Materials Resources

Table of contents
1 Resources................................................................................................................................2
1.1 Resources of aluminium materials for cars ......................................................................2
1.2 Primary aluminium............................................................................................................3
1.2.1 Brief history ...............................................................................................................3
1.2.2 The Bayer process ....................................................................................................4
1.2.3 The reduction plant (Smelter) ...................................................................................7
1.2.4 The reduction process ..............................................................................................8
1.2.5 The reduction process Environmental Issues......................................................10
1.2.6 Casting ....................................................................................................................11
1.2.7 Casting of "Sows" and Ingots .................................................................................12
1.2.8 Continuous Casting and Shape Casting .................................................................13
1.2.9 Casting Process Melt treatment...........................................................................14
1.3 Secondary aluminium .....................................................................................................15
1.3.1 Scrap sources .........................................................................................................15
1.3.2 Refiners and Remelters ..........................................................................................16
1.3.3 Special recycling issues: Laquered / painted scrap Skimmings and dross .........17
1.3.4 Applications in automotive components .................................................................18
1.3.5 Use of secondary aluminium for wrought automotive products compatibility
issues ...............................................................................................................................19
1.3.6 Benefits from aluminium recycling ..........................................................................20
1.4 ELV recycling .................................................................................................................21
1.4.1 End of Life Vehicles (ELV) resource for automotive aluminium ..........................21
1.4.2 Aluminium usage and recycled content in automotives..........................................22
1.4.3 Recovery of aluminium Car shredders ................................................................24
1.4.4 Separation and enrichment of aluminium scrap stream .........................................26
1.4.5 ELV recycling Future trends and use of recovered automotive aluminium .........28
1.4.6 Alloy sorting options for ELVs .................................................................................30
1.4.7 Laser induced breakdown spectroscopy for alloy sorting .......................................32

Version 2002 European Aluminium Association ([email protected]) 1

1 Resources

1.1 Resources of aluminium materials for cars

Why care for aluminium resources?

Aluminium is having a growing potential for mass produced cars.

The materials decisions are taken well in advance of the actual production runs.
Car models are produced over a period of many years.
Wrought and cast aluminium alloys rely on different raw materials resources.

Therefore, the criteria for materials selection, availability and supply must include the
assured continuity of resources.

Sources of aluminium

At about 7.5% of the earth's crust aluminium is the most abundant metal and the third most
abundant element in the earth's crust.
Since the development of the Hall-Hroult process in 1886, aluminium has enjoyed a rapid
growth. Approximately 22 million tonnes of "primary" aluminium were produced worldwide in
1998, and another 5 million tonnes of "secondary" (recycled) aluminium.
Approximately 30% of the consumption of aluminium goes to transportation applications - a
rapidly growing market and a significant source for recycled aluminium (s. ELV Recycling).

Sustainability

Beyond the question of reliable raw materials resources the sustainability of the industrial
production processes of materials and the deposition of industrial wastes are further criteria
in materials selection.

This chapter, therefore, addresses not only the current aluminium production processes and
the abundance of the raw material resources, but also describes relevant factors from an
environmental point of view.

Version 2002 European Aluminium Association ([email protected]) 2

1.2 Primary aluminium

1.2.1 Brief history

Compounds of aluminium were known many, many years ago. Egyptians used alumen as a
medicine and a dye fixative. The alumen of the Egyptians we know as alum, that is,
aluminium sulphate.

The oxide of the metal, alumina, was isolated in its pure form very early in the nineteenth
century, by Sir Humphrey Davy, in London. He named it alumina and assumed it had a
metallic base which he called first alumium and later aluminium.

The first aluminium metal was prepared by a Dane, H. C. Oersted, in 1825. This he did by
heating a potassium mercury amalgam with aluminium chloride and then distilling the
mercury from the resultant aluminium amalgam.

For much of the nineteenth century, aluminium remained an expensive, and therefore
relatively rare, metal. It is only with the development of a process based on electrolysis of
alumina dissolved in a naturally occurring mineral (cryolite) that aluminium metal production
started to grow rapidly.

Paul Hrault (left) and Charles Martin Hall (right) - the inventors of the aluminium
electrolysis (1886)

The electrolytical reduction process was developed and patented in 1886 simultaneously
and independently by Paul Hroult in France and Charles Martin Hall in the US. The Hall-
Hroult process has formed the backbone of the aluminium industry for over 100 years.

