Kava Production Guide Final Edited1
Kava Production Guide Final Edited1
Kava Production Guide Final Edited1
Pacific Kava
A producers guide
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583.952 AACR2
AgDex 182
ISBN 982-203-810-0
Contents
Introduction 5
I. Production 6
A. Site selection 6
B. Planting material 7
C. Direct planting 8
D. Nurseries 9
E. Transplanting 16
F. Planting and spacing 16
G. Cropping methods 17
H. Soil and plant nutrition 20
I. Weeding 21
J. Water requirements 22
K. Pruning 22
L. Pest and disease management 23
II. Harvesting 26
A. Harvesting and yields 26
B. Harvesting techniques 27
III. Postharvest handling and marketing 28
A. Washing 28
B. Cutting and sorting 28
C. Drying 28
D. Storage 31
E. Commercial parts of the kava plant 32
F. Kavalactones 33
G. High quality kava 35
H. Quality specifications 37
I. Advanced processing 40
J. Marketing 41
IV. Conclusion 43
APPENDIX A: Hawaiian kava production 44
Different soils 44
Basket system 45
Fertility management 45
Weed management 46
Irrigation 46
Spacing and shading 47
Pruning 47
Fast propagation method 48
Organic kava production 52
APPENDIX B: False kava 53
Bibliography 55
Glossary 57
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Introduction
Kava (Piper methysticum Forst. f.) is a Pacific plant species of the pepper family. Following
its initial discovery, domestication and diffusion throughout the Pacific kava has become an
integral part of Pacific Island religious, economic, political and social life. Its cultural signifi-
cance is immense and these functions are still a vital part of life today. In recent years the uses
have expanded, the range of kava products has diversified, and the demand for kava now
comes from people all over the world. Kava has moved away from being a traditional crop
for ceremonial and personal use. It is now an important cash crop both for the local market
and for export.
Kava production in the Pacific has a long history. The plant has been domesticated for
around 3000 years. There is a very large body of traditional knowledge about kava produc-
tion. However, many farmers are unaware of the production systems used in other parts of the
Pacific. This guide is for agriculture extension staff to use with farmers and for progressive
farmers. It has been written to supplement traditional knowledge and to encourage experi-
mentation, adaptation, and the use of improved farming practises. As the growing conditions
for kava vary greatly throughout the Pacific, it is recommended that farmers experiment with
new techniques on a small scale before adopting them on a large scale.
The guide contains the principles for producing high quality kava as a commercial crop
for both the domestic and the export market. A range of improved farming methods is de-
scribed. Producing the quality of kava needed for the export market has been a difficult
challenge for Pacific Island growers and exporters. The guide includes chapters on the chemical
properties of kava and on the standards that are recommended for the increasingly discerning
domestic and export markets. These standards are especially important if Pacific Island farm-
ers and exporters are to continue supplying the overseas pharmaceutical market. The produc-
tion and marketing of high quality kava is essential if the industry is to grow in the Pacific.
This book is the result of a collaborative effort over a long period of time. Much of the
technical information is based on previous publications by Dr Vincent Lebot. He generously
allowed the reproduction from this material. Mr Jerry Konanui of the Association for Hawai-
ian Awa and Mr Jim Henderson of PuuOHoku Ranch contributed the section on kava pro-
duction methods in Hawaii. Other information has been adapted from the sources listed in the
bibliography. The guide would not have been possible without the considerable input from
many other contributors. The initiative and support of participants at the Regional Kava Meet-
ings in 1997 and 1998 who recommended the writing of a production guide is appreciated. Dr
Richard Beyer, Professor Bill Aalbersberg, Ratu Jo Nawalowalo, Reg Sanday, and Dr Ron
Gatty are acknowledged for their advice and guidance. The contents of this publication and
any errors contained therein remain the responsibility of the compiler.
Tom Osborn
SPC Agriculture Adviser
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I. Production
A. Site selection
One of the most important decisions a farmer Kava is well suited for Pacific farming
needs to make is selecting a suitable site for systems because it is flexible in its cultiva-
growing kava. Kava is a shade-loving plant. tion requirements and thrives in the shade dur-
For the young plant to develop properly, care ing its first three years of growth. It grows
should be taken to shelter it from the suns well in traditional multicrop gardens, cut from
rays and the wind. The sun speeds up mois- the forest and partly shaded by taller crops
ture loss from the plant and causes it to wilt. such as bananas and papayas. In most islands
Winds bend stems and branches and may cause of Vanuatu, organic kava production involves
them to crack or break and thus encourage crop rotation, intercropping (with peanuts and
disease in the plant. sweet potato), and planting of windbreaks,
In traditional farming, the ideal site for shade trees, and leguminous tree species.
growing kava is mixed cropping fields that
have been recently cleared and planted. For
example, kava can be planted in fields with
taro, maize, yams and sweet potatoes. In these
fields the other crops provide the shade that
kava needs particularly when it is small. As
these other crops mature and are harvested
the kava plant gets additional space for
growth.
Kava is grown under a wide variety of
conditions but the following points are im-
portant.
To allow for vigorous root growth, soils
should be fertile and loose but not allowed
to dry out. Mulch can be useful on
some soils.
Avoid soils that are prone to water-
logging since this can inhibit
growth and cause root rot. For
this reason kava is often planted
on sloping land; ridging
(mounding up soil) can be used
for planting kava on flat land.
Provide shade and protection from
the wind for the young plants.
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B. Planting material
There is a substantial diversity in kava cultivars Planting material checklist:
of the Pacific. Many of the differences are in
Carefully select planting materials from
the appearance of the plant (plant morphol-
vigorous, healthy plants.
ogy) such as the colour of the stem, length of
the internodes, stem thickness, and shape of
Carefully inspect stems selected for
the leaves. There are also differences in the
cuttings to ensure they are free from
content of kavalactones in different cultivars.
mealy bugs and scale insects.
Surveys and research indicate that the great-
est diversity of kava cultivars is in Vananau
Use the more rot-resistant woody mid-
with 80; there are 13 in Hawaii, 12 in Fiji, 7 in
portion of the stem for good root and
Tonga, 6 in Samoa, 4 in Papua New Guinea,
crop development.
3 in Wallis and Futuna, 3 in French Polynesia,
and 2 in Pohnpei.
Avoid using the soft upper portion of the
Despite this diversity kava in fact has a
stem because it is prone to rot and does
very narrow genetic base. This is because
not easily develop roots and shoots.
kava does not produce viable seed so there is
no possibility of cross pollination to create
Do not use lateral branches for planting
new cultivars. The diversity of kava has been
material because they will produce plants
caused by farmers selecting mutant kava plants
with horizontal stems.
with desirable characteristics for personal and
ceremonial use. This selection system began
Do not buy planting material from un-
with the domestication of kava thousands of
known sources because it may carry plant
years ago and has produced the kava cultivars
diseases or may be of poor drinking
that we have today.
quality.
Experienced growers know that one of
the most important decisions in producing
quality kava is the selection of planting
materials. The first aspect is that the cutting
must come from a desirable kava cultivar, one
with good drinking characteristics. Secondly,
the cutting must be from a healthy and vigor-
ous plant. Diseases can be spread from un-
healthy kava plants to the surrounding plants
and cause great losses.
