NASA 1970 Prop Noise Review PDF

N
N A T I O N A L A E R O N A U T I C S A N D SPACE A D M I N I S T R A T I O N
Technical Report 32-7462
A Review of Aerodynamic Noise From Propellers,

Rofors, and Liff Fans
Jack E. Made
Donald W. Kurtz
J E T PROPULSION LABORATORY
C A L I F O R N I A INSTITUTE OF T E C H N O L O G Y
PASADENA, C A L I F O R N I A
January 1, 1970
4
d
N A T I O N A L A E R O N A U T I C S A N D SPACE A D M I N I S T R A T I O N
Technical Report 32-1462
A Review of Aerodynamic Noise From Propellers,

Rotors, and Lift Fans
Jack E. Made
Donald W. Kurtz
J E T PROPULSION LABORATORY i
CALIFORNIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
PASADENA, CALIFORNIA
January 1, 1970
d
Prepared Under Contract No. NAS 7- 100
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
d
Preface
The preparation of this report was carried out by the Environmental Sciences
Division of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory for the United States Department of
Transportation.
JPL TECHNICAL REPORT 32-7462 iii

d
d
.
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
II . Elements of Aerodynamic Acoustics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

.
A Acoustic Radiator Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
B. Sources of Aerodynamic Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1. Rotational noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. Interaction and distortion effects 4
3. Vortex noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
4. Turbulence-induced noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
.
C Attenuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1. Geometric attenuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2. Atmospheric attenuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
111. Propeller Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

A . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
B. Polar Noise Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
C. Ordered (Rotational) Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
D. Vortex Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
.
IV Rotor Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
A . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
B. Characteristics of Rotor Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1. Ordered (rotational) noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
2. Broad-band (vortex) noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10
3. Modulation (blade slap) noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
C. Rotor Noise Alleviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . '13
.
V lift Fan Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
A . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
B. Noise Sources of Fans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
C. Scaling Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
.
Appendix A Explanation of Some Fundamental Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
.
Appendix 8 Generalized Propeller-Noise Estimating Procedure . . . . . . . . . 21
.
Appendix C Generalized Rotor-Noise Estimating Procedure . . . . . . . . . . 28
Appendix D. Generalized Lift-Fan-Noise Estimating Procedure . . . . . . . . . 35
JPL TECHNICAL REPORT 32-7462 V
d
Contents (contd)
Appendix E . V/STOL-Noise Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Figures
.
1 Elementary sources of sound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2. Theoretical noise patterns for rotors. propellers and fans . . . . . . . . . 2
3. Sources of aerodynamic noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
.
4 Molecular attenuation coefficient for air-to-ground propagation at
7OoF and 8 g/m3 absolute humidity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
5. Noise level as a function of disc loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
6. Acoustic contribution of loading harmonics 10 deg below rotor disc
(adapted from Ref. 12) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
7. Comparison of theories with experimental data at the side of a helicopter . . . . 8
8. Comparison of theory and experiment (adapted from Ref. 14) . . . . . . . . 9
.
9 Noise spectrum; comparison of theory (adapted from Ref 12) .
and experiment for a two-blade rotor (UH-1A and UH-1B) . . . . . . . . . 10
.
10 Octave band vortex noise spectrum below stall (a),
and above stall (b). (adapted from Ref. 13) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
11. Comparison of computed SPLs vs harmonic number for various KL and KD,
with measured SPLs for a UH-1A helicopter in hover, (adapted from Ref. 19) . . . 11
.
12 Typical blade-vortex intersections for a single rotor system (a),
and a tandem rotor system (b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
13. Tip vortex locus as a function of several operational modes . . . . . . . . 13

14. Typical tip-turbine-driven lift fan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
15. Effect of rotor-stator spacing (adapted from Hickey, Ref. 23) . . . . . . . . 15
16. Normalized overall power of compressor and fan noise

(adapted from Ref. 26) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
.
17 Noise generated by STOL aircraft, 50, 000 to 95,000 Ib gross weight
(adapted from Deckert, Ref. 23) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
B.l . Near-field axis system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
8.2 . Reference level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
8.3 . Correction for speed and radial distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
B.4 . Variation of over.all, free-space propeller noise levels with
. . . . . . . . . . . . 23
axial position X/D fore and aft of propeller plane
B.5 . Effect of reflecting surfaces in pressure field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

8.6 . Harmonic distribution of rotational noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
vi JPl TECHNICAL REPORT 32-1462

Contents (contd)
Figures (contd)
B.7 . Chart for combining noise levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

B.8 . Polar distribution of overall noise levels for propellers . . . . . . . . . . 25
B.9 . Molecular absorption of sound in air
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
B.10 . Far-field axis system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
C.1 . Rotor rotational noise axis system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
C.2 . Rotor noise harmonic sound pressure levelsas functions of
harmonic number, rotational Mach number, and angle from disc plane . . . . . 30
C.3 . Sound pressure levels corresponding to harmonic numbers . . . . . . . . . 33
C.4 . Results of vortex noise sample calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
D.1 . Lift fan axis system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
D.2 . Normalized power spectrum of compressor and fan noise . . . . . . . . . 36
JPL TECHNICAL REPORT 32-1462 vii
d
Abstract
Hand-calculation procedures for predicting aerodynamic noise from propellers,
rotors and lift fans useful as first engineering approximations have been assembled
from the literature. Considerable introductory material and a glossary of terms
has been included to make the prediction procedures more meaningful. Current
literature has been reviewed and a comprehensive bibliography on V/STOL air-
craft noise is presented.
viii JPL TECHNICAL REPORT 32-1462
d
A Review of Aerodynamic Noise from Propellers,
Rotors, and Lift Fans
1. Introduction This report is the product of a study of aircraft noise

technology, by JPL for the United States Department of
The problem of aircraft noise and its annoyance to the
Transportation, particularly as it relates to V/STOL air-
public has been one of increasing concern in recent years.
craft. No original research is included. It is the intention
The advent of turboshaft engines has, in most cases, left
of this review to gather convenience material, useful for
the rotor, propeller, and lift fan systems as the primary
prediction of the aerodynamic noise generated by pro-
sources of aerodynamic noise in current and proposed
pellers, lift fans, and rotors; it is representative of the best
V/STOL aircraft. The forecasted increased commercial
methods available in the open literature at this time. Also
use of these aircraft in close-in, heavily populated areas
included is s d c i e n t background material to enable a
has made understanding these systems as noise sources
reader without previous experience in acoustics to learn
an important technical objective. Discomfort, interruption
its terminology and some orientation in the field.
of speech communication and other activities due to inter-
mittent aircraft noise is expected to be realized by a wider
segment of the public with the advent of broad utilization The bibliography included as Appendix E was assem-
of low-flying V/STOL aircraft. In addition, high noise bled during the course of the study of V/STOL noise
level inside currently flying STOL aircraft provides addi- technology; it is much broader in scope, therefore, than
tional motivation for developing better abatement tech- the remainder of this report which is limited to rotors,
niques. lift fans, and propellers.
JPL TECHNICAL REPORT 32- 1462 1
d
II. Elements of Aerodynamic Acoustics Dipole strength is a vector term with direction as well as
magnitude. Vortex noise is an example of dipole noise,
A. Acoustic Radiator Models as are noise due to torque (induced drag) and noise due
In earlier work on acoustic theory, such as Ref. 1, many to thickness (form drag).
of the features of aerodynamic noise are discussed in terms
of simple sources (monopoles), dipoles, and quadrupoles. In the appropriate acoustic equation, momentum trans-
These are the so-called elementary solutions of the equa- port appears in two parts: one represents direct convection
tions of motion from classical acoustic theory of small of the momentum component by the velocity component;
disturbances to a gas at rest. The theory was developed the other part, which equally transfers momentum, is the
by Lord Rayleigh before the end of the nineteenth cen- stress between adjacent elements of fluid. This second
tury in his Theory of Sound. Such solutions describe the part can be represented by a quadrupole since an element
radiation generated at a point, while real sound is always of fluid under stress bears equal and opposite forces on
generated over some area and can be described only by a opposite sides, each force being equivalent to a dipole
continuous distribution of point singularities. Physical and each pair to a quadrupole. Models for quadrupoles
models, taken from Ref. 2, are shown in Fig. 1. are shown in Fig. IC.A turbulent jet is a noise source of
this type, as also is thrust noise, because the wake from
The simplest of these is the pulsating sphere, which is which the noise emanates is merely a low-speed turbu-
lent jet.
used to represent the simple point source where the sound
is generated by the variation of mass outaow from the
source. A simple example of this type of noise is the burst- Cancellation effects in the dipole and quadrupole cause
ing balloon; none of the noise sources of rotors, fans, and progressively decreasing efficiencies of radiation at the
propellers are of this type. lower frequencies. In an example from Ref. 3, which as-
sumes a sphere deforming at a frequency having a wave-
length of twice the circumference of the sphere, the
The next simplest elementary solution is the dipole,
efficiencies of a dipole and a quadrupole relative to a
where sound is generated by the injection of momentum
simple source are 1/13 and lJ000, respectively. This
rather than mass. An acoustic dipole is equivalent to a
suggests one means of reducing aerodynamic noise: that
force concentrated at a point and varied in magnitude
and/or direction. Alternate models are shown in Fig. lb.
(a) PULSATING SPHERE AS MODEL OF SIMPLE SOURCE OF SOUND
(b) ALTERNATE MODELS OF DIPOLE SOURCE OF SOUND
(a) THICKNESS (b) TORQUE
OSCILLATING OSCILLATING DIPOLE SOURCES AND SINKS

RIGID SPHERE FORCE ON SPHERE
(c) ALTERNATE MODELS OF LATERAL QUADRUPOLE SOURCE OF SOUND
(c) VORTEX SHEDDING (d) THRUST (e) THRUST AND TORQUE

RIGID SPHERES FORCE PAIR DIPOLE PAIR DEFORMING SPHERE
(STRESS)
Fig. 2. Theoretical noise patterns for rotors,
Fig. 1. Elementary sources of sound propellers and fans
2 JPL TECHNICAL REPORT 32-7462

d
as much as possible of the acoustic energy, which is the times the rotational frequency). Vortex or broad band
inevitable byproduct of the generation of the aerody- noise describes the modulated sound produced by the
namic forces required for flight, be channeled into mecha- unsteady pressure field associated with vortices shed from
nisms which are inefficient quadrupole radiators. the trailing edge and tips of the blades as well as some
of the noise sources associated with turbulence effects in
Each type of radiator has its own polar distribution of the air stream. The helicopter rotor and single or multi-
acoustic energy. The simple source or monopole is non- stage lift fans deserve separate consideration because,
directional, of course, while the dipole has the familiar although much of their noise can be explained in terms
two-lobed figure-8 pattern with the lobes aligned in the of propeller noise sources, there are a number of other
direction of the vector. The quadrupole has a symmetrical sources which are exclusive to, or of increased importance
four-lobed pattern. These theoretical polar distribution in, those devices to the point where they make significant
patterns are to some degree distorted in practice. Theo- contributions to the overall levels. For purposes of this
retical noise patterns for various types of noise are shown discussion, the sources of aerodynamic noise have been
in Fig. 2 (taken from Ref. 4). structured as shown in Fig. 3. They include not only the
traditional sources of noise in propellers but also those
B. Sources of Aerodynamic Noise additional sources which can be important for rotors and
fans.
Aerodynamic noise may be defined as sound which is
generated as a direct result of relative motion between a
I . Rotational noise
solid body or stream of fluid and the surrounding medium.
The mechanisms by which rotors, propellers and fans a. Thrust and torque noise. All real rotating airfoils, i.e.,
produce intense sound pressures have been the subject those having thickness, have a pressure distribution when
of much work, especially in recent years. Traditionally, moving relative to the surrounding medium. This pressure
noise generated by propellers has been separated into two distribution can be resolved into a thrust component nor-
parts called the rotational and the vortex components. mal to the plane of rotation and torque component in the
Rotational or periodic noise here describes all sound which plane of rotation. Conversely, the air in contact with the
is identified with discrete frequencies occurring at har- propeller has a force on it which can be resolved into
monics of the blade passage frequency (number of blades the thrust and torque vectors. This pressure field on the
AERODYNAMIC
NOISE
ROTATIONAL
a
PERIODIC
INTERACTI O N
AND
~
TURBULENCE
BROAD BAND
VORTEX
NOISE DISTORTION INDUCED NOISE
EFFECTS
-
THRUST AMPLITUDE WAKE AND TRAILING

AND THICKNESS BLADE AND TIP
FIELD EDGE
TORQUE SLAP FREQUENCY 1 NTERACTIONS VORTICES
VORTICES
MODULATION
JPL TECHNICAL REPORT 32-1462 3

.i
air is steady relative to the blade and rotates with it if properties may become significant parameters. The third
operating under conditions of uniform inflow. For non- mechanism may also result directly from operation of a
uniform inflow, for example a helicopter rotor in steady blade at high tip speed (such as an advancing helicopter
forward flight, the difference in relative blade speed dur- blade during high speed flight). When it occurs, blade
ing forward and backward motion of the blade relative slap is by far the dominant source of aerodynamic noise.
to the flight path requires a cyclic incidence variation to
provide a reasonably uniform lift over the disc. To a first b. Amplitude and frequency modulation. Distortion
approximation, the forces on the air next to the disc would effects of these types can significantly alter the character
be constant under these conditions; the effects of incidence of the generated sound. Amplitude and frequency modu-
changes wofild appehr only as variations of chordwise lation resulting from the periodic advance and retreat of
loading over the blade. From a fixed point on the disc, the source relative to a stationary observer effectively
the rotating field appears as an oscillating pressure. The increases the detection and annoyance of a noise source.
frequency of the oscillation is the frequency with which In addition, Doppler shift due to motion (flyover) of the
a blade passes that point (blade passage frequency), and aircraft relative to the fixed observer causes a frequency
the wave form of the oscillating pressure is determined shift in the overall noise level which is proportional to the
by the chordwise distribution of pressure on the blades. velocity of the aircraft.
Analytically, rotating airfoils generating thrust and torque
noise may be represented as an array of stationary dipole
sources in the rotor disc which are activated during blade e. Wake and jieM interaction. The angle of attack and
passage. hence the lift of a blade passing through a series of wakes,
as in a lift fan with upstream stators, will be modulated at
b. Thickness noise. In addition to experiencing a fluctu- the fundamental frequency of the blade wake interaction
and is thus a source of additional periodic noise radiation.
ating force, an element of air in the disc will be physically
moved aside by the finite thickness of the blade. In a fixed The modulation of lift due to interaction of the pressure
fields of two adjacent blade rows in relative motion can
frame of reference this displacement is equivalent to a
periodic introduction and removal of mass at each element produce noise levels equal to wake interactions and at the
of air near the disc. The rate of mass introduction at a same frequencies.
point, which is determined by the blade profile, incidence
and speed, can then be expressed as the strength of a 3. Vortex noise. The dominant source of broad band
simple source. Up to values of resultant tip speed ap- noise is called vortex noise which has been defined as that
proaching sonic, thickness noise is generally found to be sound which is generated by the formation and shedding
small compared with the noise arising from torque and of vortices in the flow past a blade. For an infinite circular
thrust. At higher tip speeds, however, it may assume equal cylinder, normal to the flow and in the range of Reynolds
importance. numbers from IO2 to IO5, it is well known that the vortices
are shed in an orderly vortex street which is a function of
2. Interaction and distortion effects. The following cylinder diameter and flow velocity. The process in the
periodic effects are usually identified with helicopter ro- case of a rotating airfoil is similar and since there is a
tors but may occur to a lesser degree in fans and pro- different velocity associated with each chordwise station
pellers. along the span, a broad band of shedding frequencies
results. This produces a dipole form of acoustic radiation
a. Blade slap. Impulsive noise, blade bang or blade slap in which the strength of the source is proportional to the
may consist of high-amplitude periodic noise plus highly sixth power of the section velocity. Hence the frequencies
modulated vortex noise caused by impulsive fluctuating associated with the area near the tip tend to be of greatest
forces on the blades. The mechanisms by which these amplitude. Also, since a blade develops lift (thrust), tip
forces mayarise are: (1)blade-vortex interaction, (2) peri- and spanwise vorticity of strength proportional to the
odic stalling and unstalling of a blade, and (3) shock wave thrust gradients are generated and shed. Their dipole
formation and collapse due to unsteady periods of local acoustic radiation combines with that from the trailing
supersonid flow. The first and second conditions (and pos- edge vortices to make up the so-called vortex noise.
sibly the third) may occur when a blade passes through
or near a tip vortex or the unsteady wake generated by a 4. Turbulence-induced noise. In flow fields containing
preceding blade. Operation in this unsteady flow condi- shear layers such as boundary layers, random noise is pro-
tion leads to strong fluctuating forces. Here, aeroelastic duced directly by the motion of small-scale turbulence
4 JPL TECHNICAL REPORT 32- 1462

