Scribd
Upload
4K views

Holt, Physics

Holt, Physics

Uploaded by

Jason Payne
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PDF or read online on Scribd
4K views

Holt, Physics

Holt, Physics

Uploaded by

Jason Payne
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PDF or read online on Scribd
You are on page 1/ 228
Pa al The Science of Physics ‘The runner in this photograph is participatingin sports sei- ‘ence research at the National Institute of Sport and Physical Education in France. The athlete is being filmed by a video ‘camera. The white reflective patches enable researchers to generate a computer model from the video, similar to the lagram, Researchers use the model to analyze his tech- nique and co help him improve his performanee. WHAT To EXPECT In this chapter. you will learn about the branch- 5 of physics, che scientific method, ard the use ‘of models in physics. You will also learn some Useful tools for working with measurements and data. WHY IT MATTERS Physics develops powerful mode's thas can be used to describe many things in the physical world, including the movements of an athlete in raining, CHAPTER PREVIEW 11 What Is Physics? The Topics of Physics ‘The Scientific Method 2 Measurements in Experiments ‘Numbers as Measurements Accuracy and Precision _— 3 The Language of Physics e ‘Mathematics and Physics Per whusiet foe ee Evaluating Physics Equations ftom Scientific American. visit po fvucomand type Inthe keyword MFSSAA. SECTION OBJECTIVES = Identity activites and Gels that involve the majorareas within physics. = Describe the processes of the scientific method. © Describe the role of models sed diagrarns in physics. Figure 1 Without knowedge of many of he arexs of physis. aking ars would bbeimpossble Opties Hoaitights, rearview minors 4 Chaptor 1 What Is Physics? THE TOPICS OF PHYSICS Many people consider physics to be a difficult science that s far removed from their lives. This may be because many of the world’s most famous phy: study topics such asthe structure of the universe ar the incredibly small part cles n atom, often using complicated tools to observe and measure what they are studying But everything around you can be described by using the tools of physics. TThe goal of physics is to use a small number of basic concepts, equations, and assumptions to describe the physical world. These physics principles can then bbeused to make predictions about abroad range of phenomena. Forexample, the same physics principles that are used to describe the interaction between two planets can be used to describe the motion ofa satelite orbiting Earth Many physicists study the laws of nature simply to satisfy their curiosity about the world we live in. Learning the laws of physics can be rewarding just ventions. applianees, took, and buildings principles. Physics discoveries often turn out to have unexpected practical applications, and advances in technology canin turn lead to new physics discoveries. Figure 4 indicateshow the areas of physics apply wo building and operating a car. with today are made possible by the application of physi ‘Mechanics Spirnira ‘mation of the wher tires that provide enough ‘Sheth abvorbeia sed pecker Iretion fortraction Physics is everywhere Weare surrounded by principles of physics in our everyday lives. Infact, most people know much miore about physics than they realize. For example, when, you buy a carton of ice cream at the store and putt it in the freerer at home, you do so because from past experience you know enough about the Inws of physics to know thatthe icecream will melt if you leaveit on the counter. [Any problem that deals with temperature, size, ms jon, postion, shape, oF color involves physics. Physicists categorize the topics they study in a number Of diferent ways. Table I shows some of the major areas of physics that will bee described inthis book. Pecple who design, build, and operate sailboats, such as the ones shown in Figure 2, need a working knowledge of the principles of physics. Designers figure out the best shape forthe boat's hull so that it remains stable and float- ing yet quick-moving and maneuverable. This design requires knowledge of the physics of fluids. Determining the most efficient shapes for the sails and how to arrange them requires an understanding of the science of motion and its causes. Balancing loads in the construction of a sailboat requires knowl- edge of mechanics. Some of the same physics principles can also explain how the keel keeps the boat moving in one direction even when the wind is from a slightly different direction, Figure 2 Sailboat designers ely on kiiowl- tedge from mary branches of physics, Table1 Areas Within Physics Name Subjects Examples Mechanics ‘motion and its causes, falling objects, friction, interactions between weight, spinning objects objects Thermodynamics heat and temperature melting and freezing Processes engines, refrigerators jibrations and wave specific types of springs, pendulums, phenomena repetitive motions sound Optics lighe ‘mirrors lenses, . Express this diameter in millimeters. « Express this diameter in micrometers. 