Version 2002 European Aluminium Association ([email protected]) 3

1.2.2 The Bayer process

Production of Al2O3

With a few rare exceptions, all of the pure alumina (Al2O3) used by the industry to produce
aluminium is manufactured by the Bayer process, the essential features of which remain as
they were when the process was invented by Karl Josef Bayer in Austria in 1888 (s. figure
below).

Schematic of the Bayer Process

Bauxite Strip Mining in Jamaica

Characteristics of the Bayer process:

mineral bauxite (above) is dissolved in caustic soda,
seeding of the alumina-rich solution precipitates aluminium hydroxide (Al(OH)3)
calcination of Al(OH)3 to Al2O3 (Fig.).

Bauxite, the almost exclusive source today for the production of approx. 38 million tonnes a
year of alumina, takes its name from the town of Les Baux in the South of France, where the
mineral was first identified in 1821.

Version 2002 European Aluminium Association ([email protected]) 4

Bauxite is essentially hydrated aluminium oxide with various other elements present - ferric
oxides, silica, titania, and other elements in small quantities.

Bauxite occurs primarily in tropical countries where warmth and high rainfall have produced
weathering.

It takes 2 - 3 tonnes of bauxite to produce 1 tonne of calcined alumina.

Approximately 90% of world bauxite production is used to manufacture alumina to produce
aluminium metal via the Hall-Hroult Process (described later).

Alumina from the Bayer Process

Bauxites generally contain between 40 and 60% alumina (s. Table) and it is this high
concentration, combined with the simplicity of dissolving the alumina, that leads to the relative
economies of the bauxite/Bayer process combination compared with other ways of producing
alumina.

In a Bayer plant, bauxite mineralogy has an impact on the efficiency of the process by driving
the chemical reactions occurring throughout the Bayer process. The content and morphology
of the alumina-bearing minerals as well as of other impurities with varying solubilities in
caustic soda are critical factors in determining aluminium extraction, end-product purity,
caustic soda losses and energy consumption.

Typical Mineralogical Composition of Tropical Bauxites: Major Constituents

The bauxite is first digested with caustic soda solution, usually under pressure. The alumina,
present mostly as gibbsite and boehmite, is extracted in the form of soluble sodium aluminate,
which leaves behind most of the impurities, predominantly iron oxide, titania and silica, as an
insoluble residue. The clear, filtered sodium aluminate solution is diluted and cooled, and a
'seed' of alumina trihydrate is added. The sodium aluminate solution hydrolyses on the

Version 2002 European Aluminium Association ([email protected]) 5

surface of the seed to form crystalline alumina trihydrate. The trihydrate is finally filtered off
and calcined to anhydrous alumina.

The complete process may thus be represented by the following three reaction equations:

A typical Bayer plant (see figure) with an output of about 1,000 tons calcined alumina per
week will use roughly 2,500 tons of bauxite and will have 3,500,000 gallons liquor in
circulation, containing 2,000 tons of caustic soda and 1,000 tons of Al2O3 in solution. The
precipitators may contain 4,500 tons of trihydrate.

The process as worked today is essentially identical with that originally invented by Bayer,
and as long as there is an adequate supply of good quality bauxite with less than about 7 per
cent silica, it is unlikely that any other process will supersede it. Numerous detailed
improvements have considerably increased the efficiency of the process. In modern practice
the extraction efficiency (based on the theoretically extractable alumina in the bauxite) is
typically 97 per cent.

Alumina Refinery at Gove, Australia

Version 2002 European Aluminium Association ([email protected]) 6

1.2.3 The reduction plant (Smelter)

Aluminium metal is obtained from alumina by electrolytic reduction, using the Hall-Hroult
process. Calcined Al2O3 is reduced to aluminium metal in electrolytic cells, or "pots",
connected in series to a DC power source. The cells are rectangular steel pots lined with
refractory bricks and carbon.

400,000 tpy aluminium smelter at Alma, Canada

Modern smelters (figures below) contain typically several hundreds cells (432 for the smelter
pictured), operating at currents of 150,000 to 300,000 amperes. New technology is coming
on-line that operates at 500,000 amperes.

Pot line at Grande-Baie Smelter, Qubec, Canada

Version 2002 European Aluminium Association ([email protected]) 7

1.2.4 The reduction process

The cells contain a molten electrolyte at operating temperatures of approx. 950-970C, from
which aluminium is produced (see figure). The electrolyte is a mixture of cryolite (Na2AlF6)
and certain additives to give an appropriate density, conductivity and viscosity.

