ISSUE 12 n JULY/AUGUST 2006 $5.

00

KEEPING
CIRCULATING
WATER CLEAN

AQUACULTURE
REFORMS SUFFER
SETBACKS

SEAWATER
PONDS SHOW
PROMISE
n All Polymeric Construction
n Modular Systems
n Three Stage Filtration:
Hydrocyclone
Disc Filtration
Sand Media

ARKAL FILTRATION SYSTEMS

Kibbutz Bet Zera, Jordan Valley, Israel
Tel: (972)-4-6775140, Fax: (972)-4-6775476
E-mail: [email protected]

DEECO SERVICES LIMITED

PO Box 33-226, Petone, Wellington, NZ
Tel: (64)-4-568-5293, Fax: (64)-4-568-5273
E-mail: [email protected]
VIP.AC05
CONTENTS

5 8 10

3 EDITORIAL
Industry expertise is moving offshore

5 NEWS
A look at whats happening in the industry

7 KOI PONDS AND ALGAE DONT MIX

Keeping algae under control

8 SEAWATER POND AQUACULTURE

Seawater ponds have considerable aquaculture potential

12 PRINCIPLES OF WATER RETICULATION AND FILTRATION

An outline of recirculating water systems

14 AQUACULTURE LAW REFORM 18 MONTHS ON

A look at law reform from a legal point of view ISSUE 12
n JULY/A
UGUST
2006

$5.00

KEEPI
CIRCU NG
WATE LATING
R CLE
AN
AQUA
REFO CULT
RMS URE
SUFF
SETB ER
ACKS
ON THE COVER:
Cultivated mussel
spat is now becoming
a viable option due to
Cawthrons research
SEAWAT
PHOTO BY: PONDS SEHR
Cawthron Institute PROMISE OW

EDITOR: ADVERTISING:
Keith Ingram Hamish Stewart
ASSISTANT EDITOR: DESIGNER:
ISSN 1176-5402 ISSN 1176-8657 (web) Mark Barratt-Boyes Rachel Walker
An informative journal CONTRIBUTORS: PRE PRESS/CTP:
for the aquaculture industry Charles Cichra, Michael McGee, BPG Digital
Published by: Olin Pitcher, Lesley Rhodes PRINTERS:
VIP PUBLICATIONS LTD Business Print Group
MANAGER:
4 Prince Regent Drive, Vivienne Ingram DISTRIBUTION: By subscription
Half Moon Bay, Pakuranga 1706
Ph 09 533 4336 Fax 09 533 4337 General: Reproduction of articles and materials published in New Zealand Aquaculture in whole or part, is permitted provided the source and author(s) are
acknowledged. However, all photographic material is copyright and written permission to reproduce in any shape or form is required. Contributions of a nature
email [email protected] relevant to the aquaculture industry are welcomed and industry participants are especially encouraged to contribute. Articles and information printed in
[email protected] New Zealand Aquaculture do not necessarily reflect the opinions or formal position or the publishers unless otherwise indicated. All material published in
New Zealand Aquaculture is done so with all due care as regards to accuracy and factual content, however, the publishers cannot accept responsibility
www.nzaquaculture.co.nz for any errors and omissions which may occur. New Zealand Aquaculture is produced bi-monthly.

JULY/AUGUST 06 NZ AQUACULTURE n 3
EDITORIAL
BY KEITH INGRAM

INDUSTRY EXPERTISE
is moving offshore
he season for conferences is an ideal time to reflect on world, and when one looks around the country we have

T the years activities - where the aquaculture industry has

come from and in what direction we might be heading.
Unfortunately, it is a sad fact that we do not have much to crow
aquaculture developments proceeding at a quiet pace where the
outcomes have huge potential. For instance, our paua industry is
poised to be able to introduce an enhancement programme into
about.While the industrys participants are totally committed to the the wild that could replace total commercial extraction, if only we
aquaculture industry and marine farming, and have invested can get past the bureaucratic log jam. Not only will this help our
treasured resources involving, in most cases, serious family exports, it could also reduce costs to a level where paua is once
commitments, the government has failed to acknowledge them. again an affordable product for the housewife. Its potential to
Talk to anyone and they will tell you that aquaculture is the way reseed recreational fishing areas is a win-win situation as well. Lets
of the future as our wild fish stocks become further depleted or give them a chance.
have to be shared more equitably. Paua poachers are parasites and should be treated as such,
Most future food stocks, not only for New Zealanders but the I am quoted as saying in a recent media release.We have to do
world, will come from vibrant, economical aquaculture-producing something to stop the fish thieves ripping off one of our
nations.We have some of the most nutritious waters supplied from natural resources and prized seafood.These poachers are not
the Southern Ocean, the Tasman Sea and the Pacific. only fish thieves, they are destroying the resource for all of us.
Our marine environment by world standards is pristine.We Nearly half the plundered paua is undersized, and these are our
remain one of the few countries that can export live fish and future breeding stock. By removing the paua, the poachers are
shellfish into the United States without the need for de- denying commercial fishers and the public a chance to catch
purification processes. Our mussel industry has a proven legally sized paua.
management history that can shut the industry down within 24 I have suggested that all fishers consider the option of banning
hours of a bio-toxin alarm. the private exports of wild paua immediately. It is not only
With all these advantages, you would think that government essential to increase the penalties for those caught.We need to
officials, politicians and local authorities would be climbing over cut off these export highways through our international airports.
themselves to facilitate the way forward for our industry. We have the ability, as all baggage is scanned for drugs and other
Unfortunately this is not the case, as new, younger entrants security risks. Packed frozen paua would be easy to detect.At
with the skills required to take our industry to the next stage present we have short-term visiting tourists heading offshore
move offshore. with bags full of frozen paua weighing tens of kilos from
The NZ Insurance advertisement on television highlights untraceable sources.
Australians who have stolen our assets, from Phar Lap to Split They are not entitled to take these unaccounted-for quantities,
Enz. But when it comes to our aquaculture assets, they dont and can purchase professionally caught paua from a licensed fish
have to steal them, we are forcing and pushing our industrys receiver or fish retailer along with current traceable sale and
future out into deep water overseas where Australia, and the purchase receipts.
Pacific and Asian nations welcome our expertise.This is pretty In this issue, the Cawthron Aquaculture Group reviews its
depressing. experience with saltwater ponds, which are producing large
Fortunately for New Zealand, most in our industry are totally quantities of food at low cost for filter-feeding shellfish.Another
committed to keeping our knowledge here, if only we could report outlines the principles of water reticulation and filtration,
convince the authorities. and we have a legal interpretation of the effects of
On a positive note, our research remains among the best in the aquaculture law reform.

