HBEC2603 Teaching English To Young Learners
HBEC2603 Teaching English To Young Learners
HBEC2603 Teaching English To Young Learners
TEACHING ENGLISH
TO YOUNG LEARNERS
Dr Nurul Aliah Mustafa
Dr Ainul Azmin Md Zamin
Hj Mohd Fauzi Hj Kamarudin
Summary 78
Key Terms 79
Self-Test 79
References 80
INTRODUCTION
HBEC2603 Teaching English to Young Learners is one of the courses offered by
the Faculty of Education and Languages at Open University Malaysia (OUM).
This course is worth three credit hours and should be covered over 8 to 15 weeks.
COURSE AUDIENCE
This course is offered to all learners taking the Bachelor of Early Childhood
Education (with Honours) programme. This module aims to impart the
fundamentals of teaching language to early childhood learners through the
understanding of approaches in accordance with its linguistics components.
As an open and distance learner, you should be able to learn independently and
optimise the learning modes and environment available to you. Before you begin
this course, please ensure that you have the right course materials, understand
the course requirements, as well as know how the course is conducted.
STUDY SCHEDULE
It is a standard OUM practice that learners accumulate 40 study hours for every
credit hour. As such, for a three-credit hour course, you are expected to spend
120 study hours. Table 1 gives an estimation of how the 120 study hours could be
accumulated.
Study
Study Activities
Hours
Briefly go through the course content and participate in initial
3
discussion
Study the module 60
Attend 3 to 5 tutorial sessions 10
Online participation 12
Revision 15
Assignment(s), Test(s) and Examination(s) 20
Total Study Hours 120
COURSE OBJECTIVES
By the end of this course, you should be able to:
1. Describe the advantages of learning English at a young age;
2. Differentiate first language acquisition and second language acquisition for
young learners;
3. Demonstrate an ESL activity which can suit young language learners;
4. Explain the oral language development of a child;
5. Compare the stages of emergent reading and writing;
6. Plan an integrated curriculum project suitable for the interests and needs of
young language learners;
7. Create a portfolio consisting of appropriate assessments and language
learning task for early childhood learners; and
8. Encourage a supportive environment from family to facilitate a childs
language learning development.
COURSE SYNOPSIS
This course is divided into 10 topics. The synopsis for each topic is presented as
follows:
Topic 1 establishes the common ground with regard to early childhood learners
language development. In this topic you are expected to have the knowledge on
the linguistic perspective of language learning. You will learn the differences
between first language acquisition and second language acquisition. You have
the opportunity to explore their personal attributes to develop the right
approaches in dealing with preschoolers. The language set used for this course is
English, therefore you will discuss the advantages of learning English at a young
age during class session. In order to encourage an active learning environment,
you will be experimenting with the Needs Spidergram practical challenge in
the setting of their own country classroom environment.
Topic 6 emphasises literacy in the classroom. In this topic, you will initiate an
appropriate approach to encourage literacy environment in a language learning
classroom for early childhood learners. This topic also explains the effects of
setting up effective library centres using the plausible technique.
Topic 10 discusses the issues of teaching language to young learners and the
importance of family in facilitating and encouraging a childs language learning
development. This topic also discusses the special instructional methods to assist
parents and family in building an effective environment to support the childs
language learning development.
Learning Outcomes: This section refers to what you should achieve after you
have completely covered a topic. As you go through each topic, you should
frequently refer to these learning outcomes. By doing this, you can continuously
gauge your understanding of the topic.
Summary: You will find this component at the end of each topic. This component
helps you to recap the whole topic. By going through the summary, you should
be able to gauge your knowledge retention level. Should you find points in the
summary that you do not fully understand, it would be a good idea for you to
revisit the details in the module.
Key Terms: This component can be found at the end of each topic. You should go
through this component to remind yourself of important terms or jargon used
throughout the module. Should you find terms here that you are not able to
explain, you should look for the terms in the module.
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
No prior knowledge required.
ASSESSMENT METHOD
Please refer to myVLE.
REFERENCES
Bredekamp, S., & Copple, C. (Eds.). (1997). Developmentally appropriate practice
in early childhood programs. Washington, WA: National Association for
the Education of Young Children.
Coody, B. (1997). Using literature with young children. Iowa, IA: Brown
Publishers.
Dunn, J., Cutting, A., & Fisher, N. (2002). Old friends, new friends: Predictors of
children's perspective of their friends at school. Child Development, 73(2),
621-35.
Isenberg, J., & Jalongo, M. (Eds.). (1997). Major trends and issues in early
childhood education: Challenges, controversies, and insights. New York,
NY: Teachers College Press.
Morrow, L., & L Gambrell. (2001). Literature-based instruction in the early years.
In S. Neuman, & D. Dickinson (Eds.). Handbook of early literacy research
(pp. 348 60). New York, NY: Guilford.
Sowers, J. (2000). Language arts in early education. New York, NY: Delmar
Thomson Learning.
Tabors, P. (1997). One child, two languages: A guide for preschool educators of
children learning English as a second language. Baltimore, MD: Paul H.
Brookes.
Vukelich, C., Christie, J., & Enz, B. (2002). Helping young children learn language
and literacy. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
INTRODUCTION
Language, is an art in all of its manifestation. It requires four skills listening,
speaking, as well as the more formal operations of writing and reading. Even
though the four areas are presented as separate entities, in practice they are
inseparable. Learning is a gift; it is freely given to the young child. Learning is a
phenomenal process that is predictable by age and stages, but it is also a fragile
process. In this context, educators for young children need to understand that the
language skills development is a process, occurring over time with no true
beginning or end. The specific moment that the young child speaks is not easily
determined. You have the power to alter, add positive conditions or reduce some
of the negative conditions that affect a childs learning.
continually consider and monitor the young childs cognitive, emotional and
social development. You have to review the thought of major philosophers,
theorists, psychologists and educators that present an overview of the young
childs development such as Froebel, Piaget, Vygotsky, Reggio Emilia,
Montessori, as well as the domains and skills by age and abilities. At the same
time, you should have some basic understanding about young children with
unique needs and the circumstances that may impede their language acquisition
process.
To date, there are no studies that examine how teachers around the world go
about their everyday practice of teaching English to young learners, their
attitudes to this teaching, and the challenges they face. In addition to that, no
studies have recorded any detailed description, on a case-by-case basis of how
expert teachers in local contexts do English language teaching, where this
teaching is not part of a programme of innovation and change (Graddol, 2006).
ACTIVITY 1.1
Three-year- Children have very little control Children will likely laugh when they
old over their feelings. find something to be funny. In the
same way, if they find something
that arouses sadness or anger, they
will be more likely to cry.
(c) Sharing and cooperating: The ability to share depends on the development
of role-taking and the ability to read other peoples emotions. According to
Seefeldt et al. (2010) sharing behaviours can be fostered by:
(i) Providing security they have enough for themselves;
(ii) Models a noticeably warm, spontaneous and responsive teacher;
(iii) Conducive physical environment large play spaces and adequate
toys; and
(iv) Direct teaching teaching children the social skills involved in
sharing.
(d) Making friends: Dunn, Cutting, & Fisher, (2002) as cited in Seefeldt et al.
(2009) relate making friends to other social skills. Maintaining friendships
are very integral to childrens success in school and life. With regard to this,
children need to find common ground with potential friends. Therefore,
teachers should plan ways for them to accomplish the goals. One of the
ways is by explaining the Concept of Common Ground (what we have in
common). Look at Figure 1.1.
ACTIVITY 1.2
1. Suggest specific activities and experiences to foster cooperation and
encourage social interaction among preschoolers.
2. Talk with a highly experienced or retired kindergarten teacher about
how emphasis on second language teaching has changed over the
years and with regard to interrelatedness among the ideas.
Young childrens sense of what is right and what is wrong is highly influenced
by their physical, emotional, cognitive and social skills. Thus, as children become
more mature, they have more empathy for others.
ACTIVITY 1.3
Two main factors that have high influence on a childs development of
morality are their experiences and their environment. Discuss.
Figure 1.2: Benefits of starting English language learning among young children
SELF-CHECK 1.1
What are the benefits that young children can gain from learning
English at a young age?
ACTIVITY 1.4
Among the many companies that offer English language learning to
young children is Kumon. Find out what they have to say about learning
English at an early age at www.kumon.co.uk.
Task of making the spider mobile teachers work in a group of four or five. They
give instructions on how to create a spider mobile. After that, they display the
results alongside the instructions they have produced. Then, they ensure that
they are aware with what they are writing for an eight-year-old audience. Figure
1.3 is an example of an illustrated set of instructions completed by a group of
teachers.
