Chapter 2: Inside the Atom | 23

Chapter 2: Inside the Atom

CHAPTER 2: INSIDE THE ATOM ............................................ 23
2.1 THE PERIODIC T ABLE ............................................................. 24
2.2 INSIDE THE ATOM ................................................................... 28
2.2.1 Ionic dissociation ...................................................... 28
2.2.2 Vacuum tubes and oil drops....................................... 29
2.2.3 Gold foil and alpha particles ..................................... 30
2.2.4 Inside the atom .......................................................... 30
2.3 SYSTEM OF MASS FOR THE ELEMENTS ..................................... 31
2.3.1 The average atomic mass........................................... 31
2.3.2 The molar mass ......................................................... 32
2.4 IONIC COMPOUNDS ................................................................. 33
2.4.1 Naming ionic compounds .......................................... 34
2.4.2 Molar Masses of Compounds..................................... 35
2.5 MOLECULER COMPOUNDS (MOLECULES) ................................ 35
2.5.1 Names of molecules ................................................... 36
2.6 WORKSHOP 2: INSIDE THE ATOM............................................. 37
2.6.1 Periodic chemical properties ..................................... 37
2.6.2 Metals, non-metal, or metalloid? ............................... 37
2.6.3 Elements of life.......................................................... 37
2.6.4 Classic experiments ................................................... 38
2.6.5 The mole ................................................................... 38
2.6.6 Atomic Mass Unit ...................................................... 38
2.6.7 The mole ................................................................... 39
2.6.8 Atomic symbols and isotopes ..................................... 39
2.6.9 Atomic mass and molar mass ..................................... 39
2.6.10 Names of compounds ................................................. 40
2.7 ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS ......................................................... 41

.
2.1 The Periodic Table Table 2.1 The first 18 elements in order of atomic weight
Element Relative Combining Compound
I began to look about and write down the elements with Weight Power with H
their atomic weights and typical properties, analogous Hydrogen (H) 1.008 1 H2
elements and like atomic weights on separate cards, and Helium (He) 4.003 0 -
this soon convinced me that the properties of elements are Lithium (Li) 6.941 1 LiH
in periodic dependence upon their atomic weights. Beryllium (Be) 9.012 2 BeH2
--Mendeleev, Principles of Chemistry, 1905, Vol. II Boron (B) 10.81 3 BH3
Carbon (C) 12.011 4 CH4
By the mid 19th century about 60 elements were known, along
Nitrogen (N) 14.007 3 NH3
with many of their physical and chemical properties. Of
particular interest here is the physical property of relative Oxygen (O) 15.999 2 H2 O
atomic weight and the chemical property of combining power. Fluorine (F) 18.998 1 HF
Several scientists had found intriguing patterns Neon (Ne) 20.180 0 -
between the relative atomic weights of the elements and their Sodium (Na) 22.990 1 NaH
physical and chemical properties. But it was Dmitri Mendeleev Magnesium (Mg) 24.305 2 MgH2
(18341907), a Russian chemist, who achieved the most Aluminum (Al) 26.982 3 AlH3
comprehensive understanding of these patterns as he worked on Silicon (Si) 28.086 4 SiH4
writing a chemistry textbook. The result was the construction Phosphorus (P) 30.974 3 PH3
of the Periodic Table, which to this day remains one of the
Sulfur (S) 32.066 2 H2 S
most useful tools in organizing and conveying chemical
knowledge. Chlorine (Cl) 35.453 1 HCl
Let us consider the first 18 elements in order of relative Argon (Ar) 39.948 0 -
atomic weight and most common combining power (valence)
with hydrogen, or how many hydrogen atoms can combine with The first 18 elements reorganized
another atom of a particular element (for example, oxygen has a H He
combining power of 2 because it bonds to two hydrogens in
H2O). Table 2.1 demonstrates a pattern in the combining power Li Be B C N O F Ne
of the elements: 1,0; 1,2,3,4,3,2,1,0; 1,2,3,4,3,2,1,0. What
Mendeleev did was to reorganize this list of elements in a Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
different graphical manner. Once rearranged, elements with
similar chemical properties appeared in columns. The elements
of these columns are called the main group elements.
 Chapter 2: Inside the Atom | 25

A missing element Periodic table by metallic properties (see page 27)

