Cu ltu ral d ierences in gend er
roles are m ore likely to ref ect cu ltu ral expectations than biology.

Arapesh tribe Mundugumor tribe Tchambuli tribe

n Both men and women were n Both men and women were n Men were interested in body
cooperative, gentle, and loving arrogant, competitive, and adornments and spent their time
(a traditional stereotype o emotionally unresponsive (a gossiping with other men (a
emale traits). traditional stereotype o male traditional emale stereotype).
n Men and women cooperated in traits). They were constantly n Women were responsible or ood
tasks relating to crops and quarrelling. production, tool making, and
children. n Neither men nor women were producing clothes.
interested in children. The children
quickly became independent and
this trait was highly valued in
the tribe.

80
6.9 Describe adolescence

n Ad olescence is historically a new concept and it may be n Schlegel and Berry (1 991 ) argu e that even i there is no
cu ltu rally specif c to som e extent. I n the Western world , specif c word or ad olescence, alm ost all cu ltu res have a
ad olescence is d ef ned as the period o d evelopm ent notion o what it is. I n som e non-ind u strialized cu ltu res, the
between pu berty (the tim e where ind ivid u als becom e beginning o adolescence is marked by initiation ceremonies
capable o sexu al reprod u ction) and ad u lthood . or rites o passage, which are major pu blic events.
n The concept o ad olescence is controversial becau se: n Them es o initiation cerem onies may be related to ad u lt
1 not everyone agrees that it is a u niqu e lie period across responsibilities (e.g. prod u ctivity or ertility) in the variou s
all cu ltu res societies. I n ind u strialized societies, there are no ormal
transition cerem onies and this leaves ad olescence with no
2 there are enorm ou s ind ivid u al and cu ltu ral d ierences
clear beginnin g or end .
in the ad olescent experience
n H all (1 904) d escribed ad olescence as a period o storm
3 m ost research on ad olescence has been cond u cted in
and stress. Wh ile it is tru e that som e ad olescents in the
the West.
West may experience som e problem s d u ring ad olescence, it
is not the norm .

6.1 0 Discuss the relationship between physical

change and development of identity during
adolescence

Physical changes in adolescence n Girls experience physical changes two to three years beore
boys (between the ages o 1 0 and 1 3). The m ost important
changes are the d evelopm ent o breasts and a wid ening o
Physical matu ration and ad u lt reprod u ctive u nctioning are the hips. The gain in bod y at and rapid weight gain may
controlled by the end ocrine system that operates throu gh be seen as a problem or som e girls becau se it clashes with
the hypothalam u s-pitu itary-gonad al system . Du ring the the Western id eal o a slim emale f gu re.
prenatal period , horm ones called an drogen s organize the
n Boys experience the growth spu rt as a broad ening o the
reprod u ctive system bu t these horm ones are su ppressed
sh ou ld ers and an increase in m u scle strength. H aving a
ater birth. They are reactivated in early child hood (arou nd
mascu line bod y is welcom ed becau se it brings boys closer
the age o eight or girls and six or boys) and this starts the
to their bod y id eal. Boys whose bod ies d o not appear
pu berty process with grad u al matu ration o the bod y and
mascu line may experience id entity problem s.
the reprod u ctive system . All ind ivid u als experience the sam e
bod ily changes d u ring pu berty bu t the sequ ence o changes
may vary.

n U ntil pu berty, boys and girls prod u ce rou ghly the sam e
am ou nt o male horm ones (e.g. testosterone) and emale
h orm ones (e.g. estrogen s). At the start o pu berty, the
pitu itary gland cau ses an u psu rge o sex horm ones so that
g irls n ow prod u ce m ore estrogen and boys m ore
testosterone.
n Th e physical growth spu rt is characterized by an increase
in the d istribu tion o bod y at and m u scle tissu e. The bod y N ewborn 2 years 5 years 15 years Adult
grows taller and heavier and grad u ally becom es m ore
ad u lt-like. The ad olescent has to becom e am iliar with this
n ew bod y and integrate a revised bod y image.

81
 6 Devel opm en ta l psych ol ogy

Relationship between physical change and

Ferron (1 997)
development o identity Aim To investigate possible cu ltu ral d ierences in th e way
Sexual identity ad olescents relate to bod ily chan ges in pu berty.
n The physical changes o the ad olescent bod y are related to Procedure This was a small-scale su rvey u sing sem i-stru ctu red
changes in id entity inclu d ing an em erging sexu ality. This interviews to collect d ata in a cross-cu ltu ral sample consisting
inclu d es learning to hand le sexu al d esires and sexu al o 60 Am erican and 60 French ad olescents. Boys and girls were
attitu d es and valu es, and integrating all this with eelings equ ally represented . One o the them es in the interview was
and experiences into a new sel-image. how the bod ily changes d u ring pu berty aected bod y image
n Social and cu ltu ral norm s d eterm ine the extent to which and how they coped with it.
ad olescents can explore their sexu ality. I n som e cu ltu res, Results
ad olescent sexu al activity is seen as inappropriate whereas n Seventy-f ve per cent o the Am erican ad olescents d id not
in others it is seen as normal and healthy. accept any biological pred isposition in term s o bod y
n The entry into sexu al matu rity may increase girls concerns shape. They believed it was possible to obtain a perect
abou t sexu al attractiveness as well as awareness that they bod y i one tried hard enou gh an d ad hered to specif c
may becom e the targets o sexu al violence. ru les. Eighty per cent o the Am ericans believed in the
eectiveness o specif c d iets or exercise program m es.
Body image and identity n The Am ericans were also m ore likely to su er rom
n The cultural ideal hypothesis by Simm ons and Blyth
sel-blam e and gu ilt and ad opt u nhealthy weight regu lating
(1 987 ) su ggests that pu berty brings boys closer to their
strategies su ch as u nbalanced d iets or continu ou s physical
id eal bod y while girls m ove u rther away rom theirs. A
exercise.
cu ltu ral id eal is that a male bod y shou ld be big and strong.
The id eal emale bod y in Western cu ltu re is a slim bod y.
n Seventy-f ve per cent o the Am erican g irls believed that
their personal worth d epend ed on looks and wou ld d o
n The cu ltu ral id eal hypothesis pred icts that, since the
nearly anything to get close to an id eal bod y image.
cu ltu ral id eal or the emale bod y is being slim , ad olescent
girls shou ld be m ore likely to express bod y d issatisaction
n Less than hal o the French ad olescents believed they
and resort to d ieting than boys. This is su pported by cou ld obtain a perect bod y. They had perceptions o id eal
research. bod y image bu t 75 % o them believed that physical
appearance is genetically d eterm ined and cou ld n ot
n Caumann and Steinberg (1 996) ou nd that girls in
possibly be extensively m od if ed throu gh willpower or
Western cu ltu res are m ore concerned abou t their
particu lar behaviou r. The only thing they consid ered
appearance and express m ore worry abou t how other
blam eworthy was physical carelessness.
people will respond to them than in other cu ltu res. Teenage
girls want to be seen as attractive. I their bod y is ar rom Evaluation The stu d y was cond u cted in the West bu t it shows
the d om inant cu ltu ral id eal o slim ness, they may d evelop a interesting d ierences between two Western cou ntries. The
negative bod y image and low sel-esteem . resu lts may not be generalized to non-Western cou ntries. I t was
a small-scale su rvey u sing sel-reported d ata, which can be
n The objectifcation theory su ggested by Fredrickson and
som ewhat u nreliable.
Roberts (1 997 ) hold s that Western girls are socialized to
constantly think o whether their bod ies and physical
appearances are pleasing to others. A chronic state o
anxiety may be generated by their concerns abou t
maintaining a satisactory appearance.
n Stice and Withenton (2 002 ) ou nd bod y image
d issatisaction to be a strong pred ictor o d epression, eating
d isord ers, exercise d epend ence, and steroid u se am ong
you ng people in the U SA.

82
6.11 Examine psychological research into
adolescence

The theory of psychosocial development appear in early ad u lt lie, accord ing to Eriksons theory,
(Erikson, 1 968) increased stead ily throu gh the next period bu t becam e
pred om inant ater the age o 1 9. I t was a sin gle case stu d y so
the resu lts cannot be generalized .
The theory is partly based on psychoanalysis bu t it d eparts
rom Freu d s heavy em phasis on sexu ality. Accord ing to the Challenge to the theorys concept o identity crisis in
psychosocial theory o d evelopm ent th e ind ivid u al d evelops adolescence: Rutter et al. (1 976)
throu gh a series o stages rom birth to d eath. Aim To investigate the concept o d evelopm ental crisis in a
representative sample o ad olescents.
n The th stage concerns adolescence: identity versus role Procedure All ad olescents on th e I sle o Wight aged between
confusion. This stage o identity crisis is marked by the rapid 1 4 and 1 5 (cohort) participated in the stu d y (N =2 ,303 ). Data
physical growth and horm onal changes which take place were collected with qu estionnaires and in terviews rom parents,
between the ages o 1 2 and 1 8. teachers, and the ad olescents.
n The bod ily changes may be conu sing and the ad olescent Results Only a m in ority o the ad olescents showed signs o
has to search or a new sense o continu ity and sam eness. crisis or conf ict with parents and this was m ostly related to
Qu estions o sexu ality, u tu re occu pation, and id entity are psychiatric problem s. This is not in line with pred ictions o the
explored . This is called a m oratorium, i.e. a tim e to theory o psychosocial d evelopm ent. Only one th o the
experience d ierent possibilities. ad olescents reported eeling m iserable or d epressed .
n I the id entity crisis is solved su ccessu lly, the ad olescent Evaluation The act that it was a cohort stu d y, i.e. all
will eel con d ent abou t his or her own id entity and u tu re. ad olescents born on the island in the sam e years, increases the
The d anger o this stage is role conusion , i.e. u ncertainty valid ity o the resu lts. The com bination o interview and
abou t ones id entity and u tu re role. qu estionnaires with ad olescents as well as parents and teachers
gave cred ibility to the resu lts becau se the d ata cou ld be
n I the id entity crisis is not solved su ccessu lly, the
corroborated . There may be problem s with th e reliability o the
ad olescent may join a su bgrou p and d evelop a negative or
sel-reported d ata.
socially u nacceptable id entity. Accord ing to Erikson, a
negative id entity may be preerable to no id entity at all.
Evaluation o the theory o psychosocial development
n Ad olescents m u st establish an ad u lt personality an d n Identity ormation is perhaps not a project undertaken during
d evelop com m itm ent to work and role (or example as adolescence alone. OConnel (1 976) perorm ed retrospective
partner and parent) in lie to prepare or the next stage, interviews with a sample o married wom en with children in
intimacy versus isolation, where the goal is to com m it school. The wom en reported changes in identity ater
onesel to another person. adolescence due to marriage, becom ing parent, etc. This
indicates that identity ormation could be a lie-long project
Key concepts in the psychosocial theory are id entity, id entity related to experiences throughout adult lie.
versu s role conu sion, id entity crisis, and psychosocial n The theory is Western biased. In som e cultures young people
m oratoriu m . go d irectly into ad u lthood rom child hood . Condon (1 987 )
reviewed anthropological evid ence on the I nu it o the
Canadian arctic rom the start o the 2 0th century. At
Support or the theorys concept o developmental puberty, you ng wom en were u su ally married and had
crisis in adolescence started having children. You ng m en were treated as ad u lts
Espin et al. (1 990) cond u cted a longitu d inal case stu d y that when they could build an igloo, hunt large animals on their
tested Eriksons id eas. The researchers perorm ed a content own, and su pport them selves an d their am ilies. Th e
analysis o 71 letters rom a Latin-Am erican girl to her teacher d i cu lt living con d itions m eant that you ng people had to
over a period o nine years, between the ages o 1 3 and 2 2 . I t take care o them selves as soon as possible. The I nu its d id
was a very trau matic period in her lie becau se she and her not spend tim e qu estioning their id entity.
parents were arrested or political reasons. The researchers
n Eriksons theory is a stage theory based on the assu mption
analysed the letters and ou nd chan ges o them es in the letters
that d evelopm ent is universal , sequ en tial, and characterized
in relation to age. Them es o id entity appeared in the earlier
by specic developm ental tasks at each stage. Tod ay stage
letters, and increased rom the ages o 1 3 to 1 8 years, bu t th en
theories dealing with psychological developm ent are
d eclined . This con rm s that issu es o id entity were prom inent in
questioned .
this period , as pred icted by Erikson. Them es o intimacy which

83
 7.1 Describe stressors

n Stress ca n be d e n ed a s a n egative em otion a l experien ce n A stressor is a ny a d verse experien ce (physiolog ical,

a ccom pan ied by variou s physiolog ica l, cog n itive, a n d psych olog ica l or socia l) that ca u ses a stress respon se. Th e
behaviou ra l reaction s. Stress is th ou g h t to be on e o th e stressor m u st be perceived a s stressu l by an in d ivid u a l to
prin cipa l cau ses o psych olog ica l d istress a n d physical a ctivate th e stress respon se. Th ere a re in d ivid u a l va riation s
illn ess. a s to what is perceived a s stressu l a n d resea rch sh ows that
n Stressors are d escribed a s acute (i.e. su d d en ) or chronic h u ma n s ca n imagine stressors a n d experien ce th e sam e
(i.e. persistin g over a lon g er period o tim e). Stressors may physiolog ica l a rou sa l as rom extern a l en viron m en tal
or may n ot ca u se stress in a n in d ivid u a l d epen d in g on th e stressors (Sapolsky, 1 998).
person 's capa city to cope with th e stressors.

Acute stressors
Examples are: SOCIAL READJUSMEN T RATIN G SCALE
n being d iagnosed as seriou sly ill, being involved in an LIFE EVEN T LIFE-CH AN GE U N IT
accid ent or being inju red Death o one's spou se 1 00
n lie events su ch as the d eath o a loved one, d ivorce, being Divorce 73
red , or not getting ad m itted to a u niversity. M arital separation 65
Jail term 63
Chronic stressors Death o close am ily m em ber 63
Examples are: Personal inju ry or illness 53
n social stressors su ch as poverty, illness, or being responsible M arriage 50
or many you ng children Being red 47
n unemployment, being bullied at work, or work place stressors Retirem ent 45
Pregnancy 40
n violent relation ships.
Change in on e's nancial state 38
M ore argu m ents with one's spou se 35
Lie events as stressors
Change in responsibilities at work 29
H olmes and Rahe (1 967 ) observed that major lie changes
Son or d au ghter leaving hom e 29
oten preced ed illness. These events cou ld be both positive and
Trou ble with in-laws 29
negative bu t they were perceived as stressu l becau se the
Beginning or end ing school 26
change requ ired that the person shou ld ad apt to a new
Change in living cond itions 25
situ ation. The list o lie events presented by H olm es and Rahe
Trou ble with one's boss 23
may not apply to all or in that ord er. I an ind ivid u al perceives
Change in work hou rs or cond itions 20
one o these lie events (or another which is not on the list) as
Change in eatin g habits 15
seriou s and threatening to their well-being , it is a stressor.
Vacation 13
Christmas 12

Workplace stressors (UK National Work Stress Network) Social stressors

Examples are: n Social stressors (e.g. chronic poverty, d iscrim ination, trying
n m onotonou s, u npleasant or m eaningless tasks to manage both am ily and job com m itm ents,
n working u nd er tim e pressu re or working long hou rs u nem ploym ent, living in a violent environm ent or
relationship) cou ld lead to a nu m ber o physical and m ental
n lack o clear job d escription
health problem s.
n no recognition or reward or good job perormance
n Exposu re to stressu l cond itions has been associated with
n heavy responsibility bu t lack o control or inf u ence over sm okin g, alcohol, or other su bstance abu se an d
the d emand s o the job d epen d ence. There is also in creasing evid ence that stress
n harassm ent or bu llying cou ld be linked to overeating and obesity.
n new managem ent techniqu es or new technology
n poor lead ership and poor com m u nication.

84
7.2 Discuss physiological, psychological and social
aspects of stress

Physiological aspects
Sympathetic activation (release o
of stress adrenalin and noradrenalin)
Cannon (1 91 4) The ght increased heart rate and blood
or fight theory pressu re, sweating
n The ght or f ight response Acute stressor Fight or fight response
is a physiological stress
response evolved to help H PA activation (release o cortisol)
organism s (i.e. animals release o su gar in the blood ,
and hu mans) to su rvive regulation o inf am mation, inhibited
im m ed iate d anger. im m u ne u nctioning
(Cannon, 1 91 4).

n The theory proposes that when an organism aces an
physiological aspects o stress is a lim itation in relation to
im m inent d anger (acu te stressor), the bod y is rapid ly
hu mans. I t is now known that cognitive actors can m ed iate
arou sed and m otivated to act via two system s: the
the stress response (Lazarus and Folkman, 1 988).
sympathetic nervou s system and the end ocrine system .
These two physiological system s interact to m obilize the n On the one hand , th e ght or f ight response is ad aptive
organism to ght against or f ee the d anger. becau se it enables the organism to respond qu ickly to an
acu te stressor. On the other han d , the response may be
n The ght or f ight theory is only ad dressing the
harm u l i stress persists (chronic stress) becau se long -term
physiological aspects o stress. This cou ld be becau se
stress may resu lt in physiological as well as psych ological
Cannon only stu d ied animals. The exclu sive ocu s on
health problem s.

Selye (1 956) GAS (General Adaptation Syndrome). The three stages of stress
n The theory is based on animal research (rats) and it exten d s n Alarm: Physiological m obilization to respond to th e d anger.
Cannons theory. Selye d id experim ents where he exposed I t is the sam e as the ght or f ight response.
rats to variou s stressors (e.g. cold , su rgical inju ry, excessive n Resistance: Attem pts to cope with the stress response.
exercise). n Exhaustion: Occu rs when the organism ails to overcom e
n The animals all showed the sam e general physiological the d anger and is in capable o u rth er coping.
responses su ch as enlarged adrenal glands, d im inish ed
thym u s (importan t organ in the im m u ne system ) and u lcers The general adaptation syndrome
when they were exposed to stressors. Som e o them d ied . Alarm Resistance Exaustion

n Selye conclu d ed that rats (and hu mans) wou ld respond with

the sam e physiological pattern o physiological changes no Level of
matter the stressor. With prolonged exposu re to stress normal
resistance
(chronic stress), the physiological system will be d amaged
Stressor
and the organism may eventu ally d ie. I t may be problematic occurs
to generalize su ch resu lts to hu mans bu t research in health
psychology has con rm ed a link between stress and low
im m u ne u nctioning (e.g. Kiecolt-Glaser et al. 1 984).

Strengths of the GAS model Limitations of the GAS model

n The GAS m od el has generated a lot o research and it n There is no reerence to ind ivid u al d ierences, social or
remains an important theory in the eld . cognitive actors in the m od el.
n I t provid es an explanation o the interaction o n Taylor et al. (2 000) argu e that in ad d ition to ght or
environm ental stressors and physiological responses. f ight, hu mans (especially emales) respond to stress with
n Research con rm s Selyes su ggestions o a link between social a liation and nu rtu rant behaviou r.
exhau stion and physical illness (e.g. that chronic stress can n The model cannot explain that humans can experience stress
aect im m u ne u nctioning and cau se shrinking o the by merely thinking o stressul events (Sapolsky, 1 998).
hippocam pu s).

85
 7 Health psychology

Kiecolt-Glaser et al. (1 984) Stress and immune Taylor et al. (2000) Gender dierences in stress
unctioning responses: Tend and beriend theory
n The aim o this natu ral experim ent was to investigate i the n The theory su ggests that evolu tion has presented wom en
stress o an important exam had an eect on the bod ys with d ierent ad aptive challenges than m en who were
im m u ne u nctioning. responsible or hu nting and protection. The theory proposes
n A sample o 75 volunteer medical students participated. Blood that wom en are biologically prepared to react with
tests were taken twice: one month beore and on the rst day a liation and n u rtu rant behaviou r toward ospring in
o the nal exam. Immune unctioning was assessed by tim es o stress.
measuring the amount o the natural killer cells in the n The ght or f ight response to stress d epend s on u nd erlying
immune system (T cells) in the blood samples. The students biological m echanism s. The tend and beriend response to
also completed scales o lie events, bodily symptoms, and stress cou ld also involve u nd erlying biological m echanism s
satisaction with interpersonal contacts. su ch as oxytocin. Research shows that high levels o
n The results showed a signicant decrease in the amount o oxytocin are associated with calm er and m ore relaxed
T-cells in the second blood test. The high stress in relation to behaviou r in animals and hu mans, which cou ld contribu te
the exam had diminished the eectiveness o the immune to nu rtu rant and social behaviou r accord ing to Taylor.
system. Students who reported eeling most lonely or had n The theory is su pported by evid ence that wom en are
experienced other stressul lie experiences had the lowest consistently m ore likely than m en to respond to stress by
T-cell counts. tu rning to others (Tamres et al. 2 002 ). The theory inclu d es
n I t is not possible to establish a cau se-eect relationship in a social aspects o the stress process and ocu ses on hu mans
natu ral experim ent. The stu d y was longitu d inal and as a liative creatu res.
cond u cted in a natu ral environm ent so it has high
ecological valid ity.

Psychological aspects of stress n Lazarus (1 975) claim ed that cognitive appraisal is an

n H u man s respond to stressors in d ierent ways an d cognitive important part o stress reactions and that stress experiences
appraisal seem s to be an important d eterm inant o whether are not only physiological as claim ed by trad itional theories.
an event is perceived as stressu l or not. I an event is not People are psychological bein gs who are not sim ply
perceived as stressu l, it is not likely that there is a passively respond ing to the world bu t actively interpret and
physiological stress response. evalu ate what is happenin g to them .

Lazarus and Folkman (1 984) The transactional model

o stress and coping cognitive appraisal model Primary appraisal
The m od el is based on the assu m ption that stress involves a Is the event neutral,
transaction (i.e. a two-way process) between an ind ivid u al and positive or negative? Is
the external world . I n the ace o potential stressors, it harmul, challenging
the ind ivid ual engages in a process o primary and or threatening?
Stress responses:
second ary appraisal.
physiological,
n Primary appraisal: the event is perceived to be either Potential
cognitive,
neu tral, positive, or negative in its consequ ences. stressor
emotional,
n Secondary appraisal: this is assessm ent o ones coping behavioural
Secondary
abilities and resou rces. Variou s coping strategies are
appraisal
consid ered beore choosing a way to d eal eectively with
What are my coping
the stressor.
abilities and
The interaction between psychological and physiological actors resources to ace the
is illustrated in stress processes. The cognitive appraisal o a situation?
stressor infuences the extent o the physiological response.

86
 7 Health psychology

Speisman al (1 964) Experiment on the role o appraisal o the f lm . The participants also answered qu estions on
in stress experience their responses (sel-reports).
n The aim o the experiment was to investigate i it was n The resu lts showed that participants in the d enial and
possible to manipulate the participants emotional reaction to intellectu alization cond itions experienced consid erably less
an unpleasant flm on genital m utilation (stressor). stress than participants in the trau ma cond ition. The
n The participants (college stu d ents) all watched a f lm abou t manipu lation o cognitions had a signif cant impact on the
a tribal initiation cerem ony that involved genital m u tilation. physiological stress responses.
The researchers man ipu lated the participants cognitive n The results suggest that stress was not intrinsic to the
appraisal by showing the f lm with d ierent sou nd tracks: unpleasant flm but rather dependent on the participants
the trauma condition (sou nd track emphasized the pain appraisal o it. This seem s to support Lazarus theory. It is not
and the m u tilation) the events them selves that elicit em otional stress, but rather
the denial condition (sou nd track emphasized the the individual s interpretation or appraisal o those events.
participants as willing and happy) n The experim ent was cond u cted in a laboratory with high
the intellectualization condition (sou n d track gave an control o variables. This can establish a cau se-eect
anthropological interpretation o the cerem ony). relationship between appraisal and stress reaction bu t there
may be issu es o artif ciality. The stu d y was to som e extent
n The researchers took variou s m easu res o arou sal or stress u nethical becau se it u sed d eception and pu t participan ts in
(e.g. h eart rate, galvanic skin respon se) d u ring the viewing u npleasant situ ations.

Social aspects of stress su pport, d om estic violence, and econom ic hard ship pu t
n Social actors su ch as lack o ed u cation, a low stand ard o in d ivid u als u nd er greater stress, contribu ting to poor health
hou sing, noise and crowd ing, hom elessness, lack o social and am ily problem s.

Evans and Kim (2007) Eects o long-term exposure spent living in poverty correlated with m ore elevated cortisol
to poverty in childhood levels and m ore problem s or the heart to recover ater
n The aim o the stu d y was to investigate the long-term exposu re to the stressor.
relationship between poverty or low socioeconom ic statu s, n The conclu sion was that there is a negative eect on the
cu m u lative risk actors and physiolog ical stress. stress regu lation system in children rom poor backgrou nd s
n Participants were 2 00 seven-year-olds. The researchers and that this eect can be explained by the cu m u lative risk
m easu red blood pressu re and cortisol levels. Stress actors associated with chronic poverty in child hood .
regu lation was assessed by m easu rem ent o the hearts Socioeconom ically d eprived children are exposed to a
reactivity to a stand ard acu te stressor, and recovery ater nu m ber o social stressors that d isad vantage their
exposu re to the stressor. Exposu re to risk actors su ch as d evelopm ent and health . For example, they experience m ore
su bstand ard hou sing, and am ily violence were inclu d ed to am ily violence, separation rom their am ilies, and chaotic
have a m easu re o cu m u lative stress actors. hou sehold s.
n The resu lts showed that there was a positive correlation n The accu m u lation o risk actors and the lack o protective
between long-term exposu re to a social risk actors on actors associated with poverty seem to have long-term
physiological m easu res o stress. A greater nu m ber o years eects on both physical and m ental health.

87
 7.3 Evaluate strategies for coping with stress

Folkman and Lazarus (1 988) Two ways o coping Emotion-focused coping

n This is an attempt to manage the em otional aspects o
Problem-focused coping
stress (e.g. example, changing the way one thinks abou t a
n This is an attempt to rem ove or correct a problematic
problem or learning to accept it, u sing relaxation
situ ation (e.g. as qu itting an abu sive relationship, drating a
techniqu es, seeking social su pport, or u sing dru gs to
revision plan, or taking extra cou rses to qu aliy or a new
alleviate tension).
job).
n A special orm o em otion - ocused coping is avoidance
n A special orm o problem-ocu sed coping is called pro-active
coping (or example, denying the problem or drinking alcohol
coping that is u sed to avoid a u tu re problem (su ch as
to orget the problem . Avoidance coping could be eective in
stu d ying hard or an exam to avoid the stress o ailing).
the short - term . Some coping strategies may be problematic,
or example, i people becom e dependent on alcohol.

Problem-ocu sed copin g may be the m ost ad aptive in situ ations Peoples appraisal o their situ ation and own resou rces to cope
perceived as controllable. Em otion -ocu sed coping may be the with the challenge are important
m ost adaptive in situations that are perceived as uncontrollable. Conway and Terry, (1 992 )

Gender dierences in coping strategies: Taylor (2002) Tend and beriend theory o coping
n The physiological stress reactions ( ght or f ight an d GAS) n The theory was orm u lated on the basis o a m eta-analysis
are the bod ys instinctu al copin g m echanism s to d eal with on research on stress and coping. The stu d y ou nd that
im m inent threat. These reactions are ad equ ate in d angerou s wom en tend to u se social su pport m ore than m en as coping
situ ations bu t there may be gend er d ierences in managing strategy. Wom en also provid e m ore social su pport to oth ers,
stress. and draw on socially su pportive networks m ore consistently
n The tend and beriend theory su ggests that evolu tion has in tim es o stress.
provid ed males and emales with d ierent challenges.
n M ales tend to exhibit the ght or f ight response, which is Thoits (1 995) ou nd that wom en were m ore involved than
triggered by adrenaline. m en in both giving and receiving social su pport. I t seem s that
across the liespan wom en are generally m ore likely to
n Females tend to exhibit the tend and beriend response,
m obilize social su pport especially rom other wom en in
which is triggered by the horm one oxytocin. "Tend " reers to
tim es o stress.
nu rtu ring activities and "beriend " reers to seeking social
su pport.

Social support as coping strategy n Social su pport can com e rom a partner, relatives, riend s, or
n Seeking social su pport is a coping strategy related to variou s social su pport grou ps. Social su pport rom others
em otion-ocu sed coping. Social su pport can act as a bu er ind icates that you belong and this is an important actor
against th e physiological and psychological eects o stress in the ace o stress. Social su pport rom pets also seem s to
bu t it can also protect against potential stress on a d aily have a bene cial eect against stress. The perception or
basis with ou t apparent stressors. Social su pport can be belie that em otional su pport is available appears to be a
d e ned as the experience o being part o a social network m u ch stronger inf u ence on m ental health than the actu al
with access to m u tu al assistance and obligations. receipts o social su pport (Wethering and Kessler, 1 986).

Neuling and Wineeld (1 988) Longitudinal study

Social support may manifest as: o the role o social support in a group o emale
n Emotional support: verbal or non-verbal com m u nication cancer patients
o caring and concern. I t cou ld inclu d e listening , n Th e researchers perorm ed a longitu d inal stu d y with 5 8
empathizing, and com orting. wom en recovering rom su rgery or breast cancer. Each
n Informational support: inormation to gu id e and ad vice woman was interviewed three tim es within three m onths.
to help a person to u nd erstand and cope better with a Participants also rated the requ ency o social su pport
stressu l situ ation. (em otional, inormational, practical) rom am ily, riend s,
n Practical support: tangible assistance su ch as and d octors.
transportation, assistance with hou sehold chores or
nancial assistance.

88
 7 Health psychology

n Th e resu lts sh owed that th e patien ts n eed ed a la rg e n Results showed that in tests where participants were stressed,
am ou n t o em otion al su pport rom am ily an d that th is wa s the pet owners remained signicantly more stable than the
also th e m ost requ en t kin d o su pport th ey received . Th e participants who did not own a pet. According to the
patien ts a lso expressed a wish or m ore in ormation a l researchers, a loving pet can have a calming infuence on
su pport rom d octors. stress symptoms such as blood pressure and heart rate. This is
n Participants reported that social su pport helped them . This particularly the case or individuals who have a limited social
perception cou ld be bene cial in ad ju stm ent to cancer. network.
Since the d ata were d escriptive it is not possible to conclu d e
that social su pport was a m ore eective strategy than other Evaluation of social support as a coping strategy
strategies. This can only be conclu d ed with rand om ized n Social su pport com es primarily rom other hu man beings
controlled stu d ies. (d isclosu re and actively seeking help) bu t it seem s that
pets cou ld have a bene cial eect.
Allen et al. (1 999) Pets as social support n Seeking social su pport may be particu larly com m on
n The researchers investigated whether owning a pet cou ld
am ong wom en in tim es o stress.
red u ce stress in a sample o 48 participants (N ew York City
stockbrokers) who su ered rom m ental stress. Th ey were n In some cultures, it may not be the norm to seek and use
living alone and had all been treated with dru gs against advice and emotional support (explicit social support).
high blood pressu re (hypertension) a consequ ence o Taylor et al. (2007) ound that Asians and Asian
stress. There was an equ al d istribu tion o m en and wom en Americans were less willing to seek explicit social support
and they all had to be willing to acqu ire a pet as part o the or dealing with stressul events and beneted less rom
experim ent. social support. It seems that Asians and Asian Americans
are more concerned about the negative relational
n H al o the participants were randomly allocated to a
implications o seeking social support than European
condition, where a cat or dog was added to their treatment.
Americans are.
Blood pressure and heart rate were measured beore the drug
therapy began and six months later.

Mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) as n M BSR can be seen as an emotion-ocused coping strategy in
coping strategy that it d eals with the physical and em otional aspects o
n MBSR is a grou p-based stress red u ction program m e based stress. I t can also be seen as a problem-ocused coping
on Bu d d hist principles o m ed itation d eveloped by Kabat- strategy in that an ind ivid u al learns new skills to prevent
Zinn (1 979). The ocu s in MBSR is on awareness o the the harm u l eects o stress in the u tu re.
present m om ent, relaxation o the bod y, m ed itation an d n M BSR teaches awareness o the m om ent to avoid au tomatic
d aily practice to learn the techniqu e. negative thinking. The u se o grad u al relaxation is an
attem pt to d eal with the physiological and psycholog ical
n MBSR has been u sed to ad dress ad ju stm ent to the stress o
ch ronic illn ess, pain, anxiety and d epression. aspects o stress.

Shapiro et al. (1 998) MBSR and coping with exam stress at the tim e o the exam s. Stu d ents on the waiting list
n The aim o the stu d y was to investigate eectiveness o expressed m ore perceived stress compared to those who had
MBSR as a coping strategy to control exam stress. participated in the M BSR class. The M BSR stu d ents were in
n The stu d y u sed a controlled experim ental d esign. Som e act less anxiou s than at the start.
prem ed ical stu d ents at the University o Arizona were n The resu lts su ggest that the cou rse had tau gh t them to
oered an in trod u ctory cou rse o M BSR or cou rse cred its. cope eectively with the stress o the exam s.
n The participants were random ly assigned to the MBSR course n M BSR seem s to be an eective m eans o coping with stress
(37 ) or to a waiting list (36). An equal number o men and bu t people m u st be willing to learn M BSR and it may not
women were in the sample. Participants in the MBSR group su it everybod y.
and the waiting list group lled out a questionnaire assessing n The participants were stu d ents and participated or cou rse
stress at the start o the term (beore the course) and during cred its. This m ean s that the nd ings cann ot be generalized .
the exam s at the end o the term (ater the course). They also The resu lts have been replicated in another controlled stu d y
completed a questionnaire on empathy. with 1 30 m ed ical stu d ents. This ind icates that MBSR is
n The resu lts showed no d ierence in stress between the two eective in stress red u ction.
grou ps at the beginning o the term . There was a d ierence

89
 7 Health psychology

Grossman et al. (2003) Meta-analysis o MBSR and

health benefts. Evaluation of MBSR as a coping strategy
The stu d y is a review o 2 0 controlled stu d ies and observations Grou p-based psychosocial interven tions su ch as M BSR that
o clinical ind ivid u als and stressed non-clinical ind ivid u als. All acilitates ad aptation and ad ju stm ent to stress are both
the stu d ies in clu d ed stand ard ized m easu res o physical and cost-eective and tim e-ef cient. The m ethod is gaining
m ental well-being. increasin g popu larity and a nu m ber o clinical trials have
The resu lts su ggest that M BSR cou ld be helpu l to a broad been con d u cted at this point.
range o ind ivid u als to cope with their clinical and non-clinical Clin ica l tria ls in relation to ca n cer patien ts in d icate
problem s. The sample in this m eta-analysis was small bu t overall that M BSR is a prom isin g a pproa ch bu t m ore research
there was a positive eect in all the stu d ies. is n eed ed .

7.4 Explain factors related to the development

of substance abuse or addictive behaviour
n Substance abuse reers to the continu ed u se o the n Substance dependence This is d em onstrated in craving (i.e.
su bstance d espite knowing problem s associated with the a stron g d esire to get the su bstance or en gage in a
su bstance su ch as persistent d esire to u se it and /or behaviou r) an d in withdrawal symptoms (i.e. the u npleasant
u nsu ccessu l eorts to control su bstance u se. Sm oking cou ld physiological and psychological symptom s wh en people
be an example o su bstance abu se when sm okers want to d ont get the su bstance on which they are d epend ent).
qu it bu t f nd they are u nable to. n Addiction (or ad d ictive behaviou r) occu rs when people
becom e physically or biologically d epend ent on a su bstance
becau se o repeated u se over tim e.

Smoking
Biological factors n Marks et al. (2 005) report that although teenagers initial
n The psychoactive dru g in tobacco is nicotine. N icotine reaction to tobacco sm oke is generally negative, they quickly
alters levels o neu rotransm itters (e.g. acetylcholine, develop a taste or it. Young sm okers report that sm oking has
d opam ine, adrenaline, vasopressin). Secretion o adrenaline a calming eect and that they experience craving i they
resu lts in temporarily increased heart rate and blood cannot sm oke. This is confrmed in m easurem ent o nicotine
pressu re. Secretion o d opam ine is involved in the alteration levels in the saliva. Within a couple o years, teenagers report
o m ood . Secretion o acetylcholine appears to enhance that they fnd it difcult to stop.
m em ory. N icotine is also associated with relaxation and n H eath and Madden (1 995) reviewed the evid ence rom
changes in m ood . national twin stu d ies in Scand inavia and Au stralia. They
n N icotine is a highly addictive substance . A habitu al sm oker ou nd that genetic actors increased both the likelihood o
will experience withdrawal symptom s i the level o nicotine becom ing a regu lar sm oker (initiation) and o these
is not constant in the bod y. This cou ld explain why u p to sm okers becom ing longterm sm okers (persistence).
80% o sm okers in the U SA who wou ld like to qu it are not
able to d o it (Benowitz, 2 009).

90
 7 Health psychology

DiFranza et al. (2006) Research on adolescents n The resu lts showed that o those ad olescents who recalled a
smoking history and addiction relaxation eect ater their rst inhale, 67 % becam e
n The aim o the stu d y was to investigate the relationship d epend ent com pared to 2 9% o those who d id not
between attitu d es to sm oking and sm oking habits. experience su ch an eect.
n The d esign was longitu d inal and u sed qu estionnaires and n Feelings o relaxation ater inhalation were the main risk
interviews or d ata collection. I n M assachu setts 21 7 actor or ad d iction. O the participants who the
ad olescents (m ean ag e 1 2 ) answered qu estionnaires on experienced relaxation eect, 91 % reported that it was not
th eir sm oking history, social environm ent (e.g. am ily and possible or them to qu it sm oking even thou gh they wanted
peers) as well as belies and attitu des towards sm oking. All to and 60% said they elt they had lost control.
participants reported havin g sm oked a cigarette at least n The conclusion was that or some people addiction to smoking
once. seems to start almost ater the rst pu but it is unknown why
n Eleven o the participants were interviewed . Tobacco some are more vulnerable to nicotine addiction than others. It
d epend ence was assessed based on reported cravings, and could be genetic but smoking is a complex behaviour where
inability to qu it. both genes and environmental actors interact.

Sociocultural factors
According to social learning theory (SLT) smoking is learned
through modelling (see unit 4.6 or more on SLT). This could
apply to the role o parents and peers in the initiation o smoking.

Unger et al. (2001 ) Cross-cultural survey on adolescent

Parents play a signifcant role (modelling and smoking
attitudes to smoking). n The aim o th e stu d y was to investigate sm oking habits in
n Bauman et al. (1 990) ou nd that 80% o a sam ple o
relation to peers and cu ltu ral backgrou nd .
Am erican ad olescents aged 1 21 4 whose parents d id not
sm oke had never tried to sm oke them selves. I the parents
n The sample consisted o ad olescents rom Caliornia
sm oked , hal o th e children had tried sm oking. Murray et (N =5 ,1 43, m ean age 1 3).
al. (1 984) ou n d that in am ilies where the paren ts were n The resu lts showed that white stu d ents with close riend s
strongly against sm oking, the children were u p to seven who sm oked were m u ch m ore likely to sm oke than
tim es less likely to sm oke. non-white stu d en ts (e.g. Asian Am erican and H ispanic
n Powel and Chaloupka (2 003) investigated the im pact o stu d ents).
parental inf u ences on the probability o you th sm oking n The researchers explained that in individualistic cultures,
both in term s o m od elling and the parents attitu d es to adolescents typically create their own youth culture
sm oking. The resu lts showed that parental inf u ences play characterized by rebellion in order to set them selves apart
a signi cant role in you th sm oking d ecisions, especially rom their parents. In collectivistic cultures, the bond between
or ad olescent girls. the teen and the parents is considered important. Rebellion is
not tolerated so adolescents are m ore likely to conorm to the
roles and norm s that parents prescribe or them .
Peer pressure
n Accord ing to the U N Departm ent o H ealth and H u man
Services (2 001 ) peer sm oking appear to be the m ost
important actor in sm oking initiation. More than 70% o
all cigarettes sm oked by ad olescents are sm oked in the
presence o a peer accord ing to Biglan et al. (1 984).

Role o advertising and marketing n Ad vertising u nctions as a cu e to sm oking (e.g. associating

n Consu m er research shows that tobacco ad vertising has a pleasu re and u n with sm oking may activate cravin g in
poweru l eect on sm oking attitu d es and behaviou r o sm okers bu t it cou ld also m otivate you ng people to start
you ng people. The u se o imagery and positive association sm oking).
in com bination with brand consciou sness in you ng people n Tobacco sponsorships prom ote brand association and makes
inf u ences the you ng to sm oke the m ost popu lar and well it easier to start sm oking. Charlton et al. (1 997 ) ou nd that
ad vertised prod u ct. boys who showed a preerence or Form u la One m otor
racing that was sponsored by cigarette manu actu rers were
m ore likely to start sm oking.

91
 7.5 Examine prevention strategies and treatments
for substance abuse and addictive behaviour

Prevention strategies
Tobacco u se is a lead ing cau se o d eath accord ing to The World d iseases are rising. The WH O and governm ents ad opt variou s
H ealth Organization (WH O). Sm oking kills abou t six m illion prevention strategies to prevent you ng people rom starting to
sm okers per year world wid e. The health costs o sm oking-related sm oke or to help people qu it sm oking.

