Theological Dramatics and Post-Christian Drama

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Theological dramatics and post-Christian drama: Hans
Urs von Balthasar's dialogues with twentieth-century
theatre
Allnutt, Clive Dennis
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2
Clive Denis Allnutt
Theological Dramatics and Post-Christian Drama;

Hans Urs von Balthasar's Dialogues with Twentieth-Century Theatre
Master of Arts
University of Durham, Department of Theology
2001
The copyright of this thesis rests with

the author. No quotation from it should
be published in any form, including
Electronic and the Internet, without the
author's prior written consent. All
information derived from this thesis
must be acknowledged appropriately.
2
-1-
Clive Denis Allnutt
Theological Dramatics and Post-Christian Drama:

Hans Urs von Balthasar's Dialogues with Twentieth-Century Theatre
Master of Arts
University of Durham, Department of Theology
2001
This thesis examines Hans Urs von Balthasar's theological dialogues with twentieth-
century theatre. It locates them in the context of his vision of theo-drama, showing that
they are grounded in a Christological intuition of what drama is. An account of
Balthasar's theodramatic hermeneutics introduces his theatrical vocabulary, a scheme
of two inter-related triads and consequent themes, in which the ultimate term of
dramatic reality is theological. His hermeneutics appropriates theatre practice as a
theological resource, in a way by which not only the practitioners' theological status
but also their dramatic potential is exposed. I offer a model of Balthasar's
understanding of life as drama in three dimensions, the natural-human, the ecclesial-
personal and the eschatological-final, arguing that he requires twentieth-century theatre
to be post-Christian in as much as it is dramatic. I focus on dialogues with theatre
directors and show how Balthasar uses his theological standard for drama to interpret
directors as post-Christian and then, in dialogue with that interpretation, to find them
either protesting or parodic in respect of Christian theodramatic reality. A particular
study of Balthasar's dialogue with Peter Brook outlines, on Brook's terms, the
relationship between life and drama and considers Brook's rhetorical use of Christian
imagery, especially that of incarnation and grace. This highlights the extent to which
Balthasar selectively appropriates aspects of Brook's work as post-Christian and makes
that appropriation, and not Brook's own stance. Brook's situation as his dialogue
partner. From such specific considerations, I question whether Balthasar's is a strategy
for genuine dialogue. I argue that Balthasar considers dialogue itself as a dramatic
phenomenon internally relative to God's dramatic activity in Christ and conclude that
his account and practice of dialogue is only sustainable within this perspective.
Table of Contents
1: BALTHASAR'S THEOLOGICAL DIALOGUES WITH THEATRE 1
1.1: HANS URS VON B ALTHAS AR 1

1.11: Theological Life 1
1.12: Theological Method 5
1.13: Theological Style 9
1.14: Theological Dialogues with Theatre 13
2: BALTHASAR'S THEOLOGICAL DRAMATICS 18
2.1: THEOLOGICAL DRAMATIC INTUITION 18

2.11: The Structure of the Dramatics 18
2.12: The Centrality of the Dramatic 20
2.13: Theological Dramatic Intuition 26
2.2: THEO-DRAMA 27
2.21: Dramatic Christology: the Mission 27
2.211: Christ: Unique Action 29
2.212: Christ: Unique Horizon 33
2.213: Participative Christology 37
2.22: Anthropology and Soteriology as Christological Implications 39
2.221: Dramatic Anthropology: the Play of Freedoms 39
2.222: Dramatic Soteriology: Life in Christ 42
2.23: Theo-Drama as Relational Ontology 46
IH
3: BALTHASAR'S THEODRAMATIC HERMENEUTICS 51
3.1: THEODRAMATIC HERMENEUTICS 51

3.11: Theological Dramatic Approach 52
3.12: Theatrical Vocabulary 55
3.13: Theodramatic Hermeneutics 65
3.14: Christian Dramatic Ontology 68
4: BALTHASAR'S DIALOGUES WITH

TWENTIETH-CENTURY THEATRE 74
4.1: LIFE AS DRAMA 74

4.11: Three Dramatic Dimensions 74
4.111: The Natural-Human Dramatic Dimension 74
4.112: The Ecclesial-Personal Dramatic Dimension 75
4.113: The Eschatological-Final Dramatic Dimension 78
4.12: Eschatological Integration 79
4.13: Post-Christian Drama 82
4.2: TWENTIETH-CENTURY THEATRE 88

4.21: Dialogues with Post-Christian Theatre Directors 89
4.211: Mediation 90
4.212: Transcendent Horizon 91
4.213: Particular Presentation 94
4.22: The Pneumatological Standard 96
IV
5: BALTHASAR AND BROOK 99
5.1: BALTHASAR'S DIALOGUE WITH BROOK 99

5.11: Peter Brook 99
5.12: The Quality of Immediate Theatre 101
5.13: Balthasar's Dialogue with Brook 108
5.2: BROOK ON THEOLOGY AND THEOLOGY ON BROOK 112

5.21: Brook's Christian Rhetoric: Incarnation and Grace 112
5.211: Incarnation 114
5.212: Grace 121
5.22: Brook on Theology and Theology on Brook 127
6: BALTHASAR'S THEODRAMATIC DIALOGUES 130
6.1: CONCLUSION 130

6.11: Balthasar's Theodramatic Dialogues 130
6.12: Achievement of Balthasar's Theodramatic Dialogues 135
6.13: Theodramatic Dialogues after Balthasar 137
6.131: Francesca Murphy and Max Harris 148
6.132: Victoria Harrison, David Haberman and Frank Burch Brown 141
6.14: Theodramatic Dialogues with Theatre Directors 145
6.15: Conclusion 148
BIBLIOGRAPHY 154
- V
Abbreviations
Theological Dramatics = Hans Urs von Balthasar, Theo-Drama: Theological Dramatic

Theory, 5 vols., trans. Graham Harrison (San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 1988-1998)
T D l = Hans Urs von Balthasar, Theo-Drama: Theological Dramatic Theory. Volume I:
Prolegomena, trans. Graham Harrison (San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 1988)
TD2 = Hans Urs von Balthasar, Theo-Drama: Theological Dramatic Theory. Volume
II: The Dramatis Personae: Man in God, trans. Graham Harrison (San Francisco:
Ignatius Press, 1990)
III: The Dramatis Personae: Persons in Christ, trans. Graham Harrison (San Francisco:
IV: The Action, trans. Graham Harrison (San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 1994)
V: The Last Act, trans. Graham Harrison (San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 1998)
Acknowledgements
I acknowledge the financial support of the Arts and Humanities Research Board. I
wrote this thesis at the University of Durham, as a student in the Theology Department
and a member of Hatfield College; I am grateful for the support and guidance of many
people in both places. Particular thanks are due to Dr. Colin Crowder for his
supervision of the thesis. I benefited from use of the libraries of the University, the
Cathedral and Ushaw College. Numerous seminars and discussions, both in the
Department and at Hatfield, developed my theological interests through the year: I
would like particularly to thank Barney, Michael and Theo.
Note
This thesis is the product of my own work, and the work of others has been properly
acknowledged throughout. The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. No
quotation from it should be published without their prior written consent and
information derived from it should be acknowledged.
- vi
What does it mean in ... theatre ... to be creative in ways which
not only acknowledge (in however implicit ways) that the first
audience is Jesus Christ, but also participate in the 'ecology of
blessing' which he generates?
David Ford'
Is Balthasar a writer who simply presents a superbly integrated

pattern of Christian symbols, rich and satisfying, but offering no
point of entry to the contemporary secular mentahty?
Rowan Williams^
' Self and Salvation: Being Transformed (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), p.268
^ 'Foreword' in John Saward, The Mysteries of March: Hans Urs von Balthasar on the Incarnation and
Easter (London: Collins, 1990), p.ix
-vii
1; BALTHASAR'S T H E O L O G I C A L D I A L O G U E S WITH T H E A T R E
1.1: HANS URS VON BALTHASAR
Hans Urs von Balthasar understood Christian theology to be a lived perspective,

a discipline in which particular events can be appreciated in relation to a universal,
networked reality. Such theological living informed his method and style and provided
him with a stance from which to dialogue with culture, with other lived perspectives. I
will outline Balthasar's theological life in order to relate it to his method and style, the
three of which assume that the ultimate relationship between the particular and the
universal, and thus the ultimate lived perspective, is theological. Then I will introduce
two scholars' praise for Balthasar's theological dialogue with culture, in order to raise
expectations against which to measure Balthasar's dialogues with twentieth-century
theatre in his Theological Dramatics.
1.11: Theological Life
Balthasar was bom in 1905 in Lucerne, Switzerland to a Catholic family. He

was a musical child and he studied literature, culminating in a doctorate on eschatology
in German literature. He entered the Society of Jesus and found a pastoral, rather than
academic vocation, including student chaplaincy at Basel. With Adrienne von Speyr, he
founded a secular institute, in which members under vows continued in their
professions. Consequently, he left the Society of Jesus in 1950. He wrote over seventy
books, editing, publishing and translating many more.' Yet he considered writing
secondary to the task of working in the Church. With others, he established the journal
Communio: International Catholic Review in 1974. Its programme centred on the
determination that 'Christianity today ... can claim universal importance precisely on
the ground of its uniqueness.'^ While it is suggested that, in his prime, the Church
' See Cornelia Capol (ed.), Hans Urs von Balthasar: Bibliographie 1925 - 1990 (Einsiedeln: Johannes,
1990)
^ Hans Urs von Balthasar, 'Communio - A Programme', Communio 1.1 (1974), p.3
1
under-rated Balthasar, he died more esteemed in 1988, 'a few days before he was due
to become a cardinal.'^
Many biographers share Angelo Scola's opinion that it is 'impossible in