The normal method of propagation is to
use stem cuttings of one to four nodes in
length, but the process varies according to
area. Either shoots or stem cuttings can be
used, and cuttings can be either planted in a
nursery or directly planted in the field.
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C. Direct planting
In many Pacific Islands the traditional plant-
ing method has been to plant the stem cuttings
directly in the field. There are a variety of tech-
niques. A handful of one- and two-node
cuttings can be planted together in a 30 cm
(12 in) diameter circle. In some places, four-
to six-node cutting are planted vertically with
several nodes in the soil. Sometimes cuttings
are rooted in loose soil before planting. Often
the cuttings are planted and covered with soil
and a layer of mulch to retain moisture since
adequate moisture is critical for the root and
shoot development.
However, direct planting of kava stems
has been abandoned in many areas for the fol-
lowing reasons.
Direct planted kava requires more plant-
ing material and longer pieces. The de-
mand for planting materials is usually high
and farmers want to use their planting ma-
terials efficiently so they can plant as large
an area as possible or so they can sell
planting material.
Kava cuttings require moist conditions at
the time of planting to develop shoots and
roots. Drought or water stress during this
early periods of growth can kill the
emerging shoots and roots. Watering
young plants is much more costly and
time consuming in the field than in a
nursery.
The desired spacing can be difficult to
achieve with direct planting because not
all the cuttings will produce plants.
Weed competition with young kava seed-
lings is a problem that requires consider-
able labour input and can slow the growth
of the young kava plant.
Young plants require shade and it can be
difficult to provide sufficient shade in the
field compared with a nursery.
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D. Nurseries
Shortages of planting material caused by the If you want rapidly growing healthy vig-
expansion in production has stimulated inter- orous young plants, careful management of
est in kava nurseries. In several countries nurs- the nursery is essential.
eries are very successfully used for the propa-
gation of kava and are preferred to the direct Location of the nursery
planting propagation method. Often when di- The nursery should be located on well drained
rect planting kava larger cuttings are used, land to avoid being waterlogged or flooded
germination of the cuttings is low, and later during heavy rains. There should be access to
even plant survival is low. Nurseries use plant- water for irrigation of the young kava seed-
ing material more efficiently and there is a lings during dry periods.
higher survival rate of the plants when trans-
planted to the field. One- or two-node Soil for the nursery
cuttings, as well as larger cuttings, have been
successfully used for propagation in the nurs- Rich topsoil, sand and compost, and other
ery. media such as potting soil can be used. Pot-
It has been observed that root and shoot ting soil has the advantage that it has been
development can be affected by: sterilised, which will reduce problems with
soil-borne diseases attacking the young plants.
(a) the kava variety some root more Another good mix is 10 parts soil, 1 part sand,
easily and quickly than others; 1 part timber shavings or sawdust from un-
(b) the age of the plant two- to three- treated timber. It is important that the soil is
year-old stems are the best; and loose and that it doesnt dry out. Heavy clay
(c) the portion of the stem used avoid soil should be avoided in the nursery since it
the soft upper portion and very woody can become too wet and this encourages the
lower portion. development of fungus in the plants.
Some farmers plant the cuttings in beds
A study of the different kava varieties in of soil with compost. Others use plastic bags
Vanuatu showed that some varieties were (polypots) that make it easier to transfer
more difficult to propagate than others. Vari- young plants to the field, but these are more
eties with short internodes provided cuttings expensive.
which were very resistant to plant dis-
ease during sprouting and the
early stages of growth. Cuttings
from varieties with long
internodes were susceptible to
rotting before and after sprout-
ing, particularly in the rainy sea-
son. In addition, the shoots of va-
rieties with dark coloured stems
developed very slowly.
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Watering
Keep the soil moist but not too wet. The nurs- This can be accomplished by gradually
ery should be checked daily to ensure the soil removing the palm fronds from the nursery
doesnt get too dry. The use of sand, timber roof. The shade cloth can be removed for part
shavings or compost in the soil can help the of each day.
soil from becoming too wet.
Time in the nursery
Weeding
Plants are generally ready for transplanting
Soil and sand used in the nursery will con- when they are at least 30 cm tall (1012 in).
tain weeds and weed seed. These weeds It is difficult to predict how long it will take
should be carefully removed to avoid com- the seedling to reach this size because of dif-
petition with young kava plants. ferences in soils, kava varieties, size of
cuttings, quality of the cutting, and watering,
Shading but generally 35 months is sufficient. The
Kava requires shade. A structure with palm seedlings can be kept in the nursery until con-
fronds is adequate for shade though 3050% ditions in the field are right but if transplant-
shade cloth can also be used. Remember not ing is delayed the shading should be removed
to place seedlings too close to the edge of the to avoid tall plants with weak stems.
shade structure since it will expose them to
direct sunlight at some times of the day. Advantages of nurseries for kava
Before the seedlings are removed from Nurseries are adequately shaded to pro-
the nursery they should gradually be exposed mote development and prevent the
to the direct sun for a week to avoid stress to cuttings from drying out.
the plants when they are put into the field.
This process is called hardening off the plants. Seedlings can be watered more easily in a
nursery than in the field.
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3 cm
15 cm
5 cm
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Cut the middle portion of the kava stem into low the soil surface and the other two above.
four-node cuttings. Plant two four-node Although this method uses more planting ma-
cuttings upright in soil and compost in terial, the seedling will grow faster and be
polypots that are 16 cm (7 in) wide and 34 more vigorous.
cm (14 in) tall. Two of the nodes must be be-
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E. Transplanting
Transplanting should be done when:
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G. Cropping methods
Intercropping
Kavas natural habitat is under the shade of There is no clear picture of the best com-
large trees with a diversity of other plants, and bination of crops. It appears that more com-
it is still most commonly grown in association monly than not kava is grown with many dif-
with other crops. Experience and research ferent crops in the same field.
have shown that intercropping has its advan- In intercropping the crops are changed
tages. It is believed that intercropping can in- over the growth cycle of the kava. When the
hibit the spread of disease among kava plants kava plants are small, intercrops that provide
whereas monocropping seems to encourage shade, such as taro and pigeon peas, are help-
it. This is an important point in favour of ful. Later, when the kava needs more sunlight,
intercropping because it can help prevent the intercrops such as sweet potatoes and pea-
establishment and spread of of devastating nuts which provide good ground cover are
diseases like kava dieback. useful.
Kava intercropped with root crops, bananas, and coconuts in Vavau, Tonga.
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45 m 45 m
1m 1m
The spacing of plants in coconutkava intercropping.
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Kava can be planted between rows of pigeon peas for shade when the plants are young.
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will be large enough to provide shade by the H. Soil and plant nutrition
time the kava is planted out in the field.
The pigeon pea and kava are planted in The soil should have good drainage. Even
alternate rows. For good shading, which is though kava can be grown on a wide variety
needed when the kava is young, the pigeon of soils, the plant prefers deep, loose soils,
pea can be planted densely and then thinned moist but well drained. The roots of kava have
as the kava grows. little tolerance for the oxygen starvation that
occurs in poorly drained or heavy clay soils.