i
which, since it is quadrupole in nature, is inefficiently
radiated and inaudible in the presence of other noise
sources. However, considerable amplification of the weak
noise generation mechanism of turbulence results due to
interaction with the pressure field of a moving blade. The
induced acoustic radiation is of the more efficient dipole
type.
C. Attenuation
1. Geometric attenuation. As a sound wave travels
through still homogeneous air, it loses energy in three
ways. The first and usually most important process is that
due to the geometric distance between the source and the
observer. If one considers spherical wave spreading from
a point source of uniform intensity, the sound pressure
level registered at the observer varies inversely as the
square of the distance from the source. This relationship
is valid (to a first order approximation) for non-point
sources if the observer is in the far field (i.e., if the dis-
150 600 2400 10,000
tance from source to observer is great relative to the FREQUENCY BAND, Hz
dimension of the source). Expressed in terms of the loga-
rithmic decibel scale, the sound pressure level falls by Fig. 4. Molecular attenuation coefficient for air-to-ground
6 dB for every doubling of distance from the source. propagation at 7OoF and 8 g/m3 absolute humidity
2. Atmospheric attenuation. The other two processes

by which a sound wave loses energy are functions of the 111. Propeller Noise
atmosphere itself. The first mechanism arises through
A. Introduction
losses from heat conduction and radiation, viscosity, and
diffusion. This is generally termed classicu2 absorption As discussed in Section 11, the noise produced by an
and is proportional to the square of the sound frequency. operating propeller has been an object of scientific interest
The other process has to do with molecular relaxation for many years. All of the early work in the aeronautical
in the air and, unlike classical absorption, is a function of noise field, both analytic and experimental, was concerned
humidity as well as frequency. Typically, this second with the propeller noise problem or with allied configura-
effect is much more important in the audible range of tions such as Yudins work (Ref. 6) with rotating rods.
frequencies, and classical absorption is generally neg-
lected. Wind gradients and atmospheric turbulence can Although closely related to the noise produced by rotors
also be a significant factor. Attenuations measured upwind and fans, the problem of propeller noise is, in some re-
may exceed those measured downwind by 25 to 30 dB. spects, simpler because of the configurationand operating
Figure 4 shows the approximate molecular attenuation conditions of the propeller. The small number of blades
levels for air-to-ground sound propagation for an air in a normal propeller together with the flow velocity
temperature of 70F and absolute humidity of 8 g/m3 as through the propeller disc minimizes the interference
determined by the technique given in Ref. 5. A detailed effects due to operation in the wake of preceding blades.
treatment of atmospheric attenuation is given in that The structure and location of the propeller is such that
reference. Similar curves for both classical and molecular noise due to blade flutter and asymme.trica1induced flow
attenuation for other values of atmospheric temperature are not normally encountered. At moderate tip speeds, i.e.,
and humidity can be obtained readily. It should be noted, slightly below the onset of compressibility effects, both
however, that recent tests with turbofan aircraft have vortex noise and rotational noise due to thicknesdare lower
brought the present state of knowledge regarding atmo- than the rotational noise due to thrust and torque. Con-
spheric attenuation into dispute. The values of attenuation sequently, most of the noise work on propellers, of both
generally used (Ref. 5) for the high frequencies would a theoretical and experimental nature, has concentrated on
appear to be too large based on these tests. the effects of thrust and torque, In studies dealing with

d
the reduction of overall propeller noise, however, vortex Mt = tip Mach number
noise has been shown to be an important contributor and,
JnzR = Bessel function of order mB
in the case of high-speed flight, the level of thickness noise
may exceed that of thrust and torque noise. x = argument of Bessel function 0.8 MtmB sin 0
e = angle from forward propeller axis to observer
B. Polar Noise Patterns
'The theoretical polar noise patterns for propeller noise The expression gives reasonable agreement with experi-
were shown in Fig. 2 and discussed in Section 11;however, mental results for the first few harmonics of conventional
a few additional details are noteworthy. While thickness, propellers operating at moderate tip speeds and forward
torque, and vortex noise show the dipole pattern, the velocities. In these circumstances, summation of the
former two have their maximums in the plane of rotation, square root of the sum of the squares of the solutions to
while the latter has its maximum along the axis of rotation. the above expression for m = 1,2,3,4 will yield an ade-
While it is not shown in the figure, the two forward lobes quate approximation of the overall sound pressure of
of the quadrupole pattern of the thrust noise are 180 deg the thrust and torque components. Under such condi-
out of phase with the torque lobes. Figure 2e shows a tions it is a suitable estimate of the total noise as well.
combined thrust and torque polar noise pattern that is Equation (1) is not of a form that makes the functional
typical for a normal propeller. The relative magnitudes relationship between the basic geometric and operational
of the lobes are approximately correct. Theory indicates parameters and rotational noise clear; however, Hubbard,
that the angle of maximum intensity for a stationary pro- in Ref. 8, constructed, from solutions to this equation,
peller is 120 deg, as measured from the forward axis of plots which show that the noise level increases with
rotation. For a propeller in motion along the axis of absorbed power, increased diameter, fewer blades, and
rotation, this angle is reduced, because the contribution especially with increased tip speed. In the case of the
of the aft lobes of thrust noise becomes smaller as thrust number of blades, the change in noise level is partially
itself becomes less. At. 150 mph, the angle of maximum offset by the resulting shift in frequencies of the spec-
intensity might be 105 deg. Only the rear lobes contribute trum so that the change in loudness levell is small.
to this effect because of the out-of-phase relationship of
the forward thrust lobes. As tip Mach number is reduced to the range between
0.5 and 0.3, experimental results begin to diverge from
the values predicted by Eq. (1) in the direction of higher
C. Ordered (Rotational) Noise levels. In this region, vortex noise, which originates in
The theoretical work of Gutin (Ref. 7) has been reduced the variable forces acting on the medium during flow past
to a suitable form for engineering use. the blade, makes itself known.
D. Vortex Noise
Pm =
SA
TCOS0
1
JmB(X) (1)
An equation developed by Hubbard, which was based
on Yudin's original work, additional work by Stowell and
where: Deming (Ref. 9), and others, is frequently used to calculate
vortex noise in terms of SPL.
p = rms sound pressure level (SPL)lin dynes/cm2
m = order of the harmonic SPL = lOlog kAb (v0'7)G
(dB at 300 ft)
S = distance from propeller hub to observer, ft
R = propeller radius, f t where
A = propeller disc area, ftz k = constant of proportionality (see Section 11)

PA = absorbed power, horsepower Aa = propeller blade area, ft2
T ='thrust, lb Vo.7= velocity a t 0.7 radius
B = number of blades
The expression indicates that vortex noise is a strong
function of blade velocity; doubling the blade velocity
'See Appendix A. increases the SPL by 18 dB. The effect of doubling blade

d
area is less severe; the SPL is increased by 3 dB. This can be used to estimate either near-field or far-field noise.
suggests that the way to reduced vortex noise is to mini- The accuracy of near-field estimates is given at +5 to
mize the tip velocity and to make up the required thrust -9 dB overall, in general, and better or certain condi-
by increasing blade area as far as possible within the tions. The accuracy of far-field estimates is given as
constraints of efficiency and structure. It should be _tlOdB overall at 500 ft, based on limited experimental
remembered, however, that the vortex noise of propellers data.
does not become significant until the blade velocity is
already below normal operational values.
IV. Rotor Noise
Work on theoretical propeller noise prediction methods A. Introduction
has progressed and is being continued at a relatively low
level of effort at the present time. Despite the use of Aircraft employing lifting rotors presently represent the
modern computers, which has permitted increasing most efficient method of vertical takeoff and landing oper-
degrees of sophistication, there does not seem to be a ation. Low disc loading rotorcraft may indeed represent
method presently available which is capable of adequate the quietest present-generation aircraft with VTOL capa-
prediction of sufficient harmonics over an operating range bility (Fig. 5). Although it may be the best system cur-
that includes vortex noise at the low end and thickness rently available, the rotor craft as a noise source will not
and compressibility effects at the high end. achieve complete community acceptability. In order to
make the required noise reductions for inter-city opera-
Although considerable experimental noise measurement tion, it is important that the basic elements which produce
work has been carried out on propellers, much of it is the noise be fully understood. It is not, however, the pur-
pose of this section to develop an original rotor noise
unsuitable for use as research material because the band-
pass of the measuring equipment used was too wide to prediction analysis, but merely to present some of the
distinguish details of the spectrum at the higher fre- highlights of the current state of the art and the trends
quencies. Only recently has suitable narrow bandpass indicated.
equipment become generally available.
B. Characteristics of Rotor Noise
Studies with sub-scale propellers (see Ref. 10) have 1. Ordered (rotational) noise. The study of rotor noise
been used to investigate the effect on noise of such geo- has had the advantage of drawing on the knowledge
metric parameters as the number of blades and activity gained from earlier interest in the propeller. It was found,
factor. Even the older theories predict gross variations however, that although propeller noise theory was fairly
with geometric and operational parameters. However, the accurate in describing the sound level of the first harmonic
usefulness of such data in the prediction of full scale of rotors, it was grossly in error for the higher harmonics.
propeller noise characteristics has not yet been estab- This is not altogether surprising when one considers the
lished. In particular, the importance of aeroelastic effects
which are difficult to match between model and full scale
should be studied. The results of some of the more useful
experimental noise measurements on full scale propellers
is summarized in Ref. 4.
Because theory has not prbved to be fully adequate as

a means of predicting propeller noise, a number of
methods, based to some degree on experimental measure-
ments, have evolved; these methods are intended to be
either more general than presently possible with theory
or to cover special conditions where the theory is inade-
quate. One of the most useful, judged by the criteria of
simplicity of application and range of applicability, is 2
the procedure developed at the Hamilton Standard Divi- 2 80
sion of United Aircraft and presented in Ref. 4. It is DISC LOADING, lb/ft2

reproduced here in Appendix B for the sake of conve-
nience. The method, which is divided into two sections, Fig. 5. Noise level as a function of disc loading

relative complexities of the two systems. The propeller
that Gutin described was a rigid device rotating in steady, m
uniform flow. The modern rotor is quite a different sys-

tem. The main feature of rotor aerodynamics is the lack
of symmetry. In transitional and forward flight, the rotor
disc encounters highly nonuniform inflow, and the mecha-
nism by which forward thrust is obtained gives rise to
cyclic pitch and fluctuating airloads on advancing and
retreating blades. Cyclic pitch is the name given to the
first harmonic variation applied to the blade pitch angle
as it rotates. (For an introductory treatment of helicopter
aerodynamics, see Ref. 11.) Reference 12 states that since
the relative air velocity over the blade also has a first har-
monic variation and since aerodynamic forces are propor-
tional to the square of the relative velocity, one may expect
to find at least three harmonics in the force fluctuations
acting on the blades. However, this would be true if the LOADING HARMONIC NUMBER,A
flow through the rotor were uniform. Under real operating
conditions, velocity fluctuations are induced which give Fig. 6. Acoustic contribution of loading harmonics
rise to a multitude of blade loading harmonics. The calcu- 10 deg below rotor disc (adapted from Ref. 121
lation or experimental determination of these higher har-
monic blade loads is extremely complex and has met with
only limited success. Many authors (Refs. 12 through 14)
are of the opinion that all the significant higher harmonic
IMEASURED DATA 0 THEORY - SCHLEGEL
sound effects (except possibly at transonic or supersonic -
OTHEORY GUTIN ATHEORY - LOWSON
speeds) can be attributed to these unsteady higher har-
monic loadings and, further, that any sound harmonic
receives contributions from all loading harmonics. This
effect is illustrated in Fig. 6, from Ref. 12, which shows
Lowsons calculated contribution to a number of sound
harmonics of the first 60 loading harmonics on a four-
blade rotor.
Two modern rotor noise theories by Schlegel, et al.

(Ref. 13), and Loewy and Sutton (Ref. 14) make use of
the available harmonic loading data in their analyses. A
comparison of the theoretical and experimental results
from each report is presented in Figs. 7 and 8. Both in-
vestigations use substantially the same approach. The
equations for sound generation from a point source are
written, and expressions for the radiation from the com-
plete rotor are obtained by integration over the rotor disc.
Thickness noise and shear effects were ignored in both
reports. A difference in form between the basic equations
used results from the use of the Garrick and Watkins
(Ref. 15) moving axis form by Loewy and Sutton and the
more usual fixed axis form by Schlegel, et al. In each
approach; the necessary integrals are evaluated on a com-
puter. Both approaches retain the acoustic near-field
HARMONIC NUMBER HARMONIC NUMBER
terms in the point source radiation. (A fluctuating point
force produces an acoustic pressure field that contains two Fig. 7. Comparison of theories with experimental
components, one of which falls off as T* and one as T, data at the side of a helicopter

100
<5, 80
v
N
0
x 2
m
U
2 60 * .. .-.
2
A
w
L*
2
v)
Q I
1 -1 VV
w
L
0-
*
n
5 4c
2
2c I I I I I I
2 4 6 8 10 12
HARMONIC NUMBER, rn
Fig. 8. Comparison of theory and experiment

(adapted from Ref. 14)
where T is distance.) Clearly, sufficiently far away from the experimentally generated data is very questionable at the
source, only the last (acoustic far-field) term is signscant. present time.
For calculations near the source (say, a wavelength or so),
the first (acoustic near-field) term must be retained. The Lowson and Ollerhead have undertaken to avoid the
Schlegel approach does assume a second geometricfar- impasse by deriving empirical harmonic decay laws. A
field approximation,whose terms of order ( R / T ) where
~, R study of the available full-scale blade loading data re-
is rotor radius, can be neglected, thus simplifying the inte- vealed that the amplitudes of the airload harmonics de-
gration. All far-field approximations will be valid suffici- cayed approximately as some inverse power of harmonic
ently far from the rotor. Schlegel uses a rectangular number, at least in the range which covered the first 10
distribution approximation to the chordwise loading pat- harmonics. For steady flight out of ground effect, the
tern, while Loewy and Sutton use an analytic ap- optimum value for the exponent was found to be -2.0
proximation. Schlegel shows detailed comparison with so that the amplitude of the xth loading harmonic was
experimental results for only the first four harmonics. proportional to h-2.0.This law was then extrapolated in-
Fair agreement is found for the first two, but it is clear definitely to higher frequencies in order to provide some
that underestimation of the fourth, and presumably higher, estimate of the higher harmonic airload levels. However,
harmonics occurs. However, it should be noted that this before this could be used as a basis for noise calculations,
is a substantial improvement over the use of Gutins for- account had to be taken for phase variations around the
mula. This report shows clearly that the higher harmonics rotor azimuth and along the rotor span. It was assumed
of the loading have important contributions to the higher that the phases could be randomized, in the case of the
harmonics of the noise. Loewy and Sutton came to the span wise loading variations, this was accomplished by
same general conclusions. The usefulness of these theo- the introduction of a correlation length concept such
ries, then, depend on the availability of higher harmonics as commonly used in turbulence theory. By assuming that
loading data. Rotor aerodynamics is an exceedingly com- the correlation length was inversely proportional to fre-
plex three-dimensional problem; at the present time even quency, this resulted in an approximate net effect of add-
the accurate prediction of low-frequency fluctuations, for ing a further -0.5 to the exponent of the loading power
the purposes of calculating blade vibration response, is a law. Also, an effective rotational Mach number concept is
formidable task. Higher harmonic loading prediction is introduced which enables the effects of forward speed to
even more difficult, and the validity of theoretically or be calculated directly from results for the hover case.
JPL TECHNKAL REPORT 32-7462 9
r
Using these approximations,the rotational noise spectrum
for the Bell UH-1 helicopter was calculated for compari- THEORY, M = 0.5, ELEVATION = 5 deg
son with available measurements. The comparison is 0 ELEVATION - 10 deg, r = 100 ft, GROUND RUNNING
-
shown in Fig. 9. Because of uncertainties regarding the Z
0
overall levels, they were normalized on the basis of power
in the third and higher harmonics. Although for this rea-
son, nothing can be said about overall levels; the agree-
ment, insofar as spectral shape is concerned, is good up
to the thirtieth harmonic. The calculated levels are shown
for the hover case in Fig. 7a. They are only slightly better
than Schlegel's theory at the fourth harmonic. Lowson
made some simplifying assumptions to his closed-form
analytic solution, which enabled him to develop a set of
useful design charts. These charts allow the user to deter-
mine rotational noise levels for a rotor under any condi-
tions of steady flight with a few simple hand calculations.
The charts, with detailed instructions for their use and an
example calculation, are shown in Appendix C. With care-
ful use, the procedure can yield any reasonable number
HARMONIC NUMBER
of noise harmonics at any point in the far field of the rotor
to within 2 dB of the value obtained by computer tech- Fig. 9. Noise spectrum; comparison of theory (adapted
niques. Comparisons with experimental results indicate from Ref. 12) and experiment for a two-blade rotor
that, although the design charts may be in error for the IUH-1A and UH-1Bl
overall levels, they should give the parameter trends quite
accurately. The charts should be useful tools for design
opinion that, above 100 Hz vortex noise became dominant
tradeoff studies.
by saying that the commonly used 1/3 octave analysis of
experimental data does not distinguish the higher indi-
2. Broad-band (uortex) noise. The fundamental genera- vidual harmonics and that experimenters were prejudiced,
tion mechanism of broad-band and, more particularly since previous theoretical results predicted that rotational
vortex noise from rotors is not yet fully understood. In noise decayed more rapidly than, in fact, occurs. At any
Yudin's early work with rotating rods, vortex noise was rate, broad-band noise is generated and can be dominant
considered to be a viscous wake-excited phenomenon and under some rotor operations, e.g., at very low rotational
indeed it must be in that case. However, in the case of a velocities with two or three bladed rotors where even
lifting airfoil such as a rotor, the experimental evidence higher harmonics of the blade passage frequency may be
could support equally well the contention that it is caused inaudible. Hubbard and Regier (Ref. 18) extended the
by a random movement of the lifting vortex in the tip work of Yudin and postulated that, for propellers with air-
region. Stuckey and Goddard (Ref. 16) used a radial array foil sections, as for rotating circular rods, the vortex noise
of microphones in their rotor measurements, but were not energy was proportional to the ,first power of blade area
able to locate the true center of dipole activity from their and to the sixth power of the section velocity (see Sec-
data. In view of the work by Spencer et al. (Ref. 17), tion 111).Hubbard's formula is based on a C , = 0.4.Ad-
Schlegel, et al., and others in reducing broad-band noise justment is made for other values of C , by using an
through modifications to rotor tips, it seems certain that effective blade area. Schlegel reports that intensive anal-
the tip vortex does have a significant effect. Quite likely, ysis of experimental rotor test data indicated that greater
both the tip vortex and the vortex sheet shed from the accuracy could be attained by using actual blade area
upper surface of the airfoil contribute in varying degrees and coefficient of lift. He also suggests that the constant
depending on the configuration and operating conditions. k, in Hubbard's equation (Section 111, Part D) for rotor
There is evidence, however, that a portion of what was use, should be 6.1 X However, the value is not firmly
originally identified as broad-band, vortex noise may, in established; experimental measurements, where they are
fact, be higher harmonic rotational noise. Lowson and available and reliable, should be used to evaluate the
Ollerhead report that the rotational noise of rotors may constant for a particular set of conditions. A systematic
dominate the noise spectrum up to 400 Hz and higher. experimental program on vortex noise might reveal
They explain this divergence from a generally held earlier the effect of secondary variables which are at present