The WHOs Mpower strategy. WHOs No Tobacco Day every year targets variou s aspects
Monitor tobacco u se and prevention policies (e.g. help to bu ild o primary prevention (e.g. children and ad olescent sm okin g
strategies) prevention (2 008) or tobacco control (2 01 1 ).
Protect people rom tobacco sm oke (e.g. sm oke-ree areas and
sm oke-ree legislation) Primary and secondary prevention strategies
Oer help to qu it tobacco (e.g. cou nselling and national qu it
n Primary prevention: Strategies to prevent people rom
services) starting sm oking (e.g. bans on sm oking in pu blic places,
Warn abou t the d angers o tobacco u se (e.g. inormation and bans on tobacco marketing, and health prom otion in the
pictu res on billboard s) orm o ed u cation abou t the d angers o sm oking and
Enorce bans on tobacco ad vertising, prom otion and anti-sm oking campaigns.
sponsorships n Secondary prevention: I nterventions to help people stop
Raise taxes on tobacco sm okin g (cessation), su ch as nicotine replacem ent and
therapy (i.e. treatm ent).

Hanewinkel and Wiborg (2002) Primary prevention Effectiveness of primary prevention

campaign o smoking in Germany targeting n Lem stra et al. (2 008) and Gorini (2 007 ) ou nd that a ban
adolescents: Be smartDont Start. on sm oking in pu blic places in I taly and Canad a d ecreased
n The aim o th e stu d y was to investigate the eectiveness o the prevalence o sm oking (i.e. d ecreased nu m ber o people
a school-based campaign in Germany with regard to primary who sm oke).
and second ary prevention.
n The sample consisted o 1 31 classes with 2 ,1 42 pu pils
(m ean age 1 2 .9 years). Sm oking statu s was assessed twice,
once beore a competition started and again six m onths
ater the end o the competition. The classes d ecid ed
whether they wanted to be a sm oke-ree class or six
m onths or not. The control grou p consisted o classes who
d id not enter the competition. The classes in which pu pils
d id not sm oke d u ring the six m on ths eventu ally participated
in a prize draw with many attractive prizes. There were no
d ierences in prevalence o sm oking at baseline between
the control (1 8.5 % sm okers) and the experim ental grou p n Willem sen and Zwart (2 002 ) ou nd that the m ost eective
(1 5.2 % sm okers). strategies to prevent sm oking am ong ad olescents were a
n The resu lts showed that pu pils in the control cond ition com bination o a complete ban on tobacco ad vertising,
showed signif cantly higher prevalence o sm oking (32 .9% increased prices, restricting tobacco prod u ct sales to specif c
sm okers) com pared to pu pils in the experim ental cond ition shops, mass m ed ia ed u cation aim ed at you th and
(2 5.5 % sm okers). More pu pils stayed sm oke-ree in the intensif ed school-based ed u cation.
experim ental grou p than in the control grou p.
n The researchers concluded that participation in the
competition could delay the onset o sm oking in som e See units 7.8 and 7.9 on efectiveness o health
adolescents (primary prevention) but the competition was not promotion strategies in relation to smoking.
eective in sm oking cessation (secondary prevention). This
supports previous fndings that it is very important to prevent
young people rom starting to sm oke.

92
 7 Health psychology

Treatments
Treatment or nicotine addiction is part o secondary prevention
and typically based on nicotine replacement or drug therapy in
combination with advice rom health proessionals.

Nicotine replacement therapy (NRT)

n Products such as nicotine chewing gum, patches, and nasal Bullen et al. (201 0) Experimental research on
sprays contain low levels o nicotine and are used to relieve electronic cigarettes on withdrawal
withdrawal symptoms and control cravings. Electronic Aim investigate short-term eectiveness o electron ic cigarettes
cigarettes are a new orm o N RT where people inhale nicotine on d esire to sm oke and withdrawal symptom s compared to
in the vapour that comes rom a device looking like a inhalators.
cigarette. Procedure The d esign was a single blind controlled rand om ized
n N RT products do not produce the pleasurable eects o experim ent. Participants were 40 sm okers who sm oke m ore
tobacco products and should in principle be less addictive. than 1 0 cigarettes a d ay bu t had not sm oked overnight. They
n N icotine gu m is now one o the m ost u sed treatm ents bu t were given either cigarettes, a nicotine inhaler or electronic
som e sm okers are u nable to tolerate the taste and chewing cigarettes (either with 0 or 1 6 m g nicotine).
d emand s. Results The electronic cigarette produced the sam e signifcant
n H ughes (1 993) ou nd that N RT is g enerally qu ite eective decline in the desire to sm oke as the nicotine inhaler and had
in sm oking cessation bu t the problem is that som e people ewer side eects. Even the 0 m g cigarette suppressed the desire
becom e d epend ent on nicotine gu m . to smoke. This is interesting because it shows that sim ulation o
sm oking behaviour was enough to reduce craving.

Drug treatment Jorenby et al. (1 999) Controlled experiment on

Zyban is a dru g which is su pposed to help people qu it sm oking. treatments or smoking cessation
I t shou ld relieve withdrawal symptom s and block the eects o n The aim was to investigate the eectiveness o nicotine
nicotine i people resu m e sm oking . patches and Zyban in sm oking cessation .
n The experim ent was a d ou ble blind , placebo-controlled
Pisinger (2 008) reviewed research on the eect o stu d y with 2 44 participants in the nicotine patch cond ition,
interventions at the ind ivid u al level. 2 45 participants in the com bined Zyban and nicotine patch
The stu d y conclu d es that the m ost ef cient m ethod s are those grou p, and 1 60 participants in the placebo grou p. The
that inclu d e consu ltations and participation in sm oking treatm ent took place over 9 weeks. The participants were
cessation interventions, either alone or in grou ps. N icotine su pposed to qu it sm oking at d ay 8 in the treatm ent.
replacem ent proced u res as well as the dru g Zyban are ef cient, n The resu lts showed that 1 5.6% o the participants in the
especially in com bination with other interventions. placebo grou p d id not sm oke ater 1 2 m onths compared to
I nd ivid u alized treatm ents have higher su ccess rates. Long-term 30.3 % in the nicotine patch grou p and 30.3% in the
cessation program m es are generally m ore su ccessu l in com bined treatm ent grou p.
preventing relapse.

MBSR n M BSR in stru ctors trained the grou p in m ind u lness in eight
weekly sessions. Participants attem pted sm oking cessation
Davis et al. (2007) MBSR as a strategy to stop smoking in week seven withou t u se o dru gs or nicotine replacem ent.
n The aim o the stu d y was to investigate i MBSR cou ld Six weeks ater qu itting the participants breath was tested
red u ce sm oking. M BSR is a stress red u ction program m e to see i they had stopped .
based on m ed itation principles rom Bu d d hism (see m ore
n The resu lts showed that 5 6% o the participants had
in u nit 7.5 ).
stopped sm oking (th e breath test). There was a positive
n There were 1 8 participants in the stu d y. They had an correlation between compliance with m ed itation, sm okin g
average sm oking history o 1 9.9 cigarettes per d ay or cessation and low levels o stress.
2 6.4 years.
n The researchers conclu d ed that M BSR cou ld be u seu l or
sm oking cessation bu t this need s to be tested in a larger
controlled stu d y.

93
 7.6 Discuss factors related to overeating and the
development of obesity

Obesity is a growing health problem world wid e, inclu d ing

am ong children. Accord ing to the WH O (2 004) obesity has The m ost requ ently u sed d ef nition o obesity is related to
reached epid em ic proportions globally and problem s with being bod y mass ind ex (BMI ), which is a m easu re o excess bod y
overweight are now aecting m ore people than malnu trition at. BMI is a persons weight (in kilogram m es) d ivid ed by
and hu nger. the squ are o his or her h eight (in m etres).
N ormal weight BMI 2 02 4.9
Overweight BM I 2 5 2 9.9
Clinical obesity BMI 3039.9
Severe obesity BM I 40

Biological factors
Evolution Genetic predisposition
n The early hu mans were hu nter-gatherers who lived as n Stunkard et al. (1 990) perorm ed a twin stu d y based on
nomad s or m illions o years. H om o Sapiens appeared som e 93 pairs o id entical twins reared apart. The researchers
1 30,000 to 1 00,000 years BC and their bod ies were com pared the twins BM I and ou nd that genetic actors
ad apted to the hard ship o nomad ic lie. accou nted or 6670% o the variance in their bod y weight.
n Ou r ancestors d iet was varied and the bod ys ability to n The resu lts ind icate a strong genetic component in
store at easily was ad vantageou s or su rvival. The hu nter- d evelopm ent o obesity bu t it is not really clear how genes
gatherers need ed the at to su rvive winters and the long operate here. One theory is that m etabolism rates cou ld be
jou rneys in search o ood . The d emand or energy was genetically d eterm ined bu t the evid ence is still inconclu sive.
m u ch higher than it is in m od ern societies with a sed entary Another su ggestion relates to the am ou nt o at cells in
liestyle. The genetic pred isposition to store at cou ld thu s the ind ivid u al.
be a d isad vantage tod ay where ood is abu nd ant and n The obesity epid em ic cannot be explained by genetic
people are no longer as physically active. The theory actors alon e. Environ m ental actors play an important role
makes sense since it is at this point in hu man history that (e.g. sed entary liestyle and high en ergy ood s). The increase
obesity is so requ ent bu t it is impossible to test in prevalence rates o obesity within the last 2 0 years has
evolu tionary theories. taken place over too short a period or the genetic makeu p
o the popu lation to have changed su bstan tially.

The neurobiology o ood addiction (the theory o compulsive overeating)

n Accord in g to this th eory, com pu lsive overeating shares many associated with the pleasu re o eating the d esired ood
o the sam e characteristics as dru g ad d iction. Food craving (especially su gar and at).
is related to secretion o d opam in e in th e brains reward n People may becom e addicted to addictive substances such as
circu it. nicotine and alcohol but research indicates that people can
n Dopam ine is associated with m otivation and goal-d irected also becom e addicted to sugar. Sugar addicts experience the
behaviou r (anticipation) and the bod ys natu ral opioid s are sam e withdrawal symptom s seen with those addicted to
classic drugs o abuse when they are deprived o their drug.

n Kesler (2 009) argues in his book The End o Overeating that n Volkow et al. (2 002 ) u sed MRI to stu d y the brains o 1 0
manuactured ood contains high am ounts o sugar, at, and obese people to investigate d opam ine activity. The scanning
salt that naturally stim ulate the brain to release dopam ine. showed that the obese participan ts had the sam e d ef ciency
Such oods are experienced as pleasurable and the brain gets in d opam in e receptors in the brain as dru g ad d icts.
wired so that dopam ine pathways are activated by specifc n The participants brains showed a pattern o com pu lsive
cues (or stim uli) such as smells, the sign o a ast-ood u rge to eat when they saw their avou rite ood s. This
restaurant or the m ere thought o the preerred ood. ind icates that people can becom e ad d icted to ood .
n The cues cause craving (response). Craving is the motivation to n Volkow explains that m ost peoples weight problem s are not
seek out the ood and the anticipation o pleasure stimulates caused by ood addiction. There are m ultiple causes o
the brain to release dopamine. Hunger is a natural cue or overweight and obesity, including unhealthy eating habits,
eating but in ood addiction the urge to eat does not come lack o exercise, genetic vulnerability, and stress but in som e
rom hunger but rom cues associated with ood. People who individuals, ood addiction could be an explanation.
are addicted to ood cannot control this urge to eat when they
are not hungry, and this is one reason why they become obese.

94
 7 Health psychology

Sociocultural factors
Sedentary liestyle and change in eating patterns obesity rates bu t correlational research cannot establish a
n Jeffery (2 001 ) argu es that the cu rrent epid em ic o obesity cau se -eect relationship.
is cau sed by lack o physical activity (i.e. sed entary liestyle n Lakdawalla and Philipson (2 002 ) estimated that 60% o
d u e to the u se o cars and increased television viewing) and the total growth in weight cou ld be d u e to a d ecrease in
eating behaviou r (e.g. eating processed ood high in physical activity and arou nd 40% to increased calorie
energy). in take. The dramatic increase in obesity am ong Pacif c
n Prentice and Jebb (1 995) exam ined changes in physical I sland ers who are now am ong the attest in the world cou ld
activity in a British sam ple. There was a positive correlation su pport the theory o change in liestyle. Th e m od ernization
between increase in obesity and car ownership and o these island s has replaced trad ition al ood with processed
television viewing. The d ata su pports th e id ea o a and read y mad e ood s that are high in at and su gar.
relationship between sed entary liestyle and increase in

Food promotion and eating behaviour Socioeconomic actors

Elliot (2 005) argues a possible cause o obesity in the way the Research shows a consistent link between low socioeconom ic status
ood industry use ood packaging to present products as un and high rates o obesity.
ood. n Petersen (2 006) ou nd an increased polarization in regard to
n The Food Standards Agency in the UK (FSA, 2003) reviewed health. People with higher ed u cation eat m ore healthy ood
1 1 8 studies on how oods are promoted to children and how and exercise m ore. They are also m ore likely to respond
this might link to their eating patterns. The review ound that positively to recom m end ations rom health campaigns on
ood promotion or children is dominated by television how to stay healthy.
advertising promoting ood in terms o un, antasy, and taste n Forslund et al. (2005) perormed a longitudinal study on the
rather than health and nutrition. This may have serious eating habits o obese and non-obese individuals. There was a
implications or eating behaviour: eating or un and eating link between the amount o television viewing and diet, obesity
unhealthy ood may contribute to ood preerences, overeating and cholesterol level but correlational data cannot say anything
and obesity. about cause-eect relationships. The researchers ound that
obese individuals tended to have a lower level o education
than the non-obese.

Cognitive factors
n People who d iet typically replace physiological hu n ger n This is partly explained in term s o the false hope syndrome
sensations with cogn itive restraint, i.e. they pu t a lim it on (Polivy, 2 001 ). I t seem s that obese d ieters oten set
what they can eat. unrealistic goals and are overly optim istic as to how qu ickly
n Restraint theory predicts that extrem e cognitive restraint is they can lose weig ht. They may believe that weight loss will
likely to make an individual m ore responsive to external cues resu lt in m ore rad ical changes in their lives than can
(e.g. sm ell o ood) or em otional events (e.g. stress or eeling rationally be expected . This cocktail o alse hopes and
down because weight loss is very small). They oten u nrealistic criteria or su ccess cou ld be an explanation or
experience a loss o control that ends in overeating. lack o su ccess in d ieting and u ltimately obesity.

95
 7.7 Discuss prevention strategies and treatments
for overeating and obesity

n Obesity rates in adults are very high in many countries and it n The prom otion o healthy eating and regu lar physical
is dicult to reduce excessive weight once it has become activity is essential or both the prevention o u tu re obesity
established. Thereore many prevention strategies aim to (primary prevention) and or treating those who are alread y
prevent children rom becoming obese (e.g. targeting schools overweight and obese or ju st preventin g them rom gaining
and ater-school services as natural settings or promoting m ore weight (secondary prevention).
physical activity and learning about healthy eating.

Prevention strategies for overeating Examples o prevention strategies

and obesity The Eatwell Plate (UK prevention strategy from 2 007 )
n H ealth prom otion inclu d es a nu m ber o prevention A balanced diet requires a balanced intake o macronutrients
strategies to change u nhealthy eating habits and prom ote (ats, carbohydrates, proteins) and nutrients (vitam ins and
health. One su gared sot drink d aily cou ld increase bod y m inerals). The British N utrition Foundation (2 007) created The
weight by 5 0 kg over 1 0 years (Ebbeling et al. 2 002 ). eatwell plate, which gives an overview o a healthy diet showing
n Salmeron et al. (1 997 ) ou nd that the m ost com m only the recom m ended proportion and types o ood. The key m essage
eaten ood s in the U K were white bread , savou ry snacks, is the importance o a balanced diet with a variety o oods.
chips, other orm s o potatoes, biscu its, and chocolate. All o California Childrens 5 a Day-Power Play! Campaign
these ood s contain a high proportion o su gar, at and salt. This com m u nity-based cam paig n ran rom 1 993 to 1 996. I t
This stu d y shows that there is reason to worry. u sed television spots and variou s initiatives to ed u cate on the
Education on healthy eating and physical activity bene ts o a d iet and physical activity. I t aim ed to encou rage
n Campaigns on healthy eating cou ld in principle be a u seu l low-incom e children to eat m ore ru it and vegetables at school
orm o prevention when they ocu s on am ilies becau se and at hom e. The su rvey ater the campaign showed that
they cou ld change the ood preerences o both ad u lts and children who recalled television spots were m ore likely than
children. Food preerences are established in child hood . others to report eating ve or m ore servings o ru it and
Parents ood choice may inf u en ce what children eat and vegetables
preer or the rest o their lives. Ed u cation o parents o Fat and sugar tax
obese children has prod u ced positive changes in the Som e cou ntries (e.g. Denmark) have introd u ced taxes on
childrens eating habits (Golan et al. 1 998). u nhealthy ood su ch as at and su gar in ord er to en cou rage a
m ore healthy d iet and red u ce the costs o obesity. When the
price o a ood increases, the consu mption o that ood normally
d ecreases. The at and su gar tax is a way or governm ents to
control peoples d iets and encou rage them to eat m ore healthily
(ju st like taxing cigarettes and alcohol to d ecrease consu m ption
o these su bstances). This is called social engineering.

Treatments for overeating and obesity

Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) Stahre et al. (2007) Randomized trial o CBT to
CBT or obesity aim s to change cognitions related to eating as treat obesity
well u nhealthy eating behaviou r. Aim To exam ine eectiveness o CBT in
The ocu s is on cognitions that lead d irectly to eatin g su ch as treating obesity.
the clients perm ission-giving thou ghts (e.g. I ts ok to eat now Procedure Participants were obese wom en in Swed en (m ean
becau se I m u pset.) age 48.5 years and m ean BM I 36.5 ). The experim ental grou p
The CBT program m e involves: join ed a weight loss program m e that inclu d ed CBT. The
1 . Focu s on behaviou rs: i d en ti y a n d a d ju st d estru cti ve control grou p d id m od erately intense physical activity. The
eatin g pattern s; m on i tor ca l ori e i n ta ke; id en ti y treatm ent lasted or 1 0 weeks (two hou rs per week).
a ltern atives to socia l a n d em oti on a l eati n g ; sta rt Participants weight was controlled period ically over an
m a n a g ea ble exercise program m e. 1 8-m onth period . There was a small drop-ou t in both grou ps.
2 . Focus on cognitions: id entiy and conront d ysu nctional Results The resu lts showed a signi cantly greater weight loss
thinking that prevents healthy eating habits; improve (5.9 kg) in the treatm ent grou p ater 1 8 m onths compared to
bod y image an d sel-con d ence; increase social su pport th e control grou p who had gained 0.3 kg on average.
and ad ju st thinking to prevent eelings o sham e and
Conclusion The research ers conclu d ed that CBT seem s to be
hopelessness.
an e cient way o treating obesity and it is also a cost-
3 . Focus on strategies to maintain weight loss: maintain
eective alternative to many weight loss program m es.
m otivation and strengthen coping skills to d eal with
challenging situ ations and setbacks.

96
 7 Health psychology

Dieting n Wad d ens f nd ings are su pported by d ata rom a m eta-

Obesity treatm ents always involves d ieting in one orm or analysis o 92 stu d ies o interventions or the treatm ent and
another. I t seem s to be som ewhat ineective. prevention o obesity (N H S Centre for Reviews and
Dissem ination 1 997 ). The conclu sion o that stu d y was
Wadden (1 993) Meta-analysis o studies on that weight gain ater treatm ent is th e norm .
eectiveness o dieting n Weight loss is not qu ick and this act may resu lt in many
n The stu d y reviewed rand om ized control stu d ies on the
negative em otions and giving in to eat m ore than allowed .
eectiveness o either m od erate or severe calorie restriction
Many d ieters are gu id ed by all-or-nothing thin king. The
on weight loss.
belie that one little transgression (e.g. eating an ice cream )
n The resu lts showed that patients stayed in treatm ent or 2 0 ru ins the overall attempt to lose weight cou ld make them
weeks and that 5 0% lost arou nd 9 kg or m ore. M od ern stop the d iet and ind u lge in ood . This is d escribed as the
approaches to d iet with cou nselling were m ore eective in what the hell eect and it has been repeated ly
th e short term compared to previou s m ethod s, which mainly d em on strated in chron ic d ieters.
ocu sed on d ieting and weight loss. The majority o obese
patients in research trials tend ed to regain their lost weight.

Surgical treatments Maggard et al. (2 005) Meta-analysis of effectiveness of

Su rgical treatm ents are u sed with severe obesity. The two m ost surgical treatments of obesity
com m on are: n The stu d y reviewed the resu lts o 1 47 stu d ies.
n Gastric bypass: a su rgical proced u re that cu ts o part o n The resu lts showed that gastric su rgery resu lted in weight
the stomach to prevent overeating by lim iting the ability loss o 2 0 to 30 kg. The resu lts were maintained or u p to
to absorb ood 1 0 years and patients reported an overall im provem en t in
n Gastric banding: a su rgical proced u re where a band is tied health. Gastric bypass was overall m ore eective than
arou nd the u pper part o the stomach to red u ce ood intake gastric band ing.
and help the patient to eel u ll earlier.

Drug treatments Berkowitz et al. (2006) Randomized trial o

Th e N ational I nstitu te o H ealth in the U SA consid ers obesity to eectiveness o an appetite-suppressant
be a chronic d isease. Two sorts o dru g s are u sed : n The aim was to test the eectiveness o the dru g
n Appetite-suppressant drugs: decrease appetite or increase sibu tram ine in red u cin g weight com pared with a placebo.
the eeling o being ull because they act on neurotransmitters n The sam ple consisted o 498 obese ad olescent boys and
that aect mood and appetite (e.g. serotonin and adrenaline g irls (age range 1 21 6, average weight 97.7 kg). The stu d y
levels). There is some evidence or the eectiveness o these was longitu d in al. The dru g sibu tram ine was g iven to 3 86
drugs although they have some side eects such as nausea, participants and 1 30 had the placebo. All participants had
constipation, and dry mouth. cou nselling abou t healthy eating, physical activity, stress
n Lipase inhibitors: red u ce at absorption. The dru g has som e red u ction, and keeping track o how m u ch they ate.
u npleasant sid e eects, especially ater eating at. This may n The resu lts showed that participants in the sibu tram ine
have a preventive eect since eating at becom es associated grou p u su ally lost weight (6.4 kg) rapid ly d u ring the f rst
with u npleasant consequ ences su ch as d iarrhea. eight m on ths and then maintained their weigh t or the rest
o the trial. The main sid e eect o the dru g was an increase
Few stu d ies have evalu ated the saety and long-term in heart rate. Those in th e placebo grou p u su ally gained
eectiveness o dru gs and som e are concerned that they may be weight (1 .8 kg).
over-prescribed . Sibu tram ine has now been taken o the market n About one quarter o the participants let the study, which ran
in many cou ntries becau se o its seriou s health risks (e.g. heart or only one year. There was no ollow up on the long-term
ailu re and su d d en d eath). benefts or harm o the drug. The researchers did not control
weight changes ater the study, which makes it difcult to
determine whether the weight loss was permanent.

97
 7.8 Examine models and theories o
health promotion

The health belie model (HBM) (Rosenstock et al. 1 988)

Individual perceptions Modiying actors

Perceived vulnerability e.g. culture, educational
to health problem level.
Perceived severity o Perceived benefts o action
health problem Perceived barriers to action
Sel-efcacy belies
i.e. perceived ability to Likelihood o taking
Perceived threat
carry out the behaviour recommended
in relation to health problem
preventive health action

Cues to action
e.g. media campaign, pain.

The m od el assu m es that people make rational d ecisions on n are conronted with actors (e.g. pain in the chest or a
health-related behaviou rs and that people are read y to change television programm e) that prompt actions (cues to action).
i they: n are con d ent that they are able to be su ccessu l in the
n believe they are vu lnerable to the health problem in action (sel-efcacy) i people believe they can stop
qu estion (perceived vulnerability) sm oking or eat h ealthier, they are m ore likely to listen to
n believe the health problem has seriou s con sequ ences health prom otion m essages).
(perceived severity) At th e in d ivid u a l level th ere a re m od iying variables, i.e.
n believe taking action cou ld red u ce their vu lnerability to the ind ivid u a l chara cteristics su ch a s cu ltu re, ed u cation level, pa st
health problem (perceived benefts) experien ces, an d m otivation that ca n in f u en ce peoples
n believe the costs o taking action (perceived barriers) are perception s.
ou tweighed by the bene ts (perceived benefts).

Quist-Paulsen and Galleors (2003) Randomized cravings. N urses contacted the patients in the treatm ent group
controlled trial to investigate smoking cessation using by telephone nine tim es ater they came hom e to encourage
ear messages ater heart problems cessation and stressed the negative aspects o sm oking on their
Aim The researchers wanted to see i a longer intervention condition.
inclu d ing ear arousal cou ld prom ote sm oking cessation and Results I n the in tervention grou p 57 % o participants and in
prevent relapse. the control grou p 37 % had stopped sm oking at the end o the
Procedure The participants (heart patients) were rand om ly program m e.
allocated to a treatm ent grou p and a control grou p. All Evaluation U sing ear arou sal is controversial bu t the
patients were oered grou p cou nselling session s. Patients in research ers argu e that it was ju sti ed since many m ore stopped
the control group only received group counselling. Patients in the sm oking in the treatm ent grou p. The resu lts ind icate that cu es
treatm ent group also got personal advice rom trained nurses to action and perceived threat can pred ict behaviou ral change.
and inormation material stressing the risks o continued sm oking The stu d y also provid ed ad d itional help to su pport sel-e cacy
(ear arousal) and advantages o cessation. They were advised to in the patients (e.g. by oering them m ed ication to stop craving
stop sm oking and nicotine replacem ent was oered to those with and by asking the spou ses to stop sm oking).

98
 7 Health psychology

Strengths of H BM Limitations of HBM

n H BM has been applied su ccessu lly in health prom otion. n A lim itation o the H BM is the ocu s on ind ivid u al
The m od el can help id entiy som e o the im portant actors cognitions. I t d oes not inclu d e social and econom ic actors,
and cogn itions involved in health behaviou rs. These which are known to inf u ence health behaviou rs as well
actors can be applied to d esign health prom otion (e.g. obese people may want to bu y h ealthy ood bu t they
strategies (e,g, as in Quist-Paulsen and Gallefours (2 003) cannot aord it).
at an ind ivid u al level. n Th e main criticism o the m od el is the assu mption that
n H BM has su ggested u seu l actors to ad dress in health people are rational d ecision makers. People are som etim es
prom otion (e.g. Janz and Becker (1 984): perceived u nrealistically optim istic abou t their health and a threat
barriers seem to be the m ost signi cant in d eterm ining is not always perceived as su ch by the in d ivid u al.
behaviou r). H ealth practitioners cou ld ad dress this in
one-to-one interventions and d iscu ss how to d eal with
su ch barriers.

Weinstein (1 987) Unrealistic optimism n People believe that the problem is rare.
Th e resea rch er asked people to rate th eir risk o d evelopin g n People have little or no experience o the problem .
va riou s d isord ers com pa red to oth er people like th em . I n d ivid u a ls
u su a lly rate th eir cha n ces o illn ess a s less tha n th ose o oth er Festinger (1 975) Cognitive dissonance
people. Th is is to a la rg e exten t th e case in sm okers. n Cognitive d issonance theory pred icts that people are
Weinstein su ggested that the ollowing actors aect u nrealistic m otivated to attend to inormation that su pports their belies
optim ism and to avoid inormation that contrad icts them in ord er to
n People ten d to believe that i a problem ha s n ot a ppea red avoid cognitive dissonance an u ncom ortable tension.
yet, th en it is u n likely to ha ppen in th e u tu re. n Sm okers would tend to avoid inormation on the negative
n People ten d to think that personal action can prevent consequences o sm oking (e.g. cancer) and ocus on positive
th e problem . aspects o sm oking (e.g. It makes me relax.)

Stages of change model Stages of change model

(transtheoretical model)
The m od el id enti es ve stages o change, which highlighted PRO G RESS Precon tem pla tion
the processes involved in the transition rom a sm oker to a
non-sm oker.
1 . Precontemplation: The person is not seriou sly
Con tem pla tion
consid ering qu itting.
2 . Contemplation: The person is aware that there is a
problem and that som ething shou ld be d one bu t there is no
Prepa ra tion
com m itm ent to qu itting.
3. Preparation: The person is seriou sly consid ering qu itting,
perhaps by red u cing the nu m ber o cigarettes or postponing
th e rst one. Action

4. Action: The person has stopped sm oking.

5. Maintenance: Th e person works to maintain n on-sm oking
and prevent relapse. M a in ten a n ce RELAPS E

Prochaska and Di Clemente (1 983) Processes o Participants answered a questionnaire to determine current
change in smokers stage o change. Saliva tests were taken to increase validity o
n The aim o this cross-sectional stu d y was to in vestigate sel-reports on smoking stage. The study ran or two years.
stages o sel-change in relation to sm oking cessation. n The resu lts showed 1 0 d ierent processes o change. The
n N ewspaper advertisements were used to recruit 872 smokers researchers d eveloped th is into a m od el with ve stages o
who wanted to change their smoking habits on their own. change that are not necessarily linear bu t involved a shit
Participants were allocated to ve dierent groups (long-term across the ve stag es. The stu d y showed that som e o the
quitters, recent quitters, relapsers, immotives no intention to sm okers stayed in the contemplation stage throu ghou t and
stop smoking, and contemplators thinking about quitting). that sm okers oten make a nu m ber o action attempts
beore they reach the maintenance stage.

99
 7 Health psychology

West and Sohal (2006) Criticism o the stages o n The researchers argu e that there is no process o chan ge.
change model Sm okers simply react to a cu e in the environm ent an d
n This large-scale cross-sectional su rvey compared ex-sm okers d ecid e to stop at once (catastrophe theory). Sm okers have
and sm okers who said they had mad e at least one attempt varying levels o m otivation al tension to stop and
to qu it. environm ental triggers (e.g. a m ed ia campaign or riend
n Many ex-sm okers reported that they ju st d ecid ed to stop qu itting) can resu lt in a change in the m otivational state.
and th en d id it withou t making any plans. The resu lts This m ight lead to an im m ed iate giving u p o sm oking and
showed that u nplann ed attem pts to qu it were m ore likely to it seem s to be a m ore complete transormation than i it
su cceed or at least six m onths than planned attempts. involves a plan to qu it at som e point in the u tu re.
n These results are more supportive o the H BM or at least some
o the actors involved in behavioural change in that model.

Strengths of the stages of change m odel Limitations of the stages of change model
n The m od el is simple to u se an d it has generated a lot o n Critics o the model argue that an individual may not
research. I t is a u seu l m od el becau se it can raise necessarily contemplate stopping beore he or she actually
awareness o an ind ivid u al s m otivation to change an d quits. People may be more likely to react to cues in the
help to d esign appropriate interventions at th e relevant environment such as a riend quitting or a scary media
stage o change. campaign.
n Many health practitioners nd the model useul and robust n The m od el describes processes o change bu t d oes not
in understanding sm oking cessation. It has also been explain them . The mod el d oes not take social and cu ltu ral
successully applied in health prom otion to stop alcohol actors that cou ld infu ence m otivation to chan ge into
abuse. accou nt.

7.9 Discuss the effectiveness of health promotion

strategies

Public health campaigns

n The mass media plays a cru cial role in m od ern health n The m ed ia cannot change behaviou r u n less people have the
prom otion and all pu blic health campaigns inclu d e the necessary m eans to actu ally d o som ethin g. The sim ple
mass m ed ia. The m ed ia campaign can raise awareness m essage su ch as Sm oking kills you or Exercise 30
abou t health issues, i.e. health risks o sm oking or m inu tes every d ay m u st be su pported by other health
u nhealthy eating habits, and it can u se em otional appeals prom otion strategies, i.e. oering easy access to sm oking
to prom ote change. This com bination o cog nitive and cessation clinics and restricted access to sm oking in pu blic
em otional appeals has proved very eective in m od ern areas.
anti-sm oking campaigns.

Persuasive communication in the mass media n Attitu d e change is m ore likely to last i the target grou p
Som e o the ollowing actors characterize su ccessu l persu asion actively participates in the com m u nication rath er than ju st
in the m ed ia: passively receiving it.
n The sou rce, i.e. the person who com m u nicates the m essage
m u st be cred ible (tru stworthy or an expert).
n The au d ience (target grou p) shou ld d eterm ine how the
m essage is ram ed .
n The m essage shou ld be short, clear, d irect, and explicit. Fear
appeals may back re (e.g. Sm oking kills you ) bu t they can
be very eective i th ey are accompan ied with speci c
inormation o how to change, (e.g. the ad dress o a
sm oking cessation centre or inormation abou t how to
increase sel-e cacy in qu itting ). I nd irect ear appeals, su ch
as playing on em otions or loved ones can be eective.

1 00
 7 Health psychology

The use o ear appeals in raising anti-smoking attitudes Peckmann and Reibling (2006) Eectiveness o ear
n The N ational Tobacco Strategy (N TS) 2 0042 009 in appeals in promoting anti-smoking attitudes
Au stralia u sed mass m ed ia anti-sm oking ad vertisem ents n The researchers ran d om ly exposed 1 72 5 ninth-grad e
based on ear appeals. The television spots were based on stu d ents in Caliornian schools to one o nine vid eotapes
personal stories with extrem ely d istu rbing vid eos o people containing a television show that inclu d ed a range o
su ering rom the consequ ences o sm oking (e.g. m ou th anti-sm oking ad vertisem ents or control ad vertisem ents.
cancer or lu ng cancer). n The resu lts showed that ad vertisem ents that ocu sed on
n Th e sam e pictu res were sh own in a d vertisem en ts in you ng victim s su ering rom seriou s tobacco-related
n ewspa pers. Ciga rette packa g es ha d warn in g s a n d scary d iseases elicited d isgu st, in creased negative attitu d es
pictu res (e.g . o tu m ou rs). Real victim s sh owed th e n egative toward s the tobacco ind u stry, and red u ced intentions to
con sequ en ces o sm okin g as a clea r m essa g e that th is sm oke am ong all participating ad olescents, except those
cou ld happen to oth ers a s well. with cond u ct d isord er.

Beiner et al. (2 006) stu d ied a sam ple o nearly 800 Au stralian
Evid ence rom the N ational Tobacco Campaign in Au stralia ex-sm okers who had qu it within the previou s two years to nd
(Woodward, 2 003) d em onstrates that health cam paig ns can ou t what these ex-sm okers perceived as the greatest help or
n reach large am ou nts o people them in qu itting.
n prom ote negative attitu d es abou t sm oking n 30.5 % said anti-tobacco ad vertisem ents.
n I ncrease kn owled ge abou t the health eects o sm okin g n 21 % said conventional cessation aid s and nicotine
n prompt calls to the qu it line replacem ent therapy.
n help sm okers qu it and reinorce su ccessu l qu itters to remain n 1 1 % said proessional help or ad vice.
ex-sm okers. n 8% said sel-help materials.
Accord ing to Au stralian Sm oking Statistics 2 009, anti-sm oking n 7 % said prescribed m ed ications.
campaigns and health ed u cation have generally resu lted in a n You ng ex-sm okers ou nd that the m ost eective anti-
decrease in sm okers in Au stralia. For example, the proportion o sm oking ad vertisem ents were those that evoked strong
Au stralian m en who sm oke ell rom 40% in 1 980 to 30% in negative em otion su ch as ear and sad ness and conveyed a
1 989. Th e nu m ber o emale sm okers ell rom 31 % to 27 % thou ght-provoking and believable m essage abou t the
over the sam e period . seriou s long-tem consequ ences o sm oking.
The resu lts ind icate that m ed ia campaigns with anti-tobacco
ad vertisem ents can be eective.

Community based anti-smoking promotion Eectiveness o the campaign

among teens n Eectiveness o the campaign was m easu red by telephone
n The TRU TH anti-tobacco campaig n (Florid a) in 1 99899 su rveys with teens. Six m onths ater lau nchin g the
was a grassroots m ovem ent targeting teenagers. Th e aim o campaign 92 % o teens were aware o the campaign.
this campaign was to prevent teen sm oking by changing n Teens n egative attitu d e to sm oking had risen. Follow-u p
teens attitu d es and to encou rage them to orm grou ps and su rveys showed that non-sm oking teens were likely to say
spread the m essage in the com m u n ity. that they had been inf u enced by the campaign.
n A core component o the cam paign was ad olescents n The Florid a You th Tobacco Su rvey (FYTS) cond u cted in
conronting the tobacco ind u stry and accu sing them o Febru ary 1 999 ou nd that the nu m ber o m id d le and high
manipu lating them to sm oke. The strategy o a you th school teens d e ned as cu rrent sm okers went d own by
m ovem ent against the tobacco ind u stry was d ecid ed at the 1 9.4% and 8% respectively. I n total, it was estimated that
Teen Tobacco Su m m it in 1 998 by teen d elegates: Tru th, a 2 9,000 ewer Florid a teens sm oked ater the campaign. This
generation u nited again st tobacco. is one o the largest annu al d eclines observed in the U SA
n The campaign included the ormation o a new youth since 1 980.
anti-tobacco advocacy group called SWAT (Students Working n Sly et al. (2 002 ) carried ou t a su rvey 2 2 m onths ater the
Against Tobacco) who worked at grassroots level. campaign to investigate whether non-sm okers had remained
n The campaign u sed massive ad vertising inclu d ing 33 non-sm okers. They ou nd a positive correlation between
television com m ercials, billboard s, posters, the I nternet (e.g. am ou nt o exposu re to the key m essage them e (i.e. that the
You Tu be), program m e sponsorships, m erchand ise and local tobacco ind u stry manipu lates teens attitu d es to sm oking)
you th ad vocacy grou ps. d u ring the campaign and non-sm oking .

1 01
 7 Health psychology

(Schum and Gould, 2007) Why was the campaign n Th e campaign created the social norm that kid s d ont sm oke
eective? and mad e it pu blic. Peer inf u ence has a large eect on
n You th s were involved in planning the campaign. The you th you th risk behaviou r. Com m u nicating that m ost kid s d ont
gu id ed m od el was eective becau se teen s talked to each sm oke reinorces the id ea that sm oking is not the norm and
other abou t sm oking. I t becam e a tru e viral m ovem ent that you can be cool withou t sm oking.
am ong them and gave them the opportu nity to express n Th e campaign was a grassroots m ovem ent and the teens
concerns and t in with their peers. involved in it were passion ate abou t it and spread the word
n Real teens served as the pu blic voice o the cam paig n. Their to their local networks. This was beore Facebook bu t the
passion or the issu e was an essential elem ent o the strategy o creating social networks and u sing them
campaign. The Tru th campaign becam e a brand that teens eectively was d em onstrated in this campaign that was
were prou d o. largely planned and execu ted by m em bers o the target
grou p who continu ed to recru it m ore teens.
The TRUTH campaign can also be used as an
illustration of prevention strategies in unit 7.9, as
prevention strategies are part of health promotion.

1 02
8.1 Distinguish between altruism and prosocial
behaviour

Altruism Prosocial behaviour

n I n evolu tionary biology, altru ism is d ef ned as behaviou r n Prosocial behaviou r reers to acts intended to benef t
that benef ts other organism s bu t has som e costs. The others. These are acts that are positively valu ed by
costs and benef ts are m easu red in term s o reprod u ctive society (H ogg and Vaughan, 1 998). Aggressiveness and
f tness (i.e. expected nu m ber o ospring). violent behaviou r are not valu ed by society and th is kind
n I n social psychology altru ism is a su bcategory o h elping o behaviou r is consid ered as antisocial behaviou r.
behaviou r. I t reers to a behaviou r that is m eant to n Prosocial behaviou r cou ld be any behaviou r that is
benef t another person rather than onesel (Batson and in itiated with the pu rpose o increasing another persons
Coke, 1 981 ). physical or psychological well-being and has positive
n Accord ing to Staub (1 978) altru istic acts may also resu lt consequ ences or that person (e.g. helping, com orting,
in reward or the ind ivid u al (e.g. eeling good or virtu ou s. sharing).
n Accord ing to Piliavin and Charng (1 990) psychologists n I ntentional prosocial behaviou r is oten called helping
have not been able to agree on a single d ef nition o behaviour. Donating m oney to reu gees in Somalia or
altru ism . d oing volu ntary work are examples o prosocial
behaviou r that aim to benef t other people.

Prosocial behaviour
Behaviou r that benef ts others or has positive social
Altruistic behaviour
Behaviou r that benef ts another person som etim es at
consequ en ces.
som e costs.