After that, they ask the training group to give some comments whether they
think practical tasks should be generated by a language-based syllabus or
whether language aims should be generated by an activity (or topic) based
syllabus. Do teachers feel that the starting point affects the motivation or interest
of young children? Then they display the results of the writing activity on a
notice board so that participants have the opportunity to compare their views
with the rest of the group.
ACTIVITY 1.5
Completing the task teachers complete the cross-curricular chart in the course
notes. Students can exchange ideas and information as they prompt the young
learners on these different curricular areas. Then, encourage teachers to discuss
the integration of cross-curricular tasks into their own language teaching. For
example:
(a) List the advantages and disadvantages of introducing cross-curricular tasks
in a language lesson;
(b) Give comment if language practice is best carried out before or after a
practical task has been completed or whilst it is being completed;
(c) List the practical limitations, for example, in terms of time, classroom space,
existing course book;
(d) Give comment if other teacher cooperation is necessary or can be easily
obtained; and
(e) Give comment if young children will learn language more effectively.
Now let us take a look at Table 1.2 for some examples of responses.
Ask teachers to consider what happens when factors such as motivation, interest,
success and other are not taken into consideration by the teachers; and also how
or if EFL course books for young children integrate these factors into teaching
materials. Figure 1.4 shows us examples of completed spidergrams.
Teachers need to realise that there is no one approach and attitude that can
suit all learners at each stage of learning. Especially in the case of young
learners, a child may have his or her own pace of language development.
Teachers must also be aware that the emotional development encompasses
learning and understanding about feelings, emotions, comprehending how
both occur as well as recognising feelings of self and others, thus developing
the ability to manage them.
This also includes the childrens action, communication, sharing and
cooperating skills.
The development of morality is also a concern while teaching young learners.
Boys and girls display different judgement in deciding what is right and what
is wrong. Starting language learning is fun for the young ones as it provides a
wonderful experience.
The advantages of learning language at a young age are having better
understanding of the language, gaining advanced reading skills, boosting
self-confidence, gaining greater opportunity for college, improving intellect,
bigger view of the world and learning other cultures.
Teachers apply their new knowledge and experiences in order to understand
the basis for the teaching of language to young learners.
Language of instruction is clearly for an eight-year-old audience using key
words, pictures, demonstrations and sometimes translation into first
language.
Teaching language can be done by understanding the actions of the words;
colour, draw and cut.
Teachers should teach the young children to listen and watch (and read/look
at pictures) not just repeat the language.
In activities like making of the mobile, teacher can learn to help others in
groups, talk about themselves, feel silly about them and relaxed at the same
time.
Spider mobile activity can be exploited to teach body parts.
Spider mobile activity can be adapted to suit different age groups if the
lesson is carefully planned.
For effective teaching, teachers can reflect on their own learning experience as
young children; what motivated and demotivated them as language learners.
3. Discuss two factors that contribute to the success of learning the language
by young children. (2 marks)
Dunn, J., Cutting, A. L., & Fisher, N. (2002). Old friends, new friends: Predictors
of children's perspective on their friends at school. Child Development,
73(2), 621-635.
Enever, J., & Moon, J. (2009). New global contexts for teaching primary ELT:
Change and challenge. In J. Enever, J. Moon & U. Raman (Eds.), Young
learner English language policy and implementation: International
perspectives (pp. 521). Reading: Garnet Education.
Gilligan, C. (1982). In a different voice. New York, NY: American Trade. Graddol,
D. (2006). English next. London, England: British Council.
Killeen, J. P., Evans, G. W., & Danko, S. (2003). The role of permanent student
artwork in students sense of ownership in an elementary school.
Environment and Behavior, 35(2), 250-263.
Moon, J., & Nikolov, M. (2000). Research into teaching English to young learners.
Pecs: Hungary: University Press Pcs.
Samo, R. (2009). The age factor and l2 reading strategies. In M. Nikolov (Ed.),
Early learning of modern foreign languages: Processes and outcomes.
Bristol, England: Multilingual Matters.
Seefeld, C., Castle, S., & Falconer, R. (2010) Social studies for the preschool
/primary child. Marion, IN: Pearson Publishing.
Vale, D., & Feunteun, A. (1995). Establishing common ground: Attitudes and
approaches to teaching children In Vale, D. & Feunteun, A. (Eds). Teaching
children English: A training course for teachers of English. Cambridge,
England: Cambridge University Press.
INTRODUCTION
This topic starts with exploring the four main views on young childrens
language learning: behaviourism, linguistic nativism, the neuro-biological
perspectives and social interactions. This is followed by a discussion on the
principles behind the teaching of language for young learners. Finally, factors
that affect normal language learning rate will be discussed and some
instructional tips will be given.
The behaviourist views the idea that young childrens language development is
heavily influenced by the parents teaching and the environment in which the
child grows. This was the prevalent view throughout the first half of the 20th
century. According to Skinner (1957), learning is the consequence of two basic
processes:
(a) Classical conditioning; and
(b) Operant conditioning.
According to the nativist, innate language structure can facilitate the young
childs own attempt to communicate. This language structure also enables
communication despite the lack of support from the adults. Lastly, nativists
believe that the young childs environment does not have much influence on
their language development.
According to neuroscientists, certain brain areas are associated with the abilities
to hear, speak, and interpret language. The human brain, therefore, already has
structures for language. According to Sylwester (1995), the language a young
child acquires is associated with the language the young child is exposed to at
home. In another study, Kuhl (1993) stated that the brain of an infant is capable
of understanding any 300-plus languages.
ACTIVITY 2.1
Get into groups of three and each group demonstrate a role play to
explain each perspective.
Educators must not assume that the young childs parents are solely responsible
for language development. Educators of early childhood must accept their
critical roles in providing a greater amount of language arts modelling and
instruction than the parents because of the extended time young children spend
in childcare settings. You must also recognise that when young learners of a
second language discover a language that is very different from their own, they
will feel uneasy to communicate with you using the learnt language. Thus, in
addressing this issue, it is crucial for educators to comprehend how a young
child acquires and learns a second language as this assists in determining
appropriate educational practices for young children.
ACTIVITY 2.2
1. Have you ever been in a situation where everyone around you
used a language you do not understand? How did you feel? How
did you communicate with these speakers?
2. In a preschool setting, observe how the teacher supports the
young childrens second language learning. Observe whether
other children provide assistance to the young child and whether
there are opportunities for the young child to speak in the home
language. Share and discuss your observations with your class
members.
Language fluency and proficiency is known to occur differently for boys and
girls. For example, Kalb and Namuth (1997) found that late talkers occur among
boys more than girls. Interestingly, research reveals that girls talk earlier than
boys. Despite this, scholars still argue whether such a phenomenon is attributed
to biological or social influences.
In another research, Hart & Risley (1995) found that the rate of language
acquisition between low and middle socio-economic families shows differences.
Young children from the low-income families are found to show a slower ability
to use expressive language compared with children from the middle-income
families, suggesting that social-class differences may have an influence on young
childrens language development. The research also reveals that children from
professional families have more than three times linguistic input compared with
children from lower income families. This leads to young children from higher
income families having more vocabularies compared with their friends from the
lower income families.
Health issues such as temporary medical problems are also found to influence
language development. This includes hearing impairment and hearing loss.
Cultural influences are another factor that affects language learning. For
example, studies have shown that in some culture, communication is done in
nonverbal ways (Bhavnagri & Gonzalez-Mena, 1997). As such, the rate of
language acquisition among the young children of such culture may be slower
compared with other children. Additionally, there are also cultures which do not
see the vocal attempts by children as meaningful communication (Heath, 1983).
The early childhood educators should also help parents make audio or video
recordings of traditional songs, rhymes and stories using their home language.
This provides opportunities for the young children to show how to say and use
words and phrases of their home language.
The early childhood educators can also plan specific times during the school
routine as a time for the young children to speak in their home language.
Activities may include reading stories, singing songs or other small group
activities, all using the young childrens home language. This may be carried out
on a daily or weekly basis.
ACTIVITY 2.3
2.5.2 Preschoolers
During preschool, the early childhood educators may create programmes that
facilitate regular language modelling opportunities for children. This can be
carried out as a classroom or home activity. Additionally, school staff should
interact with the young children using the language of the young children.
School staff may learn some words of the young childs home language to help
ease young childrens transition from home to school and assist low-level
communication during the first few weeks of the childrens school enrolment
(Tabors, 1997). Nevertheless, Pearson & Mangione (2006) argue that
communicating using the target language (different from the childrens home
language) can be done as long as it is meaningful and assists the young childrens
acquisition of the target language.