d
contained within the constant;the problem in evaluating as presented by Schlegel. It is evident that the separated
the constant to a firm value may be due to the many mea- flow has caused a rise in the levels of the octaves above
surement difficulties. the peak octave. Therefore, from Eq. (3) and Fig. 10, one
may predict the vortex noise octave band spectrum for a
rotorblade operating in or out of stall. The method and
Variations in lift for the modified equation are accounted
an example problem is presented for convenience in
for by addition of the term 20 logCL/0.4. Schlegels result-
Appendix 6.
ing equation for vortex noise at 300 f t is
Sadler and Loewy (Ref. 19) have taken a unique view

6.1 x 10-27 A~(v,..,)~2o log -
+ CL
SPL = lolog (3) of the problem of rotor noise prediction. Their approach
10-16 0.4
involves the simultaneous consideration of both the rota-
tional and vortex shedding effects. While some improve-
This equation yields an overall level only and has no pro- ment in predicted noise over Loewy and Suttons earlier
vision in itself to indicate spectrum shape. Theoretically, report is achieved, noise levels at harmonics of the blade
frequencies of vortex noise form a continuous spectrum passage frequency still were not predicted accurately. A
from near-zero to a cutoff frequency which depends upon comparison between the theory and measured data from a
the rotational speed of the tip. Schlegel has gained some UH-1 helicopter in hover is presented in Fig. 11, The
insight by experimental methods into vortex octave band inaccuracy may be due to deficiencies in the theory, or it
spectrum shape of a blade operating out of stall as shown
in Fig. loa. This condition is present at low angles of
attack at the tip. The peak frequency f is defined as
9
and is the Strouhal frequency at the 0.7 radius station
for a constant Strouhal number of 0.28. (This is satisfac-
tory for the usual range of Reynolds numbers for a heli-
copter rotor.) When unsteady aerodynamic forces appear
near the tip of a blade, due to the occurrence of either
stall or drag divergence, there is a definite change in the
spectrum shape. Figure lob represents the general spec-
trum shape of a blade operating under these conditions,
O (a) SP~CTRUMBELOW;TALL
-1
v)
-1
-10
5 -2,
Y0
.,
m
V
-20
-1
Y
(b) S:ECTRUMABOVE :TALL

2
-1
E
2
t -10
I I
L
u7 KL AND KD ARE VORTEX STREET LIFT AND DRAG CONSTANTS
20
0 5 10 15 20
-20 HARMONIC NUMBER
Fig. 11. Comparison of computed SPLs vs harmonic

Fig. 10. Octave band vortex noise spectrum below stall number for various K L and ED, with measured SPLs for
(a), and above stall Ib), (adapted from Ref. 13) a UH-1A helicopter in hover, (adapted from Ref. 191

may be due to deficiencies in the experimental airload profile, will become severely distorted. On a single rotor
data, which are again required for the calculation of the lift system, a blade will most likely pass near, or cut
higher harmonics of the rotational noise. through, a tip vortex shed by a preceding blade (Fig. 12a).
On a tandem rotor lift system, it is more likely that one
3. Modulation (blade slap) noise. Rotors suffer more rotor will cut the vortex filament generated by the other
from modulation and distortion noise than any other aero- disc (Fig. 12b). The fact that large fluctuations in lift
dynamic noise generator. Slowly rotating, large-diameter occur when a blade passes close to a vortex filament is
rotors typically exhibit recognizable amplitude modula- obvious. Figure 13, taken from Ref. 23, is an attempt to
tion and Doppler effects'due to source rotation with re- depict the interference between the rotor blade and the
spect to a stationary observer. Neither this amplitude or tip vortex. When the aircraft is accelerating and climbing,
frequency modulation generally adds to the disturbance it moves away from the tip vortex helix. Conditions are
or annoyance level of a helicopter, although it may lower similar for autorotating descents. The intersection occurs
the level of detectability. Blade slap, the colloquialism when the aircraft is flying at a low descent rate or with
that has been applied to the sharp cracking sound associ- the rotor unloaded. The rotor then moves through its own
ated with helicopter rotors, is by far the most annoying tip vortex system.
of any of the rotor noise sources. Until recently, only
Ref. 20 has dealt with the problem of blade slap in any Leverton states that the "peak" velocity amplitude en-
detail. A large section of Schlegel's work was devoted to countered by the blade will be practically independent
blade slap; more recently, Spencer et al. presented a paper of the type of interaction; thus, noise from any intersec-
connected solely with the practical aspects of blade slap.
To date the only attempt at a quantitative study of the (a) SINGLE ROTOR SYSTEM
problem seems to be the papers published by Leverton
AIRCRAFT
and Taylor (Refs. 21 and 22). In the latest, Leverton lists
the three main mechanisms generally postulated for blade
slap in the literature:
Fluctuating forces caused by blade-vortex interac-
tion.
Fluctuating forces resulting from stalling and un-
stalling of the blade.
Shock wave formation due to local supersonic flow;
it is suggested that this is either (a) a direct result
of operating a blade at a high tip speed or (b)
caused by a blade vortex interaction.
(b) TANDEM ROTOR SYSTEM
At the present time, detailed information on these mech-
anisms is still limited; therefore, it is almost impossible to
state which is the most likely mechanism. However, a
blade intersecting the tip vortex shed by a preceding blade
could itself cause the other two mechanisms to occur.
Leverton assumes that blade slap is the direct result of
the fluctuating lift caused by the interaction of a blade
and a vortex filament. This can either be an actual inter-
section when a blade cuts a vortex filament or the effect
of a blade passing very close to a vortex filament.
Although it is easy to imagine a blade and a tip vortex

intersecting, it is extremely di5cult to visualize the details
of such an encounter and practically impossible to describe
<-
it mathematicalIy. As a bIade intersects or comes near a Fig. 12. Typical blade-vortex intersections for a single
vortex filament, the blade circulation, and hence the lift rotor system (a), and a tandem rotor system (b)

d
n ZECI? VORTEX
.
-
Fig. 13. Tip vortex locus as a function of several operational modes
tion, to a first approximation, will be dependent only on the most obvious method of reducing disc loading is
the vortex size and blade parameters. Spencer et al. ex- increasing the rotor diameter. Tip speed has been shown
perimented with various rotor tip designs to modify the to be an important parameter in two ways: through the
induced velocity structure of the tip vortex. Results indi- direct effects of Mach number (compressibility and drag
cated that the maximum velocities induced within the diverqence) and through blade-wake spacing. For a given
vortex core could be reduced to about 12%of those for a rotor producing a given amount of thrust, the downward
standard tip. However, drag data indicated that most con- velocity of the blade wake is essentially constant, so that
figurations adversely affected performance. Unfortunately, the vertical distance between a blade and the vortex trail-
no acoustic measurements that would determine the guan- ing from the tip of the previous blade is increased by
titative effect on blade slap intensity were made. reducing the tip speed. To do this, collective pitch must
be increased. Lowson (Ref. 12) shows that radiated sound
rises substantially at both high and low values of collec-
Leverton has developed a blade-slap theory that has tive pitch and suggests that an optimum collective pitch
proved to be quite limited due to simplifying assumptions setting for minimum noise exists. The basic mechanism of
and lack of adequate vortex profile data. He assumes that increasing collective pitch is to increase the displacement
the blade span and chord width effects of the vortex are of the shed vortex wake further beneath the oncoming
small and that the blade does not deflect while intersect- blade so that harmonic airloads are substantially reduced.
ing a vortex filament. His results are compared with The use of high-lift airfoil sections on the rotor blades is
subjective assessments and are found to be indicative, at another way of increasing wake displacement. Davidson
best, for only small chord rotor systems with less than and Hargest (Ref. 24) suggest another method of reduc-
three blades. A more detailed description of the strength ing boundary layer separation and turbulent wake inter-
and geometry of specific blade-vortex interactions is action: A blade with direct circulation control would not
necessary before satisfactory prediction methods will be depend on pitch for lift generation, and the higher its
available. lift coefficient, the more stable its wake and boundary
layer becomes, because the control of circulation naturally
C. Rotor Noise Alleviation
implies some control of the boundary layer. The jet flap
rotor appears favorable in these respects although a trade-
Rotor noise technology and experience indicate several off of the jet noise itself must be made.
obvious and a few more subtle methods for reducing the
noise generated by lifting rotor systems. Theory indicates Another possible method of noise reduction is to de-
that noise output is proportional to the product of thrust crease the activity factor by increasing the number of
and disc loading. Eliminating thrust as a design variable, blades or distributing the load over a larger blade chord.

Tandem rotor lift systems exhibit some undesirable, as turbojet or a bypass engine (fanjet). There is no sharp
well as desirable, noise features. With two large-diameter, demarcation between this latter type and the hub-driven
low-disc-loading counter-rotating rotors, the noisy tail lift fan, but the lift fan does operate at higher bypass
rotor (more nearly a propeller) may be eliminated. The ratios. Bypass ratios of as much as 20 are under consider-
obvious and relatively serious problem is the rotor-wake ation for lift fans.
interaction. If the two overlapping rotors can be separated
to operate in a diffused wake region and vortex inter- A second type of lift fan is the tip turbine driven fan,
actions can be minimized, a relatively low-noise vehicle which might appear as shown in Fig. 14, taken from
could result. However, this represents a difficult design Ref. 23. The exhaust gas from the engine flows into the
problem. scroll; from there, it is distributed circumferentially
around the fan to locations where it is exhausted through
In an effort to improve the rotor efficiency with a span- nozzles into the tip turbine, an integral part of the fan
wise elliptical lift distribution, Schlegel found that his rotor. The number of turbine blades is typically much
trapezoidal tips resulted in vortex noise reductions of greater than the number of fan blades; the blade passage
7 to 10 dB. Apparently the tip vortex strength is a signifi- frequency of the turbine will fall near the upper limit
cant factor in the generation of vortex noise and may be of audibility, resulting in subjective noise, which is quite
effectively alleviated with proper design considerations. low, from this source. In any case, the pressure ratio of
Spencer et al. showed that they could reduce the induced the lift fan is higher than that of the ducted propeller.
velocity in the tip vortex and proposed this as a method When a stator is employed, it is usually close to the rotor
of reducing the intensity of blade slap. However, it ap- in order to minimize engine volume and weight. Rotor-
pears that the easiest way to reduce blade slap is to stator interaction may be the primary source of noise in
operate under flight conditions that avoid blade-vortex that case. Lift fans of either the tip turbine-driven or the
interaction altogether. hub-driven types have many blades and may require
stators if higher pressure ratios are desired.
Major design requirements for minimum noise can be
summarized as follows: B. Noise Sources of Fans
(1) Low tip speed. The general form of the frequency spectrum of fan
(2) Large number of blades. noise is a broad spectrum extending over a wide range
of frequencies, with its maximum level usually at frequen-
(3) Low disc loading. cies of the order of 0.2 U / d , where U is the representative
(4) Large blade chord. velocity (such as tip speed) and d is the representative
length (such as motor diameter). Superimposed on the
(5) Minimum interference with rotor flow. broad-band spectrum are discrete frequency peaks that
(6) Any features that will reduce the high-frequency occur at the fundamental blade passage frequency and its
airload fluctuations. harmonics. The relative strength of the discrete frequency
component diminishes, relative to the broad-band noise,
as tip speed is decreased. It has been found that overall
V. lift Fan Noise noise level from fans varies approximately as tip velocity
to the sixth power.
A. Introduction
The lift fan, in terms of disc loading, falls between the There appear to be two possible sources of broad-band
ducted propeller (low-disc loading) and the jet lift engine noise: (1) noise from vartex shedding at the blade trailing
(high-disc loading). The ducted propeller consists of a edges, and (2) noise from turbulent velocity fluctuations
relatively conventional propeller having a small number in the duct. When the flow into the duct is aligned with
of blades which are enclosed at the tips by a surrounding the fan axis of rotation, noise from turbulent velocity
shroud or duct supported by radial struts attached behind fluctuations is mainly confined to the duct boundary layer.
the propeller to the shaft housing or engine mount. Be- Here it is quite possible that it makes a contribution to the
cause it operates at very low pressure ratios, the ducted over-all level, either directly or through enhancement, of
propeller does not require stators, and the main noise the vortices shed from the blade trailing edges near the
source is rotational noise. On the opposite boundary is blade tips. However, when the flow into the duct enters
the lift engine, which operates in the lift mode with its at an angle of attack, as would be the case when a lift
axis approximately vertical; it can be either a straight fan aircraft is in transition to forward flight, the turbulence

values. Even if good agreement had been obtained, pres-
ently available data do not show what the effect of the
ducting would be.
In propeller noise theory, the forces acting on a blade

are considered to be steady; the periodic fluctuations
occur at points fixed in space as the blade passes. In a
fan, however, the aerodynamic forces acting on the blade
itself can be periodically fluctuating because of passage
of the blade through a periodically varying velocity field.
This condition occurs when the rotor is operating in the
wake of support struts, stators, or inlet guide vanes.
Theoretical analysis and test data have shown that this
unsteady blade loading is greater than the propeller type
noise and is the dominate source of discrete frequency
noise in fan systems using closely spaced stators. Re-
ductions in noise levels of from 4 to 22 dB have been
obtained experimentally through the removal of stator
rows. Figure 15, taken from Ref. 23, shows the effect of
rotor-stator spacing on perceived noise level.
Fig. 14. Typical tip-turbine-driven lift fan

h
w
zw
-.I
8
TIPSPEED: '1114ft/s
PRESSURE RATIO: 1.4
I
g 4
level of the flow throughout the duct will be increased. z
This will cause an increase in the overall sound level. -
0
N
0
m O
Sharland, in Ref. 25, has shown that the sensitivity of noise -0
to inflow angle increases with increasing blade tip speed. zd

Y
\
1 -dl I I
+-4
One source of discrete frequency noise from a rotating 4
z
LLI
propeller arises from the periodic excitation of an element -8