8.2 Contrast two theories explaining altruism

in humans

Simmons et al. (1 977): Kin and the likelihood o kidney

Kin selection theory (evolutionary theory) donations
n Kin selection theory (H amilton, 1 963) is based on the n The stu d y investigated whether close relatives were m ore
id ea that ind ivid u als are m ore likely to sacrif ce them selves likely to be kid ney d onors.
or relatives than non-relatives. By sacrif cin g you rsel or n The resu lts showed that 86% o parents said yes bu t only
relatives (e.g . helping them at the cost o not having babies
47 % o the sibling s who cou ld be d onors agreed to d onate
you rsel) you still contribu te to the su rvival o you r genes
a kid ney to their relative when asked . The theory pred icts
by helping close relatives.
that both shou ld agree so the d ierence in agreem ent to
n Dawkins (1 989) self sh gene theory su ggests that what make this sacrif ce cannot be explained in term s o kin
cou ld look as sel-sacrif ce cou ld , in reality, prom ote ones alone.
own g en es becau se it is not a qu estion o ind ivid u al n Research ers asked potential kid ney recipients to rate their
su rvival bu t o the genes su rvival. Kin altru ism is in reality
em otional closeness to all possible d onors beore the choice
egoism .
o a d onor was mad e. Generally, the recipients elt very
n The theory o reciprocal altru ism (Trivers, 1 971 ) su ggests close to 63% o the potential d onors bu t only to 42 % o
that helping behaviou r am ong non-kin have evolved as an the poten tial non-d onors. I t was ou nd that when siblings
alternative system d u ring evolu tion. Th is theory were d onors, the recipient and the d on or were signif cantly
su pplem ents kin selection theory. Reciprocal altru ism is closer in age and m ore likely to be o the sam e sex than
based on the strategy that altru istic acts are retu rned were non-d on ors.
(tit-or-tat strategy) and thereore pays o long term .

1 03
 8 Psychology o human relationships

Strengths of kin selection theory Lim itations of kin selection theory

n The th eory is su pported by empirical stu d ies, wh ich n The theory cannot explain why people help ind ivid u als
generally shows preerence or helping close blood who are not relatives (e.g. cooperation am ong non-
relatives (e.g. in organ d onation). relatives, spontaneou s acts o bravery, or the ad option o
n Math ematical compu ter sim u lations d em on strate that kin children who are not relatives.
selection is one o the possible selection processes in n H u man kinship patterns are not necessarily based u pon
evolu tion together with reciprocity. blood tie. Shared d evelopm ental environm ent, am iliarity,
and social bond ing also contribu te to kin ship accord ing to
anthropologists.

Batson et al. (1 981 ) The empathy-altruism

n Accord ing to Batson (1 991 ) three actors acilitate
theory perspective taking:
n The empathy-altruism theory posits that som e helpu l
actions are tru ly altru istic becau se they are m otivated by
1. the observer has had sim ilar experiences
the genu ine d esire to increase anothers welare. Batsons 2 . the observer is attached to the victim
u nd erstand ing o altru ism is that it is the helpers motives 3 . the person is instru cted to imagine what it is like to be
that d eterm ine whether a behaviou r is altru istic or not. in the victim s position.
n Accord ing to Batson the perception o a situ ation an d the Perspective taking will prod u ce the altru istic m otive to
em otion that ollows d eterm ines whether an ind ivid u al will red u ce the other persons d istress.
help or not. Altru ism can only happen i another persons n A major criticism o Batsons theory points to problem s in
perspective is taken. f n d ing ou t wh ether the motive is really empathic con cern
n Observing another persons situ ation may either prod u ce (altru istic) or ju st wan ting to red u ce personal d istress
empathic concern (i.e. positive em otions like sympathy or (egoistic). Cialdini et al. (1 973) su gg ested the negative
compassion) or personal distress (i.e. negative em otions). state relief model as an alternative explanation. Altru ism
Empathy evokes altru istic m otivation to red u ce another cou ld rather be seen as a strategy to avoid eeling sad or
persons d istress wh ereas personal d istress evokes an u pset (egoistic m otive) and not a tru ly altru istic act.
egoistic m otivation to red u ce ones own d istress.

Batson et al. (1 981 ) Experimental testing o the 1 00

Difcult escape
Percentage who helped

empathy-altruistic theory Easy escape

80
Aim To investigate participan ts m otives to h elp when they had
the opportu nity to escape. 60
Procedure Participants were stu d ents in an introd u ctory 40
psychology class at u niversity. They were tested ind ivid u ally.
Beore they participated they f lled ou t a qu estionnaire abou t 20
them selves. Each participant was led to believe that he or she
was an observer to a test where another stu d ent (Elaine) was 0
High Low
being tested in recall o d igit nu m bers. Participants read a short Empathic concern
d escription o Elaine. Each d escription was manipu lated so that Evaluation The experim ent involved clever manipu lations with
the real participants cou ld either id entiy with Elain e (high operationalized variables. This raises m ethod ological
em pathy) or not (low em pathy). Participants then watched con sid erations su ch as the possibility o d emand characteristics.
Elaine over a close-circu it TV (in act a pre-record ed vid eo). Ater The participants were all psychology stu d ents and we cannot
two trials Elaine received electric shocks. She clearly expressed ru le ou t that they gu essed the aim o the experim ent (d emand
they were painu l. Participants were asked i they wou ld be characteristics and sam ple bias). Cialdini et al. (1 973) argu e
willing to help Elaine by taking her place. H al o them heard that it is impossible to ru le ou t that it is not tru e altru ism bu t
that they cou ld either take her place or f ll ou t a qu estionnaire rather egoism that Batsons experim ents d em onstrate.
and then leave (easy escape situ ation). The other hal were told
that they cou ld either take h er place or watch Elaine go throu gh
the remain ing eight trials (d if cu lt escape situ ation). Then
participants had to say what they wanted to d o. When they had
chosen , the experim ent end ed an d they were d ebrieed . Oliner and Oliner (1 988) interviewed rescu ers o Jews d u ring
Results High empathy condition: M ost participants agreed to the Second World War and ou nd that situ ational actors su ch
help Elaine. I t d id not matter m u ch whether it was easy or as being asked to help increased altru ism . Only 37 % said they
d if cu lt to escape. Low empathy condition: M ost participants elt empathy with the Jews bu t 5 2 % said they d id it becau se o
withdrew in the easy escape cond ition. When it was d if cu lt m oral valu es (e.g. believing that all people are equ al). The
som e preerred to oer help. This cou ld su pport the negative research ers argu e that personality actors cou ld also play a role
state relie m od el. in altru ism . This is not consid ered in Batsons stu d y.

1 04
 8 Psychology o human relationships

Strengths of empathy-altruism theory Lim itations of empathy-altruism theory

n The theory is su pported by many experim ental stu d ies. n I t is d if cu lt to generalize f nd ings rom experim ents su ch
n The theory can, to som e extent, pred ict cond itions u nd er as this one in real lie.
which altru istic behaviou r will happen (e.g. th e m ore n I t is a problem that it is not possible to d eterm ine wheth er
people eel em pathy th e m ore likely they are to help other altru ism is the resu lt o em pathic m otivation or the
people and people who d o not eel empathy will probably m otivation to escape ones own negative em otions.
not help). n I t is clear that empathy d oes not always preced e altru istic
behaviou r. People may help or oth er reason s.

Contrasting the two theories

Kin selection theory Empathy-altruism theory
n The ocus is on genes that operate at a biological level n Th e ocu s is on the hu man em otion empathy as the
without human consciou sness. The theory is largely based primary m otivating actor in altru ism .
on observation o animals and insects. H u mans are m u ch
m ore complex.
n Altru ism is seen as a behaviou r that has a cost to the n Altru ism is seen as a behaviou r that increases another
ind ivid u al (sel-sacrif ce). persons welare.
n The theory is based on egoism (the g enes are self sh and n Altru ism (hu mans can be tru ly altru istic). The theory d oes
hu mans tend to avou r kin becau se o genetic sim ilarity). n ot ru le ou t the possibility o an altru istic personality.
n The theory can explain observations o people who behave n Th e theory can explain why people tend to behave
m ore altru istically toward s kin bu t it cannot really explain altru istically in situ ations that evoke empathy bu t there is
why. I t may not be or biological reasons. The theory n ot a clear lin ear relationship. People may eel em pathy
cannot explain why people behave altru istically toward s and choose not to help.
people who are not relatives.
n I t is very d if cu lt to test evolu tionary theories as su ch bu t n I t is relatively easy to test the theory u nd er lab cond itions
th ere is em pirical su pport or kin altru ism (kin selection), bu t it is d if cu lt to operationalize concepts like empathy.
e.g. in research that in volves organ d onation or other
situ ations that involve lie or d eath.

1 05
 8.3 Using one or more research studies, explain
cross-cultural differences in prosocial behaviour

Sociocultural factors in prosocial behaviour

n Cu ltu ral norm s, socialization practices in the am ily, and n Collectivist cu ltu res valu e helping am ily m em bers, or
socioeconom ic statu s are actors that inf u ence how and exam ple when it is essential or the am ilys su bsistence. I n
when prosocial (or altru istic) behaviou r is exhibited . su ch cu ltu res children exhibit higher levels o prosocial
Children learn cu ltu ral norm s and practices rom important tend encies. I n ind ivid u alist cu ltu res that valu e personal
others throu gh observation and throu gh reinorcem ent. su ccess and com petitiveness, child -rearing practices
n Cu ltu ral d im en sions su ch as individualism and collectivism encou rage competitiveness and pu rsu it o personal
seem to inf u ence the d egree to which prosocial behaviou r achievem ent becau se this will enhance the child s likelihood
is encou raged in children. o u tu re social su ccess.

Whiting and Whiting (1 975) Comparison o children. I n the m ost prosocial cu ltu res people tend ed to
prosocial behaviour in six cultures as a result o child- live togeth er in extend ed am ilies, the emale role was
rearing practices important, and wom ens contribu tion to the am ilys
n This anthropological stu d y was a systematic natu ralistic economy was greater. I n these cu ltu res wom en d elegated
observation o cu ltu ral d ierences in child -rearing practices m ore responsibility to their children. I n cu ltu res (e.g. the
and th e consequ en ce o that on prosocial behaviou r. U SA) where children are paid to d o hou seh old ch ores or
d ont participate at all, the sam e d egree o prosocial
n The researchers observed children between the ages o 3
behaviou r was not observed .
and 1 1 years in six d ierent cou ntries (Kenya, the
Philippines, Japan, I nd ia, M exico and the U SA) d u ring their n The resu lts overall ind icate that degree of modernization
d aily interactions with other people. inf u ences prosocial behaviou r. This was attribu ted to
d ierent child -rearing patterns and cu ltu ral d im ensions
n Resu lts showed consistent d ierences in the d egree o
su ch as ind ivid u alism and collectivism .
prosocial behaviour in children among the studied cultures.
Children rom Mexico, an d the Philippines generally acted n Accord in g to the researchers the stu d y also shows how
more prosocially than those rom Japan, India, and the USA. d ierent aspects o socioeconom ic organization o a cu ltu re
The most prosocial children were rom the most traditional can prom ote or inhibit childrens opportu nities to acqu ire
society, in rural Kenya. The most egoistic children came rom speci c social behaviou rs. The nd ing s also em phasize the
the most complex modern society, the USA. importance o everyd ay practices in the prom otion o
concern or others.
n On e important d ierence was how m u ch children
participated in hou sehold chores and in the care o you nger

Miller et al. (1 990) Cultural norms and moral values n H ind u I nd ians tend ed to see it as a m oral d u ty to help in
infuence the perception o social responsibility all situ ations. Their view o social responsibility was broad er
n The researchers interviewed 400 in d ivid u als (ad u lts and and m ore d u ty based compared to the Am erican
children) on what to d o in hypothetical situ ations where a participan ts.
person had ailed to help som eone in need . The situ ations n N orth Am erican participants tended to view social
involved parents obligation to help their child , riend s resonsibility and helping as personal choice . This was
obligation to help a riend , and peoples obligation to help particularly true i the danger was m od erate or m inor, or i
a strang er. The situ ations were either lie threatening, the person was a riend or stranger. Adults in the U SA were
m od erately seriou s, or a m inor threat. The participants in also m ore likely to say that liking the person in need
this cross-cu ltu ral stu d y were N orth Am ericans and H ind u aected their m oral responsibility to help the person.
I nd ians.

1 06
8.4 Examine actors infuencing bystanderism

n Bystand erism can be d e ned as the phenom enon that an Later, a num ber o witnesses explained that they had either
ind ivid u al is less likely to help in an em ergency situ ation heard scream ing or seen a man attacking the woman over a
when passive bystand ers are present (Darley and Latan, period o 30 m inu tes. N one intervened or called the police
1 968). u ntil it was too late. Aterward s they said they d id not want
n The backgrou nd or research on bystand erism was the to becom e involved or thou ght that som ebody else wou ld
Kitty Genovese m u rd er in N ew York City in 1 964. She was intervene. This incid ent inspired social psychologists to
attacked, raped, and stabbed several tim es by a psychopath. explore actors that may inf u ence whether people will help
or not in an em ergency situ ation.

Latan & Darley (1 970) Theory o the unresponsive bystander

Accord ing to the theory the presence o other people or ju st the n Inormational social infuence (pluralistic ignorance): I
perception that other people are witnessing the event will the situ ation is am bigu ou s people will look to other people
d ecrease the likelihood that an ind ivid u al will intervene in an arou nd to see what they d o.
em erg en cy d u e to psychological processes like: n Evaluation apprehension: I nd ivid u al bystand ers are aware
n Diusion o responsibility: Responsibility is d iu sed wh en that oth er people are present and may be araid o being
m ore bystand ers are present and this red u ces the evalu ated negatively i they react (ear o social blu nd ers).
psychological costs o not intervening.

Latan and Darley (1 968) su ggested a cognitive decision 3. Accept som e personal responsibility or helping even
model. They argu e that helping requ ires that the bystand er: thou gh other people are present.
1 . N otice the situ ation (i you are in a hu rry you may not even 4. Consid er how to help (althou gh you may be u n su re o what
see what is happening). to d o or d ou bt you r skills).
2 . I nterpret the situ ation as an em ergency (e.g. people 5. Decid e how to help (you may observe how other people
scream ing or asking or help, which cou ld also be react or d ecid e that it is too d angerou s to intervene).
interpreted as a am ily qu arrel which is none o At each o these stages, the bystand er can make a d ecision to
you r bu siness. help or not.

Latan and Darley (1 968) Experiment to investigate 85% went out and reported the seizure. Only 31 % reported the
bystander intervention and diusion o responsibility seizure when they believed that there were our bystanders. The
Aim To investigate i the number o witnesses o an emergency gender o the bystander did not make a dierence.
infuences peoples helping in an emergency situation. Ambiguity about a situation and thinking that other people might
Procedure As part o a course credit, 72 students (59 emale and intervene (i.e. diusion o responsibility) were actors that
1 3 male) participated in the experiment. They were asked to infuenced bystanderism in this experiment.
discuss what kind o personal problems new college students During debrieng students answered a questionnaire with various
could have in an urban area. Each participant sat in a booth items to describe their reactions to the experiment, or example I
alone with a pair o headphones and a microphone. They were did not know what to do (1 8 out o 65 students selected this) or
told that the discussion took place via an intercom to protect the I did not know exactly what was happening (2 6 out o 65) or I
anonymity o participants. At one point in the experiment a thought it must be some sort o ake (2 0 out o 65).
participant (a conederate) staged a seizure. The independent Evaluation There was participant bias (psychology students
variable (IV) o the study was the number o persons (bystanders) participating or course credits) Ecological validity is a concern
that the participant thought listened to the same discussion. The due to the articiality o the experimental situation (e.g. the
dependant variable (DV) was the time it took or the participant laboratory situation and the act that bystanders could only hear
to react rom the start o the victims t until the participant the victim and the other bystanders could add to the articiality.
contacted the experimenter. There are ethical considerations: participants were deceived and
Results The number o bystanders had a major eect on the exposed to an anxiety-provoking situation.
participants reaction. O the participants in the alone condition,

Pilliavin et al. (1 969) The cost reward model o helping

The theory stipu lates that both cognitive (cost-bene t analysis) u npleasant em otional state (opposite o altru istic m otivation;
and em otional actors (u npleasant em otional arou sal) see u nit 8.2 or an explanation o altru istic behaviou r: the
d eterm ine whether bystand ers to an em ergency will intervene. empathy-altru ism m od el). The theory was su ggested based on a
The m od el ocu ses on egoistic motivation to escape an eld experim ent in N ew Yorks su bway.

1 07
 8 Psychology o human relationships

Pilliavin et al. (1 969) The subway samaritan Evaluation This stu d y has higher ecological valid ity than
Aim The aim o this eld experim ent was to investigate th e laboratory experim ents and it resu lted in a theoretical
eect o variou s variables on helping behaviou r. explanation o actors inf u encing bystand erism .

Procedure Based on this stu d y the researchers su ggested that the

n Team s o stu d ents worked together with a victim , a m od el cost-reward model of helping involves observation o an
helper, and observers. The I V was whether the victim was em ergency situ ation that lead s to an em otional arou sal and
dru nk or ill (carrying a cane), and black or white. interpretation o that arou sal (e.g. em pathy, d isgu st, ear). This
serves as m otivation to either help or n ot, based on evalu ation
n The group perormed a scenario where the victim appeared
o costs and reward s o helpin g:
drunk or a scenario where the victim appeared ill.
n costs o helping (e.g. eort, em barrassm en t, physical harm )
n The participants were subway travellers who were observed
when the victim staged a collapse on the foor short tim e
n costs o not helping (e.g. sel-blam e and blam e rom others)
ater the train had let the station. The m od el helper was n reward s o helping (e.g. praise rom victim and sel)
instructed to intervene ater 70 seconds i no one else did . n reward s o not h elping (e.g. being able to continu e d oing
Results The resu lts showed that a person who appeared ill was whatever one was d oin g).
m ore likely to receive help than one who appeared dru nk. I n Evaluation of the model
60% o the trials where the victim received help m ore than one The m od el assu m es that bystand ers make a rational cost-bene t
person oered assistance. analysis rather than acting intu itively on an impu lse. I t also
Conclusion The researchers d id not nd su pport or d iu sion assu m es that people only help or egoistic m otives. This is
o responsibility. They argu e that this cou ld be becau se the probably not tru e.
observers cou ld clearly see the victim and d ecid e whether or
n ot there was an em ergency situ ation. Pilliavin et al. ou nd no Most o the research on bystand erism is cond u cted as
strong relationship between the nu m ber o bystand ers and laboratory experim ents or eld experim ents bu t nd ings have
speed o h elping, which is contrary to the theory o the been applied to explain real-lie situ ations.
u nresponsive bystand er.

The role of dispositional factors and personal cou ntries and the Jews were socially marginalized (pariahs).
norms in helping in an emergency situation I n spite o this som e people d ecid ed to help (act
altru istically).
the Holocaust
n The H olocau st was an exceptional lie threatening
n H eroic helpers su ch as people who saved the Jews u nd er
em ergency situ ation or the Eu ropean Jews. Witnesses to H olocau st (e.g. Oscar Schind ler or Andr an d M ag d a
the deportation o Jews all over Europe reacted in various Trocm in the Fren ch Village Le Cham bon-su r-Lignon) may
ways. Som e approved o the anti-Sem itic policies, many have strong personal norm s. Those who risk their lives to
were bystand ers, and a ew risked their own lie to save help others in situ ations like the H olocau st oten d eviate
Jews. Within the context o the Second World War saving rad ically rom the norm s o their society.
Jews was a risky behaviou r becau se it was illegal in many

Oliner and Oliner (1 988) Dispositional actors and compared to non-rescu ers. Rescu ers were m ore likely to be
personal norms in helping gu id ed by personal norm s (high ethical valu es, belie in
n The researchers interviewed 2 31 Eu ropeans who had equ ity, and perception o people as equ al).
participated in saving Jews in N azi Eu rope and 1 2 6 sim ilar n Rescu ers oten said that parental behaviou r had mad e an
people who d id not rescu e Jews. O the rescu ers, 67 % had important contribu tion to the rescu ers personal norm s (e.g.
been asked to help, either by a victim or som ebod y else. the parents o rescu ers had ew negative stereotypes o
On ce they had agreed to help, th ey respond ed positively to Jews compared to parents o non-rescu ers. The am ily o
su bsequ ent requ ests. rescu ers also ten d ed to believe in the u niversal sim ilarity o
n Resu lts showed that rescu ers shared personality all people.
characteristics and expressed greater pity or empathy

Exam Tip You only need to write about two actors

in an essay. You could choose to ocus on one o the
theories (e.g. the cost- reward model) and a study and
compare it with another theory (e.g. personal norms) and a
study. This would give you enough material to examine
actors infuencing bystanderism.

1 08
 8.5 Examine biological, psychological, and social
origins of attraction

Biological origins of attraction preerred mating partner. Attraction evolved to m otivate

ind ivid u als to select and ocu s cou rtship attention on a
Evolutionary explanation 1 : Neurobiology of avou red partner.
love n The sex drive (libid o) is characterized by craving or sexu al
n Accord ing to Fisher (2 004) love is a hu man u niversal and grati cation. I n hu mans, this is associated primarily with
evolu tion has prod u ced three d istinct m otivational brain testosterone in both m en and wom en. The sex drive evolved
system s in all bird s and mam mals to d irect cou rtship, to prod u ce ospring.
mating, reprod u ction, and parenting: attraction, the sex n Mutual nest building, grooming, maintenance of close
drive, and attachment. The three system s interact with proximity, separation anxiety, and shared parental chores
each other to prod u ce the com bination o em otions, characterize attach m ent in animals. Animal research
m otivations, and behaviou rs associated with love. su ggests that this brain system is associated primarily with
n Attraction is the equ ivalent to hu man romantic love in oxytocin and vasopressin in the nu cleu s accu m bens (the
animals accord ing to Fisher (2 004). Attraction is brains reward centre). Attachm ent evolved to m otivate
characterized by increased energy, ocu sed attention on a ind ivid u als to stay with the preerred reprod u ctive partner
speci c mate, obsessive ollowing, a liative gestu res, long enou gh to complete parental d u ties and experience
possessive mate-gu ard ing, and m otivation to win a this as reward in g.

Fisher et al. (2003) MRI study o neurobiological Prefrontal

mechanism o attraction cortex
Aim To investigate the neu ral m echanism s associated with th e
attraction system (romantic love).
Procedure Participants were 1 0 wom en an d seven m en aged rom
1 8 to 2 6, who reported being in love or an average o 7.5
m on ths. The participants rst lled ou t a qu estionnaire (The
Passionate Love Scale) to investigate how th ey elt abou t their N ucleus
relationship. Then th ey were placed in the MRI scanner. They rst accum bens VTA
looked at a photograph o their beloved , then perorm ed a
d istraction task o cou nting backward s, and nally they looked at
a photograph o a neu tral acqu aintance. This was repeated six The resu lts ind icate the possibility o brain circu its d ed icated to
tim es. attraction (romantic love). The sam e brain circu its have been
associated with ad d iction, which cou ld su pport the hypothesis
Results There was increased activity in the d opam ine rich brain that romantic love is an ad d iction. Fisher argu es that romantic
areas associated with reward , m otivation, and goal orientation love is u niversal and based on neu robiological actors.
(or example the ventral tegm en tal area and the cau d ate nu cleu s)
when participants looked at their lover.

Evolutionary explanation 2: Partner selection n Ater two d ays the wom en were asked to rate how
agreeable they ou nd the sm ell o the T-shirts. The women
based on genes
N atu ral selection wou ld avou r cou ples that have genes which had to smell seven dierent T-shirts. One was a control. Three
o them contained T-shirts rom m en with an im m u ne system
m u tu ally enhance th eir osprings chances o su rvival. This
similar to their own. Three contained T-shirts rom men with an
cou ld be one way to select a preerred partner.
im m u ne system that was d issim ilar to the wom ens own
Wedekind (1 995) The sweaty T-shirt experiment this shou ld be the best match in term s o genes.
or investigating mate preerence based on genetic n Resu lts showed that wom en preerred the od ou rs o m en
makeup in relation to immune system unctioning with an im m u ne system d issim ilar to their own. This lend s
n The experim en t stu d ied whether emales wou ld be able to su pport to the evolu tionary explanations o mate selection
id entiy males who had a genetic make-u p which, in in hu mans.
com bination with her own, wou ld boost the im m u ne system n The experim ent d em onstrated that attraction was
o potential children. The stu d y ocu sed on a particu lar inf u enced by biological actors. Th e wom en preerred m en
complex o genes (MH C genes) in the im m u ne system with a genetic make-u p that cou ld increase the health o
known or the ability to protect against pathogens. potential babies.
n A grou p o 94 stu d ents (hal male and hal emale)
participated in the experim ent. The m en were asked to sleep
with a T-Shirt or two nights and keep it in a plastic bag.

1 09
 8 Psychology o human relationships

Evaluation of evolutionary explanations bu t the brain is very complex and neu ro-imaging d ata can
n Research stu d ies make it plau sible that there are u niversal d escribe bu t not really explain hu man attraction. Generally, it
biological system s involved in attraction and love bu t this d oes is very d i cu lt to test evolu tion ary theories.
n ot ru le ou t that cu ltu ral actors may play an important role in n Evolu tionary theories cannot explain attraction and love
attraction. between sam e-sex partners sin ce su ch relationships are not
n Data rom brain-imaging technologies show activity in speci c orm ed to prod u ce ospring.
brain areas in volved in inormation processing and em otion

Psychological origins of attraction n For a sem ester, 1 7 male stu d ents were oered rent-ree
accom m od ation bu t in retu rn they had to ll ou t
Burne (1 971 ) Similarity-attraction hypothesis qu estionnaires beore they arrived and several tim es over
The theory assu m es that people are likely to be attracted to the cou rse o the sem ester. N ewcom b pred icted that in the
ind ivid u als who are perceived to be sim ilar to them selves. This beginning o the research period , people wh o were
is becau se people who share ou r attitu d es and valu es valid ate attracted to each other wou ld perceive them selves as
ou rselves and boosts ou r sel-esteem , which in tu rn lead s to having sim ilar attitu d es.
attraction. The theory is well su pported by research. n The stu d y ou nd that stu d ents with sim ilar attitu d es tend ed
Newcomb (1 961 ) Field study o attitude similarity and to becom e riend s. Sim ilarity in race and socioeconom ic
liking backgrou nd also played a role.
n N ewcom b perorm ed a eld stu d y in a stu d ent d orm to
investigate i stu d ents riend ship ormations were
inf u enced by attitu d es and valu es.

Markey and Markey (2007) Romantic ideals, romantic n The resu lts showed that all participan ts wanted a romantic
obtainment, and relationship experiences similarity or partner sim ilar to them selves. Warm people were attracted to
complementarity? others who were warm . The sam e was ou nd or d om inance.
n A sel-selected sample o 1 03 emale and 66 male n The resu lts ind icate that people believe that sim ilarity in a
u nd ergrad u ate stu d en ts wh o were single bu t interested in potential partner is im portant bu t maybe this id eal partn er is
nd ing a romantic partner (m ean age 1 9.01 ) were recru ited d i cu lt to nd .
throu gh ad vertisem ents. n A ollow-up study with a new sample ound that romantic
n Participants rst completed a qu estionn aire where they rated couples who experienced high levels o love and harm ony were
their own personality and then d escribed the personality o m ore likely to consist o one ind ivid u al who was d om inant
their romantic ideal. They also completed ller qu estionnaires to and one who was su bm issive. Th is ind icates that
d isgu ise the tru e pu rpose o th e stu d y. complem en tarity on certain personality actors cou ld aect
harm ony positively.

Morry (2 007 ) Attraction-similarity theory

n When people are attracted to other people they tend to perceive them as sim ilar
(maybe becau se they project their own attitu d es onto them ).
n People preer riend s and partners who are sim ilar in term s o attitu d es and
traits bu t th e perceived sim ilarity may not always be accu rate.
n Perceived sim ilarity is a main actor in attraction and relationship satisaction
and it has psychological bene ts becau se it valid ates ones own views
(reinorcem ent).

Exam Tip If you are asked to evaluate/discuss/

examine biological origins of attraction, it could be a good
idea to include alternative (that is, psychological and social)
explanations as part of your arguments.

11 0
 8 Psychology o human relationships

Dijkstra and Barelds (201 0) Results Their resu lts were in line with the pred ictions. The
Aim I nvestigate i people wou ld be likely to: participants id eal partners were seen as sim ilar to, and m ore
1 . perceive ideal partners as sim ilar to them selves (in line with positive than, th e sel. I n contrast, orm er partners were seen as
the sim ilarity-attraction hypothesis) d ierent rom and m ore negative than the sel.
2 . perceive ormer partners as d ierent rom them selves (in line Conclusion People ten d to perceive their partner rom their
with the attraction-sim ilarity hypothesis). cu rrent perspective. I th ey are no longer attracted to a partn er, he
This is based on the assu mption that people change perception o or she is seen as d ierent rom and generally not as positive as
a partner rom sim ilar to d ierent when the relationship stops. onesel.

Sociocultural origins o attraction many riend ships had d eveloped with people who lived in
the sam e bu ild ing, and even m ore with people who lived
Proximity factor physical closeness is important in next d oor.
attraction
The proxim ity theory o attraction su g gests that sim ply being in Conclusions
the physical presence o another ind ivid u al will enhance the
n The researchers su ggest that physical proxim ity increases
probability o becom ing riend s. opportu nities or interaction, which in tu rn increases
amiliarity. Accord ing to Zajonc (1 968) the m ere exposu re
Festinger et al. (1 950) The role o proximity on eect is enou gh to increase liking. Also, we seem to be
riendship patterns m ost attracted to people who are sim ilar to u s (see th e
Aim The aim o the feld study was to investigate ormation o sim ilarity-attraction hypothesis) becau se people who
riend ship patterns at Westgate H ousing or student couples. resem ble us or agree with u s also reassu re u s (Fiske, 2 004).
Procedure The researchers mad e observations and interviewed n Geographical proxim ity may still be a actor in f nd ing
the resid ents regu larly. riend s and lovers bu t with th e I nternet, d ating sites, and
Results chat room s people at d istance can now easily contact each
n Resu lts showed that proxim ity or opportu nities to bu mp other and d evelop riend sh ips or romantic relationships. The
into each other on a d aily basis increased chances or I nternet is thu s creating a psychological proxim ity that
riend ships. Ater som e m onths m ore than 1 0 tim es as can replace the geographical proxim ity.

Cultural actors in attraction Palestinian I srael, and I ran. Respond ents in the N etherland s
Evolu tionary theories claim that attraction is d eterm ined by an d the Scand inavian cou ntries d id not care abou t chastity.
biological actors. This im plies that m en and wom en shou ld n Good fnancial prospects, good earning capacity,
preer the sam e in their partners (u niversal actors) bu t this is am bition, and social statu s are consistently valu ed m ore in
only tru e to som e extent. Cu ltu ral actors seem to play a role as a partner by wom en than m en cross-cu ltu rally.
well (e.g . the role attribu ted to chastity). n Youth is valu ed m ore by m en than wom en. M en preer
Buss et al. (1 990) Cross-cultural actors in attraction wives that are you ng er bu t how m u ch you nger d epen d s on
Aim The aim o the I n tern ational M ate Selection Project was to the cu ltu re. I n cu ltu res that allow many wives, there may be
id entiy the characteristics that ind ivid u als valu ed in potential large age d ierences.
mates world wid e. n Physical attractiveness in a partner is valu ed m ore by
Procedure Participants were 9,474 ind ivid u als rom 37 m en than wom en. Cross-cu ltu ral norm s o physical
cross-cu ltu ral samples (3 3 cou ntries and f ve island s on six attractiveness are, or exam ple, clear and su pple skin,
continents; m ean age 2 3.1 5 ). Th e d ata was collected throu gh regu lar eatu res, u ll lips.
two qu estionnaires d eveloped in the U SA and translated . Evaluation The stu d y su ered rom problem s o translation-
Results back translation in the qu estionnaires, which cou ld d ecrease
n Respond ents in nearly all cu ltu res rated mutual attraction valid ity o the resu lts. The samples or each cou ntry were not
and love as the m ost important in a relation ship. This representative so it is impossible to generalize the f nd ings.
shows that the d esire or m u tu al love in a relationship is
not m erely a Western phenom enon.
n Chastity sh owed the largest eect or cu ltu re (37 % o
the variance). Chastity was valu ed in China, I nd ia, Taiwan,

111
 8.6 Discuss the role o communication in
maintaining relationships

Role o attributions in the maintenance o Bradbury and Fincham (1 990) Meta-analysis o

relationships research on attributions in married couples
n Spou ses in happy relationships tend ed to ocu s on their
partners positive behaviou r as part o the persons
Fletcher et al. (1 987) Attributions in dating couples character. They were more likely to make attributions that
Aim To stu d y whether patterns o attribu tion s were related to locate the cause o
relationship satisaction actors (happiness, com m itm ent, and
1. positive events to d ispositional actors in the partner
love).
(i.e. positive things happen becau se o the partner)
Procedure Participants were1 00 emale and 31 male
2 . negative events to situ ational actors (i.e. the partner is
undergraduate students in a heterosexual dating relationship
not to blam e).
n ot livin g tog eth er. Th e stu d y wa s con d u cted in th e U SA.
n Spou ses in unhappy relationships tend ed to see their
Fi rst pa rti cipa n ts com pl eted va ri ou s qu esti on n a i res. Ater two
partners negative behaviou r as part o h is or her character
m on th s 95 pa rti ci pa n ts were sti l l in th eir relation sh i p. Th ey
and d ownplay the partners positive behaviou r. They were
were a sked to write a ree-respon se d escripti on o th e
m ore likely to make attribu tions that locate the cau se o
relati on sh i p i n th ei r own word s a n d ll ou t a qu esti on n a i re.
1. positive events to situ ational actors (i.e. positive events
Results I nd ivid u als with the highest relationship satisaction
d o not happen becau se o the partner)
ater two m onths attribu ted positive behaviou r to them selves
and their partner (d ispositional) attribu tions) and attribu ted 2 . negative events to d ispositional actors (i.e. the partner
negative behaviou rs to situ ational actors. Participants in is to blam e).
happy relationships tend ed to d escribe the relationship in m ore Discussion
interpersonal term s (we) in the ree-response description. n Accord ing to Duck (1 988) som e conf ict is inevitable in all
Participants who mad e m ore situ ational attribu tions or relationships. H ow people hand le conf icts can prom ote
relationship maintenance reported signi cantly less happiness, growth o the relationship or end it. The important thing is
less com m itm ent, and lower levels o love. not whether there is conf ict bu t how conf ict is hand led .
Evaluation The study suers rom sampling bias (more emales n Fincham (2 004) claim s there is solid evid ence or an
than males and all stu d ents) and there is a cu ltu ral bias as the association between attribu tion and marital satisaction.
stu d y was cond u cted in the U SA. Th is may lim it Happy couples u se a relationship-enhancing pattern ((e.g.
generalizations. not blam ing the partner or negative events and giving
cred it or positive events). Unhappy cou ples u se a distress-
maintaining pattern (e.g. blaming the partner or negative
events and not giving credit or positive events).

Role o communication o emotions in maintaining relationships

n Em otional expression and control seem to play a role in n Gottman (1 979) ou nd that d issatis ed cou ples d isplayed
conf ict resolu tion and marital satisaction. N on-verbal m ore negative aect and were m ore likely to retu rn
actors (e.g. ace, voice, gestu res, and arou sal o the negative aect (negative reciprocity or retaliation). I t was
au tonom ic n ervou s system ) pred icts em otional expressions also relatively easy to pred ict how these cou ples wou ld
accord ing to Gottman and Levenson (1 986). interact in conf ict situ ations based on the spou ses
behaviou r.

Levenson and Gottman (1 983) Observational study o n The researchers took physiological m easu res d u ring both
relationship between marital dissatisaction and negative sessions (e.g. heart rate, skin cond u ction) and ou nd that the
aect u nhappy cou ples d isplayed sim ilar physiological arou sal
n I n a laboratory 30 cou ples were observed wh ile they had a (stress response).
low-confict discussion o an even t o the d ay and a high- n The researchers conclu d ed that u nhappy cou ples experience a
confict discussion on a major sou rce o d isagreem ent in their negative spiral o expressed negative em otions that led to
relationsh ip. The d iscu ssions were vid eotaped and each increased stress and m u tu al u nhappiness.
spou se retu rned to the laboratory to make a sel-evalu ation o n The observation was perorm ed in a laboratory so it may be
their com m u nication (positive, negative, or neu tral). that the observed behaviou r was not natu ral.
n Results showed that marital dissatisaction was associated with
higher levels o expressed negative em otions (negative aect)
and return o negative aect (retaliation).

11 2
 8 Psychology o human relationships

Gottman and Kroko (1 989) Comparison o data rom over tim e. Cou ples who solved their conf ict with m u tu al
two observations o couples satisaction were m ore satis ed with their relation ship.
n The researchers com pared d ata rom two longitu d inal n Cou ples who avoid ed conf ict were less satis ed . Accord ing to
observational stu d ies o cou ples. The cou ples were observed in the researchers this is becau se the cou ples d o not have the
their hom e and in a laboratory d iscu ssion either on a low- opportu nity to experience that they can solve conf icts
conf ict or a high-conf ict issu e. Conf ict was only seen as a together (relational e cacy).
negative sign i cou ples cou ld not resolve it constru ctively. n Three speci c d ysu nctional com m u nication patterns
n Resu lts showed that expressions o anger and d isagreem ent (d een siveness, stu bbornness, and with drawal rom in teraction)
were not necessarily associated with marital d issatisaction were reliably associated with marital d issatisaction over tim e.

Discussion
Gottmans theory o the Four Horsemen o the n Expressions o positive aect are generally associated with
Apocalypse communication that predicts marital increased intimacy and relationship satisaction. Positive
dissatisaction aect seem s to be particu larly poweru l in non-verbal
n Criticism: M aking d ispositional attribu tions (e.g. com m u nication (Gottman et al. 1 97 7 ).
attacking the partners person ality or character with the n N oller and Gallois (1 986) vid eotaped stand ard content
intent o making the partner wrong). m essages sent by married cou ples to one another with
n Contempt: Attacking th e partners sense o sel with the positive, neu tral, and negative aect. They ou nd that
intention to insu lt or psychologically abu se him or her spou ses who u sed m ore positive non-verbal com m u nication
(e.g. hostility, sarcasm , m ockery). (e.g. sm iles and tou ching) also reported a hig her level o
n Defensiveness: Seeing you rsel as a victim (e.g. makin g marital satisaction. H u sband s who scored low on marital
excu ses by reerring to actors ou t o you r control, satisaction u sed m ore eyebrow f ashes on positive
cross-com plaining listening to you r partners complaint m essages compared to happy hu sband s.
bu t retu rning it with a complaint o you r own). n Partners with communication problems can learn new positive
n Stonewalling: Withdrawing rom the relationship as a com m unication patterns (e.g. validating the partner by verbal
way to avoid (e.g. by silent treatm ent, m onosyllabic and non-verbal com m unication, taking responsibility or your
response, or changing the su bject. own actions and learning rom experience, avoiding being
deensive, using empathy to understand your partners
expressed em otions and acting on these).

Exam Tip Research on the role of

communication of emotions in relationships may also be
used to answer questions on why relationships change or
end (see unit 8.8).

11 3
 8.7 Explain the role that culture plays in the
formation and maintenance of relationships
8 Psychology o human relationships

Formation of relationships n I n collectivist cu ltu res, social networks m otivate marriages.

n I nd ivid u alist cu ltu res assu m e that the ree ch oice o a Fam ilies play an active and oten d ecisive role in choosing
spou se is based on romantic love bu t they may in reality be marriage partners or the you ng. Love is su pposed to be
arranged by social position , religion, wealth , opportu nities, d iscovered ater marriage (Bellur, 1 995). I n many parts o
and class, accord ing to Duck (1 999). the world , arranged marriages are still the n orm althou gh
m od if cations are now seen in som e cu ltu res.
n Moghaddam et al (1 993) argu es that interpersonal
relationships: n Levine et al. (1 995) asked college students rom 1 1 countries
in Western cu ltu res tend to be ind ivid u alistic, volu ntary, i they wou ld marry som eone who had all the qu alities they
d esired even i they d id not love the person. I n the U SA 4%
and temporary
said yes. I n Au stralia 5 % said yes. I n the U K 8% said yes.
in non-Western cu ltu res tend to be collectivist,
These are ind ivid u alist cou ntries. I n I nd ia 49% said yes and
involu ntary, an d permanent. in Pakistan 51 % said yes. These cou ntries are collectivist.

Singh (2005) Arranged marriages in India Buss et al. (1 990) Cross-cultural study o mate
n The majority o marriages in I nd ia are still arranged by the preerences in 33 countries
parents or th eir represen tatives with or withou t the consent n This stu d y investigated the eects o cu ltu re and gend er on
o the boy or girl involved . There is no room or romantic heterosexu al mate preerences in a sample o 9,494 ad u lts
marriage in the Western sense. I n the big cities, ed u cated rom 3 3 cou ntries.
people now tend to seek the consent o their sons and
d au ghters abou t the choice o preerred partners.
n I n all cu ltu res, m en and wom en agreed that love and
m u tu al attraction are primary actors in mate selection.
n I n the past, you ng I nd ians tru sted their parents in the
process o f nd ing a su itable match. A large percentage o
n I n cou n tries with trad itional valu es (collectivist cou ntries
the arranged marriages seem ed to work, and i they d id not su ch as China, I nd ia, I ran) m en placed high valu e on a
very ew knew abou t the d issolu tion o the marriage. womans chastity, her d esire or hom e and children, and her
ability as a cook and hom emaker. I n the sam e societies,
wom en valu ed m en with good f nancial prospects, high
social statu s, and am bition.