Rectangular carbon anode blocks, which are suspended in the electrolyte, act as electrical
conductors. These anodes are a mixture of baked petroleum coke and pitch.

Electrical current passing from the anode through the electrolyte to the cathode, formed by
the thick carbon or graphite lining of the pot, reduces alumina into aluminium and oxygen. The
oxygen is deposited on the carbon anode, where it combines with the carbon to form carbon
dioxide (CO2) .The carbon anodes are changed frequently, as they are consumed by the
reaction with oxygen. The aluminium, being denser than the electrolyte, settles to the bottom
of the cell.

Simplified diagram of the reduction process

At regular intervals, the molten aluminium is siphoned from the bottom of the pot into large
crucibles and transferred to holding furnaces where alloying of the metal takes place; the
liquid metal is sometimes transported to a remote casthouse (see figure).

Road transport of molten aluminium between a smelter and a remote casthouse

Version 2002 European Aluminium Association ([email protected]) 8

It takes approx. 2 tonnes of alumina to produce 1 tonne of aluminium metal.

Typical purity of the metal produced is 99.7% , with iron and silicon as principal impurities.

The smelting process is continuous. A smelter cannot easily be stopped and restarted. If
production is interrupted by a power supply failure of more than four hours, the metal in the
cells will solidify, often requiring an expensive rebuilding process.

From time to time individual pot linings reach the end of their useful life and the pots are then
taken out of service and relined.

Considerable electrical energy is consumed in the process. It takes, on average, 15.7 kWh to
produce 1 kg aluminium. The theoretical limit is 6.34 kWh/kg at 977 C, so the energy
efficiency of the process is less than 50%. The remaining energy is lost in the form of heat
given off to the surroundings.
Primary aluminium smelters are concentrated in energy-rich environments, in particular where
hydro-electricity is available. Historically, over 50% of the power used to produce aluminium
has been hydroelectric power and it is expected that this trend will continue into the
foreseeable future (s. figures below).

Version 2002 European Aluminium Association ([email protected]) 9

1.2.5 The reduction process Environmental Issues

There are a number of environmental challenges related to the production of aluminium

metal: emission of fluoride and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) compounds,
particulates (dust) , the generation of greenhouses gases (CO2, PFCs) and the treatment of
cathode waste (spent potlining).

A number of new technologies exist or are under development to face these challenges and
maintain the competitive position of aluminium in Life Cycle Analyses. The generation of
fluorides, PAHs and dust has been significantly reduced by the introduction of recent pre-
bake anode technologies; what is left is controlled by efficient dry scrubbers, with recycling of
the captured material into the process. Recent smelters are therefore fumeless, smokeless
and odourless.

Across all aluminium smelting technologies, producers have reduced PFC emissions, which
are generated when "anode effects" (alumina starvation) occur, by an average of 47% from
1990 to 1997(see figure), through the use of improved alumina feeding and dynamic control
of the electrolysis operations.

PFC Emission Reductions in the Aluminum Industry

Finally, new materials and technologies (Inert anodes, wettable and / or drained cathodes)
are being developed that will significantly reduce energy and carbon consumption and CO2
emissions in the future, while minimising, neutralising and treating cathode waste.

Version 2002 European Aluminium Association ([email protected]) 10

1.2.6 Casting

See also:
AAM Materials 2 Alloy constitution
AAM Materials 3 Designation system

While aluminium is sometimes used in its commercially pure form, most applications involve
the addition of small quantities of other metals to create alloys with special properties. Certain
alloying elements will increase strength or corrosion resistance, while others enhance such
properties as machinability, ductility, weldability and strength at high temperatures.

Alloying elements include manganese (strength and formability), magnesium and silicon
(strength and corrosion resistance), copper and zinc (higher strength), titanium and chromium
(grain size control), etc.

DC Casting Pit at Arvida Smelter , Qubec, Canada

Version 2002 European Aluminium Association ([email protected]) 11

1.2.7 Casting of "Sows" and Ingots

See also:
AAM Materials 2 Alloy constitution
AAM Materials 3 Designation system
AAM Materials 5 Wrought materials production

Molten aluminium is cast into ingots of various shapes depending upon the type of equipment
that will be used to process the metal. For example, ingots for rolling into plate, sheet and foil
are typically rectangular and can weigh up to 30 tonnes or more. Aluminium ingots for
extrusion are usually cylindrical, while those for rolling into rod/wire are square.