Monocropping In poorly drained soils the plant is also sus-
Monocropping of kava is not encouraged in ceptible to bacterial or fungal diseases. Kava
the Pacific Islands because this method has is often grown on hillsides, where drainage is
the potential to promote the development and much better than on the valley floor.
spread of disease and it is not good for long- Being a plant of forest habitats, kava
term soil fertility. requires soil rich in organic matter, which pro-
Although good coverage of the soil by vides the nutrients it needs. Kava is a very
the kava plants is desired, close planting and heavy feeder. Its vigorous growth depends on
little spacing between plants can lead to prob- rich soils and attention to soil fertility man-
lems. Closely planted kava monocropping in agement. Traditionally the planting of a kava
high rainfall areas creates a lack of air circu- crop starts with the clearing of the forest, but
lation between plants and damp conditions in most areas this is not a practice that can
develop that lead to onset of disease. continue. In Pohnpei State, in the Federated
In Vanuatu, young farmers looking for a States of Micronesia, the continued clearing
quick income are developing monoculture of forests for kava has become a major envi-
systems for kava (see diagram below). Fields ronmental issue. In Vanuatu, for example, a
are planted at a very high density of one plant kava crop is planted after two rotations of pea-
per square metre (10,000 plants per hectare) nuts, which improve the soil, assist in weed
and after two years of growth, half of the control, and provides extra income for farm-
plants are uprooted to allow more space for ers.
the 5,000 remaining plants. After another year, Kava has a very limited root system com-
when the plants are three years old, half of pared to other plants that live as long or grow
them are harvested and 2,500 plants are left as big as it does. The root system does not
to grow for up to five years. According to extend very far laterally from the plant or very
these farmers, this intensive system does not deep since it doesnt have a tap root. To find
affect kava growth. Vanuatus volcanic soils nutrients that are not mobile in the soil, roots
are rich but more research is needed to un- must grow into new soil. This only happens
derstand the advantages and disadvantages of during the first three years of growth. After
this system. three years of growth, the roots have taken
Planting
YEAR 1 After 2 years
YEAR 3 AfterYEAR
3 years
4
K K K K K K K
K K K K K K K
K K K K K K K
K K K K K K K
The removal of plants over time in the kava monocrop.
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TREES I. Weeding
AND
BUSHES Weed competition is a major problem in kava
WIND production and has led to the use of herbi-
cides. But herbicides should be avoided, for
these reasons:
RAIN
There has been insufficient research into
herbicides for kava production.
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Insects
Kava weevil (Elytroteinus Ants (many species)
subtruncatus) and other types of They can attack during the dry season and
weevils that burrow into the root- establish mealy bug colonies that feed on the
stock and stem. bark and attract fungi and bacteria.
Control: change planting site Control: irrigation
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Nematodes
Nematodes are microscopic worm-like pests quickly infected by a form of root rot, which
that can attack the roots of crops. Nematodes can cause the death of the plant. If the nema-
are found all over the Pacific, and 28 species tode attack is severe the plant stops growing,
have been identified in kava. Because there wilts, and dies. Plants that have been attacked
are so many kinds of nematodes farmers may are very susceptible to falling over or lodg-
be familiar with the symptoms of some spe- ing.
cies but not others. Nematodes are too small To help avoid nematodes use healthy
to be seen with the naked eye so the symp- planting material; avoid planting material taken
toms can be confused with diseases that have from infected plants. The determining factor
similar symptoms. is the choice of a clean planting site where
For example, the root knot nematode there are no harmful nematodes.
(Meloidogyne spp.) of which four have been Root knot nematodes are controlled by
found in kava, produces nodules or lumps on intercropping with nematode-deterring crops
the roots which may grow up to 1 cm ( in) such as turmeric (Curcuma longa) and mari-
in diameter. The nematodes pierce the cell gold (Tagates sp.). To avoid the development
walls and absorb the contents, disturb the tis- of epidemic nematode populations, plants are
sue and lay their eggs in it. As soon as they usually spaced 2 m (6 ft) apart to allow
hatch out, the larvae move towards the healthy intercropping. The weed problem that occurrs
tissue to feed, which aggravates their harmful in widely spaced kava plants can be partly
effect. When the nodules burst they are solved by establishing a cover crop such as
sweet potatoes or unstaked yams.
NEMATODES
are too small to be 1. They pierce root cell walls, absorb
seen by the naked contents and form nodules.
eye.
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II. HARVESTING
A. Harvesting and yields
Harvesting and post-harvest handling account The kavalactone content is different in
for 40% or more of the labour involved in kava each part of the harvested plant. The
production. Particular attention should be kavalactone percentages of dry weight are
given to harvesting, handling, and drying the 1520% in the lateral roots, 812% in the
kava since these operations have a major ef- stump, 58% in the basal stems, 25% in
fect on the quality of the kava and the price. the stems and less than 12% in the leaves.
Kava is traditionally harvested at age three
The rootstock (stump) and roots become
or four years, but for local ceremonies plants
larger over time, although soil fertility, ad-
may be grown for over ten years before har-
equate rainfall and the kava variety are
vesting. When kava is grown as a commercial
more important factors than plant age in
crop the decision as to when to harvest is more
determining yield. The green weight of
complicated.
individual rootstock varies from 5 to 50
Some farmers want to obtain the maxi- kg. In the measurement of 1500 plants in
mum yield per hectare rather than the Vanuatu, three-year-old plants yielded
maximum yield per plant. They increase about 10 kg of fresh material; 70% was
the number of plants per unit area, pro- the rootstock and basal stems. The re-
vide better soil fertility, and harvest some maining 30% of the harvested plants was
of the plants when they become too the roots. The harvested portion of the
crowded. The remaining plants are al- plant includes the lateral roots, the root-
lowed to grow for a few more years be- stock, and part of the basal stems.
fore harvesting. There are dangers in this
approach, such as the risk of the devel-
opment and spread of kava dieback or
other diseases.
In general, the kavalactone content of
kava increases with age (kavalactones are
the active compounds in kava). There are
six kavalactones in kava that occur in vari-
ous concentrations. However, some re-
search indicates that kavalactone content
depends more on the type of soil, the avail-
ability of nutrients for plant growth and
the kava variety than on the age of the
plant.
It is not only the total kavalactone con-
tent that determines the quality of the
kava but also the proportion of each of
the six different kavalactones or the
chemotype of the kava cultivar (see
Kavalactones, page 33). Different va-
rieties of kava have different
chemotypes. As the kava export mar-
ket develops it will be important to pro-
duce kava with a specific kavalactone.
A proud Fijian farmer with his harvested kava.
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B. Harvesting techniques
The first step is to remove the upper part of (6 ft) in length. You will need to carefully
the plant. Cut the stems above the first node. dig around and under the rootstock and roots
From the stems there will be adventitious roots to harvest the plant. Care should be taken not
extending directly into the soil. Take care to to break the thin fragile roots. A digging fork
harvest these small roots without breaking with flat blades like the ones used for harvest-
them, since they are valuable. ing potatoes is ideal for harvesting kava since
The rootstock is the enlarged portion of it normally doesnt cut or damage the thin
the plant at the base of the stems. Depending roots.
on the variety the thickness of the rootstock Kava is often planted on ridges, or soil is
can reach 30 cm (1 ft) to 60 cm (2 ft), and mounded around the plant. It is easier to har-
some creeping roots may measure over 2 m vest plants in ridges or mounds.