Maintenance of relationships
n A large proportion o marriages in the Western world end in n Arranged marriages u su ally last longer than romantic
d ivorce (in som e cou ntries u p to 5 0% o marriages). I n marriages (Fiske, 2 004). M arriage in trad itional societies is
som e cu ltu res, d ivorce is non-existent or rare (e.g. in China. a contract between am ilies and oten involves econom ic
and social engagem ents that create poweru l bond s
between the am ilies and makes d ivorce impossible. Th is
cou ld be a reason or stability o marriages.

Are arranged marriages happier? n Xiaohe and Whyte (1 990) investigated the pred iction o
n Gupta and Singh (1 982 ) interviewed 5 0 I nd ian cou ples d een d ers o arranged marriages that love matches start
who had married or love or lived in an arrang ed marriage. ou t hot and grow cold , while arran ged marriages start ou t
The cou ples who married or love reported d im inished cold an d grow hot. A sam ple o 5 86 married wom en in the
eelings o love ater a ew years o marriage. Those who Sichuan province in China participated. The data showed that
lived in arranged marriages reported higher levels o love. the role o parents had declined and young people were more
involved in matchmaking. The researchers ou nd that wives
n Yelsma and Athappilly (1 988) compared 2 8 I nd ian
in love marriages were m ore satisf ed with their marital
cou ples in arran ged marriages, 2 5 I nd ian cou ples in love
relationship than wives who were in arranged marriages.
marriages, and 31 Am erican cou ples. I nd ivid u als in
This was ound regardless o the length o the marriage. The
arranged marriages scored hig her on marital satisaction
researchers conclu d ed that their d ata d oes n ot su pport the
compared to the cou ples in love marriages.
idea that arranged marriages are happier than love marriages.

According to H ogg and Vaughn (1 998) in spite o the ocus on they expect o each other. Love that involves riend ship, caring,
love in relationships in the West, there is general agreem ent respect, and m u tu al sharing o experiences could result in the
am on g psychologists that a relationship that su rvives over tim e is powerul bonding o lasting relationships as in the id eal o the
one in which the partners ad apt and change with respect to what Western love marriage.

11 4
8.8 Analyse why relationships may change or end

n Sternberg (1 986) su ggested the triangular theory of love Bu ild ing intimacy is d epend ent on being able to
with three components that many psychologists believe are com m u nicate openly.
important in close relationships: Buunk (1 998) Characteristics of happy and unhappy couples
intimacy (eeling close, connected , and bond ed )
passion (romance and physical and sexu al attraction) H appy couples Unhappy couples
com mitment (d esire to maintain the relationship in n Express their eelings n Show conf ict-avoid ance
spite o ad versity and costs). openly and d isclose (e.g. not wanting to
n Partners begin to d evelop an interdependent relationship their thou ghts. d iscu ss problem s).
rom the beginning o their relationship and they grad u ally n Show aection and n Dem onstrate soothing
increase their m u tu al involvem ent. Su ccessu l cou ples tend u nd erstand ing o each (e.g.ignoring or covering
to d evelop m ore com m itm ent and intimacy over tim e than others eelings u p d ierences).
less su ccessu l cou ples. (em pathy and n Take part in d estru ctive
n Accord ing to Buunk (1 998) one o the m ost prom inent perspective taking). com m u nication (e.g.
eatu res in which happy and u nhappy cou ples tend to criticizing , d isagreeing,
d ier is the way they com m u nicate with each other. com plaining).
Cou ples are happier when their interaction is characterized
by problem solving and open com m u nication (see u nit 8.6).

Equity theory and relationship satisfaction

n Accord ing to equity theory there m u st be a balance n Clark and Mills (1 979) argu e that romantic relationships
between the two partners in a relationship, i.e. the are based on sharing and belonging - not equ ity principles.
relationship shou ld be perceived as air. People compare Partners respond to each others need s becau se they want
their own gains compared to that o the partners and may to eel close to each other. The stu d y ou nd that in d ivid u als
look or alternatives i they are not satis ed . interpreted a partners tend ency to reciprocate as a sig n
n Buss and Shackelford (1 997 ) ou nd that sexu al that h e or she was not really interested in a romantic
d issatisaction and speci c sou rces o conf icts (or example relationship. The researchers argu e that the level o reward s
partners complaints abou t jealou sy) were linked to thinking (n ot equ ity) is m ore likely to pred ict satisaction in love
abou t extramarital sex in the rst year o marriage. This relationships.
cou ld su pport the theory.

Investment model of commitment (theory)

n Rusbult et al. (1 991 ) su ggested the investment model of n Murray and H olmes (1 997 ) ou nd that over tim e partners
commitment with the concept o accom m od ation as an in com m itted relationsh ips created positive illu sions o
important strategy to maintain a relationship (i.e. ensu re their partners. The idealization o the partn er was positively
longevity o the relationship). associated with relationship satisaction an d ewer conf icts.
n Accom modation m eans that a person is willing to ad opt a Con d ence in the partner seem s to oster a sense o tru st
constru ctive approach and inhibit the impu lse to react and secu rity (secu re attachm ent), which in tu rn prom otes
d estru ctively (i.e. retaliation) when a partner d isplays accom m od ation in conf icts. I d ealization cou ld also be a
d estru ctive behaviou r. H igh levels o accom m od ation are potential threat to a relationship i the partner cannot live
consistently associated with well-being. u p to the high expectations.

Flora and Segrin (2003) Analysis o young couples At the beginning o the stu d y the participants d escribed positive
satisaction and stability o relationship and negative eelings, d isappointm ent, and contentm ent with
Aim To investigate the extent to which shared in terests and their partner. Ater 1 2 m onths the participants lled ou t
spend ing tim e together was a pred ictor o perception o qu ality o qu estion naires to m easu re well-being and satisaction with the
the relationship. relation ship. All married cou ples were still together bu t 2 5 % o
Procedure The participants were you ng d ating cou ples (d ating or the d ating cou ples had split u p.
at least six m onths) and married cou ples (married or arou nd ou r The researchers also looked into actors that cou ld pred ict
years). The stu d y was a longitu d inal stu d y and d ata collection break-u p o the relationship in the rst interview with dating
took place throu gh qu estionnaires and interviews couples.

11 5
 8 Psychology o human relationships

Results The rst interview showed that preerence o shared Sprecher (1 999) Longitudinal study on development o
interests and spend ing tim e together was important in marital love over time
satisaction, especially or th e m en. Positive and n egative Aim To investigate whether people in close relationships
eelin gs were not consid ered very important. For wom en th e reported increased love over tim e. The second aim was to stu d y
am ou nt o their own negative eelings and d isappointm ent how belies abou t relationships cou ld change.
with the partner pred icted break-u p. Procedure A sel-selected sample o 1 01 romantic heterosexu al
Ater one year m ens satisaction with the relationship still stu d ent cou ples was su rveyed ve tim es over ou r years. Each
d epend ed on shared interests and spend ing tim e together. tim e they completed qu estionnaires to m easu re love,
Experiences o positive and negative eeling s played a role bu t com m itm ent, and satisaction. Th ey were also asked to report
only i their partner sh owed negative eelings. For wom en, the chan ges since previou s su rveys. On ly 41 % o the cou ples were
am ou nt o their own negative eelings abou t the partner was together at the end o the stu d y.
associated with less satisaction . Shared interests and spend ing Results Individuals in intact relationships said they elt an an
tim e tog ether was only the second m ost important actor increase in love, com m itm ent, and satisaction over tim e but this
or wom en. was not supported by the data. This indicates that happy couples
Evaluation The stu d y was cond u cted with a sample rom the wanted to see increases in positive aect (positive illusions).
U SA so it may not be possible to generalize the nd ings. Individuals in broken relationships were likely to say they elt a
Sel-reports may be biased . decrease in com m itm ent, love, and satisaction in the tim e
beore the break-up. Satisaction decreased the m ost in this
group. This suggests that people end their relationships because
Exam Tip o dissatisaction rather than the disappearance o love.
You may include studies and theories
The resu lts su pport the id ea o positive illu sions as bene cial
from unit 8.7 in your discussion on relationships. Patterns
or a relationship.
of communication could be one factor in your analysis of
why relationships may change or end. Evaluation The stu d y was cond u cted with a sample o you ng
stu d ents in the U SA so it may not be possible to generalize the
nd ings. Sel-reports may be biased .

8.9 Evaluate sociocultural explanations of the

origins of violence

Bandura (1 97 7 ) su ggests that people learn to behave violently

(inclu d ing violen t attitu d es and norm s) throu gh d irect Totten (2003) Qualitative study on girlriend abuse
experiences and throu gh observing m od els. among violent marginal male youth in Canada
n Social learning theory ocu ses on observational learning Aim To explore how you ng girlriend abu sers u sed violen ce to
and modelling. The theory proposes that ch ildren learn to constru ct their mascu linity. The stu d y ocu sed on how am ilies
be violent d u e to exposu re to violent m od els and becau se and peer grou ps contribu ted to learning and id enti cation with
violent behaviou r is reward ed . The su pport or this violent norm s as part o establishing a mascu lin e gend er role.
proposition com es rom the resu lts o the classic Bobo d oll Procedure A pu rposive sam ple o 30 abu sive ad olescent males
experim ent (Bandura et al., 1 961 ) showing that children rom a large city in Canad a participated in th e stu d y. They all
who watched an aggressive m od el being reward ed or had pro-abu sive belies, mascu lin e id eals, and ad m itted to
aggression were likely to im itate the aggression later. u sing violence toward s their girlriend s.
n Social learning theory (SLT) has been applied to explain the The m ean age o the boys was 1 5.6 years, six belonged to an
d evelopm ent o aggression and intergenerational ethnic m inority and the rest were white. Many were gang
transm ission o violence throu gh socialization. Children are m em bers and m ost had dropped ou t o school early. The
inf u enced by socialization actors su ch as the am ily, the research ers u sed sem i-stru ctu red interviews to collect d ata.
im m ed iate environm ent (inclu d ing peers), and the m ed ia. Results The ad olescents backgrou nd had sim ilar eatu res. They
n Social learning can be direct via instru ctions or indirect (e.g. had all been exposed to violent behaviou r in th e am ily and
role m od els and no d irect instru ctions). Children who grow they saw this as ju sti ed and even necessary. The athers all
u p in violent am ilies and neighbou rhood s where th ey had rigid au thoritarian belies (e.g. rigid gend er roles). The
watch m od els u se violence and obtain bene ts rom it (e.g. athers all u sed violence to con trol am ily m em bers or to d eend
power) may be likely to see violence as a legitimate m eans their honou r.
to g et what they want or exert power over other people.
They may even ju stiy the u se o violence.

11 6
 8 Psychology o human relationships

Ou t o 3 0 ad olescents, 21 had ad opted violent behaviou r. They Strengths of SLT in Lim itations of SLT in
were all abu sive and u sed physical and sexu al violence or the relation to violent relation to violent
sam e reasons as the athers. The boys said that th ey had the behaviour behaviour
right to u se violence i girlriend s d id not behave. I n som e cases n Social norm s o violence n SLT cannot explain how
the ath ers had given them instru ction s on how to abu se can be transm itted rom stru ctu ral actors su ch as
wom en in particu lar situ ations. parents to children as poverty contribu te to
Evaluation The stu d y u sed a small and pu rposive sample so it pred icted by SLT. establishing the social
is not possible to generalize. The qu alitative d ata gave an norm s o male su periority.
n SLT can also explain that
in-d epth insight into how the violent ad olescen ts experienced ad olescents u se violence n The theory d oes not take
the u se o violence them selves. This cou ld be u sed as a starting in marginalized social ind ivid u al actors su ch as
poin t to d esign interventions to prevent violence, su ch as by peer grou ps becau se it intelligence and
provid ing positive role m od els (m entoring) as well as ed u cation pays o in the orm o personality into accou nt.
and job opportu nities. statu s (reinorcem ent). n Som e people may be m ore
prone to violence (e.g. d u e
to brain d amage as a
resu lt o ch ild hood abu se).

Subculture of violence theory (Wolfgang and

Berburg and Thorlindsson (2005) Subculture o
Ferracuti, 1 967) violence infuences aggressive behaviour
n Accord ing to the theory violent behaviou r resu lts rom a
Aim This was a large-scale su rvey o ad olescent boys and girls
commitment to su bcu ltu ral norm s and valu es. I nd ivid u al
at pu blic schools in I celand . The research was carried ou t to
violent valu es lead to violen t behaviou r becau se su bcu ltu ral
investigate whether pro-violent valu es inf u enced grou p condu ct
valu es act as a m echanism o social control am ong grou p
norm s as predicted by the subculture o violence theory.
m em bers.
Procedure Data was collected in a large-scale su rvey in I celand
n Violence is used as a m eans to deend honour and maintain
with ad olescent boys and girls in 49 pu blic schools. Participants
status (e.g. within the group, in the am ily, or in relation to
were between 1 5 and 1 6 years old . The sample was a racially
other grou ps). I m em bers o subcultures perceive threats to
hom ogenou s grou p.
reputation or honour they will deend their honour with
violence i necessary, even i it threatens their lie. Participants answered qu estions on how oten they engaged in
variou s threatening and physically violent acts (e.g. ghting,
n The theory was d eveloped based on work in an inner-city
kicking, pu nching).
Arican-Am erican neighborhood in Philad ephia. I t was
su ggested that the su bcu ltu re o violence phenom en on was Results Resu lts showed a signi cant im pact o cond u ct norm s
a lower-class mascu line phenom enon related to race. This is on aggressive behaviou r. The m ost violent stu d ents said they
now contested . conorm ed to grou p cond u ct norm s. Boys were m ore likely to
behave aggressively than girls.
Evaluation of the theory of subculture of Grou p pressu re to respond to personal attacks with ag gression
violence or violence cou ld act as a orm o social control.
n The theory can explain how violence may be u sed to The pred ictions o the su bcu ltu re o violence theory were
establish and maintain power within a social grou p (i.e. to su pported by these cross-cu ltu ral d ata. Th e conclu sion was that
establish social h ierarchies). Dom inance and power cou ld grou p ad herence to valu es and norm s encou rage aggressive
also be one explanation o school bu llying (e.g. Gest et al., behaviou r throu gh:
2 003, ou nd that bu llies are seen as popu lar and cool ). 1 . internalization o valu es encou raging violence
n The theory d oes not explain what sociocu ltu ral stru ctu ral 2 . social control processes ensu re ad herence to cond u ct norm s
actors could lead to violence because the primary ocus is on (i.e. conorm ity).
social norm s and valu es as the origin o violence. H igh rates
Evaluation The su rvey was based on a large sam ple o
o violence cou ld be the resu lt o poverty and class
ad olescents rom I celand so the n d ings cou ld be generalized
oppression rather than a culture o honour (Anderson, 1 999).
to sim ilar age grou ps in I celand . An equ al nu m ber o boys and
n N isbett and Cohen (1 996) ou nd su pport or the theorys girls participated so there was no g end er bias.
proposition that violence is u sed to maintain honou r in the
The d ata was collected throu gh sel-reports so there may be a
Sou thern states o the U SA where there are high rates o
bias. People d o not always tell the tru th, especially in a socially
violence. They argu e that a cu ltu re o honou r seem s to
sensitive stu d y like this one.
have su rvived rom the herd ing econom ies brou ght to the
area by I rish and Scottish settlers between the 1 7 th and
1 9th centu ries.

11 7
 8 Psychology o human relationships

Conclusion person) or external causes (i.e. locate violence within the social
The two psychological explanations o violence (SLT and the environm ent). Su ch one-d im ensional explanations o violence
theory o su bcu ltu re o violence) su er rom the sam e m ostly acknowled ge the importance o other variables SLT
lim itations o mainstream theories o violence that tend to biological actors) bu t these are oten not inclu d ed in
ocu s on either internal causes (i.e. locate violence within the the explanations.

Critical thinking: could biological

factors cause violence? Nisbett and Cohen (1 996) Quasi-experimental study
to test relationship between culture o honour and
Testosterone and violence physiological responses to an insult
n Testosterone is a steroid male sex horm one secreted in the Aim To test whether male participants rom the Sou th (assu m ed
testes o males and in the ovaries o emales. M en prod u ce to belong to a cu ltu re o honou r) wou ld be m ore likely than
ten tim es m ore testosterone than wom en. male participants rom the N orth o the U SA to respond with
n Testosterone has been lin ked to aggression and d om inance aggression to insu lts. The researchers also m easu red cortisol
behaviou r becau se castration o a male u su ally has a and testosterone levels. The participants were all u niversity
paciying eect on aggressive behaviou r in males. stu d ents.
n The relationship between aggression an d testosterone is Procedure
complex and d if cu lt to test scientif cally becau se n The researchers pred icted that sou therners rom a cu ltu re
m easu rem ent o testosterone levels rom blood or saliva is o honou r wou ld be m ore aggressive and have higher
not reliable. levels o cortisol and testosterone than northerners.
n Participants were experim entally insu lted pu blicly. Cortisol
McAndrew (2009): Evolutionary explanation o and testosterone levels were m easu red beore and ater the
the link between testosterone, aggression, and insu lt throu gh saliva an d blood test.
dominance Results Ater the experim ental insu lt, cortisol levels rose 79%
n Evolu tion has shaped horm onal responses in males that or the sou therners and 33 % or northerners. Testosterone
are particu larly sensitive to situ ations that involve levels were hig her in sou therners who were insu lted . They were
challenges to statu s or competition with other males. generally m ore aggressive and showed m ore d om ineering
behaviou r than any other grou p.
n Testosterone is secreted to prepare the bod y to respond
to competition or challenges to ones statu s. Any Conclusions
situ ation that is perceived as a threat or a challenge to a n The researchers argu ed that sou therners who were insu lted
males statu s wou ld resu lt in an increase in testosterone in ront o others saw them selves as diminished in
levels. mascu line repu tation and statu s. This cou ld explain why
th ey exhibited m ore aggressive and d om ineering behaviou r.
n The horm onal changes in su ch situ ation s are important
actors in explanations o aggression. Explanations that n I n a cu ltu re o honou r males who d o not retaliate to insu lts
d o not inclu d e biological actors are incomplete at best. risk their mascu line repu tation. Cu ltu re o honou r norm s
d ictate retaliation. Su ch norm s have becom e em bed d ed in
social roles, expectations, and shared d ef nitions o
mascu linity.

Exam Tip Studying two explanations with related

research and evaluation is enough for the exam. Critical
thinking means that you could consider alternative
explanations of violence than the sociocultural explanations.
You could use the biological explanation of aggression here
to argue that sociocultural explanations in isolation do not
offer a full picture. The theory of testosterone and violence
presented here could lend some support to the propositions
of culture of honour theory.

11 8
8.1
8.00 Discuss the relative effectiveness of two
strategies for reducing violence

The Olweus Bullying Prevention Programme n The aim is to id entiy bu llies in elem entary, m id d le, and
(OBPP) high schools and help them and their victim s. Ad u lts
n The program m e inclu d es all sta, parents, and stu d ents in shou ld be positive role m od els and set f rm lim its to
the school (u niversal program m e). The aim is to change the u nacceptable behaviou r.
school environm ent as a whole while targ eting ind ivid u al
stu d ents. Teachers receive training so that they can
recognize and d eal with bu llying and implem en t
cooperative learning strategies in the classroom . I nclu d es
su pervision o the playgrou nd s and lu nchroom . Stu d ents f ll
ou t qu estionnaires.

Olweus (1 993) Longitudinal study on the eect o Black (2007) Implementation o OBPP in the USA
OBPP on bullying n Participants were 1 3 in ner city schools in one u rban
n The stu d y was cond u cted in the Bergen area in N orway school d istrict. The program m e ran or ou r years bu t only
ater three ad olescents had com m itted su icid e as a nine sch ools com pleted .
resu lt o bu llying. A sam ple o 2 ,5 00 children rom f th n Resu lts showed that not all schools ollowed the
to eighth grad es participated in the program m e over two program m e as it is intend ed (average f d elity to
years. Data collection took place throu gh observations program m e was 48%).
and qu estionnaires (teachers, stu d ents). n Observed bu llying incid ents d ecreased 2 5.5 % in all
n Resu lts showed an overall 5 0% red u ction in sel-reported schools. The drop cou ld perhaps be explained by the act
bu llying incid ents (victim ization or bu llyin g other that all schools implem ented increased su pervision. On
stu d ents) and a general improvem ent o the social average, stu d ents sel-reported bu llying in cid ents
climate o the classes. increased rom 39% to 43% in year 4 o the program m e
n Stu d ents sel-reports showed higher satisaction with bu t schools that implem ented the program m e m ost
school lie, im proved ord er and d iscipline, m ore positive rigorously actually had a decrease in sel-reported bullying.
social relationships, and a m ore positive attitu d e toward n Black (2 007 ) argu es that the m ixed resu lts in term s o
schoolwork and the school in general. red u ction in bu llying cou ld be d u e to less rigorou s
n This ind icates a high level o eectiveness o the implem entation, lack o resou rces, and cu ltu ral
program m e bu t not all stu d ies f nd the sam e. Roland d ierences between N orway and the U SA. OBPP was
(1 993) cou ld not replicate the f nd ings in another part d eveloped in N orway, where social responsibility or all is
o N orway. Olweus (2 003 ) only ou nd a 21 38 % a core valu e. This valu e is perhaps d if cu lt to translate
red u ction in observed bu llying in a later stu d y and the into th e Am erican cu ltu re o ind ivid u al ind epend ence.
sam e was observed in the U SA.

MACS (Metropolitan Area Child Study) for MACS Research Group (2002)
prevention of aggressive behaviour and Aim To investigate whether the violence prevention
violence in children program m e cou ld red u ce aggression and violence.
n The program m e consists o: Procedure
A classroom programme with ocu s on em pathy
n This was a longitu d inal, qu asi-experim ental f eld stu d y
training and social problem-solving skills. with 2 ,1 81 elem entary school stu d ents classif ed as h igh
risk rom two in ner-city areas in the Mid west o th e U SA.
Training in social skills, which takes place in small
The intervention ran over eight years. Participants m ostly
grou p sessions where stu d ents m eet and d iscu ss peer belonged to ethnic m inority grou ps and many were poor
relations and ad equ ate social problem-solving (i.e. participated in the ree lu nch program m e).
strategies.
n The stu d y inclu d ed ou r cond itions:
Family counselling, which place in small grou ps with
other am ilies. The m eetings start with lessons and
1. control grou p (no intervention)
then am ilies d iscu ss specif c issu es in relation to 2 . u ll program m e
am ily-specif c problem s. 3. only the classroom program m e
4. th e classroom program m e and social skills training
or high-risk children.

11 9
 8 Psychology of human relationships

Results Overall there was no effect of the program m e on Discussion of relative effectiveness of school-
levels of aggression bu t there was an impact in som e of the
based programmes
su bgrou ps. n I t seem s that school-based strateg ies to red u ce violence
n Stu d ents who had participated in the fu ll program m e are not always very effective. I t is probably becau se
either early or late and cam e from low-risk schools violence is a complex phenom enon that m u st be
showed less aggression compared to the control grou p. ad dressed at social, cu ltu ral, ind ivid u al, and
n Stu d ents from high-risk schools showed a high er level of socioeconom ic levels. I t is necessary to look at what
aggression after the program m e compared to the control works when and with whom as well as what d oes not
grou p. The stu d y showed that early in tervention is m ost work (Guerra et al., 2 006).
effective if the fu ll program m e is offered . n Ferguson et al. (2 007 ) perform ed a m eta-analysis of
effectiveness of school-based anti-bu llying program m es
and fou nd that overall they were not very effective in
red u cing bu llying or violent behaviou r in schools. The
Guerra et al. (2006) Relative effectiveness of MACS program m es targeting at-risk you th were slightly better.
n N ormally aggressive behaviou r has negative The reason for this cou ld be that bu llying may allow
consequ ences in th e peer grou p bu t it seem s that som e som e bu llies to clim b the social d om in ance hierarchy
aggressive children are able to main tain a popu lar statu s am ong ch ildren at the expense of other children. For su ch
am on g peers. You th who began the MACS late bu llies the anti-bu llying program m es offer no incentives.
intervention program and alread y had high levels of
popu larity were able to increase in aggressiveness while
in the program m e.
n I f aggression and violence is seen as normal (normative) Exam Tip The learning outcomes require you to
in the peer grou p (e.g. becau se you live in a violent
study two strategies for reducing violence.
neighbou rhood ) and it pays off (e.g. in increased
attention from teachers or increased peer statu s) it is
likely to continu e in spite of intervention program m es,
accord ing to Guerra et al. (2 006).
n There are general problem s in precise m easu rem ent of
effectiveness. M ost effect stu d ies look at average scores
(e.g . how many children becom e d elinqu ent) bu t d o not
inclu d e how variou s factors cou ld affect ou tcom es for
d ifferent grou ps. This m eans that program m es may be
effective som etim es and with particu lar grou ps bu t not in
other situ ations.

1 20
8.11
8.0 Discuss the effects of short-term and long-term
exposure to violence

Stress and coping n The gh t or f ight response (Cannon, 1 932 ) is a pattern o

n I nd ivid u als who are exposed to violence short-term (e.g. in physiological arou sal that prepares hu mans (and animals)
terrorist attacks, natu ral d isasters, school shootings, or to react to em erg en cy situ ations. N ormally stress responses
other trau matic events) or long-term (e.g. victim s o are short-lived bu t with long-term exposu re to stressors
bu llying) will typically exh ibit a stress response that hu mans are not able to retu rn to normal physiological
inclu d es ear and physiological arou sal partly d u e to u nctioning. This cou ld d evelop into chronic stress and
secretion o stress horm ones and activation o the post-trau matic stress d isord er (PTSD).
am ygd ala (ear cen tre). See m ore on this in u nit 3.8. n Lazarus (1 975) su ggested the cognitive appraisal m od el o
coping. Accord ing to this m od el cognitive appraisal can
inf u ence stress respon ses (see u nit 3 .8).

Effects of short-term exposure to Schuster et al. (2001 ) Stress responses to direct and
indirect exposure to terrorism during 9/11
violence (terrorism)
Aim To investigate the extent to which ad u lt Am ericans
The case of terrorism su ered rom stress symptom s in th e im m ed iate atermath o
Terrorism inclu d es attacks on civilians with the pu rpose o the terrorist attacks.
inju ring or killing as many as possible. Being exposed to Procedure Participants were 5 60 ad u lts living in the U SA
violent terrorist attacks may resu lt in d epression and who were rand om ly selected .The researchers collected d ata
lon g-term PTSD partly becau se terrorist attacks cou ld lead to throu gh telephone interviews three to ou r d ays ater the
a perception o continu ou s threat to ones saety and attacks. Five o th e qu estions were related to PTSD.
well-being.
Results Even indirect exposure to the terrorist attack cou ld
resu lt in stress reactions 90% o respond ents said they
Shalev (1 995) Stress responses to direct exposure to
experienced a little bit o stress, 68% said they were
a terrorist attack in Israel
m od erately stressed bu t 44% said they were very stressed .
Aim To investigate PTSD ater terrorist attacks in a sample o People who lived close to N ew York su ered rom higher
1 2 hospitalized su rvivors o an attack on an I sraeli bu s. levels o stress overall.
Procedure Conclusions
n Victim s were interviewed ater th e attack and ater 1 0 n The stu d y ou nd that 36% o the respon d ents consid ered
m onths. The researchers u sed a speci c qu estionnaire terrorism to be a very seriou s problem where they lived
(I mpact o Event Scale) to assess symptom s o PTSD. and 44% anticipated terrorist attacks in the next ve
n I n th e rst interview the victim s were extrem ely u pset years.
and had intru sive thou ghts abou t the event bu t they n The stu d y ou nd that, or som e people, the level o stress
showed no sign o avoid ance coping (i.e. avoid ing to was associated with how m u ch they watched television.
think o or talk abou t the trau matic event). Extensive television watching correlated with high levels
n I n th e second interview intru sive thou g hts had d ecreased o stress becau se people perceived what they saw as a
bu t avoid ance coping had increased . Overall, victim s threat to personal saety. They appraised the situ ation as
showed signi cant levels o PTSD in the last interview. being d angerou s to them personally and reacted to this
Evaluation The stu d y was a case stu d y with a small sample perceived threat. This is consistent with the cognitive
so it is not possible to generalize the nd in gs. appraisal m od el o stress (Lazarus, 1 975).

Effects of long-term exposure to violence (bullying)

The case of bullying
n Cyber bullying and depression: Wang et al. (201 0) ound that n Long-term exposure to bullying and depression: H yman
victim s o cyber bullying had higher levels o depression than (1 990) argu es that long-term exposu re to school
victim s o ace-to-ace bu llying. Abou t 1 4% had experienced victim ization (bu llying) can severely aect a child s d aily
cyber bu llying. Boys and girls are equ ally vu lnerable. Cyber u nctioning, inclu d ing school perormance. I t aects the
bu llying seem s to be particu larly hu rtu l becau se the abu se child s u tu re psychological health and may lead to
is spread m u ch wid er throu gh th e social m ed ia and victim s d epression and PTSD.
d o not know how many people may have seen it.

1 21
 8 Psychology o human relationships

Carney and Hazler (2007) Cortisol levels and Bullying and PTSD
bullying n Mynard et al. (2 000) stu d ied th e eects o long-term
Aim To investigate changes in cortisol levels in relation to exposu re to bu llying and posttrau matic stress (anxiety
bu llying. d isord er).
Procedure The researchers took saliva tests rom 94 n They gave a qu estionn aire called the victim scale to
sixth-grad e stu d ents between the ages o 9 and 1 4. Stu d ents 3 31 British pu pils. Bu llying was d ef ned as physical
also f lled ou t qu estionnaires on their experience o being victim ization (e.g. hitting or pu nching the victim ), verbal
bu llied or watching som ebod y being bu llied (being a victim ization (i.e. nam e calling), social exclu sion (e.g.
bystand er). Cortisol levels were tested in the m orning and exclu d ing the victim rom taking part in gam es or being
beore lu nchtim e (a period associated with bu llying). part o the peer grou p in general), and attacks on
Results Anticipation o bu llying was associated with high property (e.g. ru ining the victim s m obile).
levels o stress and anxiety in both victim s and bystand ers. n Resu lts showed that arou nd 40% o the stu d ents had
Long-term exposu re to bu llying was related to lower levels o experienced som e kind o bu llying d u ring their schooling.
cortisol (hypocortisol). This cond ition is associated with All types o bu llying were perceived as stressu l bu t the
chronic atigu e syndrom e and post-trau matic stress d isord er. resu lts ind icate that d ierent types o aggression may
Evaluation have d ierent eects. Social exclu sion is m ore likely to
n The researchers argu e that cortisol levels increase when a lead to PTSD. Overall, bu llying had a very negative
person experiences a short-term exposu re to bu llying. impact on the victim s psychological health.
This aects learning and m em ory. Long -term bu llying n Experiences o peer victim ization may lead to seriou s
and low levels o cortisol may have m ore end u rin g long-term psychological problem s su ch as powerlessness,
negative consequences on physical, social, and helplessness, poor sel-con f d ence, and social isolation,
psychological health. which are all linked to PTSD.

1 22
9.1 Critical
Evaluatethinking
theories(analysis,
o motivation
evaluation
in sport
etc.)

Intrinsic m otivation Extrinsic m otivation

n I ntrinsic m otivation com es rom within the person (e.g. n Extrinsic m otivation com es rom external reward s (e.g.
eelings o competence, control, or the satisaction o being winning a trophy or m oney, social prestige, or a coachs
able to ru n a marathon). praise).

Bandura (1 977) Theory o sel-efcacy n Sel-e cacy reers to situ ation-speci c con d ence. Sel-
n The theory su ggested that people who grad u ally com e to e cacy is related to a speci c task and may d ier in
master a task d evelop a eeling o sel-e cacy, i.e. an training and competitive situ ations (e.g. ath letes may
expectation that they are competent and su ccessu l in that believe they can perorm a ju mp shot in basketball in
particu lar task. This serves as intrin sic m otivation. Accord ing practice bu t may still apprehen d a good d eend er in
to Band u ra, sel-e cacy can be ind ivid u al bu t a sports team a gam e).
may also have sel-e cacy and this cou ld inf u ence team n Bandura (1 997 ) argu es that peoples level o m otivation
perormance. and perormance in sport are based m ore on what they
n The theory is based on the assu mption that peoples believe than on what is objectively tru e. Sel-e cacy belies
engagem ent and persistence in a task are d eterm ined by can be manipu lated (e.g. by a coach, and a persons
belies in their own competence and expectations o success sel-e cacy can be m easu red ).
or ailure. People high in sel-e cacy set higher goals, try
harder, and persist longer. People low in sel-e cacy tend to
give u p in the ace o d i cu lty.

Sel-e cacy belies are inf u enced by ou r actors that interact n Verbal persuasion: Athletic perormance cou ld increase i
to aect e cacy expectations and perormance: another person encou rages the athletes to believe they can
n Previous experience: Experiences o su ccess increase d o it (e.g. a team m em ber or a coach). Positive eed back
sel-e cacy and experiences o ailu re may red u ce sel- rom a coach may also increase perceptions o sel-e cacy.
e cacy. I an athlete has d eveloped sel-e cacy in a n Emotional and physiological arousal: The way an athlete
speci c d omain, he or she is m ore likely to be able to cope interprets em otion al and physiological arou sal will aect
with setbacks and make appropriate attribu tions. sel-e cacy belies in relation to own perormance. I a
n Modelling (vicarious experiences): Watching other people weigh tliter interprets increased pu lse rate as an xiety it
perorm the task su ccessu lly may increase an athlete's cou ld red u ce sel-e cacy bu t i it is interpreted positively it
perception o being able to d o it also, especially i the can boost sel-e cacy.
m od el is sim ilar to the athlete.

Hochstetler et al. (1 985) Bandura and Banfeld (1 991 ) stu d ied sel-e cacy belies
Aim To investigate i it is possible to manipu late expectation s o in athletes and how this aected perormance. They ou nd
su ccess in a cycling task u sing d ierent m od els. that athletes who believed that eort mad e a d ierence
were m ore likely to d evelop sel-e cacy than athletes who
Procedure A sample o 40 emales took part in a stu d y they th ou ght
believed in innate ability. The researchers argu ed that
m easu red physical perormance in a cyclin g task. Participants were
sel-e cacy belies are not the only actor in su ccess.
d ivid ed into two grou ps and saw a vid eo beore the task. Grou p 1
H aving the necessary skills, bein g able to set realistic
saw a vid eo o a woman who had great problem s d oing the task and
goals, and being physically an d psychologically read y are
showed signs o d istress. Grou p 2 saw a vid eo o a woman who had
also important actors in su ccessu l perormance in sport.
no problem s d oing the task and seem ed to cope well with it.
Results Participants in grou p 1 ou nd the task m u ch hard er than
those in grou p 2 . Manipu lation o expectations and m od elling had an
Feltz et al. (1 989) perorm ed a eld stu d y o changes in
eect.
ind ivid u al and team sel-e cacy in a hockey team over a
Evaluation The stu d y was a controlled experim ent with issu es o season. At the beginnin g o th e season m easu res o
ecological valid ity bu t the nd ings are important. Slight d eception ind ivid u al sel-e cacy were correlated to how the team
was u sed in this experim ent bu t it wou ld not have been possible to perorm ed . Ater eight gam es this correlation had changed
ru n th e stu d y withou t the u se o d eception. The participan ts were all and sel-e cacy was m ore closely related to how the team
emales so the nd ings cannot be generalized to males. The resu lts perorm ed . The resu lts show that it takes som e tim e to
ind icate that it is possible to manipu late belies o sel-e cacy and develop team sel-ecacy and indicates that coaches should
this cou ld be applied in sport. ocu s on how to d evelop team sel-ecacy as it cou ld be
very im portant or team cohesion and team perormance.

1 23
 9 Sport psych ol ogy

Strengths o sel-efcacy theory Lim itations o sel-efcacy theory

n The theory has been su ccessu lly applied in sport n Sel-e cacy alone can not explain su ccess or ailu re in
psychology (e.g. in coaching where the ou r sou rces o sport. Athletic perormance is based on a complex
sel-e cacy can be manipu lated to increase ind ivid u al or interaction o psychological and physiological actors as
team sel-e cacy). well as skills.
n A n u m ber o sel-e cacy m easu rem ents have been n Som e stu d ies are correlational so it is d i cu lt to establish
d eveloped and applied in sport psychology. Perceived a cau se-eect relation ship between sel-e cacy belies
sel-e cacy is a strong and consistent pred ictor o and perormance.
ind ivid u al athletic perormance. n I t is not really clear how sel-e cacy aects perormance
and m otivation.

Harter (1 978) Competence motivation theory n Accord in g to H arter perceived competence is a pred ictor
n The theory has been u sed to explain d ierences in sport. o cognitive (i.e. sel-e cacy and control), affective (i.e.
enjoym en t or anxiety), and behavioural (i.e. achievem ent)
n The theory is based on the assu mption that hu mans have
ou tcom es. Accord ing to the theory, m otivation is inf u enced
an innate m otivation to be competent and that eelings o
ind irectly by eelings o control, competence, and sel-worth.
competence are the primary d eterm inants o m otivation.
Perception o competence is linked to ones aective state.
Positive eelings (positive aect) ollow su ccess in mastery
attempts whereas negative eelings (negative aect) ollow
lack o su ccess.

Harters competence motivation theory n Accord in g to H arter d i cu lt bu t realistic goals provid e the
greatest positive eelings and intrinsic m otivation. Successul
mastery attempts prom ote sel-e cacy and eelings o
Motivation to be competent in sport personal com petence and this lead s to higher m otivation.
(mastery attempts) n Research shows that perceptions o competence are
stronger in athletes who receive m ore opportu nities to
d em onstrate physical com petence. Thereore coaches
Successful Unsuccessful
shou ld provid e opportu nities or mastery attempts and give
attempt attempt
ocu sed eed back on perormance.
n Accord in g to the th eory u nsu ccessu l mastery attempts
Negative affect
Self-efcacy, positive resu lt in perceived ailu re (negative aect) an d less mastery
(anxiety, shame)
affect (enjoyment, pride) feeling incompetent attem pts. The end resu lt is low competence m otivation and
feeling competent the athlete may loose m otivation and drop ou t.
Low competence
n Socializing agents (parents, coaches, and peers) play a role
motivation in the d evelopm ent o childrens sel-perception and
High competence aective responses. H arter claim s that positive and
motivation
contingent eed back shou ld be given or eort and
Fewer mastery attempts
improvem ent to nu rtu re childrens perceptions o
competence and enjoym ent o sport. This will in crease
Persistence and
increased efforts Losing motivation and eelings o control, positive aect, and in trinsic m otivation,
towards excellence dropping out of the sport which are im portant actors in su ccess in sport.

1 24
 9 Sport psych ol ogy

Ommundsen et al. (1 991 ) reported low soccer enjoym ent (negative aect). For the
Aim To exam ine the relationships between low perceived soccer you nger players (1 21 3 years) lack o su ccessu l peer interaction
and social com petence with dropou t rom soccer. The m eant low sense o belon ging to the team . This had a negative
researchers also exam ined the potential inf u ence o inf u ence on their m otivation to continu e. I n the old er soccer
negative aect. players perceived soccer com petence was m ore important in
pred icting persistence in soccer than perceived social
Procedure Personal interviews were d one with 2 2 3 boys,
com petence. I n the you nger players perceived social
between 1 2 and 1 6 years o age, who played soccer in an
com petence pred icted persistence.
organized leagu e in N orway. Data were collected in two
interviews with an interval o 1 6 m onths. Evaluation The longitu d in al d esign with interviews at the
beginn ing and at the end mad e it possible to test whether
Results The old er soccer players (1 41 6 years) who scored low
perceived competence correlated with achievem ent m otivation.
on perceived soccer competence and low on perceived peer
There is a gend er bias as only boys participated in the stu d y.
popu larity showed the least soccer persistence. They also

Strengths of competence m otivation theory Lim itations of competence m otivation theory

n Empirical research su ch as Ommundsen et al. (1 991 ) has n The theory can not u lly accou nt or all actors that
su pported that competence belies are important and have inf u ence perceived competence and participation
pred ictive valu e in you ng athletes participation in sport. behaviou rs over tim e (e.g. why participation in sport tend s
n The theory and its concepts have been wid ely applied to to d ecline dramatically d u ring ad olescence or both boys
establish su ccessu l coaching practices to establish and girls). This area need s m ore research.
strategies or enhancing perceived competence, enjoym ent, n The exact role o how the social and interpersonal actors
and social su pport in sport and physical activity. in the sport context inf u ence ad olescents m otivation are
not u lly explained in the theory.