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4 n NZ AQUACULTURE JULY/AUGUST 06
NEWS

CALIFORNIAN LAW
MALAYSIAN LEADER RESTRICTS FISH
FARMING
VISITS NEW ZEALAND HATCHERY
The Governor of California,Arnold
The Prime Minister of Malaysia, Datuk Seri Abdullah Ahmad Badawi, recently inspected a Schwarzenegger, has signed into law what he
New Zealand abalone farm in Sitiawan, Malaysia. called the toughest restrictions on fish
NZ Silverdale Marine Hatchery Sdn Bhd is a sister company to the Silverdale Marine farming in the United States.
Hatchery Ltd of Auckland, New Zealand. It is using a complete salt water recycling system The regulations will help avoid problems that
developed in New Zealand for paua, a cool-water species of abalone, and is said to have have arisen in other states, he says.They include:
successfully operated a pilot plant growing abalone for over two years. z fish escaping from large ocean pens and
breeding or spreading disease in wild
New Zealander Stuart McFarlane, who developed the salt water recirculating
populations
system, said that working together with a company using similar technology made
z large amounts of fish waste, and
sense, as the New Zealand farm could send paua of a smaller size to be finished off
z the killing of seals, sea lions and other
in Malaysia, from where it could be delivered to markets across Asia at a fraction of animals that occasionally prey on pen-
the freight costs. raised fish.
The Malaysian farm is well placed to do this, McFarlane says.The main species grown The law is designed to reduce the risk of
will be from Japan,America, South Africa and Australia, all of which are known in the Asian pollution and harm to marine wildlife from
market. He says New Zealands paua, because of its unique shell and black meat, could be giant floating pens of tuna, halibut or other
developed into a high-priced product.But it will take time to do this. species that could result if the aquaculture
New Zealand has the expensive and unpredictable Resource Management Act, whereas industry expands to the Californian coast.
the Malaysian government has made available about nine hectares of prime coastal land. Ocean fish-farming can now be part of
New Zealand has very high rates of direct and indirect taxation, whereas Malaysia has a Californias future without sacrificing the
scheme where new ventures are granted pioneer status and there is no company tax environment, Schwarzenegger said.This
legislation will lay the groundwork for a new
for five years, extending to 10 years from the time production begins. Labour costs only
California aquaculture industry to thrive, while
10 to 15 percent of those in New Zealand are another important factor, especially for
providing an abundance of healthy food and
businesses operating seven days per week.
more jobs. The Ocean Conservancy and
The Prime Minister was accompanied by the Chief Minister of Perak, Dutuk Seri Mohamad
other environmental groups supported the bill.
Tijol Rosli Ghazali, and the Minister of Science and Technology, Datuk Kong Cho Ha. The new law requires the California Fish
See www.marine-organics.com and Game Commission to identify which
coastal locations are best suited to fish
farming. It also directs the commission to
require fish-farming companies to reduce
pollution and chemicals, tag all farmed fish,
minimise the risk of fish escaping, and return
each site to its original condition after the
operation is finished.
Schwarzenegger called the law a common-
sense proposal that will allow California
businesses to grow, while providing strict
protection for the environment and consumers.
Prime Minister inspecting abalone from NZ & Prime Minister receiving a sample of Silverdale
Sth Africa grown in Sitiawan, Malaysia. With Marine Hatcheries certified organic fertilizer Fish farming in California is currently
partners Ben Ngoi and Stuart McFarlane. produced from the waste of the recycling
abalone farm developed and about to be
confined to inland ponds.There is no
marketed in NZ www.marine-organics.com aquaculture off the coast, other than
commercially grown shellfish, but experts say
that will change as the demand grows for
commercially raised fish.
Under the law, prospective farmers who
want to raise penned fish off the coast will
need a 10-year lease from the state Fish and
Game Commission.The commission will
decide where and how the farms can
operate, set environmental standards which
will minimise the use of hormones and
Prime Minister departs the new facility built at Stuart McFarlane presents Prime Minister antibiotics, and regulate the use of native fish
Sitiawan using the technology developed by Abdullah with a uinique New Zealand gift of
Stuart, this farm will grow on shellfish to acknowledgement made from ancient swamp to feed the stocks.
supply local markets in Malaysia. kauri, paua shell and a paua pearl.
CONTINUED OVER PAGE