0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.
of air at a fixed point which feels a force fluctuation each
SPACING, ROTOR TIP CHORDS
time a blade element with its associated pressure field
passes by. The fundamental frequency is that blade Fig. 15. Effect of rotor-stator spacing (adapted
passage frequency and a number of harmonics will also from Hickey, Ref. 23)
be present, dependent on the shape and duration of the
pulse relative to the period of a complete cycle. The C. Scaling l a w
methods developed from theory for the prediction of pro-
peller rotational noise may at first appear applicable to As an improvement over an older method of predicting
the case of a single fan rotor. However, propeller theory compressor and fan noise by scaling on shaft horsepower,
is not known to be accurate for configurations that do not Sowers (Ref. 26) has developed a method that normalizes
have the small number of blades and high span-to-chord a large amount of experimental data into a single curve
ratio of the conventional propeller. The close spacing of using an energy flux concept (Btu/s ft2) and the scaling
blades will lead to interactions between individual blade parameter
pressure fields and wakes. The boundary conditions of
the duct wall, which are imposed on the fluctuating flow,
suggest that the distribution and strengths of the acoustic
sources on the blades may be altered. The use of con- where:
ventional propeller rotational noise estimation methods to
predict the rotational noise of a fan considered as a free A, = rotor annulus area, ft'
running propeller of the same geometry led, in at least
one case, to calculated noise levels far below the measured n = rotor rpm
J P l TECHNICAL REPORT 32-7462 15

B = number of rotor blades the limiting case of no stators over a range of energy
flux values should be used to determine if a family of
D"
-
D , = ratio of rotor hub to rotor tip diameter curves for different rotor-stator spacing is required. For
the present, the effect might be estimated by making a
The normalized acoustic performance curve from correction to the sound pressure level obtained by the
Ref. 26 is shown in Fig. 16. This empirical curve is based method given above.
on a considerable amount of data on designs ranging from
a 62-in. VTOL lift fan to scale model compressors. The In a recent paper (Ref. 27) Hargest characterizes the
abscissa represeQtsthe total energy of the air leaving the problem of fan noise prediction as being extremely diffi-
fan or compressor rotor stage on a per unit time and area cult to quantify and states that fan designs must be
basis. The ordinate of the curve was obtained by Sowers examined in fine aerodynamic and mechanical detail in
from a parametric study of various design parameters and order to make realistic noise estimates.
associated noise data. Details of a noise prediction method
using Fig, 16, as developed by Sower, are presented in To illustrate the complexity of the situation, he lists
Appendix D. the following potentially significant parameters :
(1) Inlet pressure.
The method appears to normalize a large amount of
available data within an acceptable degree of accuracy (2) Inlet temperature.
and is one means by which fan noise may be predicted.
(3) Temperature rise.
One common characteristic of all data shown in Fig. 16
is a relatively close rotor-stator spacing. Some effects of (4)Pressure rise.
increasing this spacing have been shown in Fig. 15. As
more data become available, the effect of this parameter
(5) Tip diameter,
in the terms of Fig. 16 should be investigated. Data from (6) Hub diameter.
COMPRESSOR 1
COMPRESSOR 2
0 CJ805-23 FAN
A VTOL LIFT FAN
L VTOL PITCH FAN
0 CF700 FAN
t
D VTOL IGV-ROTOR FAN
V R. CO. 12 COMPRESSOR
4- RA 26 COMPRESSOR
VTOL ROTOR-STATOR FAN
0 WINDOW TYPE FAN
0 DEVELOPMENT VEHICLE
a SINGLE-STAGE SCALE MODEL COMPRESSOR
A LABORATORY COMPRESSOR
I-
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Fig. 16. Normalized overall power of compressor

and fan noise (adapted from Ref. 26)
d
(7) Number of blades. tage which the lift fan has over other lift devices.
Figure 17, taken from Deckerts paper in Ref. 23, shows
(8) Blade chord.
the attenuation of noise levels for several STOL designs.
(9) Rotor-stator spacing. The figure shows that the propeller-rotor-driven aircraft
generate less perceived noise up to about 2,000 ft, but
(10) Number of stages.
beyond that point the lift fan aircraft becomes appreciably
(11) Mass flow. more quiet. This occurs because a greater portion of the
acoustic energy of the lift fan aircraft is generated at the
(12) Deviation from optimum incidence.
higher frequencies where atmospheric attenuation is
(13) Power. greater.
(14) Rotational velocity.
To which might be added, for a particular fan installa-

tion, efects of duct configuration, turbulence level, and 120
guide vane effects.
m
U
Although it is clear that the present methods of esti- z, 100
mating fan noise cannot be used for more than very

preliminary purposes, and even then with caution, they
: 80
are able to give indications of the direction which the 2
design of quiet fans must take. Some workers (Ref. 28)
expect advanced lift fans of practical design to be operat- 60
ing in the vicinity of 95 PNdB at 500 ft, by the mid-1970s.

This represents a reduction in noise level over present I I I I I I I
multistage fans or single stage with inlet guide vane de- 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
signs of 25 PNdB due to improved design. RADIAL DISTANCE FOR PEAK INTENSITY, 1000 ft
The effects of atmospheric attenuation are worthy of Fig. 17. Noise generated by STOL aircraft, 50,000 to
discussion, since they may represent a significant advan- 95,000 Ib gross weight (adapted from Deckert, Ref. 23)

Appendix A
Explanation of Some Fundamental Terms
While no attempt at assembling a complete glossary of sure and the intensity
'
terms used in acoustics is intended, these explanations of
some of the more important terms used here and else- I=-(W/ m2) (A-3)
where in the literature may be useful to the reader who is PC
unfamiliar with the field.
where p2 is the mean-square sound pressure (microbar);
p is the density of air (kg/m3), and c the speed of sound
Sound Power in air (m/s).
One of the principal characteristics of a sound source
is its ability to radiate power in the form of acoustic waves. Sound Power level
If energy losses to the air are neglected, then all of the
sound power W must pass through any surface completely Because of the very wide range of radiated acoustic
enclosing the source, and therefore W is independent of power from common sources (ranging, for instance, from
distance from the source. a radiated sound power of lo7W for a large rocket engine
to W for a soft whisper) a logarithmic scale which
describes the ratio of a particular power relative to a
Sound Intensity reference power has been employed for convenience. The
The intensity I of a sound is the average rate at which unit implying a given ratio between two powers is called
power is radiated through a unit area normal to the direc- the decibel (dB) and may be defined as
tion of wave propagation (W/m2)
W
Sound-power level =PWL = 10 log -dB re Wref
w,,f
I=- W (A-1) (A-4)
S
The term, level, added to any acoustically related quantity
where S is total surface area. This term is difficult to is used to indicate a logarithmic rather than linear scale.
measure directly. The reference power level is usually defined as having a
value of 10-13W. Sound power level is conveniently used
to determine overall noise magnitude regardless of the
Effective Sound Pressure
location of the noise, because it is not a function of dis-
Because the voltage outputs of the microphones com- tance from the noise source.
monly used in acoustic measurements are proportional to
pressure, sound pressure is the most readily measurable
Sound Intensity level
variable in a sound field. Effective sound pressure is de-
fined as the square root of the mean-square (rms) of the A decibel scale for sound intensity level can be defined
instantaneous sound pressure at a point over a time inter- by using a ratio of quantities proportional to sound power
val according to the equation (Eq. A-4) just as was the sound power scale
I
p = [~L T p r 2(t)dt]" Intensity level IL = 10 log -
Iref
re Iref (A-5)
The reference intensity Iref is usually taken as 10-l2W/m2.

where p' is the instantaneous sound pressure, i.e., the
incremental charge from atmospheric pressure caused by
Sound Pressure level
the passage of a sound wave over the point, and T is the
time interval over which the sample is considered. For Again, by means of Eqs. (A-1)and (A-3), a decibel scale
free progressive plane and spherical waves, there is a for effective sound pressure can be defined as a ratio of
simple relationship between the mean-square sound pres- quantities proportional to acoustic power as
d
P2 Octave Band Spectrum
Sound pressure level S P L = 10log -
p;e f Recognizing that noise must be described by both
P amplitude and frequency, a common measurement sys-
=201og - re Pref
Pref tem used to describe the full range of frequencies is sound
pressure level by octave band. In this case, the spectrum
is analyzed through filters, each of whose center frequency
is twice that of the preceding one. This describes the
where Pref is commonly taken as 0.0002 dynes/cm2 or
noise in terms of eight or nine sound pressure levels, each
equivalent. This value was chosen because it approxi-
associated with its own center frequency. Although these
mately represents the hearing threshold at 1000 Hz for a
measurements do describe both the amplitude and the
young man with normal hearing. The reference value for
frequency characteristics of a given sound, they are not
sound intensity was set at IrPf= 10-l2W/m2 in order that
convenient to use when one thinks of criteria or evalua-
the intensity level and sound pressure level would be
tion numbers, because they do not provide a single index
nearly equal numerically for plane or spherical waves in
that represents any specific characteristic of the particu-
air at room temperature and sea level pressure. Likewise,
lar sound.
the reference sound power, W r e f= W was chosen
so that the sound power level and sound pressure level
would be approximately but simply related to each other loudness level
when the area of the surface being considered is in square In an effort to return to a single number rating which
feet. The relationship is might be more indicative of the effect that a complete
spectrum would have on an individual, the concept of
S P L & P W L - 10log S dB re 0.0002 dynes/cm2 loudness level was developed (Ref. 29) in which the sound
pressure level in each octave band was given a weighting
(A-7)
which was a function of hearing sensitivity in that octave
where S is the surface area through which the sound band. This provides more emphasis on the middle fre-
power is radiated, ftz. quency range in which hearing is most acute and de-
emphasizes the extreme ends of the spectrum. The stan-
dard sound has been chosen to be a 1000-Hz tone. The
Spectrum level loudness level of any other sound is defined as the sound
The spectrum level at a specified frequency is the sound pressure level of a 1000-Hz tone that sounds as loud as
pressure level within a band 1-Hz wide centered at the the sound in question. The unit of the loudness level is
frequency. The unit is the decibel. the phon. For example, if a 1000-Hz tone with a sound
pressure level of 70 dB re 0.0002 microbar sounds as loud
as a certain square wave, the square wave is said to have
Overall Sound Pressure level a loudness level of 70 phons.
This unit, which is a logarithmic measure expressed in
decibels, is the simplest form of acoustical measurement. Perceived Noise level
It merely expresses the maximum pressure experienced
Recognizing that loudness level might not necessarily
without regard to frequency or any other effect.
describe a more subjective reaction such as annoyance,
Kryter (Ref. 30) introduced the concept of perceived noise
Weighted Sound Pressure level level (PNdB). This method, which was originally used for
jet aircraft noise ratings, is similar in application to loud-
Since human hearing does not have a flat frequency ness level, but the weighting scale developed was based
response, sound level meters incorporating weighting net- on annoyance criteria rather than simply on equal loud-
works (which essentially provide the instrument with a ness.
hearing response more typical of the human ear) were
designed. Sound level measurements made with such
Effective Perceived Noise level
meters are usually referred to in terms such as dBA or
dBB where A and B describe particular frequency weight- Recent research, still in progress, has further refined
ing networks. The notation dBC is essentially that of a the perceived noise level concept by inclusion of factors
flat response and therefore is the same as overall sound to express the added annoyance due to time duration to
pressure level. which a subject is exposed to the noise, and the presence
d
of pure tones, which prove more irritating than broad- A more detailed discussion of the subjective corrections
band noises of the same sound pressure level. The unit of and associated terms together with methods of compu-
effective perceived noise level is the decibel EPNdB. tation is contained in a recent report by Sperry (Ref. 31).
d
Appendix B
Generalized Propeller-Noise Estimating Procedure2
In order to fulfill the increasing need for a simple gen- (a) GENERAL CASE
eralized method of estimating near- and far-field propeller-

noise levels during the design of military or civilian
aircraft, a method, based in part on information in the
FUSELAGE
referenced literature, has been developed. The method
is divided in two parts: (1) estimate of near-field pro-
peller noise (defined as noise at locations within one
t
propeller diameter of the propeller tip), and (2) estimate
of far-field propeller noise (defined as noise at locations
greater than one propeller diameter from the propeller
tip). In each case, a sample estimate follows the descrip-
tion of the estimating procedure.
l4-4
The accuracy of near-field estimates was determined
from a comparison of estimated levels with measured
levels of various propellers of several diameters during (b) EXAMPLE
test stand and in-flight operation. In general, the accuracy

of estimated near-field overall and fundamental frequency
noise levels were found to be within +5 to -9 dB of
measured levels. However, for propellers up to 15 ft in
diameter, where the tip Mach number to horsepower ratio
is less than 0.003 (i.e., M t / H P < 0.003), estimated overall
and fundamental frequency noise levels were within
+3 dB of measured levels.
Only limited, measured far-field data were available

for comparison with estimated levels; however, for the
few comparisons made (at distances up to 500 ft) esti-
mated overall levels were within +lo dB of measured
overall levels. For distances greater than 500 ft, the accu-
racy of far-field noise estimates is limited even further
by variable atmospheric parameters such as temperature Fig. 8-1. Near-field axis system
distribution, wind direction, wind velocity, atmospheric
absorption and humidity. Therefore, estimates of noise
at great distances from a propeller using the attached (1) Obtain a reference level L, from Fig. B-2. This
method should be considered only as first approximations gives a partial level based on the power input to
under ideal conditions. the propeller.
(2) Calculate the correction to the partial level for

A. Estimate of Near-Field Propeller Noise
number of blades and propeller diameter; add
20log4/B where B is the number of blades; and
The steps in determining near-field propeller-noise add 40 log 15.5/0 where D is the propeller diam-
levels on the fuselage (see Fig. B-la) during static and eter in feet.
dynamic conditions are:
(3) Obtain the correction factor from Fig. B-3. This
'The procedure was extracted as a unit from Ref. 4 and is presented accounts for the rotational speed of the propeller
here for convenience. ( M t = in-plane tip Mach number) as well as the
d
distance from the point of interest to the propeller
disc.
Obtain the correction factor from Fig. B-4. This

corrects for fore and aft (with reference to the plane
of propeller rotation) fuselage position.
Obtain the correction factor from Fig. B-5. This

accounts for the effect of a reflecting surface (fuse-
lage) in the sound field.
Sum the data from steps 1 through 5 to estimate

the overall sound pressure level at the point of
interest.
The harmonic distribution of the noise estimated

in steps 1 through 6 is found in Fig. B-6. (Mh= true
tip Mach number, including the forward &ght
component.)
The harmonic levels of step 7 are combined using

the chart in Fig. B-7 to derive octave band levels.
B. Sample Calculation of Near-Field Noise

A sample calculation of near-field noise (see Fig. B-lb), SHAFT HORSEPOWER
using the method described in the preceding paragraphs,
is presented here. Fig. 8-2. Reference level
Aircraft speed Vf 125 knots = 210 ft/s 20
Propeller diameter D 9 ft
0
Power to propeller 300 hp

-20
Propeller speed n 1584 rpm
Number of blades B 3 -40
Radial distance Z from 1.25f t

propeller to interest point -60
Fore/aft distance X from 0ft

-80
propeller to interest point 0.01 0.02 0.04 0.1 0.2 0.4 1 2 4 1 0
DIMENSIONLESS DISTANCE, Z/D
Speed of sound c 1125 ft/s
Partial Fig. 8-3. Correction for speed and radial distance
noise
level,
Step 3. Z/D = 1.25/9 = 0.139
dB
V = T *D*n/6O = 3.1409- 1584/60
Step 1. From Fig. B-2, L, 121.0 = 746 ft/s
M t = V,/C = 746/1125 = 0.66
Step 2. Add 20 log (4/3) -I-2.5 Then, from Fig. B-3, the correction
Add 40 log (15.5/9) -I- 9.5 is : -1

Fig. 8-4. Variation of over-all, free-space propeller noise
levels with axial position X/D fore and aft of propeller
plane
DIMENSIONLESSFORE AND AFT POSITION, X/D
0
PLANE OF PROPELLER 0-dB dORRECTION FOR VALUES
ROTATION OF X/D SUCH THAT M, = M, FOR STATIC CONDITIONS
-0.25 >X/D M.25
HARMONIC OF BLADE PASSAGE FREQUENCY
X/D DIMENSIONLESS Fig. 8-6.Harmonic distribution of rotational noise
Fig. B-5. Effect of reflecting surfaces in pressure field

3
9
ga
4,:
I d 2
e!?>
-CL
2; 1
Sf
pe
-
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Fig. 8-7.Chart for combining noise levels
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TWO LEVELS BEING ADDED, dB
JPL TECHNlCAL REPORT 32-7462 23