Balthasar's case to separate [the] work of the theologian from the experience of the
subject that produced it.''* Balthasar lived within the communion of saints and his
influences reflect this perceived position. As biographers of Balthasar tend to introduce
his theology from a perspective of shared communion with him in Christian life,
considerable importance is attached to the network of formation around him. It is rare
to see anyone not a Christian theologian cited. This is consonant with Balthasar's well-
known view that theology must occur within sanctity and with the importance he
ascribed to personal encounter in this regard. Of course, the communion of saints need
not be confined to the living. Past theological masters, most notably in Balthasar
Ignatius of Loyola and Thomas Aquinas, stand among them. To be well read in
Christian theology, for Balthasar, is an extension of personal theological encounter:
participation in the ongoing communion. Only as textual influence on Balthasar,
however, do non-theologians begin to appear.^ And Balthasar's notion of reading well
beyond Christian theology seems to me not to share this sense of personal encounter.
Rather, the cultured theologian, who reads in European literature and the arts, critically
integrates his disparate findings into what would be their truth - the Christian centre of
the universal whole. On Balthasar's view, without such service to Christian reality any
cultural discussion 'may as well be literary gossip.'^ True influences on Balthasar's
life, those of personal encounter, are thus theologically focused. A 'divine formation in
^ John Riches and Ben Quash, 'Hans Urs von Balthasar', in David F. Ford (ed.), The Modern
Theologians: An Introduction to Christian Theology in the Twentieth Century (Oxford: Blackwell, 2'' ed.
1997),p.l35
Angelo Scola, Hans Urs von Balthasar: A Theological Style (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1995), p.l 1
' This includes some theatre practitioners and theorists. However, I have found none cited as direct
personal influence on Balthasar, either in biography or in Balthasar's reflections on his work.
^ Balthasar quoted Peter Henrici, 'Hans Urs von Balthasar: a Sketch of his Life' in David L. Schindler
(ed.), Hans Urs von Balthasar: His Life and Work (San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 1991), p.25
2
the life of Balthasar' is reflected in 'innumerable personal meetings' and reflected
again in his 'reading' and 'written work'.^
The influence of Balthasar on others is correspondingly centred in Christian

community. Balthasar became known as a conservative Catholic theologian, but
Mederd Kehl's view is that as theologians
avoid letting [their] picture of Balthasar be stamped just by his positions on certain inner-church
questions and tendencies the cliche 'conservative' will get left behind very quickly, and [they]
will hit upon a capacity of integrative breadth and penetrating meditative depth that is truly
astonishing. ^
And Brian Davies plausibly describes Balthasar as 'someone whose stature will
doubtless continue to grow among Christians as time goes on.'^ Outside the Christian
theological communion there is very little appreciation or criticism. I am not aware of
any comment made about Balthasar by a theatre practitioner or performance theorist;
they do not appear to have encountered him. John Riches and Ben Quash summarise
the 'agenda' set by Balthasar's theology by suggesting that 'for as long as [the] divine
drama exerts its claim, Balthasar's meditations will have strange and compelling
insights to offer.' Balthasar's compelling insights, at least to date, have remained only
strange to theatre practitioners who do not find themselves claimed by the Christian
reality in communion in which they are offered.
Such biographical influences, on and of Balthasar, suggest that his is a

theological life, with the place of theology being in the Church, fostering the Christian
tradition. This is expressed in a 'word of thanks' he wrote on reaching sixty.
^ Peter Henrici, 'Hans Urs von Balthasar: His Cultural and Theological Education', in Thomas Norris
and Bede McGregor (eds.), The Beauty of Christ: A [sic] Introduction to the Theology of Hans Urs von
Balthasar (Edinhmgh: T&T Clark, 1994), 10-22
^ Mederd Kehl, 'Hans Urs von Balthasar: A Portrait', in Mederd Kehl and Werner Loser (eds.), The von
Balthasar Reader (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1982), p.6
' Brian Davies, 'Editorial Introduction' in John O'Donnell, Hans Urs von Balthasar (London: Geoffrey
Chapman, 1992), p.vii
Riches and Quash, 'Balthasar', p. 149
3
All charisms of Christians are inextricably interwoven; everyone owes himself not only to God,
but to the whole Church. ... Who is able to say thanks? To repay the immeasurable realm of the
deceased and surviving individuals with the homage they deserve for the graces they have
mediated? Where is the wonderful being known as Homer, that he might be thanked; where the
chaste Vergil and the God-fiUed heart of Plotinus? Love and honour must suffice for them."
Balthasar continues, thanking some theologian friends by name. But where does
Homer, Vergil or any non-Christian end up? They cannot be thanked for graces
mediated, however sincere Balthasar's love and honour may be. That quality of
encounter is reserved among Christians in the Church, which in its divine formation is
the living sacrament of God's love. Balthasar claimed that, in God's providence, 'the
Church is the opening to the worid that God has created' - as a community, it has been
given universal scope as a body for the world and therefore needs no links that would
make it a body with others in the w o r l d . T h e purpose of the Christian communion is
to be itself, 'a simple presence in the dechristianised world.'^^ This presence, manifest
in the communion of saints, should, and could, encompass all people. Yet, it is not open
to all in a generic, anthropologically natural, sense but only through receiving shared
encounter with each other in God through Christ. Little wonder, then, that Balthasar's
true influences are among Christian theologians and not, say, non-Christian theatre
practitioners.
In Balthasar's panegyric, Joseph Ratzinger quoted Paul's letter to the

Philippians. "For me to live is Christ': this phrase ... sums up in a final way his whole
journey.' Living amidst the influences of the communion of saints, and aware also of
a dechristianised mass, Balthasar's life was governed by the 'task of renewing the
Church through the formation of new communities [of] radical Christian life ... in the
" Hans Urs von Balthasar, 'In Retrospect' in John Riches (ed.), The Analogy of Beauty: The Theology of
Hans Urs von Balthasar (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1986), pp.218-219
Hans Urs von Balthasar, Truth is Symphonic: Aspects of Christian Pluralism, trans. Graham Harrison
(San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 1987), p.92
Balthasar quoted Henrici, 'Sketch', p.37
Joseph Ratzinger quoted Aidan Nichols, The Word Has Been Abroad: A Guide Through Balthasar's
Aesthetics (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1998), p.xx
4
midst of the w o r l d . ' T h e method and style of Balthasar's written theology,
particularly its approach to dialogue, evidence the tension of this theological life - a
tension between the confidence of living in true, universally relevant communion and
the challenge of such living amidst a secular, seemingly unattached world.
1.12: Theological IMethod
Balthasar is often grouped with the post-liberals, theologians who, John

Webster fairly suggests, have a 'lack of investment in method.''^ Yet, much of
Balthasar's work is preoccupied with the way theology should be undertaken. He
described his Love Alone^^ as a 'synthesis of many ... efforts to express the meaning
and form of theology.' Meaning and form may not be quite the same as method. But
these efforts can be considered a methodology, i f only because they are so clearly
polemical, in ongoing opposition to Karl Rahner's. This study makes no attempt to
evaluate Balthasar's method in its theological context. Yet, the extent to which
Balthasar understood his way of doing theology as a corrective against a perceived
Rahnerian mainstream is so considerable that it is in this context that it is introduced
below.'^
Hans Urs von Balthasar, 'Another Ten Years - 1975', in John Riches (ed.), The Analogy of Beauty:
The Theology of Hans Urs von Balthasar (Edinburgh; T&T Clark, 1986), p.223
John Webster, 'Theology After Liberalism?', in John Webster and George P. Schner (eds.), Theology
after Liberalism: A Reader (Oxford: Blackwell, 2000), p.58
" Hans Urs von Balthasar, Love Alone: The Way of Revelation, trans. Alexander Dru (London: Sheed
and Ward, 1970)
Balthasar, 'In Retrospect', p.202
" I will discuss Rahner's methodology only as it is characterised by Balthasar. For a general introduction
to the Balthasar/Rahner debate, see Rowan Williams, 'Balthasar and Rahner', in John Riches (ed.). The
Analogy of Beauty: The Theology of Hans Urs von Balthasar (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1986), 11-34.
Williams discusses the distinctive epistemological approaches of Balthasar and Rahner. Balthasar begins
in contingency, with contingency understood as fmitude within infinity: particular interdependent
contingencies centre human understanding and creative intention plays a unitive role. Rahner operates on
the basis of formal pre-apprehension surrounding the strands of understanding; this formal pre-
apprehension is transcendental and is not tied to any particular expression or vocabulary.
5
Balthasar concluded Love Alone by defining 'reason which understands.'
Rational understanding is by 'selection' and 'grouping ... round a chosen point of
reference.' He highlights two points that must not be the theologian's reference:
'cosmology (or religious ontology)' and 'anthropology.' Rather, their focus 'can only
be found in revelation itself that comes from God and provides the centre.' This
revelation is concrete: the paschal mystery of Christ's death and resurrection
eucharistically present in the Church. Balthasar is not claiming that cosmology and
anthropology are non-theological. His concern is that they must be 'simply functions of
that one [theological] centre' and not 'in the form of a monstrance designed to hold up
the eucharistic heart to our view.'^' Balthasar's theological method is one in which the
particular narrative performed in the Church, rather than purportedly neutral
anthropological categories, has purchase on universal reality.
Theology seems, for the most part, to be turning in directions very different from the one
suggested here.^^
For Balthasar, Rahner's account of anonymous Christians stands out among all the
unfortunate turns that attempt to support Christian truth in order that it might be seen by
all. On Fergus Kerr's analysis, Balthasar 'attacked the notion of 'anonymous
Christians' based on the thesis of the 'supernatural existential', supported in turn by
'transcendental theology'.'^^ Any account of anonymous Christians suggested to
Balthasar a capacity in the human spirit, without explicit prayerful recognition of the
form of Christ, to live according to its created orientation. On Balthasar's view, this
requires the situation, in fact dramatically engaged, between God and humanity to be
rendered statically existential. Humanity becomes conceptually supernatural: owning
existentially qualities it can only receive dramatically. To support humanity thus, God
becomes transcendental, grounding and guaranteeing a general appreciation of truth in
life. Yet Balthasar's Christianity offers truth in life only by dramatically personal
Balthasar, Love Alone, p.lI9

^' Balthasar, Love Alone, p. 123
Balthasar, Love Alone, p. 122
Fergus Kerr, Immortal Longings: Versions of Transcending Humanity (London: SPCK, 1997), p.173
6
encounter. A generalised existentialisation of God and humanity combined in support
of anonymous Christians is attacked, characteristically, in the Theological Dramatics:
God's merciful turn toward a lost world, in Jesus Christ... - this fundamental dramatic act of
God in his freedom - becomes the undramatic, permanent, essential constitution of a God who
... is (and always has been) the eternally radiant 'Sun of Goodness'. Accordingly, the picture of
man is primarily determined, not by his frail finitude in which, nonetheless, he must accomplish
things of ultimate value, but by a resignation with which he commends himself to the
unfathomable mystery of his being.^''
Balthasar does not confront Rahner by name here, although he does so frequently in
more ephemeral writings and particularly in The Moment of Christian Witness, where
he makes critical reference to Rahner's understanding of Christ as 'the unique supreme
case of the essential performance of human reality.'^^ Balthasar disputes this theology
as dramatic anthropology. Its impropriety lies in its essentialisation of the performance
of God and humanity - God, transcendentally and humanity, existentially. This is
reductive of the dramatic encounter between them. It reduces decision in Christ,
primarily from God to humans and responsively from humans to God, to a point at
which it is no longer necessary. For, in Rahner's scheme 'man does not owe his
redemption actually to Christ, but to the eternal saving will of God, which is made
manifest to him in the life of Christ.'^^ Here, Balthasar expresses the division between
himself and Rahner in terms of performance. Fundamentally, what is at stake is the
relation between nature and grace: Balthasar perceives in Rahner's theology a
conception of the natural separable from decisive, relational grace and seeking to set
the terms for that grace. Balthasar opposes any governance of theology by natural,
humanistic and evolutionary, conceptions of anthropology. He forwards instead a
theology of humanity as fragmentarily natural, to be taken graciously into
Christological integration.
Balthasar considered the Rahnerian mainstream to have laudably universalist

aims. Precisely in this regard, however, he found the methodology fundamentally
TD4, p. 76
Karl Rahner quoted Hans Urs von Balthasar, The Moment of Christian Witness, trans. Richard Beckley
(San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 1994), p. 105
Balthasar, Christian Witness, p. 109
mistaken. He disputed the claim, which he saw as integral to Rahner's universalism,
that soteriologically significant truth could be achieved formally without being known
Christically: 'there is no such thing as an anonymous Christian, no matter how many
other men - hopefully all! - attain salvation through the grace of Christ.'^' Rejecting
the suggestion that knowledge and achievement of truth could be separable, Balthasar
understood creation as natural revelation, oriented towards grace with an orientation
that could only be known and lived through grace. This critique of Rahner considers
him to have forged an unacceptable distinction between living truthfully and living in
grace and so unacceptably weakened the import of the latter. For Balthasar, only the
explicitly Christian can do either: it is not possible to live a truthful spirituality without
a Christian vocabulary, for thought and action must be combined in prayerful living in
Christ as a function of revelation and grace. Balthasar does not dispute the creaturely
orientation towards grace. It gives him theological resources. Yet, on Balthasar's view,
Rahner's transcendental theology inverts the process of resourcing: the Incarnation
becomes an exemplary resource for a purportedly broader anthropological reality.
Balthasar would rather work from the Incarnation's specifics, positioning
28
anthropological resources as 'emanations from the realm of genuine theology.'

