A Guide to Teaching Elementary Science

A Guide to Teaching Elementary Science

Ten Easy Steps A Guide to Teaching
Yvette F. Greenspan
Nationally and internationally, educators now understand the critical importance of
Elementary Science
STEM subjectsscience, technology, engineering, and mathematics. Today, the job of
the classroom science teacher demands finding effective ways to meet current curricula
standards and prepare students for a future in which a working knowledge of science and
technology will dominate. But standards and goals dont mean a thing unless we: Ten Easy Steps
grab students attention;
capture and deepen childrens natural curiosity;
create an exciting learning environment that engages the learner; and Yvette F. Greenspan
make science come alive inside and outside the classroom setting.
A Guide to Teaching Elementary Science: Ten Easy Steps gives teachers, at all stages of
classroom experience, exactly what the title implies. Written by lifelong educator Yvette
Greenspan, this book is designed for busy classroom teachers who face tough conditions,
from overcrowded classrooms to shrinking budgets, and too often end up anxious and
overwhelmed by the challenges ahead and their desire for an excellent science program.
This book:
h elps teachers develop curricula compatible with the Next Generation Science Standards
and the Common Core Standards;
provides easy-to-implement steps for setting up a science classroom, plus strategies
for using all available resources to assemble needed teaching materials;
offers detailed sample lesson plans in each STEM subject, adaptable to age and ability
and designed to embrace the needs of all learners; and
presents bonus information about organizing field trips and managing science fairs.
Without question, effective science curricula can help students develop critical thinking
skills and a lifelong passion for science.

Yvette Greenspan received her doctorate degree in science education and has developed
science curriculum at all levels. A career spent in teaching elementary students in an urban
community, she now instructs college students, sharing her love for the teaching and
learning of science. She considers it essential to encourage todays students to be active
learners and to concentrate on STEM topics that will help prepare them for the real world.
Yvette F. Greenspan

ISBN 978-94-6300-365-0

SensePublishers DIVS

Spine
9.322 mm
A Guide to Teaching Elementary Science
A Guide to Teaching Elementary Science
Ten Easy Steps

Yvette F. Greenspan
A C.I.P. record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.

ISBN: 978-94-6300-365-0 (paperback)

ISBN: 978-94-6300-366-7 (hardback)
ISBN: 978-94-6300-367-4 (e-book)

Published by: Sense Publishers,

P.O. Box 21858,
3001 AW Rotterdam,
The Netherlands
https://www.sensepublishers.com/

All chapters in this book have undergone peer review.

Printed on acid-free paper

All Rights Reserved 2016 Sense Publishers

No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted

in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming,
recording or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher, with the
exception of any material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered and
executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work.
I dedicate this book to the many teachers I have known who
have overcome tremendous obstacles to tirelessly inspire
their students to love all that is science.
 Table of Contents

Prefacexi

Acknowledgementsxiii

List of Figures and Tables xv

Introductionxvii

Part I: Ten Easy Steps

Chapter 1. Step One: Know What You Want to Accomplish 3

Organize and Plan 3
Planning a Science Curriculum 3
The Need to be Flexible 5
Key Points 5

Chapter 2. Step Two: Set the Stage 7

The Constructivist Learning Theory 7
Teacher Efficacy 8
Questioning Techniques 9
Develop a Science Discourse 10
Enhance Students Natural Curiosity 10
Key Points 11

Chapter 3. Step Three: Create a Learning Atmosphere 13

Defining Expectations 14
A Disciplined Approach 14
Classroom Configuration 15
Safety in Your Classroom 15
Key Points 16

Chapter 4. Step Four: Integrate the Curriculum 19

Why Integrate the Disciplines? 19
Integrating Language Arts 19
Integrating Mathematics 24
Integrating Social Studies 25
Integrating Art 25
Integrating Engineering 26
Key Points 27

vii
Table of Contents

Chapter 5. Step Five: Engage the Learner 29

Grab Their Attention 29
Inquiry-Based Learning 30
Becoming Empowered 30
Three Approaches of Inquiry-Based Learning 31
The 5-E Instructional Model 32
Examples Using the 5-E Instructional Model 32
Teach All Learners 33
Summing up 34
Key Points 34

Chapter 6. Step Six: Assemble Your Materials 37

Overcome Obstacles 37
Plan Ahead and Gather Materials 37
Establish a Place 38
Motivate Your Students 38
Key Points 39

Chapter 7. Step Seven: Establish Cooperative Learning Groups 41

The Science Process Skills/Practices 41
Learning Communication Skills 42
Encouraging Interaction 42
Structure or Non-Structure 43
Key Points 43

Chapter 8. Step Eight: Implement Technology 45

Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics or STEM 45
Technology in the Classroom 45
Technology and Science 46
Key Points 48

Chapter 9. Step Nine: Reflect and Assess 49

Inquiry-Learning Assessments 49
Three Kinds of Assessment 49
How to Assess in an Inquiry-Based Science Classroom 50
Formative Assessment Samples 52
Commenting on Student-Written Work 53
Reflect and Modify 54
Key Points 54

viii
 Table of Contents

Chapter 10. Step Ten: Extend and Apply 57

Extend the Lesson and Apply Science to Everyday Life 57
Science Fair Projects 57
Field Trips 59
Everyday Science 60
Key Points 60