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A. Washing
After you have dug up the the rootstock and
roots, wash them carefully in water to remove
the soil particles. Access to sufficient water
for washing the kava and moving the bulky
freshly harvested kava to a water source can
pose a problem. If the kava is washed in a
tank a small quantity of soap should be added
to the water for easier cleaning.
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Drying technologies
Black plastic
Clear plastic
Drying rack
This is a simple and cheap drying technology that increases the temperature because it encloses the drying
platform and the black plastic absorbs the rays of the sun. The clear plastic panels should face the sun. This
structure also protects the kava from rain.
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This is a permanent building for drying kava. It has a vented roof made of clear fibreglass and the sides are
also vented. The design increases the air temperature while maintaining air flow to speed the drying of the
kava. This building also protects the kava from wind and rain.
A kava drying shed in Samoa with clear plastic roof and vents on sides.
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D. Storage
Storing kava is similar to storage of other dried
agriculture commodities.
Dried agricultural products are
hygroscopic: they attract and absorb moisture
from the air particularly in high humidity cli-
mates such as the Pacific. A dried product left
in the open will continue to absorb moisture
until there is no further movement of mois-
ture in or out of the product, when the kava is
said to have acheived equilibrium moisture
content. Unfortunately, in the high humidity
environment of the Pacific the equilibrium
moisture content of kava allows the deterio-
ration of the commodity, and development of
fungus and a mouldy smell, which results in a
low quality or useless product.
The storage of kava requires special at-
tention to avoid loss in quality. Kava mois-
ture content needs to be monitored during
storage. Kava will need to be dried again if it
Drying kava on black plastic in Tonga before
is stored for a few months. Kava can be stored, pounding.
but the following points should be considered.
After kava is dried it will start to very
slowly absorb moisture from the high
humidity air unless it is protected in a
moisture-proof container.
Dried kava can be stored at any tem-
perature below 50C if it is kept in
moisture-proof containers.
Well-ventilated storage areas are not
suitable for extended storage of kava in
a high humidity environment.
The moisture content of the kava must
be monitored and tested by smell,
looking for mould, and noticing if the
roots bend rather than break.
Although kava can be redried if neces-
sary, multiple drying will cause the
quality to deteriorate.
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E. Commercial parts of
the kava plant
There are five commercial products from the
kava plant: basal stems, chips of the rootstock,
roots, peeling of the rootstock and residues.
The kavalactone content of each part of the
plant is quite different. (There may have been
some confusion in the past between the peel-
ings of the rootstock, which are high in
kavalactones, and peelings of the basal stem,
which are low in kavalactones.) The five com-
mercial products and approximate kavalactone
ranges are:
Roots
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F. Kavalactones
Fifteen kavalactones have been isolated from
kava. Each kavalactone has a different physi- The chemotype of a kava cultivar is de-
ological effect.They are divided into the ma- fined by listing, in decreasing order, the pro-
jor kavalactones and minor kavalactones. The portion of the six major kavalactones. Nor-
six major kavalactones account for 96% of mally the first three kavalactones in the code
the fat soluble extract from kava and are con- for the chemoptype represent over 70% of the
sidered to be the most important active total kavalactone content. Consequently buy-
ingredience. They are: demethoxy-yangonin, ers and producers pay attention to the first
dihydrokavain, yangonin, kavain, three kavalactones of the chemotype. For ex-
dihydromethysticin, and methysticin. Kavain, ample two popular chemotypes in Vanuatu are
for example, is rapidly absorbed by the body 246531 and 426135, both of which have
and quickly creates a feeling of relaxation. dihydrokavain, kavain and meththysticin as the
Dihydromethstysticin and dihydrokavain are first three kavalactones.
very potent and produce nausea and long-term The chemotype of a kava cultivar may
drowsiness. These two kavalactones are found not be important for the local drink market.
in high concentrations in the famous tudei However there is interest by the pharmaceu-
kava cultivar of Vanuatu, which is known to tical industry in Europe to buy only kava with
make the drinker feel drunk for two days. For certain chemotypes. Hawaii, in the develop-
more details of the different effects of each ment of its kava industry, is increasingly
kavalactone read the research by Lebot (see cultivating the preferred chemotypes. In the
biblography). future most kava producers and international
Although such kavalactones as kavain
and methysticin can now be synthesised, these
artificial kavalactones do not induce the same
physiological effects as the natural extracts.
The efficacy of kava evidently does not stem
from a single active substance but rather from
a mixture, a blending of several kavalactones
that results in a synergistic physiological
effect.
Chemotypes:The kavalactones are num-
bered and used to define the kavalactone pro-
file of kava cultivars. The kavalactone profile
is referred to as the chemotype of that par-
ticular kava cultivar.
1 = demethoxy-yangonin
2 = dihydrokavain
3 = yangonin
4 = kavain
5 = dihydromethysticin
6 = methysticin
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kava exporters will need to pay attention to Kavalactones cause a greater biological ef-
the production of preferred chemotypes. Kava fect when given in combination, possibly be-
content and the chemotype can be determined cause constituents are more readily absorbed
by analysis in the laboratories of the Institute when consumed as part of a mixture. The phar-
of Applied Sciences of the University of the macological effect of kava is dose-dependent.
South Pacific in Suva. Kava and its constituents have been shown to
Fresh kava rootstock, when prepared by have sedative, hypnotic, anticonvulsant, mus-
mastication, pounding or grinding, yields a cle relaxant, anaesthetic, antimycotic, and
greenish milky solution that is considerably anxiolytic properties. Clinical trials with stand-
stronger in kavalactone content and taste than ardised kava extracts have shown pharmacologi-
the grey mixture obtained from dry roots. The cal activity comparable to benzodiazepines (e.g.
main factor determining the psycho-active im- Valium). Benzodiazepines are the most com-
pact of kava is the degree of separation in wa- monly used pharmaceuticals for anxiety. Kava
ter of the resinous active ingredients called products are used as a substitute and have fewer
kavalactones. The active substance in this side effects and have not been shown to be ad-
resin, insoluble in water, becomes available to dictive or to lead to dose tolerance.
the drinker after emulsification. However, this Key points:
emulsion is not stable and infused kava is
therefore a suspension of lipid-like compounds The kavalactone is the chemical respon-
rather than a real emulsion. sible for changing how you feel.
The resinous compounds are present in 15 kavalactones have been identified.
each cell as microscopic drops of
The mix of kavalactones in a kava variety
kavalactones that are dispersed when the root
is known as a chemotype.
tissues are pounded or ground, macerated and
infused. When the beverage is ingested, thou- Each part of the kava plant has a differrent
sands of these microscopic particles are ab- mix of kavalactones. Scientists are not
sorbed rapidly through the stomach mem- sure but it seems that you need a mixture
brane to the bloodstream. If the emulsion is of differrent kavalactones to achieve a par-
rich in active compounds, this will induce a ticular effect. Naturally produced
rapid and pronounced psycho-active effect. kavalactones are still much stronger than
The resin becomes more fluid when tem- the synthesised kavalactone.
perature increases and if hot water is drunk How you prepare the kava drink and what
after absorbing kava, the effects will be mag- you drink after the kava changes the ef-
nified. Kavalactones are soluble in alcohol and fects of kava on your body.
there is a synergistic effect when a drinker
mixes the two beverages.