Humanity, outside of the relationship with God in Christ, may be structurally oriented
towards grace. Only the Christian, however, is theologically addressed, by the Word
who - in giving himself - gives life's ultimate context. This being so, it makes no sense
to say that a person appreciates the Word of God i f he 'only hears the sound of the
word, the ordinary human meaning it bears in the average framework of religion.'^^
Theology cannot be resourced from religious, spiritual or transcendental interpretations
of extra-theological disciplines. For contact from and with God in Christ governs its
truth. It is a relational reahty that cannot be understood generically, even as an essential
human performance, no matter how many more people it may thus appear to have
included within its scope. Balthasar's Christian universalism requires more of the
theologian: not to evidence a philosophical comparability between other ways of life
and the Christian but to achieve a dramatic integration of those other ways of life so
that they come to bear the name of specifically Christian reality. In Balthasar's
Balthasar, 'In Retrospect', p.201
Balthasar, Love Alone, p. 124
Balthasar quoted Victoria S. Harrison, 'Homo Orans: von Balthasar's Christocentric Philosophical
Anthropology', Heythrop Journal 40.2 (1999), p.282
theological method, it is integration of all within particular Christian theological life
that will achieve Christian universalism. Without this particular and universal aim, and
'[w]hen everything goes well with anonymity, it is hard to see why a person should still
be a name-bearing Christian.'^
1.13: Theological Style
Balthasar's method is not one in which a universal common ground supports the
general ultimacy of Christian truth but rather one in which particular Christian acts and
interpretations can integrate within themselves all others. This method fosters an
expansively interior theological style: interior in that it remains focused on the truth of
Christ's presence in the Church; expansively as by doing so it has implications for all
reality. This written style complements a theological life style, both demanding 'the
greatest possible radiance in the world by virtue of the closest possible following of
Christ.'^' Reflecting on his career, Balthasar considered there to be a 'connection
between style and truth.'^^ Angelo Scola employs style as an interpretative theme for
studying Balthasar, defining it as 'the expression of the impression ... which a form
makes.' Theological style is most intimately connected with truth because of the
ultimate status of its in-formation. This in-formation is Christologically received in
contemplation, adoration and obedience. Balthasar attempts theology in this style,
which should channel active, relational grace, and by its implications discover the
contours of the natural.
Subject to the God who encounters humanity in Christ, theological discourse is

styled by prayerful contemplation, 'the only realistic attitude before the mystery.''''* In
John O'Donnell's interpretation, theology as contemplative is 'reflection on what has
been seen by the eyes of faith.'^^ As such, theological contemplation is not a vague
^ Balthasar, 'In Retrospect', p.201

^' Balthasar, 'In Retrospect', p.201
Balthasar, 'Another Ten Years', p.223
Scola, Balthasar, p.l
Balthasar quoted Antonio Sicari, 'Hans Urs von Balthasar: Theology and Holiness' in (ed.) David L.
Schindler, Hans Urs von Balthasar: His Life and Work (San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 1991), p. 129
John O'Donnell, Hans Urs von Balthasar (London: Geoffrey Chapman, 1992), p. 19
9
spirituality. It is a specific response to the event of revelation in Christ. So it is neither
purely subjective, nor purely objective. Rather it is a 'convergent moment',
overcoming distinctions between objectivity and subjectivity as the theologian is taken
up into a relational truth.
Balthasar described contemplation's two roots as adoration and obedience.

Adoration allows the theologian 'to see, in faith, the heavens opened' and obedience
'frees [him] to understand the truth.'^^ These roots grow exclusively from the revealed
Form of Christ. Theology must develop from the Incarnation, the ultimate event. It
must not view incarnation through preconceived philosophical, ethical, existential (or,
indeed, dramatic) categories. Such categories can only be used as they are implied by
the Incarnation itself. This resonates in Balthasar's well-known call for saintly,
kneeling theologians.
In prayer he draws close to the mystery... In prayer he receives the supernatural revelation of
God in Christ and so comes to see that God's natural revelation in creation and man's reason is
also revelation in the true sense and it must be approached in the same spirit as the historical
revelation itself - on one's knees.^^
Prayerful adoration of both supernatural and natural revelation informs theological

style. It debars theology from adopting a vaguely spiritual aura for it involves the
reception of the impression of a Form, the Person of Christ. It also debars theology
from appreciating its truth as reducible to categories in any other discourse. The style
can continually be received but never owned. Theological obedience is the
development of this reception in order to contribute in 'tradition that is truly
contemporary.' This involves 'embracing theology as a living thing', entering the
theological context, the Church, and reflectively renewing it. The contemplative
Christian theologian - in adoration and obedience - is 'complete', with lived
Aidan Nichols, 'Balthasar and his Christology', New Blackfriars 66 (1985), p.319
Hans Urs von Balthasar, 'The Place of Theology', in Word and Redemption: Essays in Theology 2,
trans. A.V. Littledale (New York: Herder and Herder, 1965), p. 14
Hans Urs von Balthasar, 'Theology and Sanctity', in Worda?id Redemption: Essays in Theology 2,
trans. A.V. Littledale (New York: Herder and Herder, 1965), p.83
Balthasar, 'Place of Theology', p.22
10
spirituality and rigorous theology combined.'*'' In true theological style, 'something in
the logic of the object testified to, above all the cross and resurrection of Christ, colors
the logic of the expression.'"*' This logic, this style, of the particular act of Christ's
death and resurrection is life's universal style. For the cross and resurrection is the
pivotal action in a universal drama set up for it by God. Thus theology is coloured true
in a relational truth: it expresses a particular formed encounter with God in Christ of
such significance as to orientate the person in the universe of encounters and to have
the potential to draw all encounters within itself. Again, it is the particular that has
universal purchase.
Balthasar uses pouring as a metaphor for theological style. Together with

doctrine and the sacraments, it is
an active agency for pouring the infinite riches of divine truth into the finite vessels in which
revelation is given to us, so that the believer may be made capable of encountering this infinity
in adoration and ... obedience.''^
In describing theology as an active agency he is suggesting something participative: the

ultimate active agency is Trinitarian Incarnation and this resonates in and through the
successful theologian's work. Theology should express the Glory of God and the
corporate theological endeavour of the Church should respond to the thrust of the event
of the Incarnation as this event, itself and solely, provides personal experience of
humankind's orientation towards grace. Balthasar is unequivocal about the superior
judgement of theology: 'theology is the expression of the verdict passed by the divine
Word over the h u m a n . T h i s claim must be understood in relation to his conception of
theology as participative. It is not propositional judging, as i f one sentence were to
scold another. It is rather a judgement of lived perspective in which the fullness of the
theological outlook criticises and remoulds the distortions of the purely human. Pure is
a critical term in Balthasar's vocabulary: human structures distort Christian reality if
Balthasar, 'Theology and Sanctity', p.57

Hans Urs von Balthasar, 'The Implications of the Word', in Vôrd and Revelation: Essays in Theology
1, trans. A.V. Littledale (New York: Herder and Herder, 1964), p.63
Balthasar, 'Place of Theology', p. 12
Balthasar, 'Place of Theology', p. 16
11
they are set up as pure, as independent of Christian theological reality. Balthasar's
theology judges all human expressions that occur non-theologically, outwith the truth
of God in Christ. It does not show how they in fact are theological, for the barrier
erected by lack of relationship with God means that they are not, but it shows that they
could be and pre-figures that reahty in refashioned use. Judgement, in this regard, is
one-way. '[Tjhose whose thinking moves in this circle between love and gift cannot be
judged by the outsider, though they themselves are able to judge the outsider'. Yet, if
theology is styled proportionately to and responsively in the Incarnation, then the
purchase grace has on nature renders 'this apparently closed circle ... the most vast and
open of all circles.''"
What I call "style" is not necessarily culturally conditioned. It is a charisma - not deducible
systematically from anything - which raises our thoughts to God's glory."^
Antonio Sicari describes the radical imphcations of Balthasar's theological style:

formed by a 'speaking-listening' dynamic, 'the Christ-disciple, Christ-community, and
Christ-hagiographer relation, is not only the extrinsic condition of revelation but also
the "content" of revelation, a content into which each one should enter who wishes to
treat of revelation as such.'"^^ Theologians do not need to forge a link between grace
and nature - revealed framework and normal framework. In Christ the normal, natural
realm is taken up into revealed truth. Living relationally in truth, theologians use
natural concepts, not linking them to revealed truth but superseding their purported
pure normality, fashioning them as they are in revealed truth. Theologians speak from
within the truth: because it is ultimate any categories are open to fashioning according
to the truth; because it is relational the categories employed will differ according to
context and gift. Balthasar desires, many would say achieves, a confident, all-
embracing theological style that sets out its own parameters, well resourced,
contemporary and articulate but not enthralled in its engagement with the concepts of
its time.
Balthasar quoted Pedro Escobar, 'Hans Urs von Balthasar: Christo-logian', Commmio 2.3 (1975),
pp.315-316
Hans Urs von Balthasar, 'Response to My Critics', Communio 5.1 (1978), p.71
Sicari, 'Theology and Holiness', p.l31
12
1.14: Theological Dialogues with Theatre
Balthasar's theological method and style are angled so as to contribute to