1 25
 9.2 Using one or more research studies, explain the
role o goal setting in the motivation o
individuals

Three basic goals have been identifed in Filby et al. (1 999) d id a eld experim ent to investigate how
sport psychology: goals alone or in com bination aected perorman ce in
n Outcome goals (or competitive or ego goals): These college-age soccer players. The participants were assigned to
ocu s on winning (e.g. receiving a m ed al a m ed al or ve d ierent goal grou ps based on scores on a soccer wall
beating an opponen t). volley test. Grou p 1 had no g oals (control grou p); grou p 2
had ou tcom e goals only; grou p 3 had process goals only;
n Perormance goals (task or mastery oriented): These
grou p 4 had ou tcom e and process goals; and grou p 5 had
ocu s on ind ivid u al perormance ind epend ent o other
ou tcom e, perormance, and process goals in com bination.
sportspeople and the team . A typical perormance goal
The soccer players trained or ve weeks based on their
or an athlete cou ld be to serve ve aces in a tennis
speci c goal-setting strategy and were then tested again. The
match or ru n the 1 00-m etre sprint in u nd er 1 0 second s.
resu lts showed that grou ps 4 and 5 ou tperorm ed the other
n Process goals: These ocu s on improving orm , strategy, grou ps and the control grou p had the lowest perormance.
or skill tech niqu es that are requ ired to achieve su ccess This shows that a m u ltiple goal strategy is the m ost eective.
(e.g . keeping the elbow d own and wrist rm in the tennis A goal settin g strategy that u ses all three types o goals has
backhand or keeping the back erect d u ring d ead lits in generally proved best or athletes in term s o increasing
bod y bu ild ing). m otivation by d ealing with psychological d evelopm en t and
perormance improvem ent.

Nicholls (1 984) Achievement goal theory o

goals people adopt and how they de ne success and ailure
motivation in relation to those goals will inf u ence their m otivation.
n Accord ing to th is theory, an ind ivid u al s internal sense o
ability (competence) is a central achievem ent m otive. The n N icholls su ggested two ach ievem ent goal orientations:

Task-goal orientation Ego-goal orientation

n The goal is mastery o a particu lar skill (task oriented ) and n Th e goal is to win and to ou tperorm others.
mainly ocu sed on d evelopm ent o skills. n Th ere is lower intrinsic m otivation becau se participation in
n There is higher intrinsic m otivation becau se ind ivid u als sport is a m eans to obtain extrinsic reward s.
enjoy participation in sport and experience situ ations as n I nd ivid u als are m ore likely to experience pressu re to
provid ing positive inormation abou t their perormance. perorm well to show that they are better than others.
n Perceived competence and sel-e cacy is related to n Perceived com petence is based on social com parison an d
learning a new task, im proving , or trying you r best bu t not not sel-improvem ent.
related to how others perorm .

n The th eory pred icts that ind ivid u als who ad opt a task goal oriented rather than ou tcom e oriented , i.e. emphasis on
orientation are likely to be m otivated . Coaches cou ld u se learning, improvem ent, and eort as keys to su ccess
this knowled ge to prom ote intrinsic m otivation in athletes (N ewton et al. 2 002 ).
by creating a m otivational climate that is perormance

N toumanis et al. (1 999) ou nd that task goal orientation Four reasons why goal setting results in
was associated with the u se o ad equ ate problem-solving improved perormance and motivation:
coping strategies su ch as trying hard er, seeking social 1 . Goals d irect attention toward goal-relevant activities and
su pport, and cu tting d own on competing activities. Athletes away rom g oal-irrelevant activities (concentration).
high in ego goal orientation were m ore likely to u se
em otion-ocu sed coping strategies su ch as becom ing u pset 2 . Goals have an energizing u nction. H igh bu t realistic
and letting ou t negative eelin gs. Other stu d ies have shown goals lead to greater eort than low goals. Achievem ent
that athletes with a strong eg o goal orientation tend to show goals (task goal orientation) shou ld be the essential part
a malad aptive pattern with increased concern over personal o the training program m e or athletes.
m istakes and perceived criticism , which cou ld aect 3. Goals aect persistence. When goals are realistic and
m otivation negatively. achievable m otivation is increased . Persistent athletes are
m ore likely to be high achievers and this inf u ences
sel-e cacy and thu s m otivation.
4. Goals aect action ind irectly by lead ing to the arou sal
and d iscovery o relevant strategies.

1 26
9.3 Discuss theories relating arousal and anxiety
to performance

At top sporting levels there is little d ierence in the skill levels physical skills). Participation in competition tend s to cau se
o athletes and it is oten their ability to hand le arou sal and som e d egree o arou sal and precompetitive anxiety. This is
anxiety that makes the d ierence between winning and losing . normal and may be bene cial i the athlete can control it and
Accord ing to Gould (2 000) skilled athletic perormance is not u se it as a acilitator. I n ot anxiety may be d etrim ental to
ju st a matter o physical com petence bu t ref ects a close sporting perormance.
coord ination between m ind and bod y (i.e. psychological an d

Arousal Anxiety
n A state o physiological and psychological alertness and n A negative em otional state with eelings o nervou sness,
anticipation that prepares the athlete or action. worry, and apprehension as a consequ ence o arou sal o
n The physiological activity in arou sal is sim ilar to stress the bod y (Weinberg and Gould, 2 007 ).
(increased heart and respiration rates, sweating, and n An xiety involves cognitive anxiety, somatic anxiety, state
bu tterf ies in the stomach). Arou sal is thu s activation o anxiety, and trait anxiety.
th e bod y.
n Arou sal contribu tes to optimal perormance bu t too m u ch
o it can have a negative eect on perormance.

n Cognitive anxiety: Anxiou s thou ghts su ch as apprehension, n State anxiety: An im m ed iate em otional state characterized
d ou bts abou t com petence, or ear o ailu re beore a by apprehension (e.g. eeling som ewhat nervou s beore a
competition. Researchers believe that when cognitive race and very nervou s d u ring the nal second s o the race).
anxiety increases perormance d eclines so it is perhaps the State anxiety and physiological arou sal may be d i cu lt to
m ost important actor in d eterm inin g ou tcom e. d istingu ish.
n Somatic anxiety: Perceived physical arou sal su ch as n Trait anxiety: Som e people are m ore anxiou s than others
increased respiration and heart rate. Physical arou sal is the (personality or acqu ired trait) and trait anxiety pred isposes
bod ys stress reaction and it is how this stress is perceived the athlete to perceive situ ations that are not objectively
and interpreted that makes a d ierence. d angerou s as threatening.

The inverted-U theory Optimum

The theory is based on the Yerkes-Dodson law (1 908), which arousal level
Performance

states that there is an optim u m level o physiological arou sal

(optimal point) or every task an d ater this level is reached ,
arou sal either levels o or rises above the optimal level.
n The inverted -U theory pred icts that the relationship
between arou sal and perormance is cu rvilinear and takes
the orm o an inverted U i th e level o arou sal and qu ality
o perormance are plotted into a graph. Arou sal and
Arousal
anxiety are seen as interrelated in th e theory.
n The optimal level o arou sal or a task d epen d s on actors Oxendine (1 970) exam in ed the in verted -U theory in relation to
su ch as the complexity o the skill requ ired to perorm the variou s sports and ou nd that levels o arousal or optimal
task. Tasks su ch as pu tting in gol requ ire ne m otor skills perormance varied according to the natu re o the skill need ed .
and low levels o arou sal. Less complex tasks su ch as The research er su ggested that m ore complex skills (e.g. pu tting
weightlitin g requ ire higher levels o arou sal. in gol) need less arousal or optimal perormance whereas less
n There is su pport or the theorys su ggestion o an inverted -U complex skills (e.g. tackling in ootball and weightliting)
relationship between arou sal and perormance in relation requ ire high arou sal.
to types o skill, level o expertise, person ality, and Klavora (1 998) stu d ied the relationship between pregam e
au d iences in sport perorman ce. H owever, there is also state anxiety and perormance in 95 male high-school
criticism o the theory or lack o clarity o what is basketball players throu ghou t a season. Levels o anxiety were
u n d erstood by arou sal. m easu red u sing a stand ard ized test. The coaches evalu ated
n There are ind ivid u al d ierences in what constitu tes optimal players gam e perormance in comparison with their u su al
levels o arou sal and this shou ld be taken into ability. Resu lts su pported the pred iction o the inverted -U
consid eration in coaching. For example, research shows that theory. Optimal perormance was u su ally associated with
an elite sportsperson generally need s higher levels o m od erate pregam e state anxiety and worse perormance was
arou sal in ord er to prod u ce optimal perormance. This is not associated with either high or low state anxiety beore the
clearly explained in the theory. gam e.

1 27
 9 Sport psych ol ogy

Strengths of the inverted-U theory Lim itations of the inverted-U theory

n The theory has been su ccessu lly applied in sport n The theory can d escribe the natu re o the relationship
psychology, or in stance in tryin g to optim ize arou sal levels between athletic perormance and arou sal in an inverted -U
(relaxation or psych ing u p exercises) d epend ing on what bu t it is not really clear why th is happens.
skills are requ ired in a particu lar sport. n The theory is general and d oes not take ind ivid u al actors
n The theory has pred ictive valu e and has been su pported by into accou nt.
a n u m ber o research stu d ies even thou gh arou sal is not n The theory cannot clearly explain the natu re o the arou sal
clearly d ef ned . or the exact eects o psychological actors su ch as
n The theory can explain why expert perorm ers som etim es cognitive anxiety or sel-ef cacy on perormance.
make errors u nd er pressu re.

Hanins theory of individual zone of optimal 60 Best

functioning (IZOF) performance Out of
-in the zone- zone

State anxiety (STAI)

n Accord ing to th e theory the relationship between anxiety
50 Out of
and sport perormance is best explain ed by individual zone
Best
dierences in optimal pre-competition anxiety, which varies performance
consid erably am ong athletes. The theory pred icts that Out of -in the zone-
athletic perormance can be increased i an athletes 40 zone
pre-competitive state anxiety can be d eterm ined and a zone Best
Out of
o conf d ence can be placed arou nd it. Arou sal con trol performance
zone
-in the zone-
techniqu es (e.g. relaxation or thou ght stopping) can then 30
be u sed to control anxiety levels. Athlete A Athlete B Athlete C
(high IZOF) (moderate IZOF) (low IZOF)
n H anin criticized the inverted -U theory or not taking
ind ivid u al actors into accou nt. Athletes are d ierent and
Amnesi (1 998) perorm ed a stu d y with three elite tennis
so is their response to arou sal and anxiety. Athletes have
players. The I ZOF o each athlete was established and they were
ind ivid u alized zones or optimal u nction ing, which are
instru cted in techniqu es to red u ce anxiety. I n the second part o
u niqu e to them .
the stu d y, athletes m easu red their anxiety level beore
n Pre-competitive state anxiety levels can be m easu red beore com petitions and u sed the learned techniqu es to m ove
the com petition or ater the com petition (the recall pre-competitive anxiety into their ind ivid u al zone o optimal
m ethod ). I n both cases sel-report m easu res are u sed . Critics u nctioning so that anxiety cou ld serve as a acilitator. The
arg u e that the recall m ethod is not very precise. resu lts showed an increase in the qu ality o perormance. The
n H anin has d eveloped th e theory an d now ocu ses u pon stu d y was important becau se it showed that H anins th eoretical
em otions in general rather than ju st anxiety. This seem s a concepts cou ld be applied in a real-lie setting.
u seu l ad d ition to the th eory as it makes sense that both Raglin and Morris (1 994) stu d ied volleyball players in college
positive and negative em otions shou ld be in an optimal and ou nd that they tend ed to perorm within their I ZOF when
zone prior to com petition. Peak perormance probably they played matches against highly skilled volleyball players bu t
d epend s on a n u m ber o d istinct em otions. not when they played against less skilled players. I t seem s that
it is not necessary that athletes be in th eir I ZOF when they
com pete against weaker opponents or team s becau se they will
probably win anyway. The resu lts o the stu d y cou ld also
explain why weaker team s som etim es win over a stronger team
becau se th e strong team d id n ot take the gam e seriou sly
enou gh. The u nexpected loss will probably make them ad ju st
their arou sal level in u tu re matches.

Strengths of the IZOF theory Lim itations of the IZOF theory

n The theory has been su ccessu lly applied in sport n I t is very tim e consu m ing to establish athletes I ZOF and it
psychology. An athlete can learn to id entiy his or her own is qu ite complicated and perhaps not very exact
I ZOF so that relevant interventions can be applied to (retrospective d ata and sel-reports).
increase or d ecrease arou sal (em otions). n Apparently athletes d o not always n eed to be in the I ZOF
n The theory has been su pported in a nu m ber o research to u nction optimally. The theory cannot explain why elite
stu d ies althou gh som e stu d ies have ou nd only weak athletes d o not need to be in the I ZOF when they compete
su pport (e.g . Raglin and Morris, 1 994). against less skilled athletes.

1 28
 9.4 Evaluate techniques for skill development
used in sport

Techniques in motor skill development: n Practising skill d evelopm ent is an important part o an
massed practice versus distributed practice athletes training. Once the basic m otor skill is learn ed ,
n Athletes need to have su cient knowled g e o their sport the athlete need s to practice in ord er to reach expert
stored in their m em ory (declarative, e.g. acts, ru les, and perormance (Fitts and Posner, 1 967 ).
strategies, and procedural, e.g. how to perorm a
m ovem ent).

Massed practice Distributed practice

n This is continu ou s practice withou t rest between practice n The skill is practised with intervals o rest period s and
trials. The skill is practised repeated ly over an extend ed u su ally the practice tim e is less than the rest tim e.
period o tim e to learn the skill to perection. n Distribu ted practice is oten u sed to train continu ou s
n M assed practice is m ostly u sed to train d iscrete tasks su ch tasks su ch as swim m ing, a gym nastic f oor exercise,
as a ten nis serve, a gol swing, shootin g a basketball, or cycling, and ru nning, which are likely to bu ild u p to atigu e
striking a match (a d iscrete task is a single u nit o action (a contin u ou s task has no clear beginning or end and can
with a clear beginnin g and en d ). continu e as long as the athlete wants).
n An elite tennis player may choose to u se massed practice to n An athlete may watch another athlete doing a movement or a
improve the ootwork on his or her backhand drive to reach shot (modelling) and then have a short practice session with
the skill level where the drive can be perorm ed accu rately eedback rom the coach. Then the athlete might practise on
and au tomatically u n d er pressu re. his or her own or 1 0 minutes, rest, then start again.

Variable practice n I t is important that the coach thinks o varying the content
n This is a com bination o the massed and d istribu ted practice. and sequ ence o practice drills to keep u p m otivation and
This is m ost oten u sed or skill d evelopm ent. avoid atigu e. This cou ld be particu larly tru e with children and
ad olescents. M ental training sessions cou ld also com e in
n Tim e constraint, atigu e, nu m ber o participants, an d type o
between m otor skill practice.
m otor skill being learned are actors that inf u ence the
making o practice sched u les.

Singer (1 965) Lee and Genovese (1 988)

n The researcher perorm ed an experim ent to stu d y the n The researchers perorm ed a m eta-analysis o 1 1 6 stu d ies
eects o massed and d istribu ted practice on participants on the d evelopm ent o m otor skills u sing massed and
perorm ing a novel basketball skill (i.e. bou ncing a d istribu ted practice and ou nd that d istribu ted practice had
basketball o the f oor and into a basket). a better eect on perormance than massed practice in
n Participants were allocated to (1 ) a massed practice grou p experim ental research.
(shot 80 consecu tive shots with no rest), (2 ) a d istribu ted n They also suggested that distributed practice results in better
grou p who shot ou r sets o 2 0 shots with ve m inu tes o learning than massed practice conditions but the problem in
rest between sets, and (3 ) a second d istribu ted grou p who many o the studies they reviewed is that there is not a clear
shot ou r sets o 2 0 with a 2 4-hou r rest between session s d istin ction between learn in g a n d perorma n ce.
over ou r d ays. The participants d id two tests.
n Resu lts showed that the third grou p had learned the skills
best bu t perormance d id not d ier signi cantly between
the other grou ps in the rst test. I n the second and nal
test grou ps 1 and 2 perorm ed better than in the rst test.
This was perhaps becau se the participan ts had the
opportu nity to rest between the rst and second test.

1 29
 9 Sport psych ol ogy

Strengths of massed practice Lim itations of massed practice

n I t works best when practising d iscrete tasks that d emand a n There is a possibility o atigu e and bored om , especially in
high d egree o precision (e.g. a tennis orehand ). novice athletes.
n I t works best or highly m otivated and highly skilled n I t is less ef cient in team sport and in open skills (e.g. goal
athletes. keeping).

Strengths of distributed practice Lim itations of distributed practice

n I t works best in im proving perormance becau se it allows n I t can be m ore tim e consu m in g than massed practices.
or eed back rom the coach. n Athletes may orget parts o the skill learned d u ring
n I t works best or the novice or less-m otivated athlete and in the rest
sports where energy d emand s are high or wh ere the task is
boring or d angerou s.

Imagery technique training mental skills m echanism s to imagine m ovem ents (m otor imagery) as those
I magery activates pictu res in the brain as i they were real. u sed in preparation and program m ing o actu al m ovem ents.
The brain cannot really tell the d ierence. I magery can be u sed This is called u nctional equ ivalence.
to create m ental pictu res o athletic situ ations (e.g. a m ovem ent Accord ing to Callow and H ardy (2 001 ) it is not the content o
or com petition) to enhance perormance and skills imagery in itsel that is important bu t rather what it m eans to
N eu roimaging shows that the brain u ses th e sam e n eu ral the athlete.

Monroe et al. (2000) The our Ws o mental imagery Martin et al. (1 999) Applied mental imagery model
n Where d o athletes u se imagery? The majority o imagery A ram ework with f ve d im ensions or imagery research and
research has ocu sed on its u se in trainin g bu t it is perhaps application used to develop the SIQ (Sport Imagery Questionnaire).
m ore oten u sed d u ring pre-com petition (e.g. to increase 1. Cognitive specifc: Skill learnin g and d evelopm ent, skill
concentration). DeFranceso and Burke (1 997 ) ou nd that execu tion, and perormance enhancem ent. I can easily
imagery techniqu es were the m ost com m on strategies u sed change an image o a skill.
by proessional tennis players. 2. Cognitive general: Strategy learning and development and
n When d o athletes u se imagery? I magery is u sed d u ring strategy execution. I imagine executing the entire programme
practice and competition to control psychological actors just the way I want it to happen in a competition.
and ocu s. Som e athletes u se it wh en they are inju red . 3. Motivational specifc: Enhancing m otivation. I imagine
n Why d o athletes u se imagery? I magery is u sed to prom ote mysel winning a m ed al.
conf d ence and sel-ef cacy and d evelopm ent o specif c 4. Motivational arousal: Regu lating stress and arou sal,
m otor skills. getting psych ed u p, and calm ing d own. I imagine mysel
n What imag ery d o athletes u se? I magery cou ld involve the being in the zone and read y to ru n.
setting o a competition, positive imag es o perormance 5. Motivational general mastery: Gaining or maintaining
or em otion. conf d ence and staying ocu sed . I imagine mysel ocu sed
on my breath ing and in control.

1 30
 9 Sport psych ol ogy

Moritz et al. (1 996) Callow and Hardy (2001 )

n The researchers explored the relationship between imagery n The researchers stu d ied the relationship between imagery
and con f d ence u sing the SI Q, which m easu res the type and confd ence in 1 23 emale county netball players.
relationship between u tilization o the f ve types o imagery. Participants answered the SI Q and a week later a test
The participants were all rom ind ivid u al sports (e.g. roller related to sport conf d ence.
skating, gym nastics). n Results showed that netballers o diering skills used dierent
n Resu lts showed that highly conf d ent elite roller skaters types o imagery. Lower skilled netballers high in conf dence
were m ore likely to u se imag ery related to mastery and u sed m ore imagery d ealing with challenging situ ations
em otion (m otivational general mastery and m otivation al (m otivational general mastery) and imagery related to
arou sal) compared to less conf d ent ath letes. strategy (cognitive general) bu t less related to em otion.
n The stu d y was correlational so a cau se-eect relationship n The higher skilled netballers high in conf d ence u sed m ore
cou ld not be established . The stu d y is important in spite o goal achievem ent related imagery than their less conf d ent
this becau se it showed that specif c imagery types are opponents.
associated with specif c variables and this cou ld be u rther
investigated .

Strengths of imagery Lim itations of imagery

n I magery seem s to be a poweru l techniqu e or many n N ot all athletes can u se imagery. Sport psychologists d o
athletes to rehearse aspects o skill learning, visu alize sport not really know why the techniqu e is eective or som e
perormances and get psyched u p. athletes and not or others.
n Eectiveness o imagery is perhaps su pported by n Athletes with low conf d ence (sel-ef cacy) tend to imag ine
neu roimaging stu d ies showing that imagining activities or ailu re scenarios and that can imped e perormance.
em otions activate the sam e brain processes as in actu al n I t is d if cu lt to valid ate athletes sel-reports o imagery
experien ces. This cou ld explain why it works. experiences. This m eans that it is d if cu lt to make g en eral
conclu sions.

1 31
 9.5 To what extent does the role o coaches aect
individual or team behaviour in sport?

Why do coaches belies and expectations Weinberg and Gould (2007) Coaching behaviour
aect athletes perceptions and behaviour? Coach es who behave d ierently accord ing to high or low
expectancies typically t into one o these categories:
The sel-ullling prophecy
Frequency and quality o coach-athlete interaction (e.g.
H orn and Lox (1 993) orm u lated the expectancy theory in
spend ing m ore tim e with and showing m ore positive eelings
sport and created a ou r-step m od el to explain the process
toward s high-expectation athletes).
o the sel-u l lling prophecy:
Quantity and quality o instruction (e.g. lower expectations
1. The coach orm s expectations o each athlete (or team )
or low-expectation athletes, thu s creatin g a lower stand ard
based on available inormation su ch as physical
o perormance; less persistence in the instru ction o d i cu lt
appearance, skills tests, and past perormance in practice
skills; and allowing less practice tim e).
and competitive events.
2 . Expectations can aect treatm ent o ind ivid u al athletes Type and requency o eedback (e.g. provid ing m ore praise
on th e team (e.g. with regard to the qu ality and am ou nt ater a su ccessu l perormance rom hig h-expectation
o eed back given.) athletes and provid ing m ore instru ction and inormation
3 . The d ierential treatm ent o ind ivid u al athletes eed back to them ).
inf u ences the ath letes perceptions o com petence as Solomon et al. (1 996) investigated the relationship between
well as perormance in a positive or negative manner. actu al coach eed back and player perception o eed back.
4. Th e athletes behaviou r and perormance conorm s to the They ou n d that coaches primarily provid ed m istake-
coachs original expectations and this reinorces the contin gent eed back and attend ed to hig h expectancy
coachs original assessm ent. athletes. These players perceived the received eed back as
m ore ad equ ate than d id low expectancy athletes. Overall,
high expectancy athletes received m ore eed back.

Chase et al. (1 997) Coaches ecacy belies

and team perormance
Aim To investigate coaches e cacy belies or their team s in Alermann et al. (2005) Coaches infuence
relation to team perormance. on skill development in athletes
Procedure Fou r emale coaches o Division I I I wom ens The stu d y investigated how coaches lead ership styles
basketball team s answered qu estionnaires abou t con d ence (d em ocratic or au tocratic) and eed back aected ath letes
in their team s abilities to perorm speci c basketball skills skill d evelopm ent.
(e.g. shoot eld g oals, ree throws, and com m it tu rnovers) Study 1 :
and playing well beore each gam e. Aim To investigate the relationship between:
Results Coaches were only able to reliably pred ict team 1. athletes skill d evelopm ent and perceived coach
perormance or the skills o ree th row shooting and behaviou r
com m itting ew tu rnovers. Good perormance preparation
2 . athletes skill d evelopm ent and perceived m otivational
also contribu ted to high e cacy expectations in their team s.
climate.
The researchers ou nd that coaches e cacy expectations
n Participants were 1 1 9 competitive swim m ers (61 male
were to a large extent linked to skills. This may be becau se
and 5 8 emale) rom variou s clu bs (m ean age 1 2 .5
ree skills like throw shooting and com m itting ew tu rnovers
years). They were placed into three skill levels (called
can make the d ierence between losing and winning gam es
career phases) based on their age, year o practice, and
so coaches may ocu s on proper execu tion o these skills and
level o competition.
practise them m ore. The researchers recom m end that
coaches ocu s on sel-im provem ent and eort becau se these Procedure
actors are controllable and inf u enced by coaching n Participants completed the sam e questionnaires (on
techn iqu es. I players are aware o a coachs low e cacy coaches leadership style and ability to establish positive
expectation or their team , a sel-u l lling prophecy eect m otivational climate) twice with an interval o 1 2 m onths.
m ight occu r, i.e. these expectations may inad vertently Results
contribu te to low player e cacy. n The results showed that the coaches behaviour was rated
as positive and encouraging. Participants perceived their
coaches as providing a mastery climate with democratic
leadership where perormance climate was downplayed.
n There was a positive relationship between perceived
coach behaviou r (instru ction and positive eed back) and
swim m ers skill d evelopm ent.

1 32
 9 Sport psych ol ogy

Evaluation ou r m onths to prevent loss o d ata d u e to dropou ts as in the rst

A lim itation o this stu d y was that a third o the participants stu d y.
dropped ou t d u ring the year bu t this is not u nu su al in the eld o Results These showed opposite patterns o relationships or
volu ntary you th sport. Another lim itation was that skill level an d ind ivid u al and team sports. Skill d evelopm ent o team sport
age cou ld be conou nd ed . A third lim itation is the lack o exact athletes was associated with higher perceived social su pport and
d e nition o skill level . less instru ction whereas ind ivid u al sport athletes skill
d evelopm ent was associated with less perceived social su pport,
Study 2: m ore instru ction, and a higher mastery climate.
Aim To investigate i there was a d ierence between team and
ind ivid u al sports and to estimate the im pact o coach behaviou r The resu lts in stu d y 2 ind icate that team sports requ ire m ore
and m otivational climate on skill d evelopm ent. grou p-orien ted behaviou r rom the coach. Coaches instru ctions
sh ou ld ocu s both on the team and ind ivid u al d evelopm ent as
Procedure Participants were were 21 2 ju nior athletes (1 36 male
well as give social su pport.
and 76 emale) o ind ivid u al and team sports (m ean age
1 5 years). They com pleted the sam e qu estionnaires twice within

Garcia-Bengoechea (2 003) perorm ed a qu alitative stu d y with The overall nd ings ind icate that th e coach is a central
1 2 ad olescent athletes (aged 1 31 7 ) to investigate how they socializing actor together with parents bu t also that the
perceived the inf u ence o actors other than the coach on their ad olescents perceived them as their main sou rce o pressu re
sport m otivation. The d ata was collected with sem i-stru ctu red and con trol (see m ore on m otivation in u nit 9.1 ).
interviews and analyzed u sin g ind u ctive content analysis.

9.6 Explain the relationships between team

cohesion and performance

An athletic team is a grou p and th ereore su bjected to grou p Carron (1 982 ) d e nes coh esion as a d ynam ic process that is
d ynam ics. From the m om ent the team is orm ed , athletes begin ref ected in the tend ency or a team to stick together and
to interact with each other. On e o the things a coach m u st remain u nited in the pu rsu it o its g oals and objectives. An
attend to in team sport is bu ild ing a team spirit (or to orm ind icator o team cohesiveness is that team m em bers u se term s
team cohesion) so that team m em bers cooperate to reach like we and u s instead o I and m e (see m ore on social
com m on goals. Team cohesion is assu m ed to be positively id entity in u nit 4.4).
related to greater team su ccess.

Team cohesion depends on four key factors 3. Leadership factors: For example coaches eort and success in
1 . Individual factors: For example athlete satisaction with establishing a we mentality (cohesion) and communicating
m em bership. This is one o the strongest d eterm inants o clear goals (coach ecacy, such as the teams perception o
team cohesion. the coachs ecacy and the coachs sel-ecacy).
2 . Team factors: For example com m u nication, having clear 4. Environmental factors: For example the size o the grou p
team and role goals, individual perceptions o importance o and external pressu res to win. Small grou ps are m ore likely
achieving goals, gender, and previous success. This is important to experience cohesion while elite team s are m ore likely to
actor as it ind icates team e cacy, i.e. collective e cacy). be cohesive i they have su ccess.

Carron et al. (1 985) developed the Group Environm ent The GEQ m easu res ou r d im ensions o cohesion:
Questionnaire (GEQ) to exam ine perceptions o task and social n ind ivid u al perception o the grou p as a social u nit
reasons in being with the team . The two main dim ensions in the n ind ivid u al attraction to the grou p as a social u nit
m odel are:
n ind ivid u al perception o the grou ps task
n Task cohesion: the d egree to which m em bers o a team are
com m itted to work together to achieve speci c and n ind ivid u al attraction to the grou ps task.
id enti able goals
n Social cohesion: the d egree to which m em bers o a team
like each other and enjoy being a m em ber o the team .

1 33
 9 Sport psych ol ogy

Carron et al. (2002) u sing the GEQ) and team su ccess (operationalized as th e
Aim To exam ine the relationship between team cohesion an d team s win-loss percentage).
team su ccess in elite sport team s. Results The resu lts d em onstrated a strong relationship between
Procedure task-related dimensions o cohesion and success.
n Eighteen u niversity basketball team s and nin e clu b soccer Conclusion The researchers concluded that one reason or the
team s participated . Th e 2 94 Canad ians (1 5 4 emales and 1 40 relationship between coh esion and team perormance cou ld be
males) all had consid erable com petitive experience. that greater team cohesion contribu tes to greater collective
n The team s were assessed or perceptions o task cohesiveness e cacy that, in tu rn, contribu tes to enhanced team perorman ce.
(grou p integration task and individual attraction to group task

9.7 Describe aids and barriers to team cohesion

Aids to team cohesion Barriers to team cohesion

n Team building: Bu ild ing a team spirit and m u tu al goal Weinberg and Gould (2 008) argu ed that the ollowin g actors
setting are cru cial to bu ild ing team cohesion. These involve cou ld inf u ence team cohesion negatively:
m inim izin g the statu s d ierences o team roles and n A clash o personalities in the group: Som e athletes may
emphasizing team goals. The ocu s on team id entity and a not be able to control their anger (e.g. when a team
com m on task oten lead s to satisaction with the team . m em ber makes a m istake).
Carron and Dennis (2 001 ) ou nd that the m ost important n A confict o task or social roles among group mem bers:
personal actor or task and social cohesion was member I nd ivid u al athletes may not want to spend as m u ch tim e on
satisaction . training as requ ired to reach com m on goals or they may not
n Focus on perormance and process goals to promote be happy with their own role in th e team .
collective ecacy: I the team and coach orm u late team n A breakdown in comm unication am ong group members
goals together it is m ore likely that the team will d evelop a or between the group leader and mem bers: A respectu l
sense o ownership and com m itm ent to the goals. and clear com m u nication between team m em bers and
Collective e cacy is positively related to perceptions o between the coach an d the team is im portant to maintain
team cohesion. team cohesion.
n Democratic leadership style: M ore likely to prom ote n One or more members struggling or power: Athletes who
cohesion. Coach es shou ld also set challenging grou p goals, are too ego goal oriented may see their m em bership as a
prevent ormation o social cliqu es, and know the team way to achieve personal su ccess rather than su ccess or the
climate and som ething personal abou t each grou p m em ber. team .
n Clear comm unication: Clear, consistent and u nam bigu ou s n Frequent turnover o group m embers: The team d oes not
com m u nication rom coaches with regard to team g oals, have a chance to interact and get to know each other.
team tasks, and ind ivid u al team m em bers roles are
n Disagreement on group goals and objectives: I the team
important to avoid am bigu ity.
and coach orm u late team an d task goals together, it is
Kesthan et al. (2 01 0) ou nd a relation ship between the m ore likely that the team will d evelop a sense o ownership
coaches lead ership styles and team cohesion in proessional and com m itm ent to the team . (See m ore on goal setting in
I ranian ootball team s. Athletes perception o team cohesion u nit 9.2 .)
correlated positively with perceptions o the coach exhibiting
higher levels o training, social su pport, positive eed back,
dem ocratic behaviou r, and lower levels o au tocratic behaviou r.

1 34
9.8
9.0 Discuss
Unit Head
athlete
2 lines
chronic injury
response to stress and

n Sport psychologists have id entif ed stress as a critical actor n The chances o a sportsperson being inju red are statistically
in ind ivid u al and team perormance as well as social high . Accord ing to Finch et al. (1 998) 2 030 per cent o
u nctioning. Athletes u se a nu m ber o coping strategies to total inju ries in a popu lation are related to sport and the
d eal with stress. The inability to manage stress ad equ ately econom ic costs o inju ry are high . Basketball, bicycling, and
in sport is linked to perormance problem s, d ecreased soccer are sports that are particu larly likely to cau se inju ries.
enjoym ent, anxiety, aggression , bu rnou t, and inju ry.

The stress process in sport

Stressor Stress response Coping

n Major life-events (H olm es and n Arou sal (stress horm on es) n U se o variou s coping strategies to
Rahe, 1 967 ) increased heartbeat, sweating, and manage stress su ch as imagery and
n Too m u ch training, inju ry nau sea relaxation
n Failu re to m eet acad em ic stand ard s, n M u scle tension, problem s o n Problem-focused, em otion-focused
f nancial problem s coord ination and atigu e (Lazarus and Folkman, 1 984)
n Problem s with coach or team n Problem s with attention and/or n Problem-ocu sed coping (change the
selection peripheral vision (peripheral stressu l situ ation): increase eort,
narrowing) goal setting, seek ad vice
n Expectation to perorm (parental,
coach, own) n Cognitive appraisal cognitive n Em otion-ocu sed coping: relaxation
interpretation o stressor techniqu es, m ed itation, seek social
n Com petition or gam e
(Lazarus and Folkman, 1 984) su pport, or u sing dru gs
major key to u nd erstand ing n Avoid ance coping
athletes behaviou r (coping)

Two theoretical approaches to stress from Athlete response to stress

general psychology: Holmes and Rahes n Accord ing to McGrath (1 970) an athlete is stressed
when there is a su bstantial perceived imbalance between
(1 967) theory of major life events and physiological and psychological d emand s and the
Lazarus and Folkmans (1 984) cognitive athletes capability and when ailu re to m eet the d emand
appraisal has important con sequ ences.
1 . H olmes and Rahe (1 967 ): The original social an d n Wilson and Pritchard (2 005) ou nd that stu d ents who
read ju stm ent rating scale has been m od if ed to f t the were athletes reported m ore stress in m eeting acad em ic
athletic environm ent inclu d ing item s like problem s with d emand s and relationship stress compared to non-athlete
the coach. stu d ents. The athletes also reported lack o sleep as a
2 . Lazarus and Folkman (1 984): Cognitive appraisal is a sou rce o stress. There seem ed to be an im balance
key concept in Lazaru s and Folkmans transactional between the d emand s and the athletes perceived
m od el o coping. The athletes perception o the situ ation abilities.
in relation to coping resou rces an d goals is critical to how n Competitive stress is d ef ned as the n egative em otions,
he or she behaves. eelings, and thou ghts that an athlete m ig ht have with
Perceived im balance between own abilities and respect to his or her experience in a com petition. This
d emand s may resu lt in negative eelings su ch as cou ld inclu d e eelings o apprehension, anxiety, m u scle
sel-d ou bt, worry, and apprehension. Th is cou ld lead tension, nervou sness, physical reaction, thou ghts
to com petitive stress with an increased risk o inju ry. centered on worry and sel-d ou bts, and negative
Perceived balance between own abilities and demands statem ents (Scanlan et al. 1 991 ).
results in positive eelings and competence belies.

1 35
 9 Sport psych ol ogy

Gould et al. (1 993) Coping strategies in elite athletes to 2 . attentional ocu s strategies su ch as concentration control
manage stress 3. behaviou ral strategies su ch as xed rou tines and rest
Aim To investigate which coping strategies su ccessu l athletes 4. em otional control strategies su ch as relaxation and
u sed . visu alizations.
Procedure The stu d y gave qu estion naires, with open-end ed Results Generally the coping strategies were a m ix o problem-
qu estions, to Olympic wrestlers and N ational Cham pion gu re ocu sed and em otion-ocu sed . The emale gu re skaters also
skaters to nd ou t which coping strategies they had u sed to reported u sing social su pport as a coping m echanism . Other
manage stress in the past. The wrestlers reported 39 d ierent research stu d ies have con rm ed that emales u se social su pport
coping them es that cou ld be organized into ou r d im ensions: to a larger d egree than males.
1. thou ght-control strategies su ch as positive thinking and Evaluation A m ethod ological problem is the u se o retrospective
sel-talk d ata, which may be less reliable d u e to m em ory issu es.

Two hypotheses on the role of stress in injury

n Stress d isru pts attentional processes and concentration (e.g.
n Smith and Sm oll (1 991 ) argu e that psychosocial actors
narrowing peripheral vision). This resu lts in less vigilance to su ch as social su pport and coping skills cou ld inf u ence the
cu es signalling physical d anger (Andersen and Williams, extent to which athletes are aected by stressu l lie events.
1 988). For example a ootball player who ocu ses Stressu l lie events shou ld be seen as a risk actor bu t
exclu sively on the ball may m iss an opponents position and protective actors su ch as ad equ ate coping skills and social
ru n into the opponent or he or she can be tackled . su pport can preven t stress-related inju ries in sport.
n Stress prod u ces physiological arou sal that increases
n Johnson (2 01 1 ) cond u cted a qu alitative stu d y with 2 0
m u scu lar tension and red u ces coord ination o m ovem ent competitive athletes. The aim was to d escribe athletes
(N ideffer, 1 983). experiences o psych osocial risk actors associated with risk
o inju ry. Data were collected with interviews. The resu lts
sh owed that ou r risk actors em erged :
Anderson and Williams (1 999) Athletes responses
1 . history o stressor 4. ineective coping
to stress
2 . person actors strategies.
n The researchers tested athletes stress responses (visu al
3 . atigu e
perception, reaction tim e, and anxiety) u nd er laboratory
cond itions and compared the resu lts with incid ents o These nd ings su pport And ersen an d William s stress-inju ry
in ju ries over the competitive season . They tested 1 96 m od el althou gh atigu e was not inclu d ed there.
collegiate athletes rom 1 0 sports.
n The athletes also completed m easu res o lie events and
social su pport at the beginning o the season. The
research ers u sed these and chang es in reaction tim e and
perception to pred ict inju ry incid ents.
n Resu lts showed that the only signi cant pred ictor o inju ry
was negative lie-event stress or all athletes. For athletes
who scored low in social su pport, peripheral narrowing
d u ring laboratory stress, and major negative lie events
together were associated with higher inju ry rates (2 6%).
This seem s to su pport a possible association between lie
events stress, perceptu al d e cits, social su pport, an d inju ry.

Athlete response to chronic injury others to see that an athlete has a chronic inju ry bu t it is
n I nju ries, wh ether acu te or chronic, are a signi cant sou rce oten very painu l. Despite pain many athletes continu e
o stress or athletes and may seriou sly aect their training to avoid losing training and competition tim e. For
well-being. I nju red athletes experience physical stress (or som e athletes, the inju ry may be so seriou s that they cannot
example pain and physical inactivity), social stress (or continu e in their sport.
example social isolation and lack o social su pport), and n The m ost u sed m od els within sport psychology are based
psychological stress (or example anxiety and ear that on stress and coping theories su ch as Lazarus and Folkman
they will not be able to continu e in their sport). (1 984). The ocu s on cognitive appraisal shows the
n Chronic inju ry appears as a con sequ ence o overtraining importance that psychologists attach to ind ivid u als
and overu se. Physical treatm ent may help or a while bu t interpretation o their situation. This approach could explain
the pain and swelling will oten retu rn. I t is d i cu lt or why many studies on athletic injury are qualitative in natu re.