JULY/AUGUST 06 NZ AQUACULTURE n 5
NEWS

AQUACULTURE COSTS
WORRY FARMERS ANOTHER SETBACK FOR AQUACULTURE
Some marine farmers say they are being New Zealands aquaculture industry had another setback with the Auckland Regional
financially crippled by red tape, and that all Councils refusal to create Aquaculture Management Areas that would allow mussel and
future growth will take place overseas unless oyster farmers to operate in the Kaipara Harbour, Nationals Fisheries spokesman, Phil
the government steps in to help, says the Heatley, said on May 26.
President of the Marine Farming Association, Ironically, local Maori are also upset that they will miss out on new jobs that would have
Rob Pooley. been created in the area. Heatley said that not one AMA had been set up around the New
Since local councils have been in charge of Zealand coast since Labours aquaculture reforms were introduced almost a year and a half ago.
granting marine farm approvals, red tape has Yet aquaculture is a great example of Kiwi business combining our natural resources
made the new system too slow and too with cutting-edge research and development.The balance is currently set against the
expensive, he said on June 5. industry, and it is going to further decline if something isnt done.
The fact that this regime has essentially Heatley recently sought an inquiry into why no AMAs have been created since Labours
been in place for 18 months now and there legislation was passed into law. Labour MPs did not support it.
hasnt been one single application lodged for a
plan change suggests to us that its a failure. on local government to resist development. fish farms around the lake.
An industry leader, Ray Thomas, agrees. Green MP Metiria Turei supports As early as 1998, scientists cautioned that
We cant see a future in the industry unless aquaculture controls.There has to be a human health hazards like influenza could
we can fill our export orders. Other places control on the use of that marine area, occur from the common Asian farming practice
like Chile,Australia, Norway and Denmark because if the marine ecology is severely of using chicken dung as feed in fish farms.
are going to start taking our markets and damaged, those farms are out of business The French newspaper Le Monde referred
well never get them back. anyway. Its a good balance, as far as I can see. to a similar theory on March 30 in an article
Thomas says the new laws are causing the But Thomas says he has had enough, and the entitled Suspicions on Fish and Pigs. It started
industry to grind to a complete standstill. He best harvests of the future lie overseas. with the line,Migratory birds have perhaps
says he has been trying to expand his mussel been accused too soon to have propagated
farm for four years, but has virtually given up POSSIBLE LINK avian influenza.
all hope and is now investing in Australia, as it BETWEEN AQUACULTURE Le Monde quoted Joseph Domenech, the
is his only chance of keeping his business AND BIRD FLU veterinary chief of the UNs Food and
alive. He claims that he is not alone. New cases of the deadly H5N1 strain of bird Agricultural Organisation, as stating that,
From my observation, a lot of our key flu have broken out among wild birds since such a transmission route of the virus to the
personnel are packing up and going abroad, late April near Qinghai Lake in Tibet, almost a wild fauna in this manner cannot be
taking the expertise theyve learnt here and year after the first outbreak that killed tens excluded... but no studies have yet been
applying it to mussel farms overseas. of thousands of wild birds.The outbreak also realised on this specific topic.
But not everyone is unhappy about the occurred in Yushu County, a remote and Le Monde also wrote that the FAO advised
councils tighter controls on the industry.There nomadic region several hundred kilometres farmers on its website not to use poultry
is concern among some local residents and south of the lake.The Tibetan media reported guano in animal feed in countries affected by
holiday homeowners that the marine farms are on May 18 that a new theory was gaining the bird flu, and that,it is imperative to avoid
visually offensive, and they are putting pressure ground that the outbreak may be linked to any leaks towards freshwater streams.

SEA PEST FOUND AT

MUSSEL FARM
A marine pest, the sea squirt, has been
discovered at a Marlborough Sounds mussel
farm and is suspected to be in Golden Bay.
The president of the Marine Farming
Association, Rob Pooley, confirmed on June 5
that the pest had been found at a Homeward
Bay farm. He said the affected line was
harvested and the squirt killed.
A Cawthron Institute scientist,Ashley
Coutts, said a sea squirt lookalike had been
found on a mussel farm in Wainui Bay in
Golden Bay. He was waiting on a second
VIP.S48

opinion to confirm its status.

The squirt has been in Queen Charlotte
Sound since late 2001, but flared up this year.
A working group lead by the association has
put in place an action plan to prevent
its spread.