theological life, with theological life understood as the ultimate lived perspective in
which all could gather by joining it personally but which is not accessible naturally to
all. Such theology has implications for dialogue with those who do not share such a
life. As with Balthasar's method and style, his concept of dialogue will not be
evaluated against theological alternatives in this thesis. Rather, I will place Balthasar's
understanding of dialogue in the context of his theology, particularly his Theological
Dramatics. After considering this context, I will examine particular dialogues with
twentieth-century theatre before drawing together Balthasar's understanding of
theologically dramatic dialogue. Dialogues with theatre are particularly appropriate for
a discussion of Balthasar's theological dialogues' being dramatic. I will not detail his
work on non-Christian religions, although this has been the focus of most debate over
Balthasar's approach to dialogue."*^ However, my discussion will reflect Balthasar's
'doctrinal framework' for 'the dialogue with the non-Christian religions and the various
forms of atheism"*^ especially in respect to his dialogical encounters with theatre
practitioners.
Balthasar was more studied in literature and the arts than in world religions and
his dialogues with culture were not only with theatre practitioners, although these are
predominant in the Theological Dramatics, but also with poets, novelists, musicians
and visual artists. Henri de Lubac described Balthasar as 'perhaps the most cultured
man of our time."*^ His breadth of learning in European culture is remarkable and his
particular, universal method and style employs it to engender distinctively theological
dialogues with cultural activities, including those of the theatre. His particularism is
expressed by mounting many dialogues with individual practitioners over a generic
*^ See Hans Urs von Balthasar, 'Response to my Critics', Communio 5.1 (1978), 69-76 and the preceding
critical papers on dialogue with non-Christian religions. For more recent commentary see Bede
McGregor, 'The Wider Ecumenism: Christian Prayer and Other Religions' in Bede McGregor and
Thomas Norris (eds.). The Beauty of Christ: A [sic] Introduction to the Theology of Hans Urs von
Balthasar (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1994), 193-212
'^^ Henri de Lubac quoted McGregor, 'Wider Ecumenism', p.193
Henri de Lubac quoted Henrici, 'Education', p. 12
13
dialogue with dramatic trends. A universal determination is clear in his belief that
theological dialogue with any particular theatrical activity will enable its interpretation
within the ultimate theological framework. In this way, 'Balthasar penetrates the
cultural life of Europe, not in order to find a residual Christianity, but in a belief that it
must be able to be 'brought home' in terms of the Christian revelation.Dialogues
will not access a shared, impartial reality but will enable the particular, limited cultural
activity to be interpreted from within the particular, ultimate theological truth.
Thomas Norris and John O'Donnell are two Christian theologians who praise
Balthasar's approach to and practice of theological dialogue with culture. I shall
introduce these two aspects, the second from Norris and the first from O'Donnell.
Norris finds one of Balthasar's seven theological 'movements' to be 'Theology in
Dialogue with Culture.' He claims that Balthasar
effectively appropriated the rich legacy of... the whole of European culture, Christian and
pagan, ancient and modern. ... [H]e conducted an incomparable odyssey through the European
anthology. ... This literary ... attainment equipped him for an in-depth dialogue between faith
and culture, between the once-for-all revelation of God's glory in the Gestalt of Christ on the
one hand, and, on the other, the actual culture of the West.'^
It is not only the breadth of Balthasar's cultural awareness that Norris admires but his
practice of dialogue with culture, which is such that his work 'shows on every page this
dialogical character.'^'' Even in a study of only Balthasar's Theological Dramatics I
must be very selective in order to consider particular dialogues with 'actual culture'.
Just its 648-page literary prolegomena is brimming with authors, directors, actors and
plays from Ancient Greece to Modem Europe: all, to use Norris's terms again,
'appropriated' in dialogical relation to 'once-for-all revelation.' This breadth allows so
many dialogues with specific dramatic styles and practitioners. It does not resort to
Rowan Williams, 'Foreword', in John Saward, The Mysteries of March: Hans Urs von Balthasar on
the Incarnation and Easter (London: Collins, 1990), p.ix
Thomas Norris, 'The Symphonic Unity of His Theology: An Overview', in Bede McGregor and
Thomas Norris (eds.). The Beauty of Christ: A [sic] introduction to the Theology of Hans Urs von
Balthasar (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1994), p.214
Norris, 'Symphonic Unity', pp.245-246
Norris, 'Symphonic Unity,' p.246
14
interpreting revelation with respect to a general notion of the essential human drama.
Rather it gathers particular dramatic activities within revelation understood as the
ultimate dramatic activity. Such an approach is admired as one in which theologians, in
different times and different places, can continue dialogues with culture while
maintaining the primacy of theological truth. O'Donnell praises it as Balthasar's
'dialogue through confrontation'^"*: an ecumenical society, which is 'not the eirenic
ecumenism of watering down the truth but the serious confrontation of competing
claims.'^^ Any dialogue supposes competition which itself supposes the potential
victory of one united, catholic, horizon. And this fact is not hidden, but focused upon,
in Balthasar's confrontational ecumenism. As O'Donnell puts it, echoing Balthasar,
there is in life 'a choice of competing claims to catholicity and these claims can be
reduced to two: either ... atheism ... or the God of Jesus Christ' and in theological
dialogue the latter should show itself to be the greater perspective.^^ Balthasar
understands dialogue as the confrontation of lived perspectives and practices dialogue
from the ultimate lived perspective. This study will probe his theological dialogues
with twentieth-century theatre.
A theological intuition of what drama is propels Balthasar into his particular

dialogues with theatre practitioners and, in the second chapter, I will outline the
structure of his Theological Dramatics and explain the centrality of the dramatic for his
theology, showing how he gathers both anthropology and soteriology into a dramatic
Christological whole. Life is imaged as a Christological relational and ontological
dramatic reality, what Balthasar calls theo-drama. Only appreciable soteriologically, a
Christocentric understanding of what drama is, and how it happens anthropologically,
is the perspective from which Balthasar both accounts for and dialogues with the work
of theatre practitioners.
In order to understand Balthasar's approach to dialogues with theatre, my third

chapter will present Balthasar's theodramatic hermeneutic: Balthasar interprets human
dramatic expression, as symbolised in the theatre, as internally relative to God's
O'Donnell, Balthasar, p. 15
15
ultimate dramatic expression in Christ. His methodology asserts that what it is to be
dramatic, and thus the standard for dramatic activity, is ultimately only appreciable
theologically. This plays out in a theatrical vocabulary, used on theological terms, that
engenders a hermeneutic appropriation of theatre practice as a theological resource. As
a participant in Christian theodramatic ontology, Balthasar can interpret theatre
practitioners with a judgemental inclusion by which not only their theological status but
also their dramatic potential is exposed.
In the fourth chapter, I will explain how this theodramatic hermeneutic informs
Balthasar's specific dialogues with twentieth-century theatre with a model of three
integrated dimensions to Balthasar's understanding of hfe as drama: natural-human,
ecclesial-personal and final-eschatological. Here I focus on twentieth-century theatre
and analyse the key term post-Christian, arguing that these three dimensions require
twentieth-century theatre, in as much as it is dramatic, to be post-Christian. Balthasar
finds all dramatic activity after the Incarnation relative to the ultimate Christian drama;
in our post-Christian era the link is either protest or parody. As Balthasar's dialogues
with twentieth-century theatre are so wide-ranging and numerous, and as direction is
central to Balthasar's vocabulary of human theatre practice as analogous to the divine, I
will consider only his dialogues with theatre directors, specifically Edward Gordon
Craig, Bertolt Brecht and Constantin Stanislavsky. The dramatic standard for direction
is set theologically and I will explain how Balthasar uses it to judge these practitioners
with whom he dialogues. The predicaments in which he places them are theologically
derived predicaments resultant on their work's being symbolic of post-Christian drama.
Craig, Brecht and Stanislavksy only appear costumed by Balthasar's dialogue

with them. But my fifth chapter addresses one particular dialogue with a theatre
director, that with Peter Brook. And in it I explore Brook's theatrical understanding of
life as drama, of the immediate quality of theatre and of life, from Brook's own
reflections before considering Balthasar's interpretation. I set Balthasar's theological
dramatic dialogue with Brook's theatre alongside Brook's theatrical rhetorical
employment of Christian imagery. More detailed consideration of Brook's rhetoric of
incarnation and grace will raise some difficulties for theological interpretations of
Brook's work. And Balthasar's dialogue with Brook will be analysed as a selective
16
appropriation that depends on interpreting Brook within the theodramatic context
before entering into a critical dialogue with the stance evident in that interpretation.
These chapters will show, if implicitly, that I consider Norris's and O'Donnell's
praise for Balthasar's approach to and practice of theological dialogue to be valid
exegetically: fairly indicating what Balthasar offers as a theological account of drama
and practices in dialogue with particular theatre practitioners. I shall conclude, in the
sixth chapter, by drawing together the understanding of how dramatic dialogue works
implied by Balthasar's theological dramatic dialogues with theatre. I shall consider the
achievement of Balthasar's dialogues, the potential for continuing dialogues following
after Balthasar and the extent to which Balthasar's selective appropriation of theatre
directors as post-Christian in as much as they are dramatic can be said to involve
genuine dialogue with twentieth-century theatre.
17
2; BALTHASAR'S T H E O L O G I C A L DRAMATICS
2.1: T H E O L O G I C A L DRAMATIC INTUITION
Balthasar's work is predicated on a theological dramatic intuition,

understanding human life as dramatic in relation to a theologically derived appreciation
of what drama ultimately is. The Theological Dramatics is structured in order to define
human drama from within divine drama. While Balthasar considers that all human life
is dramatic, the centrality of this concept in his work is not suggestive of any generic
human capacity for drama independent of the particular divine dramatic action. Rather,
human life as drama is a reality only fully appreciable as an implication of the prior
divine dramatic life. I shall discuss the structure of Balthasar's Theological Dramatics
and the centrality of the dramatic in his work in order to outline Balthasar's theological
dramatic intuition, drawing especially on Rowan Williams's account of the importance
of drama for Balthasar.
2.11: The Structure of the Dramatics
Balthasar's theological trilogy of Aesthetics, Dramatics and Logic was his life's
main work; the first volume of the Aesthetics was completed in 1961 and a summary
epilogue appeared in 1987.' Balthasar wrote many more popular works, meditations
and sermons and essays on theological methodology. Some of these support sections of
the trilogy, being written alongside them and presenting their themes in more
manageable proportions. The Dramatics' firmest support comes from Mysterium
Paschale,^ a meditation on the Easter mystery that employs many of Balthasar's
dramatic insights.
The Theological Dramatics has five volumes. T D l is a literary Prolegomena, in

which Balthasar attempts to 'elaborate a 'dramatic instrumentation' of the literary and
lived theatre, and thus of life itself, in order to prepare images and concepts with which
' Henrici, 'Sketch', pp.33-34