4. The distance bewveen thesun and Earth is about 1.5% 10!" m. Express this distance with an SI prefixand in kilometers. 5. The average mass of an automobile in the United States is about 1.440. 10° g, Express this mass in kilograms. Tho Scionce of Physics 15 ‘accuracy ‘a description of how close a ‘measurement is to the correet fr accepted valve ofthe quantity ‘measured precision ie degree oF exacness ofa measurement Figure 10 ACCURACY AND PRECISION Recause theories are based on observation and experiment, careful micasure- "ments are very important in physics. But no measurement is perfect. In desrib- ing the imperfection, one must consider both a measurement’s aeeuraey and 3 measurement’s preeision, Although these terms are often used interchangeably in everyday speech, they have specific meanings in a scientific discussion. A ‘numeric measure of confidence in a measurement or result is known as uncer- tainty A lower uncertainty indicates greater confidence. Uncertainties are usually expressed by using statistical methods, Errorin experiments must be minimized Experimental work is never ffccof error butit is important to minimize error in order to obtain accurate results, An error can occu, for example i a mistake is ‘made in reading an instrument or recording the results. One way to minimize error from human oversight or carelessness i to take repeated measurements to be certain they are consist If some measurements are taken using one méthodand some ae taken using a cifferent method, a type of error called method error will result. Method error ‘canbe greatly reduced by standardizing the method of taking measurements. For ‘example, when measiring a length with a meterstick, choose a line of sight dircetly over what is being measured, as shoven in Figure 10(a), Ifyou aretoo far tone sid, you are likely to overestimate or undersstimate the measurement, as shown in Figure 10(b) and (c). Another type of error is instrument error. Ira meterstick or balance is not in good working order, tis will introduce error into any measurements made with the device. For this reason, it is impoctant to be careful with lab equip- ‘ment. Rough handling can damage balances. If a wooden metersick gets wet, it can warp, making accurate measurements difficult. i il Ifyou measure this window by keeping your line of sghe directly ‘over the measurement (a), fou wil ind tat iis 1652 cr long you do not keep your eye direct above the markas in (B) and (Gh you tay reports mebterement wth igncate error: 46 Chapter + Because the ends of a meterstick can be easily damaged or worn, itis bes. t0 minimize instrument ercor by making measurements with a portion of the scale that isin the middle of the meterstick, Instead of measuring from the end (( cm), try measuring from the 10 cm line, Precision describes the limitations of the measuring instrument Poor accuracy involves errors that can often be corrected. On the other hand, precision describes how exact @ measurement can possibly be. For example, a ‘measurement of 1.325 m is more precise than a measurement of 1.3 m. A lack of precision is typically due to limitations of the measuring instrument and is not the result of human ertor or lack of calibration. For example, if a meter- stick is divided only into centimeters it willbe difficult to measure something only a few millimeters thick with it [nv many situations, you can improve the precision of a measurement. This can be done by making a reasonable estimation of where the mark on the instrument would have been. Suppose that in laboratory experiment you are asked to measure the length of a pencil with a meterstick marked in centime- ters, as shown in Figure 11. The end of the pencil lies somewhere between 18 cm and 18.5 em. The length you have actually measured is slightly more than 18 cm. You can make a reasonable estimation of how far between the two marks he end of the pencil isand adé a digit tothe end ofthe actual measure- ‘ment. In this cas, the end of the pencil seems to be less than halfvay between thetwo marks, so you would report the measuiement as 18.2 em, Significant figures help keep track of imprecision It is important to record the precision of your measurements so that other people can understand and interpret your results. A common convention used in science to indicate precision is known as significant figures, Inthe case of the meastrement of the pencil as about 18.2 em, the meas- ‘urement has three significant figures. The significant figures of a measure- ‘ment include all the digits that are actually measured (18 cm), plus one estimated digit, Note that the number of significant figures is determined by the precision of the markings on the measuring scale. The last digit is reported as a 0.2 (for the estimated 0.2 cm