Aluminium for remelting can be cast into large blocks called sows, as well as tri-lock shapes
or T-ingots designed for efficient and secure handling.

A large proportion of aluminium ingots (in particular for sheet and extrusion applications) are
cast by the semi-continuous, vertical direct-chill casting process (DC Casting), where water is
directly sprayed onto a solidifying ingot installed on a descending platten.

Overview of Metal Processing in a Smelter Casthouse

Version 2002 European Aluminium Association ([email protected]) 12

1.2.8 Continuous Casting and Shape Casting

See also:
AAM Manufacturing 1 Casting methods

Continuous Casting (Strip Casting)

In continuous casting, molten metal is fed (usually horizontally) directly between rotating belts
or rolls or in a rotating wheel to produce a continuous strip or bar of metal suitable for coiling
or immediate rolling. This has the advantage of circumventing the need for large, expensive
hot mill installations while reducing the number of processing steps.
While these processes are well established for the production of low-alloyed materials such
as foil, heat exchanger material and electrical wire and cable, metallurgical issues with
internal microstructure and surface quality have until now limited the application of these
processes for more highly alloyed products such as automotive sheet. This is due in part to
faster cooling rates during solidification (thinner cross-sections) and its impact on
microstructure development through the extended "freezing range" (difference between
liquidus and solidus) of highly alloyed products (see table).

Shape casting (Mould Casting)

Aluminium may also be cast into various shapes by pouring molten metal into moulds. This is
usually performed directly at the automotive parts manufacturer.

Freezing / solidification temperature Range for Some Important

Commercial Aluminium Alloys

Version 2002 European Aluminium Association ([email protected]) 13

1.2.9 Casting Process Melt treatment

See also:
AAM Materials 1 Resources > Secondary aluminium

Before the metal is cast, the appropriate alloying elements must be added. In primary
smelters, this is normally done in a holding furnace in the casthouse. For many applications,
the metal must also be treated ("cleaned") to remove a number of contaminants. These
include:
alkali metals (Na, Ca, Li) which can cause problems in hot rolling ( edge cracking), or
with surface discoloration ("blue corrosion"-Li)
dissolved hydrogen, which will be released upon metal solidification and can cause
porosities or blisters
non-metallic inclusions (oxides, carbides, borides) which can lead to mechanical
damage such as tear-offs in cans or marks on rolls.

While Na, Li and carbide contamination are typical of primary smelter environments, the
processes used to clean and cast aluminium alloys are very similar in primary and secondary
smelters. Furnace designs and scrap handling specific to the remelt/recycling environments
are described in the next section ("Secondary").

Techniques used to remove unwanted contaminants include chemical reaction with chlorine-
containing gases or salts injected into the liquid metal, floatation of non-wetted species with
gas mixtures and filtration.

In a smelter, cleaning may start while the metal is en route for the pots to the holding furnace.
Solid or gaseous fluxes can be injected with rotors in the transport crucible to start removing
Na, Li and carbides coming from the reduction process. Inside the holding furnace, a gas
mixture containing chlorine (Cl2) and argon or nitrogen is typically injected with graphite lance
to further remove alkali elements and start the floatation of non-metallic inclusions. Further
processing is performed in-line with multi-stage rotor-based degassers (the figure shows a
single stage unit), where most of the hydrogen removal is performed. Finally, a cartridge or
deep-bed filter completes the removal of non-metallic inclusions.
This multi-prong approach is necessary as quality criteria for many critical products now
require overall removal efficiencies exceeding 98%, with final concentrations of alkali
elements, hydrogen and inclusions measured in fractions of parts-per-million.

Diagram of a Single Rotor In-Line Degasser / Metal Treatment Unit

Version 2002 European Aluminium Association ([email protected]) 14

1.3 Secondary aluminium

1.3.1 Scrap sources

Aluminium scrap can generally be divided into two main categories:

1. Old scrap. This is scrap from products that have reached the end of their useful life, e.g.
ELV (end of life vehicles).
This group can again be divided into two main categories.
a) Immediate return products: products with an estimated lifetime <1 year, e.g. packaging and
lithographic plate.
b) Installed base: products with a longer lifetime than 1 year, e.g. passenger cars.