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H. Quality specifications
The quality of an agricultural product is al- ers and middlemen who sell the kava have
ways an important issue. In the world of learnt through experience the factors kava
international trade, sellers and buyers rely buyers and exporters are looking for so that
on quality specifications to facilitate the they can get the best price. But there have
trading of products. A quality specification always been problems and the farmer, the
is a pre-sale agreement on the quality of middlemen and the buyers have all suffered.
the product which is to be traded. Quality More recently, developed countries have
specifications exist for most internationally become involved in the international trade of
traded products. An essential part of qual- kava. Furthermore, more advanced analytical
ity monitoring is taking representative sam- techniques have been introduced which have
ples of consignments and testing of sam- led to the introduction of detailed, indisput-
ples. The quality specifications are en- able quality specifications for kavalactones
forced by the industry and/or by legisla- As we get to know more about the chemi-
tion and licensing of exporters. cal make-up of kava, we have been able to
There is no established physical or develop a set of quality specifications (stand-
chemical quality specification for kava ex- ards) which can be checked and verified any-
ported to the pharmaceutical industry. The where in the world.
result has been that buyers and importers have The establishment and use of a quality
experienced problems and possible rejection specification for kava can protect Pacific Is-
of exported kava when there are quality- land kava producers and traders in the event
related problems. of a dispute over quality. SPC funded the In-
Kava has been traded for many years stitute of Applied Sciences of the University
both domestically and between islands of the of the South Pacific in 1995 to develop a draft
Pacific without a quality specification. In- quality specification for kava. These specifi-
stead the quality is based on the buyer exam- cations are explained in the following pages.
ining the kava before purchasing it. The farm-
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Kavalactones
A quality specification for kavalactone con-
tent is still under development and it is very
difficult to specify because of the great varia-
tions between kava varieties. The important
point, especially if large consignments are in-
volved, is the need for both buyer and seller
to test the kavalactone content. Once the re-
sults are available prices can be accurately
negotiated.
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I. Advanced processing
For kava to be used in the pharmaceutical in- by the body in this form than in capsules.
dustry the kavalactones must be extracted so This technique is expensive however, and re-
that they can be contained in capsules for easy quires an investment of about US$500,000
use by patients. In the pharmaceutical indus- for a small spray drying unit capable of
try the most commonly used method for ex- processing about one tonne of fresh roots per
tracting kavalactones is the solvent extraction day.
method. Kavalactones are insoluble in water, Steps in the spray drying process:
so extraction is done with volatile solvents.
Volatile solvents are used because they dont 1 Fresh root
leave a residue in the kavalactone extract. The 2 Crushing
volatile solvents are recyclable by evapora- 3 Filtration
tion and distillation, but are flammable, and 4 Fresh juice
thus should be handled carefully. The ex-
5 High pressure pump
tracted kavalactones are in the form of a dark
thick viscose substance that is not easy to use 6 Spray drying
directly. It is combined with an inert substance 7 Water-soluble powder obtained
such as starch to create a powder with 30% Much of the attraction of kava is the cer-
kavalactone content that is then placed in emony attached to its preparation and social
capsules. consumption in the Pacific. For the local mar-
Steps in the solvent extraction process: ket and export there is a need for a high qual-
ity, pre-dried, ground kava for those who want
1 Dry matter
to consume kava in this manner.
2 Crushing Ready-to-drink extracted kava with other
3 Reduction to fine powder tropical flavours is now available. There are
4 Maceration, hot or cold in a solvent also kava candies and other novel products
5 Filtration on the market. These products have not gen-
erated significant consumer demand, how-
6 Elimination of solid residues
ever.
7 Evaporation and recovery of solvent There continues to be interest from the
8 Extraction of a brown coloured resin private sector in establishing kavalactone
9 Resin mixed with a base to create a extraction facilities in the Pacific. One facil-
30% kavalactone powder ity was established in Port Vila but it is no
The kava residues from domestic con- longer functioning. Another facility was es-
sumption still contain significant levels of tablished in Savusavu, Fiji Islands, but at a
kavalactones. Processing offers the potential time of a decline in the market and demand
to extract the kavalactones from these resi- was not sustained. Currently there are plans
dues, which are normally discarded. A suit- to relocate this plant elsewhere in the Pacific
able economical extraction method, perhaps region. The key aspect in the establishment of
using a combination of organic solvents, viable processing facilities is that they must
needs to be developed. be connected directly to the company that will
Another method of processing is spray further process the kavalactone extract and
drying. Spray drying is a well-established produce the final product. Large pharmaceu-
agro-industrial technique that produces water tical and natural products companies have
soluble powders such as milk powder that are substantial investments in their own process-
easy to handle and store. This technology is ing facilities to use with a wide variety of raw
well suited to kava because the powder dis- material. They prefer to use their own process-
solves in water and it is more rapidly absorbed ing facilities to control quality and in order to
add value to the raw material themselves.
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J. Marketing
There are several distinct markets for kava, toms of stress. This market is very precise.
but in all markets there is a demand for high Buyers seek kava with a specific chemotype
quality kava. and the pharmaceutical laboratories process
the kava to make a capsule with an exact
Domestic drinking market kavalactone content. There has been a con-
The local market is still the most important sistent demand for high quality kava for this
market for kava in terms of total size and cash market.
value. At the village level there is still a sub- Nutritional supplement market: In the
stantial amount of production for household United States many non-prescription herbal
and village consumption. Middlemen often buy remedies are considered nutritional supple-
at the village or villagers bring their kava to ments by the Federal Drug Administration, and
sell at markets in the urban centres. There is kava recently became popular in this market.
an increasing demand for pounded kava sold Kava is packaged in capsules, as teabags, and
in packets for local consumption in kava shops added to other beverages. This market saw a
and in private homes. dramatic growth particularly in 1998, but since
This market is also less risky than the then the demand has declined. Kava became a
export market for the buying and selling of fad in the herbal products market which
small quantities of kava. Producers know the meant that people tried it once. If a product in
buyers and the prices they will get. this market is poor quality, people quickly lose
interest, and the market fades as quickly as it
Export market appeared. Some authorities believe that the
lack of a standardised, high quality kava prod-
Kava exporters have emerged to serve a uct for the consumer contributed to the de-
number of markets. The exporters usually have cline in consumption in the US market.
their own buyers, who purchase the kava at
the village from known producers of quality
kava. Some large growers sell directly to the Buyers
exporters. On occasion large growers form The export market demands high quality. The
partnerships with overseas kava buyers and buyer is interested in finding the lowest price
processors. The exporter make the growers possible for a high quality kava. Buyers will
aware that they must follow many of the discuss purchases with exporters in several
princples outlined in this publication for pro- countries before negotiating a quantity and
duction of high quality kava in order to re- price. They prefer to buy sorted kava rather
ceive a good price. than pounded kava so they can verify the qual-
Drinking market: The main drinking ity immediately
markets are in the Pacific, such as Fiji Islands,
Vanuatu, New Caledonia and Tonga. There is Price is related to three factors:
also kava drinking in Australia, New Zealand, Quality: High quality kava will have a
the United States particularly in California, and higher price than low quality kava. For exam-
Canada. ple, kava that is clean and free of soil, well
Pharmaceutical market: In Germany dried, with a fresh kava aroma will fetch a
and France kava has been a prescription drug higher price than kava that is dirty, only some-
for many years, prescribed in capsule form what dry, and mouldy smelling.