Step 4. Z/D = 0.139 1 2 3 4
X/D =0
Harmonics
Then, from Fig. B-4, the correction
Preferred of blade Octave
is : 0
octave passage Harmonic levels, dB band
passbands, frequency (step 7, column 4) level,
Step 5. X / D = 0 HZ (step 7, dB3
The fuselage has a circular wall, column 2)
Then, from Fig. B-5, the correction
is : +4
- 45-90 79 134.0 134.0
90-180 158 127.0 127.0
180-355 237,316 123.0,120.0 124.7
Step 6. The summation of steps 1through 5 355-710 395,474, 118.0,117.0,116.0,116.0 123.0
gives the overall sound pressure 553,632
level on the fuselage at location 710-1400 711,790 116.0,116.0 119.0
Z = 1.25ft, X = 0 ft 136.0
1400-2800 - - -
2800-3600 - - -
5600-11,200 - - -
Step 7. Overall sound pressure level = 136.0 Overall 135.4
The fundamental blade passage
frequency = B n/60 = 79 Hz
C. Estimate of Far-Field Propeller Noise
MrL=
(V; + Vfyh - (74@+ 2102)U = 0.69 The steps in determining far-field propeller noise levels
C 1125 during static and dynamic conditions are:
(1) Obtain a reference level L , from Fig. B-2. This

1 2 3 4 gives a partial level, based on the power input to
Harmonic the propeller.
Harmonic Frequency, level, dB Harmonic
order Hz re overall SPL level, dB (2) Calculate the correction to the partial level for
(from Fig. B-6) number of blades and propeller diameter; add
Fundamental 79 -2 134.0 3When more than two levels are to be added, add in pairs using
Fig. B-7, i.e.,
2 158 -9 127.0
1 2 3 4
3 237 - 13 123.0
Difference Sum of value in
4 316 - 16 120.0 Levels to be between Value from column 3 and
Fig. B-7 for
combined, pairs in higher level
5 395 - 18 118.0 dB column 1,
difference of
from pair of
6 474 - 19 117.0 dB 2 dB column 1, dB
7 553 - 20 116.0
1
117.0 1 2.6 120.6
8 632 -20 116.0
0 3.0 119.0
9 711 - 20 116.0 116.0
10 790 -20 116.0

5 6 7
Sum of value in
Step 8. The octave band levels are derived by grouping Difference between Value from Fig. column 6 and
the harmonics (step 7, column 4) of the blade pairs in column 4, B-7 for difference higher level
passage frequency within the associated pre- dB of column 5, dB from column 4,
dB
ferred octave bands and combining the levels
using Fig. B-7. 1.6 2.4 123.0
d
2Olog 4/B, where B is the number of blades; and (9) Correct for attenuation due to molecular absorp-
add 40 log 15.5/D, where D is the propeller diam- tion of sound in air using the values in Fig. B-9.
eter in ft. Mid-frequency corrections for ground absorption,
when the source and receiver are located near the
(3) Obtain the correction factor from Fig. B-3. This ground, have not been included in this estimating
accounts for the rotational speed of the propeller method.
( M ,= tip Mach number) as well as the distance
from a radial reference point to the propeller disc. D. Sample Calculation of Far-Field Noise
Always use 2 = 1 ft.
A sample calculation of far-field noise (see Fig. B-lo),
(4) Obtain the correction factor from Fig. B-8. This using the method described in the preceding paragraphs,
accounts for the directional characteristics of sound is presented here.
propagation from a propeller.
Propeller diameter D 9f t
(5) Correct for attenuation due to the normal spherical Power to propeller 300 hp
spreading of sound.
Subtract 20 log (T - l), where r is the distance, in Propeller speed n 1584 rpm
ft, from the center of the propeller.
Number of blades B 3
(6) Sum the data of steps (1) through (5). This gives Speed of sound c 1125 ft/s
the overall sound pressure level at the point of
interest. Distance to far-field 1000 f t
point of interest T
(7) The harmonic distribution of the noise estimated in
Azimuth angle 0 90 deg
steps 1through 6 is found in Fig. B-6.
Drstance to reference point 2 1ft
(8) The harmonic levels of step 7 are combined using
the chart in Fig. B-7 to derive octave band levels. Partial
noise
level, dB
Step 1. From Fig. B-2, L, 121
-24 I I I I
20 60 100 140 180
ANGLE ( e ) WITH THE HEADING OF THE PROPELLER, deg 90 180 355 710 1400 2800 5600 11,200
OCTAVE PASSBANDS, Hz
Fig. 5-8. Polar distribution of overall noise
levels for propellers Fig. 5-9. Molecular absorption of sound in air

Step 2. Add 20 log (4/3) 2.5 Ben
Add 40 log (15.5/9) +9.5 ----=79Hz
60
Step 3. Z / D = 1/9 = 0.111

1 2 3 4
3.14 9 1584 Harmonic
vt = 60
= 746 ft/s
Harmonic Frequency, level, dB Harmonic
order Hz re overall SPL level, dB
Vt = 746/1125 = 0.66 (from Fig. B-6)
Mt = -C
Fundamental 79 -2 70.8
Then, from Fig. B-3, the correction 2 158 -9 63.8
is : - 1.0 3 237 - 13 59.8
4 316 - 16 56.8
Step 4. From Fig. B-8, for 6' = 90 deg, the
5 395 - 18 54.8
average correction is: 0
6 474 - 19 53.8
Step 5. Subtract 20 log (999) -59.2 7 553 -20 52.8
8 632 -20 52.8
Step 6. The summation of steps 1through 5 72.8 9 711 -20 52.8
10 790 -20 52.8
Step 7. Overall sound pressure level (SPL) = 72.8 dB
The fundamental blade passage frequency
Step 8. The octave band levels are derived by grouping
(a) GENERAL CASE
the harmonics (step 7, column 4) of the blade
passage frequency within the associated pre-
ferred octave bands and combining the levels
using Fig. B-7.
1 2 3 4
Harmonics
of blade Octave
Preferred
passage Harmonic levels, dB band
octave pass-
frequency (step 7, column 4) level,
bands, Hz
(step7, dB4
-
column 2)
45-90 79 70.8 70.8
(b) EXAMPLE 90-180 158 63.8 63.8
180-355 237,316 59.8,56.8 61.5
355-710 395,474, 54.8,53.8,52.8,52.8 59.8
553,632
710-1400 711,790 52.8,52.8 55.8
1400-2800 - - -
2800-5600 - - -
5600-11,200 - - -
Overall 72.3
4When more than two levels are to be added, add in pairs (see
Fig. B-10. Far-field axis system step 8 of the sample calculation of near-field noise).

i
Step 9.
1 2 3
Octave band levels,
Preferred Octave band dB, corrected for
octave pass- level, dB molecular
bands, Hz (step 8, column 4) absorption of sound
(from Fig. B-9)
45-90 70.8 70.8

90-180 63.8 63.6
180-355 61.5 60.9
355-710 59.8 58.7
710-1400 55.8 54.0
1400-2800 -
2800-5600 -
5600-11,200 -
Overall 72.2

d
Appendix C
Generalized Rotor-Noise Estimating Procedure
Most current rotor-noise prediction analyses are cum- spectral shape over the first few harmonies may be simply
bersome and require tedious computer operations. Largely generated. For the case of steady uniform inflow, com-
limited by the accuracy of air load input data and tran- parison with experiment indicates that the accuracy is
sient conditions, these arduous processes result in far-field within +2 dB and appears to demonstrate valid para-
rotational noise predictions no better than =!=8dB of ac- metric trends.
tual measurements in most cases. SimpMed hand calcu-
lations, which reduce the accuracy by only a few percent A. Estimate of Rotor Rotational Noise5
then, become valuable tools for cursory analyses and
The following parameters are required in the rotational-
studies of parametric trends. Step-by-step procedures are
noise calculations using the design charts (see Fig. C-1):
presented for the calculation of both rotational and vortex
noise emanating from rotors. No simple analysis has been x, y, x Field point coordinates relative to helicopter
developed for prediction of blade slap noise. measured in ft, with x measured positive in the
direction of motion (parallel to ground in
hover), y measured at 90 deg to x in the plane
Lowson (Ref. 12) has made simplifying assumptions to
of the disc, x measured downward from heli-
his closed-form analytic solution which enabled him to copter. (Results for +y equal results for -g.)
develop a set of charts useful for predicting parametric
trends associated with the rotational noise generated by A Disc area, ftz (or T / A = disc loading in lb/ft2)
a rotor in steady flight. With careful use, the procedure n Rotor angular velocity, rad/s ( n= rpm X 2n/60)
can yield any reasonable number of noise harmonies, at
any point in the far field, to within 2 dB of the value V Flight velocity, ft/s
obtained by computer techniques. c Speed of sound in free air, ft/s
id Disc incidence (angle between disc and x-axis),
When treated separately, overall vortex noise has tra-
ditionally been predicted by simple hand calculations. deg
Schlegel (Ref. 13) has refined the method somewhat and The procedure was extracted as a unit from Ref. 12 and is presented
developed (by empirical means) a procedure by which here for convenience.
L
OBSERVER
Fig. C-1 . Rotor rotational noise axis system

rn Sound harmonic (equals 1 for fundamental, 2. Sample calculation of rotor rotational noke. Calcu-
2 for second harmonic, etc.) late the rotational noise spectrum lo00 f t from a three-
blade rotor at an angle of 20 deg below the flight path in
B Number of blades
the steps following for the following parameters: T =
T Thrust,lb 10,000 lb, T / A = 7 lb/ft2, V = 200 ft/s, id = 5 deg, R =
21.4 ft, n = 28 rad/s and c = 1117 ft/s
R Rotor radius, f t
(1) r = 1OOOft
1. Instructions for use of design charts ( 6 1 of Fig. C-2).
To calculate the rotational noise spectrum occurring in- (2) M = 0.8 X 600/1117 = 0.429
stantaneously at any point P , relative to the rotor center
(3) M , = 200/1117 = 0.179
and its direction of motion, perform the following steps:
Calculate range r = (x2 + y2 + z2)h (4) 8 = 20 deg
Calculate the rotational Mach number M ; M = (5) M E = 0.429/(1 - 0.179 X 0.938) = 0.516
0.8nR/c (6) 8 = 20 -5 = 15deg
Calculate the flight Mach number MF = V/C (7) From charts:
Calculate the angle e between the flight direction
N 2 3 4 6 8 10 12 1 6 2 0 3 0 4 0 60
and the line joining the rotor and the field point
I, 84.5 82.5 81.5 76.5 71 66 62 57 54 48 44.5 38.5
e = COS-^ ( x / r )
Calculate the effective rotational Mach number
ME = M /(1 - M , COS 0)
(8) Correction = 10log -7) (2::; + 11= + O S dB
Calculate the angle 0 between the rotor plane and N 2 3 4 6 8 10 12 16 20 30 4060
the line r . If the disc incidence is id, this is given by SPL, 85 83 82 77 71.5 66.5 62.5 57.5 54.5 48.5 45 39
e=tan-i[( Z
x2 + yh
]-id[( X
xz + y y
3 (9 and 10) The results of steps 9 and 10 can be seen
in Fig. C-3.
(11) The fundamental frequency in this case is
Using the values of M E and 8, see appropriate sheet
of Fig. C-2 to obtain values of the harmonic sound nB - (28) (3)
pressure level I, for N = 2,3,4,6,8,10,12,16,20, 271. (1- M , cos e ) - 27 [ l - (0.179) (0.966)]
30,40, and 60. = 16.1Hz
Correct the values obtained for thrust, disc loading,
and distances according to
B. Estimate of Rotor Vortex Noise
SPL, =
[IN
3
+ 11+ lOlog -I):(
dB re 0.0002, dyne/cm2
1. Procedure for calculations. The procedure for calcu-
lating the sound pressure level of vortex noise6 from a
rotor under conditions of uniform inflow is presented
below. Schlegels equation for overall vortex noise at
Plot the sound pressure level spectrum SPL, against 300 f t is
N and fit a smooth curve. 6.1 x A~(v,.,)~
SPL,,, = lOlog
10-27
10-16 +
20 log -
CL
0.4
The sound pressure levels from the above curve for
N = B, 2B, 3B, . . give the required harmonic
I
level at the point X, y, Z. Here, Ab is the blade area in ft2 and CLis the effective
lift coefficient based on the velocity of the 0.7 radius
(11) The fundamental frequency is station.
nB/[ZT (1- MF cos e)] Hz. 6See Ref. 13.
d
(b) N = 3
100
90
120 (c) N = 4 120 (d) N = 6

90 90
Fig. C-2. Rotor noise harmonic sound pressure levels I, as functions of harmonic
number, rotational Mach number, and angle from disc plane
r
(e) N = 8
90
120 I 7 5 (h) N = 16
90
Fig. C-2 (contdl
d
Fig. C-2 (confd)
d
In the usual Reynolds number range for a heli-
copter rotor, the Strouhal number ( S t ) may be taken
to be 0.28.
The projected blade thickness h is defined by
h = bcosa + asina
where b is the blade thickness, a the chord length,
and 01 the angle of attack.
1c
N = mB (6) With f and the overall SPL determined, plot a vor-
Fig. C-3. Sound pressure levels corresponding tex noise octave band spectrum with the help of
to harmonic numbers Figs. loa or lob.
More conveniently, this equation may be written for 2. Sample calculation of rotor vortex noise. Calculate
sea level 70F conditions as and sketch the vortex noise spectrum 1000 f t from a three-
blade rotor in the following steps, for the following pa-
rameters: T = 10,000 Ib, R = 21.3 ft, n = 270 rpm,
a = 1.0 ft, and b = 0.16 ft
TOcalculate the overall SPL of vortex noise from this
equation, use the following steps: nnD 270
(1) v0.7 = 0.7---= 0.7 e---(3.14) (42.6) = 421 ft/s
60 60
(1)Calculate the linear velocity of the 0.7 radius sec-
tion of the rotor
(2) T = 10,000lb
(3) Ab=B.R.a=3(21.3)(1.0) =64ft2
(2) Determine the thrust, if not given, in a hover con- (4) SPL300 = 10 (2 IOg v0.7 + 2 log T - log Ab - 3.57)
= 10 (2 log 421 + 2 log 10,000

dition as equal to the weight of the aircraft.
(3) Calculate blade plan form area and multiply by

- log64 - 3.57)
the number of blades for total blade area, Ab.
= 78.7 dB re 0.0002 dynes/cm2
(4) Substitution into the vortex sound-pressure level
equation yields the overall vortex noise SPL at and
300 ft. Neglecting atmospheric attenuation, the SPL
at any other distance, x2 may be computed from 1000
SPL,,,, = SPL,,, - 2010g -
the inverse square law 300
= 68.2 dB re 0.0002 dynes/cm2
xz
SPL,, = SPL,, - 20log -
300
(5)h = b COS a! + u sin01= (0.16) (0.999)
(5) An approximation to the vortex spectrum shape + (1.0) (0.052) = 0.212 ft
may be determined by first calculating the peak
frequency from the modified Strouhal equation so
421 (0.28)
f = VO.?St/h = = 556Hz
0.212

d.
(6) With the overall SPL and peak frequency deter- 70
mined, the spectrum for an unstalled blade may be

constructed from Fig. 10a as follows
65
At Mf SPL = 68.2 - 8.0 = 60.2
f SPL = 68.2 - 4.0 64.2 60
2f SPL = 68.2 - 8.0 = 60.2

55
4f SPL = 68.2 - 9.0 = 59.2 .PEAK FREQUENCY, f = 556
1/2 f 2f 4f 8f 16
8f SPL = 68.2 - 13.0 = 55.2
50
100 200 400
3
600
c
1000 2000
c c
4000 10,0(
16f SPL = 68.2 - 14.0 = 54.2 FREQUENCY, Hz
Results are shown in Fig. C-4. Fig. C-4. Results of vortex noise sample calculation

Appendix D
Generalized lift-Fan-Noise Estimating Procedure'
Since the curve of Fig. 16 is based on sound power, weight flow rate W divided by the rotor annulus
the fundamental acoustic parameter, it allows the designs area
of various vehicles to be compared directly. This type of
analogy is useful from both a research viewpoint and a
design viewpoint. For research, the normalized curve
eliminates many of the irregularities presently found in fan
and compressor noise measurements. For the designer, (a) GENERAL CASE
the normalized curve provides a basis on which the vari-

ous design parameters (rotor annulus area A,, rotor speed
n, rotor blade number B,, hub-tip ratio DH/DT, fan air
flow W, and discharge total temperature TT)may be eval-
uated to determine the optimum combination for mini-
mum noise generation.
The evaluation of advanced designs may be extended

from the sound power level, determined by the normal-
ized power curve, to a sound pressure level SPL, by using
additional normalized or average results from the test
data. This is particularly important when the advanced
design must conform to an S P L far-field acoustic require-
ment.
A. Calculation of Fan Noise