2. New scrap. This is scrap generated in the process steps from semi-finished product to the
end-product fabrication, e.g. scrap from automotive part manufacturers.
New scrap is normally recycled within the aluminium industry (1st scrap loop, s. fig.) or may
enter into the open scrap market (2nd scrap loop).

Aluminium product and scrap flows

Version 2002 European Aluminium Association ([email protected]) 15

1.3.2 Refiners and Remelters

Refiners

Refiners take a broad variety of scrap in their furnaces and are the main recycler of post-
consumer scrap and other scrap which may have contamination or uncertain composition.
Consequently they need some purity tools or sweeteners1 and use a minor amount of primary
ingot for cost reasons.

Due to the technology used and the scrap input mix, they also have higher metal loss rates.
They produce SFA2, specification remelt ingots3 master alloys4 and deoxidisation products5.
Aluminium scrap from End of Life Vehicles is mainly recycled at these locations today.

Remelters

Remelters use primary aluminium (remelt ingot or liquid metal) and scrap to produce ingot6 for
wrought aluminium production. While historically using only their own own process scrap,
today some large scale remelters exist, which use a mix of scrap types in order to produce
ingot for wrought metal at lowest possible cost.

Loading aluminium scrap into a remelting furnace

Explanatory notes
1
Metal units which are mixed into the remelting process in order to decrease iron content or
any other relevant element.
2
Secondary Foundry Alloys.
3
Scrap analysed by refiners and cast in ingot form with a specified chemistry, for further
remelting.
4
Alloys for direct use in aluminium remelting, in order to adjust the chemical composition.
5
Used for deoxidation of steel; these products exit the recycling loop of aluminium.
6
Billet for extrusion, slab for sheet production.

Version 2002 European Aluminium Association ([email protected]) 16

1.3.3 Special recycling issues: Laquered / painted scrap
Skimmings and dross

Delaquering
In view of metal quality and for environmental reasons it is recommended to remove
lacquer/paint before melting. Several methods exist or have been suggested for this purpose:
Mechanical pre-treatment (shears, shredding, shot-blast)
Chemical treatment (salt baths, solvents etc.)
Biological pre-treatment (bacterial cultures)
Thermal treatment

Recycling skimmings and dross

Melting aluminium may produce residues such as skimmings and dross. The amount
generated varies largely with operating conditions; main drivers are the technology used and
purity of the metal being remelted. The following are indicative weight estimates for
skimmings/dross generated from aluminium remelting: primary smelters 1-2 %, remelters 3-
4%, refiners 5-10% (very dependent from the input scrap quality) of total aluminium ingot
output.
Skimmings and dross are always recycled for recovery of the aluminium contained, through a
range of techniques. The metal content of skimmings is typically around 50%, while it stands
lower in dross. Typical recovery of metallic Al from skimmings / dross is 5070%. Most of the
Al balance is recovered as aluminium oxide, which is re-used in ceramic or other applications

Definition for skimmings and dross (from EN 12258-3)

Skimmings: material composed of intimately mixed aluminium and aluminium oxides which
have been removed from the surface of the molten metal or from the bottom and walls of
liquid metal containers, e.g. furnaces, transport ladles or transfer channels. According to OEA
(the European secondary aluminium smelters organisation), the metal content of skimmings is
45% or more.
Dross: same material with lower metal content

Version 2002 European Aluminium Association ([email protected]) 17

1.3.4 Applications in automotive components

Today most shape cast products such as engine block, transmission parts and some
non-load carrying high pressure die cast components are produced from secondary
aluminium.

Production of wrought aluminium alloys for automotive parts from secondary aluminium is
currently limited however, due to alloy compatibility issues with post-consumer scrap.

There is a potential for expanded use of secondary aluminium in the production of sheet
alloys of the 3xxx-series (lid stock and tubes for heat exchangers, heat shields, panels).

For age hardenable alloys of the 6xxx-series, it is possible to use a minor amount in alloys
used today (6009, 6016, 6060, 6062).
For both the 5xxx-series and the 7xxx-series, Si from post-consumer scrap put strong
limitations on the use of secondary metal.

Increased use of secondary aluminium in wrought aluminium production will result from
several actions:
The development of economical processes for separating aluminium alloys in post-
shredded scrap.
Increased dismantling of specific aluminium parts from ELVs.
Expand specification limits for alloy elements that are not affecting the properties of
the end product and accept more composition dependent fabrication processes.