past the 18cm mark). Because this digit is an estimate the true value for the meas- ‘urements actually somewhere between 18.15 cm and 18.25 cm. When the lst digit ina recorded measurement is zero it is dificult to tell whether the zero is there asa place holder or as a significant digit. For exam- ple, if a length is recorded as 230 mm, it is impossible to tell whether this mmber hasiiwo or three significant digits In other words, it ean he diffcul to know whether the measurement of 230 mm means the measurement is known to be between 225 mm and 235 mm or is known more precisely to be between 229.5 mm and 2305 mm. Figure 11 Even though this rulers marked in only conimeters and hal ‘entimetesif you estimate, ou ‘an usele wo repore measurements 1o aprecision ofa milimeter ignificant figures those digis in @ measurement that are known with certainty plus the test agi that is uncertain ‘The Seionce of Physics 47 Figure 12 fa mountain height known with An uncertainty ofS m. the aedivon ‘f 120m of rocks wil not appre bly change the height Table 4 (One way to solve such problems is to report all values using sciemiifie nota tion. In scientific notation, the measurement is recorded toa power of 10, and allof the figures given are significant, For example, ifthe length of 230 em has two significant figures, it would be recorded in scientific notation as 23 x 10° cm, If ithas thre significant figures,it would be recorded as 2.30 x 10* cm, Scientific notation is also helpful when the zero in a recorded measure ‘ment appears in front of the measured digits, For example, a measurement stich aS 0000 15 em should be expressed in scientific notation as 13x 10-4em if it has two significant figures. The three zeros between the decimal point and the digit 1 are not counted as significant figures because they are present only to locate the decimal point and to indicate the order of magnitude. The rules for determining how many significant figures are ina measurement that includes zeros are shown in Table 4. Significant figures in calculations require special rules, In calculations, the number of significant figures in your result depends on the number of significant figures in each measurement. For example, if someone reporis that the height of a mountaintop, Ike the one shown in Figure 125 is 1710 m that implies that its actual height is between 1708 and 1715 m, If anoth- er person builds a pile of rocks 0.20 m high on top of the mountain, that would ‘not suddenly make the mountain's new height known accurately enough to be ‘measured as 1710.20 m. The final reported height cannot be more precise than the least precise measurement used to find the answer. Therefore, the reported height shoukl be rounded off to 1710 m even ifthe pile of rocksis included. Rules for Determining Whether Zeros Are Significant Figures Rule Examples 1. Zeros between other nonzero dgits are seniicant. ‘a. 503 m has three significant figures. bb 3.0025 s has five significant figures. 2. Zeros in front of nonzero digte are not signifeant. ‘30.892 kg hae three significant figures. bb. 0.0008 ms has one significant figure 3. Zeros that are atthe end of a number and also © the right of the decimal are signiieant. ‘a, 57.00 g has four sigificare figures. 1b. 2.000 000 kg has seven significane figures. 4. Zeros atthe end ofa number but co the let of decimal are signficant # they have been measured or are the first estimated igt: otherwise, they are not significant. In this book, they will be treated as not significant. (Some books place a bar over 2 zero at the end of a number to indicate that tis significant. This textbook will use scienic notation for these cases instead) 18 Chapter 1 ‘2.1000 m may contain from one to four significant figures. depending on the precision of the ‘measurement, but in this book i wil be assumed that measurements like this have Cone significant fgure. bb. 20m may contain one or two significant figures, but in this book ic willbe assumed to have one significant figure, Similar rules apply o multiplication room by multiplying the width and length, Ifthe room's dimensions are 4.6m by 6.7 m, the product ofthese values would be 30.82 mt. However, this answer contains four significant figures, which implies that it is more precise than the measurements of the length and width. Because the room could be as small as 4.55 m by 6.65 m or aslarge &8 465 m by 6.75 m, the areaof the room is known only to be between 30.26 m* and 31.39 m°, The area of the room can hhave only two significant figures because each measurement has only two. So, thearea must be rounded off to. 31 m Table 5 summarizes the two basis roles Suppose that you calculate the area of when you are performing calculation for dete ining significant figue Table Rules for Calculating with Significant Figures ‘Type of calculation Rule Example adaition or subtraction Given that sddtion and subtraction 973, ‘take place hr columns. round the fnal + 585 answer 10 the fist colurm from the left 103.15 "2d off, 163.9 containing on estiated digit. 