ACTIVITY 2.4
Discuss the strategies which teachers can apply when they are in a class
where they do not speak the mother tongue of the students.
There are seven principles in the process of teaching young children to learn
another language.
Five main factors that can affect the rate of language learning among young
learners are gender difference, socio-economic level, medical concerns,
cultural differences and congenital language disorders.
2. State three principles behind the language learning among young children.
(6 marks)
3. Discuss two factors that contribute to the rate of language learning for
young children. (2 marks)
4. Elaborate and give examples how gender difference can affect the language
development of a young child. (3 marks)
Bhavnagri, N. P., & Gonzalez-Mena, J. (1997) The cultural context of infant care
giving. Childhood Education, 74, 2-8.
Chomsky, N. (1965). Aspects of the theory of syntax. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Hart, B., & Risley, T. R. (1995). Meaningful differences in the everyday experience
of young American children. Baltimore, MO: Paul H. Brookes.
Heath, S. B. (1983). Ways with words: Language, life, and work in communities
and classrooms. Cambridge England: Cambridge University Press.
Kalb, C. & Namuth, T. (1997) When a child's silence isn't golden. Newsweek 129 (a).
Kotulak, R. (1996). Inside the brain. Kansas City, MO: Andrews and McMeel.
Piper, T. (1993). Language and learning: The home and school years. New York,
NY: Prentice Hall
Sprenger, M. (1999). Learning and memory: The brain in action. Alexandria, VA:
ASCD.
Tabors, P. (1997). One child, two languages: A guide for preschool educators of
children learning English as a second language. Baltimore, MD: Paul H.
Brookes.
Vygotsky, L. V. (1962). Thought and language. Cambridge, MA: The M.I.T. Press.
INTRODUCTION
Young children are active learners who strive to find meaning and purpose in
what they do. Which is why as young children educators, we need to know how
to make young children learn language through tasks and activities. This topic
will discuss a range of curriculum approaches available for teachers to use, such
as the subject based approach, multidisciplinary approach and interdisciplinary
approach. These approaches help teachers to guide young children in different
ways to learn through tasks.
This topic also deals with how you can connect the language arts, help young
children use literacy to learn, plan an integrated curriculum designed to meet
your young childrens interests and needs, design classroom environments that
support their investigations and arrange the time needed for your young
childrens study and play.
In designing the classrooms physical environment, this topic highlights how you
can carve the large classroom space into small areas to gather appropriate
resources which support the young childrens learning process. You may also
place similar or related centres near each other, make language learning
materials as part of the fabric of each centre and involve the young children in
designing the classroom. What is to be emphasised is to create an aesthetically
pleasing and inviting environment to learn.
Using the Goldilocks principle is a good way to assign tasks to the young
children as no extremes are reached. From the language learning perspective,
the Goldilocks principle can be applied to strike a balance between what is too
strong, too weak and what is right. It describes the amount, type and detail of
communication necessary in a system to optimise the effectiveness and at the
same time, avoid redundancy (Kagan,1990). This is because teachers can demand
the young children to use the language within a certain limit and at the same
time, provide the right support for them to develop their language learning.
ACTIVITY 3.1
3.3 PUPPETS
Many young children, particularly shy children, are able to express themselves
better through a puppet as compared to asking them to speak on their own.
Puppets provide young children with a safer means of dramatising a good story.
Again, stories which require actions with strong dialogue and distinctive
characters are best suited for dramatisation with puppets. Coody (1997)
recommends old favourite stories, like The Three Little Pigs, The Three
Bears, The Three Billy Goats Gruff, Little Red Riding Hood and so forth.
Manufactured puppets are available from many sources; for example, most early
childhood equipment catalogues and teacher stores include puppets for retelling
childrens old favourites. Typically, these are hand puppets (the kind that fit over
the hand of the puppeteer). However, teachers can also construct their own
puppets (see Figure 3.1).
ACTIVITY 3.2
ACTIVITY 3.3
1. Visit a kindergarten and a day-care centre. Suggest specific activities
and tasks for each place. Explain why certain activities are stuitable at
the kindergarten but unsuitable at the day-care centre.
2. Demonstrate to the class an activity from the Internet that can suit
your age group.
3.5.2 Greetings
Practising the use of greetings like Hello and Goodbye can be easily done by
playing games or role-playing. You can wave your hand when saying
Goodbye! Other greetings are Hello! Good morning! Good afternoon!
Good evening! Good night! and Goodbye!
Always explain why you are playing the game and introduce game rules. For
example: We sit down when we say good evening because we are going to
have dinner with the family and we stand up when we say good morning
because we need to get up from bed and get ready to go to school, and others.
Be careful that your intonation is musical because the words are then easier to
remember!
3.5.3 Colours
Teaching your early language learners these 11 different colours can be so much
fun: yellow, red, blue, green, orange, pink, black, white, grey, pink and purple.
Flashcards or simply different objects with different colours can be very useful in
class to teach colours. For example:
(a) Take colour pencils and say the names of the colours. Then ask the young
children to repeat after you. (Remember there is lot of repetition in teaching
English to small young children).
(b) Take any object like a book or glass and ask the young children to say the
names of the colours present on the object or use colour flashcards for this
ESL activity.
3.5.4 Numbers 1 20
Always start by teaching how to say the numbers up to 10 and once they have
acquired them in the foreign language, teach the young children numbers from
10 to 20. Write down the numbers on the board, use flashcards or find games
with numbers on the Internet. Try out the memory game. Everyone can take
turns but they need to pay attention to each others turn. Use the cards with
numbers and turn them face down, then ask the young children to pull out the
cards and say the number on the card.
You can also perform an activity in which you call the young children to come
and colour the number by saying, for example: One is yellow. Two is red. Three
is blueand so forth. You can combine the colours with numbers by drawing
on small pieces of paper. This can be done by using a big piece of paper with
numbers on it. It is always a good idea to demonstrate the ESL activities yourself
before asking the young children to repeat or continue.
3.5.7 Animals
You can always introduce local animals that are commonly found in your area
such as chicken, goats, cows and birds. Teach your young language learners the
names of domestic and wild animals using the usual materials and ESL activities.
For example, you can make a list of animal sounds by yourself to decide which
sounds (English verbs) you would like to introduce. If you have animal figures or
toys, give them to your young learners and ask them to imitate its sound (made
by the animal figure of which they are holding). A famous nursery song like
Old McDonald had a Farm" can be used in class as it is about an old farmer who
keeps different animals in his farm.
3.5.8 Home
You can teach common words like: bed, chair, table, spoon, curtain, towel and
others. Always remember not to teach one unit per hour but always repeat
previously taught vocabulary and do not introduce all the words in one class at
the same time. Take your time to introduce new words and do a lot of repetition.
Follow their progress and decide on your own when to move on, how long to
repeat you will sense this by playing games with them in which you can verify
their memory status.
ACTIVITY 3.4
In designing the classrooms physical environment, you can carve the large
classroom space into small areas and gather appropriate resources to support
the young childrens learning process.
Place similar or related centres near each other, make language learning
materials as part of the fabric of each centre and involve the young children
in designing the classroom in order to create an aesthetically pleasing and
inviting environment.
The types of demands involved in any activities among young learners are
cognitive, language, interactional, metalinguistic and physical.
Several ESL activities based on the following themes are commonly applied
in young learners classrooms, namely learning new words, greetings,
colours, numbers, family members, body parts, animals, home, fruits and
vegetables.
3. Suggest ways students can fulfil the demands in completing an activity that
requires group work. (3 marks)
4. What are some of the challenges when trying to use technology in ESL
learning among young learners? Discuss. (4 marks)
Coody, B. (1997). Using literature with young children. Iowa, IA: Brown
Publishers.
Vukelich, C., Christie, J., & Enz, B. (2002).Helping young children learn language
and literacy. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
INTRODUCTION
In this topic we will look at the importance of oral language as the basis for
young children to learn writing, reading and other aspects of the language arts
during their early childhood phase. This is in accordance with the understanding
that the need to increase competency in oral language performance does not
diminish once children are able to utter language that can be understood. In this
topic, matters related to the effective use of oral language in the classroom and
the life activities outside the school setting will also be addressed.
ACTIVITY 4.1
1. Observe a second language learner in a preschool setting. How
does the child communicate with other children? How does the
teacher support the young childs second language acquisition?
2. Observe how young children engage in a sharing (show-and-tell)
activity. Describe the teachers role and the childrens behaviour.