1 36
 9 Sport psych ol ogy

Wiese-Bjornstal et al. (1 998) Integrated model aects cognitive appraisal again. The m od el assu m es that
of psychological response to sport injury and cognitive, em otional, and behaviou ral responses have
im plications or physical and psychological ou tcom es.
the rehabilitation process Personal actors (e.g. how m u ch the athlete has tied his or
n The m od el incorporates the concept o cognitive appraisal
her id entity to the sport) also inf u ence the recovery process
bu t also inclu d es personal and situ ational actors as well as
in this m od el.
em otional and behaviou ral responses as m ed iating actors.
The m od el is m ore complex than Lazaru s and Folkmans
n The m od el can also illu strate the consequ ences o not
m od el and it has been d eveloped speci cally to explain ad hering to the rehabilitation process i the arrows are
inju ry an d recovery with in a sport context. ollowed in reverse ord er (e.g. the athlete takes a risk by not
attend ing to the inju ry so that it becom es chron ic).
n At the centre o the m od el is cognitive appraisal integrated
with em otional and behaviou ral response. The m od el
n Lim itations o the m od el inclu d e that it d oes not explicitly
illu strates the d ynam ic natu re o inju ry and th e recovery take into accou nt that total recovery may n ot happen
process. (chronic inju ry) and that the athlete continu es to practise
sport in spite o the inju ry.
n An inju red athletes cognitive appraisal aects em otional
response, which in tu rn aects behaviou r, which in tu rn

Sport injury

Personal factors Situational factors

Sport type
Personality
Level of competition
Injury history
Injury responses Time in season
Motivation
Playing status
Self-perception
Family dynamics
Athletic identity
Team/social support
Mood states
Coach inuences
Cognitive appraisal
Self-perceptions
Sense of loss/relief
Cognitive coping
Goal adjustment
Rate of perceived
recovery
Belief/attributions

Behavioural response Emotional response

Recovery
outcomes Emotional coping
Behavioural coping
Fear of unknown
Adherence to rehabilitation (psychosocial and Anger, depression
Use/disuse of social support physical) Frustration/boredom
Risk-taking behaviours
Grief

1 37
 9 Sport psych ol ogy

Shuer et al. (1 997) Psychological response to Results The resu lts showed that athletes who su ered rom
chronic injury chronic inju ry scored very high on avoid ance coping (e.g. 81 %
Aim To investigate the psychological responses and coping end orsed I avoid ed letting mysel get u pset when I thou ght
strategies u sed by athletes with chronic inju ries. abou t it or was rem ind ed o it.). I ntru sive thou ghts were only
Procedure Participants were 2 80 elite collegiate athletes rom high in athletes with acu te inju ry. Female athletes scored higher
variou s sports (e.g. tennis, water polo, swim m ing, volley ball). The on avoid ance coping than male athletes.
m ean age o the participants was 1 9.5 years. H al o them were Discussion of results H igh avoid ance scores ind icate denial
emale. Fu ll scholarships were held by 2 6% and 2 0% were on accord ing to the researchers and the consequ ence is that the
partial scholarship. O the athletes, 1 3 4 (48%) were inju red and inju ry is n ot treated appropriately. The researchers argu e that elite
1 1 7 m et the criteria or chronic overu se inju ries. They all athletes have been trained rom early ch ild hood to end u re pain
continu ed training in spite o the inju ry. The researchers m easu red and d iscom ort and they have d if cu lty d istingu ishing the pain o
coping responses with instru m ents m easu ring su bjective d istress training rom pain signalling the onset o a possibly seriou s inju ry.
or lie events, intrusive thoughts (involu ntary entry o thou ght o Denial, m inim ization, and d istortion are cognitive strategies to
the inju ry into awareness which are com m on when people have avoid acing the seriou sness o an inju ry and this may present a
experienced trau matic events), and avoidance coping (tryin g potential threat to the health o athletes.
actively not to think o the in ju ry).

Cultural considerations: culture of risk? which n ormalizes pain and inju ry at the expense o athletes
n Shu er et al.s f nd ing s are in line with N ixon (1 992 ) who short-term and long -term health. This cu ltu res n orm s an d
arg u es that elite sport is a culture o risk becau se athletes belies makes athletes willin g to play in pain, retu rn rom
rou tinely risk their physical health or their sport. I t seem s inju ry beore they are u lly recovered , and even criticize
that athletes conorm to norm s o the sporting cu ltu re, athletes who d o not conorm to su ch expectations.

9.9 Examine reasons for using drugs in sport

n The u se o perormance enhancing dru gs is called d oping. n Goldman (1 984) asked 1 98 elite athletes rom a variety o
Perormance enhancing dru gs (PED), su ch as anabolic sports (e.g. sprinters, swim m ers, and power liters) i they
steroid s, growth horm ones, amphetam ines, and painkillers, wou ld take a magic dru g that wou ld allow them to win
have been u sed by elite athletes and Olym pians or an Olympic gold , bu t with the drawback that they wou ld
many years. d ie within f ve years. A majority o the athletes (98%) said
n The proessionalization o sport, sponsor m oney, and they wou ld u se illegal perormance enhancing dru gs i they
intense pu blic interest in com petitive sport have increased cou ld win withou t getting cau g ht, even at the expense o
the pressu re on athletes to perorm at their optim u m level. their lives (5 2 %).
The perormance level o top athletes has becom e very
sim ilar in m ost sports and this contribu tes to the pressu re
to train even hard er and perhaps cheat in ord er to win.

Some reasons for athletes to use drugs

Physical reasons Psychological reasons Social reasons
n Enhance perormance n Control em otions (anxiety, n Pressu re rom coaches and parents to
n Cope with pain and inju ry d epression, aggression) perorm
rehabilitation n Control stress responses n Social pressu re rom peers and the
n Control weight n Enhance sel-conf d ence need to gain acceptance in the team
n Develop a stronger and m ore n Pressu re to perorm in ord er to get
attractive bod y scholarships or obtain f nancial gains

1 38
 9 Sport psych ol ogy

Anshel (1 991 ) Wadler and Hainline (1 989)

n Th is was a su rvey to investigate the cau ses o u sing n The researchers su ggested that athletes may be m ore
perormance enhancing dru gs and recreation al dru gs likely to experim ent with perorman ce enhancing and
am ong elite athletes. Participants were 1 2 6 male and recreational dru gs than non-athletes. Athletes u se dru gs
emale athletes rom the U SA representing nine sports. to cope with the pain o inju ry rehabilitation, to cope
n Th e d ata was collected throu gh personal interviews and with the psychological stress rom the com petitive
the ocu s o the interview was to explore reasons or the d emand s o sport, and to hand le a d ecrease in sel-
u se o dru gs. conf d ence becau se o lack o su ccess.
n Resu lts showed that 64% were aware o dru g u se on n The researchers pointed at f ve possible categories o
their team , 72 % o males and 40% o emales ind icated athletes who u se dru gs:
that a team-mate took an illegal dru g, and 43% 1. Athletes at risk o not reaching the d esired level o
acknowled ged that athletes u se dru gs or the pu rpose o perormance.
en hancing perorman ce as opposed to recreational u se. 2 . Athletes approaching the end o their career who
n Th e primary reasons or u sing dru gs in sport inclu d ed : want to maintain their level o perormance.
1. the need to be competitive, increase strength, and 3. Athletes with weight problem s (either d esire to
control weight. increase or d ecrease weight).
2 . the need to red u ce pain, relax, cope with stress, and 4. I nju red ath letes who try to recover aster.
overcom e bored om . 5. Athletes who eel external pressu re (e.g.rom
n Th e stu d y gives insight into variou s reasons or dru g u se. coaches, team mates, or parents) or who believe that
Th e inormation com es rom athletes them selves bu t perormance-enhancin g dru gs are wid ely u sed so
sel-reported d ata may not always be reliable. The they have to u se them as well to be com petitive.
researchers avoid ed qu estions abou t personal u se to
avoid eects o u nd er-reporting (e.g. becau se o social
d esirability eects or becau se o the controversial natu re
o dru g u se).

Game theory Prisoner 2 stays Prisoner 2

Gam e theory was d eveloped in math ematics bu t has been silent confesses
applied to sport psychology to explain why it seem s rational (cooperates) (defects)
that athletes u se dru gs.
Two partners in crim e who are arrested an d held in separate Prisoner 1 Each get a year in Prisoner 1 gets
prison cells can illu strate the gam e o Prisoners d ilem ma. stays silent jail (high payo) three years in jail
N either o them wants to coness or betray the other bu t the (cooperates) (su cker payo)
police g ive them the ollowing options: Prisoner 2 goes
1 . I you coness bu t the other prison er d oes not, you go ree ree (tem ptation
and he or she gets three years in jail. pay o)
2 . I the other prisoner conesses and you d o not, you get Prisoner 1 Prisoner 1 goes Each get two
th ree years and he or she goes ree. confesses ree (temptation years in jail (low
3. I you both coness, you each get two years. (defects) payo) payo)
4. I you both remain silent, you each get a year. Prisoner 2 gets
three years in jail
The logical thin g to d o wou ld be to coness an d betray you r
(su cker payo)
(partner (e.g . prison er 1 wou ld go ree and prisoner 2 wou ld get
three years i h e or she d oes n ot coness). H owever, prisoner 1
n I prisoner 2 conesses and prisoner 1 remains silent,
d oes not know what prisoner 2 will d o. The options are (seen
prisoner 2 goes ree ( temptation payo) while prison er 1
rom prisoner 1 s perspective):
gets 3 years. I t is better to coness and take the two years
n I prisoner 2 remains silent and prisoner 1 does the sam e,
( low payo) than remaining silent and take th e three years
they both get a year. Thats the high payo situ ation.
( the sucker payo).
I t seem s that each prisoner is better o conessing no matter
what the other prisoner d oes.

1 39
 9 Sport psych ol ogy

Game theory applied to the use o EPO in the Tour de n The penalties or u sing dru gs are high (e.g. exclu sion rom
France (the doping game) the team or d isqu ali cation) and thereore a code o silence
n Accord ing to Shermer (2 008) th e cyclists com pete reigns am ong the cyclists (high payo) and d oping
accord ing to certain ru les (e.g. that perormance enhancing becom es a reality in m ost proessional sports. I t is this
dru gs are prohibited ). H owever, the dru g s are very eective cod e o silence that prevents an open com m u nication
and at this point d i cu lt or impossible to d etect. The abou t how to reverse the trend and retu rn to abid in g by the
payos or su ccess are high so the m otivation to u se ru les.
banned dru gs is poweru l. H e calls this the d oping
Real-life examples
d ilem ma becau se the athlete is placed in a situ ation
n Bjarne Riis Tou r d e France winner, 1 996 conessed to
sim ilar to the one in the prisoners d ilem ma.
the u se o d oping in 2 007. Riis was called M r. 60% becau se
n I som e o the elite cyclists d o not abid e by the ru les o his high level o red blood cells (d u e to EPO).
(d eect) and take dru gs to gain an ad vantage, the other
n Floyd Land is won the Tou r d e France in 2 006 bu t was
cyclists have to d o the sam e to have a chance. This lead s to
d isqu ali ed becau se he tested positive or testosterone.
a cascad e o cheating throu gh the ranks.

Strengths of gam e theory Lim itations of gam e theory

n The theory is in tu itively appealing with its ocu s on rational n The theory ocu ses primarily on the material incentives and
d ecision making based on a cost-bene t analysis. legal aspects o getting cau gh t and not so m u ch on other
n I t can, to som e extent, explain why it seem s a rational actors (e.g. the m ental and physical risks) bu t this is taken
choice or sportspeople to u se ban ned dru gs in spite o the into accou nt in the sport d eterrence m od el.
risks. n People are not always ration al d ecision makers and it may
n Real-lie exam ples and em pirical stu d ies su pport the th eory. be that pressu re rather than d eliberate rationalization lead s
to the u se o dru gs.

Smith et al. (201 0) 1. the legality o the dru gs

n This was a qu alitative narrative-based case stu d y with 1 1 2 . the dru g s impact on perormance.
you ng Au stralian elite and non-elite athletes to investigate n Sm ith et al. conclu d ed that attitu d es are shaped by early
their attitu d es to the u se o dru gs in sport and to explore
sporting experiences, sporting cu ltu res, inf u ential people,
the contextu al actors that cou ld inf u en ce these attitu d es.
and com m ercial pressu res rather than an ind ivid u al
n Participants all said that the use o banned perormance athletes d esire to u se dru gs. I dru g u se is com m on within a
enhancing dru gs was cheating bu t they also ou nd legal sporting environm ent, the chances are that you ng athletes
perormance enhancing dru gs essential. The results indicate will also u se them even thou gh they are illegal.
that attitudes to drugs were, to a large extent, shaped by
two actors:

9.1 0 Discuss the effects of drug use in sport

n The WADA (The World Anti-Doping Agency) has mad e a list Consequences of drug use in sport
o banned su bstances and i an athlete is tested positive on n Legal and ethical implications o taking perormance
these dru gs the person risks bein g stripped o any m ed als enhancing dru gs: First, it is illegal and , second , it is
and his or her career. This can explain the cod e o silence cheating and u nsportsmanlike to try to get an u nair
that reigns in proessional sport with regard to the u se o ad vantage over opponents. Athletes risk prison sentences
perormance enhancing dru gs. and losing their career.
n Dru gs are classi ed by their pu rpose: n Risk of getting addicted: Many drugs are potentially addictive
perormance enhancing dru gs (e.g. anabolic steroids, (both perorman ce enhancing and recreational dru gs).
EPO, hu man growth horm ones, beta-blockers, and n H ealth effects: M ost dru gs have sid e eects that cou ld
stim u lants. aect the health o th e athlete and even cau se d eath .
recreational dru gs (e.g. alcohol, cocaine, mariju ana, and
tobacco.

1 40
 9 Sport psych ol ogy

Anabolic steroids Biological effects

n Anabolic steroid s are probably one o the m ost u sed dru gs n I ncreased m u scu lar size and strength increase bod y weight;
in sport (e.g. in weightliting, baseball, shot pu t, cycling). increase nu m ber o red blood cells (anabolic eect).
These steroid s are a synthetic version o the male horm one n There is a mascu linizing eect (androgenic eect) related to
testosterone that has been m od if ed so that it stays longer d evelopm ent o primary sexu al characteristics in males:
in the blood stream . males: risk o shrinkage o testes, enlarged breasts, and
n Known health eects are increased risk o heart d iseases, sterility
kid ney and liver problem s, d eath rom certain cancers, and emales: risk o shrinking breast and u teru s, irregu lar
psychic changes (e.g. psychotic symptom s and aggression). m enstru ation, enlarged clitoris, increased acial and
n Franke and Berendonk (1 997 ) had access to classif ed bod y hair, d eepened voice.
d ocu m ents o the DDR horm one d oping program m e and
ou nd severe eects o the large d oses o steroid s given to Psychological effects
male and emale athletes. This report shows som e o the n H igh levels o testosterone have been associated with
seriou s ad verse eects o anabolic steroid s, especially when increased aggression and psychological problems
taken by ad olescents and in large d oses. (e.g.irritability and mood swings) but the evidence is
inconclusive.
n Sharp and Collins (1 998) argu e that there is not yet a
clear link between u se o anabolic steroid s and aggressive
behaviour. There may be a number o psychosocial actors that
could interact with the steriods (e.g. expectancy eects).

Olrich (1 999) Athletes own perceptions o the eects

o taking anabolic steroids Case study: Heidi Krieger, a victim o anabolic steroids
n Olrich stu d ied athletes perceptions o the eects o dru g n H eid i Krieger (now Andreas Krieger) was a victim o a
u se in a small sample o male bod ybu ild ers. H e perorm ed state-sponsored program m e in DDR (orm er Eastern
qu alitative in terviews with 1 0 males (age range 1 857 ) Germany) to prod u ce athletes that cou ld prove the
abou t their perceptions o u se and d iscontinu an ce o su periority o the Com m u nist state by beating the U SA.
steroid s. Five o them had taken steroid s bu t had stopped n From age 1 6, H eid i Kru ger was given anabolic steroid s
and f ve o them were still taking steroid s. withou t her knowled ge. The coaches told her that the pills
n Only one had experienced m inor u npleasant sid e eects were vitam ins. Sh e was able to th row the shot a d istance o
and eelings o gu ilt. Most o th e participants were very arou nd 1 4 m etres when she was 1 6 bu t this increased to
positive abou t u sing steroid s, or instance perceiving that arou nd 2 0 m etres at the 1 986 Eu ropean wom ens shot-pu t
they had m ore energy, libid o, had increased eelings o championships.
being well in their bod y, increased sel-conf d ence, and n By the tim e she was 1 8 she weighed 1 00 kilogram s, had a
increased aggressiveness (seen as positive) as well as d eep voice, increased bod y and acial hair, and appeared
increased peer recognition and enhanced sexu al attraction. mascu line. She had wild m ood swings, rom d epression to
n All stated that they were d epend ent on the extra m ental aggression to eu phoria. She elt ou t o place in her own
ed ge provid ed by steroid s. This was interpreted as a orm o bod y and had problem s with her sexu al id entity bu t she
psychological ad d iction by the researchers. Participants also becam e the Eu ropean Champion in her sport.
stated that they wanted to maintain the benef ts that cam e n H eid is career end ed in 1 991 becau se sh e had problem s
rom the u se o steroid s and avoid the negative with her knees, hips, and back becau se o her big m u scles
consequ ences o losing m u scle mass. and stren u ou s workou ts. When she heard that her
n The researchers conclu d ed that it is probably n ot possible achievem ents were d u e to horm one d oping she wou ld not
to prevent anabolic steroid u se by reerring to negative accept it at f rst and elt betrayed by the coaches and
short-term eects bu t the long-term eects are u nknown. train ers.
n The sample was small and not representative so it is not n H eid i becam e d epressed and elt lost withou t her sport and
possible to generalize rom the resu lts. The stu d y d escribes no u tu re job together with an increasing d espair and
the experiences o these bod ybu ild ers, which is a valu able am bigu ity abou t her sexu al id entity. She even consid ered
contribu tion to the stu d y o athletes in context. su icid e. She eventu ally had a sex-change operation and is
now Andreas Krieger.
Yesalis et al. (1 993) reported that there are an estimated one
m illion or m ore steroid u sers in the U SA and only a small
percentage o u sers appear to have m ental d istu rbances that
resu lt in clinical treatm ent. A small nu m ber o the u sers who
experience signif cant psychological changes will probably
recover withou t ad d itional problem s once they stop u sing
steroid s. This cou ld ind icate that steroid u se is qu ite com m on
and m ost o it goes u nnoticed in the general popu lation who
are not in elite or proessional sport.

1 41
 9.11 Compare models of the causes and prevention
of burnout

Smith (1 986) gave the ollowing characteristics o bu rnou t: H ow to detect burnout?

n Physical and em otional exhau stion that takes the orm o Bu rnou t can be id enti ed throu gh sym ptom s u sing variou s
lost energy, interest, and tru st. qu estionnaires, or example:
n Feelings o low personal accomplishm ent, low sel-esteem , n Maslach Burnout Inventory (d eveloped or the workplace
ailu re, and d epression. This maniests itsel in d ecreased bu t also u sed in sport).
perormance levels. n The Athlete Burnout Questionnaire the ABQ (Raedeke &
n Depersonalization and d evalu ation where the ind ivid u al Smith, 2 001 ) is a stand ard ized test speci cally d eveloped
becom es imperson al and u neeling toward s the sport and to m easu re bu rnou t in a sporting environm ent. Once
others. This m eans that ath letes stop caring abou t their symptom s o bu rnou t are id enti ed preventive m easu res
sport (sport d evalu ation). shou ld be taken to help athletes start coping ad equ ately
and to reverse th e symptom s.

Smith (1 986) Cognitive-aective model o stress and n Stage 2 : The athlete interprets and appraises th e situ ation
burnout in sport (cognitive appraisal). For som e, the situ ation seem s m ore
n Accord ing to th is m od el, bu rnou t is the resu lt o a process threatening than it actu ally is. This resu lts in eelings o
that involves physiological, psychological and behaviou ral helplessness (e.g. an athlete may be araid o losing his or
actors that interact and progress in ou r pred ictable stag es. her place in the team .
Each o these actors is inf u enced by level o m otivation n Stage 3: The athlete ocu ses on the physiological respon ses
and personality. as a resu lt o the cognitive appraisal. I the situ ation is
n Stage 1 : The athlete is conronted with situ ational appraised as threatening the physiological response may be
d emand s that are too high or which conf ict with other anxiety, tension, insom nia (sleep d isru ption), atigu e, and
d emand s (e.g. high am ou nts o physical training or pressu re red u ced im m u ne u nctioning.
to win). n Stage 4: The physiological processes lead to speci c types
o coping behaviou rs (e.g. d ecreased perormance,
interpersonal d i cu lties, and in appropriate coping
strategies).

The resu lts o Gou ld et al. ind icate that there are two
Gould et al. (1 996, 1 997) d ierent lines o stressors in bu rnou t:
This was a longitu d inal stu d y o elite you th tennis players, aim ing to n A com bination o social and psychological stressors
d etect possible cau ses o bu rnou t. (athlete perectionism and situ ational pressu re
The researchers ou nd a nu m ber o personal and situ ational actors stressor). Perectionism cou ld pred ispose you ng
linked to bu rnou t: athletes at risk o bu rnou t. Environmental pressure
n Physical concerns: (e.g. overtraining, eeling tired all the tim e, lack rom others (parents and coaches) is another risk
o physical d evelopm ent, irreg u lar perorman ce, losing ). actor. Stress com es rom havin g the expectations to
n Logistical concerns: (e.g. d emand s on tim e, leavin g little or no win, to please others, and eel worthy. These resu lts
tim e or alternative activities, riend s, and school). cou ld be d u e to the you ng age o th e tennis players.
n Social or interpersonal concerns: (e.g. d issatisaction with social n A physical driven stressor com es rom external
lie, n egative parental pressu re, negative team atm osphere, d emand s or physical training that the athlete is not
cheating by competitors, d issatisaction with coaches). able to m eet bu t this stressor was ou n d to be less
requ ent in this stu d y.
n Psychological concerns: 5 0% o the reasons or bu rn ou t were
psychological concerns (e.g. u nu l lled expectations, realization
that a proessional career was u nlikely, eeling no improvem ent,
and lack o enjoym ent d u e to pressu res to win or maintain a
scholarship).

1 42
 9 Sport psych ol ogy

Raedekes (1 997) Investment model o burnout (or

entrapment theory) Raedeke (1 997)
n The investm ent m od el is based on an assu mption that n Rad eke investigated athlete bu rnou t in a sample o 236
athletes consid er cost and benef ts associated with athletic emale and male swim m ers aged 1 3 1 8. Th e researcher was
participation. The m od el is a motivational theory where in terested in the reasons or participation in sport with a
bu rnou t is seen as a lack o m otivation and com m itm ent ocu s on sport attraction (want to be involved ) and sport
d u e to an im balance between the perceived costs and entrapm ent (have to be involved ).
benef ts. n The participants com pleted a qu estionnaire that assessed
n The m od el inclu d es f ve d eterm inants o com m itm ent possible d eterm inants o com m itm ent and bu rn ou t
(reward s, costs, satisaction, investm ents, alternatives) and (em otional and physical exhau stion, swim d evalu ation, and
how the athlete evalu ates these will d eterm ine whether red u ced swim accomplishm ent).
com m itm ent is based on enjoyment or entrapment. n The d ata were analysed and swim m ers were grou ped
l Com mitment because of enjoyment m eans that accord ing to d eterm inants. Resu lts showed that athletes
athletes will participate becau se the sport is reward ing who scored high on sport entrapm ent scored higher on
in itsel relative to the tim e and energy pu t into it. bu rnou t scores compared to athletes who scored high on
attraction-related reasons or participating in the sport.
l Com mitment based on entrapment m ean s that the
athlete participates bu t has low satisaction and n The resu lts ind icate that a com m itm ent perspective cou ld
perceive m ore cost than benef t. The athlete may be a u seu l ram ework or u nd erstand in g athlete bu rn ou t
continu e or som e tim e withou t com m itm ent bu t th is bu t it is a bit simplistic.
cou ld end with bu rnou t sooner or later.

Comparison of the cognitive-affective model and investment/entrapment model

<table head> Cognitive-affective model Investment/entrapment Similarities
model
View of burnout Burnout is viewed as a response to Burnout is viewed as a lack o Both models ocus on
chronic stress caused by motivation and commitment due to perceptions and emotions.
overtraining (overload and a perception o imbalance between
helplessness) investment and reward
Key concepts n Deindividuation n Deindividuation in the orm o Both models include
n Physical and psychological sport devaluation estrangement rom the
exhaustion n Enjoyment/entrapment sport in the orm o
deindividuation as a sign o
n Cognitive appraisal n Cognitive appraisal implied
burnout
Strengths of the n The model has been empirically n The model has been empirically There is not much empirical
model tested and supported tested and supported research yet but both models
n The model is useul to n Raedekes model has have been tested (especially
determine specifc antecedents contributed with the concept o Smiths model) and supported
to stress this could help in entrapment, which has been
the treatment o athletes with incorporated in other models
burnout
Limitations of the n It is a relatively complex model n It is a relatively simple model Both models have limitations
model and not all dimensions are that does not speciy in relation to clear
properly operationalized dimension o the conceptual operationalization o concepts
ramework (e.g. what is
understood by cost and
beneft)
n Motivation is but one o many
actors in burnout
Application of the n Changes could be made to n Stress management techniques Both models encourage stress
model in prevention of environmental demands could be used, such as management techniques to
burnout n Appropriate coping strategies cognitive-aective stress prevent burnout but also to
could be learned to address the management (emotion-ocused investigate antecedents o
various dimensions o the coping strategy) but also stress/burnout in the
mode (e.g. i coping resources problem-ocused coping (e.g. individual athlete in an
and social support are high the more ree time between attempt to minimize stressors
chance o burnout is reduced) training)

1 43
 9 Sport psych ol ogy

Prevention of burnout bu rnou t that matches the overload -stress sou rce (physical,
n The aim o stu d ying overtraining and bu rnou t is to d evelop social, or psychological).
program m es and strategies that help the people involved in n I the overload is physical (e.g. throu gh heavy weightliting
training athletes to d etect and treat bu rnou t. or overload o ru nning practice) the recovery process cou ld
ocu s on physical strategies su ch as nu trition, hydration,
n Prevention o bu rnou t ocu ses on the early id enti cation o
massage, and sleep.
signs o bu rnou t, stress m onitoring by changes in
environm ental actors and teach ing appropriate coping n I the overload is psychological and social (e.g. throu gh
strategies to ath letes and coaches. heavy weightliting anxiety or ear o ailure) the recovery
process cou ld ocu s on taking som e tim e o, d issociation
Kennta and H assmen (1 998) argu e that m ental an d physical
(e.g. throu gh heavy weightliting watching a m ovie),
atigu e resu lts rom a general overload o practice and
techniqu es o m u scle relaxation, visu alization, and
competition in com bination with the eeling o having no lie.
cognitive restru ctu ring throu gh cognitive therapy.
They su ggested a recovery strategy or athletes in d anger o

Raedeke (2002) Suggestions o coaching strategies to

Raedeke (2002) Study on how to detect burnout signs prevent burnout
in athletes n Coaches shou ld create a su pportive training environm ent,
Raed eke perorm ed a qu alitative stu d y with 1 3 swim m ing be empathic, provid e ind ivid u alized eed back, encou rage
coaches to d eterm ine what coaches id enti ed as signs o team cohesion and riend ship in the grou p, and cooperate
bu rnou t in you ng swim m ers. Coaches m entioned possible signs with paren ts to su pport the athletes.
o bu rnou t: n The training shou ld be exciting and u n.
n Withdrawal (e.g. not showing u p or training).
n Coaching and training shou ld be f exible so that athletes
n Red u ced sense o accomplishm ent (e.g. perceiving can get tim e o rom swim m ing to prevent eelings o
im balance between d esired goals and physical ability). exhau stion and m eaninglessness.
n Devalu ation o the sport (e.g. expressing hate or gen eral n Coaches shou ld help athletes set realistic bu t challenging
d islike o the sport. This is a su re sign o bu rn ou t). goals and provid e variou s training techniqu es.
n Exhau stion (eelings o having no physical or psychological
resou rces let, this is a su re sign o bu rnou t).
n Loss o control (eeling an im balance between the sport
and having a lie).

Interventions to prevent stress and burnout

Crocker et al. (1 988) Test o the eectiveness o SMT
Cognitive-affective stress management training n Researchers carried ou t a eld experim ent to investigate
(SMT) the eectiven ess o SMT in helpin g you th elite volleyball
n A cognitive-behaviou ral approach o psychological and players to control d ysu nctional stress processes in relation
physical coping strategies to d eal with stress (based on the to em otion, cognition, and perormance. The players were
cognitive-aective m od el o stress and bu rnou t). all u nd er 1 9 years o age.
n I ncorporates relaxation training (physical), imag ery, and n The team m em bers were assigned to either an
sel-talk strategies. experim ental grou p (SMT) or a waiting-list control grou p.
n The tech niqu e inclu d es three phases: The SMT program m e consisted o eight m od u les each
separated by a week.
Conceptualization of stress: Focu s on assessing
situ ations that prod u ce stress and u nd erstan d ing the
n The resu lts ind icated that the treatm ent grou p had ewer
athletes response to stress and their u se o coping negative thou ghts in response to vid eotaped stressors. This
strategies. grou p also d em onstrated su perior service reception
perormance in a controlled practice session com pared to
Skill acquisition: Focu s on learning and practising
the control grou p. There was no d ierence between the two
integrated coping responses (relaxation, imagery, d eep grou ps in m easu red state anxiety or trait anxiety.
breath ing, and cognitive restru ctu ring techniqu es). Th e
athlete learns to id entiy stress-ind u cing sel-statem ents
n The cog nitive m easu res and the perormance resu lts
like I cant let my team d own and replace them with provid e su pport or the SMT. The stu d y was perorm ed
ad equ ate coping strategies. u nd er real-lie cond itions, which increases ecological
valid ity.
Skill rehearsal: The ath lete practises the coping skills
u nd er cond itions o high em otional arou sal (e.g.
imagining a stressu l situ ation).

1 44
1 0.1
0.0 Critical and
Theory thinking
method
(analysis,
in qualitative
evaluation
research
etc.)

Distinguish between qualitative and quantitative data

Quantitative data Qualitative data
n Data in qu antitative research (qu anti ed d ata): num bers. n Data in qu alitative research: text (transcripts and eld
n Operational d e nition o research and closed d ata in the notes, also pictu res).
orm o nu m bers (generally not open to in terpretation). n N atu rally occu rring and rich data (open end ed , i.e. open
n Analysis o d ata relatively easy: statistical tests. or interpretation).
n Data rom many participan ts (probability sam pling) and n Analysis o d ata oten d i cu lt and tim e consu m ing: no
in erential statistics generalization o nd ings to single approach to data analysis bu t, or example,
popu lations. thematic analysis su ch as interpretative phenom en ological
analysis (I PA) or grou nd ed theory.
n Data rom ew participants (non-probability sampling)
d i cu lt to generalize.

Explain the strengths and limitations of a n The ocu s is on d esign and proced u res that makes it
qualitative approach to research possible to stu d y behaviou r in everyd ay situ ations and to
n The pu rpose o qu alitative research is to u nd erstand the obtain rich d ata.
world as the participants sees it. Reality is seen as n The topic o research is inf u enced by the research process,
d ynam ic as it changes with peoples perceptions. This is the participant and the researcher. This m eans that actors
linked to a constru ctionist approach (people constru ct su ch as participant expectations an d researcher bias
realities and there is no single objective reality) or a may inf u ence th e resu lts.
ph en om enolog ical approach (peoples su bjective reality is n Research takes place in the real world , and it intend s to
important) to u nd erstand in g hu mans. investigate ph en om ena as they are perceived by
participants in the stu d y.

Strengths Lim itations

n This approach generates rich d ata (in-d epth and su bjective n There are oten large am ou nts o d ata to analyse.
inormation open or interpretation). n I t can be very tim e consu m ing, especially i triangu lation is
n I t is u seu l or investigating com plex and sensitive issu es. u sed , as research oten takes place over a prolonged
n People are stu d ied in real-lie settings so there is m ore period .
ecological valid ity. n I t is u su ally d i cu lt to generalize resu lts to other settings
n The approach generates new id eas and theories to d eal becau se o the ew participan ts in qu alitative research (bu t
with real-lie problem s. generalization is possible u nd er certain cond itions).
n Researcher(s) and participants are oten interacting with n I nterpretation o d ata may be su bjective bu t ref exivity and
each other or longer period s o tim e. cred ibility checks can red u ce bias.
n Participant expectations an d researcher bias may
inf u ence the research process. Ref exivity and cred ibility
checks can red u ce bias.

1 45
 1 0 Qu a l i tati ve resea rch i n psych ol ogy

To what extent can fndings be generalized The qu estion o generalization o qu alitative research f nd ings
rom qualitative studies? is a continu ou s object o d iscu ssion in qu alitative research.
Generalization o resu lts rom qu alitative research is oten not
n Som e qu alitative researchers argu e that it is important to
possible becau se: generalize f nd ings rom qu alitative research stu d ies as this
n Most stu d ies have ew participants. contribu tes to application o its resu lts ou tsid e the research
itsel (ecological valid ity).
n Sampling is based on selection criteria and not
representativeness (e.g. pu rposive, snowball or volu nteer
n They argu e that u nd er som e cond itions generalization may
sampling). be possible.
n The goal o d ata analysis is to u nd erstand the su bjective Lewis and Richie (2 003) d istingu ish between three orm s o
experience o participants in the stu d y. generalization:

Representational generalization Inferential generalization or Theoretical generalization

transferability
n Find ings rom a stu d y can be applied to n Find ings rom a stu d y can be n Theoretical concepts d eveloped in
popu lations ou tsid e the stu d y. applied to settings ou tsid e the the stu d y can be u sed to d evelop
n I fndings rom sim ilar research studies stu d y. u rther theory.
corroborate fndings, som e degree o n The f nd ing s can be transerred
generalization may be possible. to sim ilar settings (transerability).

Example: I nterview d ata rom a stu d y with Example: Resu lts rom a pilot stu d y on Exam ple: The theory and theoretical
hom eless people in city X and in city Z have victim s o d om estic violence toward s concepts d eveloped on what m ight be
generated sim ilar f nd ings. wom en to test the eectiven ess o a eective problem solving in a
service to help them cope and particu lar area (e.g. as d eveloping
d evelop resilience cou ld be transerred resilience in hom eless ad olescents,
to sim ilar settings (e.g. shelters or cou ld be eectively applied in policies
abu sed wom en). to establish help centres or people).

Exam Tip You can address this question with general knowledge
You will be asked to consider i the fndings
rom this chapter but you need to make reerence to the
rom the study in the stimulus material can be generalized.
actual study and give examples.

Discuss ethical issues in qualitative research n There is oten a long-term research process with close
Accord ing to Silverman (2 008), qu alitative researchers shou ld personal contact between the researcher and participants
ask (1 ) why th ey are d oing the stu d y, (2 ) i the f nd ings can be so participants may reveal very personal inormation and it
o valu e to the com m on good , (3) i it will help or protect the can be d if cu lt to maintain researcher objectivity at tim es.
people in the stu d y, and (4) what are their own m oral, political n The research process may resu lt in obtaining sensitive
or personal interests in the stu d y. inormation su ch as participants crim inal activity. The
Generally the sam e ethical consid erations are mad e as in researcher need s to consid er this in ad vance, d ecid e i th e
qu antitative research particu lar ethical consid erations are oten researcher will in orm the au thorities and i participants
also mad e in qu alitative research becau se: shou ld be inorm ed abou t this beore they participate.
n The small nu m ber o participants in qu alitative research n I norm ed consent cannot always be obtain ed (e.g. in covert
may resu lt in d if cu lties with anonym ity. participan t observations). Som e research projects may
n Research topics are oten sen sitive (e.g. d om estic violence, involve d anger to the researcher (e.g. covert participant
hom elessness, health issu es) and requ ire particu lar observations in prisons or street gangs).
consid eration or the participants in the stu d y.

1 46
 1 0 Qu a l i tati ve resea rch i n psych ol ogy

Ethical issue H ow to deal with it

Inormed n Participants m u st u nd erstand what the stu d y will involve and they m u st agree to participate.
consent Participation is volu ntary.
n Participants shou ld be able to u nd erstand the inormation given beore, d u ring, and ater the stu d y.
The researcher cou ld , or example, translate inormation sheets or d iscu ss the resu lts with participants.
n An ethics com m ittee m u st give perm ission i inorm ed consent cannot be obtained becau se o the
natu re o the research.
n I n covert participant observations, the researcher(s) shou ld careu lly consid er whether the d ata rom
the research is so important that the stu d y is ju sti ed especially i the research cou ld be d angerou s or
the researcher or som e o the participants.

Protect n Consid er whether the research cou ld potentially harm participants in any way.
participants n Qu estions shou ld be clear and d irect i the topic is sensitive.
rom harm
n Consid er whether the interview or observation i participants show signs o d iscom ort or d istress.
n Protect participants rom the consequ en ces o participation (e.g. in research on d om estic violence).
n Follow-u p in research to en su re participan ts well-being.

Anonymity and n Fu ll anonym ity is the ru le, bu t in cases where this is not possible the participants shou ld be u lly
confdentiality inorm ed .
n Research material (e.g. vid eotaped interviews) shou ld be d estroyed and transcripts anonym ized .

Potential n The researcher cou ld u se ref exivity and consu lt other researchers when researching socially or
exploitation o psych ologically vu lnerable people who are not able to protect them selves.
participants n The researcher m u st seriou sly consid er whether nd ings based on d eception and covert observations in
research on sensitive issu es can be ju sti ed . The d egree to which invasion o privacy is acceptable
shou ld be critically evalu ated and the stu d y aband oned in som e cases.

Exam Tip appropriate to mention in relation to the specifc study

The ethical issues mentioned here are
you have in the stimulus material and argue why this could
general. You must try to see which ones would be most
be relevant by giving examples rom the study.

Discuss sampling techniques appropriate to n socioeconom ic statu s, gend er, age, attitu d es, social roles
qualitative research (e.g. m other)
n The goal o qu alitative sampling techniqu es is to select n specic experiences (e.g. dom estic violence, being hom eless,
participants who are particu larly inormative abou t the having lost a child, being a nurse working with cancer
research topics u nd er investigation (i.e. inormation-rich patients, being a sport coach, H IV status)
participants) and generalization o nd ings is less n pu rpose o the stu d y.
important.
Strengths o purposive Lim itations o purposive
n The objectives o the research project and the
sampling sampling
characteristics o the popu lation o interest will inf u ence
the choice o sampling m ethod . n Participants represent n Sampling may be
n Possible ways to sample participants in qu alitative research the research topic biased . I the sampling
are: pu rposive sampling, snowball sampling, convenience becau se they are process is based on
sampling. selected speci cally objective selection
based on salient criteria, d ocu m ented ,
Purposive sampling characteristics relevan t and explained the bias
Characteristics o ind ivid u als are u sed as the basis o selection to the research . is lim ited .
in ord er to ref ect the d iversity o the sample popu lation. The n I t is a relatively easy way n I t is d i cu lt to
n u m ber o participants in the stu d y may not be d ecid ed in to select a sample. The generalize rom a small
ad vance so recru itm ent o participants can continu e throu ghou t sample may be pu rposive sample.
the research project u ntil the researchers nd that they have su pplem ented with
en ou gh d ata to generate theory (d ata satu ration ). Participants m ore participants d u ring
are selected based on salient characteristics (selection criteria) the research.
relevant to the research topic su ch as:

1 47
 1 0 Qu a l i tati ve resea rch i n psych ol ogy

Snowball sampling (snowballing) The advantage or the researchers is that they dont need to
Snowballing is consid ered a type o pu rposive sam pling. search or participants since they are at hand. The problem is that
Participan ts wh o are alread y in the stu d y can help the they are not recruited based on any population so it is very
researcher to recru it m ore participants who cou ld potentially dicult to generalize.
participate in the stu d y throu gh their social networks. This
sampling techniqu e may be u sed when it is d i cu lt to recru it Strengths of Lim itations of
participants (e.g. becau se th e research is socially sensitive, convenience sampling convenience sampling
involving people su ch as dru g ad d icts or the hom eless). n I t is an easy and n I t is likely to be biased .
cost-e cient way to n I t is likely to generate
Strengths of snowball Lim itations of snowball
recru it participants. research with low
sampling sampling
n I t is a qu ick way to cred ibility an d poor in
n I t is a cost-e cient and n I t is likely to be biased collect d ata and d o inormation.
easy way to recru it becau se participants research.
participants. know each other and
n I t is u seu l in sensitive may have sam e attitu d es
research where or experiences. Exam Tip The stimulus material in the exam
participants are not n Ethical issu es question will give some inormation about the nature o
easily accessible (e.g. (anonym ity and the study and you should use this to discuss why a
research on dru g abu se con d entiality are particular sampling technique is used or could be used
or crim inal oend ers). d i cu lt to maintain in that particular research. Your argument could, or
since participants know example, include reasons in regard to the topic under
each other). investigation or the difculty in recruiting participants.
You may also point at relevant strengths and limitations
Convenience sampling (volunteer) o a relevant sampling technique but you always need
Participants are chosen based on availability. People at hand (or to reer to the stimulus material.
example the rst 1 0 obese people you see in a shopping mall,
social workers in a resilience project, a group o co-workers in an
organization, students present at a lecture) are simply asked i
they are willing to participate in the research. Som e may reuse to
take part in the research but those who accept are volunteers.