2 : inulkipleation or division ‘The fina answer has the same number of 133 signicane fgures as the measurement 535 having the emallest number of signficent Figures. Calculators do not pay attention (o significant figures When you use a calculator to analyze problems or measurements, you may be able to save time because the calculator can compute faster than you can. However, the calculator does not keep track of significant figures. Calculators often exaggerate the precision of your final results by returning answers with as many digits as the display can show: lo reinforce the cortect approach, the answers to the simple problems in this bool sill always show only the number of significant figures that the measurements justify Providing answers with the correct number of significant figures often requires rounding the results of a calculation, The rules listed in Table 6 on. the next page willbe used in this book for rounding, and the results of a al- culation will be rounded after each type of mathematical operation. For example, the result of a series of multiplications should be rounded using the multiplication/division rule before itis added to another number. Similarly, the sum of several numbers should be rounded according to the ultiplied by another number. addition/subtraction rule before the sum is Multiple roundings can increase the error in a calculation, but with this rule to apply: You should consult method there is no ambiguity about w! your teacher to find out whether to round this way of to delay rounding until the end of all calculations. 658.05 a, 658 ‘Tho Seionce of Physics Table Rules for Rounding in Calculations: What todo When to doit Example: round down whenever the dit folowing the lac signdicane fgure ita 30.14 becomes 302 0.1,2.3,0r4 ‘ifthe last sigificant figure isan even number and the next digit. 32.25 becomes 32.2 isa S,witn no other nonzero digits 532.65000 becomes 32.6 roundup the digit folowing the lst significant figure isa 2249 becomes 22.5 6.7.8.0r9 if the digi following the lace significant figure ie aS followed bya $4751] becomes 548 nonzero digie ‘if the last sigificanc igure isan od@ number and the next digt is 54.75 becomes 548 a 5,with no other norzero eigits 79.3500 becomes 79.4 k= & @°@;«~»~©»©»© 11. Which SI units would you use for the following measurements? a. thelength of a swimming pool b. the mass of the water in the pool . thetime it takesa swimmer to swim a lap 2. Express the following measurements as indicated, a. 6.20 mg. kilograms b, 3x 10-” sin milliseconds 88.0 km in meters. 3. Perform these calculations, following the rules for significant figures. a. 26x 0.02584= bS3e1 & 78245~3.5328. 4. 63.258 +734 4. Critical Thinking The following students measure the density of a piece of lead three times. The density of lead is actually 11.34 g/em’. Consideringall of the results, which person’ results were accurate? Which were precise? Were any both accurate and precise? f, Rachel 11.32 glem’, 11.35 glem3, 11.33 glem? b. Daniok 11.43 glem’, 11.44 glem?, 11.42 glom? & Leah: 11.55 glem?, 11.34 glem?, 11,04 g/cm? 20 Chapter 1 The Language of Physics MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS ¢ simplified mod Just as physicists to better understand the real world, they use the tools of mathematics to analyze and summs tions. Then they can use the mathemati jonships among physical ize their observa- quantities to help predict what will happen in new situations, ‘Tables, graphs, and equations can make data easier to understand There are many veays to organize data, Consider the experiment shown in Figure 13, which tests Galileo's hypothesis that al object fall at the same rate in the absence of air resistance (see Section 2). In this experiment, a table-tennis, ball and a golf ball are dropped in 2 vacuum, The results are recorded as set of numbers corresponding o the times ofthe fall and the distance each bull falls. convenient way to organize the data isto form 8 table ike Table. A clear trend can be seen in the data, The more tim that passes after each ball is dropped, the farther the ball falls Table 7 Data from Dropped-Ball Experiment Distance golf Distance table- ball falls (cm) ‘tennis ball falls (cm) 0.087 220 220 0.133 267 267 0.200 19.60 19.59 0267 493 49 0.333, 5434 5433 0.400 73.40 78.39 (One method for analyzing the data in Table7 is to construct a graph of the distance the balls have fallen versus the elapsed time since they were released. This graph is shown in Figure 14 on the next page. Because the graph shows an obviou pattern, we can draw a smooth curve through the data points to make estimations for times when we have no data, The shape of the graph also provides information about the relationship between time and distance SECTION OBJECTIVES 1 Interpret data in tables and graphs and recognize equa Sons that summarize date = Distinguish between conven- tore for abbrevieting units and quantities. # Use dimensional ansiyais idity of 1 Perform ordenotmagritude ‘alailations. Figure 13 ‘This experiment rests Galileo's hypothesis by taving ewo bal, ‘wth diferent masies tropped Simultaneously in a vacuum Tho Scionco of Physics 24 Figure 14 “The graph of these dita provides 2 convenione way to summarite the ‘dat and indieste the reliorship ‘between the eme an objec hasbeen falng andthe dance ithas fallen. for avait inks lated this shaper, goto viwnsciinksorg 4 Topie: Ga Sinks Code: HFSI686 22 Chapter | Graph of oxperimental data 100 0.200.” 