The steps in determining fan noise from a given set of
geometric parameters (see Fig. D-la) and operating con-
ditions are as in the following steps:
(b) EXAMPLE
I
(1) Calculate the rotor annulus area A, from the known
hub and tip diameters.
A, = (a/4) (D%) [1 - (z)'] (ft')
(2) Calculate the discharge total temperature as the

sum of the known inlet total temperature and the
known temperature rise per stage.
I \ I \ I / I /
(3) Obtain the discharge total enthalpy H , from gas
tables, knowing TT.
(4)Calculate the energy flux per unit area as the prod-
uct of the discharge total enthalpy and the known b-, 30 'in .-4
'The procedure was extracted as a unit from Ref. 12 and is presented
here for convenience. Fig. D-1. l i f t fan axis system

(5) From Fig. 16, knowing the energy flux per unit mum noise is a reasonable value based on experimental
area, obtain a value for data. If a design is to be considered that is similar to one
on which a polar plot of noise level is available, a more
realistic value for the angle of maximum noise may be
determined.
which is the normalized overall sound power. B. Sample Calculation of Fan Noise
(6) Solve the expression obtained in step 5 for overall As an illustration of the procedure discussed, assume
sound power by substituting given or computed the following fan design parameters:
values for rotor annulus area, A,, rotor speed n,
hub-tip diameter ratio (DH/DT), and rotor blade Outer diameter DT = 40in.
number B. Inner diameter DH = 30in.
Weight flow W = 150lbis
(7) The harmonic distribution of the sound power esti- Stage temperature rise AT = 15OR
mated in steps 1 through 6 is found in Fig. D-2 Rotational velocity la = 8,000rpm
which is the result of averaging the measurements Number of rotor blades B = 54

taken on various flow configurations although a Inlet temperature T = 520R
considerable spread is found in the harmonic power
spectrum data. Perform the following steps :
(8) Obtain sound pressure levels from sound power (1)Compute the rotor annulus area
levels, knowing the directivity index DI and the
distance from the source r by the following equa-
tion :
K
A, = - X (DT)' 1 -
4 [ (Dg~)2]
- = $ X (g)'[ 1- 0.5621
SPL = PWL + DI - 20logr - 10.5 A, = a X 11.2 X 0.438 = 3.85ft2
A value of 5 for the directivity index DI can be

used since this corresponds to an average DI at the (2) Compute the total temperature at the discharge,
angle of maximum noise for a number of experi- assuming a single stage fan
mental measurements.
TT = T + AT = 520R + 1 5 O = 535OR
The angle of maximum noise or directivity was not (3) Obtain the total enthalpy at the discharge from gas
normalized; thus, the S P L calculated can only be assumed tables
to be in the vicinity of 30 to 60 deg from the inlet or
exhaust of the vehicle. This range for the angle of maxi- Btu
HT = 128-at 535OR
lb
(4)Calculate the energy flux per unit area
H, X W -
- 128 X 150 = 4.99 x 103-Btu
E=
A, 3.85 s-ft2
(5) Obtain the normalized overall sound power from

Fig. 16.
Btu
HARMONIC NUMBER
At E = 4.99 X lo3-
s-fP
Fig. 0-2. Normalized power spectrum of
compressor and fan noise

Solve the expression obtained in step 5 for overall Second harmonic = PWL - 5.5 = 158 - 5.5
sound power = 152.5dB
A& Calculate the sound pressure level at the angle of

10log -(DH/DT)2= 10log 3*86 8000 X 0.562
B 54 maximum noise and at a distance T of 100 ft.
= 10log321
= 10 X 2.507 = 25 +
SPL = PWL DI - 20 log r - 10.5
PWL = 133 + 25 = 158dBoverall +

SPL = 158 5 - 20 log 100 - 10.5
= 163 - 40 - 10.5 = 163 - 50.5
Obtain the sound power spectrum from Fig. D-2, SPL = 112.5 dB at 100ft, angle of maximum noise
knowing the overall sound power from step 6. (Only
the first and second harmonies are computed here.) The above procedure allows a direct analysis of the
acoustic performance of a development vehicle based on
First harmonic = PWL - 3.5 = 158 - 3.5 the fan design parameters. The question of installation
= 154.5dB effects, however, requires further analysis.

d
Appendix E
V/STOL-Noise Bibliography
The material contained in this bibliography was col- Cox, R. C., and Lynn, R. R., A Study of the Origin and
lected during a review of noise technology as related to Means of Reducing Helicopter Noise, Rept. 299-099-180,
V/STOL aircraft and is, therefore, considerably broader TCREC-TR-62-73, N63-11749, Nov. 1962. Ft. Eustis, Va.
in scope than the main body of this paper. Placement of
references within the various divisions used for the sake
Curle, N., The Influence of Solid Boundaries Upon Aero-
of convenience are necessarily quite arbitrary in some
cases, but an attempt was made to place each reference dynamic Sound, Proc. of Royal SOC.,Ser. A, Vol. 231,
in its category of major emphasis. A very brief description London, 1955.
of the scope of the division is included at the beginning
of each section. Davidson, I M., and Hargest, T. J., Helicopter Noise,
J. Roy. Aeromut. Soc., Vol. 69, No. 5, pp. 325-336, May
1965.
1. Rotors, Propellers, a n d lift Fans
Included are references covering all types of noise pro-
duced by these devices, together with closely related Davis, D. 0. and Coplin, J. F., Some VTOL Powerplant
aerodynamic studies. Design and Development Experience, J. Roy. Aeronaut.
Soc., Vol. 70 p. 671, Nov. 1966.
Aerodynamic Problems Associated with V/STOL Air-
craft, CAL/USAVLABS Symposium Proceeding, Dodd, K. N., and Roper, G. M., A Deuce Program For
Vol. 1, Propeller and Rotor Aerodynamics, Buffalo, Propeller Noise Calculations, RAE TN No. M.S. 45,
N. Y., June 1966. Famsbourgh, Hants, England, Jan. 1958.
Amoldi, R. A., Propeller Noise Caused by Blade Thick- Fage, A., and Johansen, F. C., On The Flow of Air Be-
ness, United Aircraft Report R-0896-1, E. Hartford, hind an Inclined Flat Plate of Infinite Span, Royal SOC.
Conn., Jan. 1956. Proc., Ser. A, Vol. 116, p. 7, May 1927.
Cheesman, I. G., and Seed, A. R., The Application of Fricke, F. R. and Stevenson, D. C., Pressure Fluctuations
Circulation Control by Blowing to Helicopter Rotors, in a Separated Flow Region, J . Acoust. SOC. of Am.,
J. Roy. Aeronaut. Soc., Vol. 71, pp. 451-467, July 1967. Vol. 44, No. 5, pp. 1189-1200, 1968.
Conference on STOL Transport Aircraft Noise Certifi- Garrick, I. E., and Watkins, C. E., A Theoretical Study of
cation, Spcmsored by the Federal Aeronautics Admin- %heEffect of Forward Speed on. the Free-Space Sound-
istration of the Dept. of Transportation, Report No. Pressure Field Around Propellers, NACA Report 1198,
FAA-NO-69-1, TR 550-003-03H, Washington, D. C., Washington, D. C., 1953.
Jan. 30,1969.
Gutin, L., On the Sound Field of a Rotating Propeller,
Cox, C. R., Full-Scale Helicopter Rotor Noise Measure- NACA TM No. 1195, Washington, D.C., Oct. 1948.
ments in Ames 40 X 80 Foot Wind Tunnel, Bell Heli-
copter Report No. 576-099-052, U. S. Army Aeronautical
Research Laboratory, Ames Research Center, Moffett Hafner, R., Domain of the Convertible Rotor, J. Aircraft,
Field, Calif., Sept. 27, 1967. Vol. 1, No. 6, pp. 350-359, Nov-Dec., 1964.
Cox, C. R., Helicopter Noise and Passive Defense, Bell Hafner, R., Symposium on the Noise and Loading Actions
Helicopter Co, Am. Helicopter Soc. 19th Annual Na- on Helicopter, V/STOL Aircraft, and Ground Effect
tional Forum, A63-18693, pp. 156-163, New York, 1963. Machines,]. Sound Vib.,Vol. 3, pp.336-339, May 1966.

Hargest, T. J. Noise of VTOL Aircraft, J. Sound Vib., Leverton, J. W., and Taylor, F. W., Helicopter Blade
Vol. 4, No. 3, pp. 378-387, Mar. 1966. Slap, J. Sound Vib., Vol. 4, pp. 345357, 1966.
Hargest, T. J., V/TOL Aircraft Noise, Fluid Dynam- Loewy, R. G., and Sutton, L. R., A Theory for Predicting
ics of Rotor and Fan Supported Aircraft at Subsonic the Rotational Noise of Lifting Rotors in Forward
Speeds, AGARD CP 22, Paris, France, Sept. 1967. Flight Including a Comparison with Experiment, J.
S o u n d Vib., Vol. 4, No. 3, Nov. 1966.
Healy, Gerold J., Propeller/Rotor Rotational Noise Anal-
ysis Including Time-Varying Blade Forces, Paper FF5, Lowson, M. V., Basic Mechanisms of Noise Generation
76th Meeting of Acoustical Society of America, Cleve- by Helicopters, V / S T O L Aircraft and Ground Effect
land, O., Nov. 18-22, 1968. Machines, Wyle Lab., Report WR 65-9, Huntsville,
Ala., May 1965; Also J. Sound Vib., Vol. 3, No. 5,
Helicopter and V / S T O L Noise Generation and Suppres- pp. 454466, May 1966.
sion, Nov. 1968 Report of the Results of a Joint U. s.
Army, National Academy of Sciences, National Acad- Lowson, M. V., and Ollerhead, J. B., Studies of Helicopter
emy of Engineering Conference, Washington, D. C., Noise, USAVLABS TR 68-60, Ft. Eustis, Va., Jan. 1969.
July 30-31, 1968.
Metzger, F. B., Magliozzi, B., Towle, G. B., and Gray, L.,
Hicks, C. W., and Hubbard, H. H., Comparison of Sound A Study of Propeller Noise Research, Hamilton Stan-
Emission From Two-Blade, Four-Blade, and Seven- dard, SP 67148, Rev. A, Winsor Locks, Conn., 1961.
Blade Propellers, NACA TN 1354, Washington, D. C.,
July 1947. Ollerhead, J. B., and Lowson, M. V., Problems of Heli-
copter Noise Estimation and Reduction, Paper 69-195,
Hubbard, H. H., Propeller Noise Charts for Transport AIAA/AHS VTOL Research, Design, and Operations
Airplanes, NACA TN 2968, Washington, D. C., June Meeting, Atlanta, Ga., Feb. 17-19, 1969.
1953.
Ollerhead, J. B., and Taylor, R. B., Description of a Heli-
Hubbard, H. H., and Maglieri, D. J., Noise Character- copter Rotor Noise Computer Program, USAVLABS
istics of Helicopter Rotors at Tip Speeds Up to 900 Feet TR 68-61, Ft. Eustis, Va., Jan. 1969.
Per Second, J. Acoust. SOC. Am., Vol. 32, No. 9, Sept.
1960. Potter, R. C., A n Experiment to Examine the Effect of
Porous Trailing Edges on the Sound Generated by
Blades in an Airflow, Wyle Laboratories, Report WR
Hubbard, H. H., and Regier, A. A., Free Space Oscillating
68-6, Huntsville, Ala., Mar. 1968.
Pressures Near the Tips of Rotating Propellers, NACA
Report 996, Washington, D. C., 1950.
Powell, A., Theory of Vortex Sound, 1. Acoust. SOC. of
America, Vol. 36, p. 1, Jan. 1964.
Hubbard, H. H., and Regier, A. A., Propeller-Loudness
Charts for Light Airplanes, NACA T N 1358, Washing-
Richards, E. J., and Sharland, I. J., Hovercraft Noise and
ton, D. C., July 1947.
Its Suppression, J. Roy. Aeronaut. Soc., Vol. 69, No. 6,
pp. 387-398, June 1965.
Kramer, M., The Aerodynamic Profile as Acoustic Noise
Generator, J. Aero Sei., Vol. 20, pp. 280-282, Apr. 1953. Rosen, George, Advanced Propeller Developments for
V / S T O L Aircraft, SAE National Aeronautic Meeting,
Krzywoblocki, M. R., Investigation of the Wing-Wake Washington, D. C., Apr. 1965.
Frequency with Application of the Strouhal Number,
J. Aero Sci., Vol. 21, No. 1, pp. 51-62, Jan. 1945. Sadler, S. G., and Loewy, R. G., A Theory for Predicting
the Rotational and Vortex Noise of Lifting Rotors in
Leverton, J. W., Helicopter Noise-Blade Slap, Part I- Hover and Forward Flight, Rochester Applied Science
Review and Theoretical Study, NASA CR-1221, Wash- Associates Report 68-11, Rochester, N. Y., 1968 (to be
ington, D. C., Oct. 1968. published as NASA contract report).

d
Schlegel, R., King, R., and Mull, H., Helicopter Rotor Vogeley, A. W., Sound-Level Meamremnts of a Light-
Noise Generation and Propagation, USAVLABS T. R. Airplane Modified to Reduce Noise Reaching the
66-4, Ft. Eustis, Va., Oct. 1966. Ground, NACA Report 926, Washington, D. C., Feb.
1948.
Schlegel, R. G., and Bausch, Helicopter Rotor Noise Pre-
diction and Control, J. Am. Helicopter sm., VOl. 14, Wilde, G. L., and Coplin, J. F., Lift Turbo-Fans, I. Roy.
No. 3, July 1969. Aeronaut. SOC., Vol. 69, p. 656, Aug. 1965.
Sharland, I. J., Sources of Noises in Axial Flow Fans, Zandbergen, P. J., On the Calculation of the Propeller
J . Sound Vib., Vol. 1, No. 3, pp. 302-322, 1964. Noise Field Around Aircraft, National Aero. and Astro-
nautical Research Institute, NLR-TM G. 23, p. 46, Am-
Simons, I. A., et al; The Movement, Structure and Break- sterdam, Netherlands, June 1962.
down of Trailing Vortices from a Rotor Blade, CAL/
USAVLABS Symposium Proceedings: Aerodynamic
Problems Associated with V / S T O L Aircraft, Vol. I , II. Engines
Propeller and Rotm Aerodynamics, Buffalo, N. Y., June This material covers all forms of turbine engines noise
1966. including that from compressor rotors, stators and guide
vanes, from inlets; from fans; and from exhaust jets.
Sowers, H . D., Inoestigation of Methods for the Predic-
tion and Alleviation of Lift Fan Noise, TRECOM TR Aircraft Engine Noise, NASA Literature Search Number
65-4, Ft. Eustis, Va., Apr. 1965. 7268, Part I, Washington, D. C., Oct. 14, 1968.
Spencer, Sternfe1d7 H*?and McComick, B w7 Tip Aircraft Engine Noise, NASA Literature Search Number
Vortex Thkkening for Appzication to 7268, Part 11 (Limited Distribution References), Wash-
Rotor Noise Reduction, USAVLABS TR 66-1, Ft. Eustis, ington, D, c., Oct. 14, 1968.
Va., Sept. 1966.
Bradshaw, P., Ferriss, D. H., and Johnson, R. F., Tur-
Sternfeld, H., Influence of the Tip Vortex on Helicopter
Rotor Noise, AGARD CP No. 22, Paris, France, Sept. bulence in the Noise Producing Region of a Circular
1967. Jet, Fluid Mech., Vol. 19, No. 8, pp. 591-624, Aug.
1964.
Sternfeld, H., New Techniques in Helicopter Noise Re-
duction, Noise Control, Vol. 7, pp. 4 1 0 , May 1961. Bradshaw, p., and Flintoff, J. L., Unexplained Scale
Effects in Ejector Shroud Howling, 1. Sound Vib.,
Vol. 3, NO. 1, pp. 183-190, Mar. 1968.
Stowell, E. Z., and Deming, A. F., Vortex Noise from
Rotating Cylindrical Rods, NACA TN No. 619, Wash-
ington, D. C., Feb. 1935. Bragg, S. L., and Bridge, R., Noise From Turbojet Com-
pressors, I. Roy. Aeronaut. SOC., Vol. 68, Jan. 1964.
Stuckey, T. J., and Goddard, J. O., Investigation and
Prediction of Helicopter Rotor Noise, 1. Sound Vib., Cawthorn, J. M., Hayes, C., and Morns, 6. J., Meamre-
Vol. 5, No. 1, pp. 50-80, Jan. 1967. m n t of Performance, Inlet Flow Characteristics, a d
Radiated Noise for a Turbojet Engine Having Choked
Theodorsen, Theodore, and Regier, A. A,, The Problem Inlet Flow, NASA TN D-3929, Washington, D. C., Mar.
of Noise Reduction with Reference to Light Airplanes, 1967.
NACA TN 1145, Washington, D. C., Aug. 1946.
Clark, L. T., N&e Generation by Turbomachines, D6-
Trillo, R. L., An Empirical Study of Hovercraft Noise, 20393, Boeing Co., Seattle, Wash., Apr. 1968.
J. Sound Vib., Vol. 3, No. 5, pp. 476509, May 1966.
Davies, D. O., and Coplin, J. F., Some VTOL Power-
Tyler, E., Vortex Formation Behind Obstacles of Various plant Design and Development Experience, J. Roy.
Sections, Phil. Mag. S. 7, Vol. 11, No. 72, Apr. 1931. Aeronaut. Soc., Vol. 70, pp. 977-986, Nov. 1966.