Mendeleev used his reasoning to construct this first periodic It is also useful to recognize the elements according to their
table of elements. He had such confidence in the periodic degree of metallic character. Metals are good conductors of
pattern that if he did not find a suitable element in his table he electricity and heat, and are malleable (can be shaped) and
left a blank space, declared an element would be discovered, and ductile (can be stretched). Non-metals generally do not conduct
predicted its properties. Such was the fate of eka-silicon in heat and electricity, some are brittle, while some are gases.
1871, discovered five years later to be germanium (Ge), with Metalloids have properties that are intermediate between the
chemical and physical properties very close to what Mendeleev metals and non-metals. They are semiconductors and are
had suggested. important in electronics.
The periodic table contains a tremendous amount of
information, and it is not necessary or desirable to memorize it. Elements of Life
However, we would like to be able to recognize some key The elements carbon (C), hydrogen (H), nitrogen (N), oxygen
features that we can refer to and build on in later chapters. (O), phosphorus (P), and sulfur (S) make up more than 99% of
the elements of life, accounting for molecules such as proteins,
Periodic table by group (see page 26) nucleic acids, and lipids. Other elements that are required to
There are eighteen columns in the modern periodic table, support life in substantial amounts are sodium (Na), magnesium
notated as 1-18. An element in column 1 is called a group 1 (Mg), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), and chlorine (Cl). Elements
element, an element in column 2 is a group 2 element, etc. required in very small (trace) amounts for bacteria, plants, or
We have seen the main group elements in Table 2.1. animals are boron (B), fluorine (F), iodine (I), silicon (Si),
However in the periodic table there is a series of ten columns vanadium (V), chromium (Cr), manganese (Mn), iron (Fe),
sandwiched in between the main group elements. These are cobalt (Co), nickel (Ni), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), selenium (Se),
called the transition metals. Further sandwiched in between and molybdenum (Mo).
the transition metals and the main group elements are the
lanthanide series and the actinide series. Understood to be Question 2.1 For the following element numbers of the periodic
between group 2 and group 3, the lanthanide and actinide series table, a) give the name, symbol, and group number; b) identify
are instead printed at the bottom of the periodic table to allow the element as a metal, non-metal, or semi-metal; and c) write
the entire table to fit on one page. an appropriate formula for a compound with H.
Certain groups have common names. Group 1 elements,
except hydrogen, are called the alkali metals. Group 2
Element Name/Symbol Group Category With H
elements are called the alkaline earth metals. Group 17
Number Number
elements are the halogens.
We have noted the chemical combining power pattern. 6 Carbon/C 14 Non-metal CH4
Thus, examples of compounds of group 1 elements are LiH, 15
NaH, KH, and RbH; and examples of compounds of group 14 53
elements are CH4, SiH4, GeH4, and SnH4. 20

.
 The Periodic Table of the Elements

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
1 ` 2
H He
1.008 Main Group 4.002
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Li Be Elements: 1-2, 13-18 B C N O F Ne
6.941 9.012 10.811 12.011 14.007 15.999 18.998 20.180
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Na Mg Transition Metals: 3-12 Al Si P S Cl Ar
22.990 24.305 26.982 28.086 30.973 32.065 35.453 39.948
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
39.098 40.078 44.956 47.867 50.941 51.996 54.938 55.845 58.933 58.693 63.546 65.409 69.732 72.64 74.922 78.96 79.904 83.798
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
85.468 87.62 88.906 91.224 92.906 95.94 [98] 101.07 102.91 106.42 107.87 112.41 114.82 118.71 121.76 127.60 126.90 131.29
55 56 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
132.91 137.33 178.49 180.95 183.84 186.21 190.23 192.22 195.08 196.97 200.59 204.38 207.2 208.98 208.98 209.99 222.02
87 88 104 105 106 107 108 109 110
Fr Ra Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds
223.02 226.03 261.11 262.11 263.12 262.12 265.13 272 271

57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
Lanthanide Series La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
138.91 140.12 140.91 144.24 144.91 150.36 151.96 157.25 158.93 162.50 164.93 167.26 168.93 173.04 174.97
89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
Actinide Series 232.04 231.04 238.03 237.05 244.06 243.96 247.07 247.07 251.08 252.08 257.10 258.10 259.10 262.11
227.03
 Chapter 2: Inside the Atom | 27