Stage Development
Infants Listen to and become aware of sounds and words which are
uttered by people around them.
In a few months, infants will begin to articulate their needs
through sounds and gestures.
Toddlers Sounds that have developed during their infancy will now form
into words that carry meaning.
Toddlers should be able to utter simple sentences, ask questions
and give opinions about their likes and dislikes.
Toddlers will also be able to use language to express feelings, ideas
and seek information.
ACTIVITY 4.2
4.3.1 Phonology
Phonology is the study of the sound system in a particular language. The
distinctive units of sound in all languages are known as phonemes. Individual
phonemes are described according to how speakers modify the airstream they
exhale to produce the particular sounds.
There are mechanical components of the auditory system which are in place during
birth. The neural network that supports language acquisition is just the beginning
phase of a childs language development. Caregivers who interact verbally with
babies allow babies an opportunity to listen to the sounds they hear while observing
and attempting to mimic the mouth and tongue movements which they see. Babies
begin simulating sounds through babbling and later gain motor control of their
vocal and breathing apparatus simultaneously. After this phase, babies will develop
their very own specialisation in sounds of their native language(s) which will initiate
meaning that can be comprehended by their caregivers.
The period that is critical to mastering sound discrimination is within the first six
months of an infants life. By this age babies brains are already discriminating
against sounds that are not heard in their surroundings (Kuhl, 1993). The process
of discrimination is highly efficient, resulting in young children losing the ability
to hear phonemes which are foreign to their mother tongue.
Phonemes that are articulated are referred to stress. Prosody, stress and
intonation are part of the phonology of any language. Any stress which is placed
may distinguish identical words (record [noun] versus record [verb]). Intonation,
on the other hand, refers to the pattern of stress and of rising and falling pitch
that occurs within a sentence. These changes in intonation may shift the meaning
of other identical sentences (Vukelich & Enz, 2002):
Babies are always intrigued by the pitch, tone and volume of the sounds they
make. They often articulate sounds which impersonate the tonal and stress
qualities of their parents speech (Vukelich & Enz, 2002).
4.3.2 Morphology
The smallest unit of meaning in oral language is called morpheme. Morphemes
will not emerge until around babys first birthday. Babies should begin
articulating morphemes as their phonological development progresses. There are
several categories of morphemes as tabulated in Table 4.2.
Morpheme Description
Bound Units of sound that hold meaning (like re, un) but must be
attracted to other morphemes (redo, unwind).
Derivational and Usually suffixes that change the class of the word; for example:
inflectional noun to adjective fashion to fashionable, verb to noun run to
runner.
4.3.3 Syntax
Syntax is the combination of morphemes or words to form sentences or units of
thought. There are basically two different types of syntax order in English; linear
and hierarchical structure. Linear structure refers to the object-verb arrangement.
For example, Swimming builds a healthy body means something very different
from Healthy body builds swimming. Hierarchical structure refers to how words
are grouped together within a sentence to reveal the speakers intent.
However, different languages have unique and inherent rules that govern syntax.
The strong, brave police officer chased after the dangerous and
cunning criminal.
Chasing after the cunning and dangerous criminal was the strong,
brave police officer.
For instance,
If John says,
This type of subtle modelling is usually the most appropriate way to support
young children as they learn the conventional forms and complexities of their
native language. However, even when adults expand a young childs speech
through such enforcement, the childs own internal rule-governing system may
resist modification until he or she is developmentally ready to initiate the change.
The following interaction between Jason, a four-year-old and his teacher
elaborates this phenomenon (Gleason, 1967):
Jason: My brother taked the marbles and he goed with his friends to the
park.
Teacher: Did you say your brother took the marbles?
Child: Yes.
Adult: What did you say that he did?
Child: He took the marbles and we goed to his friends to the park.
Adult: Did you say he went to the park?
Child: Yes. He went to the park and played.
4.3.4 Semantics
Semantics is the construction of meaning that language can convey. It generally
reflects the values and concerns of the language culture. For example, dozens of
English words may be dedicated to describing a horses range of moods and
behaviours. To further illustrate, How would you differentiate among the
following words that a blender manufacturer has printed under the row of
buttons: stir, beat, puree, cream, whip, crumb, mix, mince, crush, blend, shred,
grind, frappe, liquify? (Lindfors, 1987). The Polynesian language has many
words that define variations in the wind. Similarly, Inuit languages include many
words for snow.
4.3.5 Pragmatics
Pragmatics refers to the use of spoken language and body language to
communicate ones intent in real life. The message of a speakers actual words
may be exaggerated or even misconstrued depending on the manner in which
the words are delivered. This delivery may include inflection, facial expressions
or body gestures.
for not clearing the dirty laundry and tidying up his room.
It is obvious that the intentions of the two speakers are completely different
although the same phrase was used. Furthermore, pragmatics deals with an
increasing consciousness of being able to accomplish goals through the use of
language.
As children grow older, they are also able to use social registers or the ability to
adapt their speech and mannerisms to accommodate different social situations.
Role play provides the best opportunity to observe the childrens communicative
competence even as young as five years old.
ACTIVITY 4.3
1. Explain how the different components in linguistics can help you
understand the culture of each child in your class.
2. Why do young children pick up a second language faster
compared to adults?
4.4.2 Turn-Taking
Turn-taking necessitates repetitive to-and-fro role play whereby the provider
paraphrases, adds on and connects the young childs statements, questions and
responses. Such an extended communication provides young children with the
ability to learn and use language and understand the meanings of new words
which they come across when people speak or from reading books.
4.4.3 One-on-One
On the part of the provider, a personal one-on-one attention gives him or her the
opportunity to repeat, extend and review what is said by young children. For the
young children, they have the opportunity to hear their ideas played back to them.
4.4.4 Description
Caregivers can introduce new vocabulary and encourage deeper understanding
of new words. The approach is to allow the young children to begin defining and
explaining the meaning of these words by narrating their own activities.
ACTIVITY 4.4
1. How can teachers and parents best facilitate their young childrens
listening and oral language development?
2. How do group activities, learning centres and dramatic play
promote listening and oral language acquisition? How can sharing
or show-and-tell be turned into a valuable oral language activity?
ACTIVITY 4.5
1. What can teachers do to promote language-rich dramatic play?
2. What can teachers do to optimise listening and oral language
experiences for specific bilingual and second language learners?
3. What are the topics that young boys like to talk about?
Listening and speaking are skills acquired before reading and writing.
Learning to listen and speak in a second language starts from home.
Parents can encourage personal narratives, reading storybooks and television
watching as a language tool.
Every aspect of the typical school day can be used to facilitate language and
accommodate young childrens developmental needs.
Critical skills in oral language development allow young children to
communicate by listening when others are talking and then responding, and
in this way, comprehend the meaning of a large number of words, source
new information about things they want to learn, present their own ideas and
thoughts using their own language and accumulate the concepts that they
hear or read.
There are five components of linguistic structure: phonology, morphology,
syntax, semantics and pragmatics.
Shared conversation with young children can be effective and important
when the conversation matters, there is turn taking, you engage in one-on-
one conversation, there is description and you support young childrens
understanding of meaning of words.
There are 10 tips which teachers can be aware of when having a conversation
with young children.
Morphemes Phoneme
One-on-one Turn-taking
Personal narrative
2. Why are oral skills regarded as the engine in language learning? (2 marks)
3. Choose three tips which you feel are the most important in your school
setting that can help the language learning process.
(6 marks)
4. Explain in your own words the development of oral skills among infants,
toddlers and young preschoolers.
(6 marks)
Jablon, J., & Stetson. C. (n.d.) Tips for talking with children. Retrieved from
http://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/naeyc/tyc_vol1issue
Shore, R. (1997). Rethinking the brain: New insights into early childhood
development. New York, NY: Families and Work Institute.
Vukelich, C., Christie, J., & Enz, B. (2002). Helping young children learn language
and literacy. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Describe emergent reading and its influences;
2. Discuss different attitudes young children have towards reading
based on the developmental stages of emergent reading;
3. Explain the emergent reading environment; and
4. Identify frameworks for the teaching of English reading.
INTRODUCTION
The process of learning to read is one that begins when the child is barely months
old and continues to develop progressively in a sequential manner of how the
child is exposed to print materials (Smith, 2004; Sowers, 2000; Sulzby, 1985). An
essential part of the early reading developmental process is parents and early
childhood educators who serve as primary role models of reading. Young
childrens exposure to books and other reading materials trigger interest in the
young child towards reading. Recognising the developmental stages and
providing an appropriate environment to nurture the natural acquisition of early
reading skills are important tasks for early childhood educators.