Version 2002 European Aluminium Association ([email protected]) 18

1.3.5 Use of secondary aluminium for wrought automotive
products compatibility issues

Production of wrought aluminium for automotive parts from secondary aluminium /

Compatibility issues with post-consumer scrap

Sources for alloy compatibility issues with post consumer scrap:

Fe: from attachment on aluminium and from stainless (non-magnetic) steel not removed in
post-shredder processes.

Zn: castings (incl. brass) and sheet not removed in post-shredder processes and from
galvanised/clad aluminium.

Cu: mainly tube and cable not removed in post-shredder processes.

Pb, Cr, Sn, Ni: most important trace elements in ELV scrap that may exceed acceptance
limits (0.05 wt% for most alloys).
It should be mentioned that actually the scrap mix of different aluminium alloys (incl. mix of
different wrought alloys, castings and foreign metal impurities) is the current feedstock for the
production of secondary casting alloys. In order to utilise part of this scrap for wrought alloy
production, economical processes are being developed for alloy separation and foreign metal
removal.

Version 2002 European Aluminium Association ([email protected]) 19

1.3.6 Benefits from aluminium recycling

Secondary aluminium has important characteristics related to recycling:

1. The inherent quality of aluminium is not affected by recycling and remains high irrespective
of the number of recycling cycles.

2. Energy savings through recycling can amount to 95%, depending on the type of aluminium
scrap, the respective recycling technology and particular fuel sources used.

3. There are a number of other environmental benefits from secondary Al production. The
graph compares the raw material consumption, air emissions and solid waste generation for
ingots produced from primary or secondary aluminium (corresponding values shown on 100%
reference scale). For example, CO2 equiv. savings of 94% can be made with secondary
aluminium compared with primary metal production.
Nevertheless, the production of aluminium from bauxite or from scrap via recycling should not
be regarded as competing processes. They are both essential and integrated parts of the
aluminium material cycle.

Version 2002 European Aluminium Association ([email protected]) 20

1.4 ELV recycling

1.4.1 End of Life Vehicles (ELV) resource for automotive

aluminium

See also:
AAM Design Environment, Health and Safety > Recycling
AAM Design Environment, Health and Safety > Recycling > Current contribution
of recycling to aluminium supply
AAM Design Environment, Health and Safety > Recycling > Future outlook for
aluminium recycling

Resource:

The present European car fleet contains approx. 10 mio. tons of aluminium, which are
reclaimed at the vehicles' end of life with a recovery rate of up to 95%.

Economy:

Aluminium in current ELV's represents only a small percentage of the total car weight, about
5%, yet it accounts for 35 to 50% of the scrap value of the ELV.

Aluminium's high value and its ease of recycling are the reasons for its successful recovery
from ELV's.

Perspectives:

Currently, ELV-recycled aluminium is only partially filling the demand for automotive
aluminium.

The expected growth of recycled ELV material calls for optimised sorting techniques in
recycling, for limitations in range of alloy and product varieties and for recycling-
friendly design of future cars.

Reference scenarios

Current contribution of recycling to aluminium supply.

Future outlook for aluminium recycling.

Version 2002 European Aluminium Association ([email protected]) 21

1.4.2 Aluminium usage and recycled content in automotives

Literature:
European Aluminium Association: Automotive Aluminium Recycling (Brochure)

Source: The Aluminum Association, Ducker

Source: EAA brochure 'Automotive Aluminium Recycling'

Version 2002 European Aluminium Association ([email protected]) 22

 Source: Alcan

Automotive aluminium enjoys a well-deserved reputation for recyclability. Around 110 kg of

aluminium is used on current North American and European vehicles. Today, virtually all of
the aluminium in ELVs is recycled by an efficient and dedicated industry. The foundation for
this success is twofold:
The intrinsic value for aluminium recycling requires just 5% of the energy necessary
to make primary metal.
An established recovery and recycling infrastructure, based on sound economics, that
continues to strive for improvement in metal recovery and cost efficiency.
The importance of recycling will continue to grow with growth in use of aluminium in
automotive applications.

Version 2002 European Aluminium Association ([email protected]) 23

1.4.3 Recovery of aluminium Car shredders

Literature:
Gesing, A., Stewart, C., Wolanski, R., Dalton, R. and Berry, L.: TMS 4th International
Symposium on recycling of Metals and Engineered Materials, Pittsburgh, PA USA
Oct 2000.