The Periodic Table of the Elements

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
1 ` 2
H He
1.008 4.002
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Li Be B C N O F Ne
6.941 9.012 10.811 12.011 14.007 15.999 18.998 20.180
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
22.990 24.305 26.982 28.086 30.973 32.065 35.453 39.948
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
39.098 40.078 44.956 47.867 50.941 51.996 54.938 55.845 58.933 58.693 63.546 65.409 69.732 72.64 74.922 78.96 79.904 83.798
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
85.468 87.62 88.906 91.224 92.906 95.94 [98] 101.07 102.91 106.42 107.87 112.41 114.82 118.71 121.76 127.60 126.90 131.29
55 56 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
132.47 137.33 178.49 180.95 183.84 186.21 190.23 192.22 195.08 196.97 200.59 204.38 207.2 208.98 208.98 209.99 222.02
87 88 104 105 106 107 108 109 110
Fr Ra Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds
223.02 226.03 261.11 262.11 263.12 262.12 265.13 272 271

57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
138.91 140.12 140.91 144.24 144.91 150.36 151.96 157.25 158.93 162.50 164.93 167.26 168.93 173.04 174.97
89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
227.03 232.04 231.04 238.03 237.05 244.06 243.96 247.07 247.07 251.08 252.08 257.10 258.10 259.10 262.11

Metals Non-Metals Metalloids Noble Gases

.
 Inside the Atom | 28

like potassium chloride (KCl). Furthermore, for compounds like

2.2 Inside the Atom barium chloride (BaCl2) or magnesium chloride (MgCl2), the
In Chapter 1 we established that the atom, according to John effect was three times as much as predicted for sugar.
Dalton, is the fundamental, indestructible building block of Svante Arrhenius (1859-1927), the Swedish Ph.D.
matter. While the atomic theory of Dalton was a great student, concluded from these experimental facts that, when in
breakthrough, it turns out, as is often the case in science, solution, sodium chloride (NaCl) particles broke up, or
theories soon must be modified! dissociated, into two oppositely charged particles, Na+ and Cl-,
which could carry the current of electricity. Since sodium
chloride broke up into two particles, it accounted for the
2.2.1 Ionic dissociation
additional decrease in freezing point compared to compounds
In the late 1800s, evidence began to accumulate that the view of like sugar. Compounds like MgCl2 would break into three
the atom as the fundamental unit of matter - completely particles, accounting for the threefold decrease in freezing point,
indestructible - had to be modified. In other words, the atom compared to compounds like sugar.
itself might be composed of even smaller particles. The evidence Because of the success of the atomic theory, when the
came from a Swedish student who nearly failed his Ph.D. thesis. student Arrhenius presented his work on ionic dissociation it
To discuss his work we have to consider what happens to was not received very well. Since the time of Dalton it was
matter in solution. believed that atoms were indestructible units of matter.
Near the end of the 19th century, it was known that However, since his theory made sense, he did pass - although
substances dissolved in water lowered the freezing point of with the lowest grade. Later, in 1903, he won the Nobel Prize.
water. Also, the amount by which the freezing point was Another scientist, Irish physicist George Stoney (1826-
lowered was proportional to the amount of substance added to 1911) concluded from Arrhenius theory that matter carried the
water. The temperature lowering effect was found to depend particle of electrical conduction, and coined this hypothetical
only on the number of dissolved particles (molecules), not the particle the electron, represented by e-. In the compound
type of particles. For example, adding 2 grams of sugar to a cup NaCl, the sodium atom gives up one electron (the negatively
of water would lower its freezing point twice as much as adding charged particle), so it is actually more accurate to write the
1 gram of sugar. All of this was true for substances called non- formula as Na+Cl- even though we do not commonly do so.
electrolytes, or substances that do not conduct electricity when Compounds like NaCl are called ionic compounds because the
dissolved in water. exchange of the electron forms two ions, of sodium (Na+) and
For substances that do conduct electricity when chloride (Cl-), that naturally appear together in an extended
dissolved in water, called electrolytes, a different effect was three dimensional lattice, or crystal. Figure 2.1 is a sketch of the
observed1. For instance, when the electrolyte sodium chloride breakup of a crystal lattice when exposed to water (shown in
(NaCl) was dissolved in water, there was observed twice the two dimensions).
freezing point effect than would be expected for a non-
electrolyte like sugar. The same was true for similar compounds
1
Electrical conductance had been known about for over a hundred
years by this time.
 ability to isolate a flowing stream of electrons in a vacuum
allowed the properties of electrons to be explored in more
detail. The electrons could be visualized by placing fluorescent
- Na+ material in their path. The stream of particles could be
Na+ Cl Na+ Na+
Na+ deflected by imposed electric or magnetic fields. The Crookes
Cl
-
Na+ Cl
-
Cl
- tube (also called cathode ray tube) is the precursor to the
H2O -
Cl television screen, and televisions have been called the tube,
Na+ Cl
-
Na+ even though many televisions now employ a different display
- method (liquid crystal display, LCD).
Na+ Cl
- + - From the Cathode Ray Tube, it was not possible to
Cl Na Cl
Na+ definitively characterize the properties of the electron. It had
Cl
- Na+
mass (the stream of particles could rotate a lightweight wheel
placed in its path), and charge (the stream was deflected by a
- -
Cl Cl magnetic field), but the exact value of each property was not
known. In an elegant experiment Millikan (1868-1935) managed
Figure 2.1 NaCl in a lattice breaks up in aqueous solution to attach single electron charges to small oil drops and observe
how their motion was perturbed by an electric field. From this
The first inkling of what an electron was came from these experiment, he was able to determine the precise mass and
considerations. The electron is a charged particle which could charge of the electron. The mass is 9.11 x 10-28 g, and the charge
leave the sodium atom and go to the chlorine atom. is 1.602 x 10-19 coulombs (C). For convenience, though, in most
discussions of chemistry, we take the electron as having a
Na + Cl = Na + + Cl- charge of -1.
\
Note that because the electron is transferred, it does not
actually appear in the chemical equation. cathode anode