Part II: Lesson Plans

Chapter 11. P
 hysical Sciences:
PS2 Matter and Stability: Forces and Interactions 63
Primary Lesson Plan: Moving Cars 63
Intermediate Lesson Plan: Small Marble/Large Marble 66

Chapter 12. Life Sciences:

LS2 Ecosystems: Interactions, Energy and Dynamics 69
Primary Lesson Plan: Food Pyramid 69
Intermediate Lesson Plan: Animal Adaptation 72

Chapter 13. Earth and Space Sciences:

ESS1 Earths Place in the Universe  75
Primary Lesson Plan: Learning about the Water Cycle 75
Intermediate Lesson Plan: Weather Station 79

Chapter 14. Engineering, Technology, and Applications of Science:

ETS1 Engineering Design 87
Primary Lesson Plan: Boat Building 87
Intermediate Lesson Plan: Building Bridges 90

Chapter 15. Lesson Plan Favorites 93

M&Ms Primary or Intermediate Lesson Plan 93
Mystery Powder Primary or Intermediate Lesson Plan 97
Parachutes Intermediate Lesson Plan 101
Rocket Racers Intermediate Lesson Plan 103
Swingers Intermediate Lesson Plan 106
Observations Primary Lesson Plan 110
Fingerprinting Primary or Intermediate Lesson Plan 113

ix
Table of Contents

Chapter 16. Conclusion 117

Appendices

Appendix I. Elements of a Science Fair Project 121

Appendix II. Teacher-Made Assessments 125

Appendix III. Learning Responsibilities 131

Appendix IV. The Everglades Model 133

Valuable Websites/Resources 141

Index145

x
 PREFACE

PURPOSE OF THE TEXT

This book presents ten easy steps to help veteran, experienced, and novice teachers
develop a sound, realistic, fun and exciting science curriculum within the guidelines
of the Next Generation Science Standards and the Common Core Standards. It is:
designed as a practical handbook for busy classroom teachers;
organized to include best practices for teaching science;
structured with easily implemented ideas and lesson plans that embrace and
address the needs of all learners;
prepared with extensive lists of resources.
The steps are designed with inquiry learning, thus engaging all students in the
learning process through hands-on activities in cooperative learning groups. I
wrote this book using everyday language and with simple descriptive examples that
are thought-provoking and supported by leading researchers and verified by my
extensive experience.

HOW TO BEST USE THIS GUIDEBOOK

Using this book will not consume large amounts of your time. As an elementary
school teacher, I understand that your time is valuable and limited. Thats why I
designed this book to use before, during, or after you teach a science lesson or to
peruse when its convenient for you to reflect on the notion of how to teach science
when your students are excited and motivated to learn.

ORGANIZATIONAL Features OF THE TEXT

Part I

Rooted in the Next Generation Science Standards, the ten steps, basic and
uncomplicated, are easily read and should prepare you to teach science through
inquiry-based learning, the 5E Instructional Model, and the Scientific Method.
Think about them in planning your science lessons and setting up effective science
curricula. Take the ideas outlined and adapt them to the needs of your students and
to your own needs as a teacher. Try them they may not work effectively at first, but
with time, you might find them helpful and worthwhile.

xi
PREFACE

Part II

Part II of this book is devoted to sample lesson plans, which cover each of the
areas of science required by the current standards. You will see lesson plans for
both primary and intermediate grades in physical science, life science, earth and
space, and engineering, technology and applications of science. Not only do they
follow the 5E Instructional Model, a possible approach for teaching inquiry learning,
emphasizing STEM, each lesson plan contains background information on the
scientific concept, materials needed to teach each topic, the five phases for teaching
the concept, possible home learning assignments, strategies to teach the Exceptional
Student (ESE learners), some connections to other disciplines, and several real world
applications. I have also included some of my favorite lesson plans. They, too, may
be adapted, revised, and adjusted to meet the needs of your students. The unit on a
place-based experience, a field trip, gives you science content in the disciplinary
core ideas found in the Next Generation Science Standards and also integrates
mathematics, social studies, and language arts skills. The handouts are excellent
teaching tools and can be adapted, too, for all grade levels.

Figures, Handouts and Appendices

The figures found throughout this guidebook and other handouts exhibited in the
appendices should help you to incorporate the ten steps, always remembering that
nothing is written in stone; the steps serve only as a source of information and a
foundation to build on as you pursue new avenues of teaching. Youll find handouts
for a science fair, including an elementary assessment, and other assessments I
have used in my classroom and found to be most effective. Keep in mind that every
handout can be adapted for your grade level and the ability of your students.

A Final Note

Take into consideration the ten steps outlined in this handbook. Add them as
another source of information to help your students learn science. I believe they
can only improve your teaching and your students learning. As you embark on this
new journey, or perhaps continue it, think of it as an exciting path toward greater
understanding of all that is science.

xii
 Acknowledgements

Thank you to all the college professors, educators, administrators, mentors, and
teachers who have inspired me to develop a passion for both learning and teaching
science. I have learned from all of you.
Thanks also to my editor, Virginia McCullough, for her patience, expertise, and
belief in my ability to complete this project. She has taken my words and made them
vividly real so that they can benefit the educational community.
Thank you to Peter de Liefde and the staff at Sense Publishers for having
confidence in me and for providing support and assistance in the editing, proofreading
and design of this book.
Thank you to my family and friends who have encouraged me throughout this
journey. You know who you are!
And, of course, I want to thank my husband and my children for their love,
understanding, and constant reassurance during the many hours it took me to write
this book and complete a lifelong goal.
Finally, to my grandchildren, who are learning that the world of science is all
encompassing and plays an integral role in their everyday life: May you always be
motivated and encouraged to observe, explore, learn, study, and research the true
meaning of science.