This topic presents the concept of emergent reading, the stages of emergent
reading and factors that influence emergent reading. Another important element
elaborated in this section is frameworks for the teaching of English reading.
Three main frameworks are presented, namely, the skills framework, literature
framework and the balance framework.
Repetitive phrases The Little Engine that could I think I can I think I can
Rhymes One Fish, Two Fish, Red One fish, two fish, red fish,
Fish, Blue Fish blue fish,
This one has a little car
This one has a little star
My what a lot of fish there are!
Additive patterns I Know an Old Lady who I know an old lady who
Swallowed a Fly swallowed a fly,
I dont know why she
swallowed a fly,
Perhaps shell die, but its only
a fly.
There was an old lady who
swallowed a spider,
That wriggled and jiggled and
tickled inside her.
She swallowed the spider to
catch the fly.
At the age of two to three years, a young preschooler spends more time listening
to adults reading aloud. The young preschooler is now able to complete part of a
familiar sentence and protests when adults shorten or change a story. At three to
three-and-a-half years old, reading will become a social activity for the young
preschooler. The preschooler is now able to show variation in intonation when
asked to read a book and recognises various pictures. This ability reflects the
growing understanding of the preschooler of their surrounding environment.
ACTIVITY 5.1
1. Look at all the stages of the emergent reading. Discuss the
similarities and differences.
2. Watch a youtube video at the link below about emergent reading.
Discuss the activities suggested by the speakers.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3WGIMvUSsoE
Next, ensuring a particular reading time for everyone in the family assures
young children that reading is an important part of the everyday routine.
Various reading activities by family members such as devoting time to read daily
whether alone or in groups, reading aloud or silently and looking at pictures or
reading the text, strengthens the young childs assumption that reading is a
unique activity.
The early childhood educator must take into consideration childrens age,
developmental levels, interests and cultures and home languages when
developing a library to suit the emergent reading environment.
keeping and maintaining the young childs attention (Farver, Xu, Lonigan &
Eppe, 2013; Sowers, 2000).
According to Sowers (2000), the following are skills that an early childhood
educator-in-training will want to practise:
(a) Simplifying vocabulary;
(b) Simplifying syntax;
(c) Repeating portions of the text;
(d) Explaining few key words or concepts;
(e) Using suprasegmental in ones speech;
(f) Using body language and facial expressions;
(g) Making connections to the childs own life;
(h) Supporting the cognitive connections the childs makes; and
(i) Expanding information or questions on the childs comments.
ACTIVITY 5.2
Draw a model for an emergent reading environment for your young
learners classroom. Integrate key points discussed in the previous
section. Present, share and compare your model with other friends.
At the bottom of the sequence, beginners start with naming letters of the
alphabet. Over time, young children begin to climb up the sequence and are
involved with activities that are slightly more complex such as learning sounds
of letters, sight words, phonic rules and vocabulary. This is followed by
comprehension of a sentence and a paragraph. The final part of the sequence is a
story. The skills-based framework of teaching reading is thus a presentation of
specific skills hierarchically (Sowers, 2000).
The literature-based framework argues that young children learn to read through
a broad focus of literacy materials rather than by attending to the smaller parts of
the reading process.
ACTIVITY 5.3
Based on the discussion of the frameworks for the teaching of reading,
draw a figure for each framework and explain the figure to your friends.
Learning to read is a process that begins when a child is one month old to the
older preschool stage. This process happens in a sequential manner.
Parents and early childhood educators who serve as primary role models of
reading are an essential part of the early reading developmental process.
Additionally, the early childhood educator should be familiar with the three
types of reading frameworks which include skills-based, literature-based and
a balanced view. Last but not least, successful early childhood educators use
a variety of teaching methods to reach each young child in a manner that the
child understands.
2. Describe briefly how toddlers react to books and reading at their age.
(6 marks)
4. What are the THREE frameworks for the teaching of reading? Explain and
elaborate the differences between the three frameworks.
(15 marks)
Farver, J. A. M., Xu, Y., Lonigan, C. J., & Eppe, S. (2013). The home literacy
environment and Latino head start children's emergent literacy skills.
Developmental psychology, 49(4), 775.
Sowers, J. (2000). Language arts in early education. New York: Delmar Thomson
Learning.
Further Reading
Petty, W.T, Petty, D. C., & Salzer, T. (1989). Experiences in language: Tools and
techniques for language arts methods. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
Ray R. D., & Mohr, K. A. (2014). 50 years of reading research quarterly (1965
2014): Looking Back, Moving Forward. Reading Research Quarterly. 50 (1),
13 - 35
INTRODUCTION
There are many benefits to sharing books with young children. The most
important benefit would be to help young children to open their eyes, minds and
hearts to various people and situations that in turn would stretch their
imagination immensely. Reading to young children not only enhances literacy
skills, it also helps to break barriers and build a strong and loving relationship
with the young child. In order to help young children to develop in various
ways, a language-rich environment is vital.
This topic will include useful ways on how to share books with young children
in the context of second language acquisition. It will further enlighten you with
various techniques of how early childhood educators can set up inviting library
centres in the classroom. Another key feature of this topic is how to utilise
effective story-reading techniques to create interest and enthusiasm in young
children, especially in the context of learning English as a second language.
ACTIVITY 6.1
6.1.1 Books
Children love libraries with lots of good and interesting books. A good classroom
library contains five to eight books per child (Morrow, 1993). During the selection
of appropriate materials for young children, the early childhood educator should
pick a variety of books which may appeal to the children. High-quality literature
will instil positive reading behaviours, hold childrens attention and interest and
captivate their imagination.
(a) Partitions
Young children should be provided with a cosy, quiet setting for reading
and creating a sense of privacy. This can be achieved by placing
bookshelves, large plants, screens or other different barriers in strategic
parts of the classroom (see Figure 6.2).
SELF-CHECK 6.1
(a) Before reading activities to create interest and curiosity in young children
about the books to be read;
(b) During reading prompts and questions to keep young children involved
actively in the story; and
The main types of books that can create a strong foundation for reading
comprehension are informational books, song and poem books and stories with
strong narrative plots.
Informational books can introduce a variety of new vocabulary and concepts like
childrens encyclopaedia or dictionary, while books on songs and poems enhance
phonological awareness. Narrative books will be able to create curiosity and
enable young children to predict and be familiar with the narrative structure.
Reading aloud should be able to build an environment that promotes enjoyment
and build positive dispositions.
The selected book would then have to be copied and enlarged which is also
known as the Big Book version. The teacher would then point to the words
(large print) as he or she reads and the children would be encouraged to read
along. The benefits of this strategy are to allow young children to:
6.2.3 Storytelling
Young children are known to have a short attention span. Therefore, storytelling
is a useful tool that inculcates interest and excitement in young children to get
engrossed in the story in a variety of ways. A storyteller would be able to
maintain eye contact with the young children and gives an opportunity for the
teacher to be closer to the children without having a book between them. A good
storyteller has the potential to capture the young childrens interest in listening to
the story by using strong vocal skills with a variety of intonations, pitch and
volume. The body language of the storyteller also creates enthusiasm and fun
among young children. A few factors that should be given prominence in order
to create a fun and exciting storytelling environment for both teller and listener
are as follows:
ACTIVITY 6.2
(c) Integration
This is an interesting feature to promote further understanding among
young children. Integrating literature with various areas of the curriculum
would definitely enrich and further supplement the understanding of
children. The integration may come in narrative form where it involves
science like the book Sallys Garden which tells the story of how Sally
cannot get her seeds to grow. Teachers then can indirectly teach science
about how to grow seeds successfully.
(d) Flexibility
Any successful instructional programme would give priority to the needs,
abilities and interests of the young children. As such, any designed
Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)
78 TOPIC 6 SHARING BOOKS WITH YOUNG CHILDREN
(e) Growth
A successful programme should incorporate both group and individual
experiences to cater to the different needs of the young children. Various
methods should be utilised in the selection of reading activities to
encourage the children to explore their areas of interest, understanding and
growth.
(f) Mistakes
It is very normal for young children to make mistakes when reading,
especially for those whose English is a second language. Good instructional
planning can predict when children might have difficulty in reading a
certain word or understand a certain sentence. Mistakes should not be
immediately corrected for it may demotivate the young child. The educator
should repeat the same piece of language or explanation correctly until the
child is able to self-correct on their own.
ACTIVITY 6.3
Comfortable and cozy libraries that are comfortable and cosy provide an
ambience that assist young children to develop appropriate reading interest
and they are important for developing young childrens reading skills.