for patients with psychological problems. As Consistency: Buyers of kava prefer to
previously explained, the kavalactones are establish more long-term business relation-
considered a natural replacement for other ships with kava exporters. Not only do buy-
drugs such as Valium that relieve the symp- ers want high quality, they also want to be
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able to buy kava of consistently high quality. Supply and demand: When there an is
This is how a grower, middleman or exporter abundant supply available for the market,
establishes a good reputation. Customers will prices will be lower. Conversely, when supply
keep coming back to purchase more kava. is low the prices will rise. A good example of
However, if the quality of your kava is not the effect of supply and demand on kava prices
consistent then buyers will find suppliers who was seen during 1998. Buyers from the United
are more reliable. States herbal market made substantial
Part of the plant: The roots and peel- purchases in 1998 and prices moved to very
ings are higher in kavalactones and demand a high levels. However by the end of 1998, there
higher price than the chips and stems. Inter- was very little kava being purchased for the
national buyers often prefer the peelings, export market and prices declined substan-
which they feel are better value and have the tially.
quality kavalactone they need.
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IV. Conclusion
There is good potential for growth in the local Processing research
and export kava market. However, the future
Further research into appropriate processing
growth and development of the kava industry
techniques for the smallholder and for large-
needs attention in the areas of production,
scale production is necessary. Appropriate
research and marketing.
equipment and packaging techniques are also
needed. Among the different processing tech-
Production research
niques to be studied, priority should be given
It is often debated which is more important: to the improvement and development of spray
markets or production? It would appear that drying techniques, ultra-high temperature
further market opportunities are constrained treatment, and identifying the ideal combi-
by production, as the large domestic market nation of organic solvents for the treatment
restricts the amount available for export. of residues from domestic consumption. Na-
Kava needs attention as a commercial tional Kava Councils should be established
crop. Effective cropping systems adapted to to encourage intiative and coordinate devel-
the local conditions need to be developed for opment of the industry.
smallholders as well as for large-scale planta-
tions. Facilitation of marketing activities
Organic kava production systems need
Inconsistent supply and poor quality of kava
further study because of the high value niche
inhibit market development and destabilise
market for organic products.
prices. The kava industry needs to establish
There are also major bottlenecks and
kava quality specifications.
needs for agronomic research:
National or regional names should be de-
Establishment of national germplasm col- veloped and protected to symbolise quality
lections needed. kava from original sources and to protect it
from competition from other tropical coun-
Selection of kava varieties of the best tries.
chemotype and kavalactone content. Ha-
waii has undertaken this and only good Organic certification
chemotypes are promoted for production.
A valuable niche market with potential for
Development of reliable tissue culture Pacific Islands kava producers is the organic
techniques and micropropagation systems market. Much of the kava grown in the Pacifi
for virus-free planting material. Hawaii is grown without the use of pesticides and
has made progress in this area but the sur- chemical fertilizers. An organic certification
vival rate of plants from tissue culture is system for kava is needed to verify the or-
still only 50% ganic production methods used for the growth
of the industry.
Identification, prevention and control
of existing kava pests and diseases,
including dieback, and a comprehen-
sive study of the epidemiology.
Determining the suitability of kava
monocropping by smallholders in the
Pacific.
Kava fertility management for maxi-
mum production and sustainability.
Working group of Kava Industry leaders at Regional Kava in
meeting, 1998.
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Appendix A
Hawaiian kava production
On 11 May 1998 the Association for Hawai- Deep soil
ian Awa (AHA) was formed as a non-profit These lands, formerly used for sugar or pine-
organisation for reserach, education, and pres- apple, are often depleted of nutrients. These
ervation of the cultural and medical values as- soils are deep-ploughed and rotor tilled with
sociated with the awa (kava) plant. compost and /or manure. Calcium and other
Hawaii has a long tradition of growing minerals may be added depending on the soil
and consuming kava that is now being revived. analysis. The field are then formed into ridges
Hawaiian kava growers are applying modern that are as much as 150 cm (5 ft) wide and
production and propagation technologies to 75100 cm (23 ft) high to promote good
kava. Gowers in other Pacific Islands may be drainage.
interested in the technical information, which
provides a much different approach to kava Rocky soil
production. If you are interested in experi-
menting based on the following information, These soils are often not very deep but ridges
please do so on a small scale and with cau- are still made in the field. The same proce-
tion. dure as above is followed, with no deep
ploughing because of the often shallow soils.
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Fertiliser rates
A small handful of NPK is spread around and
over the mound for small plants. A handful
for 30 cm (1 ft) tall plants is well broadcast
around the plant and two to four handfuls of
NPK are applied for plants over 120 cm (4 ft)
tall. It is important not to throw handfuls of
NPK into piles on the mounds, as it will burn
your plant. It is better to have more frequent
light applications of fertiliser than less frequent
heavy applications.
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Pruning
Due to the urgent need for planting material a variety of Hawaiian kava, famous for its
kava crops were pruned drastically. It was then strength, which grew in the crotch of trees in
noted that a healthy kava plant can handle the district of Puna, Hawaii, was strong be-
drastic pruning twice a year without adverse cause the roots coming down the tree were
effect. On the contrary, the plants seem able exposed to the sunlight. I feel that pruning is
to not only to recover but to increase in size: an extension of that idea. It opens up the
more shoots come out; more roots develop canopy of the plant and lets the sunlight pen-
from these shoots, the rootstock increases etrate to the base of the plant. Testing done
because there are more branches developing. on Hawaiian kava in 1998 also supports this.
About 1030% of the stems are removed once
or twice a year, depending on how the plants Advantages of pruning
are growing. The woody stem closer to the 1) Pruning provides planting material.
ground branches is removed, leaving the
softer and more succulent stems. 2) It promotes an increase in rootstock size.
It is believed that Hawaiian ancestors were 3) It enhances production of kavalactones.
right when they said that the Awa Kau Laau,
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(iii) Place cutting into plastic bucket; damp (ii) Remove tray from marinade and let drain
sphagnum moss is helpful to keep the cut- and dry.
ting moist. (iii) Paint freshly cut node ends with pruning
(iv) Dont place the bucket in sun or subject paint (optional).
it to heat. D. Place tray on a bench in a mist cham-
(v) Upon completion immediately transport ber so that the nodes are kept moist.
to nursery. (i) Keep in 60% to 80% shade.
After the top node is removed from the (ii) Every day:
stem, the next node is allowed to sprout and a. Check for drop-off (stubs from second-
be pinched. This process can continue down ary cut branch)
the stem. Always leave one node at the bot- b. Check for and remove rotten nodes
tom of the stem to prevent potential entry of c. Hose down the nodes to keep them
fungi that can cause rotting of the rootstock. clean
d. Watch for rooting and when roots ap-
pear put the node in a pot of media (see
page 50).
(iii) Weekly: spray or soak in high phosphate
foliar seaweed extract (optional).