2.2.2 Vacuum tubes and oil drops

Other experiments with electricity, this time not in solution but - +
in a vacuum, provided more direct evidence for these new
particles, the electrons. When a voltage was imposed across a
glass tube which had been evacuated of air (these were called
Crookes tubes, after their inventor Sir William Crookes, (1832-
1919, British)), it was observed that a stream of particles flowed Voltage
from the negatively charged end (the cathode) to the positively
charged end (the anode). These streams were called cathode Figure 2.2 Schematic of a Cathode Ray Tube: electrons flow
rays and they were composed of electrons (Figure 2.2). The from cathode to anode
 Inside the Atom | 30

2.2.3 Gold foil and alpha particles 2.2.4 Inside the atom
In addition to cathode rays, another type of particle stream was Table 2.2 Properties of the sub-atomic particles
capable of being produced, composed this time of alpha
particles. These were heavier, positively charged particles, Electron (e-) Proton(p+) Neutron (n)
-28 -24
essentially helium (He) with two electrons removed. Ernest Mass (kg) 9.11 x 10 1.67x10 1.67x10-24
Rutherford (1871-1937) aimed a stream of alpha particles at a Charge -1 +1 0
thin sheet of gold foil (about m thick, or a layer of 2,000 gold Charge (C) -1.602 x 10-19 1.602 x 10-19 0
atoms). He found that most of the particles passed straight
through, as recorded by a photographic plate. The fact that The experiments on ionic dissociation, the cathode ray tube, the
most of the alpha particles passed through the gold foil meant Millikans oil drop experiment, and Rutherfords gold foil
that atoms were mostly empty space! But every once in a while experiment provided evidence for a conceptual picture of the
an alpha particle would bounce back. From this experiment, he atom. It is composed of a small dense nucleus surrounded by a
concluded that the positive particles of the atom were heavy and lighter group of electrons. This is illustrated for lithium in
small, and they were surrounded by the much lighter electrons, Figure 2.3.
which occupied most of the space. When an alpha particle was The periodic table is arranged in order of the number of
shot at the gold foil, most of the time it passed through the protons which determines the identity of the element. Each
electrons, the electrons being light and not offering any subsequent element in the periodic table adds one more proton.
significant barrier. On the other hand, when the alpha particles For example, H is the first element and always has one proton,
did hit the heavier positive particles, the protons (p+), they and carbon is the sixth element and has six protons. The
bounced back. number of protons is identical to the atomic number of an
element (Z). However, the number of protons does not
determine the total mass, because each atom can have one or
- more neutrons (n) in the nucleus, which has nearly the same
e
mass as the proton. Since the mass is determined largely by the
protons plus neutrons, this number is called the mass number
- (A) where A = Z + number of neutrons.
e Now we come to a strange finding: atoms of the same
3p+, 4n
element can have different numbers of neutrons. For instance,
naturally occurring carbon can have 6 or 7 neutrons. This
e
- means that individual atoms of carbon can have a mass number
of 12 or 13 (called carbon 12 and carbon 13). These are called
isotopes of carbon, and are denoted:
12 13
6C for carbon 12 and 6C for carbon 13
Figure 2.3 Representation of the lithium (Li) atom with
small, heavy nucleus and lighter, diffuse electrons Where the superscript is the mass number (A) and the subscript
is the atomic number (Z).
2.3 System of Mass for the Elements
Sample Problem 2.1