Morrow, L., & L. Gambrell. (2001). Literature-based instruction in the early years.
In S. Neuman & D. Dickinson (Eds.), Handbook of early literacy research,
(pp.348-60). New York, NY: Guilford.
INTRODUCTION
Recognising the stages of writing by observing young childrens behaviour is an
important task of the early childhood educator. By observing the toddlers
scribbles, the young preschoolers artistic attempts, the older preschoolers early
attempts at code writing and the beginning of formal writing by children aged
five to six years, the early childhood educator is able to provide an environment
that is conducive and supportive for the development of writing for young
children.
This topic introduces the concept of emergent writing and describes the young
childs initial behaviours of writing with instruments through several different
approaches as found in the literature. Another important element in this topic
understands the importance of learning to write as a remarkable process
occurring through the childs cognitive, motor, social-emotional and sensory
development. Considerations must be made by the young children educator
when preparing a conducive environment for early writing development. These
include exposing young children to books, printed words, writing tools and
models of other childrens writing, as well as continuous motivation from adults.
Young childrens writing behaviours and skills can be seen before they acquire
the formal ability to write. The young childs emergent writing behaviours with
materials such as paints, crayons, markers and other instruments that make
marks on papers or other writing surfaces are observable (Sowers, 2000).
Toddlers and preschoolers imitate and experiment with making marks on paper
(Alter, McGuire & Oleson, 2007). Only after they cognitively understand that the
written word is not only a reproduction of oral language, but the lines and circles
symbolically represent words, then only the young learners are able to produce
writings in the formal sense of the word. For children who are three to four years
of age, writing is a means of artistic expression or experimentation, but it is not a
symbolic mean of communication. A high level of cognitive ability is a
prerequisite for symbolic reading and writing (Vukelich, Christie, & Enz, 2002).
are also obviously a necessity for writing to occur in the traditional fashion
(Sowers, 2000). Holding and coordinating the physical movements needed to
write, colour and draw takes concerted effort and patience. Figure 7.1 shows us
some examples of young childrens emergent writings.
ACTIVITY 7.1
In the second stage, Richgels et al. (1996) refer to children aged three to five years
as novice writers. During this stage, the child comprehends that print conveys
meanings and they experiment with unconventional means of reading and
writing. Although the markings do not yet resemble the childs home language,
the child continues to use the markings as a means of communicating with self or
others.
The final stage of emergent writing is the conventional writer. This occurs at six
to eight years of age whereby the young writers read hundreds of sight words,
read texts written in a variety of structures, are aware of audience, monitor their
own performances as writers and readers, and spell conventionally (Richgels et
al., 1996). The child orchestrates the physical movements of writing (the form)
and the cognitive processes of the meaning (the function) simultaneously. His
mastery of the physical aspects of writing enables new attention to the meaning
of his writing. The child considers the audience for whom he is writing, the
purpose of the writing, the vocabulary, syntax and spelling and the need to
correct mistakes.
The first stage of writing (scribbles or connected markings) emerges when a child
reaches the age of around two years . At this stage, the child takes a pen, holds it
upright with his fist, and scribbles or does connected markings. As the child
grows, he begins to distinguish the two writing forms.
According to Strickland and Morrow (1989), at the age of three, a child uses a
writing form of non-phonetic letter strings. From scribbles, a major change
appears in the childs writings, giving way to forms with aspects that are similar
to the childs home language.
At the age of four, the childs writing becomes more refined, resulting in some
actual letters appearing. For most children, the relation between the letter and its
sound occurs upon receiving formal instruction in reading and writing.
At five to seven years old, a child understands the phonetic spellings or invented
spellings. Using the appropriate letter to represent at least one sound in the
word, the child demonstrates an understanding of phonetic representation.
In the first form, writing via drawing, the young child views his drawing as a
purposeful and appropriate means of communication by using his drawings to
symbolically represent writing. For example, in Figure 7.2(a), the child is saying,
This is my cat.
In the second form (see Figure 7.2b), writing via scribbling, the young child
scribbles but believes that he is writing. He uses proper directionality for his
home language and enjoys hearing the writing-like sounds his movements
produce.
The third form is writing by making letter-like forms. In this writing form, the
printing resembles the shapes, lines, directions and patterns of the young childs
home language.
The final form of writing is writing by conventional spelling. The main feature is
that the spelling is correct, demonstrating the childs increased attention to the
details of spelling (Sulzby, 1988).
ACTIVITY 7.2
Young children must also learn where and when to use writing tools such as
pencils, pencil colours, crayons and paints. Providing various forms of surfaces
such as papers, sandboxes and water tables allows young children to experience
and experiment with writing.
An early childhood educator should also provide an area for messy projects
whereby young children experience and experiment with a variety of writing
instruments and writing surfaces. The equal importance is the presence of adults
and other older or same aged children to sit alongside the young children to
provide models of writing and be part of the social significance of the emergent
writing process.
In the first stage where young children are still drawing and scribbling, early
childhood educators need to teach children how to distinguish writing from
drawing. Thus, teachers can try to incorporate writing into play activities or write
down the words children speak for them to see. Early childhood educators can also
ask young children to name their drawing and write words to describe it.
The second stage is when young children start to write letters and letter-like
forms. The goal at this stage is to make connections between the print and sound.
In order to do so, early childhood educators can offer activities that promote
letter-sound correspondence like emphasising the beginning sounds when young
children write or support the child to verbalise what they are going to write first.
Young children are more aware of salient and beginning sounds in the third
stage. Early childhood educators can support this by asking children to sort out
picture cards with contrasting beginning sounds or any other games to recognise
beginning and ending sounds. Early childhood educators can also provide
writing prompts that support children to draw and label.
At the last stage, young children are already aware of the beginning and ending
sounds. Therefore, the goal now is to introduce the middle vowel sounds to write
complete words. This goal can be supported by asking young children to sort out
simple word families like at or an. They can also try to write sentences where
the early childhood educator encourages young children to write down all the
sounds they hear.
ACTIVITY 7.3
There are several approaches used to explain emergent writing, mainly: the
developmental approach, the product approach, the prominent feature
approach and the developmental domains and behaviours.
Each approach distinguishes the skills young children learn either based on
the product, age or the childrens behaviours.
Teachers must also know how to provide the appropriate support for their
young learners based on their writing stage. These activities are done in the
classroom to help emergent writers learn how to write and improve at their
own pace.
Teachers must also know how to provide the appropriate support for their
young learners based on their writing stage. These activities are done in the
classroom to help emergent writers learn how to write and improve at their
own pace.
2. Explain the stages using all three emergent writing approaches: the
developmental approach, the product approach and the prominent feature
approach. (15 marks)
3. List out three activities that can be done to provide appropriate support for
emergent writers who are at stage two. (10 marks)
Alter, B., McGuire, M., & Oleson, D. (2007). Emergent writing in the kindergarten
classroom. Retrieved from http://www.slideshare.net/dawnrenae/
emergent-writing-in-the kindergartenclassroom1 -503511
Richgels, D. J., Poremba, K. J., & McGee, L. M. (1996). Kindergarteners talk about
print: Phonemic awareness in meaningful contexts. The Reading Teacher,
632642.
Sowers, J. (2000). Language arts in early education. New York, NY: Delmar
Thomson Learning.
Sulzby, E., & Teale, W. H. (Eds.). (1988). Emergent literacy: Writing and reading.
Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing Corporation.
Vukelich, C., Christie, J., & Enz, B. (2002). Helping young children learn language
and literacy. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
INTRODUCTION
Children start writing by experimenting and playing with writing materials and
make marks. Which is why it is important to provide young children with rich
writing experiences to build a strong foundation for literacy learning. As with all
language skills, educators must be able to teach young children the formal side of
writing and help them to develop this skill. The goal of the writing process is to
help children nurture their writing development with enough support to scaffold
their learning until they feel confident of writing independently.
As the child progresses to the age of six years, the scribbling gradually develops
into recognisable objects. This in turn develops into the characteristics of print,
which includes linearity, horizontal orientation and the arrangement of letter-like
forms. Studies have shown that often, the first letters that are identifiable are
found in the child's name (Sowers, 2000). At this stage, the child has mastered the
awareness of function. Subsequently, understanding that the letters represent
sounds is an important developmental aspect of childrens writing skill. Many
children explore writing before entering school also known as invented
spelling.
Through their own discoveries and inferences, children learn a lot about writing.
For example, children learn that books contain a specific story; that writing is
organised in lines and pictures are organised differently. Additionally,
combinations of straight and curved lines are used for graphic symbols.