^ Hans Urs von Balthasar, Mysterium Paschale: The Theology of The Easter Mystery, trans. Aidan
Nichols (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1990)
18
one can then work (with an adequate transposition).'^ A dramatic sense of life pervades
the theology of the Dramatics. Yet, while connections can be drawn, there remains a
clear distinction between the prolegomena and the four further volumes, in that the
former is 'predominantly literary' and the latter 'theological'.'* It becomes clear that
Balthasar's literary understanding of the dramatic depends on his theological
understanding: human drama is ultimately inteUigible only as an implication of God's
drama. In TD2, Dramatis Personae: Man in God, Balthasar explains why he takes a
dramatic approach in theology and introduces life's dramatic characters. The volume's
impression, in Angelo Scola's terms, is of 'a dramatic quahty ... revealed even in
naturabilis'^ and it concludes with, what Aidan Nichols considers to be 'a wonderfully
compact theology of man - pre-Christian, Christian and post-Christian.'^ Balthasar
offers an account of humankind's dramatic predicament in which I find three shared
features of life and drama particularly important. They both lay a claim on the spectator
and demand meaningful engaged response. They each involve specific actions and
over-arching horizons. They are corporate; inter-personal relations are essential to
them. This second volume works on the understanding that the reason for and the
purpose of life's dramatic situation He in the true drama - not the natural drama of Man
in God, but the revealed drama of Persons in Christ, the title of TD3. While TD2 was
anthropologically centred, TD3 treats Christology and reveals the rationale for the
dramatic anthropology proposed previously. Balthasar's worry about both volumes was
that they approach the characters of the drama of God with humanity artificially,
separated from the action: for him the reality can only truly be appreciated in the event.
TD4, consequently, relates The Action of salvation. It moves away from conceptual
themes to focus on the deeds of God in Christ as 'a dramatic soteriology in which the
cross, descent into hell and resurrection constitute a Paschal Mystery which affects not
just the human struggle ... but also the very inner life of God.'^ TD5 is eschatological.
^ Balthasar, 'Another Ten Years', p.225

'* TD2, p.9
^ Sco\a, Balthasar, p.41
^ Aidan Nichols, A'o Bloodless Myth: A Guide Through Balthasar's Dramatics (Edinburgh: T&T Clark,
2000), p.81
^ Gerard O'Hanlon, 'Theological Dramatics', in Bede McGregor and Thomas Norris (eds.). The Glory of
the Lord: A [sic] Introduction to the Theology of Hans Urs von Balthasar (Edinburgh: T&T Clark,
1994), p.97
19
Traditions of final repose and final vision are dramatically reoriented as The Last Act.
The consummation of dramatic life is itself dramatic as 'the world acquires an inward
share in the divine exchange of life.'^ In this way, Balthasar's Theological Dramatics
begins with a literary study of the theatre as symbol of Ufe's natural drama, continues
through the characters and events of God's action with people and concludes with a
vision of the eschatological stage. Yet, Balthasar's theological imagination proceeds
from the end, a fact implicit throughout and signalled in the volumes' various
introductions. Life's natural drama and its symbol, the theatre, are what they are as
implications of the divine drama. Nature is grounded in grace and both are completed
eschatologically.
The Theological Dramatics is more closely co-ordinated than this summary

suggests. Each volume has sections divided into sub-sections, which then include
chapters and sub-chapters. Its massive yet intricate structure impresses upon readers
both a concern for the full scope of Christian theology - anthropology; Christology;
soteriology; eschatology - and a belief that the particular dramatic tensions of Christian
truth uniquely encompass the particular tensions of life's dramas.
2.12: The Centrality of the Dramatic
Balthasar published three retrospectives on his theological work. The first of

these was on the occasion of his sixtieth birthday.^ The second appeared in 1975, while
the Dramatics was being completed and the Logic contemplated.''' And, shortly before
his death in 1988, he wrote a resume for Communio}^ Angelo Scola observes that
'Balthasar's concern in these [retrospective] writings is ... to explain the underlying
logic which informs his work''^ and in them the centrality of the dramatic is clear. He
insists that the form of Christ is not 'just to be 'contemplated' and 'perceived" as if
God were 'a solitary actor.' Rather, 'from the beginning [God] has provided for a play
'TD5,p.521
^ Balthasar, 'In Retrospect', pp.194-221
Balthasar, 'Another Ten Years', pp.222-233
" Hans Urs von Balthasar, 'A Resume of My Thought', in David L. Schindler (ed.), Hans Urs von
Balthasar: His Life And Work (San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 1991), 1-5
Scola, Balthasar, p. 13
20
in which we must all s h a r e . ' A dramatic style, in which the personal intuition of
contemplation of the form of Christ is transposed as a universal, shared drama, is thus
central to Balthasar's theology. In 1975, he described the completed Aesthetics as the
'prelude' and the imagined Logic as 'reflection' with respect to the Dramatics.The
Dramatics stands between aesthetics and logic in his trilogy of
Theo-phany = Aesthetics
Theo-praxy = Dramatic theory
Theo-logy = Logic.
... [T]hree parts [that] cannot be totally separated from one another.
On the right of each equation are the disciplines that each section of the trilogy
radicalises as theological implications. Surrounding the Theological Dramatics, then, is
aesthetics radicalised as theo-phany and logic radicalised as theo-logy.
Theo-phany is the glory of God and aesthetics is radicalised in the face of this,
primarily by means of an analogy of formation with respect to the human and the
divine.
Form is a totality of parts and elements that is conceived as ... standing in itself, yet requiring
for its preservation not only an environment but ultimately the whole of being. Thefiniteform
is a contracted presentation of infinite being. By gathering together, unifying and ruling its parts
it enables them to transcend towards the infinite.'^
Thus aesthetic formation suggests an ultimate contraction by which reahty is fully

expressed but not contained. Such contraction cannot be achieved humanly but in it
humanity is formed as creation of God in Christ. This ultimate formation overflows in
the Incarnation, 'an event which in a supereminent sense can be called an 'appearance'

Balthasar, 'Another Ten Years', pp.224-226
'^TDl,p.l5
Balthasar quoted Jeffrey Kay, Theological Aesthetics: The Role of Aesthetics in the Theological
Method of Hans Urs von Balthasar (Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 1975), p.3
21
and an 'epiphany."'^ Quash and Riches present the two key analogous factors here:
form is 'self-disclosing and enrapturing.' '^ Beauty is not given to a form but breaks out
from it in self-disclosure and thus forms have an attractive power. Response to a form's
beauty, as enrapture, can allow neither objective nor subjective detachment, for it
involves being taken in to the form's engaging power. God's self-representation in the
glorious form of Christ radicalises aesthetics in that it is the ultimate term of such
attractiveness and engagement. The power of the form of Christ is the glory of God. As
such it is structurally analogous to all aesthetic forms and uniquely, underivably
incomparable in relation to them. Again analogously. Christian faith is a response to
form such as 'to be Christian is precisely a form.''^ So the Christian form of life,
internally related to Christ as form of God, stands among particular aesthetic responses
but with a purchase uniquely universal. Balthasar operates with two modes of
theological aesthetics, in respect to this Christian formation according to the form of
Christ: perception of the form in vision and participation in the form in rapture. And
'the act of 'perception' is only the first step; it necessarily moves to the state of 'being
enraptured."^' Enrapture, necessarily entailed by the Aesthetics, presses towards the
Dramatics as it transports one's perception into 'a drama already begun' - one, indeed,
a precondition of the perception itself. Theologians, expositors of 'the encountering
reality', 'must... be drawn into its dramatic arena' in order truly to appreciate its form
or express its truth.'^^ Theo-logy, then, is the expression of God's truth and logic is
radicalised as such through revelation. In the Theological Logic,
[wjhat strikes us straightaway at the beginning of the second volume is the leap from a
philosophical account of truth to the astounding claim of Christ: 'I am the truth' {John 15:6).
Such a staggering claim can only be accepted on the basis of God's revelation.
Hans Urs von Balthasar, The Glory of The Lord: A Theological Aesthetics. L- Seeing The Form, trans.
Erasmo Leiva-Merikakis (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1982), p.ll9
Balthasar, Glory: 1, p.28
See Balthasar, Glory: 1, p. 125.
^' Kehl, 'Portrait', p.47
TDl,p.l5
" John O'Donnell, 'The Logic of Divine Glory', in Bede McGregor and Thomas Norris (eds.). The
Beauty of Christ: A [sic] Introduction to the Theology of Hans Urs von Balthasar (Edinburgh: T&T
Clark, 1994), p. 164.
22
This leap is made primarily from the Divine side, in the Person of the Spirit guiding the
Church in truth. And theological truth can only be expressed having 'experienced the
dynamism of the revelation event.' Following the Dramatics, the Logic considers the
question, 'how can human word and life witness credibly to this truth of God?' This is
a matter of showing how, through the Spirit, truth's 'philosophical form' can 'open
itself to the incarnate form of Christ's truth.' ^'* As such, theo-logy is a reflective
function of God's dramatic engagement with humankind and not a progressive
development from it.
Central to the trilogy and holding together the Aesthetics and the Logic, the
Dramatics radicalises dramatic theory as theo-praxy. It provides 'a network of concepts
and images' to enable the theologian to 'hold fast' in the dramatic arena of the divine
action which has encountered him.^^ In this network, the theologian remains within 'the
central event: the encounter, in creation and history, between infinite divine freedom
and finite human freedom.'^^ Theological dramatic theory will not enable a person to
enter the arena. Only God's encounter with humanity, graciously received, locates the
person within life's central event, the encounter between infinite and finite freedom that
is 'simply good.'^^ Here the ultimate activity is God's theo-praxis and the person's
activity is responsive. The Dramatics provides but terminology to point out the
contours of this event. It radicalises a vocabulary of praxis, of human dramatic inter-
action, by using it in respect to drama's ultimate term, God's inter-action with people.
Balthasar's has been described as a project in which 'all lines converge on

drama as a consummate form of artistic expression.'^^ This is reflected in the three
lines of aesthetics, dramatics and logic and also true in respect to the strands of
theological thought so difficult for the contemporary writer to bind together. Balthasar
highlights nine 'trends of modem theology', which suggest a theological need for a