xiii
 List of Figures and Tables

Figures

Figure 1. Dimensions of teacher efficacy 8

Figure 2. Spider map 21
Figure 3. T-chart or two column chart 22
Figure 4. Venn diagrams 22
Figure 5. K-W-L chart 22
Figure 6. Concept mapping for primary and intermediate grades 23
Figure 7. Engineering design 26
Figure 8. The formative assessment cycle 51
Figure 9. Student work sample on sound 53
Figure 10. Newtons First Law of Motion: Student handout for
collecting data 65
Figure 11. Newtons Second Law of Motion: Student handout for
collecting data 68
Figure 12. Example of water cycle drawings 76
Figure 13. Water evaporation graph 78
Figure 14. Example of anemometer 82
Figure 15. Example of wind vane 82
Figure 16. Example of rain gauge 83
Figure 17. My group evaluation handout 84
Figure 18. Bridge design proposal 91
Figure 19. Bridge data handout 92
Figure 20. Model M&M plate 95
Figure 21. Model M&M temperature plate 96
Figure 22. Class properties charts 100
Figure 23. Laminated circle chart 100
Figure 24. Rocket race model 105
Figure 25. Swinger number line 109
Figure 26. How to build a swinger 109
Figure 27. Making observation handout 112
Figure 28. Fingerprints 113

xv
LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES

Tables

Table 1. Science fair project display standard-sized science fair board 123
Table 2. Classroom observation rubric 125
Table 3. The 5Es teacher observation rubric 127
Table 4. Sample generic observation template 128
Table 5. Checklist. Sample generic science content template 128
Table 6. Portfolio assessment 130
Table 7. Pine Rockland fire adaptations data handout 137
Table 8. Pine Rockland habitat data handout 137
Table 9. Pine Rockland and Hammock shrub height data handout 137
Table 10. P ine Rockland and Hammock sunlight and vegetation
data handout 138
Table 11. Evaluation data handout  138

xvi
 INTRODUCTION

In a world filled with the products of scientific inquiry, scientific literacy has
become a necessity for everyone. Everyone needs to use scientific information
to make choices that arise every day. Everyone needs to be able to engage
intelligently in public discourse and debate about important issues that involve
science and technology. And everyone deserves to share in the excitement and
personal fulfillment that can come from understanding and learning about the
natural world.1
Teaching science should be fun and rewarding. Based on the premise that children
have a natural curiosity about the things around them, teaching science would seem
to be an easy task. Children wonder how plants grow and how animals live and
move in their environment. They ask about how birds can fly and how high the sky
stretches above them. They want to know why the moon glows and why it rains. So,
given the nearly universal curiosity we see in children, why do some teachers have
difficulty creating a classroom in which all students are engaged and enthusiastic
about science learning? Based on my experience, many pre-service teachers and
novice teachers, along with some veteran teachers, too, lack the know-how to create
an active learning environment that promotes students innate inquisitiveness,
especially in culturally diverse classrooms.
In an effort to fill a gap in teaching tools, I created this practical, step-by-step
handbook to provide guidelines to help you reach your goal of a successful science
classroom for all learners. Regardless of experience level, pre-service or veteran,
every reader will come away with a foundation of strategies that provide ideas to
think about now and in the future.
Although Ive designed the steps sequentially, you can adapt them to fit your
teaching style, perhaps combining several steps or use them individually. Ive also
used the language, the jargon, of our profession. In addition, my purpose here
is not to provide an abundance of details about every science classroom strategy.
Rather, I chose to offer a brief course of action to heighten the awareness of science
for both teachers and students. After all, the ideal is to involve the students in their
own learning while recognizing their prior experiences and encouraging them to be
active learners.2

xvii
INTRODUCTION

THE CURRENT STATE OF STUDENTS SCIENCE PERFORMANCE

We see significant evidence indicating that when compared to children learning

science in other countries around the world, students at various academic levels in
the United States are not adequately learning basic science. The former president of
the National Science Teachers Association (NSTA) remarked that learning science is
an on-going process that begins in elementary school. She states:
teachers are often surprised to find middle school and high school students
have major misconceptions about fundamental ideas developed early on that
went unchallenged through school. They are also dismayed to find there are
often large gaps in students conceptual understanding for even basic ideas
in science . Is it reasonable for a school district to eliminate science for six
years and then expect students to fill in the blanks in middle and high school?
Science learning is a cumulative process.3
What about the state of science education at the college level? According to a 2014
article in The New York Times, Prez-Pea concludes that students do better with
a more active approach to learning science. He notes that after science educators
overhauled the teaching strategies of an introductory physics class at the University
of Colorado, students scores improved approximately fifty percent more than those
classes taught in traditional fashion. Similar results were found at the University of
North Carolina in introductory biology classes. Further, the new strategies proved
more beneficial for black students and those whose parents did not go to college.
Given these findings, it seems evident that our colleges should reinvent the
way they teach science. However, generally speaking, this isnt the trend. Some
explanations reveal that many tenured professors prefer to teach by lecturing and do
not like to change what they believe works for them. Therefore, they find it difficult
to create a classroom that is more student-oriented, one in which students work
in teams and that incorporates new technologies. Prez-Pea says, At four-year
colleges, 28 percent of students set out as math, engineering and science majors, but
only 16 percent of bachelors degrees are awarded in those fields.4 Perhaps its time
to rethink how we teach science at the college level.