ACTIVITY 8.1
1. Describe the meaning of symbolic representation.
2. Provide examples of symbolic representation and share the
examples with other friends.
There are similarities between written words and pictures. Firstly, both involve
marks that appear on the surfaces of objects. Secondly, both are artificial rather
than natural. However, some aspects of the surface forms are different (Steffani,
& Selvester, 2009).
There are also differences between written words and drawing. Writing often
consists of small black marks on a white background. On the other hand, pictures
are larger and more colourful. The marks of writing are interpreted using
knowledge from the conventions of the English writing system, as well as the
English language. In contrast, a picture of a cat derives its meaning from the
similarities between its form and of the picture.
There are five stages of drawing and writing that can be seen in a young child as
shown in Table 8.1 (Robertson, 2007).
Table 8.1: Five Stages of Drawing and Writing That Can Be Seen in a Child
Stage Description
Stage 1: Random At this stage, children figure out that their movements result
Scribbling (15 in lines and scribbles on a page. They further learn that
months to 2 1/2 scribbles are the result of large movements using their
years) shoulder as they hold the writing tools (crayon or marker).
At this stage, children enjoy the feedback they get from their
senses: the feeling of holding a crayon, the smell of the paint
or the squishyness of the clay.
Stage 2: Controlled scribbling develops when a child has better control
Controlled over the muscles in their hands and fingers. This results in
Scribbling changes in the scribbling as it becomes more controlled and
(2 years to refined.
3 years) At this stage, toddlers are seen making repeated marks on the
page such as open circles, diagonal, curved, horizontal or
vertical lines.
Stage 3: Lines At this stage, children comprehend that writing consists of
and Patterns lines, curves, and repeated patterns and the children begin to
(2 1/2 years to imitate their own writing.
3 1/2 years) Consequently, components of letters can be seen when
children do drawings. At this stage, children realise that
drawings have meaning.
Stage 4: Pictures At this stage, children develop the ability to hold an image in
of Objects or their mind and subsequently represent it on a page. In the
People initial stage, a child names his unplanned creation and begins
(3 years to 5 labelling the masterpiece with names of people, animals,
years) objects, or others that the child is familiar with.
As the child begins to draw images on purpose, the child
achieves the mastered symbolic thinking an important
milestone in the childs thinking ability.
At this stage, the child also understands the difference
between pictures and writing.
Stage 5: Letter A child who has had experience with letters and print for
and Word several years now begins to use letters in his own writing.
Practice This happens when a child experiments with letters in their
(3 to 5 years) own names because these letters are most familiar to them.
At this stage, the child begins to understand that some words
are represented by certain symbols shorter than other words.
This represents the childs understanding that texts and prints
have meanings.
There are several things an early childhood educator can do to encourage art and
writing skills as follows:
(a) Make art a regular part of playtime;
(b) No instructions, let the child experiment and explore;
(c) Observe the process, not just the product;
(d) Experiment with a variety of art materials as the child nears three years of
age;
(e) Use art to help your child express strong feelings;
(f) Encourage the childs efforts to write; and
(g) Display the childs art and writing.
These activities assist children to learn not only the art of drawing and writing
but also the ability to solve problems and solutions, discover the cause and effect
of ones actions and increase the childs confidence level.
SELF-CHECK 8.1
the children need to complete the story. A prior discussion is needed before
a child is instructed to write a story. Many types of age-appropriate writing
activities for elementary school children can be found in the teachers
writing resource books. As for second and third graders, children at this
age enjoy creating their own stories.
Word pictures are suitable for young children because they contain
appropriate language-experience stories and the stories represent the
childrens oral language. Dictated stories are useful to connect the childs
oral and writing language. The sentences may be reread or rewritten by a
child following the adults model. Story extensions are childrens own
predictable books. After reading the book aloud, a child educator motivates
the young children to come up with their own oral additions. Story
extensions are a combination of childrens oral and written language. The
children dictate or write down their own endings after producing them
orally.
The purpose of having these materials is to suggest to young children that they
are free to use any emergent forms of writing such as pictures used as writing,
scribble writing, letter-like forms and other forms. Writings do not necessarily
have to fit on the lines of traditional lined writing paper or story paper. These
materials are introduced to the young children progressively (Strickland &
Morrow, 1989).
ACTIVITY 8.2
Early childhood educators role is to encourage art and writing skills. Specific
design activities assist children to learn not only the art of drawing and
writing but also the ability to solve problems and solutions, discover the
cause and effect of ones actions and increase the childs confidence level.
Educators must also know what to take into consideration when teaching
writing to develop childrens needs. These considerations make writing for
children more comfortable and have more variety.
Educators may also set up a special classroom area for writing activities
consisting of materials that invite children to write. In establishing a writing
centre, early childhood educators must view this as a social act where
children learn to interact with friends through sharing of materials and
writing products.
2. State the five stages of drawing and writing. Elaborate and provide
appropriate examples of each stage.
(12 marks)
3. What are the seven considerations in the teaching of writing? List all seven.
(7 marks)
Sowers, J. (2000). Language arts in early education. New York, NY: Delmar
Thomson Learning.
Sulzby, E., Barnhart, J., & Hieshima, J. (1989) Forms of writing and rereading
from writing: A preliminary report. In J. Mason (Ed.), Reading and writing
connections. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
INTRODUCTION
The main purpose of assessments is to provide educators with a framework to
assist in making appropriate decisions regarding their students development in
academic content areas. This topic will touch on assessment and language
learning to be used by early childhood educators teaching young children.
A variety of environments, curricula and assessments are available for the early
childhood educator to implement. However, the early childhood educator must
understand the benefits and drawbacks of each type as every young child has a
different learning pattern. The assessments are not just meant for the early
childhood educators solely as they can also be used to show parents how much
their young child has developed and what is needed for further improvement. In
this topic, the link between curriculum and assessment will be made. This topic
will also explain the different kinds of appropriate assessments and how
portfolios are important in language assessment.
The word curriculum is mostly used in the educational setting to describe the
set academic course for learners. Curriculum is also defined as a set of learning
goals and teaching activities. Other educators relate curriculum to a specific
subject area representing an individual curriculum with elaborated step-by-step
skills for the children to master. There are also educators who define curriculum
as a broader form of course encompassing personal and social needs of the
learner. An educators reflection is the underlying assumptions about how
curricula are best developed and implemented. Thus, the implementation of a
curriculum often reflects the educators beliefs, values and experiences.
According to Dewy (1998), The child is the starting point, the centre and the
end. His development, his growth, is the ideal. It alone furnishes the standard
(as cited in Willis, 2008). Dewey further stated, Learning is active. It involves
reaching out of the mind. It is he [the child] and not the subject-matter which
determines both quality and quantity of learning (as cited in Dewey, 1998).
Based on Deweys view, an instructional style and curriculum should provide
the learner freedom to choose activities and materials. Flexibility of the
curriculum for young learners is thus an important aspect. At present, there are
seven types of curricula for young learners as follows:
(a) Developmentally appropriate;
(b) Subject-based;
(c) Theme-based;
(d) Integrated;
(e) Constructivist;
(f) Project-based; and
(g) Emergent.
(a) Provides for all areas of a childs development: physical, emotional, social,
linguistic, aesthetic and cognitive;
(b) Includes a broad range of content across disciplines that are socially
relevant, intellectually engaging and personally meaningful to children;
(c) Builds upon what children already know and are able to do (activating
prior knowledge);
(d) Integrate[s] across traditional subject-matter divisions to help children
make meaningful connections;
(e) Promotes the development of knowledge and understanding, processes
and skills;
(f) Has intellectual integrity, reflecting the key concepts and tools of inquiry of
recognised disciplines; children directly participate;
(g) Provides opportunities to support childrens home culture and language;
(h) Promotes goals that are realistic and attainable for most children in the
designated age range for which they are designed; and
(i) When used, technology is physically and philosophically integrated in the
classroom curriculum and teaching.
ACTIVITY 9.1
1. Describe three out of the seven types of curricula for young learners
and explain the differences between them.
2. Decide which curriculum type you prefer and state the reasons
why.
SELF-CHECK 9.1
Learners find such information useful as it helps develop educational goals and
determines the most appropriate modes of the individuals learning. Assessment
assists the early childhood educator to plan and make decisions about
curriculum and instruction, as well as evaluate their own teaching. To the
Work samples Allows work that does not require verbal or written
English.
Observational assessment is natural and can be carried out while the young
children are doing their daily activities. Thus, observational assessment is
developmentally appropriate, both authentic and performance-based.