The process by which aluminium is recovered begins with the scrap collection and
dismantling yards. There are over 6000 in North America and over 16000 in Europe. Their
main function is reuse of spare parts, although some aluminium is usually recovered for
recycling in the form of powertrain components, wheels and radiators etc. The vehicle hulks
are sold to car shredders (of which there are 200 in North America and over 200 in Europe)
where the real process of materials separation begins.

Car shredders employ a series of processes to recover the various materials fractions from
ELVs.

Figure: ELV car shredders reduce the vehicle to small pieces that can be separated using
magnets, screens and air classifiers into various concentrates for subsequent processing.

Vehicle recovery system: car shredding

The vehicle hulk is fed into a shredder, a powerful hammer mill capable of breaking the
vehicle hulk into pieces small enough to liberate individual materials. The co-mingled stream
of metallic and non-metallic materials exiting the shredder is then separated into groups. Air
classifiers are routinely used to separate the lighter fraction of the non-metallics such as
paper plastic, foil and foam. Magnets are used to separate the iron and steel from the heavier
non-magnetics which include non-metals and non-ferrous metals.

The non-magnetic product of magnetic separation is further processed using screening and
eddy current separation to concentrate the metallic content.

Version 2002 European Aluminium Association ([email protected]) 24

Figure: Powerful magnets, usually installed in conveyor rotors, are used for high speed bulk
separation of ferrous from non-magnetic materials

Magnetic separation of ferrous from non-ferrous materials

Version 2002 European Aluminium Association ([email protected]) 25

1.4.4 Separation and enrichment of aluminium scrap stream

Literature:
Dalmijn, W. J.: 2nd International symposium on recycling of metals and engineered
materials, ed van Linden, J., Stewart Jr, D. L., Sahai, Y., 1990 pp 303-314

The next phase in aluminium recovery involves passing the nonmagnetic concentrate through
a series of fluids of controlled density. The materials fractions lighter than each fluid float out
and are separated from the heavier fraction. The majority of the aluminium is concentrated in
a fraction also containing rocks and insulated wire, which will be separated further in the next
processing stage.

Figure: Density separation of non-ferrous concentrates using heavy media or sink/float

separation.

Heavy media or sink float separation of non-ferrous shredder fraction

The final stage in the separation of aluminium utilises an eddy current separator to isolate
aluminium from the rock and insulated wire. The separator functions on the principle that eddy
currents are induced in an electrically conductive material passing through an alternating
magnetic field. The eddy currents in turn generate repulsive forces that are related to the
conductivity, density, shape and size of the material and can be used for separation. The
magnetic fields are generated by electromagnets or strong permanent magnets in an array on
the fast spinning rotor inside head pulley of a conveyor belt. The aluminium is forced away
from the rotor, follows a different trajectory from the other materials, and is separated from the
other materials by an adjustable knife.

Version 2002 European Aluminium Association ([email protected]) 26

Figure: Eddy current separator works by inducing eddy currents and hence repulsive forces in
materials according to their density and conductivity.

Eddy current separator

Version 2002 European Aluminium Association ([email protected]) 27

1.4.5 ELV recycling Future trends and use of recovered
automotive aluminium

See also:
AAM Design 3 Environment, Health and Safety > Recycling > Future ELVs scrap
supply and demand for standard grade casting alloys

Mixed scrap from current ELVs is currently used to make secondary foundry alloys for cast
applications. The secondary alloys, particularly A380 (EN AC-46000 and -46200) which is
used to make cast products for automotive and many other applications, are chemically
compatible with most aluminium alloys, and magnesium levels in wrought alloy scrap can be
removed relatively easily in the melting process. However, recycling scrap into the wrought
alloys is much more difficult as they are governed by stricter chemical composition limits. The
use of mixed aluminium alloy scrap into secondary foundry alloys is an acceptable practice as
long as the demand for castings using these alloys exceeds the supply of scrap alloys.

Figure: Significant wrought alloy growth is forecast in both North America and European
markets. While the ELV scrap arising from this may be used into secondary castings
applications, it poses an opportunity for scrap separation or melt purification of alloys.

Trends in growth of wrought and cast aluminium in European automotive applications.