ASSESSING SCIENCE ACHIEVEMENT

One of the ways we examine science achievement is through assessments administered

nationally and internationally. The Trends in International Mathematics and Science
Study (TIMSS) is a series of international assessments of the mathematics and
science achievement of students around the world. Since 1995, the assessment has
been given internationally to fourth and eighth-graders every four years. The TIMSS
suggests that when compared to students in other countries, fourth graders in the
U.S. have shown no significant detectable change in science achievement during

xviii
 INTRODUCTION

that timeframe.5 For eighth graders, the trend appears more positive but our U.S.
students scores still lag behind the front running Asian countries.6
What do these results say about our science teaching at these grade levels? We have
to ask ourselves if as teachers were preparing our students to meet the demands of
competing in the twenty-first century technological world. Are we addressing all of
the needs of our minority students, who currently comprise 36% of our population,
but make up more than half of all children born in the U.S. today?7

THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP

Why do we continue to see these disappointing test results? Although it is difficult to

pinpoint one particular reason, a science achievement gap still exists among minority
students and others students from diverse cultural backgrounds. According to the No
Child Left Behind Act of 2001, all students were required to achieve high academic
standards in core subject areas. However, although recent outcomes indicate that test
scores have improved, a gap remains between white students and African American
and Hispanic students, especially in the upper grades.8
Furthermore, Fensterwald concludes that the gap starts early in elementary school,
widens in middle school, and continues, through filters and barriers, on a trajectory
of low achievement and missed opportunities for minority groups. He claims that
by the end of college, the number of Latinos and African Americans who graduate
with degrees in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics is a trickle of the
population.9
In addition, we see a relatively stable science achievement gap in the way Hispanic
students perform as compared to white students, with white students outperforming
Hispanic students. Researchers explain that teachers appear to be unprepared to meet
the learning needs of English-language learners10 because they have not received
significant professional training in cultural differences. According to Bryan and
Atwater:
If teacher education programs do not assist science teachers in uncovering and
critiquing their beliefs about students and teaching, we will continue to have
teachers who rely on their cultural models that contain negative stereotypes
(beliefs) and prejudices (attitudes) about culturally diverse students, their
parents, and communities. Science for all will not become a reality for all
U.S. students.11
Others agree that teachers who are inadequately prepared to teach science or use its
teaching strategies12 are faced with a growing number of English Language Learners
(ELL) in their classrooms. These students frequently confront the demands of
academic learning through a yet-unmastered language without the instructional
support they need.13 Therefore, in order to improve the science literacy of their
ELL students, teachers need professional development intervention to improve

xix
INTRODUCTION

their knowledge and practices in teaching science while promoting English language
development of ELL students in urban schools.14
Moreover, according to Parsons, African American students, the second largest
minority group in the United States, perform poorly in science achievement in the
early grades, a trend that becomes more pronounced as they reach high school. Based
on her findings, she found that culturally congruent instruction and the context in
which African Americans learned science affected their success in that subject. In
her article, she analyzes the cross-cultural work of Au and Kawakami, who connect
culture, context, and learning by incorporating the ethnic minorities culture into
the education process. She contends that teaching content to these students should
contain relevant cultural examples along with meaningful strategies.15
Others agree that we see a declining number of African American students in
mathematics and science, particularly in STEM related fields. The reasons for this
decline include perception of those subjects, lack of mentoring, stereotyping, and
economic shortfalls.16 On a more positive note, however, in recent years dropout rates
have fallen steeply for all minority groups, including African American, Hispanic,
and low-income young people; college attendance among the same groups has
jumped sharply. Still, in 2014, students from low-income families complete college
at only one-seventh the rate of those from high-income families.17
Not only are African American students and Hispanics not achieving the kind
of success needed to understand basic science concepts, but girls also fall into this
category. Patrick, Mantzicopoulos, and Samarapungavan noted that according to
the United States Department of Education, girls are underrepresented in degrees
earned and careers related to physical science, computer and information science,
and engineering. Because girls are less likely to study science-oriented subjects and
dont select non-compulsory science classes in high school, they have minimized
their opportunity to access high-paying careers.18 Furthermore, St. Rose states, it
is true that women are underrepresented in high-paying jobs, like those in science,
technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) fields. But its not that simple
as women not choosing STEM theyre often actively discouraged from pursuing
careers in those fields.19
What, then, discourages girls? What influences girls motivation (or the lack
of it) to learn science? In a research study conducted in a large urban community,
elementary school girls in third and fifth grade were observed learning science in a
classroom setting with boys and other girls. Observers noted that cultural and societal
factors had an appreciable effect on how girls appeared to have learned science. The
qualitative study included observations, interviews, and a questionnaire; the results
mirrored previous studies, which indicated that girls are generally conscious about
their interrelationships with boys; this then affects their self-perception and the way
others perceive them. As a consequence, girls modify their behavior and alter the
way they learn science.20 This is certainly a possible influence that discourages girls
to choose science related careers.