Observations may be planned or spontaneous. Additionally, it can be
conducted at home, school or other settings. The keys to a good observation
are illustrated in Figure 9.1:
In the journal sample (see Figure 9.2), the childs cognitive process can be
seen as he clearly described what he plans to do for the science project.
Additionally, the journal entry also illustrates the childs written language
abilities.
(c) Portfolios
Portfolio assessment is a relatively new type of assessment and is a
performance-based assessment. This assessment stresses the learner-
centred philosophy emanating from the evaluation of a collection of the
childs work that is gathered over a period of time. Portfolios are unique
because of the childs involvement in the whole process of learning. The
learner is given the responsibility to select representative items for
assessment with the belief that the child is able to determine which items
best reflect his learning and thus belong in the portfolio.
In this assessment, the early childhood educator interviews the young child
with questions such as:
(i) What did you learn when you did this piece?
(ii) How did you go about making this?
(iii) Which piece best demonstrates your learning?
(iv) Which piece do you like best?
In the parent-teacher conferences model, the child carries out the role as the
conference leader. The traditional parent-teacher conference is changed
as the child exhibits the writing product in his portfolio. The child explains
to his family how and why he produced the products and how they
demonstrate his knowledge and skills development.
The assessment methods discussed in Figure 9.3 best describes the two
continuums of assessments for young children. It is the prerogative of the
early childhood educators to understand the aims and usage of each
assessment so that the suitable assessment methods can be designed for the
young children and assist language development. This type of assessment
is both authentic and performance-based.
ACTIVITY 9.2
Describe three types of assessment that you prefer and state the reasons
for this preference.
SELF-CHECK 9.2
There are seven types of curricula for young learners, namely the
developmentally appropriate curriculum, subject-based curriculum, theme-
based curriculum, integrated curriculum, constructivist curriculum, project-
based curriculum and emergent curriculum. In this aspect, flexibility of the
curriculum is important.
Additionally, the use of assessments allows the early childhood educator to
gather information about a young childs current ability, levels, needs or
interests. Some assessments assist in providing information helpful to a
teachers future whereas others are useful for parents.
Through the use of assessment, valuable information about a young childs
individuals growth, development, comprehension, learning, needs, interests,
attitudes, disposition and other valuable information can be gained.
This assists the early childhood educator to plan and make decisions about
curriculum and instruction, as well as evaluate their own teaching.
Assessments also assist administrators and government officials in the
planning of curricula, setting educational policies and grant funding.
Isenberg, J., & Jalongo, M. (Eds). (1997). Major trends and issues in early
childhood education: Challenges, controversies, and insights. New York,
NY: Teachers College Press.
Raines, S. C., & Canady, R. J. (1990). The whole language kindergarten. New
York, NY: Teachers College Press.
Sowers, J. (2000). Language arts in early education. New York, NY: Delmar
Thomson Learning.
Further Reading
Espinosa, L. M.,& Lpez, M. L. (2007). Assessment considerations for young
English language learners across different levels of accountability.
Retrieved from http://www.pewtrusts.org/uploadedFiles/wwwpew
trustsorg/Reports/Pre-k_education/Assessment%20for%20Young%20
ELLs-Pew%208-11-07-Final.pdf
Vukelich, C., Christie, J., & Enz, B. (2002). Helping young children learn language
and literacy. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
INTRODUCTION
This topic presents the issues in the teaching of language to young learners. Two
main areas are discussed in this topic. The first is on important factors in
assisting families to facilitate children language learning. The second is
identifying issues of teaching children with special educational needs.
It is crucial for the children to have a rich social context necessary for language
development and parents must create this environment at home. The child's
language foundation is thousands of hours worth of interactions with their
parents or caregivers from birth up till their preschool years. Children are able to
share with others their feelings, thinking, beliefs and wants as they acquire
language. The communication children have with their parents and other adults
early in life makes a significant difference in the childs language development
(Roberts, Jergens, & Burchinal, 2005).
This brings about significant changes in the role of the early childhood educators
in terms of socioeconomic and cultural differences. Firstly, the early childhood
educators must help parents understand the vital role they play in assisting their
children to become successful in their language development as communicators,
readers and writers. Secondly, early childhood educators must educate parents
on how to support their childs language and literacy development (Vukelich,
Christie, & Enz, 2013).
SELF-CHECK 10.1
1. Describe the importance of parents role in facilitating childrens
early development in language literacy.
2. List three factors of modern families that affect childrens school
performance.
There are also several other important points for the early childhood educators to
remember when organising a parent workshop as follows:
(a) Ensure that the workshop begins promptly;
(b) Start with a getting acquainted activity with the objective of putting people
at ease;
(c) Begin the workshop on a relaxed, positive note; and
(d) Never lecture parents. Instead, assist parents to experience hands-on or
highly engaging activities.
Parents who receive a phone call from school will immediately sense the
educators enthusiasm for teaching their children. As a result, parents are more
likely to become involved in classroom activities. Thus, whenever possible, the
phone should be used as an instrument of good news.
Whenever a call is made, educators should ensure that the parents surnames are
correct. Telephone calls to parents must be documented using a phone log. This
is an effective method to manage and maintain a record of phone conversations
(Vukelich, Christie, & Enz, 2013).
Children who need the most assistance usually come from families that need the
most support. A significant difference in the childrens lives can be achieved if
both parties the early childhood educators and parents find ways to work
together to provide support and forge successful school-family partnerships.
SELF-CHECK 10.2
Describe four activities that can be carried out by the early childhood
educator to assist parents in the childrens language development.
every child is special and has special needs. Additionally, special children, as a
category, have been extended to include those with learning disabilities and
emotional problems.
The labelling of children into a category should only be done if it assists in the
planning of the childrens educational programme or any other educational
treatment (Johansson, 1994).
Activities
Activities for children with speech problems may be modified to assist in the
remedy of speech defects. This is done to meet specific needs and should not be
used indiscriminately (Johansson, 1994).
Hearing exercises assist the production of good speech which depends on the
ability to discriminate between correct and incorrect production of a sound.
Exercises include discriminating among sounds.
Proper setting arrangements must be made to assist the child with hearing loss.
For example, a child with a hearing loss must not have his back to the light. This
is because, with the light off the childs face, he is able to watch the speaker
better. Lip reading requires continuous attention and concentration.
Among some of the ways that the educator can assist are as follows:
(a) Seat the child so that he or she can see the board as best as possible;
(b) Arrange the childs desk to avoid glare;
(c) Prevent the child from facing sharp contrasts in the amount of direct or
reflected light;
(d) Use reading materials that are not slick or glossy;
(e) Remove the glossy finish from the top of the childs desk; and
(f) Use a typewriter with large type to make materials for the child.
Attention needs to be given to the special childs social needs. This includes
relationships with parents, peers and the personnel of the school. It is crucial for
the early childhood educators to understand the physical limitations and special
problems related to the childs learning so that interventions and assistance can
be given.
It is important for the early childhood educators and parents to understand that
gifted children do not need a longer list of spelling words, more questions to
answer or more book reports. What gifted children need are more stimulating
ideas and opportunities to extend their interests and not get bored easily. The
early childhood educators should also not be threatened by the childrens
intellect and talents.
SELF-CHECK 10.3
Most children learn about literacy early in their life. Parents play a vital role
in assisting and facilitating childrens language learning in various skills:
writing, reading, listening and speaking.
Talking between parents and other adults with the children early in life
makes a significant difference in the childrens language development.
Educators must help parents understand the vital role they play in assisting
the children to become successful in their language development. Educating
parents on how to support childrens language and literacy development and
assisting them to become successful language and literacy models is one of
the early childhood educators most important tasks.
Special needs children include children who have speech problems, hearing
and visual impairments, children with learning problems and gifted children.
These children warrant different and specific instructional considerations
from the adults and parents for language learning.
Dickinson, D. K., & Tabors, P. O. (2001). Beginning literacy with language: Young
children learning at home and school. Baltimore, MD: Paul H Brookes
Publishing.
Dougherty, D. P. (2005). Teach me how to say it right: Helping your child with
articulation problems. Oakland, CA: New Harbinger Publications.
Roberts, J., Jergens, J., & Burchinal, M. (2005). The role of home literacy practices
in preschool children's language and emergent literacy skills. Journal of
Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 48(2), 345-359.
Sowers, J. (2000). Language arts in early education. New York, NY: Delmar
Thomson Learning.
Vokelich, C., Christie, J., & Enz, B.J. (2012). Helping young children learn laguage
and laterally: Birth through kindergarten (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson
Education. Boston, MA.
OR
Thank you.