Scientists often develop units that deviate from the SI system How many grams are in one atomic mass unit?
out of necessity or convenience. Thus, when we want to talk
about the mass of atoms we do not start with the kilogram (kg). 1g
1 amu = = 1.661 10-24 g
In fact, it has been decided to set the mass of one particular 6.0221 10 23
amu
atom, the carbon-12 atom, as the standard. Based on this, a new
mass unit was introduced, one that fits the atomic scale: the
atomic mass unit (u or amu). The atomic mass unit is defined
2.3.1 The average atomic mass
relative to carbon-12. Carbon-12 is equal to 12 atomic mass
units exactly. This way, the masses of all atoms can be The existence of naturally occurring isotopes brings up a
expressed in atomic mass units. For instance, for the two complication when we wish to talk of the mass of an atom or
isotopes of lithium, 6Li is 6.015122 amu and 7Li has a mass of element. Since individual atoms of the same element can have
7.016004 amu. different masses, it often only makes sense to talk about the
Now, the atomic mass unit is of little use to us unless average mass of an atom of the element.
we can relate it to the human scale of units. A very important We have to be careful when talking of the average
conversion factor (maybe the most important in the whole of mass of an element. For instance, if 90 people weigh 100 pounds
chemistry!) is the following: and 10 people weigh 200 pounds, what is the average weight of
the 100 people?
1 g = 6.0221 1023 amu 90 100 lbs + 10 200 lbs
Average Weight =
This number allows us to connect the mass of the atom to 100
masses in the experimental world of the laboratory and is called = 0.90 100 lbs + 0.10 200 lbs
Avogadros number (NA), or the mole (mol). = 110 lbs
N A = 6.0221 1023 It is the same with the average mass of isotopes, it is a weighted
average of the isotopes. Lithium, for example, is composed of
The interesting thing about NA is that one mole of particles that 92.41% 7Li (7.016004 amu) and 7.59% 6Li (6.015122 amu). So
weigh 1 amu will have a mass of 1 g. Thus, if the mass of instead of percentages, we use fractional abundances:
carbon-12 is 12 amu, then the mass of one mole of carbon-12
atoms would be 12 grams. 92.41
fractional abundance 7 Li = = 0.9241
100
7.59
fractional abundance 6 Li = = 0.0759
100
 Inside the Atom | 32

Average Atomic Mass = Sample Problem 2.2

(fractional abundance isotopic mass) How many moles of carbon are in 36.033 grams of carbon?

The average atomic mass of lithium, in amu, is now easy to 1 mol C

36.033 g C = 3.00 mol C
calculate: 12.011 g C

0.9241 7.016 amu + 0.0759 6.015 amu = 6.940 amu How many moles of oxygen are in 64.0 grams of oxygen gas
(O2)?
The average atomic mass is the number reported in the periodic
table. 1 mol O
64.0 g O 2 = 4.00 mol O
15.999 g O 2
2.3.2 The molar mass
We can express the mass of one mole of atoms of an element. Question 2.3 Why is there 1 mol of O atoms in 15.999 grams of
Remember that the mass in grams of one mole of anything is O2 molecules?
numerically the same as the mass in amu. For example, if the
average atomic mass of carbon is 12.011 amu, the mass of one
mole of naturally occurring carbon atoms is 12.011 grams. We
call this the molar mass. The mass of an element as listed in the
periodic table does not have units because we can interpret the
mass as the average atomic mass in amu or as the molar mass in
grams per mole. The molar mass is useful to connect Review your understanding of section 2.1-2.3.
experimental measurements of mass with the numbers of atoms. Visit http://www.classmarker.com
Thus in a glance at the periodic table we can see that 12.011 And take the test: Inside the Atom
grams of carbon has the same number of atoms (one mole) as
1.008 grams of hydrogen.