xx
 INTRODUCTION

A CALL FOR ACTION

Given the performance among all students in the U.S. and the gap among certain
groups of students, I call upon you to act now and cultivate a love for all things
science. Its within your power to help your students improve their knowledge of
science, enrich the process of understanding science, develop their ability to think
critically, and facilitate their proficiency in connecting and applying science concepts
to everyday life . As professionals, its our responsibility to enhance science learning
for every student, whatever their race, culture, or gender. We are called on to foster
students natural curiosity so that they can reach their full potential and acquire the
necessary science skills to live productively in the twenty-first century. Without a
doubt, children from all backgrounds are capable of being successful in science.21
This ten-step handbook is designed as a tool to help you expand your views on
science education and develop curricula that include the process of inquiry-based
science. These ten steps will help you create a learning environment that emphasizes
hands-on discovery and exploration of scientific concepts. Consider this a guide,
which when implemented should help you create a classroom setting that is fun and
engaging for all your students . Follow these ten easy steps Ive outlined and you and
your students can grow together toward understanding your scientific world.

NOTES
1
National Committee on Science Education Standards and National Research Council. (1996). National
science education standards (p. 1). Retrieved from http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_
id=4962&page=1
2
Gilmer, P. J. (1999). Looking at science as a pattern: Learning from differing perspectives (p. 4).
Presented at the annual meeting, National Association for Research in Science Teaching. Boston, MA.
3
Keeley, P. (2009, May). Elementary science education in the K-12 System. NSTA Reports, 20, 3.
4
Prez-Pea, R. (2014, December 26). Colleges reinvent classes to keep more students in science.
The New York Times (p. 2). Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2014/12/27/us/college-science-
classes-failure-rates-soar-go-back-to-drawing-board.html
5
Gonzales, P., Williams T., Jocelyn, L., Roey, S., Kastberg, D., & Brenwald, S. (2008, December 9).
Highlights from TIMSS 2007: Mathematics and science achievement of U.S. fourth- and eighth-
grade students in an international context. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics,
Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. Retrieved from http://nces.ed.gov/
timss/results11.asp
6
National Center for Education Statistics. (2011). Trends in international mathematics and science
study (TIMSS). Retrieved from http://nces.ed.gov/timss/results11_science11.asp
7
Act for Youth: Center for Excellence. (2015). U.S. teen demographics. Retrieved from
http://www.actforyouth.net/adolescence/demographics
8
Bohrnstedt, G. (2013, October 30). Gains and gaps: Education performance after a nation at risk.
Retrieved from http://www.air.org/resource/three-decades-education-reform-are-we-still-nation-risk
9
Fensterwald, J. (2012). STEMing the minority gap. Retrieved from http://toped.svefoundation.org/
2012/04/03/steming-the-minority-gap/
10
Truby, R. (1998). Student work and teacher practices in science (NCES#1999-455). Washington, DC:
National Center for Education Statistics.
11
Bryan, L., & Atwater, M. (2002). Teacher beliefs and cultural models: A challenge for science teacher
preparation programs. Science Education, 86, 826.

xxi
INTRODUCTION

12
Kennedy, M. (1998). Form and substance in in-service teacher education (Research Monograph
No. 13). Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin, National Institute for Science Education.
13
Lee, O., Maerten-Rivera, J., Penfield, R. D., LeRoy, K., & Secada, W. G. (2008, January). Science
achievement of English language learners in urban elementary schools: Results of a first-year
professional development intervention. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 45, 32.
14
Lee, O., Maerten-Rivera, J., Penfield, R. D., LeRoy, K., & Secada, W. G. (2008, January). Science
achievement of English language learners in urban elementary schools: Results of a first-year
professional development intervention. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 45, 32.
15
Parsons, E. C. (2008, August). Learning contexts, Black cultural ethos, and the science achievement
of African American students in an urban middle school. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 45,
665683.
16
National Center for Education Statistics. (2011). Fast facts: Degrees conferred by race and sex.
Retrieved from http://nces.ed.gov/FastFacts/display.asp?id=72
17
National Center for Education Statistics. (2014). Progress for American children. Retrieved from
http://www.ed.gov/priorities
18
Patrick, H., Mantzicopoulos, P., & Samarapungavan, A. (2009, February). Motivation for learning
science in kindergarten: Is there a gender gap and does integrated inquiry and literacy instruction
make a difference? Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 46, 166191.
19
St. Rose, A. (2013, Winter). Community college: Training ground for women in STEM? Outlook, 107,
2021.
20
Greenspan, Y. F. (2000). Gender differences in an elementary school learning environment : A study on
how girls learn science in collaborative learning groups. Ann Arbor, MI: Bell & Howell Information
and Learning Company.
21
Duschl, R. A., Schweingruber, H. A., & Shouse, A. W. (2007). Taking science to school: Learning and
teaching science in grades K-8. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.

xxii
 part I
Ten Easy Steps
 CHAPTER 1

STEP ONE
Know What You Want to Accomplish

The important thing in science is not so much to obtain new facts as to discover
new ways of thinking about them.
 William Lawrence Bragg
Science is complex to teach, in no small part because its always changing. Your first
priority is understanding the content youre about to teach. (If you are not familiar
with the science concept at hand, use the resources mentioned below.) However, its
fine to learn along with your students, and theyll admire you for living the reality
that scientific knowledge is expanding rapidly. After all, the ideal classroom is one
in which the students and teacher grow and evolve into a community of learners.1
Ask yourself what you want to learn about the concept, what content is required,
and your students current level of understanding of the topic. As you develop your
students curiosity, try to widen yours. If possible, read books and magazines on the
topic, research current practices, use students textbooks or your Teachers Guide
as a reference, discuss the topic with colleagues, browse the Internet, and attend
professional development workshops. All of these will help you prepare for what
you want to accomplish.