d
Eldred, K. M., White, R. W., Mann, M. A., and Cottis, Lighthill, M. J., Jet Noise, AGARD Report 448, Paris,
M. G., Suppression Jet Noise with Emphasis on the France, Apr. 1963.
Near Field, ASD-TDR-62-578 Wright-Patterson AFB,
Dayton, O., Feb. 1963. Lowson, M. V., Compressor Noise .Analysis, NASA SP-
189, Washington, D. C., Oct. 1968.
Elias, I., Frasca, R. L., Hoehne, J. C., Marsh, A. H., A
Study of Turbo-Engine Compressor Noise Suppression Lowson, M. V., Reduction of Compressor Noise Radia-
Techniques, NASA CR 1056, Washington, D. C., June tion, J . Acoust. SOC. of Am., Vol. 43, l , pp. 3750, Jan.
1968. 1968.
Fundamental Study of Jet Noise Generation and Suppres- Lowson, M. V., Theoretical Studies of Compressor Noise,
sion, Vol. I . Experimental and Theoretical Imestiga- NASA CR 1287, Washington, D. C., Aug. 1968.
tions of Model Jet Exhaust Stream Noise and The De-
velopment of Normalizing Parameters for Size and Lowson, M. V., and Ollerhead, J. B., Visualization of
Temperature, Report, for Apr. 1962 to Mar. 1963, IR- Noise from Cold Supersonic Jets, J. Acoust. SOC. of Am.,
6067, Illinois Institute of Technology, Armour Research Vol. 44, No. 2 pp. 624-630, Feb. 1968.
Foundation, Chicago, Ill., Mar. 1963.
Marsh, A. H., Elias, I., Hoehne, J. C., and Frasca, R. L.,
Fundamental Study of Jet Noise Generation and Suppres- A Study of Turbofan-Engine Compressor-Noise-
sion, Vol. 11, Bibliography, Report for Apr. 1961 to Suppression Techniques, NASA CR-1056, Washington,
Dec. 1962, IR-6066, AD-407793, Illinois Institute of D. C., June 1968.
Technology, Armour Research Foundation, Chicago,
Ill., Mar. 1963. McKaig, M. B., et al, Procedures for Jet Noise Prediction,
Revision A, Document D6-2357 TN, Boeing- Co., Seat-
Gordon, C. G., Turbofan Engine Noise-Mechanisms and tlez Feb. 1965*
Control, Acoustic Society of America Meeting, Phila-
delphia, Pa., Apr. 1969. Moore, H. B., and Clinck, J. M., Measurement of Jet
Noise Suppression Using A Small Turbojet Engine,
Grande, E., Possibilities and Devices for the Suppression Paper 670157 SAE, Automotive Engineering Congress,
of Jet Noise, D6-20609, Boeing Co., Seattle, Wash.,
Detroit, Jan. 9-13, 1967.
1968.
Morgan, W. V., Sutherland, L. C., and Young, K. J., The
Use of Acoustic Scale Models for Investigating Near
Hulse, B*, Pearson, c*,Abbona, M*,and Anderson, Field Noise of Jet and Rocket Engines, Boeing Co.,
Some Effects Of lade On compressor Scientific Research Labs., Seattle, Wash., Apr. 1961.
Noise Level, FAA-ADS-82, Washington, D. C., Oct.
1966.
Morley, C. L., How to Reduce the Noise of Jet Engines,
Engineering, Vol. 198, pp. 782-783, Dec. 1964.
Jet Engine Noise Deflection or Supvessim, A DDC Re-
port Bibliography, Report No. ARB 10541, Cameron Noise Generation and Suppression in Aircraft, Proceed-
Station, Alexandria, Va. ings of a Short Course at the University of Tennessee
Space Institute, Tullahoma, Tenn., Jan.-Feb. 1968.
Kester, J. D., and Slaiby, T. G., Designing the JTOD
Engine To Meet Low Noise Requirements for Future Pendley, R. E., and Marsh, A. H., Turbo-Fan-Engine
Transports, Paper 670331 S. A. E. National Aeronautics Noise Suppression, Paper 67-389, AIAA Commercial
Meeting, New York, Apr. 2427, 1967. Aircraft Design and Operation Meeting, Los Angeles,
June 12-14, 1967.
Kobrynski, M., General Method for Calculating the Sound
Pressure Field Emitted by Stationary or Moving Jets, Progress of NASA Research Relating to Noise Allevia-
Symposium on Aerodynamic Noise, ONERA, TP No. tion of Large Subsonic Jet Aircraft, NASA SP-189,
578, Toronto, Canada, May 20-21, 1968. Washington, D. C., Oct. 1968.

Research on Jet Noise Generation and Suppression, Aural Detection of Helicopters in Tactical Situations,
Phase I, Final Report IR-9631, General Electric Co., J. Am. Helicopter SOC., Vol. 8, Oct. 1963.
Cincinnati, O., Apr. 1964.
Bishop, D. E., Descriptions of Fly-Over Noise Signals
Ribner, H. S., The Generation of Sound by Turbulent Produced b y Various Jet Transport Aircraft, FAA-DS-
Jets, Advances in Applied Mechanics, Vol. V I I I , 67-18, Washington, D. C., Aug. 1967.
pp. 103-182. Academic Press, New York, 1964.
Bishop, D. E., Frequency Spectrum and Time Duration
Semrau, W. R., Research on Jet Noise Generation and Descriptions of Aircrafi Fly-Over Noise Signals, FAA-
Suppression, General Electric Go., Cincinnati, O., Apr. DS-67-6, Washington, D. C., May 1967.
1, 1964.
Bishop, D. E., Helicopter Noise Characteristics for Heli-
Sharland, I. J., Recent Work at Southampton. University
port Planning, FAA-ADS-40, Washington, D. C., Mar.
on Sources of Noise in Axial Flow Fans, Paper F33,5th
1965.
International Congress on Acoustics, Liege, Belgium,
1965.
Carmichael, R. F., and Pelke, D. E., In-Flight Noise Mea-
Sharland, I. J., Sources of Noise in Axial Flow Fans, surements on the X-21A Laminar Flow Aircraft, NOR-
J . Sound Vib., Vol. 3, No. 1, pp. 302322, 1964. 64-81, Northrop Corporation, NORAIR Div., Haw-
thorne, Calif., Apr. 1964.
Silverstein, A., Progress in Aircraft Gas Turbine Devel-
opment, NASA-TM-X-52240, Washington, D. C., 1966. Cole, J. N., and England, R. T., Evaluation of Noise
Problems Anticipated with Future VTOL Aircraft,
Slutsky, A. L., An Investigation of Jet Noise and its Beyond the Horizon-Flight in the Atmosphere, 1975-
Abatement, NASA CR-95553, Washington, D. C., June 1985, Air Force Systems Command Report, Wright-
1968. Patterson AFB, Dayton, O., Jan. 1967.
Sperry, W., Peter, A., and Hams, R., Fundamental Study Cole, J. N., and England, R. T., Evaluation of Noise
of Jet Noise Generation and Suppression, Vol. I-Ex- Problems Anticipated with Future V T O L Aiwraft,
perimental and Theoretical Investigations of Model AMRL-TR 66-245, May 1967.
Jet Exhaust Stream Noise and the Deoelopment of
Normalizing Parameters for Size and Temperature, Conference on STOL Transport Aircraft Noise Certifica-
ASD-TDR-63-326, Wright-Patterson AFB Propulsion tion Sponsored by the F A A of the DOT, Report No.
Lab., Dayton, O., Mar. 1963.
FAA-No-69-1, TR 550-003-03H, Washington, D. C.,
Jan. 30, 1969.
Wilde, G. L., and Taylor, P. A., Factors Governing the
Design of Tip Jet Engines, AGARD Helicopter Deoel-
opment, pp. 387400, Paris, France, 1966. Cox, C. R., Helicopter Noise and Passive Defense,
pp. 156-163, American Helicopter Society 19th Annual
Williams, J. E. F., Some Open Questions on the Jet Noise National Forum, New York, 1963.
Problem, N68-33764, DI-82-0730, Boeing Flight Sci-
ences Lab., Seattle, Wash., June 1968. Cox, R. C., and Lynn, R. R., A Study of the Origin and
Means of Reducing Helicopter Noise, TCREC-TR-
62-73, Ft. Eustis, Va., Nov. 1962.
111. Aircraft
This section includes those references concerned with Dygert, K. D., Allocating the Costs of Alleeuiating Sub-
the total overall noise and the noise components produced sonic Jet Aircraft Noise, Inst. of Trans and Traffic Engr.,
by a particular aircraft type or by a general class of University of California, Berkeley, Cal., Feb. 1967.
aircraft.
Effects of Noise on Commercial V / S T O L Aircraft Design
Aircraft Noise and Sonic Boom, Bibliographic List No. and Operation, A68-44938, Boeing Co., Seattle, Wash.,
13, FAA, Washington, D. C., Oct. 1966. 1968.
d
Franken, P. A., and Kerwin, E. M., Jr., Methods of Flight August 27-31, 1962, Proceedings A65-15539 06-34, pp.
Vehicle Noise Prediction, ASTIA Document No. AD 569-618. Spartan Books, Inc., Washington, D. C.; The
205 776, Wright-Patterson AFB, Dayton, O., 1958; Macmillan Co. Ltd., London, England, 1964.
Greatrex, The Economics of Aircraft Noise Suppression, Rosen, G., Advanced Propeller Developments for V / S T O L
Aerospace Proceedings, ICAS 66-5, 1965. Aircraft, S.A.E. National Aeronautic Meeting, Washing-
ton, D. C., Apr. 12-15, 1965.
Hafner, R., Domain of the Convertible Rotor, J. Air-
craft, Vol. 1, No. 6, pp. 350-359, Nov. 1964.
Spencer, R. H., The Effect of Noise Regulations on VTOL
Helicopter and V / S T O L Noise Generation and Suppres- Aircraft of the Future, Vertifiite, Vol. 14, No. 10,
sion, Report of the Results of a Joint U. s. Army, Na- pp. 2 8 , Oct. 1968.
tional Academy of Sciences, National Academy of
Engineering Conference held July 30-31, 1968, Wash- Sternfeld, H., New Techniques in Helicopter Noise Re-
ington, D. C., Nov. 1968. duction, Noise Control, Vol. 7, pp. 4 1 0 , May 1961.
Maglieri, D. J., Shielding Flap Type Jet Engine Noise Sternfeld, H., and Hinterkeuser, E., Effects of Noise on
Suppressor, J. Acoust. SOC. Am., Vol. 4, Apr. 1959.
Commercial V / S T O L Aircraft Design and Operation,
Paper 68-1137, AIAA 5th Annual Meeting, Philadelphia,
Maglieri, D. J., Hilton, D. A., and Hubbard, H. H., Noise Pa., Oct. 21-24, 1968.
Considerations in the Design and Operation of V / S T O L
Aircraft, NASA TN D-736, Washington, D. C., Apr.
1961. Tanner, Carole S., and McLeod, Norman J., Preliminary
Measurements of Take-Off and Landing Noise from
Maglieri, D. J., and Hubbard, H. H., Preliminary Mea- a New Instrumented Range, NASA Conference on
surements of the Noise Characteristics of Some Jet- Aircraft Operating Problems, Langley, Va., NASA
Augmented-Flap Configurations, NASA TM 12-4-58L, SP-83, pp. 83-90, May 10-12, 1965.
Washington, D. C., Jan. 1959.
Watter, M., Progress Report on the Reduction of External
Miller, R. H., Notes on Cost of Noise Reduction in Rotor/ Helicopter Noise with Proceedings of the ARPA
Prop Aircraft, Conference on V / S T O L Noise Genera- Workshop, IDA Research Paper, Washington, D. C.,
tion and Suppression, MIT Memo Report FTL-M68-9, May 2425, 1968.
Cambridge, Mass., Aug. 1968.
Noise Bibliography, TIL/BIB/73/Vol. 4, p. 32, Ministry IV.Operational

of Aviation, Great Britain, July 1965. This section contains references relating to the effects
of variations in aircraft operations such as flight path,
Pickerell, D. J., and Cresswell, R. A., Power Plant As- throttling, flight frequency, etc.
pects of High-speed, Inter-City VTOL Aircraft, J.
Aircraft, Vol. 5, No. 5, Sept. 1968. Aircraft Noise, Report of an International Conference
on the Reduction of Noise and Disturbance Caused b y
Rabenhorst, D. W., The Turbo-Electric V / T O L Aircraft, Civil Aircraft. Lancaster House, London, England,
TM TG-1013, John Hopkins University, Silver Spring, Nov. 1966.
Md., July 1968.
Ribner, H. S., Noise of Aircraft, Paper 65-545, UTIAS

Alleviation of Jet Aircraft Noise Near Airports, A Report
Rev. 24, International Council of the Aeronautical Sci- of the Jet Aircraft Noise Panel, Office of Science and
ences, 4th Congress, Paris, France, Aug. 2428, 1964. Technology, Washington, D. C., Mar. 1966.
Richards, R. E., Problems of Airplane Noise in the 1970$, Bishop, D. E., Analysis of Community and Airport Rela-
3rd International Congress of the International Council tionships/Noise Abatement, FAA-RD-65-130,Washing-
of the Aeronautical Sciences, Stockholm, Sweden, ton, D. C., Dec. 1965.

Bishop, D. E., and Haronjeff, R. D., Procedures for De- mittee R 2.5, Documentation of Noise Exposure Around
veloping Noise Exposure Forecast Areas for Aircraft Airports, Washington, D. C., Aug. 1967.
Flight Operations, FAA-DS-67-10, Washington, D. C.,
May 1967. Noise Exposure Forecasts for OHare International Air-
port, FAA-DS-67-16 s. A. E. Research Proj. Comm.,
Bishop, D. E., and Haronjeff, R. D., 1965, 1970, 1975 R. 2.5 Documentation of Noise Exposure Around Air-
Noise Exposure Forecast Areas for Chicago OHare In- ports, Washington, D. C., Aug. 1967.
ternational Airport, FAA-DS-67-12, Washington, D. C.,
Aug. 1967. Noise Study in Manhattan, New York City for the Evalu-
ation of Dominant Noise Sources Including Helicopter
Bishop, D. E., and Haronjeff, R. D., 1965,1970,1975 Noise Trafic, Bolt, Beranek and Newman Rept. 1610,
Exposure Forecast Areas for John F. Kennedy Airport, Aug. 1967.
FAA-DS-67-11, Washington, D. C., Aug. 1967.
Paulin, R. L. and Miller J. S. F., Aircraft Noise Abate-
Bishop, D. E., and Haronjeff, R. D., 1965,1970,1975 Noise ment-The Prospects for a Quieter Metropolitan En-
Exposure Forecast Areas for Los Angebs International vironment, AIAA Aircraft Design and Operations
Airport, FAA-DS-67-13, Calif., Washington, D. C., Meeting, Paper No. 69-800, Los Angeles, July 14-16,
Aug. 1967. 1969.
Bolt, Beranck and Newman, Inc., Noise Environment of Pietrasanta, A. c . , Factors Influewing the Noise ExPosure
Urban and Suburban Areas, Results of Field Studies, Under the Landing Path for Jet Aircraft, FAA-ADS-39,
HUD, Washington, D. C., Jan. 1967. Washington, D. C., Mar. 1965.
Cohen, A., Location-Design Control of Transportation Shapiro, N., and Healy, G. J., A Realistic Assessment of
Noise, Urban Planning and Development Division, the Vertiport/Community Noise Problem, J. Aircraft,
Proc. of the Am. SOC. of Civil Engrs., pp. 63-86, Vol. 5, NO. 4, p. 407, July-AUg. 1958.
Dec. 1967.
Technique for Developing Noise Exposure Forecasts,
Galloway, et al., Study of the Efect of Departure FAA-DS-67-14, SAE Research Project Committee R 2.5,
Procedures on the Noise Produced by Jet Aircraft, Washington, D. C., Aug. 1964.
FAA-ADS-41, Washington, D. C., Mar. 1965.
V. Subjective
Hoover, I. H., A System Solution to the Aircraft Noise This material is related to the response of humans to
Problem, Paper 67-761, AIAA/RAES/CASI 10th noise from aircraft.
Anglo-American Aero. Conference, Los Angeles, Calif .,
Oct. 18-20, 1967. Definitions and Procedures for Computing the Perceived
Noise Level of Aircraft Noise, SAE, ARP 865, New York,
Hubbard, H. H., Maglieri, D. J., and Copeland, W. I., N. Y., Oct. 1964.
Research Approaches to Alleviation of Airport Com-
munity Noise, 1.Sound Vib.,Vol. 5, No. 2, pp. 377490, Hecker, M. H. L., and Kryter, K. D., Comparisons Be-
Feb. 1967. tween Subjective Ratings of Aircraft Noise and Various
Objective Measures, FAA 68-33, Washington, D. C.,
Land Use Planning with Respect to Aircraft Noise, Air Apr. 1968.
Force Manual 86-5, Washington, D. C., Oct. 1964.
Hinterkeuser, E. G., and Sternfield, H., Jr., Subjective Re-
Noise Exposure Forecasts for J. F . Kennedy International sponse to Synthesized Flight Noise Signatures of Several
Airport, FAA-DS-67-15, S. A. E. Research Proj. Comm., Types of V / S T O L Aircraft, Document D8-0907A, Boe-
R 2.5, Documentation of Noise Exposure Around Air- ing, Vertol Div., Philadelphia, Pa., Jan. 1968.
ports, Washington, D. C., Aug. 1967.
Hubbard, H. H., and Maglieri, D. J., An Investigation of
Noise Exposure Forecasts for Los Angebs International Some Phenomena Relating to Aerial Detection of Air-
Airport, FAA-DS-17, S . A. E. Research Project Com- planes, NACA TN 4337, Washington, D. C., Sept. 1958.