Molar mass: The mass in grams of one mole of an atom or

compound.
2.4 Ionic Compounds Common charges of many ions reflect a periodic
property. For instance:
We have already touched on some characteristics of ionic
Group Group Common Examples
compounds. Arrhenius interpreted the fact that soluble ionic
Number Charge
compounds (electrolytes) conduct electricity and have larger
Halogens 17 -1 Cl-, F-, Br-, I-
effects on the melting points than non-electrolytes. Although
not all ionic compounds are soluble in water and break up into Oxygen and its family 16 -2 O2-, S2-
ions, they are all held together by ionic forces. They form Alkali metals 1 +1 Li+, Na+, K+
extended networks called ionic lattices. Thus, although we Alkaline earth metals 2 +2 Mg2+, Ca2+
represent sodium chloride by the formula NaCl, the formula
only represents the ratio of sodium to chloride in an extended The negative ions are called anions, and the positive ions are
network. A representation of the NaCl ionic lattice is shown in called cations.
Figure 2.4. Ionic lattices must be overall neutral, so the charges With this knowledge, we can see how to predict
on the positive ions and the negative ions must total zero. Thus formulas for simple ionic compounds that are a combination of
we need to know about the charges of common ions. these ions.

Compound Ions Sum of charges

NaCl 1Na+ + 1Cl- 0
MgCl2 1Mg2+ + 2Cl- 0
Na2O 2Na+ + 1O2- 0

The charge of many ions cannot be predicted from the

periodic table. Furthermore, some elements have ions of
different charge, for instance iron, which can be Fe2+ and Fe3+.
Common names are still used to distinguish the differently
charged iron ions: iron (II) is the ferrous ion, and iron (III) is
the ferric ion; as well as differently charged copper ions:
copper(I) is the cuprous ion and copper(II) is the cupric ion.
Figure 2.4 Ionic Lattices complex NaCl periodic unit cell Other ions are actually molecular ions, collections of atoms in a
molecular unit that has a net charge: a polyatomic ion. An
example is the ammonium ion, NH4+.
 Inside the Atom | 34

2.4.1 Naming ionic compounds Table 2.3: Common Anions

To speak the language of chemistry we should commit to Anions Name
memorize the formulas, charges, and name of a number of ions. ClO -
hypochlorite
We will use some rules for naming ionic compounds. ClO2- chlorite
The positively charged ion (cation) is usually a metal ClO3- chlorate
and it represents the first part of the name. ClO4- perchlorate
If the metal has more than one charge, the charge is CN- cyanide
stipulated by writing the Roman numeral. MnO4- permanganate
The second part of the name designates the anion. NO2- nitrite
If the anion consists of one element it has an ide NO3- nitrate
ending on the element. For example, the F- ion is called
OH- hydroxide
fluoride.
Molecular ions have special names which must be
CO32- carbonate
memorized. See Table 2.3. C2O42- oxalate
CrO42- chromate
Examples: Cr2O72- dichromate
Compound Cation Anion Full name SO32- sulfite
NaF (Na+) sodium (F-) fluoride Sodium fluoride SO42- sulfate
CaCl2 (Ca2+) calcium (Cl-) chloride Calcium chloride O22- peroxide
FeCl3 (Fe3+) iron(III) (Cl-) chloride Iron(III) chloride S2O32- thiosulfate
Ca(NO3)2 (Ca2+) calcium (NO3)- Calcium nitrate PO43- phosphate
nitrate
FeCl2 (Fe2+) iron(II) (Cl-) chloride Iron(II) chloride Note that for polyatomic ions, the ending ite refers to less O
atoms and ate to more O atoms.
It is common that H+ adds to ions charged -2 or -3, and
form -1 or -2 charged ions, respectively. For example:

H + + CO32- = HCO3-

HCO3- is hydrogen carbonate (or commonly called bicarbonate),

and HSO4- is hydrogen sulfate.
Question 2.4 Fill in the blanks in the following formula/name
chart.
 2.5 Moleculer Compounds (Molecules)
Name Formula
Sodium chlorite Molecules, or molecular compounds, are substances
held together by a force called covalent bonding, or the
Sodium sulfate sharing of electrons. We will have a detailed discussion of
AlCl3 covalent bonding in chapter 6. Because of this sharing of
K2S2O3 electrons, distinct units of atoms are connected by strong
Calcium oxalate bonds. We can draw unique structures that are consistent with
Fe(MnO4)3 the molecular formula. Common examples are the water
molecule, the ammonia molecule, and the glucose molecule
CuSO42 (Figure 2.4).
Cuprous Sulfate
Iron(II) hydroxide Figure 2.4 Water, ammonia, and glucose molecules
Potassium phosphate

Water (H2O)
2.4.2 Molar Masses of Compounds

In addition to the molar mass of an element, we also utilize Ammonia (NH3)

molar masses of compounds. The molar mass of a compound is
simply the sum of the molar masses of its constituent atoms. For
instance, the molar mass of water is:

1.008 g 15.999 g
2H +1O = 18.015 g/mol H 2O Glucose
H O (C6H12O6)
 Inside the Atom | 36

The distinction between ionic and molecular Often the element furthermore to the right on the periodic table
compounds is a useful one in chemistry, but it is not perfect. We comes second in the name.
will soon discover molecules that partially break apart in
solution (weak acids) and will find that the chemical bonds that Examples:
underlie ionic and molecular compounds (ionic and covalent
bonds) are two extremes, and that a more complete description NO2: nitrogen dioxide
of matter uses bonds of intermediate character. PCl5: phosphorous pentachloride
Metals very easily form ions in their compounds, so CO2: carbon dioxide
generally molecular compounds consist of non-metals.

Review your understanding of sections 2.4-2.5

2.5.1 Names of molecules Visit http://www.classmarker.com
Many common molecular compounds have a name that has been And take the test: Naming Compounds
in use for many years: these names are called trivial names, and
we will be familiar with some and should learn others. Instances
are water for H2O and ammonia for NH3. However, a systematic
procedure for naming compounds of two elements (binary
compounds) uses prefixes, and an ide ending for the second
element. The names sound like ionic compounds (NaCl, sodium
chloride), but they are not ionic.

Table 2.4 Prefixes

Prefix Number
mono 1
di 2
tri 3
tetra 4
penta 5
hexa 6
hepta 7
octa 8
nona 9
deca 10
dodeca 12
2.6 Workshop 2: Inside the Atom 2.6.3 Elements of life
Quickly go through, using a round robin, to classify the
2.6.1 Periodic chemical properties elements of life as metal, no-metal, or metallioid.
What common compounds would the following elements form
with hydrogen? Element Character
Carbon (C)
Element Compound with H Hydrogen (H)
Br HBr Nitrogen (N)
Ge Oxygen (O)
Ga Phosphorus (P)
Se Sulfur (S)
As Sodium (Na)
Magnesium (Mg)
Potassium (K)
Calcium (Ca)
Chlorine (Cl)
2.6.2 Metals, non-metal, or metalloid?
Boron (B)
Based on the properties, characterize the element as metal, non- Fluorine (F)
metal, or metalloid. Then locate it on the periodic table (page X) Silicon (Si)
that is divided according to the extent of metallic character.
Vanadium (V)
Chromium (Cr)
Tungsten (W):
Manganese (Mn)
Germanium (Ge): Iron (Fe)
Cobalt (Co)
Sulfur (S): Nickel (Ni)
Copper (Cu)
Iodine (I): Zinc (Zn)
Selenium (Se)
Barium (Ba): Molybdenum (Mo)
 Inside the Atom | 38

2.6.4 Classic experiments 2.6.5 The mole

Match the experiment with the key conclusion derived from it.
It is difficult to appreciate how large the mole is. Consider this: it
Classic Experiment Key Conclusion is estimated that there 1011 stars in a typical galaxy, and there is
1) Alpha particles (He ions) a) Initially neutral salts estimated to be 1012 galaxies, in the known universe.
mostly penetrated a gold could break up in
foil (Rutherford). water into oppositely How many moles of stars are there in the known universe?
charged particles.

2) A electric field affected a b) Light, negatively

drop of oil charged with an charged particles could
electron (Millikan) be torn off atoms.