ORGANIZE AND PLAN

Organizing and planning your lessons are the most important and time-consuming
tasks involved in teaching, whether the subject is language arts, mathematics, social
studies, or science. However, gathering the tools and planning lessons to meet your
objectives are necessary steps to ensure success. (Check out suggestions for inquiry
learning and the lesson plan format for the 5-E Instructional Model detailed in Step
Five).

PLANNING A SCIENCE CURRICULUM

The groundwork for all science lesson planning is derived from the National Science
Education Standards, published in 1996. Standards are not a curriculum. They are
not a set of lesson plans. They are goals for achievement that are appropriate for all
members of the science education community.2 Most recently, the Next Generation
Science Standards were released; their goal is to better prepare students to think

3
CHAPTER 1

critically, engage them in more relevant context, and apply science to their daily
lives.3 The Standards are divided into three main areas:
1. Performance expectations: Performances that can be assessed to determine if
students meet the standards on what they should know and understand.
2. Disciplinary Core Ideas: Each performance expectation incorporates disciplinary
core ideas (physical science, life science, earth and space, engineering, technology
and applications of science), cross-cutting concepts (patterns, cause and effect,
systems, energy, structure, and stability), and a science and engineering practice.
3. Connections to other ideas and Common Core: Each set of performance
expectations lists connections to other ideas within science and engineering, and
with the Common Core State Standards (see below) in mathematics and language
arts.4,5
By following the guidelines set forth in these Standards, teachers know what they
need to accomplish in their science classrooms.
In addition, statewide standards, those known as Common Core Standards,6 were
developed by a team of educators that included teachers, administrators, and national
organizations. Their mission was to upgrade state standards by adopting a common
core of internationally benchmarked standards in mathematics and language arts
for grades K-12. The objective of the Common Core Standards is to ensure that
students of that state become equipped with the necessary knowledge and skills in
mathematics and language arts to be competitive globally. Although the Common
Core Standards are not yet written for science, expectations are that science content
would be integrated into the teaching of both mathematics and language arts.
Next, consider how youll plan your lessons. Develop a unit of study, a series
of easy-flowing and sequentially-targeted lessons, which correlate with the Next
Generation Science Standards and the Common Core Standards mentioned above.
Both the National Research Council7 and the Institute for Inquiry8 recommend
that the goals or outcomes for most science lessons should focus on teaching both
science content and the science process skills (now referred to as Practices in the
Next Generation Science Standards): observing, measuring, inferring, classifying,
predicting, and communicating (see Step Seven). Plan ahead, always remembering
that your planning depends on the cognitive and maturation levels of your students.
Consider a format for lesson development, incorporating inquiry-based learning,
which includes the five phases9 of engagement, exploration, explanation, elaboration,
evaluation (discussed in Step Five).
By the same token, try to organize your investigations/experiments during your
planning periods, a time when students arent present. Further, prepare well in
advance with all materials you need to conduct the investigation. Good preparation
decreases stress and promotes a safe learning environment that ensures maximum
learning. At the time you present the lesson itself, your materials should be ready to
distribute to your students. Your preparation then gives you ample time to interact
with your students and guide them through the learning process.

4
 STEP ONE

THE NEED TO BE FLEXIBLE

Finally, try to be flexible. Think about all the issues that could affect your curriculum,
from planning your lessons, gathering your manipulatives, and/or organizing your
experiments. You may need to be flexible in any number of areas to accommodate
your students needs. Students classroom behavior and their readiness to learn,
potential parent requests, and possible administration directives might call on you to
modify your lesson plan as you teach. When time is short, you may need to change
your plan and complete the topic at another time or make changes to teach it in the
next hour or the next day.
In addition, be flexible if the manipulatives you need to conduct an experiment
arent immediately available they could be hidden in closets, cabinets, or boxes in
other classrooms in the school (see Step Six). If you need to, tap into the resources at
your school; ask administrators, other teachers, or even your students if they know
where the materials are located.
If the tools you need for conducting a particular lesson are unavailable, solicit
donations from local businesses or check the catalogues of various scientific
companies, such as:
Carolina Biological Supply www.carolina.com
ETA Hand2Mind www.hand2mind.com
Frey Scientific www.freyscientific.com
Explore Learning www.explorelearning.com
Pasco Scientific www.pasco.com
Of course, request monetary help from your administrator before purchasing the
manipulatives, or ask your students parents to donate the materials (see Step Six).
Youll experience much less frustration if you take steps to acquire the materials
your students need for their experiments.

KEY POINTS

Know what you want to accomplish in your science curriculum.

Find out what you need to learn in order to teach a specific scientific concept.
Develop a curriculum aligned to the Next Generation Science Standards or the
Common Core Standards.
Create lesson plans that include inquiry-based learning, and, most importantly, be
flexible during your planning time and in your teaching.

notes
1
Tobin, K., & Tippins, D. (1993). Constructivism as a referent for teaching and learning. In K. Tobin
(Ed.), The practice of constructivism in science education (pp. 321). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates.