d
Human Aural Response to Noise, NASA Literature Search Stevens, S. S., Calculation of the Loudness of Complex
Number 7398, Washington, D. C., Nov. 1968. Noise, J . Acoust. SOC. Am., Vol. 28, No. 9, pp. 807-832,
Sept. 1956.
Kryter, K. D., Concepts of Perceived Noisiness, Their
Implementation and Application, J . Acoust. SOC. Am. Williams, C. E., Stevens, K. N., Heckler, M. H., and
Vol. 43, pp. 344-361, 1968. Pearsons, K. S., The Speech Interference Effects of Air-
craft Noise, FAA-DS-67-19, Washington, D. C., Sept.
Kryter, K. D., Scaling Human Reactions to the Sound 1967.
from Aircraft,J. Acoust. SOC. Am., Vol. 31, No. 11,1959.
VI. General
Kryter, K. D., and Williams, C. E., Some Factors Znfluenc-
ing Human Response to Aircraft Noise, FAA-ADS-48, This section contains material related to research pro-
Washington, D. C., June 1965. grams, federal policy and regulation, and handbooks. Also
included are references concerning fundamental acoustic
theory and acoustic instrumentation.
Nagel, D. C., Parnell, J. E., and Parry, H . J., The Effects
of Background Noise o n Perceived Noisiness,
FAA-DS-67-22, Washington, D. C., Dec. 1967. A Brief Guide to Noise Measurements and Analysis, Re-
search and Development Report 609, U. s. Navy Elec-
tronics Lab., San Diego, Calif., May 16, 1955.
Ollerhead, J. B., Subjective Evaluation of General Avia-
tion Aircraft Noise, FAA 68-35, Washington, D. C.
Apr. 1968. Aircraft Noise Abatement Regulation, Hearing Before the
Aviation Sub-committee of the Committee on Com-
Parnell, J. E., Nagle, D. C., and Parry, H . J., Growth of merce, United States Senate Nineteenth Congress,
Noisiness for Tones and Bands of Noise at Diflerent Serial No. 90-76, Washington, D. C., June 17, 1968.
Frequencies, FAA-DS-67-21, Washington, D. C., Dec.
1967. Alleviation of Jet Aircraft Noise Near Airports, A Report
of the Jet Aircraft Noise Panel, Office of Science and
Pearsons, K. S., Noisiness Judgments of Helicopter Fly- Technology, Washington, D. C., Mar. 1966.
overs, FAA-DS-67-1, Washington, D. C., Jan. 1967.
An Aerosonics Bibliography, Supplement No. 2, AD-614-
Pearsons, K. S., The Efect of Duration. and Background 594, Supplement to Engineering Report 63-51, 64-20,
Noise Level on Perceived Noisiness, FAA-ADS-78, UCLA, Los Angeles, Calif., Apr. 1965.
Washington, D. C., Apr. 1966.
Beranek, L. L., Noise Reduction. McGraw-Hill Book Com-
Pearsons, K. S., and Haronjeff, R. D., Category Scaling pany, Inc., New York, 1960.
Judgment Tests on Motor Vehicle and Aircraft Noise,
FAA-DS-67-8, Washington, D. C., July 1967.
Bolt, R. H., Beranek, L. L., and Newman, R. B., Hand-
book of Acoustic Noise Control, Vol. 1, Physical Acous-
Robinson, D. W., The Subjective Basis for Aircraft
tics, WADC TR 42-204, Dayton, O., Dec. 1952.
Noise Limitation, J. Roy. Aeronaut. Sue., No. 678, 11,
pp. 396-500, June 1967.
Bscham, C., Analysis of Jet and Boundary Layer Noise,
Sperry, W. C., Aircraft Noise Evaluation, FAA-No-68-34, Paper 68-35, International Council of the Aeronautical
Washington, D. C., Sept. 1968. Sciences 6th Congress, Munich, Germany, Sept. 9-13,
1968.
Standard Values of Atmospheric Absorbtion as a Function
of Temperature and Humidity for Use in Evaluating Civil Aviation Research and Development, An Assess-
Aircraft Fly-Over Noise, SAE, ARP 865, New York, ment of Federal Government Involvement, Summary
N. Y., Aug. 1964. Report of the Aeronautics and Space Engineering

Board, National Academy of Engineering, Washing- Richards, E. J., Aeronautical Research at Southampton
ton, D. C., Aug. 1968. University, I. Roy. Aeronaut. SOC., Vol. 69, pp. 505-
541, Aug. 1965.
Colovin, N. E., Alleviation of Aircraft Noise, Astronaut
and Aeronaut, Jan. 1967. Richards, E. J., Aircraft Noise, Mitigating the Nuisance,
Astronaut and Aeronaut, Vol. 5, No. 1, pp. 34-43, Jan.
Lighthill, M. J., Sound Generated Aerodynamically, 1967; also Aircraft Engineering, Feb. 1967.
The Bakerian Lecture, 1961, Proc. Roy. SOC. London,
Ser. A, Vol. 267, pp. 147-182, 1962. Southampton University Institute of Sound and Vibra-
tion Research Annual Report, Year Ending June 1966,
Lukasik, S. J., and Nolle, A. W., editors, Handbook of N67-10476, Southampton, England.
Acoustic Noise Control, Vol. 1, Physical Acoustics, Sup-
plement 1, WADC TR 52-204, Dayton, O., Apr. 1955. Sperry, W. C., Powers, J. O., and Oleson, S. K., The Fed-
eral Aviation Administration Aircraft Noise Abatement
Muller, E. A,, and Okermeier, F., The Spinning Vortices Program, Presented at ASME Annual International Gas
as a Source of Sound, AGARD CP 22, Paris, France, Turbine Conference, Washington, D. C., Mar. 17-21,
Sept. 1967. 1968.
Peterson, A. P. N., and Gross, E. E. Jr., Handbook of The Aircraft/Airport Problem and Federal Government
Noise Measurement, General Radio Co., W. Hartford, Policy, FAA Office of Noise Abatement, Systems Anal-
Conn., 1960. ysis Staff, Washington, D. C., Dec. 1967.
Report of ASEB AD HOC Committee on Noise, National von Gierke, H. E., Handbook of Noise Control, Chapt. 33,
Academy of Engineering, Washington, D. C., Dec. pp. 33-34. Harris, 6. M., Editor. McGraw-Hill Book
1968. Co., New York, 1957.
46 JP L TECHNICAL REPORT 32- 1462

d
References
1. Lighthill, M. J., Sound Generated Aerodynamically, The Bakerian Lecture,

1961, Proc. Roy. Soc. London, Ser. A, Vol. 267, pp. 147-182, 1962.
2. Ribner, H. S., The Generation of Sound by Turbulent Jets, Advances in
Applied Mechanics, Vol. VIII, pp. 103-182. Academic Press, New York, 1964.
3. von Gierke, H. E., Handbook of Nobe Control, Chapter 33, pp. 3334. Harris,
C. M., Editor. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1957.
4. Metzger, F. B., Magliozzi, B., Towle, G. B., and Gray, L., A Study of Pro-
peller Noise Research, SP 67148, Rev. A., Hamilton Standard, Winsor Locks,
Conn., 1961.
5. Standard Values of Atmospheric Absorption as a Function of Temperature
and Humidity for Use in Evaluating Aircraft Noise, SAE Aerospace Recom-
mended Practice ARP 866, New York, 1964.
6. Yudin, E. Y., O n The Vortex Sound From Rotating Rods, NACA TM 1136,
Washington, D. C., Mar. 1947.
7. Gutin, L., On The Sound Field of a Rotating Propeller, NACA TM 1195,
Washington, D. C., Oct. 1948.
8. Hubbard, H. H., Propeller Noise Charts for Transport Airplanes, NACA TN
2968, Washington, D. C., June 1953.
9. Stowell, E. A., and Deming, A. F., Vortex Noise From Rotating Cylindrical
Rods, NACA TN 619, Washington, D. C., Feb. 1935.
10. Hicks, C. W., and Hubbard, H. H., Comparison of Sound Emission From Two-
Blade, Four-Blade, and Seven- Blade Propellers, NACA TN 1354, Washington,
D. C., July 1947.
11. Gessow, A,, and Myers, G. C., Jr., Aerodynamics of the Helicopter, 3rd print-
ing. Frederick Ungar Publishing Co., New York, 1967.
12. Lowson, M. V., and Ollerhead, J. B., Studies of Helicopter Rotor Noise,
USAVLABS TR 68-60, Ft. Eustis, Va., Jan. 1969.
13. Schlegel, R., King, R., and Mull, H., Helicopter Rotor Noise Generation and
Propagation, USAVLABS TR 66-4, Ft. Eustis, Va., Oct. 1966.
14. Loewy, R. G., and Sutton, L. R., A Theory for Predicting the Rotational Noise
of Lifting Rotors in Forward Flight, Including a Comparison with Experi-
ment, I. Sound Vib., Vol. 4, No. 3, Nov. 1966.
15. Garrick, I. E., and Watkins, G. E., A Theoretical Study of the E@ct of For-
ward Speed on the Free-Space Sound Pressure Field Around Propellers,
NACA Rept. 1198, Washington, D. C., 1953.
16. Stuckey, T. J., and Goddard, J. O., Investigation and Prediction of Helicopter
Rotor Noise, J . Sound Vib., Vol. 5, No. 1, pp. 50-80, Jan. 1967.
17. Spencer, R., Sternfield, H., and McCormick, B. W., Tip Vortex Core Thicken-
ing for Application to Helicopter Rotor Noise Reduction, USAVLABS TR 66-1,
Ft. Eustis, Va., Sept. 1966.
JPL TECffNlCAL REPORT 32-1462 47

d
References (contd)
18. Hubbard, H. H., and Regier, A. A., Propeller Loudness Charts for Light Air-
plunes, NACA T N 1358, Washington, D. C., July 1947.
19. Sadler, S. G., and Loewy, A., A Theory for Predicting the Rotational and
Vortex Noise of Lifting Rotors in Hover and Forward Flight, Rochester Ap-
plied Science Associates Rept. 68-11, Rochester, N. Y., 1968 (to be published
as a NASA contract report).
20. Cox, R. C., and Lynn, R. R., A Study of the Origin and Means of Reducing
Helicopter Noise, TCREC-TR 62-73, Ft. Eustis, Va., Nov. 1962.
21. Leverton, J. W., and Taylor, F. W., Helicopter Blade Slap, J . Sound Vib.,
Vol. 4, No. 3, pp. 345-357, 1966.
22. Leverton, J. W., Helicopter Noise-Blade Slap, Part I-Review and Theo-
retical Study, NASA CR 1221, Washington, D. C., Oct. 1968.
23. Conference on STOL Transport Aircraft Noise Certification Sponsored by
Federal Aviation Administration of the Department of Transportation, FAA
69-1, TR 550-003-03H, Washington, D. C., Jan. 30, 1969.
24. Davidson, I. M., and Hargest, T. J., Helicopter Noise,]. Roy. Aeronaut. Soc.,
Vol. 69, No. 5, pp. 325-336, May 1965.
25. Sharland, I. J., Sources of Noise in Axial Flow Fans, J. Sound Vib., Vol. 1,
pp. 302-322, 1964.
26. Sowers, H. D., Investigation of Methods for the Prediction and Alleviation
of Lift Fan Noise, TRECOM TR 65-4, Ft. Eustis, Va., 1965.
27. Hargest, T. J., V/STOL Aircraft Noise, Fluid Dynamics of Rotor and Fan
Supported Aircraft at Subsonic Speeds, AGARD CP 22, Paris, France, Sept.
1967.
28. Pickerell, D. J., and Cresswell, R. A., Power Plant Aspects of High-speed
Inter-City VTOL Aircraft, J . Aircraft, Vol. 5, No. 5, Sept. 1968.
29. Stevens, S. S., The Measurement of Loudness, J. Acoust. SOC. Am., Vol. 27,
No. 5, 1955.
30. Kyter, K. D., Scaling Human Reactions to the Sound From Aircraft, J .
Acoust. SOC. Am., Vol. 31, No. 11, 1959.
31. Sperry, W. C., Aircraft Noise Evaluation, FAA 68-34, TR 550-003-03H,
Washington, D. C., Sept. 1968.

NASA - JPL - Coml., L.A., Colif.
d

NASA 1970 Prop Noise Review PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

NASA 1970 Prop Noise Review PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

NASA 1970 Prop Noise Review PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

N

Technical Report 32-7462

A Review of Aerodynamic Noise From Propellers,

Technical Report 32-1462

A Review of Aerodynamic Noise From Propellers,

JPL TECHNICAL REPORT 32-7462 iii

II . Elements of Aerodynamic Acoustics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

111. Propeller Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

B. Noise Sources of Fans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

JPL TECHNICAL REPORT 32-7462 V

Appendix E . V/STOL-Noise Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

3. Sources of aerodynamic noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

13. Tip vortex locus as a function of several operational modes . . . . . . . . 13

16. Normalized overall power of compressor and fan noise

B.5 . Effect of reflecting surfaces in pressure field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

vi JPl TECHNICAL REPORT 32-1462

B.7 . Chart for combining noise levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

JPL TECHNICAL REPORT 32-1462 vii

viii JPL TECHNICAL REPORT 32-1462

1. Introduction This report is the product of a study of aircraft noise

JPL TECHNICAL REPORT 32- 1462 1

(a) PULSATING SPHERE AS MODEL OF SIMPLE SOURCE OF SOUND

(b) ALTERNATE MODELS OF DIPOLE SOURCE OF SOUND

(a) THICKNESS (b) TORQUE

OSCILLATING OSCILLATING DIPOLE SOURCES AND SINKS

(c) ALTERNATE MODELS OF LATERAL QUADRUPOLE SOURCE OF SOUND

(c) VORTEX SHEDDING (d) THRUST (e) THRUST AND TORQUE

2 JPL TECHNICAL REPORT 32-7462

THRUST AMPLITUDE WAKE AND TRAILING

JPL TECHNICAL REPORT 32-1462 3

4 JPL TECHNICAL REPORT 32- 1462

2. Atmospheric attenuation. The other two processes

JPL TECHNICAL REPORT 32-7462 5

A = propeller disc area, ftz k = constant of proportionality (see Section 11)

6 JPL TECHNICAL REPORT 32-1462

Because theory has not prbved to be fully adequate as

sion of United Aircraft and presented in Ref. 4. It is DISC LOADING, lb/ft2

JPL TECHNICAL REPORT 32-7462 7

uniform flow. The modern rotor is quite a different sys-

Two modern rotor noise theories by Schlegel, et al.

8 JPL TECHNICAL REPORT 32-1462

Fig. 8. Comparison of theory and experiment

JPL TECHNKAL REPORT 32-7462 9

10 JPL TECHNICAL REPORT 32-1462

Sadler and Loewy (Ref. 19) have taken a unique view

(b) S:ECTRUMABOVE :TALL

Fig. 11. Comparison of computed SPLs vs harmonic

JPL TECHNICAL REPORT 32-7462 11

Although it is easy to imagine a blade and a tip vortex

12 JPL TECHNICAL REPORT 32-1462

JPL TECHNICAL REPORT 32-7462 13

14 JPL TECHNICAL REPORT 32-1462

In propeller noise theory, the forces acting on a blade

Fig. 14. Typical tip-turbine-driven lift fan

to inflow angle increases with increasing blade tip speed. zd

propeller arises from the periodic excitation of an element -8

J P l TECHNICAL REPORT 32-7462 15

Fig. 16. Normalized overall power of compressor