^^TDl,p.l7
^^TDLp.lS
J.B. Quash, "Between the Brutely Given and the Brutally Banally Free': von Balthasar's Theology of
Drama in Dialogue with Hegel', Modern Theology 13.3 (1997), p. 293
23
dramatic approach.The ninth trend, 'freedom and evil', poses a question that
pervades the Dramatics. 'What is the relationship between divine and human
freedom?'^" Trends one to eight are event, history, orthopraxy, dialogue, political
theology, futurism, function and role. Balthasar finds each trend fragmentary. He notes
that theologians tend to abstract them from Christian life and treat one as a governing
theme, arguing that thematisation of trends creates theology without a unified focus.
Balthasar outhnes the extent to which he does and does not support the importance of
each trend, the latter corresponding with its invalidating another of the trends by being
treated as a governing theme.^' He suggests that theological dramatic theory can
overcome this thematic incompatibility of theological trends. For
the ... Catholic 'And' ... is not... compromise or syncretism but rather the power to unite, once
again in a 'dramatic' fashion, what to men seems desperately fragmentary. Jesus Christ is, in
this sense, the Catholic One: God and man.^^
Only a dramatically catholic theology could unify all theological trends without
evading the questions entailed by each and, indeed, focusing on the interrogative
challenge of the ninth trend, the relationship between divine and human freedom, a
Christological relationship of God and man.
It is important to note that, for Balthasar, the dramatic does not provide a super-
theme in order to integrate theological trends. However, it may be seen as an
integrative 'supra-form.'^^ On this distinction, the dramatic is not one integrative
theological idea, but rather an integrative way of doing theology. Quash has oudined
the conceptual background for Balthasar's understanding of the dramatic in this regard.
Balthasar's three options are lyric, epic and dramatic. The lyric is an interiorising mode
of human expression, where a subjective totality assumes the flux of life and makes a
personally integrated, and purportedly whole, presentation of it. Conversely, epic is an
TDl,pp.25-50
^ T D l , pp.48-50
^' Nichols summarises Balthasar's 'Yes, but no' to each of the trends in this regard: A'o Bloodless Myth,
pp.l3ff
Balthasar 'Another Ten Years', p.228
" Riches and Quash, 'Balthasar', p. 140
24
exteriorising mode, where objective distance arranges the flux of life making an
externally organised, and purportedly whole, presentation of it. Drama 'joins the
dimensions of the epic and the lyric into a new whole.' The dramatic, thus, is the true
approach to life, integrating subjective and objective in a unity that neither could
achieve alone and in which 'the entire person is laid claim to.' Consequently, only in a
dramatic sense can 'a participatory truth can be bom.''''* There is something truthful
about drama beyond the tmth that might be claimed for either lyric or epic and so the
dramatic is the consummate artistic form. As God involves Himself in dramatic
activity, its formal tmth receives its tme substance and theological appreciation of this
expresses what can only be considered as the tme tmth.
The dramatic approach is, for Balthasar, the proper approach for Christian
theology, appropriate to Christian revelation. Its centres his trilogy, pointing out a
dramatic appreciation of Christian reality prerequisite for theological contemplation
(aesthetics) or reflection (logic). It also unites theological trends by reflecting the
manner of their participation in Christ's truth, itself dramatic, rather than providing
thematic combination. His dramatically styled theology
by way of opposition ... to the customary School theology which takes as its themes such
abstract notions as 'redemption', 'justification' and so forth, ... takes as its chief object the
personal concretissimum of the God man who suffers 'for me', 'for us', descends into hell and
rises again.^^
Balthasar recognises that thematic and dramatic theology can be complementary, but
only i f the latter is primary and themes are not abstracted from but participant in their
personal, dramatic context, as mediated by Christian hfe. His Theological Dramatics
should both reflect the ultimate drama and encourage its participative redramatisation:
I am trying to ... express [what the Christian knows] in a form in which all the dimensions and
tensions of life remain present instead of being sublimated in the abstractions of a 'systematic'
theology.^^
Ben Quash, 'Drama and the Ends of Modernity', in Lucy Gardner, David Moss, Ben Quash and
Graham Ward, Balthasar at the End of Modernity (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1999), 139-171
Balthasar, Mysterium Paschale, p.36
25
2.13: Theological Dramatic Intuition
Rowan Williams has outlined 'the importance to Balthasar of the category of

drama in explicating his theology.' He explains that the dramatic dimension renders
knowledge 'essentially participatory'. Thus the human apprehends its being inter-
dependently and responds truthfully to its own situation not by rational abstraction but
by 'encounter with 'the stranger" in the 'contingencies of relationship and reaction'
that constitute ongoing participation in a greater whole. Here we have a dramatic
anthropology: there is an 'inbuilt tension' between 'the imposition of meaning and the
creation of meaning.' As participants in greater reality, humans are both subjects and
originators of meaning, precisely as they are dramatically inter-related. I f we mean
anything dramatically, then, we must value 'recognition of a place within a network of
relations', for meaning, truthful or otherwise, is a matter of 'active and receptive
encounter.' Dramatic meaning might be opened onto dramatic soteriology, where we
appreciate, and are, our selves properly positioned in relation to the networked horizon
by encounter with God in Christ. Balthasar's Christian theology, reflectively expressing
dramatic salvation for dramatic humankind, thus makes a
call to human subjects to enter into the dialogue of God with 'the other', which is grounded in
his own Trinitarian life, and enacted in the drama of Jesus and his Father, and the drama of
Jesus and the human world.
This is 'truth manifest in dialogue, in a narratively-structured interaction which resists

theoretical reduction.' Dramatic Christology recognises the ultimate position of Christ
as specific enactment from the Trinitarian boundaries of dramatic reality. All in all,
eschatologically, by dramatic anthropology, dramatic soteriology, and dramatic
Christology, is intimated the drama,
at one level determined by the form of revelation as ... a final source of meaning, yet... also
indeterminate in so far as it can only be realised and re-presented in the world of historical
contingency, diversity and liberty.
26
Balthasar's Theological Dramatics has universal hopes for the final ultimacy of the
Christian drama, but this is only achieved as all participate in the drama; it has no
general guarantee."
Given Balthasar's theological methodology and in the light of Williams's

account of the importance of drama in Balthasar's theology, I suggest that Balthasar
operates with a theologically intuited understanding of the dramatic to which the drama
of God with humankind in Christ is the ultimate term. Thus the ultimate mode of
dramatic activity is that of God in Christ and human life is dramatic by its participation
in that mode. As the theologian's intuitive sense of dramatic life is derived from the
consummate drama of Christ, so it is seen that 'one divine drama includes both God
and ourselves in a differentiated way.'''^ This is theo-drama: reality as appreciated by
Balthasar's theological dramatic intuition. Theo-drama, God's drama with humanity in
Christ, is both ontological, involving the full framework of human existence, and
relational, fostering and reflecting particular forms of personal life.
2.2: THEO-DRAMA
In his Theological Dramatics, Balthasar expounds theo-drama in order to guide

and encourage participation. The understanding of such participation as particular
participation in the ultimate horizon is reflected by gathering both anthropology and
soteriology within a Christological ultimate dramatic reality. Both soteriology and
anthropology are configured as dramatic and combine in a Christological dramatic
register.
2.21: Dramatic Christology: the Mission
Balthasar moves away from 'the kind of purely extrahistorical, static, "essence"
Christology that sees itself as a complete and rounded "part one" smoothly unfolding
into a soteriological "part two'" and instead proceeds 'from Christ's overt function to
Christ's covert being (which the former presupposes).'^^ The basic concept in his
" Williams, 'Balthasar and Rahner', pp. 26-27

O'Hanlon, 'Theological Dramatics', p.95
TD3, p. 149
27
event-based Christological vocabulary is mission. Mission entails an absolute sense of
being sent that is Christ's and is identical with his person, 'so that both together
constitute God's exhaustive self-communication.''**^ Broadly, the human becomes
established in and through those dynamic relations in which she is placed. Balthasar
describes such establishment as role. Role-playing expresses the individual's need to
'find himself by finding the whole.'"*' This is the desire to situate oneself in a full, and
fully relational, appreciation of one's reality. Role does not close life in explanation.
Rather, it is a dynamic and situational desire to live truly, situated inter-relationally
with a proper communal horizon. It is primordially Christ who experiences, and only
Christ who has, his role truly as mission. Non-Christologically, role-takers may be able
to establish a formal truthfulness. This, in Balthasar's eyes, is seen most clearly in the
stage actor who believes in the truth of his role and develops skills in order to confront
the audience with his embodiment of the character in the context of the play and
through that the play's conmiunal horizon. In doing this might manage to 'move freely
in his chains''*^ and, perhaps even make a presentation that 'has a claim' as something
'that has taken place ... for me.'"*^ But he is operating with constructed character and
fictional horizon - against and in these fakes he is truthful. In this sense the actor's
'truthfulness is only formal.' For his context is partial, set up by a playwright for the
good of the art. It is only 'in Christ [that] the " I " and the role become uniquely and
ineffably one.''*^ Outside Christ, role becomes character, not personality, through
engagement with a limited horizon. There is, necessarily, a difference between the
person and the role in our acting - a difference accepted by most stage professionals
but few players on the arena of life. In his theodramatic life, Christ alone is engaged
with the ultimate horizon as the true Person. His '[mjission fulfils, even in a sense
creates, identity.'"^^ In it role taking is superseded and fulfilled: the provisional claim on
""TDS.p.lSO
T D l , p.482
TDl,p.290
TDl,p.ll3
"'TDl,p.292
''^TDl,pp.645-646
Mark A. Mcintosh, Christology from Within: Spirituality and the Incarnation in Hans Urs von
Balthasar (London: University of Notre Dame, 1996), p.44
28
others inherent in role is universalised and the limited ability to move within the role's
horizon is perfected.
[H]ere we are presented with Someone who never was, and never could have been anyone other
than the One Sent. ... [T]his is a "role" that cannot be exchanged for any other role, since it is a
"mission" that has ultimately fused with the person and become identical with him.'"
Balthasar's focus on mission avoids the essentialist question of substance: how to relate
Christ's human and divine natures so closely with each other as to indicate their
identity. It does so by refusing to make a prerequisite move of divorcing the nature and
function of Christ. Holding nature and function together in one breath - 'he who says
Incarnation, says Cross''*^ - Balthasar seeks an account of the uniqueness of Christ in
dynamic terms on which it is not his substance that must be qualitatively different from
all others, but his time and his space. Importantly, this does not resolve the
Christological paradox. It merely transposes it into a more appropriately theological,
dramatic register. The division between divine and human nature becomes the event-
ridden chasm of the hour. John's meditation on the hour is the still centre of Balthasar's
world. It permeates Balthasar's spatio-temporal, dramatic representation of the
incomprehensible unity of Christ's divinity and humanity in the uniqueness of his
mission. In his hour, Christ's quahtatively different time, expressive of the uniqueness
of his life's actions, combines with his qualitatively different space, expressive of the
uniqueness of his life's horizon. Action and horizon are thereby central to Balthasar's
dramatic vocabulary in upholding Christ's uniqueness through an event-based
Christology.
2.211: Christ: Unique Actions
An event-based Christology is a relational Christology. Balthasar's dramatic

mode reveals, to theologians, the truth of 'God's loving work ... not behind hut in the
personal."*^ Actions make meaning in an inter-relational web. Christ's actions are
uniquely effective, being personally transformative for all contacted by them within the
TD3,p.l50
Balthasar, Mysterium Paschale, p.22
29
web and informative as its outline strands, holding its horizon. In this sense. Christian
truth is unique drama more than unique story - the interplay of action and horizon
associated with drama is realised ultimately by it. Bathasar's dramatic theology of
Christ's life recognises this, and at no point more so than at Holy Saturday, with the
descent to the dead. I f such a thing were possible, this would be the hour of the hour: it
reveals utterly hour-ridden divinity. Three aspects of Balthasar's appreciation of Holy
Saturday as the 'term and aim of the Incarnation'^'' give a sense of what it means to be
dramatically related to Christ's as unique actions.^' Firstly, Christ's going to the dead is
utter activity only as it is utter passivity and it is uniquely both free and obedient in
holding this tension. Secondly, Christ's passage through death is through an
incomparable depth, an abyss uniquely accessible to him. Thirdly, this hell is uniquely
a Christological state: 'no-one else could experience it.'^^ The uniqueness of the action
makes it uncompromisingly exclusive. Yet, for Balthasar, it is concomitantly
universally inclusive. With regard to each aspect of Holy Saturday, it is in the dramatic
mode of theological reflection that Balthasar claims such a paradox.
Balthasar links obedience and freedom, understanding freedom not as

autonomous but as participative, as a part played in a drama. Christ's ultimate role in
mission involves both complete freedom and complete obedience and only through this
particular ultimate actor could the world be theo-drama. The action revolves around
Christ's going to the dead, in which he is at once utterly active (free) and utterly
passive (obedient). Balthasar finds the Gospel silence on Christ's descent appropriate to
'the fact of being with the unredeemed dead.'^^ A dramatic mode of response holds the
space open here in a way that narrative alone could not. A narrative theology may
collapse at such ultimate silence, when story cannot be sustained. A dramatically
^ Balthasar, Mysterium Paschale, p.64