5
CHAPTER 1

2
Kendall Hunt Publishing Company. (2014). National science education standards (p. 1). Retrieved
from http://www.mykhscience.com/standards.html
3
National Science Teachers Association. (2009). National science education standards. Retrieved from
http://www.nsta.org/publications/nses.aspx
4
Next Generation Science Standards. (2013, May). Appendix M: Connections to the common core state
standards for literacy in science and technical subjects. Retrieved from http://www.nextgenscience.org/
sites/ngss/files/Appendix%20M%20Connections%20to%20the%20CCSS%20for%20Literacy_
061213.pdf
5
Committee on Development of an Addendum to the National Science Education Standards on
Scientific Inquiry, Center for Science, Mathematics and Engineering Education & National research
Council. (2000). Inquiry and the national science education standards: A guide for teaching and
learning. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
6
Common Core Standards. (2015). Preparing Americas students for success. Retrieved from
http://www.corestandards.org/
7
National Research Council. (1996). National science education standards. Retrieved from
http://serc.carleton.edu/resources/1572.html
8
Exploratorium Institute for Inquiry. (2006). Assessing for learning: Workshops designed to
introduce teachers to formative assessment (Workshops IIV). San Francisco, CA. Retrieved from
www.exploratorium.edu/ifi/workshops/assessing
9
BSCS 5E Instructional Model. (2012). Retrieved from http://www.bscs.org/bscs-5e-instructional-
model

6
 CHAPTER 2

STEP TWO
Set the Stage

Imagination is more important than knowledge.

 Albert Einstein
Setting the stage or creating an atmosphere that promotes a love of learning is as
important as planning a viable science curriculum. Being familiar with each of your
students helps you become aware of the many factors that affect how they learn in
the classroom. In addition, when teachers present a scientific concept, they must
address misconceptions students already have about the topic. As Bransford, Brown
and Cocking note, Before students can really learn new scientific concepts, they
often need to re-conceptualize deeply rooted misconceptions that interfere with the
learning.1
In other words, as we experience and observe the physical world, we construct a
view that we stubbornly stick to whether or not it conflicts with scientific concepts.
One example would be the way we think about a leaf and rock falling to the ground.
Most of us reason that the rock falls faster than a leaf because it is heavier and the
leaf is lighter. As we think about Newtons apple falling from the tree, we now know
that a heavier object does not always fall to the ground more quickly than a lighter
object because when dropped from the same height, objects fall to the earth at the
same time when no major amount of air mass is acting upon them. Once we actually
perform the task, we realize that our understanding is incorrect and we are forced to
accept a new view.

THE CONSTRUCTIVIST LEARNING THEORY

Using the Constructivist Learning Theory as a guide, we can assume that individuals
build knowledge based on previous experiences, constructed by making sense of
these personal experiences in a social context.24 In other words, learners construct
their own knowledge and develop meaning based on that knowledge. Thats why a
pre-knowledge phase gives the teacher an awareness of what the student knows at
the onset. Lets think about the impact of a heavier moving truck colliding with a
small car. Most know, based on their experiences, that the truck will do much more
damage to the car just because it is bigger and, therefore, in their thinking, can exert
a larger force. However, Newtons Law states that two interacting bodies exert equal
and opposite forces on each other. Therefore, students should be given opportunities

7
CHAPTER 2

to explore such misconceptions together to change their initial construct and cultivate
a new one.
In the final analysis, this pre-teaching phase allows the teacher to understand
what drives a student to understand a science concept. The teacher can then correct
students ideas and guide them toward a better comprehension of the goals of the
lesson and, at the same time, students can take on the responsibility to move forward
and learn the concept.

TEACHER EFFICACY

Lets consider the student/teacher roles. The student is expected to cooperate,

become an active learner, and complete the task. However, what should we expect
from teachers in a student-oriented learning environment? According to Ashton5
there are two components to teacher expectations:
the teacher believes that students, generally speaking, can learn the material.
the teacher believes that some of these students can learn under his or her direction.
Ashton further reports there are eight dimensions to the development of teacher
efficacy:

Figure 1. Dimensions of teacher efficacy. The eight dimensions suggest that teacher
effectiveness is rooted in a positive attitude toward their own abilities and their
responsibilities and goals, paired with student cooperation6

Based on Ashtons beliefs about teacher effectiveness and expectations, the notion
evolves that students take responsibility for their own learning while teachers
provide the necessary manipulatives and tools with which to discover and learn. In

8
 STEP TWO

other words, the teacher, as a guide, establishes a community of learners that expects
students to engage with each other and ultimately succeed in learning science.