Explain the effects of participant expectations ad vantages o participating (e.g. in research on coping with
and researcher bias in qualitative research a atal d isease they cou ld think that they may recover).
Reality is oten seen as co-constru cted by the researcher and n Participants may not agree with th e researchers
the participan ts in the qu alitative research process. interpretation o th e d ata i it is presented to them . This
n Participant expectations (or participant bias, expectation cou ld , or exam ple, d u e to sel-preservation (i the research
bias) can be d escribed as participant actors that inf u ence reveals sensitive thin gs that the participant will n ot accept
the ou tcom e o the research (e.g. the participants id eas o or recognize).
what happens in the research, how they shou ld behave or n Participants in qu alitative research bring ind ivid u al
what they expect to gain rom participation in the research). perceptions, or id eas that inf u ence the research process
n Researcher bias (or expectation bias) can be d escribed as and the resu lts, (e.g. participan ts in a stu d y on managers
researcher actors su ch as the researchers belies or valu es com m u nication styles in an organization may be m ore likely
that cou ld potentially bias the research process. For to give biased answers i they perceive that their responses
example, a gay researcher cou ld ocu s too m u ch on d ata cou ld harm them .
that shows d iscrim ination toward s gay m en and ignore n Participants may behave in ways that they eel is expected
d ata ind icating the contrary. o them (socially d esirable) or they may conorm to oth er
n Strauss and Corbin (1 998) state that bias in qu alitative participan ts id eas becau se they want to be accepted or not
research is not only inevitable bu t also d esirable (e.g. appear as d ierent.
researcher bias may ad d to the richness o knowled ge n Participants try to be consistent in their answers and
abou t a com plex problem ). I t is important that the som etim es a previou s statem ent inf u ences a later one. This
researcher and th e participants are both actively involved in m eans that som e m u st be u ntru e. The researchers shou ld
the research process and bring their id eas, belies and not u ncritically believe everything the participants say bu t
valu es into the research. rather cross-check or cred ibility.
Potential effects of participant expectations Potential effects of researcher bias
n Participants id eas o the research cou ld lead them to n The researchers own ideas, belies, values, and attitudes may
behave in ways that are not natu ral in ord er to please the bias the research process and the outcom e so that the results
researcher or becau se they have an id ea o getting are a refection o the researchers subjective expectations
rather than a refection o the participants ideas.

1 48
1 0 Qu a l i tati ve resea rch i n psych ol ogy 1 0 Qu a l i tati ve resea rch i n psych ol ogy

n The researcher is the primary instru m ent o research and n I the research process takes a long tim e the researcher may
has a major inf u ence on the research process (e.g. choice o change attitu d es to the project and the participants an d
research topic and participants, analysis and interpretation this cou ld aect the d ata (e.g. a researcher d oin g a
o d ata). The researcher thereore need s to be aware o participant observation in a prison may com e to d islike the
su bjectivity in the research process (sel-bias) an d apply participants).
ref exivity. n The researcher cou ld inf u ence the ou tcom e o an interview
n The researcher may not give enou gh attention to the social by nod d ing and sm iling m ore when participants respond as
process and the participants experiences (e.g. in a ocu s expected an d rowning or looking astonished when
grou p on coping with d ivorce the research er may not pay participants give u nexpected answers. This cou ld bias d ata
enou gh attention to how participants inf u ence each others collection.
statem ents).

Explain the importance of credibility in n Cred ibility is linked to participant expectations an d

qualitative research researcher bias. The researchers training, experience, statu s
n Cred ibility is based on an evalu ation o whether or not the and particu lar interests shou ld be reported . All inormation
research nd ings represent a cred ible interpretation o the that may have aected d ata collection, analysis and
d ata drawn rom participants original d ata (Lincoln and interpretation shou ld be noted . This is called ref exivity,
Gu ba, 1 985 ). This m eans that the investigation m u st which m ean s that the research er shou ld u se sel-awareness
present a tru e pictu re o the phenom enon u nd er and critical sel-ref ection as to how his or her potential
biases cou ld aect the research process and conclu sion s.
investigation and it shou ld be possible to check how the
resu lts o the stu d y were obtained . Cred ibility check is one
Credibility within a study depends on actors such as:
o the m ost importan t actors in establishing
n Triangu lation the u se o alternative d ata collection
trustworthiness (i.e. that the resu lts can be tru sted ) in
m ethod s, alternative m ethod s o analysis or u se o other
qu alitative research .
researchers. I a sim ilar pictu re em erges rom triangu lation
n Dieren t strategies are u sed to ensu re scienti c rigou r and the nd in gs give a consistent and cred ible pictu re o the
cred ibility. phenom enon u nd er stu d y.
n Research er ref exivity the researcher explains how
What is credibility?
ind ivid u al bias cou ld inf u ence the research process and
n Cred ibility in qu alitative research is the equ ivalent o
how this has been prevented .
internal valid ity in qu antitative research where the ocu s is
on whether or not the stu d y (or test) m easu res what it n Cross-checking acts and d iscrepancies in the participants
actu ally intend ed . accou nts.
n Cred ibility is a criteria u sed to ju d ge the qu ality o n H aving the resu lts checked by other people (e.g. peer
qu alitative research . The conclu sions o the stu d y m u st g ive review and con su lting the participants in the stu d y).
a tru e pictu re o the phen om enon u nd er stu d y and be tru e n The researcher leaves a d ecision trail , d ocu m enting every
in the eyes o those being stu d ied (be cred ible rom the d ecision taken in the collection, analysis and interpretation
perspective o the participants in the stu d y). o the d ata.

Explain the effect of triangulation on the o the d ata drawn rom the participants original d ata
credibility/trustworthiness of qualitative (Lin coln and Gu ba, 1 985 ).

research n Triangu lation is based on the assu mption that by

n Triangulation is u sed to increase the cred ibility o the comparing d ata obtained rom d ierent m ethod s or
conclu sions in a qu alitative stu d y. Researchers can u se d ierent researchers in the sam e setting it is possible to
d ierent proced u res or sou rces in the stu d y to ensu re that overcom e potential biases rom u sing a single m ethod or a
the conclu sion gives a true pictu re o the phenom enon single researcher. The pu rpose is to establish cred ibility/
u nd er investigation. tru stworthiness.
n Credibility is based on an evalu ation o whether or n ot the
research nd ings represent a cred ible (tru e) in terpretation

1 49
 1 0 Qu a l i tati ve resea rch i n psych ol ogy

Researchers cou ld u se the ollowing triangu lation proced u res to enhance

cred ibility/tru stworthiness in their research:

M ethod triangulation Data triangulation Researcher Theory triangulation

triangulation

H ow? U se o d ierent m ethod s Comparison o d ata rom U se o m ore than one U se o several an d
(observation an d m u ltiple sou rces (rom researcher to collect and perhaps com petin g
interview or two ways o d ierent participants, analyse the d ata. theories to analyse the
interviewing) in the sam e observations rom d ata.
stu d y, etc.). d ierent d ays, pictu res
and texts, etc.).

Effect Bias is red u ced and Bias is red u ced and Bias is red u ced and Bias is red u ced and
cred ibility increased . cred ibility increased . cred ibility increased . cred ibility increased .
The u se o several I t provid es ad d itional I t is particu larly eective I t prom otes a d eeper and
m ethod s takes ad vantage sou rces to d escribe th e to cou nteract researcher m ore cred ible
o strengths o the phenom enon u nd er bias becau se u nd erstand ing o the
d ierent research investigation. interpretations are topic u nd er investigation .
m ethod s and d iscu ssed . This cou ld reveal
compensates or their contrad ictions in the d ata
m ethod ological and protect against
lim itations. researcher biases.

Explain refexivity in qualitative research investigation. This is o major importance in qu alitative

Refexivity is a strategy u sed by qu alitative researchers to research stu d ies.
explain how a researchers su bjectivity contribu tes to the I n order to achieve credibility the researcher is dependent on
nd ings. This approach acknowled ges that a researcher may be actors such as training, experience, status, and presentation o
biased toward s the nd ings becau se he or she perceives and the sel. A qualitative research report should include som e
interprets throu gh his or her own ind ivid u al lens (su bjectivity). inormation about the researcher as well as inormation abou t
This is in contrast to the assu mption o the objective the researchers relation to the topic or the people under
researcher in qu antitative research. investigation. All inormation that may have aected data
Ref exivity is linked to the valid ation o qu alitative research, or collection, analysis, and interpretation should be noted. This is
example cred ibility and tru stworthiness. The researcher is seen called refexivity. The researcher dem onstrates sel-awareness
as an instrument and he or she shou ld be able to d ocu m ent the and critical sel-refection by explaining how his or her potential
phenom enon u nder stu d y as it is experienced by those u nd er biases could have aected the research process and conclusions.

10.2 Interviews

Evaluate semi-structured, ocus group, and narrative interviews

Sem i-structured interview Strengths of the sem i- Lim itations of the sem i-
structured interview structured interview

Th is is one o the m ost u sed m ethod s o d ata collection in n Them es to explore are n There is only lim ited space
qu alitative research (Willig, 2 001 ). d ecid ed beorehand and to explore them es that
Characteristics o the semi-structured interview noted in the in terview have not been planned
n There is an interview g u id e giving them es to explore (a gu id e. beorehand .
checklist to ensu re stand ard ization o interviews so all n The researcher can ask the n The one-to-one situ ation
participants give the inormation bu t there is f exibility in interviewee to elaborate on can appear som ewhat
term s o ord er, word ing and d epth o qu estions). answers and get in-d epth arti cial and may raise
n Open and closed -end ed qu estions can be u sed . knowled ge. issu es o ecological valid ity.
n These interviews are inormal and conversational in nature. n I t is u seu l in socially n Data analysis is very tim e
sensitive issu es becau se consu m ing
n They are m ostly ace-to-ace interviews.
them es can be u lly
explored .
1 50
 1 0 Qu a l i tati ve resea rch i n psych ol ogy

Focus group interview Strengths of the focus Lim itations of the focus
group interview interview

The ocu s grou p interview is oten u sed as an alternative to n I t is a qu ick way to collect n I t may raise ethical issu es
sem i-stru ctu red interviews (e.g. to explore a grou p o d ata rom several when participants are not
participants u nd erstand ing o particu lar issu es su ch as participants at the sam e ree, or example in
health behaviou r, parenting, treatm ent or coping with tim e. institu tions like prisons or
stress). n I t provid es a natu ral nu rsing hom es.
Characteristics of the focus group interview setting or interactions n The presence o other
n A grou p o arou nd 61 0 people (the ocu s grou p) are between participants and participants may resu lt in
interviewed at the sam e tim e. the conversational grou p d ynam ics su ch as
n A acilitator introd u ces the participants to each other, approach may resu lt in conorm ity. This cou ld
asks qu estions and lead s grou p in teractions. better ecological valid ity resu lt in d ata that d o not
than the sem i-stru ctu red really represent the
n Participants are su pposed to interact with each other as
interview. ind ivid u al participants
they wou ld in real lie. They u se their own langu age and
n I t may be u seu l in socially belies.
even people who are illiterate can participate.
sen sitive issu es becau se n I the topic is particu larly
n Participants d iscu ss and respond to each others
people may be m ore likely sensitive participants may
statem ents. This gives the special d ynam ic to the
to reveal how they think not want to d isclose
interview and generates rich d ata.
and why they experience private inormation.
what they d o.

Narrative interview Strengths of the narrative Lim itations of the

interview narrative interview

N arratives are ind ivid u al interpretations o the world and n I t is a u seu l way to gain n I t is tim e consu m ing to
su ch narratives inf u ence peoples behaviou r (e.g. in coping an in-d epth u nd erstand ing transcribe and analyse the
with d i cu lt issu es like inertility, loss or being term inally o how people constru ct hu ge am ou nt o d ata rom
ill). m eaning in their lives. narrative interviews
Characteristics of the narrative interview n I t can be u sed with all n The narrative may go in all
n A n arrative is a m ix o acts and interpretations o people becau se they can d irections beacu se it is the
experiences that help the ind ivid u al to create meaning u se their own langu age participant who d ecid es
and id entity. and can talk reely withou t what to tell. N ot all d ata
n A n arrative is oten constru cted like a real story with an being interru pted . can be u sed in the
opening, a m id d le and an end ing. I t can be based on a n I t may be u seu l in research.
lie story or a story o a particu lar situ ation. exploring socially sensitive n Ethical issu es involved in
n I nterviewer stim u lates narratives by asking qu estions issu es becau se it gives having people tell abou t
su ch as: Cou ld you tell m e m ore abou t the tim e when insight into how people trau matic experiences
you were told that you wou ld never be able to have think and why they especially i they
children ? experience what they d o. experien ce a major lie
crisis
n The interviewer d oes not in terru pt d u ring the narrative
interview bu t may sh ow interest throu gh eye contact or
other physical signs o attention or invite or u rther
narrating by asking qu estions su ch as: And th en what
happened ?

Exam Tip The exam paper will contain an example o a I you are asked to evaluate the use o a specifc orm o
interview, you could point at strengths and limitations in
study using one o the three orms o interviews mentioned
relation to the character o the study.
here. You could be asked to explain or evaluate the use o
the interview and this means that you should look or
possible reasons or using an interview in the context o the
study.

1 51
 1 0 Qu a l i tati ve resea rch i n psych ol ogy

Discuss considerations involved before, during, and after an interview

Considerations beore an interview
Considerations before an interview Discussion

1 Data collection m ethod and establishing n The choice o interview m ethod is based on aim , tim e, and resou rces, etc.
an interview gu id e n The interview m ethod shou ld be capable o captu ring the qu ality o
peoples id eas, interpretations, an d u nd erstand ing o th e situ ation.

2 I nterviewer choosing the right one an d n Consid er gend er, ethnicity, langu age and age.
training the person n I t is important that participants eel com ortable and that the interview
can be cond u cted in a langu age they u nd erstand . Training o interviewers
to have a proession al approach is very im portant.

3 Sampling and sampling m ethod n Consid er the selection criteria or participants (e.g. parents o children
with cond u ct d isord ers or hom eless emale ad olescents).
n Decid e the sampling m ethod (e.g. pu rposive, snowball, convenience).
Sampling d epend s on the research topic bu t in qu alitative research a
pu rposive sam ple is oten chosen becau se the ocu s is on how people
experience speci c situ ations.

4 Data record ing n Decid e the record ing m ethod (e.g. ad vantages and lim itations o the
record ing m ethod s m u st be consid ered (e.g. it may be best to au d iotape
a sem i-stru ctu red interview so that the researcher can concentrate on the
interaction with participants).

5 Transcription o the d ata n A verbatim transcript is the word -by-word text o the interview. This is
oten enou gh to perorm thematic analysis.
n A post-m od ern transcript inclu d es eatu res su ch as pau ses, lau ghter,
incomplete sentences, and interru ptions. I t is m ore d i cu lt to analyse.

6 Ethical consid erations n I s the research socially sensitive?

n Does the research involve em otional stress?
n H ow will inorm ed consent and brie ng be ad dressed ?

7 Ref exivity What is the researchers interest and position in th e research and how
cou ld it be ad dressed ?

Considerations during an interview

Considerations during an interview Discussion

1 Establish ing rapport between in terviewer n A tru sting and open relationship is the best way to have participants
an d participant(s). talk reely.

2 Data record ing n Make su re that technical equ ipm ent (e.g. a vid eo record er) u nctions
properly rom the start so that the interviewer can concentrate on the
participant.

3 Active and neu tral listening n Ask qu estions clearly and be an active listener. Dont interru pt the
respond ent and be neu tral.
n Ensu re that participants have the possibility to explain their own views to
prevent bias su ch as participant expectation or researcher bias .

4 Proessional approach n I participants wan t to withdraw in the m id d le o the interview, they

shou ld be allowed to leave (even thou gh d ata is lost).

1 52
 1 0 Qu a l i tati ve resea rch i n psych ol ogy

Considerations ater an interview

Considerations after an interview Discussion

1 Debrie ng Participants m u st be inorm ed abou t the resu lts o the research. They shou ld
also have the possibility to withdraw their d ata.

2 Con d entiality and anonym ity Make su re that participants cannot be id enti ed . Since participants own
word s are u sed as d ocu m entation or interpretation, nam es o participants
can be changed .

3 Cred ibility check Ask or peer review to check interpretations.

Consu lt participants abou t the analysis and interpretation o the d ata.

4 Speci c consent to u se d ata, photos, etc. All d ata prod u ced in the stu d y inclu d ing vid eos, photos, etc. shou ld only be
u sed i there is speci c consent rom participants.
I t is a norm to d estroy vid eos and photos ater a stu d y to ensu re anonym ity
bu t there are exceptions.

Explain how researchers use inductive content The process o inductive content analysis
analysis (thematic analysis) on interview Research topic data collection
transcripts
The g oal o ind u ctive content analysis is to give a cred ible
representation o the social world u nd er investigation. I n the Transcription readings and initial analysis (raw data themes)
research report, there shou ld be a balance between d escription
and interpretation.
Step-by-step identication
The process o inductive content analysis involves the and ormulation o emerging
ollowing: categories/themes. Credibility check (e.g.
n Collecting d ata and making an initial analysis. Revision o themes and other coders)
n Preparing the d ata or content analysis (will transcription be perhaps ormulation o new
verbatim or post-m od ern?). ones.
n Reading and re-reading the material. Identication o initial
them es based on rst readings o the raw data (or example,
Lower-level themes and
grounded theory approach). This rst attempt at coding
higher-level themes
prepares or analysis.
integrated into meaningul Credibility check (e.g.
n Analysing. This starts early in the d ata collection process units. other researchers)
and m oves back and orth between d ata collection, Check whether themes
analysis, and concept d evelopm ent. refect participants ideas.
n Organization o low-level them es into higher-level them es.
n Checking whether interpretations are cred ible (e.g.
Summary table o themes.
consistent with the raw data and in line with the participants
Final analysis until no new Credibility check (e.g.
perceptions.
inormation appears refexivity)
n Structuring emergent themes and making a summary table o (saturation o data).
themes. Include relevant quotations to illustrate each theme.
n I nerences and conclu sions are orm ed based on the
su m mary table. At this stage the researcher tries to id entiy Final interpretation o
Final credibility check
relationships between them es. This very important part o results (inerences) and
(e.g. consulting
the process may reveal speci c patterns in the them es conclusions based on
participants to conrm
which may lead to orm u lation o theory. participants statements.
interpretations)
Formulation o theory.

1 53
 1 0.3 Observations

Evaluate participant, non-participant, n The researcher participates actively in the participants' lie,
naturalistic, overt, and covert observations observes, listens, and prod u ces eld notes. Participation can
n Participant observation is som etim es reerred to as or exam ple be as a co-worker, volu ntary work in shelters or
'ethnography' and it is u sed in sociology, anthropology and sports clu bs in ord er to d escribe belies and experiences o
psychology. the participants (their own theories o the world ).
n Participant observations are used when rst-hand inormation
n The researcher could include refexivity in the research process
abou t people (or exam ple, a sports team , a street gang, to increase cred ibility, or exam ple i own experiences
hom eless ad olescents or abu sed wom en) is need ed . infuence choice o topic or how relationship with participants
cou ld inf u ence d ata collection and interpretation.

Characteristics o participant observations: Strengths of participant Lim itations of

n The researcher becom es part o th e target grou p u nd er
observation participant observation
investigation.
n The ocu s o the stu d y is on natural behaviou r in its natural
n I t generates d etailed and n Data collection and
context. in-depth inormation o a analysis is very tim e
topic, which cannot be consu m ing, especially in
n The researcher enters the eld (the place where the
studied by other m ethods. long-term projects. Oten
research takes place) and act as the instru m ent o d ata
n I t is u seu l in exploring grou ps are small so it is
collection. The aim is to obtain a close and intimate
socially sensitive issu es d i cu lt to generalize
am iliarity and empathy with participants throu gh personal
becau se the researcher nd ings.
involvem ent with people in their own environm ent.
can take many d ierent n I t is a highly invasive
The researcher need s proessional and interpersonal skills to
aspects o a topic into research m ethod : can
stay as objective as possible in the research process. H e or she
consid eration (holistic inf u ence peoples lives
m u st be able to initiate and maintain relationships with the
approach). and en vironm ent.
people u nd er investigation.
n I t is a g ood m ethod to n The researcher may lose
avoid researcher bias objectivity. I t is d i cu lt
becau se the aim is to to keep a balance
u nd erstand social between involvem ent and
processes rom the d etachm ent. Ref exivity
perspective o can increase cred ibility.
participants.

Evaluate non-participant observation n Qu alitative d ata rom eld observations can be com bined
n N on-participant observation is som etim es u sed in with d ata rom interviews or qu antitative d ata
com bination with participant observation (e.g. in research (triang u lation).
on gam blin g where researchers may d ecid e to gam ble
them selves (participant observation) and com bine that with
observations o gam blers in a gam bling setting).

1 54
 1 0 Qu a l i tati ve resea rch i n psych ol ogy

Characteristics o non-participant observation Strengths of non- Lim itations of non-

n The researcher d oes not take part in the participants lie
participant observation participant observation
and interactions, instead m erely observes and record s
behaviou r in the setting, so it is consid ered to be a m ethod n I t is easier to collect n There is a risk that the
that d oes not interere m u ch with participants normal lie d ata becau se the presence o the
(an u nobtru sive m ethod ). researcher d oes not researcher inf u ences
n N on-participant observation can take place in a natu ralistic interact with d ata (reactivity).
setting and the researchers record s natu ral behaviou r (e.g. participants bu t on ly n Deception may be
record ing i gam blers engage in speci c behaviou rs that observes. necessary to avoid
they think may bring lu ck). n The researcher can reactivity.
n The researcher will inorm participants abou t the observe natu ral n Consid er arti ciality. I t is
observation in general term s bu t not abou t the exact behaviou r. d i cu lt know that
behaviou rs being stu d ied to avoid increase in those n I t is a u seu l way o natu ral behaviou r is
behaviou rs (reactivity or d emand characteristics). observin g the behaviou r record ed , especially in
N on-participant observation can also be u sed to stu d y children o small grou ps or laboratory observations.
or parent-child interactions (e.g. in controlled observations in interaction between n Cod ing o observational
laboratories u sing one-way m irrors). This is not a natu ral setting ind ivid u als. d ata can be d i cu lt i it
and the qu estion is wh ether it is natu ral behaviou r. n Observational d ata can is not a stru ctu red
be cross-checked with observation.
other observers to n Analysis can be tim e
establish cred ibility. consu m ing and costly.

Evaluate naturalistic observation n Observations can also take place in a laboratory setting
n Observations in qu alitative research m ostly take place in a (controlled observation). I n qu alitative research the
natu ralistic setting and ocu s on the context and n atu ral researcher is not normally interested in behaviou r in a
behaviou r (e.g. a stu d y on how a m other and her inant d eliberately set-u p situ ation. H e or she will record natu ral
interact in their own hom e or a prison where inmates are behaviou r in the laboratory (e.g. m other-child interactions).
stu d ied ). N atu ralistic observations are m ore likely to be
high in ecological valid ity.

Characteristics o naturalistic observations Strengths of Lim itations of

n Data are collected by the researcher who observe and
naturalistic observation naturalistic observation
record how people (or animals) behave. The aim is to
collect inormation in a natu ral environm ent (the context) n The researcher can n Ethical issu es are
to provid e an accou nt o the interactions in a particu lar observe natu ral involved i the
social grou p. behaviou r in a natu ral natu ralistic observation
n The researcher oten spend s a long tim e in the eld in environm ent. Qu alitative is covert.
ord er to becom e am iliar with participants natu ral researchers preer n Analysis o d ata can be
environm ent. The researcher collects d ata and writes eld natu ralistic observations tim e consu m ing and
notes u sed or analysis. becau se it increases costly especially i the
ecological valid ity. observation is
n Observations in th e eld can be complem ented with , or
example, interview d ata or qu an titative d ata rom n I t can be com bined with u nstru ctu red .
qu estionnaires (triangu lation). controlled laboratory
observations and d ata
rom other qu alitative
m ethod s (triang u lation
to increase cred ibility).
n Observational d ata can
be cross-checked with
other observers to
establish cred ibility.

1 55
 1 0 Qu a l i tati ve resea rch i n psych ol ogy

Evaluate overt and covert observations n The researcher d ecid es in ad vance wh ich techniqu e to u se
n Observations may be overt (participants know they are or the qu alitative research. I t d epend s on the topic o the
being observed ) or covert (participants d o not know they stu d y. For example, research in religiou s cu lts or street
are being observed ). gang s cou ld be cond u cted as covert becau se the researcher
wants to be su re that the d ata genu inely d escribes the
world as the participants sees it.

Overt observations: Covert observations:

Participa n ts kn ow th ey participate in th e research Participan ts d o n ot kn ow th ey participate in th e research

Strengths Limitations Strengths Limitations

n Participants can be n The researcher may lose n I t is possible to stu d y n Participants are not
inorm ed abou t the topic objectivity and becom e grou ps that cannot be inorm ed abou t the
and give inorm ed too involved . stu d ied otherwise; or research and cannot give
consent. n The researchers presence when it is vital to avoid inorm ed consent.
n Data collection can be is a potential sou rce o reactivity. n I t can be d angerou s i
triangu lated with bias (reactivity). n Th ere is lim ited or no participants nd ou t
interview d ata. reactivity since abou t the stu d y.
participants d ont know
abou t the research.

Exam Tip observation in the context of the study in the stimulus

Researchers will decide before the observation
material. Take a close look at the study and try to make a
whether it should be covert or overt depending on the research
reasoned argument on why the researchers have used that
topic. You could be asked to evaluate the use of covert
approach, using examples from the stimulus material.

Discuss considerations involved in setting up Researchers m u st be able to pu t them selves in the shoes
and carrying out an observation o the people they are stu d ying to experience events in the
n Researchers enter the social world o the people they are way participants experience them .
stu d ying and participate in that world overtly or covertly. n Researchers shou ld be objective (e.g. avoid letting personal
belies and valu es in terere with the research process).

Considerations in setting up and carrying out an the observation

Considerations Discussion

1 M ethod ological consid eration s n Overt/Covert; participant/non-participant observation and how choice o
m ethod cou ld inf u ence the d ata (e.g. increase participant expectations).

2 Ethical consid eration s n I norm ed consent. For covert observation the grou ps perm ission to stu d y them
has not been obtained .
n Debrie ng o participants ater the stu d y gain retrospective consent in covert
observations i possible.
n Ensu re anonym ity o participants (e.g d estroying vid eotapes or material ater
the stu d y that can reveal participants id entity.

3 Sam pling m ethod n Consid er the samplin g m ethod (e.g pu rposive, snowball, con venien ce).
Sam pling d epend s on the research topic bu t in qu alitative research a pu rposive
sample is oten chosen becau se th e ocu s is on speci c people or speci c
situ ations.

4 Data record ing n Th is cou ld inclu d e d ecisions o how to make eld notes in covert observations
(e.g. i it wou ld be possible to make entries in a eld d iary every d ay).
n I n overt observations, d ata collection is expected by participants bu t the
researcher shou ld d ecid e what to note observations (e.g. conversations,
interaction between grou p m em bers, norm s, and power relationships).
n I n socially sensitive areas vid eos or au d iotapes cannot be u sed or ethical
reasons as it wou ld reveal participants id en tity.

1 56
 1 0 Qu a l i tati ve resea rch i n psych ol ogy

Considerations Discussion

5 Observer characteristics n Match observers to the target grou p. For example, a emale researcher cou ld
not d o covert observation in a street gang or a you ng male researcher cou ld
not covertly join a convent to stu d y nu ns. Th e su ccess o participant
observations d epend s on the researchers ability to blend in with participants.

6 Degree o involvem ent in the grou p n I n overt observations the d egree o involvem ent may be rather su per cial.
n I n a covert observation o a street gan g involved in crim inal activities it cou ld
be necessary to accom pany grou p m em bers on their crim inal exped itions bu t
this wou ld be ethically problematic and even d angerou s.

7 Objectivity o researcher n The researcher oten stays a long tim e in the eld and cou ld becom e m ore
su bjective as tim e passes. I t is an ad vantage i m ore observers work in the eld
and compare d ata.
n The researcher need s to be attentive to potential biases (participant
expectancy and researcher bias). Cred ibility checks and ref exivity cou ld control
or this.

8 Analysis o d ata n Consid er cond u ctive conten t analysis an d thematic analysis.

n The researcher shou ld d ecid e how to analyse the d ata rom observations and
eld notes.

Discuss how researchers analyse data obtained

Possible content o feld notes
in observational research
n The eld notes in observational research (or transcripts o
* Description o the physi cal context (e.g. the buildings, the
environment, the room s).
au d io or vid eotaped observations) can be an alysed u sing
qu alitative content analysis (ind u ctive content analysis).
* Description o peopl e (e.g. their role, how they behave, how
they intera ct, how they dress).
n The eld notes contain raw d ata as well as researcher * Dialogue (e.g. what peopl e say to each other).
com m ents and inerences to the observation. These are * Special events (e.g. meetings, coach ing sessions, visits o
entered continu ou sly and shou ld be seen as prelim inary speci alists, excursions).
analysis and attempt to id entiy possible them es. * diary where all events are registered chronologically in
A
n The pu rpose o ind u ctive content analysis is to id entiy the eld and beore entering the eld i relev
ant.
categories (them es) that can be organized in lower-level * refective/analytic diary including comm ents to what
A
and higher-level them es in the d ata. I t is assu m ed that happens in the eld, refections on own lie
experiences
ind u ctive content analysis can d escribe the social world as (refexivity ) and prelim inary attem pts o analy
sis and
it is seen by participants. emerging them es.
Field notes can be compared with data rom other sources (e.g.
interviews, pictures, narratives) to increase credibility (triangulation).

Inductive content analysis could include the ollowing n A graphical representation o categories and th eir
steps: connection is created with case or text examples.
n Reading and re-reading o feld notes, transcriptions, etc. n The analysis is su m marized in m em os so that
to provid e a complete d escription o the topic o interest ind epend ent read ers can ollow how and why the
(inclu d es context, intentions o participants, processes in connections between the them es are su ggested .
which behaviou r is em bed d ed ). The m ore d escription the n The categories (them es) are organized into lower-ord er
thicker the d escription (d etailed ) and this is con sid ered as and higher-ord er them es to create an overall pictu re o
rich d ata. the m eanin g o th e d ata.
n Coding and connecting themes: n The researcher interprets the d ata based on the
n The d ata is cod ed organized into categories (them es) su m mary table bu t it is im portant to consid er
based on read in g and re-read ing o the eld notes. alternative interpretations.
Cod ing cou ld also inclu d e conten t o pictu res and n Produce an account: The researcher prod u ces a coherent
vid eo clips. d escription o the phenom enon u nd er investigation. This
cou ld lead to orm u lation o new concepts and theory,
which has em erged rom the d ata (grou nd ed theory).

1 57
 1 0 Qu a l i tati ve resea rch i n psych ol ogy

A graphical representation o a summary table o emerging themes

in an observational study to investigate benets o a youth
mentoring programme.

More likely to attend school Educational

and better performance benets

More self-esteem and

self-efcacy

Personal Multiple benets

benets of the programme
Belief in the futute and
have goals

Reduction in criminal Benets to

activities community

10.4 Case studies

Evaluate the use of case studies in research Strengths of the case Lim itations of the case
n A case stu d y can be d e ned as an in-d epth investigation o study study
hu man experience called a case. The aim o the case stu d y
is to d escribe, u nd erstand , and oten explain a n I t is well-su ited to n Researcher bias cou ld
psychological or social phenom enon rom the perspective investigate sensitive and poten tially be a problem
o the participant(s). complex issu es in areas since the researchers
n The case stu d y is particu larly u seu l to investigate sensitive that cou ld not be own belies and id eas
topics su ch as poverty, h ealth issu es, and d om estic violence stu d ied otherwise. cou ld inf u ence d ata
bu t it is also u seu l to investigate social processes in grou ps n I t is u seu l or stu d ying collection.
su ch as team cohesion or conf icts. grou p processes within a n Generalization o
social grou p (e.g. belies, nd in gs rom a single
norm s and case stu d y or a small
com m u nication n u m ber o cases is not
patterns). always possible.
n The resu lts rom a case n There is a risk o
stu d y may generate participant expectancy
entirely new knowled ge, (or researcher bias) since
which challenges researcher and
preconceived notions participants interact
and contrad icts with each other or long
established theory. period s.

1 58
 1 0 Qu a l i tati ve resea rch i n psych ol ogy

Explain how a case study could be used to Field research and data collection methods
investigate a problem in an organization or I n this case stu d y the researchers cou ld u se the ollowing
m ethod s to investigate the problem :
group n Participant observation to u nd erstand the situ ation rom
The case study method could be used to investigate a the perspective o the participants, i.e. stu d ents and
problem teachers. The researchers m ight d ecid e to act as co-teachers
n The problem in this case is a school class in the inner city o or a year and carry ou t observations d u ring classes.
a capital. There are 2 0 children in the class and m ore than n Focus groups with all stu d ents in grou ps o 5 to d iscu ss
hal are m inority children. Their m otivation and acad em ic how they perceive th e situ ation (e.g. why they are not
perormance is generally low and the risk that they will m otivated to learn; what kind o teaching they preer and
drop ou t o school is a potential problem . why).
n The school wants to implem ent new teaching strategies to n Student writings once a m onth where stu d en ts are invited
increase m otivation an d learning so a grou p o to write reely abou t their lie and expectations. Their
psychologists will be asked to in vestigate the problem . accou nts cou ld give insigh t into ind ivid u al stu d ents
The researcher will have to d ef ne the case and the problem to perceptions, belies, dream s, or other actors that cou ld h elp
investigate, or example: u nd erstand the problem .
n why m inority children in a school class have m otivational
problem s and a slow learn ing cu rve Data analysis and fndings
n The researchers will have m u ltiple d ata or analysis: notes
n how social and psychological processes may prevent these
rom f eld observations, transcripts rom ocu s grou p
children rom learning.
interviews and ree writings. I nd u ctive content analysis
cou ld be u sed to analyse the d ata.
Design: Single case study
n The researcher could choose a single case study because the n The f nd ings rom the case stu d y can be u sed to im plem ent
aim is to describe the problem in this particular group but new teaching strategies in the school an d perhaps gen erate
also to suggest possible strategies to change the situation. new theory abou t eective teaching m ethod s or less
m otivated stu d ents.
n The main research qu estion in this case stu d y cou ld be:
Can specif c teaching strategies u sed by a class teacher
prom ote m otivation and learning in m inority stu d ents in a
class?

Discuss the extent to which fndings can be n Theoretical generalization: Yin (1 984) argu es the resu lts
generalized rom a single case study o single case stu d ies can be generalized to existing theory
N ormally it is not possible to generalize rom a study with ew (theoretical generalization). I the patterns rom one case
stu d y can be repeated , the theory d erived rom this single
participants. Qualitative researchers would say that generalization
case stu d y is said to be robu st.
rom a single case study may be possible i there is:
n Inerential generalization: the f nd ings rom a single case See also u nit 1 0.1 or generalization rom qu alitative research
stu d y can perhaps be applied in other bu t sim ilar settings. stu d ies.
n The researchers shou ld provid e rich d escriptions o the case
to allow or this. I n the example o th e case stu d y above, it
wou ld be relevant to su ggest that the teaching strategies
ou nd to be eective to increase m otivation in m inority
children cou ld be transerred to sim ilar settings to see
whether the f nd ings cou ld be corroborated .

1 59
 11.1 Writing SAQs in psychology (paper 1, section A)

SAQ (paper 1, section A)

Reminder: SL/HL: There are three SAQs in paper 1 , section A one from each level of analysis and you have to answer all
three. In the exam this part of paper 1 takes one hour. The SAQ tests your knowledge and understanding of research (i.e.
theories and studies).

How SAQ is assessed (mark bands) What is the SAQ?

n The SAQ is a short answer (arou nd 2 00 word s). I t d oes
Mark Level descriptor not requ ire an introd u ction bu t it is a good id ea to start
band the response with reerence to the qu estion. For example:
0 The response d oes not reach a stan d ard
l Question: Ou tline one prin ciple that d e nes the
d escribed by the d escriptors below cog nitive level o analysis.
l SAQ response: One principle that d e nes the
1 2 There is an attempt to answer the qu estion, bu t cog nitive level o analysis cou ld be that cognitive
knowled ge and u nd erstand ing are lim ited , oten processes are inf u enced by sociocu ltu ral actors. An
inaccu rate, or o marginal relevance to example o this cou ld be that cu ltu ral schemas may
th e qu estion. inf u ence m em ory processes as d em onstrated by
35 The qu estion is partially answered . Kn owled ge Bartlett (1 932 )..........
and u nd erstand ing are accu rate bu t lim ited . n There are three rules in writing the SAQ in paper 1 :
Either th e com mand term is not eectively l FOCUS (on the qu estion and the com mand term )
ad dressed or the response is not su ciently
l STRU CTU RE (a clear d evelopm ent rom start to end )
explicit in answering the qu estion.
l ARGU E (su bstantiate you r claim [s] with relevant
68 The qu estion is answered in a ocu sed an d psychological knowled ge).
eective manner and m eets the d emand s o the
com mand term .
The response is su pported by appropriate and
accu rate knowled g e and u n d erstand ing
o research.

The process o writing SAQs

n Read th e qu estion careu lly and d ecid e what is the m ost n Start the response with reerence to the qu estion bu t apart
relevant knowled ge to inclu d e. Focu s on th e d emand s o rom that no introd u ction is need ed . Make the response
the qu estion, the com mand term being the m ost important. sh ort, clear, and precise and u se psych ological term s and
n M ake an ou tline o you r line o argu m ent and relevant concepts (ollow the three ru les given here).
research (theories and empirical stu d ies) to u se in
the response.

Make an outline to get an overview Check the question again and

Read the question careully: What is o the line o argument and how write your response using
the command term? What could be knowledge should be applied psychological knowledge (theory
used as relevant knowledge? (command term and ocus o and/or study) to support the
the question). argument.

1 60
 11 Wri ti n g exam pa pers i n psych ol ogy

SAQ 1 : A sample answer rom the biological level o analysis

Examiners comment
Describe one evolutionary explanation o behaviour [8 marks] .
The answer is ocused on the question.
One evolu tion ary explanation o behaviou r cou ld be that the horm one oxytocin is
Relevant knowledge is used eectively
important in establishing tru st am ong hu mans. Accord ing to the evolu tionary theory,
and demonstrates an understanding o
tru st is important in orm ing relationships between people and in th e acilitation o
the research (the theory and its link to
social in teractions.
the study mentioned). The demands o
Bau m gartner et al. (2 008) stu d ied peoples reactions in a tru st gam e where
the command term is met although there
participants played with a partner. The participants received either oxytocin or
is a tendency towards explanation in the
placebo via a nasal spray and they were told to act as investors in several rou nd s o
last paragraph. The response is in the top
the tru st gam e. The resu lts showed that participants who had received placebo were
end and received ull marks.
m ore likely to show less tru st to their partner and they invested less. Participants who
had received oxytocin in the nasal spray continu ed to invest at sim ilar rates. The
researchers cou ld observe that d ierent brain areas were active in the two grou ps.
Participants in the oxytocin grou p showed d ecreased responses in the amygd ala,
which has many oxytocin receptors.
This cou ld ind icate that oxytocin plays a role in d ecreasing ear reaction s as a
consequ en ce o betrayal. This cou ld be u seu l in term s o evolu tion becau se it allows
people to orgive and work it ou t d espite betrayal .

M ark band Level descriptor Com m ents

68 The question is answered in a ocused and eective There is a clear ocu s in the response. The com mand
manner and m eets the demands o the com mand term . term is m et.
The response is su pported by appropriate and The knowled ge is appropriate and accu rate and there
accu rate kn owled ge and u nd erstand ing o research. is a clear u nd erstand ing o the theory and the stu d y
u sed to su pport th e argu m ent.

SAQ 2: A sample answer rom the cognitive level o analysis

Examiners comment
Explain how one principle that defnes the cognitive level o analysis can
The response is not explicit in answering
be demonstrated in research [8 marks] .
the question. It shows limited and
Cognitive processes are inf u en ced by social and cu ltu ral actors. This principle o the
inaccurate knowledge and understanding
cognitive level o an alysis can be d em on strated in research m ost simply throu gh the
o research. The command term is not
u se o social or cu ltu ral actors as the ind epend ent variable within an experim ent.
eectively addressed. The response
The d epend ent variable wou ld be any cognitive process. H ence changes in social or
received a mark in the lower end o the
cu ltu ral actors cou ld be d irectly related to changes in cognitive processes. Fred eric
mark band (3/8).
Bartlett cond u cted an experim ent with this stru ctu re. H e tested people rom d ierent
social/cu ltu ral backgrou nd s and their ability to recall inormation rom another
cu ltu re. What he ou nd was that people had d i cu lties recalling inormation rom
another cu ltu re. This experim ent d em onstrates that cognitive processes are inf u enced
by social an d cu ltu ral actors.

M ark band Level descriptor Com m ents

35 The qu estion is partially answered . Knowled ge and Only 3 marks were award ed becau se the qu estion is
u nd erstand ing are accu rate, bu t lim ited . Either the only partially answered .
com mand term is not eectively ad dressed or the The com mand term is not eectively ad dressed .
response is not su ciently explicit in answering the Knowled ge and u nd erstand ing is lim ited .
qu estion.