^' Holy Saturday deserves special focus, although not fundamentally distinct from other events of
Christ's life. It is special within Balthasar's thought as the terminal climax of the incarnate mission. It
represents Balthasar's distinctive contribution to theological reflection on the life of Christ, an insight
achieved through his dramatic mode. The exclusivity-inclusivity paradox that I discuss in relation to
Holy Saturday is present in Balthasar's accounts of Good Friday, Easter Sunday - indeed all events of
Christ's life.
Balthasar, Mysterium Paschale, p. 167
Balthasar, Mysterium Paschale, p. 161. Balthasar does not disown the active tradition of Christ's
harrowing of hell but sees it as mythological, projecting the event's significance into its narration.
30
relational theology can find in silence the ultimate peripateia that, of its own power,
sustains the drama. It is, then, theology as dramatic that properly reflects the relational
ties that carry Christ through hopelessness in to hope. Writing on Christianity and
tragedy, Stewart Sutherland argues that tragic texts seem both to deny creation,
presentation and appreciation and yet to demand performance. He finds a paradox in
tragedy's refusal to be trivialised by metaphysical explanation and its constraint
towards a transcendent experience in its being performed.^'* On Balthasar's view, that
paradox of dramatic possibility - of meaning across the irreducibly banal through
transcendent engagement - is fulfilled in Christ's death: 'in the tomb, he is in solidarity
with the dead. ... Each human being lies in his own tomb. And with this condition ...
Jesus is at first truly solitary.'^^ This possibility, of a death exclusively solitary and in
universal solidarity, receives, in Balthasar's contemplation of the Christological depth
of hell, a distinctive dramatic interpretation.
Balthasar describes God, in and through Christ, as 'living the world round' and
considers that it is only in this context that belief in God is viable.Living the world
round finds its term in Christ's going to the dead, an event that 'englobes' all human
hves, all sufferings and all joys, in its ever-greater depth - an englobing that 'sets the
limits to the extension of damnation.'^^ In the Dramatics, Christ's passage through an
incomparable death is presented as a recapitulation. The 'infinite distance' Christ
traverses from pre-existence with the Father to solidarity with the dead 'recapitulates
the sinner's mode of alienation from God.' All sin, rebellion or incomprehension on the
part of humanity in relation to God is moved through and contained in Christ's mission.
A dramatic Christology reflects the relativised inclusion within this activity drawn from
the infinite horizon of all forms of human alienation from God. For the passion and
resurrection is the trajectory from God through death and to God.
In Christ, the life of the Trinity is bent on reconciling the world to God. In this perspective,
therefore, if a man tries to exclude himself from it in order to be in his own private hell, he is
Stewart Sutherland, 'Christianity and Tragedy', Literature and Theology 4.2 (1990), 157-176
Balthasar, Mysterium Pachale, p. 149. The word quoted as solitary here appears as solidary (sic).
Hans Urs von Balthasar, 'Only I f , in Convergences: To the Source of Christian Mystery, trans. E.A.
Nelson (San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 1983), 135-153
" Balthasar, Mysterium Pachale, p. 167
31
still embraced by the curve of Christ's being. To that extent, he is still determined by its ...
meanmg.
Here, death and resurrection, as unified event, form the outer thread of life's web, the
being to which all other being is analogical. It is the dramatic understanding of event
that carries this reflection for Balthasar. Life's dramatic space, in the sense of the range
of possibilities for action, is not neutral. Rather, it is formed by its inter-related
characters. It in relation to the priority of this unique actor that Thomas Dalzell finds an
analogy of proportionality operative in Balthasar's Theological Dramatics: human life
and human situation is proportioned to and within the drama of Christ.The world
stage, as dramatic space, is held open by its characters and principally by the first actor,
Christ, who reveals the full scope of the acting space of life in Balthasar's theology.
Balthasar develops this in the related third aspect of Holy Saturday: hell itself is
not neutral because 'before Christ' - ontologically speaking - 'there could be no
hell.'*"" It is not only for the events of Christ's mission to inform existence as its outer
thread, but also to transform existential relations by its unique actions. In this further
dramatic sense, Christ's descent to the dead, as experience of hell, is his own as a
Christological state. It is his own because only the One sent could experience this
terminus of mission. Yet, a dramatic understanding of personality assumes relationality.
Although, therefore, no other person could experience the descent to death as hell in the
way that Christ did, yet Christ's death is open to be shared in. It is for this reason that a
'shimmer of light... has ever illuminated the abyss', because a possibility of dying in
communion and thereby in love, faith and hope is offered by Christ's descent, revealed
as an event for all.^' This is a dramatic implication of the unique action. Christ's death
is an action 'most lonely', uniquely his. 'Yet, since he was the absolute answer, he
could make it the most communicable death: all can share in it.'^^ Humanity poses its
longing for the absolute in its and through its finitude; it cannot, however find a
TD5, pp.303-304
Thomas Dalzell, 'Lack of Social Drama in Balthasar's Theological Dramatics', Theological Studies 60
(1999), 457-475
^ Balthasar, Mysterium Paschale, p. 177
Balthasar, Mysterium Paschale, p. 168
" TD4, p. 133
32
satisfactory way to write the absolute into the relative. It is Christ's dramatic action,
human and divine, dying in solidarity with absurdity yet open to completion in
resurrection, which writes fulfilment into humanity from beyond. The infinite takes on
finite gestures and writes, with them, relationally - not an imposition but a drama. The
relational, communicable quality of Christ's going to the dead cannot be appreciated
divorced from its being, for Balthasar, a Trinitarian event. All being is communication
and God's ultimate being is ultimate communication, achieving 'the incorporation of
godforsakenness into the Trinitarian relation of love.'^^ Thus Trinitarian theology
points out the co-ordinates of Christ's unique horizon.
2.2/2; Christ: Unique Horizon
The Son's Person forms a mission, a perfect form of the actor forming a role,
and it is a function of successful dramatic role-taking to achieve a higher task - that of
pointing out and simultaneously bodying forth a dramatic horizon. The Son does this as
he reveals the Trinity. When he is bom, according to Balthasar, 'the heavens open up in
a new way and reveal a three-fold life in God.'^'* This revelation of the Trinity, as
higher task of the Son's mission, is both personal and ultimate. It is the universal
horizon and so inescapably ultimate. As horizons are relative to actions, it is also
personal by opening itself to be engaged with. As with Christ's actions so with Christ's
horizon, the ultimate paradox is that of reality, both exclusively utter and inclusively all
embracing. The Trinity as Christ's relational horizon is understood through Balthasar's
pneumatology and Mariology, enormous subjects that I can but introduce here. The key
dramatic point is that role, even in its ultimate form as mission, requires the
phenomenon of the 'awakening Thou.'^^ It is a prerequisite of a dramatic understanding
of personal identity that it occurs contextually, informed by others. If rather neat as a
reflection of Balthasar's mission-centred contemplation of Christ inseparably human
" TD4, p.232

Balthasar quoted John Saward, The Mysteries of March: Hans Urs von Balthasar on the Incarnation
and Easter {London: Collins, 1990), p.7
Scola, Balthasar, p.76
33
and divine, it seems not too much of a systematisation to discuss one foundational thou
on either side: Mary and the Spirit respectively.*"^
In the drama of human life, some others have more influence than other others
and, on Balthasar's understanding, the mother influences most of all.^^ Thus, while
Christ's identity in mission will be formed in engagement with all those with whom he
has contact, Mary has a vital role in informing his mission. She reminds the theologian
of the humanity of that mission. She also provides Balthasar with a link between Christ
and the Church, albeit a link of no easy transition. Her 'Yes' at the annunciation
indicates her passivity to the will of God in Christ - a state that is implied by the
impossible birth from a passive womb, itself analogous to the resurrection from hell.
Mary, thus, is the focus of a Christological constellation in Balthasar's theology. This
constellation is the outworking of the Incarnation among humanity, a miraculous
interruption of God's life in human lives. By joining the Incarnation, not by
comparative understanding but by passive reception, the Marian response shows the
way to the Church. And so Balthasar describes Mary's magnificat as 'containing the
world's salvation.'^^ The horizon stands ultimate yet in relation to human response.
The Person of the Spirit, also, is Christ's awakening thou. Unlike the contact
with Mary, the theologian cannot conceive of this awakening having a beginning. In the
immanent Trinity, it is forever the essential communication between Father and Son
that is the operation of the Holy Spirit. These are constitutive 'pure relations': 'a giving
Aidan Nichols reads the Dramatics' dual Christology of consciousness and Christology of being in this
way: No Bloodless Myth, pp.101-102. The Son's being and consciousness reflect the formal continuity in
distinction of his relationships within God and among humanity. His unpreconceivable (Balthasar's
neologism) consciousness reflects his self-understanding as forging a human identity, one in which he
knows that his death relates to the judgement of God and he knows his sufferings to be for the others
with whom he is engaged. His being, in relation in God, grounds this consciousness in its ultimacy and
its universality. Consciousness and being are inseparable in Christ, human and divine, but a sense that
Christ has both human and divine engagements remains.
See Francesca Aran Murphy, Christ the Form of Beauty: A Study in Literature and Theology
(Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1995), pp.137,171
Balthasar quoted Saward, March, p.7
34
and receiving of the ... divine nature within the immanent Trinity.'^^ In the economic
Trinity this relationality is expressed as mutual awakening. The prerequisite of inter-
personal awakening for identity lies behind the Theological Dramatics' novel concept
of Trinitarian inversion.^ Meditating on the Johannine Jesus, who in death bowed his
head and gave up his Spirit,'* Balthasar suggests that this is where the Spirit is returned
to the Father from the Son, as the mission is finished when humiliation is glorification.
The Spirit, the awakening Thou of the Son's mission is lost, inverted, to become an
awakening Thou to the Father - and, precisely in this loss, holds together the Persons
across the abyss of hell. Inversion occurs in the economic Trinity. It does, however,
flow from the immanent Trinity, a reality that Balthasar - a theologian known for
72
'daring to speak, in human terms, of God as He is in Himself - takes on in TD5. He