QUESTIONING TECHNIQUES

The manner in which teachers approach questioning students is key in determining

if a student understands a concept or simply recalls information. This is the reason
questioning strategies should be open-ended and provoke thought, enhance critical
thinking, and give the teacher access to how students think. Once you know their
ideas, you can encourage students to test them. The way a teacher forms a question
and then responds to an answer also determines if the students are comfortable
enough to openly express themselves.
Manktelow and Carlson7 define questions as either closed or open. A closed
question requires a simple response of yes or no, or it might be answered with a short
response. A closed question tests students understanding or concludes a discussion;
these kinds of questions also can stop a conversation and create long silences. On the
other hand, an open question requires the student to think about the response. These
questions usually begin with what, why or how, but they could also start with a
phrase or word that implies expansiveness, such as tell me, or describe. An open
question elicits students knowledge, opinions, or feelings and encourages them to
provide details and further explore other issues.
According to Exploratorium8 we can identify four categories of questioning in
inquiry learning:
Subject-centered, in which only one correct answer is possible.
Person-centered, in which no wrong or right answer exists because the question
asks what the student thinks.
Process-centered, in which students must do something, using process skills, such
as observing, measuring, inferring, and classifying.
Other skills that do not fit into any of the above categories.
Obviously, an inquiry-based learning environment should emphasize more person-
centered and process-centered questions.
Keep in mind that questions provide more than information about what students
are learning. Open questions also help:
build a bond between teachers and students;
both teachers and students reflect on the topic;
guide students through their misconceptions and eliminate them; and
encourage students to embrace new ideas.
Ask open-ended questions in both small group discussions or with the whole classroom
group, and in either case, use visual graphic organizers (see Step Four) to begin a
dialogue. Or, use questions to start a brainstorming session on a specific topic such as
push/pull, living/nonliving, sink/float, evaporation/condensation, and so forth.

9
CHAPTER 2

Equally important to asking the right kind of question is the manner in which a
teacher responds to a students answer. For example, if you respond by saying, any
questions or is that clear? or okay? youre inadvertently telling your students
that they shouldnt have any questions and deadens further discussion. Better to say,
I bet you have some questions now maybe I can answer them! This implies that
youre interested in what they have to say.
When addressing questions, first focus on the entire class rather than the
individual student so that the student is not singled out. Next, be positive, direct,
loving, constructive, encouraging, and helpful. If the question is a good one, tell the
student as much; if the response is off task or inconsequential to the topic, respond
with a different kind of statement, such as: Thats very interesting, I like what
youre saying, or Lets talk about that later. Finally, if youre unsure about a
response or simply want to involve your students in the process, throw the question
back to them.9

DEVELOP A SCIENCE DISCOURSE

Many researchers have studied the importance of teachers and students discussing
scientific concepts together, either in a whole class setting or in small groups. For
example, Gallas10 describes the way implementing talking science can transform
the way we teach science and over time, changes the teachers role. She views
classroom science as a place for discourse, with its own language and thinking
practices and describes the outcome for students in this child-centered approach. In
other words, when students discuss the language of science throughout the learning
process, it enhances their understandings of scientific concepts and provokes further
thought.

ENHANCE STUDENTS NATURAL CURIOSITY

Along these same lines, you can set the stage by enhancing your students natural
curiosity; they already have an innate desire to learn about the world first-hand, which
is why its important to provide ample and meaningful opportunities to develop a
love of learning science. Their eagerness to explore and discover is inherent, but
as they observe and experience the world, they may develop misconceptions. For
example, based on observation alone, they may conclude the sun rises in the morning
at the same place, or the same stars appear in the sky every night, seasons are caused
by the distance between the earth and the sun, the moon can only been seen at night,
mass and weight are the same, and rocks must be heavy.11
Teachers should provide many hands-on activities so students can work through
their misconceptions, change their beliefs, and reconceptualize their views. As they
face these challenges and learn to solve problems effortlessly, students can apply the
process to real-world situations.

10
 STEP TWO

KEY POINTS

Guide students through their misconceptions as you encourage their curiosity

about the world around them.
Be mindful of the environment the atmosphere you create in your classroom.
Stimulate science discourse through open questions and the manner in which you
respond to their answers.
Inspire your students to love science by using their inherent curiosity about the
world.

notes
1
Bransford, J. D., Brown, A. L., & Cocking, R. R. (Eds.). (1999). How people learn: Brain, mind,
experience, and school (p. 167). Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
2
Driver, R., Squires, A., Rushworth, P., & Wood-Robinson, V. (1994). Making sense of secondary
science: Research into childrens ideas. London, England: Routledge.
3
Geelan, D. R. (1997). Epistemological anarchy and the many forms of constructivism. Science &
Education, 6, 1528.
4
Tobin, K. (1993). Preface: Constructivism: A paradigm for the practice of science education. In K.
Tobin (Ed.), The practice of constructivism in science education (pp. ixxvi). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates.
5
Ashton, P. (1984). Teacher efficacy: A motivational paradigm for effective teacher education. Journal
of Teacher Education, 35(5), 2832.
6
Ashton, P. (1984). Teacher efficacy: A motivational paradigm for effective teacher education. Journal
of Teacher Education, 35(5), 29.
7
Manktelow, J., & Carlson, A. (2015). Questioning techniques: Video transcript. Retrieved from
https://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newTMC_88.htm
8
Exploratorium Institute for Inquiry. (2006). Assessing for learning: Workshops designed to
introduce teachers to formative assessment (Workshops IIV). San Francisco, CA. Retrieved from
www.exploratorium.edu/ifi/workshops/assessing/
9
Berkeley University of California Center for Teaching and Learning. (2015). Student engagement:
Asking and answering questions. Retrieved from http://teaching.berkeley.edu/asking-and-answering-
questions
10
Gallas, K. (1995). Talking their way into science: Hearing childrens questions and theories,
responding with curricula. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.
11
National Science Teachers Association. (2014). Common elementary student science misconceptions.
Retrieved from http://www.nsta.org/elementaryschool/connections/201209AppropriateTopics-
ElementaryStudentScienceMisconceptions.pdf

11