6 n NZ AQUACULTURE JULY/AUGUST 06
KOI PONDS and algae dont mix
any pond owners spend time, money and breaking down the nutrients before the algae have a chance to

M patience building a beautiful koi fish pond,

only to have their hard work threatened by
unsightly stringy, green algae. However, increasing the aerobic
utilise it, thus interrupting the algae life cycle.The microbes will
also release oxygen into the pond, which helps reduce turbidity
and eliminates odours from stagnant pond water, says Coke.
bacteria activity as part of a routine koi pond maintenance Aerobic bacteria, or microbes, are naturally occurring and
programme will ensure the algae are kept under control, says are present in most all koi ponds. However, it is when their
Casey Coke of Natural Environmental Systems, LLC. levels become diminished or outnumbered by anaerobic
Actually, algae is not the problem, but a symptom of a larger bacteria that supplementation with a microbial product is
problem, the nutrient level and oxygen content in the koi beneficial.Another benefit to microbial products as part of a
pond, he says.Algae feed on the nutrients in the pond, and koi pond maintenance programme is that they are compatible
when the nutrient level becomes high, algae will bloom and with, and often enhanced by, many other maintenance
grow very quickly. Small amounts of algae in a koi pond are products like biological filters, aerators and fountains.
healthy, as it adds oxygen back into the water. However, too In addition to maintenance, microbes are also effective as a
much of a good thing is bad.To help remedy this problem, treatment and preventative of algae and nutrient overload.
excess nutrients need to be removed. The bottom line is that koi fish ponds are meant to be an
Only so much can be done to limit the nutrients that get into aesthetic delight and reflect the owners vision and hard work.
a pond.The most common sources are koi food and koi faecal While not inherently harmful, algae is a nuisance and an
matter. Since koi have to eat and excrete waste, the best bet will eyesore that is not a welcome addition to a koi pond.
be to remove the nutrients once they get into the water. Coke However, with proper aeration and a microbial product, a koi
says Natural Enviro 4000 is a healthy and natural way to do this. pond can be a clean and healthy oasis for koi and the
The product increases the aerobic bacteria levels in the pond, owner. See www.naturalenviro.com

SEMINAR TARGETED KOI ENTHUSIASTS

BROODSTOCK MAINTENANCE, pond The speakers included:
and tank construction, genetics and artificial spawning methods z Carl Forss of Keirin Koi
were some of the topics covered in a koi breeding and z Erik Johnson DVM
reproduction seminar at the Georgia Centre for Continuing z Dr Jay Shelton, PhD
Education from June 9 to 11.The seminar was held at the z Theriogenologist Richard Fayrer-Hosken, DVM, PhD
Flinchums Phoenix, a small conference centre overlooking the z Vicki Vaughan, the director of Aquatic Services at the UGA
Oconee River, and was sponsored by The Warnel School of College of Veterinary Medicine, and
Forest Resources and the University of Georgia College of z Endoscopist Dr Hernandez Divers DVM, PhD.
Veterinary Medicine. Forss is a well-respected US koi dealer whose fish have
The seminar was designed to educate the participants on consistently won top prizes at major shows. For the last
the successful propagation of Cyprinus carpio or nishikigoi. It 11 years he has developed close relationships with Japans
targeted those who spend a moderate amount of money on top breeders.
decent koi or who wanted to further their education and earn Fishery biologist Dr Jay Shelton is an associate professor of
CE credits, and those who wanted to know more about fisheries in the DB Warnell School of Forest Resources at the
pairing up fish, and culling and grading. Other topics included University of Georgia. He conducts research and teaches a
z hatchery and grow-out design course in fish culture at Auburn University.
z culling and grading techniques The participants were able to select 10 koi from the
z embryonic development broodstock that produce viable offspring, and attempted to
z disease identification, treatment and prevention spawn several trios of koi, each from top Japanese bloodlines.
z KHV testing and certification They will track the development and culling of the fish
z shipping and marketing online, and later in the year select the best fish from each
z ultrasound evaluation and sexing of broodstock, and spawn. Each attendee was also able to select 10 fish for
z endoscopic methods. themselves.

www.aquaculturehealth.com
JULY/AUGUST 06 NZ AQUACULTURE n 7
SEAWATER POND AQUACULTURE
BY OLIN PILCHER, CAWTHRON INSTITUTE

The paddle wheel helps maintain

the water quality required by the
shellfish in the nursery

ig a hole in the ground, pump good quality The pond/nursery concept also forms the basis for a major