0.300 0.400 0.500 “Time(s We can also use the following equation to describe the relationship between the variables in the experiment (change in position in meters) = 4.9 (time of fill in seconds)? This equation allows you to reproduce the graph and make predictions about the change in position for any arbitrary time during the fall. Physics equations describe relationships While mathematicians use equations to describe relationships between varie ables, physicists use the tools of mathematics to describe measured or pre dicted relationships between physical quantities in a situation. For example, ‘one or more variables may affect the outcome of an experiment. In the case of a prediction, the physical equation is a compact statement based on a mode! of the situation. It shows how two or more variables are thought to he related Many of the equations in physics represent a simple description of the rala- tionship between physical quantities. ‘To make expressions as simple as possible, physicists often use letters to describe specific quantities in an equation. For example, the letter 17s used to denote speed. Sometimes, Greek letters are used to describe mathematical oper- ations. For example, the Greek letter (delta) is often used to mean “difference or change i.” and the Greek letter (sigma) is used to mean sum’ or “total” With these conventions, the word equation above can be written as follaws: Ay=4.9(407 ‘The abbreviation Ay indicates the vertical change ina balls position from its starting point, and Avindicates the time elapsed. Asyou saw in Section 2. the units in which these quantities are measured are also often abbreviated with symbols consisting of a letter o two. Mest physies books provide some dues to help you keep track of which letters refer to quan. tities and variables and which letters are used to indicate units Typically, vari cd with letters that are ables and other specific quantities are abbr boldfaced oF iatcized. (You will learn the diference between te ovo in the chapter “Two-Dimensional Motion and Vectors”) Units are abbreviated with regular letters (sometimes called roman letters) Some examples of variable sym- bos and the abbreviations for the units that measure them are shown in Table 8, {As you continue to study physics, carefully note the introduction of new variable quantities, and recognize which units go with them. The tables pro- vided in Appendices CE can help you keep track ofthese abbreviations, Table Abbreviations for Variables and Units Quantity Symbol Uni abbrevi change in vertical position Ay meters om time ineerval a seconds § mass m falograms kg EVALUATING PHYSICS EQUATIONS Like most models physicists build to describe the world around them, physics ‘equations are valid only if they can be used to make correct predictionsabout situations. Although an experiment isthe ultimate way to check the validity of a physics equation, several techniques can be used to evaluate whether an equation or result can possibly be valid. mensional analysis can weed out invalid equations Suppose a cat, suel as the one in Figure 15, is moving ata speed of '88 kmvh and you want to know how much time it will ake ito travel 725 km. How can you decide a good way to solve the problem? You can use a powerful procedure called dimensional analysis. Dimensional analysis makes use of the fact that dimensions can be treated as algebraic quantities. For example, quantities can be added or subtracted only if they have the same dimensions, and the two sides of any given equation must have the same dimensions, Let us apply this technique to the problem of the car moving at 1 speed of 88 kin/h. This measurement is given in dimensions of length over time, The total distance traveled hes the dimension of dh. Multiplying these numbers together gives the dimensions i dicated below. Clearly, the result of this calculation does not have the dimensions of time, which is what you are trying to calculate, Thatis, length 6.4% 108 km 10h Integrating Chemistry Visit go hev.com forthe activity “Dependent and Indopencent Yariales” 3¢ Keyword HFBSOPX Figure 15 Dimensional araysis can be «useful heck fr many types of problems, including those imolvng how much time it would tke forthe car to travel 725 km Fit moves with speed of 88 kmh, ‘Tho Seionce of Physics 23.

You might also like