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C. Start with 6080% shade in the nurs- (ii) Weedy conditions require large plants;
ery. Just before transplanting, gradu- small plants need weed-free conditions.
ally increase exposure first to 6070% (iii) If pests (insects, slugs and snails) are
for a week and then to 30% shade for present, plant large plants; if field is pest-
a week. free you can plant small plants.
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Appendix B
False kava
a threat to the South Pacific kava industry
The development of the kava industry has Piper auritum. This species causes the
brought with it new producers and buyers. In most confusion in Hawai'i. The distinguishing
the rush to produce and sell kava, a problem characteristic are:
has appeared in the form of false kava. The Vein pattern: there is a central vein with
false kava is sold to unsuspecting buyers here smaller veins branching off it. This contrasts
in the Pacific or shipped directly to overseas with the distinctive vein pattern of kava, which
buyers, usually mixed in with true kava. The has 9 to 13 veins all spreading from the base
result is that the shipment will be rejected when of the leaf.
the kavalactone content is tested. Smell: crushed leaves smell strongly of
False kava is a threat to quality kava pro- safrole (similar to sassafras or root beer).
duced in the region. It gives kava producers Safrole found in the leaves and stems is con-
and exporters a bad name in the international sidered a carcinogen by the FDA.
kava market. Piper spp. There are other members of the
In Samoa and Fiji Islands false kava is re- Piper genus, such as Piper wichmannii in
ferred to as Tongan kava or yaqona ni Vanuatu, that may be confused with kava. If
onolulu, and in Tonga Hawaiian kava. What you are an experienced kava producer you will
are these other kinds of kava? The scientific notice the differences on close examination of
name of kava is Piper methysticum. False the plant: leaves, stem, flowers, and plant
kavas are other species within the Piper ge- form. If the plant is already dried, the roots
nus but they do not contain kavalactones. will not have the characteristic smell of kava
Piper aduncum. This species is a tree up and will sometimes be a different colour. The
to 56m (1520 ft) tall with leaves up to 15 cm roots are more woody and contain less starch,
(6 in) long and flowers borne on cream col- and are not slender and flexible.
oured drooping spikes about 12 cm (5 in) These other members of the Piper genus
long. The leaves are bigger and lighter green are widespread in the Pacific and they do not
than kava. This species apparently was intro- contain kavalactones.
duced in the 1920s and now is a widespread
weed in the wet and intermediate zones of Viti Do not let the false kava destroy the reputa-
Levu, Fiji Islands. tion of kava from the Pacific.
Kava leaf.
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"Pacific Kava - A producer's guide," Secretariat of the Pacific Community, Suva, Fiji Islands, 2001.
False kava.
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"Pacific Kava - A producer's guide," Secretariat of the Pacific Community, Suva, Fiji Islands, 2001.
Bibliography
Brown, J.F. 1989. Kava and kava diseases in the South Pacific. Canberra, Australia: Australian
Centre for International Agricultural Research. (Working paper no. 24.)
Carley, K.P. 1998. Strategy for the development of a sustainable kava industry on Pohnpei.
Unpublished report prepared for the Pohnpei Office of the Nature Conservancy.
Davis, R.I. 1996. Causal relationship between cucumber mosaic cucumovirus and kava dieback in
the South Pacific. In Plant Disease. 80(2):194197.
. 1999. Kava dieback. Suva, Fiji Islands: Secretariat of the Pacific Community, Plant Protection
Service. (Pest advisory leaflet no. 25.)
Davis, R.I. and Brown, J.F. 1999. Kava (Piper methysticum) in the South Pacific: its importance,
methods of cultivation, cultivars, diseases and pests. Canberra, Australia: Australian Centre
for Agricultural Research. (ACIAR technical reports 46.)
Konanui, J.; Henderson, J.; Ooka, J.; Johnston, E.; Nelson, S. and Osborn, T. 1999. Awa
production guide. Hilo, Hawaii: Association for Hawaiian Awa.
Kumar, S; Kaitetara, T. and Mudaliar, T. 1998. Opportunities for the production of yaqona in Fiji
for export situation analysis 1. Suva, Fiji Islands: Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and
Fisheries and Soil and Crop Evaluation Project, AusAID.
. 1988. Lhistoire du kava commence par sa dcouverte. In Journal de la Socit des Ocanistes.
(1 & 2):89114.
. 1989. Survey of the genetic resources of Piper methysticum Forst. f. in Oceania. In Plant
Genetic Resources Newsletter. (80):3032.
. 1997. An overview of kava production in the Pacific Islands: what we do know and what we
dont. In Journal of South Pacific Agriculture. 4(1 & 2):5562.
Lebot, V. and Cabalion, P. 1986. Les kavas de Vanuatu : cultivars de Piper methysticum Forst.
Paris, France: Office Recherche Scientifique et Technique Outre-Mer (ORSTOM).
(Travaux et documents no. 205.)
. 1988. Kavas of Vanuatu : cultivars of Piper methysticum Forst. Noumea, New Caledonia: South
Pacific Commission (SPC). (Technical paper no. 195).
Note: First published as Les kavas de Vanuatu: cultivars de Piper methysticum Forst. Paris,
France : ORSTOM, 1986.
Lebot, V. and Lvesque, J. 1989. The origin and distribution of kava (Piper methysticum Forst. f.,
Piperaceae) : a phytochemical approach. In Allertonia. (2):223281.
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Hawaiian Kava Center, http://hawaiiankava.com
"Pacific Kava - A producer's guide," Secretariat of the Pacific Community, Suva, Fiji Islands, 2001.
. 1996. Evidence for conspecificity of Piper methysticum Forts. f. and Piper wichmannii C. DC.
In Biochemical Systematics and Ecology. 24(7/8):775782.
Lebot, V., Aradhya, M.K., and Manshardt, R.M. 1991. Geographic survey of genetic variation in
kava (Piper methysticum Forst. f. and P. wichmannii C. DC.). In Pacific Science.
45(2):169185.
Lebot, V., Merlin, M., and Lindstrom, L. 1992. Kava the Pacific drug. New Haven, USA: Yale
University Press. (Psychoactive plants of the world.)
. [ca.1997]. The Pacific elixir: the definitive guide to its ethnobotany, history and chemistry.
Rochester, Vermont, USA: Healing Arts Press.
Note: First published as Kava the Pacific drug. New Haven, USA: Yale University Press,
1992.
Milne, M. 1997. Crop profile 1: Kava. Apia, Samoa: Ministry of Agriculture, Forests, Fisheries and
Meteorology, Economic Analysis and Planning Unit.
Note: Published in 1996 by the Institute for Research, Extension and Training in Agriculture
(IRETA) for the Western Samoa Farming Systems Project Phase 2.
Nevenimo, T. and Ngere, O. 1991. Kava, a potential cash crop for Papua New Guinea Lowlands.
Keravat, Papua New Guinea: Department of Agriculture and Livestock, Lowlands
Agricultural Experiment Station. (Technical bulletin: cash crops diversification series 2/91.)
Onwueme, I.C. and Papademetriou, M.K. 1997. The kava crop and its potential. Bangkok,
Thailand: FAO. Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific. (RAP publication 1997/12.)
Politoni, K. and Hoponoa, T. 1999. Kava in Tonga. In: Rogers, S. and Thorpe, P., editors. Diffusion
and transfer of agricultural technology in the Pacific: reports and papers from the third
annual meeting of cooperators, Vavau Kingdom of Tonga, 2428 November 1997. Suva,
Fiji Islands: Pacific Regional Agricultural Programme (PRAP); p. 124. (PRAP report no.