D seawater into the hole, let a natural algal bloom

develop, then feed this to your shellfish. Pond
aquaculture of course is not quite as easy as that, but with
industry project aiming for commercial-scale mussel spat
production. Recent experiments involving fattening oysters
with algae from the ponds have produced very encouraging
seven years of experience at the Glenhaven Aquaculture results.We chose our site very carefully, utilising a number of
Centre in Nelson, the Cawthron Aquaculture Group is natural benefits:
confident that seawater ponds have considerable aquaculture z The land lies below spring high tide, which means that we
potential.This article briefly reviews our experience with can fill and empty our ponds by gravity and save energy
seawater ponds, and outlines some opportunities for pond costs.
aquaculture in New Zealand. z The land is adjacent to Tasman Bay and distant from any
Our ponds produce large quantities of food (phytoplankton major river mouths or pollution: the water is of good quality.
or micro-algae) at low cost for filter-feeding shellfish.The z Its in one of the sunniest spots in New Zealand, which
selective breeding programmes that we are running for means the algae get plenty of energy to grow.
Greenshell mussels and Pacific oysters depend on the ponds z There is a dense clay pan at the right soil depth: the ponds
for both broodstock conditioning and spat production. are naturally water-tight.
Commercial oyster spat grown in our nursery system rely A good location certainly helps, but it does not need to be
on a constant supply of algae produced by the ponds to as good as the Glenhaven site for pond aquaculture to work.
achieve excellent growth rates and spat quality. For example, we have learnt to use the available seawater for
increasingly longer periods in the ponds.
Initially the ponds were frequently re-filled after about a
weeks use, whereas now we can maintain algal blooms for
several weeks at a time. Pumping water up a few metres to fill
the ponds will not necessarily represent a significant cost if the
water can be used for a long time.
Seawater ponds are similar to small estuaries in that they have a
limited water exchange.A result of this can be extreme
fluctuations in water chemistry, leading to increased stress and
sometimes mortalities in the animals living in these environments.
A typical saltwater pond for producing
phytoplankton at the Glenhaven Aquaculture The safe operation of a pond system requires people who
Centre. It covers 2000sq m and is 2m deep. understand both the physical, chemical and biological
The pipe on the right returns the water from
the nursery. Note the paddle wheel interactions occurring within these environments, and the
ways in which water quality can be managed effectively.

SHELLFISH NURSERIES
When mussel and oyster larvae first settle and become spat
they are less than 1mm long.This tiny and fragile spat is moved

8 n NZ AQUACULTURE JULY/AUGUST 06
from the hatchery into a nursery system to grow several
Saltwater ponds form the
millimetres before being deemed big enough to transfer onto basis of a major project
farms. During this time their food requirements increase aimed at commercial
mussel spat production
dramatically, but can be satisfied by algae produced in the ponds.
The ponds enable us to produce enough food for commercial
quantities of spat at an acceptable cost.At our Nelson site, 2ha
of pond area is enough for a commercial-scale mussel nursery.

BROODSTOCK CONDITIONING
Evidence from the Glenhaven Aquaculture Centre suggests
that pond water can successfully condition shellfish
broodstock for spawning, even when wild stock are in poor
condition.This makes the year-round production of shellfish
seed possible without complicated and expensive broodstock
conditioning regimes. Rapid re-conditioning of spent
broodstock is also possible, which greatly reduces the number
of broodstock required for commercial-scale spawnings.

SHELLFISH FATTENING
Ponds can be used to improve the meat condition and
marketability of shellfish.An impressive example of this is
practised in France, where over 40,000 tonnes of Pacific
oysters are fattened every year in shallow seawater ponds
before being marketed as premium oysters under the Claire
brand. Initial trials of this concept at Glenhaven have provided
very encouraging results.There is exciting potential to
produce distinctive, fresh, premium seafood through pond
fattening in New Zealand.

LIVE FEED PRODUCTION

Zooplankton feed on micro-algae and are naturally abundant in
the ponds.These tiny marine animals represent nutritionally
rich food parcels themselves and can be fed to larger animals
such as seahorses and small finfish. Pond-produced
zooplankton could be used as a cheap source of live feed for
operations such as seahorse farms and finfish nurseries.

BIOTECH PRODUCTS
Some species of micro-algae produce valuable chemicals for
use in health food supplements and pharmaceuticals. For
example, micro-algae are the original producers of the
polyunsaturated fatty acids found in fish oils. Spirulina is the
best known example of a valuable micro-algae that is
presently grown in large pond systems. As our biotech
knowledge of local marine micro-algae increases, the
commercial extraction of valuable chemicals from pond-
produced algae could become feasible.

NEW SPECIES DEVELOPMENT

High-value bivalve shellfish farming could utilise the pond
technology developed for rearing oysters and mussel seed.
Geoduck is one possible candidate, although a lot of
fundamental research is still required. Other invertebrate
species such as marine worms also display potential for pond
aquaculture. Commonly known as ragworms or bristleworms,
they have been successfully cultured in ponds in the United
Kingdom and Australia, initially as a live bait for the
recreational fishing industry, but more recently as a fish
meal replacement in extruded shrimp and fish feeds.
VIP.AC01

JULY/AUGUST 06 NZ AQUACULTURE n 9
CAWTHRON COLLECTION
saves the day
BY DR LESLEY RHODES, CAWTHRON INSTITUTE

hen a key species of neurotoxic algae The collection also houses micro-algae able to produce