With the expected growth of aluminium applications in cars, also the amount of aluminium
scrap recovered from ELV will grow significantly. Studies in Europe have indicated that in
2015 only under a conservative scenario where all aluminium from ELVs would be recycled in
Europe, the total amount of recovered aluminium would rise to 1.6 million tons. This is still
below the needs of the total secondary aluminium production, but already in the range of the
aluminium casting applications in newly produced automobiles. Some scrap could then
possibly be in excess of the scrap need for recycling in automotive standard casting
applications. A similar scenario is forecast for North America. This situation would lead to an
opportunity for the development of scrap alloy separation or melt purification.

Version 2002 European Aluminium Association ([email protected]) 28

Figure: Significant wrought alloy growth is forecast in both North America and European
markets. While the ELV scrap arising from this may be used into secondary castings
applications, it poses an opportunity for scrap separation or melt purification of alloys.

Trends in growth rates for wrought and cast aluminium in North American automotive
applications

Version 2002 European Aluminium Association ([email protected]) 29

1.4.6 Alloy sorting options for ELVs

Literature:
Gesing, A., Stewart, C., Wolanski, R., Dalton, R. and Berry, L.: TMS 4th International
Symposium on recycling of Metals and Engineered Materials, Pittsburgh, PA USA
Oct 2000.
Shultz, P. B., Wyss, R. K.: Chemical treatment of aluminum alloys to enable alloy
separation: US patent 6100487, August 8 2000, assigned to Aluminum company of
America

There are several potential solutions for dealing with the separation or purification of mixed
automotive alloy scrap. Melt refining is one option that is being considered but a simpler
approach is to physically separate the various aluminium alloys during the recovery process.
This may be accomplished by ELV dismantling or post shredder sorting. Dismantling has
potential for recovery of a percentage of the alloys, but is labour intensive and not considered
to be commercially viable for smaller, difficult to remove parts. Sorting offers a more
comprehensive capability but until recently the technology has not been available. A practical
solution would take advantage of both approaches as shown in the figure.

Figure: A concept for recovering aluminium by alloy type from ELVs using a combination of
dismantling and alloy sorting.

Analysis of recycling of ELV aluminium

The US Aluminium Association in North America is collaborating with the North American
automakers and Huron Valley Steel Corporation (HVSC), a leading North American and
international non-ferrous materials processor, to demonstrate HVSC technology for
automated bulk sorting aluminium of alloys from shredded ELVs. Two techniques are being
evaluated, one based on colour sorting following a chemical etch, a concept developed by
Alcoa, the other based on optical emission spectroscopy using lasers. A concept that has
been worked on by several companies, notably Metallgesellschaft and Alcan, but more
recently has been developed into a commercially viable opportunity by HVSC. Both

Version 2002 European Aluminium Association ([email protected]) 30

techniques rely on HVSC proprietary sorting equipment that is linked to the identification
process.

Figure: Automated sorting comprises an identification/analysis station where the colour or

chemistry of the scrap is determined. This is coupled with proprietary technology for
accomplishing the physical sorting by alloy type.

Automated sorting concept

Version 2002 European Aluminium Association ([email protected]) 31

1.4.7 Laser induced breakdown spectroscopy for alloy sorting

Literature:
Gesing, A., Stewart, C., Wolanski, R., Dalton, R. and Berry, L.: TMS 4th International
Symposium on recycling of Metals and Engineered Materials, Pittsburgh, PA USA
Oct 2000.
Gesing, A. J., Shaw, T.: Method of sorting pieces of metal; US patent 5813543, Sept
29th 1998, assigned to Alcan
Aluminum Association: Automotive Aluminum Recycling Design Guidelines (1996)

Whereas the colour sorting technique is capable of differentiating alloy families (as the colour
is a direct consequence of the alloying ingredients), the laser spectroscopic technique
produces a full elemental spectrum of the composition allowing identification of individual
alloys (see figure). Furthermore, the technique is compatible with a sorting algorithm that
allows a target composition to be developed by blending many different alloys. The
automated sorting techniques identified have already demonstrated capability on a pilot scale,
and are compatible with commercial equipment installations in Europe as well as North
America. Thus the prospects are excellent for a near term practical solution for sorting mixed
alloys into usable wrought alloy products.
Tramp element pick-up, particularly of iron and silicon, will need to be controlled by the
separation processes. Design of alloys with increased tolerance to these and other elements
will help to optimize the recycle loop.

Laser induced breakdown (optical emission) spectroscopy

Version 2002 European Aluminium Association ([email protected]) 32