6.)
Valentine, N. 1999. A preliminary report on non-timber forest products in some Pacific Island
countries: with a case study on Morinda citrifolia. SPC/UNDP/AusAID/FAO. Pacific
Islands Forests & Trees Support Programme (RAS/97/330). Suva, Fiji Islands: Pacific
Islands Forests & Trees Support Programme. (Working paper no. 6.)
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"Pacific Kava - A producer's guide," Secretariat of the Pacific Community, Suva, Fiji Islands, 2001.
Glossary
Adulteration is the term used when the product for sale has other foreign material mixed
with it so that it doesnt conform to the specification agreed on, e.g., the
kava is dirty; is mixed with false kava, or has other plant materials mixed
in.
Adventitious roots roots which develop spontaneously from the stem when it is placed in a
moist environment. In the case of kava these roots develop quite easily. In
other species it can be quite difficult for the roots to develop.
Bacterium very small (microscopic) organisms that can cause diseases in plants.
Bud scar small rough scar on the nodes (stem joints) where shoots will emerge when
the conditions are right.
Competition plant and root competition occurs when two or more compete with one
another for light, water, nutrients etc. One plant may grow well and the
other dies or grows sickly.
Compost a mixture of dried plant material, animal manure and other organic
materials such as sea weed or saw dust that is combined and goes though a
microbiological breakdown that turns it into a compound that looks like
soil. It is then used to fertilise the soil.
Cortical layer the part between the bark (epidermis) and the central core of the stem.
Cover crop a crop, often of the legume family, planted to fully cover the soil between
stands of trees and between other crops. Cover crops are useful because
they protect and also enrich the soil. Yams and sweet potatoes are often
used as a cover crop.
Crop rotation refers to planting a sequence of different crops on a plot of land. The
practice help maintain soil fertility and break the life cycle of many pests
and diseases that may only survive on one crop and thereby reduce pest
and disease attack.
Cropping system pattern of growing crops over time as well as the mixture of plants grown
together at the same time.
Cultivar any variety and selected plant that is produced or grown by farmers and is
not found naturally in the wild.
Cultivation shallow digging of the soil to allow water to soak into the soil and also to
remove weeds.
Cutting plant stem cut into pieces and planted to start a new plant.
Dieback a disease in which a plant starts to die from the ends of its branches. See
kava dieback.
Direct planting making a hole and planting a cutting without first growing the seedlings in
a nursery.
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"Pacific Kava - A producer's guide," Secretariat of the Pacific Community, Suva, Fiji Islands, 2001.
Disease any condition that is not normal in a plant. Diseases usually produce signs
and symptoms.
Extraneous matter any material which is not in the specification, e.g. foreign matter dirt,
stones, false kava, etc.
Farming system different methods used to grow crops, including shifting cultivation,
continuous cropping, mixed cropping, monocropping etc.
Genetic vulnerability A species of plant such as kava that has only a limited number of cultivars
which means that it has a narrow genetic base and limited variability.
These plants are generally more susceptible to environmental stress, pest,
and diseases.
Intercropping planting together more than one type of crop, in lines and with a definite
spacing.
Maceration breaking up the kava plant bits to release the chemicals or kavalactones.
Mealy bugs Small insects of not more than 5 mm in length that suck the juice from
plants. Usually on the underside of leaves. Mealy bugs get their name
from the white material that covers their bodies as protection and comes
off when touched. Mealy bugs produce honeydew that is visible as black
stain on the leaves.
Micro-organism any organism that can only be seen with a microscope. Bacteria, viruses
and fungi are all microorganisms.
Mixed cropping method of planting crops in which more than one type of crop is planted in
the same garden, at the same time, without any definite spacing and
without any rows or lines.
Moisture soil moisture is the medium in which plant food is carried from the soil
into the plant.
Mulch dried leaves and grasses placed around the base of a plant to reduce water
loss, control weeds and add plant food to the soil. Plastic mulch does all of
this except add plant food to the soil.
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"Pacific Kava - A producer's guide," Secretariat of the Pacific Community, Suva, Fiji Islands, 2001.
Nitrogen-fixing legume a legume which can change the free element nitrogen in the soil to plant
food substances called nitrates. Examples are peanuts, pigeon pea, and
mucuna.
Node point of a stem from which stems or leaves grows. The internode is the
part between the nodes.
Nursery place where cuttings or seeds are planted and tended to grow into young
plants.
Nutrient element or other substance that can be used as a source of plant food.
Some nutrients can move in water. The water in the soil transports the
nutrient to the plant. Other nutrients are not mobile in the soil and when
the soil is exhausted the plant needs to grow more roots to reach the
nutrients in fertile soil, or the farmer needs to fertilise the soil with mulch
and animal manure.
Organic farming/ growing crops with the use of compost, manure and other natural plant
organic production food, and without the use of any chemical pesticides or man-made plant
food.
Potting soil a special blend of organic matter and soil which is prepared for nursery
and potted planting.
Pathogen any living thing that can cause disease, e.g. bacteria, fungi, viruses,
parasites.
Propagate to increase the number of plants by natural means, e.g. cuttings or seeds.
Relative humidity the moisture in the air at any temperature compared to the maximum
amount of moisture the air can contain at that temperature high levels
of relative humidity are favorable for the the outbreak and spread of plant
disease. High relative humidity is unfavorable for storage of kava.
Representative sample a small sample of a larger quantity of kava product that is obtained in such
a way that it will provide an accurate sample of the larger quantity for
analysis.
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"Pacific Kava - A producer's guide," Secretariat of the Pacific Community, Suva, Fiji Islands, 2001.
Scale insects Small insects of not more than 5 mm in length that suck the juice from
plants. Usually on the underside of leaves. They get their name from the
round shell that covers their bodies as protection and looks similar to
scales on fish. Scales produce honeydew that is visible as black stain on
the leaves.
Shade protection from the sun. Kava needs shade if the roots and young plants
are to grow quickly and easily.
Soil fertility ability of the soil to provide essential nutrients in the correct amounts and
proportions for plant growth.
Sterile does not produce seeds that will grow. Kava plants are sterile.
Stress when a plant suffers stress it does not grow well or easily. Stress can be
due to a variety of causes, including lack of moisture or lack of nutrients in
the soil.
Systemic herbicide a chemical which will kill the plant by being absorbed by the plant and
transported through the plants own systems.
Transplant to transfer a young plant from where it was first grown and looked after, to
a permanent place in the garden.
Variety is a grouping below the species (Piper methysticum). A type of kava differs
from other types e.g. Vanuatu variety and Papua New Guinea variety.
Vegetative propagation propagation by planting part of the plant and not by seed. Each generation
is identical to the parent. The danger is that the plants are genetically
vulnerable.
Virus small infectious agent that causes disease that passes on from one sick plant
to a healthy one. Insects sometimes pass the virus from infected plants to
healthy plants. A virus can produce a variety of symptoms in a plant and
reduce yield. Diseases caused by viruses are difficult to control. The disease
kava dieback is thought to be caused by the cucumber mosaic virus
(CMV).
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