W isolated from the Gulf of Mexico was lost

when hurricanes ravaged the United States
last year, international scientists were able to replace the
potentially economically valuable bio-active compounds, some
of which have only been identified and isolated from New
Zealand waters.They have the potential for pharmaceutical,
culture using specimens held at the Cawthron Institutes nutraceutical and agricultural/horticultural uses and are being
Micro-algae Collection. actively investigated, she says.
A senior research scientist at the institute, Dr Lesley The collection, curated by Krystyna Ponikla, feeds biological
Rhodes, said on April 18 that the hurricane losses were a material into programmes at Cawthron, the National Institute
wake-up call and a reminder of how vital such living banks of for Water and Atmospheric Research, universities and research
species are to the world.Its made us value what we have institutes in New Zealand and overseas for studying the
even more, and realise that its a key component for research genetics and systematics of marine algae.
into many areas and that we need to cherish what we have It was registered as a nationally significant collection in 1996
and keep adding to it, Dr Rhodes says. and is funded by Cawthron and the New Zealand Foundation
The collection, the only one in New Zealand, is crucial to for Research, Science and Technology. Dr Rhodes says the
support monitoring and research programmes focused on collection is growing in size and importance year by year.The
identifying and managing marine biotoxin risks to the shellfish collection contains many New Zealand species and algae that
aquaculture industry. It supports identification of algae in produce unique compounds, and in the 20 years since we
routine water samples, giving industry and public health began the collection its gone from just a few species to over
regulators advance warning of harmful algal blooms. 150. Its now internationally significant.

VIP.AC04

10 n NZ AQUACULTURE JULY/AUGUST 06
 Cawthron senior technician Veronica
Buezenberg with cultures of toxic
micro-algae held in quarantine

Recent developments in the cryo-preservation (freezing) of weve been able to achieve it for 15 small species (less than 25 Krystyna Ponikla,
curator for the
living algae have proved successful and will mean the microns), and were determined to work on techniques which Cawthron Culture
collection can triple in size without requiring the extra room make it viable for larger species as well. Collection of
Micro-algae,
and resources to maintain the same species in terms of Contact Dr Lesley Rhodes at checks out living
cultures.
feeding and growing the demanding cultures, she says. 03 548 2319. See www.cawthron.org.nz or email
Were having a lot of success with cryo-preservation. So far, [email protected]

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JULY/AUGUST 06 NZ AQUACULTURE n 11
PRINCIPLES OF Water Recirculation
1
and Filtration in Aquaculture
MICHAEL MCGEE AND CHARLES CICHRA2

ecirculating water systems are designed to

R minimise or reduce dependence on water

exchange and flushing in fish culture units.These
systems have practical applications in commercial aquaculture
TABLE 1: Approximate pumping rates for airlifts
of various diameters and % submergence.

Pipe sizes for

discharge pipe (in.)
Capacity at submergence
(gal/min)
hatcheries, holding tanks and aquaria systems, as well as small-
scale aquaculture projects.Water is typically recirculated when 70% 60% 50%
there is a specific need to minimise water replacement, to 1 13 10 9
maintain water quality conditions which differ from the supply
1-1/4 20 14 12
water, or to compensate for an insufficient water supply.There
1-1/2 28 22 16
are innumerable designs for recirculating systems and most
2 50 40 30
will work effectively if they accomplish:
z aeration 3 110 100 75
z removal of particulate matter 4 260 200 160
z biological filtration to remove waste ammonia and nitrite, and
z buffering of pH. to sustain dissolved oxygen levels above 60 percent saturation
These processes can be achieved by a simple composite unit throughout the system.
such as an aquarium filter, or in larger systems, by several
interconnected components. REMOVAL OF
PARTICULATE MATTER
AERATION Solids resulting from fish waste and uneaten feed contribute a
Water must be aerated to maintain adequate dissolved portion of the oxygen demand and toxic ammonia in the
oxygen concentrations for fish and for proper functioning of system and should be concentrated for removal.This can be
the biological filter. Aeration is usually applied in the fish accomplished in a settling basin with reduced water
culture tank and again prior to or within the biological filter, turbulence, or by mechanical filtration through porous material
that portion of the recirculating system where organic waste such as sponge, screen, sand or gravel.
products are broken down through bacterial decomposition. Solids that accumulate will gradually be mineralised (broken
Trickling filters and revolving plate bio-filters are designed to down) by bacterial action and their volume reduced.Although
be self-aerating.Vigorous aeration of submerged filter beds is this process adds additional oxygen demand to the system, it
not recommended because beneficial bacteria can be dislodged reduces the need for frequent cleaning if the solids do not
from the substrate, decreasing the filters effectiveness.Airlift become re-suspended or interfere with normal water flow.
pumps (Table 1) are often used to move water through the Mechanical filters require regular cleaning since they are prone to
tanks, accomplishing both aeration and pumping. Super- clogging when dirty.To prevent excess amounts of solids from
intensive systems may use pure oxygen injection, although this accumulating in the bio-filter, small particles of matter are usually
is seldom economical.The level of aeration should be sufficient removed prior to or as the first component of bio-filtration.

BIOLOGICAL FILTRATION
Fish and other aquatic organisms release their nitrogenous
wastes primarily as ammonia (NH 3) excreted across the gill
membranes. Urine, solid wastes and excess feed also have
undigested nitrogen fractions, and are additional sources of
ammonia.Ammonia is toxic to fish and can exert sub-lethal
stress at concentrations of less than 0.05 mg/l ammonia
nitrogen (NH 3-N), resulting in poor growth and lower
resistance to disease.
To control ammonia levels in recirculating water systems,
extensive surface area is provided for bacteria that
biologically oxidise ammonia to relatively harmless nitrate
(NO 3-). Bacterial nitrification is a two-stage process
resulting first in the transformation of ammonia to nitrite
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(NO 2-), then a further oxidation of nitrite to nitrate.