3) Salts that dissolved had c) It was possible to

greater effect on freezing obtain an exact
points and conductivity of measurement of the
aqueous solutions than did charge of an electron.
compounds like sugar
(Arrhenius).
2.6.6 Atomic Mass Unit

4) Streams of extremely light d) The atom is mostly The atomic mass of , 6Li is 6.015122 amu. How much heavier is
particles moved across space, with a very carbon-12 then lithium-6 ?
vacuum tubes that had small, heavy positively
oppositely charged charged nucleus
electrodes at either end, surrounded by a large
and the path of these space filled with light
particles was deflected by electrons.
electrical fields.
2.6.7 The mole 2.6.8 Atomic symbols and isotopes
The mole mediates between the atomic level and the Bromine is element number 35. It has two isotopes, 79Br and 81
macroscopic, or human level. Explore this by calculating the Br. How many protons, neutrons, and electrons does each of
missing quantities in the following tables of mass and charge, these isotopes of bromine have?
two key quantities in describing matter.

The mass of an oxygen atom is 15.999 atomic mass units. protons neutrons electtrons
79
Br
81
What is the mass of an oxygen atom in grams? Br

What is the mass of one mol of oxygen atoms? 2.6.9 Atomic mass and molar mass
The two naturally occurring isotopes of bromine have the
following atomic masses: 79Br (50.54%, 78.918 amu), and 81Br
(49.46%, 80.916 amu). What is the average atomic mass and the
molar mass of bromine?
The charge of an electron is 1.602 10-19 C (coulombs)

What is the charge of one mole of electrons?

(You have just calculated Faradays constant)

 Inside the Atom | 40

2.6.10 Names of compounds

Write the formula for and name each ionic compound that
could form from the following cations:

Fe2+, Fe3+, Cu2+, Cu1+

And the anions in the table 2.3.

2.7 Additional Problems A2.7 Write the name for the following compound
(a) AgCl (b) FeSO4 (c) Na3PO4 (d) Al(NO3)3 (e) CuCO3
A2.1 Using the periodic table, identify where the following
elements are located (group and period) - A2.8 How many atoms are in one molecule of-
(a) Ca (b) Br (c) Cs (d) As (e) Xe (f) Sb (a) Al2O3 (b) C6H12O6 (c) Ca(NO3)2 (d) Cu3(PO4)2

A2.2 Give the number of protons (p), electrons (e), and neutrons A2.9 What is the mass, in grams, of (a) one iron atom (b) sixty
(n) in one atom of the followings: three copper atom (c) 1.93 1021 silicon atom
(a) Cl-37 (b) Pb-208 (c) Al 3+ (d) Sulfide ion, S2-
A2.10 How many atoms are the in (a) one gram of copper (b)
(e) Fe-55 (f) Fe (g) N (h) Br - (i) Zn2+ (j) P 3-
3+ 3-
4.73 1020 gram of silver (c) One nanogram of Mn (d) 6.34 g
of F2
A2.3 Give the number of protons (p), electrons (e), and neutrons
(n) in the followings and write the complete symbols of the
A2.11 How many molecules of methane in 0.123 mol of
isotope with the appropriate x values:
238
methane, CH4.
102 35
(a) 31 40
x P (b) x K (c) x Ru (d) xU (e) x Br
A2.12 How many moles of carbon dioxide are there in 55.06 g
A2.4 The isotopic masses of two naturally occurring chlorine sample of carbon dioxide?
isotopes, chlorine-35 and chlorine-37 are 34.968852 amu and
36.965903 amu with percentage abundance of 75.772% and A2.13 How many moles are there in a 2.25-g sample of calcium
24.228%, respectively. Calculate the average mass of chlorine. nitrate, Ca(NO3)2?

A2.5 Silver has two naturally occurring isotopes A2.14 Hematite (Fe2O3) is a natural ore of iron. How many
107 109 grams of iron are there in a sample of 12.45 g of Fe2O3?
Ag and Ag with a mass of 106.905 amu and 108.904
amu, respectively. If the atomic mass of silver is 107.87 amu, A2.15 Name the following compounds: (a) P2O5 (b) CCl4
calculate the fractional abundances of each isotope. (c) NO2 (d) SF6

A2.6 Write the formulas for the following compounds

(a) calcium chloride (b) potassium oxide
(c) Iron (III) oxide (d) lithium hydroxide
(e) Iron (II) phosphate (f) Sodium nitride
(g) ammonium phosphate