1 61
 11.2 Writing essays paper 1 section B and
paper 2 (options)

Reminder: The essay is testing three things:

SL students must write two essays (one in paper 1 and n Knowledge and comprehension of psychology (i.e. you r
one in paper 2 ). knowled ge o psych ological theories, empirical stu d ies,
HL students must write three essays (one in paper 1 and two key concepts, and that you can u se it appropriately.
in paper 2, one from each of the prepared optional topics). n Critical thinking skills (i.e. that you can apply and
evalu ate the knowled ge appropriately and u se it in the
analysis o psych ological phenom ena).
Format o the essay n Organizational skills (i.e. that you can ocu s on the
Th e conventional ormat o an essay is: qu estion and stru ctu re the essay so that it appears
n Introduction: This introd u ces the essay qu estion and coherent and logical and that you can build an argument).
you r line o argu m ent (e.g. you r thesis statem ent, what
you r are going to ad dress, and why). This part o the
essay is short and ocu sed .
The our rules or writing an essay:
n Main body: This is the developm ent and is divided into n FOCUS (on the qu estion and the com mand term )
about fve or six paragraphs. The essay question directs n STRU CTU RE (a clear d evelopm ent rom start to end )
you to what psychological knowledge could be relevant
and the com mand term tells you what to do with the n ARGU E (su bstantiate you r claim [s] with relevant
knowledge. In this section it is m ost important to present a psychological kn owled ge)
clear argum ent supported by relevant knowledge. n U se CRITICAL TH IN KIN G SKILLS (e.g. evalu ate theories
n Conclusion: This m u st relate d irectly to the essay and stu d ies and take a critical look at m ethod ology)
qu estion and it shou ld ollow logically on rom you r
argu m ent in the main bod y.

Your essays will be assessed according to the ollowing assessment criteria or essays:
A: Knowledge and comprehension
M ark band Level descriptor
0 The answer d oes not reach a stand ard d escribed by the d escriptor below.
1 3 The answer d em onstrates lim ited knowled ge and u nd erstand ing that is o margin al relevance to the qu estion.
Little or no psychological research is u sed in the response.
46 The answer d em onstrates lim ited knowled ge and u nd erstand ing relevant to the qu estion or u ses relevant
psychological research to lim ited eect in the response.
79 The answer d em onstrates d etailed , accu rate knowled g e and u n d erstand ing relevan t to the qu estion, and u ses
relevan t psychological research eectively in su pport o the response.

B: Evidence o critical thinking: Application, analysis, synthesis, evaluation

M ark band Level of descriptor
0 The answer d oes not reach a stand ard d escribed by the d escriptors below.
1 3 The answer goes beyond d escription bu t evid ence o critical thinking is not linked to the requ irem en ts o the
qu estion.
46 The answer oers appropriate bu t lim ited evid ence o critical thinking or oers evid en ce o critical th inking that
is only implicitly lin ked to the requ irem ents o the qu estion.
79 The answer integrates relevant an d explicit evid ence o critical thinking in response to the qu estion.

C: Organization
M ark band Level of descriptor
0 The answer d oes not reach a stand ard d escribed by the d escriptors below.
1 2 The answer is organized or ocu sed on the qu estion. H owever, this is n ot su stained throu ghou t the response.
3 4 The answer is well organized , well d eveloped , and ocu sed on the qu estion.

1 62
 11 Wri ti n g exam pa pers i n psych ol ogy

A step-by-step guide to writing good essays b. For example, when you have d escribed a stu d y, you
in psychology cou ld step back and take a critical look at it and
1 . Read the essay question careully: What is the com mand com m ent on the m ethod ology u sed in relation to
term ? What exactly d oes the qu estion ask you to d o? nd in gs or say what the implications o the resu lts are.
You cou ld also com e u p with a stu d y that qu estions the
2 . Choose the relevant knowledge: What knowled ge cou ld nd in gs o the rst. Or you cou ld analyse how the
be relevant to answer the qu estion? nd in gs o the two stu d ies each contribu te to an overall
a. There may be several relevant research studies and /or u n d erstand ing o a phenom enon.
theories bu t make a choice. Dont introd u ce knowled ge 5. Plan: Beore you start writing make an ou tline ollowing the
which is not d irectly relevant to the essay qu estion. 8 paragraph m od el to be su re that there is a clear stru ctu re
b. You will probably not need m ore than three stu d ies, to you r essay.
and ewer cou ld be appropriate i you are also a. The organization o the essay is assessed on criterion C
presenting a theory. For som e essay qu estions theories so try to ou tline what you will ad dress and in what
may be su cient bu t it is nearly always a good id ea to ord er. This also has to d o with you r argu m ent and the
introd u ce a stu d y. knowled ge you u se to su pport it.
3. Consider your argument: What are you going to argu e? b. Ou tline introd u ction (m u st be short).
What are you r points and how will you su pport them ?
c. Ou tline conclu sion.
a. Consid er cou nter argu m ent and conclu sion based on
evid ence. 6. Write: U se you r ou tline and proceed in the ord er you have
planned .
b. Try to create a log ical f ow in you r argu m en t by
connecting the sentences and paragraphs to each other a. Stick to you r plan. Som ething may occu r to you while
(e.g. u sing topic sentences and term s like, on the other you write bu t d ont ju st u se it. Consid er careu lly
hand , u rtherm ore, however, as a resu lt, an d wh ether it is relevant and wou ld bene t you r argu m ent.
consequ en tly). I not, leave it and ocu s on what you have planned .

c. Avoid statin g you r own personal opinions u nless they b. Be aware that extra marks are given or analysis and
are su pported by psychological evid ence. evaluation (see point 4 above) and that pure description
will not give you many marks rom criterion B.
4. Consider critical thinking skills: H ow are you going to
apply critical thinking? c. U se the third person when you write (e.g. the
researcher ou nd that...).
a. The assessm ent criteria ocu s on application, analysis,
synthesis and evalu ation, so be su re to introd u ce som e 7. Check the essay or faws: Check that you r response
o these in you r response. ad dresses the essay qu estion, the com mand term is m et,
the argu m ent is clear, there is u se o critical thinking skills,
and the langu age is clear.

Essay sample 1 rom the biological level o analysis (paper 1,

section B)
Discuss how and why particular research methods are used at the
biological level o analysis [22 marks].
Psychologists at the biological level o analysis are trying to nd specic biological
correlates o behaviour. Researchers choose dierent m ethods depending on the aim o
research but two research m ethods used at the biological level o analysis could be the
experim ent and the case study.
Researchers oten use the experim ental method because it can establish cause-eect
relationships between biological variables and behaviour. The researchers deliberately
manipulate an independent variable to m easure the eect o that on the dependent
variable. The experim ental m ethod was applied in N ewcomer et. al. (1 999). The aim o
the experiment was to see how dierent levels o cortisol aected verbal declarative
m em ory when participants recalled parts o a prose text. There were three conditions.
Group 1 received a high dose o cortisol (1 60 m g), which is the sam e as a person
experiencing a major stressor. Group 2 received a low dose o cortisol (40 m g), which is
the sam e as a person experiencing slight stress. Group 3 was the placebo group, which
acted as control. Ater our days the participants were asked to recall the text.
The results showed that the participants on the high cortisol dose perorm ed worst on
the verbal declarative m em ory test. This indicates a relationship between high levels o
cortisol and m em ory. By deliberately manipulating the cortisol levels the researchers
could dem onstrate its eect on m em ory.
Som e methodological concerns arise, however. The experim ental procedure is oten said
to suer rom low ecological validity due to articiality. It could thereore be argued that
such results do not give insight into how cortisol levels aect memory in real-lie

1 63
 1 1 Wri ti n g exam pa pers i n psych ol ogy

situations. H owever, since biological processes are assumed to be more or less similar in
real lie and in the laboratory this argument could be reuted. The use o the Examiners comment
experimental method indicates a clear cause-eect relationship between levels o cortisol This essay is well ocused on the
and memory and this is probably why the researchers chose this method. question. The argument is well developed
Another method used at the biological level o analysis is the case study. This is an and supported by relevant knowledge
in-depth study o an individual case (e.g. an individual with brain damage). Case studies throughout. The research studies are
are natural experiments and researchers can use them to study phenomena that cannot highly relevant and they are used
be studied otherwise. In case studies it is only possible to observe what already exists eectively to demonstrate how and why
and no cause-eect relationship can be established. One important case study was by two specifc research methods are used at
Scoville and Milner (1 957) o H .M. who suered rom epileptic seizures and eventually the biological level o analysis. Critical
underwent experimental surgery to stop them. Scoville removed tissue rom the medial thinking skills are demonstrated but a bit
temporal lobe, including the hippocampus. The seizures stopped but ater some time it mechanical in the evaluation o the
became clear that H .M. could not store new explicit memories at all he suered rom methods used although the comments
permanent amnesia. H .M. became one o the most extensively studied ind ivid u als in the are quite relevant. The response is in the
history o cognitive n eu roscience. H is m em ory was tested in a nu m ber o ways and he top end and received 20/22 marks.
was also scanned (Corkin, 2 002 ). Th is gave a m ore precise pictu re o the brain
d amage and helped researchers to get an even better u nd erstand ing o H .M.s
m em ory.
The case study o H .M. was a very important step or cognitive neuroscientists towards
understanding the role o the hippocampus in memory and to develop revised theories o
memory. Knowledge rom this case study was also used to perorm experimental surgery
on animals to establish the biological correlates o memory more specifcally. This shows
how case studies can spark o new research and why researchers at the biological level
o analysis use them.
On the other hand, there are some ethical and methodological concerns in the use o a
case study such as H .M. Ethical concerns are relevant since consent rom an individual
with amnesia who was not even able to remember what happened 1 5 minutes ago can
be hard to get. H owever, in the case o H .M. his parents gave consent. It could also be
argued that so much knowledge that benefts other humans has been gathered rom this
case that the extensive use o H .M. in research is justifed. A methodological problem is
that results rom case studies cannot be used to make generalizations about human
behaviour because they represent unique individuals. H owever, similar case studies show
that the hippocampus is very important in storage o memory.
I n conclu sion, researchers within the biological level o analysis u se d ieren t
m ethod s. Case stu d ies su ch as that o H .M . give invalu able insight into cond itions
that cou ld not otherwise be stu d ied and the experim ental m ethod can establish
cau se -eect relationships between biological actors and behaviou r, so case stu d ies
and experim en ts can com plem ent each other in the stu d y o biological correlates o
behaviou r.
A: Knowledge and comprehension

M ark band Level descriptor Com m ents

79 The an swer d em onstrates d etailed , accu rate There is accurate and detailed knowledge o the two
knowled ge and u nd erstand ing relevant to the chosen research m ethods. This knowledge is integrated
qu estion, and u ses relevant psychological research with specifc studies, which are then used to illustrate
eectively in su pport o the response. the rationale or choice o m ethod at the biological
level o analysis. (marks 9/9)

B: Evidence o critical thinking: Application, analysis, synthesis, evaluation

M ark band Level of descriptor

79 The answer integrates relevant and explicit evidence o The elem ents o critical thinking in this response are
critical thinking in response to the question. analysis and evalu ation. (marks 7 /9)

C: Organization

M ark band Level of descriptor

3 4 The an swer is well organized , well d eveloped , and There is a clear structure to the essay. The argument is
ocu sed on the qu estion. well developed and ocused on the question. (marks 4/4)

1 64
11.3 Paper 3 SAQ (HL only)

Reminder: Paper 3 is testing:

n Paper 3 is a paper on qualitative research n You r knowled g e and u n d erstand ing o qu alitative
m ethodology. It includes stimulus material (a brief research m ethod s.
account of a qualitative study or a scenario) and three n You r u nd erstand ing o how to apply that knowled ge to
SAQs. the stim u lu s material (i.e. you shou ld try to place you rsel
n All three SAQs. m ust be answered using your in a researchers position and ref ect on how the
knowledge of qualitative research methods and with qu estions raised cou ld be applicable to the stu d y in the
reference to the stimulus material. stim u lu s material.

All SAQs in paper 3 are marked accord ing to the criteria below. Exam iners will u se the mark band when marking and try to nd the
best t.

M ark band Level descriptor

0 The answer d oes not reach a stand ard d escribed by the d escriptors below.

1 3 There is an attem pt to answer the qu estion , bu t knowled ge and u nd erstand ing is lim ited , oten inaccu rate, or o
marginal relevance to the qu estion.
The respon se makes no d irect reerence to the stim u lu s material or relies too heavily on qu otations rom the
text.

47 The qu estion is partially answered . Knowled g e and u n d erstand ing is accu rate bu t lim ited . Either the com mand
term is not eectively ad dressed or the response is not su ciently explicit in answerin g the qu estion.
The respon se makes lim ited u se o the stim u lu s material.

81 0 The qu estion is answered in a ocu sed and eective manner and m eets the d eman d s o the com mand term . The
answer is su pported by appropriate and accu rate knowled ge and u nd erstand ing o qu alitative research
m ethod ology.
The response d em on strates a critical u nd erstand ing o qu alitative research m ethod ology applied to the stim u lu s
material.

The process o writing an SAQ in paper 3

Read the three questions Make a brief outline

Read stimulus material Write your response
Notice command terms. Your refections o the
What is the research Integrate knowledge o
What could be relevant connection between the
about? What is the qualitative research and your
knowledge? How to stimulus material and the
method used? Who are the refections to make bits o the
connect it to the stimulus qualitative research
participants? stimulus part o the response.
material. methods.

1 65
 1 1 Wri ti n g exam pa pers i n psych ol ogy

Example of a paper 3 question with stimulus material

Qualitative research study: Placebo effect in competitive sport
1 The placebo eect is d e ned as an eect o belies rather than a dru g. I n research
athletes have been mad e to believe that they received anabolic steroid s,
carbohydrates, or caein e and they perorm ed better than baseline or controls. The
ocu s in placebo research in sport is on the role o belies as a psychological actor in
5 perormance. Sport psychologists have arg u ed that many technologies, prod u cts, or
su bstances that seem to have an eect on ath letes perormance have no clear
biological basis bu t may sim ply be the resu lt o the placebo eect.

The aim o this qu alitative stu d y was to investigate athletes experience o placebo
eects in com petition. The researchers were all sport psychologists with a history o
1 0 being proessional in sport.
The snowball sam ple consisted o seven males and seven emales (N = 1 4) rom
d ierent sports. Each participant rst heard a brie d escription o the placebo eect.
The researchers u sed sem i-stru ctu red interviews to collect d ata. All participants were
asked (1 ) i they believed that perormance cou ld be inf uenced by the placebo eect
1 5 or by sim ilar alse belies and (2 ) i they had ever experienced a m om ent in sport in
which a alse belie aected their perormance.

The interviews were tran scribed and the d ata was analysed u sing ind u ctive content
analysis to id entiy them es related to the placebo eect.

A little m ore than hal o the participants believed that the placebo eect had
20 inf u enced their perormance. They cou ld recall an event in which a orm o placebo
eect or alse belie had positively inf u enced their perormance. The ind u ctive
content analysis revealed that actors su ch as rituals (e.g. shaving the legs beore a
swim m ing com petition), alse belies based on ingestion o a substance (e.g. a dru g
believed to enhance perormance) or alse belies based on misperception (e.g. a
25 coach saying, You have alread y d one this so you can d o it again.)

The id enti ed them es were all based on the participants own statem ents and these
were u sed as d ocu m entation in the report to increase cred ibility. For example, a
weightliter explained that he was ooling him sel into believing that he was liting
less on the bench-press and that th is helped him to a better perormance. The
30 participants all pointed at the im portant actor o expectations in perormance. The
belie in the e cacy o a su bstance, training proced u res, coaches statem ents, or
ritu als was seen as important actors in the placebo eect. Many o the participants
said they believed that perormance cou ld be manipu lated by the placebo eect.

The researchers concluded that the power o belie ought to be taken into
35 consideration when preparing athletes or competition. They suggest that the placebo
eect could perhaps interact with the biological system to increase perormance in a
natural way but that m ore research is needed to explore this systematically.

Answer all three questions

With reerence to the stimulus material

1 . Explain how researchers cou ld u se ind u ctive content an alysis on the interview
transcripts in this qu alitative stu d y [1 0 marks].
2 . Explain how ref exivity cou ld be applied in the context o this qu alitative
research [1 0 marks].
3. Discu ss sampling techn iqu es appropriate to this qu alitative research stu d y
[1 0 marks].

1 66
 11 Wri ti n g exam pa pers i n psych ol ogy

Sample answers

1. Explain how researchers could use inductive level . Lower-level them es are organized into higher-level th em es
content analysis on the interview transcript in (e.g. alse belies abou t rou tines or alse belies abou t power
o su bstances) to create a hierarchy o them es. This is oten
this study represented in a table to create an overview. Each them e is
I nd u ctive content analysis is u sed to organize and categorize
su pported by qu otes rom the participants to make the nal
them es em erging rom th e d ata in the interview transcripts.
interpretation o the data transparent and to increase credibility.
Throu gh the categorization o them es the researcher can
In the study in the stimulus material, the researchers concluded
analyse and interpret the d ata. The research ers wan ted to
based on the result o the inductive content analysis that the
investigate the athletes su bjective perception o the possible
power o belie should be taken into consideration in competition
inf u ence o the placebo eect (or alse belies) on sports
preparation.
perormances. They cond u cted sem i-stru ctu red interviews, which
were transcribed . To analyse the d ata they read and re-read the
transcripts in ord er to cod e the d ata and id entiy categories and Examiners comment
them es. This response is ocused on the question and meets the demands o
The analysis resu lted in d ierent them es em erging and they the command term. Knowledge and understanding o inductive
were organized into lower- and higher-level them es. An example content analysis is appropriate but a bit limited, but it is well linked
o a lower-level them e cou ld be a rou tine su ch as shaving the to the study in the stimulus material. This response received 8/1 0
legs beore a swim m ing com petition improves perormance marks.

2. Explain how refexivity could be applied in All actors that cou ld inf u ence the analysis an d interpretation
the context o this qualitative research study o resu lts shou ld be inclu d ed in ord er to achieve transparency
I n ord er to achieve a high level o cred ibility or tru stworthiness and cred ibility the interpretation shou ld be based u pon
in qu alitative research one im portant actor is ref exivity logical connection o them es rom the ind u ctive con tent
researchers ref ect on their own role in the research. A analysis and not ref ect the researchers personal views or
researcher m u st ref ect on why they are stu d ying the particu lar experiences. Since the stu d y was only based u pon interviews it
topic and whether they have any expectation s or opinions that m ight have increased cred ibility u rther i there were several
m ight inf u ence collection, analysis, and interpretation o the sou rces o d ata (e.g. observations). This can be achieved
d ata. throu gh m ethod triangu lation.
This cou ld be illu strated in the qu alitative stu d y. The researchers
were all orm er proessional athletes and it is possible that they Examiners comment
have personal experiences with the placebo eect. This cou ld This response shows appropriate and accurate knowledge o
inf u ence the research process u n less the researchers accou nt refexivity in qualitative research and the knowledge is well
or their reasons or stu d ying the placebo eect in sport and connected to the stimulus material. There is a tendency to
how experiences and belies as orm er athletes cou ld potentially redundant inormation in the last paragraph and this could aect
bias the collection and interpretation o th e d ata (e.g. they ocus o the response here at the end. On the other hand, there is a
wou ld try to look or things con rm ing their own expectations). clear ocus in the rst two paragraphs. The command term is met
To be aware o this potential bias m eans researchers have an eectively. The response received 8/1 0 marks.
opportu nity to avoid it.

3. Discuss sampling techniques appropriate to d u e to th e sen sitive topic (e.g . dru g a bu se). On e a d va n ta g e o
this qualitative research study sn owba ll sam plin g , wh ich cou ld have in f u en ced th e d ecision ,
The qu alitative stu d y d eals with sport psychology and the power is that it is qu ite ea sy to g et pa rticipa n ts an d it is tim e
o belies so a sam ple o athletes wou ld be a natu ral choice. e cien t. On e cou ld arg u e that sn owball sam plin g is sim ilar to
Since this is a special criterion, the best sampling techn iqu e is pu rposive sam plin g beca u se th e sam ple still ha s to live u p to
pu rposive samplin g sam pling to get participants who have certa in criteria h owever, u n like pu rposive sam plin g , th e risk o
speci c characteristics. Since the researchers wanted to bia s is m u ch h ig h er sin ce pa rticipa n ts m ig h t be th e sam e type
investigate alse belies in athletes rom variou s sports, a o ath l etes a n d kn ow ea ch oth er. Con d en ti a l i ty wou l d be a
pu rposive sample wou ld be ne. A problem with pu rposive probl em wi th th i s ki n d o sam pl in g . On th e oth er ha n d , th e
sam pling is, that it cou ld be biased i the sample lacks variation resea rch ers i n th i s stu d y m ig h t n ot have th ou g h t it im porta n t
(e.g. contains only white male athletes) bu t it is assu m ed that i a l th ou g h th e topi c cou l d be som ewhat con troversia l.
the selection criteria are objective the bias will be lim ited .
The researchers in this qu alitative research stu d y d ecid ed to u se Examiners comment
a snowball sam ple, which is a kind o pu rposive sample bu t the This response is well ocused and meets the command term
selection criteria are su bjective. Snowball samplin g here m eans discuss. It demonstrates knowledge and critical understanding o
contacting one or a cou ple o athletes a n d ma kin g th em recru it sampling techniques in qualitative research and eectively discusses
oth er ath letes that th ey kn ow. Th is sam plin g tech n iqu e is two potential sampling methods in the context o the study in the
u su a lly u sed in cases wh ere it is d i cu lt to g et participa n ts stimulus material. This response received 1 0/1 0 marks.

1 67
 11.4 Command terms in IB psychology and
assessment objectives

Command terms in IB psychology and The ru les are:

assessment objectives n A learning ou tcom e at level 1 and 2 will only be assessed
I n the I B psychology cou rse there are th ree levels o assessm ent with com mand term s at these levels. All com mand term s at
objectives. level 1 and 2 can be u sed interchangeably. Level 3
n Level 1 : Knowled ge and comprehension com man d term s cannot be u sed in exam qu estion s.
n Level 2 : Application and analysis
n A learning ou tcom e at level 3 can be assessed at level 3 as
well as level 1 and 2 . All com mand term s at level 1 , 2 , and
n Level 3: Synthesis and evalu ation 3 can be u sed interchangeably. This m eans that a level 3
The com mand term s ind icate th e level o stu d y, i.e. in how qu estion in the gu id e can be changed into a level 2
m u ch d epth you shou ld stu d y a particu lar learning ou tcom e. qu estion in an SAQ in paper 1 section A.
I n SAQs there can only be level 1 and level 2 qu estions. I n
essays there can be level 3 qu estion s.

Command terms level 1 : Knowledge and comprehension

Com mand Explanation in the guide What it m eans Example

term

Defne Give the precise m eaning o a word , Say what it m ean s in psychology and Def ne attachm ent.
con cept, or phrase. u se the right concepts to d o that.

Describe Give a d etailed accou nt. Give a reason or, or a narrative o, Describe the role o situ ational
som ething. actors in explaining behaviou r.

Outline Give a brie accou nt or su m mary o Give a brie su m mary o whatever is Ou tlin e one principle that d ef nes
som ething. m entioned in the qu estion. the biological level o analysis.

State Give a specif c nam e or other brie Give a very brie answer bu t d ont State the role o com m u nication in
answer withou t explanation. explain anything. maintaining relationships.

Command terms level 2: Application and analysis

Com mand Explanation What it m eans Example

term

Analyse Break d own in ord er to bring ou t the Analyse m eans to consid er existin g Analyse why relationships may
essential elem ents. evid ence in relation to a specif c change or end .
problem ; investigate possible
explanations o a psychological
problem .

Apply U se a theory or an id ea in a given Describe how a theory wou ld explain Apply a relevant theory to explain
problem or issu e. a given psychological ph enom enon. bu rnou t in sport.

Distinguish Make clear the d ierences between I nd icate d ierences between two Distingu ish between altru ism and
two or m ore id eas or concepts. con cepts or theories. prosocial behaviou r.

Explain Give a d etailed accou nt inclu d ing Give reasons and cau ses or a Explain actors related to the
reasons and cau ses. psych ological phenom enon. d evelopm ent o ad d ictive behaviou r.

1 68
 11 Wri ti n g exam pa pers i n psych ol ogy

Command terms level 3: Synthesis and evaluation

Com mand Explanation What it m eans Example

term

Compare Give an accou nt o the sim ilarities Focu s only on sim ilarities and reer Com pare two theories o cognitive
between two (or m ore) item s or to these throu ghou t the response. d evelopm ent.
situ ations, reerring to both (all) o
th em throu ghou t.

Compare Give an accou nt o sim ilarities and Focu s on both sim ilarities and Compare and contrast two theories
and d ierences between two (or m ore) d ierences and reer to these o cog nitive d evelopm ent.
contrast item s or situ ations, reerring to both throu g hou t the response.
(all) o them throu ghou t.

Contrast Give an accou nt o the d ierences Focu s only on d ierences and reer Contrast two theories explaining
between two (or m ore) item s or to these throu ghou t the response. altru ism in hu mans.
situ ation s, reerring to both (all) o
them throu ghou t.

Discuss Oer a consid ered and balanced Ad dress the qu estion in a balanced Discu ss actors related to overeating
review that inclu d es a range o way (not biased ) where you consid er and the d evelopm ent o obesity.
argu m ents, actors, or hypotheses. available evid ence and choose the
Conclu sions shou ld be presented m ost appropriate evid ence to
clearly and su pported by appropriate su pport you r argu m ent.
evid ence.

Evaluate M ake an appraisal by weighing u p Assess the valu e o som ething (e.g. Evalu ate on e sociocu ltu ral
the strengths and lim itations o a theory or stu d y) by looking into the explanation o violence.
som ething. evid ence.

Examine Consid er an argu m ent or concept in Careu lly scru tinize an argu m ent (or Exam ine m od els o health
a way that u ncovers the assu mptions th eory, con cept, explanation) to see prom otion.
and interrelationships o the issu e. how it explains som ething and
perhaps why. An exam ination cou ld
also inclu d e nd ing sim ilarities and
d ierences.

To what Consid er the m erits or otherwise o Assess th e valu e o a theory or To what extent d o biological,
extent an argu m ent or concept. Conclu sions concept in explaining a cognitive an d sociocu ltu ral actors
shou ld be presented clearly and psychological phenom enon (e.g. inf u ence abnormal behaviou r?
su pported with appropriate evid ence d epression). The conclu sion m u st be
and sou nd argu m ent. clear and su pported by relevant
evid ence (i.e. empirical stu d ies and
evalu ation o the theory) throu ghou t
the argu m ent.

1 69
 11.1
11.5 Writing
How toSAQ
make
in an
psychology
argument(paper
in psychology
1, section A)

Argument mapping: Is television violence harmul to children?

Main argument (thesis statement): Reason:

Television violence can have harmul eects because those children who are exposed to
on children large doses o violence tend to adopt values
rom what they see.

Support (evidence)
Claim 2 Smith (1 997) ound that children aged fve to
Their constant exposure to violent images nine who watched more than three hours o
makes them unable to distinguish antasy violent television a day were 2 5% more likely
rom reality. to say that most o what they saw on
television was really happening.

Response to counter claim

Counter claim But Jones (1 989) ound that children with no
H owever, it cannot be ruled out that children predisposition to violence were just as
who tend to watch great amounts o violent attracted to violent entertainment as those
television already have violent values. with a history o violence.

Conclusion
Watching violent television or more than three hours a day may predispose to the development o
violent values and behaviour but the evidence is not conclusive since children who had had no
predisposition to violence also liked violent entertainment. More research is needed.

1 70
 Index

abnormality 4852 , 67 cognitive processes in diagnosis 52

acetylcholine (ACh) 8, 2 4, 90 brain and 1 2 , 1 31 4, 2 89 in genetic research 1 7
addictive behaviour 8, 903, 94, 1 09 emotions and 303 and observations 1 55, 1 56, 1 57
adolescence 81 2 cognitive-aective model o stress and etic approach 47, 51
adrenaline 30, 88, 90, 97 burnout 1 42 , 1 43, 1 44 etiology o disorders 49, 50, 547, 66
aggression 41 , 1 1 61 7, 1 1 7, 1 1 8, 1 1 92 0, collectivist cultures 36, 37, 43, 45, 46, 91 , evaluation 1
1 2 2 , 1 35 1 06, 1 1 4 evolution, theory o 1 6
see also violence command terms 1 689 evolutionary theories 30, 42 , 43, 78, 86,
altruism 1 03, 1 035 communication 1 1 21 3, 1 1 5 1 034, 1 05, 1 091 0
amygdala 9, 1 0, 1 1 , 30, 67, 1 21 competence motivation theory 1 2 45 exam papers 1 607
animal research 2 , 5, 6, 1 1 , 71 , 1 09 conormity 34, 435, 47, 79, 1 51 experimental methods 3
anti-depressants 54, 61 , 62 , 63, 65, 66 cortisol 1 1 , 1 2 , 30, 54, 85, 87, 1 1 8, 1 2 2
anxiety 30, 82 , 89, 1 2 2 , 1 27, 1 2 8, 1 35 and memory 6, 9, 2 5 FAE (undamental attribution error) 367
appraisal theory 31 credibility 1 45, 1 49, 1 53, 1 54, 1 55, 1 57 ght or fight response 30, 85, 86, 88, 1 21
arguments, making 1 70 cue utilization theory 30 FITD (oot-in-the-door) technique 42
arousal 1 278, 1 35, 1 36 cultural dimensions 467, 1 06 FM (fashbulb memory) 323
emotional 30, 323, 1 23 cultural norms 34, 45, 1 06 MRI (unctional magnetic resonance
attachment 67, 734, 76 cultural schemas 1 8, 1 9 imaging) 2 8, 2 9, 75, 94, 1 09
attraction, origins o 1 091 1 culture 2 6, 34, 45, 46, 80 oot-in-the-door (FITD) technique 42
attributions 35, 36, 37, 47, 1 08, 1 1 2 and attachment 73 undamental attribution error (FAE) 367
avoidance coping 88, 1 21 , 1 35, 1 38 and bulimia nervosa 5960
and depression 53, 58 game theory 1 3940
behaviour 6, 1 8, 34 and diagnosis 48, 49, 51 2 GAS (General Adaptation Syndrome) 85, 88
evolutionary explanations 1 6 emic and etic concepts 47, 51 gender
genetics and 1 41 5 and gender roles 80 and bulimia nervosa 56, 57, 59, 60
belongingness theory 34 and memory 2 6 and coping with stress 86, 88
bias 2 , 3 and prosocial behaviour 1 06 and depression 56, 58, 589
in diagnosis 52 and relationships 1 1 4 gender roles 7880, 1 1 6
see also researcher bias; sel-serving bias see also sociocultural actors gender schema theory 79
biological actors gene mapping 1 4
and attraction 1 091 0 data analysis 1 , 4, 1 45 General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) 85, 88
and obesity 94 data types 4, 1 45 generalization 1 46, 1 47, 1 58, 1 59
and violence 1 1 8 demand characteristics 3, 6970 genetic inheritance 6, 1 41 5, 54, 56, 94
see also brain; genetic inheritance; dendritic branching 6, 8, 1 01 1, 678 genetic research 1 5, 1 7
hormones depression 1 1, 50, 53, 546, 57, 589, 82 goal setting 1 2 6
biological level o analysis, principles 6 China 51 , 51 2 group norms 435
body image 56, 57, 81 , 82 serotonin and 54, 61 , 66 group treatments 62 , 64
brain 7, 1 01 1 , 1 31 4, 67 stress and 1 4, 1 7, 56, 59, 89, 1 21
and attraction 1 091 0 treatments 61 5, 66 H BM (health belie model) 989
cognitive processes 1 2 , 1 31 4, 2 89 deprivation 75, 756, 87 health promotion 981 02
development 678, 70, 71 , 75 diagnosis o abnormality 4952 hippocampus 8, 1 1 , 67, 75
and emotion 30 disgust 1 3, 1 6 and memory 7, 11, 1 8, 22, 245, 29, 30,
see also amygdala; brain imaging; dispositional attributions 35, 36, 37, 47, 67, 75
hippocampus; memory; neurotransmitters 1 08, 1 1 2 stress and 9, 1 1 , 2 5, 71 , 85
brain imaging 1 31 4, 2 89, 31 , 67, 1 1 0 dopamine 8, 66, 90, 94, 1 09 H .M. (epileptic patient) 7, 1 8, 2 2 , 2 45, 2 9
see also EEG; MRI; MEG; MRI drugs use in sport 1 35, 1 3841 hormones 91 0, 59
brain plasticity 6, 8, 1 01 1 , 678 see also adrenaline; cortisol; oxytocin;
bulimia nervosa 53, 567, 5960, 61 , 62 eating disorders 56, 59, 82 testosterone
bullying 1 1 92 0, 1 21 2 see also bulimia nervosa hypotheses 1
burnout 1 35, 1 424 ecological validity 2 , 3, 2 9, 1 50, 1 51 , 1 55
bystanderism 1 078 EEG (electroencephalography) 2 8, 2 9, 63 identity 82 , 83
emic approach 47, 51 social 34, 38
case studies 1 589 emotional arousal 30, 323, 1 23 imagery 1 301 , 1 35, 1 44
CBT (cognitive behavioural therapy) 61 2 , emotions 303 immune unctioning, stress and 85, 86
634, 66, 96 empathy-altruism theory 1 045 individual treatments 61 2 , 634
China 37, 467, 51 , 51 2 , 58, 1 1 1 , 1 1 4 empirical research studies 1 individual zone o optional unctioning
coaches, role o 1 323, 1 34, 1 44 environmental actors 1 5, 1 8, 36 (I ZOF) 1 2 8
cognitive appraisal 30, 31 , 867, 1 21, 1 35, and bulimia nervosa 56 individualist cultures 36, 37, 43, 45, 46, 91 ,
1 36, 1 37, 1 42 , 1 43 and cognitive development 70, 71, 71 2 1 06, 1 1 4
cognitive behavioural therapy see CBT and physiological processes 1 01 1 inductive content analysis 1 53, 1 57
cognitive development 6772 see also situational attributions ingroups 34, 38, 39, 40, 44, 79
cognitive unctioning 678, 70, 75 essays 1 624 injuries (sports) 1 35, 1 368
cognitive level o analysis, principles 1 8 ethics 2 , 3, 4, 5, 6, 1 1, 1 467 intelligence quotient (IQ) 1 5, 48, 67

1 71
 I n d ex

internal working models 73, 74 Piaget, Jean, theory o cognitive and bulimia nervosa 57
interpersonal psychotherapy (I PT) 62 , 634, development 6870, 70 and cognitive development 701 , 71 2
66 placebo eect 54, 63, 66 and depression 56, 59
interpersonal relationships 1 091 6 post-traumatic stress disorder see PTSD and gender roles 80
interviews 4, 1 503 poverty 56, 71 , 87, 1 1 7 and memory 1 8, 2 6
I PT (interpersonal psychotherapy) 62 , 634, pre-competitive state anxiety 1 27, 1 2 89 and obesity 95
66 prevalence 58 and prosocial behaviour 1 06
IQ (intelligence quotient) 1 5, 48, 67 prisoners dilemma 1 39, 1 40 and violence 1 1 61 8
IZOF (individual zone o optional prosocial behaviour 1 03, 1 06 see also culture; social actors
unctioning) 1 2 8 psychological theories 1, 2 sociocultural level o analysis, principles 34
psychosocial development, theory o 83 sport
kin selection theory 1 034, 1 05 PTSD (post-traumatic stress disorder) 1 1 , 30, arousal theories 1 278
75, 1 21 , 1 2 2 burnout 1 35, 1 424
learning 8, 68 drug use in 1 3841
see also social learning theory qualitative data 4, 1 45 motivation in 1 236, 1 43
lie events, as stressors 56, 84, 1 35, 1 36 qualitative research 1 , 4, 1 4559 skill development techniques 1 2 931
love 74, 1 091 1 , 1 1 51 6 quantitative data 4, 1 45 stress in 1 356, 1 38, 1 424
quantitative methods 1 , 4 see also coaches; sports injuries; teams
magnetic resonance imaging see MRI sports injuries 1 35, 1 368
magnetoencephalography (MEG) 2 9 reciprocity 423 SSB (sel-serving bias) 37
making an argument 1 70 reconstructive memory 1 9, 278, 33 SSRI (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor)
MBCT (mindulness-based cognitive refexivity 1 45, 1 50, 1 54, 1 57 drugs 54, 61 , 63, 66
therapy) 62 relationships, interpersonal 1 091 6 stages o change model 991 00
MBSR (mindulness-based stress reduction) research methods 1 , 34, 1 8 stereotypes 1 9, 34, 38, 3940, 79, 80
1 2 , 8990, 93 researcher bias 1 45, 1 48, 1 489, 1 50, 1 57, Strange Situation paradigm 73
meditation 1 2 , 62 , 1 35 1 58 stress 1 2 , 30, 84, 857, 1 1 2
MEG (magnetoencephalography) 2 9 resilience 767 and cognitive development 68, 71 , 71 2
memory 8, 1 8, 1 92 0, 2 48, 30 romantic love 74, 1 09, 1 1 0 coping with 62 , 86, 8890, 1 21 , 1 35,
fashbulb memory 323 1 36, 1 42 , 1 43, 1 44
hippocampus and 7, 1 1 , 1 8, 2 2 , 2 45, sampling 2 , 1 45, 1 46, 1 478, 1 52 , 1 56 and depression 1 4, 1 7, 54, 56, 59, 89,
2 9, 30, 67, 75 SAQs (short answer questions) 1 601 , 1 657 1 21
models o 21 3 schema theory 1 8, 1 92 0, 27 and hippocampus 9, 1 1 , 2 5, 71 , 85
reconstructive 1 9, 278, 33 schemas 1 8, 1 92 0, 2 6, 68, 80 and memory 6, 9, 2 5
stress and 6, 9, 2 5 and depression 55 and overeating and obesity 84
mindulness-based cognitive therapy see gender schemas 79 in sport 1 356, 1 38, 1 424
MBCT weight-related 57 see also stress hormones; stressors
mindulness-based stress reduction see selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor drugs stress hormones 2 5, 54, 88, 1 21, 1 35
MBSR see SSRI see also adrenaline; cortisol
modelling 401 , 78, 91 , 1 1 61 7 sel-ecacy 1 234, 1 2 6, 1 2 8, 1 30 stressors 1 1 , 56, 84, 1 21 , 1 35, 1 36, 1 42
models 2 , 2 6 sel-esteem 37, 57, 82 subculture o violence theory 1 1 7, 1 1 8
motivation in sport 1 236, 1 43 sel-serving bias (SSB) 27, 37 substance abuse 1 3, 84, 903
MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) 1 8, 2 4, serotonin 1 4, 54, 66, 97
2 9, 67 short answer questions see SAQs teams 1 23, 1 2 4, 1 32
SIT (social identity theory) 34, 38 cohesion 1 334
neurasthenia 51 , 51 2 , 58 situational attributions 35, 36, 37, 47, 1 1 2 tend and beriend theory 86, 88
neurotransmitters 8, 91 0, 2 4, 90, 97 skill development techniques 1 2 931 terrorism 1 21
and depression 54, 61 , 66 SLT (social learning theory) 401 , 91 , 1 1 61 7 testosterone 1 1 8, 1 41
non-experimental methods 4 smoking 903, 98, 1 002 theories 1 , 2 , 4
normality 48, 52 social actors trauma 1 1 , 33, 75
norms 34, 435, 49, 82 , 1 06, 1 08, 1 1 7 in attachment 73 see also PTSD
and brain development 70 triangulation 1 45, 1 49, 1 4950, 1 54, 1 55,
obesity 84, 947 and cognitive development 701 , 71 2 1 56, 1 57
observations 1 548 and memory 2 6 trust, oxytocin and 91 0
outgroups 1 3, 34, 38, 39, 40, 44, 79 see also sociocultural actors twin studies 6, 1 5, 1 7, 54, 56, 94
overeating 84, 947 social identity 34, 38
oxytocin 91 0, 86, 1 09 social identity theory (SIT) 34, 38 violence 56, 1 1 61 7, 1 1 92 2
social learning theory (SLT) 401 , 789, 91 , Vygotsky, Lev, approach to cognitive
Paper 3 1 657 1 1 61 7 development 70
participant expectancy 1 45, 1 48, 1 57, 1 58 social norms 49, 82 , 1 1 7
personal norms 1 08 social responsibility 1 038
physiological processes, environment and socialization 37, 1 06, 1 1 6
1 01 1 sociocultural actors 1 8
and attraction 1 1 1

1 72
OXFORD IB STUDY GUIDES

Psychology
Author
F O R T H E I B D I P LO M A Jette Hannibal

Fully comprehensive, this ocused study tool ensures complete

understanding o all the key concepts at SL and HL. Designed to concretely
build condence, integrated exam guidance supports excellence in
assessment.
Oxord IB study guides build unrivalled assessment potential.
You can trust them to:
Comprehensively cover the syllabus, matching IB specifcations
Reinorce all the key topics in a concise, user-riendly ormat, cementing
understanding
Efectively prepare students or assessment with revision support and
exam strategies
Use clear and straightorward language to support EAL learners

Extra support material online at

www.oxordsecondary.co.uk/
Visual explanation addresses all learning psychsg
styles, reinorcing every concept

Supporting course book,

developed with the IB
978 019 838995 8
Material is broken down into manageable
segments, helping learners ocus

How to get in contact:

1 web www.oxfordsecondary.co.uk/ib
email [email protected]
tel +44 (0)1536 452620
fax +44 (0)1865 313472