12 n NZ AQUACULTURE JULY/AUGUST 06
Nitrite is also toxic to fish at low concentrations, hence, percent of saturation and periodically verified.Alkalinity,
both reactions must occur for successful bio-filtration. hardness and pH need to be regularly measured and adjusted.
The bacteria responsible for these reactions occur widely in Filters should be inspected and cleaned as required.
soil and water environments and can be easily inoculated into Medications used to treat fish diseases may be toxic to bacteria
bio-filters from natural sources, or with material from established in the bio-filter.An ability to isolate fish tanks for disease
filters.To ensure bacterial populations are sufficient to remove treatment should be provided. Frequent monitoring of the
ammonia and nitrite at rates required during operation, a bio- performance of the recirculating system will allow the manager
filter is typically conditioned for several weeks by adding to improve and refine its operation over time.
ammonia and monitoring its breakdown prior to stocking fish.
Media for bio-filters can be virtually any substrate that BUFFERING OF PH
provides maximum surface area for bacterial growth: oyster Fish metabolism and bacterial nitrification result in the
shells, gravel, nylon netting, plastic rings, corrugated fiberglass formation of acids that lessen the buffering capacity of water
panels and sponge foam pads are among the popular choices. and lower the pH. Most fish can tolerate a pH range of 5-10,
In designing bio-filters, the principal concerns should be however, a range of 6.5 to 8.5 is preferred for most aquaculture
maximum surface area for bacterial growth, high dissolved species.To replace lost alkalinity and sustain the buffering
oxygen levels, uniform water flow through the filter, sufficient capacity of water, carbonate (CO 32- ) in the form of limestone,
void space to prevent clogging, and proper sizing to ensure bicarbonate of soda or other common sources is added.
adequate ammonia removal capability.The required size of a Often, bio-filter media (oyster shells) or some other
bio-filter is difficult to predict, since filter surface area, fish component of the system (concrete tanks) serve as a source
density and water flow are important considerations.A 3:l tank of carbonates. Depending on the species cultured, frequent
volume to bio-filter volume is usually more than sufficient. monitoring of water hardness, alkalinity and pH may be
required.
MANAGEMENT
FOOTNOTES
Recirculating water systems should be designed for simple
1. This document is FA-12, Department of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, Florida Cooperative
operation and economic feasibility. Sufficient time must be Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida. First published
allowed for conditioning of the bio-filter prior to introducing October 1988. Reviewed April 2000. See http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu.
2. Michael McGee, former assistant professor and extension aquaculture specialist, and Charles
fish.Ammonia and nitrite concentrations must be checked Cichra, associate professor, Department of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, Cooperative Extension
frequently. Dissolved oxygen should be sustained above 60 Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, 32611.

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JULY/AUGUST 06 NZ AQUACULTURE n 13
AQUACULTURE LAW REFORM
18 months on: how are we doing?
he package of legislation we refer to as the need for a decision on potential effect on fisheries (the Undue

T Aquaculture Law Reforms came into force on

January 1, 2006, so it is timely to look at how well
this new regime is serving the aquaculture industry. Despite the
Adverse Effects test) and to provide for the Maori Aquaculture
Settlement. The Tasman interim AMAs were referred to the
chief executive of the Ministry of Fisheries for consideration in
Minister of Fisheries announcing recently that the industry got December 2005. Despite the fact that the reforms imposed a
what it asked for in the reforms, anyone who was involved in six-month timeframe for that decision, the ministry does not yet
BY
the reform process knows that is far from an accurate appear to have commenced consultation in respect of it.
JUSTINE
INNS description. But rather than looking backwards, he urges us to However, another recent Environment Court decision
look forward, work with what weve got, and be patient. (SMW Consortium Ltd v Tasman DC, Environment Court, May
So, where have the reforms got us so far, and what are the 9 2006) has now cast some doubt over the process, with the
prospects for the future? court determining that the Tasman District Council was
No regional councils have yet proposed any Aquaculture required to accept applications for new marine farming
Management Areas (AMAs), and no extension of current permits prior to the completion of the process. How this will
aquaculture activities can occur without them. Some councils affect the remainder of the process remains to be seen, but iwi
are looking at the option of inviting private plan changes for in the region are particularly concerned that it, and another
AMAs, that is, inviting the industry to propose, research and upcoming case to be heard in the High Court, will defeat their
fund the creation of AMAs. The Northland Regional Council is interests under the Aquaculture Settlement.
a case in point. Northland undertook extensive research and Both of these Environment Court decisions are likely to be
public consultation on possible AMAs well before the reforms appealed to the High Court, so watch this space. But the wider
came into effect. In January this year, however, it announced issue they point to is that two regional councils that had taken up
that it would change tack, halt progress on its own AMAs and the challenge of planning through AMAs appear to have suffered
instead develop rules for inviting private plan changes. significant legal setbacks in their implementation. Is it any wonder
The Auckland Regional Council is another that was proposing that other councils, coming to the issue more recently, are
to manage aquaculture through AMAs even before the reforms, approaching AMA planning with a great deal of caution?
and it, too, has taken a step back. In early April, the Environment We heard at the recent Seafood Industry Conference
Court overturned the councils decision to allow a 30ha mussel (May 24-25) that the government has, over recent months,
farm in the South Kaipara Harbour. The courts decision (South been exhibiting positive signs of a willingness to support
Kaipara Harbour Environment Trust v Auckland RC, aquaculture development. That is clearly to be applauded, as
Environment Court,April 7 2006), in itself, gives some cause for are the efforts of the industry leaders who have been working
concern. After acknowledging the economic, social and cultural with ministers and officials to get them to that point. But the
benefits the farm would have, and that it would have no (or no time is fast approaching when the industrys patience for
more than minor) effect on marine ecology and birdlife, the waiting for the reforms to work themselves out will wear thin.
court declined the application on the basis of the potential If the governments support for aquaculture development is to
adverse effects on landscape and visual amenity, particularly from mean anything, it must mean acknowledging that some areas of
a proposed, but as yet non-existent, public walkway. the reforms require more work, and modest
This decision was reached under the pre-reform law, so it is amendments will be necessary.
tempting to write it off as being of only historical interest. But
its impact has already been greater than that, with the ARC Justine Inns joined Oceanlaw as a Senior Associate. She previously
responding to it by withdrawing Variation 3 to its Coastal Plan, spent more than a decade as an advisor to various iwi (tribes),
which proposed establishing AMAs in the Southern Kaipara. including several years with Ngai Tahu responsible for implementing
The Tasman District Council is another which was well- the iwis Treaty of Waitangi claim settlement.
advanced down the track of establishing AMAs pre-reforms. The
Tasman plan is the first to go down the interim AMA track, the While statements are believed to be correct, no liability can be
avenue provided within the reforms for bringing pre-reform accepted for any inaccuracies. Readers should not rely on
AMA proposals in line with the new legislation, particularly the information in this article without first seeking professional advice.

The only law firm in the South Pacific dedicated to the sea
14 New Street, PO Box 921 Nelson. Phone 64 3 548 4136, Fax 64 3 548 4195, 0800 OCEANLAW
Email [email protected] www.oceanlaw.co.nz VIP.S40

14 n NZ AQUACULTURE JULY/AUGUST 06
FLAKE-ICE ADDS VALUE TO NEPTUNUS FISH
NEPTUNUS MARINES CULTURES SA, built up by direct from the Geneglace silo (see picture).The fish is
Nicholas Stavropoulous, is said to be one of the most maintained within the polystyrene boxes at 0 Celsius for the
successful new fish farms in the Aegean. Its expanding next 48 to 72 hours en-route to retail display.
operation has benefited from the use of a new Geneglace S3 A regular supply of ice is essential, and as Nicholas
orbital silo fed by an F200 flake-ice machine. Stavropoulous says,We rely very much on the flake-ice, and
The fish are killed with the shock-freeze method using flake- have found the Geneglace ice maker very reliable.The addition
ice produced by Geneglace equipment the moment they are of the silo means we can draw off ice exactly when we need it.
caught in the cages.The bream and sea bass come ashore in The long task of icing has become easy, fast and very clean, as the
flake-ice and are immediately sorted and re-packed in fresh ice is dispensed automatically out of the silo into each fish box that
flake-ice dispensed from the Geneglace silo S3 for despatch by passes-by on the belt.The use of flake-ice not only maintains the
road to Patras, where 70 percent of the output goes directly temperature, but also provides fish of the best quality appearance
to Italian customers.The ice is drawn off into 1 tonne bins with clear eyes and smooth, shiny skin all the way to the market.
approximately 1km along the bay at the main producing unit, The farm and production unit at Vourlias-Argolidos are at
and taken out by barge.The fish have normally been starved the end of a long, undeveloped track. Upon arrival, one would
for the previous 48 hours and hoisted out of the cages into not expect to find such modern packing equipment in this
the flake-ice bins in batches of 300kg. remote place. Prior to the Geneglace installation, Neptunus
The freeze-shock method bleeds the fish and helps ensure had to rely on buying in ice, which was basically crushed block-
that the flesh remains supple and firm, with the minimum ice, at a cost of around Dr17,000 per tonne.
blood content.The heat exchange function of the sub-cooled However, quality is the watchword at Neptunus - the fish are
flake-ice (-5 or -6 Celsius) rapidly brings the fish down to a produced to high quality rather than to a price, and the company
core temperature of 0 or 1 from ambient seawater with a says it is well on its way to achieving ISO 9002 3 accreditation.
temperature of 10 or 11 in winter and as high as 24 to 27 Neptunus works under strict European Community
in the hot Aegean summer. (The temperature for optimum fish regulations and has a Greek government permit that relates to
growth is 23 or 24 Celsius.) the overall production per annum.
Ashore at the packing factory, the fish is checked and sorted, Contact Refrigeration Engineering Co Ltd, PO Box 12-072, Penrose.
weighed into boxes and covered with flake-ice discharged See www.realcold.co.nz or email [email protected]

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JULY/AUGUST 06 NZ AQUACULTURE n 15
VIP.S52