does so on the back of a theological giant, making a Trinitarian link between Aquinas's
concepts of analogia entis and of real distinction. The analogia entis is the sense in
which human being exists analogously, in dependent participation, with relation to
divine being. Real distinction arises from holding both to the unity of all existing
beings, because they share in Being, and to the separate nature of each as a particular
existing being, experienced as inability fully to communicate oneself to another.
Balthasar integrates these two concepts, so that the mystery of real distinction is
analogous to the divine mystery of difference in unity. The theologian realises that real
distinction, as humankind's ultimate puzzle to itself, is 'the marking of the creatures'
being with a Trinitarian stamp.'''' As God's being is God's constitutive mutual
relations so, analogously, is human being. The immanent Trinity, creator and goal of
human existence, is an unparalleled event that, in the economy of salvation, marks its
mystery on humanity. In itself, it surpasses philosophical distinctions - such as
(im)mutability or (im)passibility - in a constitutive '"blood circulation'", a dynamic of
Saward, March, p.29. This aspect of Balthasar's thought has received detailed critical commentary in
Gerard F. O'Hanlon, The Immutability of God in The Theology of Hans Urs von Balthasar (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1990)
See TD3,p.l83ff
John 19.30
Donald MacKinnon, 'Some Reflections on Hans Urs von Balthasar's Christology with Special
Reference to Theo-dramatik II/2, III and IV', in John Riches (ed.), The Analogy of Beauty: The Theology
of Hans Urs von Balthasar (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1986), p. 174
" Nichols, No Bloodless Myth, p. 195
35
'absolute freedom, love and gift.'^'* The immanent circulation presses towards the
economic spilling. The relations with humanity given in the economy of salvation
reveal relationahty in the horizonless horizon of God with Godself.
Talk of God as immanent and economic Trinity is talk after the Christological
event. Balthasar states that the immanent and the economic Trinity are not identical.
Nonetheless, they are related as 'the laws of the economic Trinity arise from the
immanent Trinity' and so Balthasar does talk, in dramatic terms, of the 'immanent-
economic Trinity.'^^ The immanent Trinity is played out in the economic Trinity. By
his personalised, classical understanding of an analogy of being between God and
humanity located in the Son, Balthasar requires one to join the reality of the Son's life,
contemplatively and ecclesially, in order to appreciate either the creatureliness of
humankind or the Trinitarian God. It is in the Son's personal exposition of God that the
immanent and the economic Trinity are continuous with each other and that the Trinity
engages with created reahty. The immanent Trinity is 'plenitude' overflowing into the
'specific narrative actions' in which the theologian traces the economic Trinity.^^ This
Christological claim to relation in distinction between the immanent and the economic
Trinity is best summarised through Balthasar's use of the classical terms, processio and
missio. Processio is the sending of the Son from the Father in the immanent Trinity and
missio is the economic sending of the Son into time. Balthasar maintains a distinction
between processio and missio against any view that the missio is God's complete self-
mediation into the structures of the world and against any view that missio is a
requirement, perfecting processio. Processio, on Balthasar's view, does not need missio
but rather missio is an unnecessary expression of processio as a gift within God,
between Father and Son through the Spirit. Thus, although it has a real part in God's
drama, humanity's involvement in the Trinitarian life does not add anything to God
because humanity itself was created in the Trinitarian relations and by them is given
back to them. Furthermore, the economic Trinity, in missio, does not drain God into the
world's soil but rather its kenosis is analogous to the eternal kenosis - the Being in self-
giving as inter-relational Persons - which is the immanent processio. It is this kenotic
TD5, p.245
TD3, p.535
Williams, 'Foreword', p.xix
36
analogy that maintains God's trace through the world as a relational trace. Godness is
not, thereby, naturally there in the world. Rather it is available, embracing all but
experienced only in relation with it, as a gift of grace. In line with Balthasar's
consistent emphasis on greater dissimilarity as integral to analogical talk of God, it is
not by deduction but by reception of its glory, that the contours of the Trinity can be
glimpsed. The ultimate horizon of Trinitarian processions, opening itself graciously
through a particular mission, creates free space for living in true dramatic inter-personal
situations.'' As the dramatically engaged ultimate horizon, the Trinity renders life theo-
drama.
2.213: Participative Christology
Defending Balthasar's account of Trinitarian super-event against concern that it

renders God unstable or variable, Edward Oakes suggests that 'underneath [such]
language, we must be ready to hear the Anselmian logic of 'it had to be so."'^ Indeed,
Balthasar employs Anselm's classic argument, re-locating it in its original, Trinitarian
context. He states that 'the drama of God and man shows itself to be something "than
which nothing greater can be thought.'"'^ This applies to its dramatic events and to its,
necessarily related, dramatic horizon, which 'will prove to be the widest possible
horizon ... inasmuch as it is able to recapitulate and integrate within itself all the ways
in which man can possibly view himself.' By its dramatic instantiation this widest
possible horizon proves itself, revealing in revealing itself the impossibility of any
other horizon's being dramatically instantiated with its ontological scope and import.
Inherently relational, such dramatic revelation 'can only be ... demonstrated from
within itself and 'can only be experienced as the truth i f we share in performing it.'^'
" Guy Mansini's discussion ('Balthasar and the Theodramatic Enrichment of the Trinity', The Thomist
64 (2000), 499-519) of the dramatic revelation of the immanent Trinity in the economic and its
implications for the involvement of humanity in divine conversation deserves consideration that, as it is
so recently published, I have not been able to give it.
Edward T. Oakes, Pattern of Redemption: The Theology of Hans Urs von Balthasar (New York:
Continuum, 1994), p.243
TD2, p. 118
TD2, p.9
^'TDl,pp.l9-20
37
The Christian God, in his identity, is able to be the "One", the "Other" and the "Unifying"; even
at the formal level, therefore, he is the most dramatic of all gods. Furthermore, when he
produces a world out of himself and takes responsibility for it, this process, corresponding to the
archetype from which it springs, is bound to be sublimely dramatic.
The Dramatics also supposes an Anselmian Psalmist's fool. Balthasar comments at the
outset, and with reference to the previous section of his trilogy, that '[a]nyone who
took seriously the encounter described in the Aesthetics was obliged to see that the
phenomenon presented to him was one in which he had always been involved.' With
innate ability to appreciate the aesthetic and received testimony to Trinitarian glory,
only the fool could fail to see in his heart that he has always been part of creation's
response, on the world stage that is as it is because of Christ's ultimate drama played in
it. Such foohshness fails to appreciate the Incarnation as 'a dramatic action ultimately
without parallel, because it constitutes the ultimate drama.'^'^
Scola finds Balthasar's Christology 'elliptical'.^^ It remains obscure unless one

receives a way in. There is something conical to the reality it shapes, grace relating to
nature as 'the apex that cannot be derived from the base.'^*" Thus natural Christology,
from below, and revealed Christology, from above, cannot really be separated, for
nature is always orientated within its gracious completion. Balthasar does Christology
both from below in his Christology of consciousness and from above in his Christology
of being: the theological task is to engage with the play from within. And Mark
Mcintosh uses this idea as an interpretative key, opening up Balthasar's theology as 'an
analysis of Christ from the perspective of those men and women who have mystically
entered within the life of Christ.'^^ To his mind, this represents a shift from ontological
to obediential terms, although I would think it was more a conjoining of the two. Most
importantly, Mcintosh shows how Balthasar's Christology both holds open the human
acting space and enables particular human actions. There is a Christological 'nuptial
pattern' in and through which the world is created and in that there are Christological
TD3,p.531
TDl,p.l5
^* Balthasar, 'Another Ten Years', p.226
Scola, Balthasar, p.66
Balthasar quoted Riches and Quash, 'Balthasar', p. 144
Mcintosh, Christology from Within, p.2
38
individual existences, those of the saints, which continue to unfold the life of Christ by
'participation in the mysteries.'^^ It is, therefore, not metaphysics that links the
universal and the particular but participation. This is a vital move in the emphasis on
Christology as dramatic. Appreciation of the truth, thereby, is no general elevation but
a share in God's personal existence. To assist the Church in performing the hfe of
Christ, Balthasar requires a participative reading that does not dress a vague original
Jesus in the fashions of our day, but 'articulate[s] an original "form", identifie[s] its
significance and reveal[s] its true outlines.'^^ A true reading of Christ will, of course,
have to employ human terms, but in doing so it will reveal, obedientially, Christ's
ontological significance. In the end, this task of truthfully reading the figure of Christ
within the ellipse is itself a mystery.
2.22: Anthropology and Soteriology as Christological Implications
Personalisation of truth on the understanding that true personal existence

participates in the ultimate relational horizon is central to Balthasar's anthropology and
soteriology as implications of his Christology. Balthasar believed that 'theology can
only ever perform its task by circular repetitions of that which is ever greater.
Parcelling it out in individual tracts is its certain death.'^*^ Anthropologies and
soteriologies are, to Balthasar, the classic deadly parcels of the religious tract writers.
As a theologian, he places both firmly within the figure of Christ by implicating them
in the ellipse of his dramatic, ontological and obediential, Christology. What humanity
is dramatically and how humanity should be dramatically (anthropology and
soteriology) are functions of this Christological reality and are consequently only fully
appreciated by those in Christ.
2.221: Dramatic Anthropology: the Play of Freedoms
[I]f we want to ask about man's "essence" we can do so only in the midst of his dramatic
performance of existence. There is no other anthropology but the dramatic."
Mcintosh, Christology from Within, pp. 18-21

TD3, p.64
Balthasar quoted Saward, March, p.xvii
" TD2, p.335
39
Balthasar's dramatic anthropology responds to a central question of the Theological
Dramatics: how can God's infinite freedom relate with human finite freedoms? In non-
dramatic terms, theological anthropology may find it difficult to show how space can
be left for meaningful human freedom when God is infinitely free. A dramatic
theological anthropology, however, recognises that the 'creation of finite freedom by
infinite freedom is the starting point of all theo-drama.'^^ Mutual infinite and finite
freedom, unsustainable in static terms, is considered by Balthasar to be dramatically
viable.
In T D l Balthasar contends that, as the human predicament is dramatic,

anthropology cannot be purely naturalistic. Balthasar questions, 'who am I?' A
question that he claims people cannot get around for it itself holds the rifle. It presumes
awareness both of finitude, my role as a part of life, and infinity, the incalculable
expanse in which I play. On his account, there are two modes of inadequate, purely
naturalistic anthropology. Firstly, one in which we accept completely the limitation of
role: the infinite context is of no concern and the every-day flux is all that we really are.
Secondly, one in which our role is an unacceptable alienation and we leave it behind,
merging in infinite reality. Balthasar offers an impressionistic history of anthropologies
in which many fall into one or other mode. Both modes fail for the same reason. They
find no necessary connection between finite role and infinite context. As a result they
deny one of them, attempting to collapse the tension into the total reality of the other.
On Balthasar's view this denies the constitutive human awareness of both and thus is
inadequate anthropologically.^^
In the dramatic alternative to naturalistic anthropology, humans are perceived as

actors. The anthropological tension is held as they participate in an interplay of
freedoms, experienced in terms of assent and choice. Assent reflects the sense in which
humans are placed within the ultimate horizon and choice reflects the sense in which
humans can decide their situation. Choice and assent combine in participation: inter-
relationally situated action that embodies a horizon. The import of the dramatic here
TD2, p.271
T D l , pp.481-589. Balthasar's classic examples are Heraclitus for the first account and Parmenides for
the second. Empiricism, first and Advaita Vedanta, second, are also common.
40
relates to the mutuality between horizon and action, human freedom is realised when
particular chosen actions are relationally situated within an absolute horizon of mutual
assent. 'Through the theatre', where practitioners set up the parameters, 'a challenge is
issued to human freedom to realise itself in accordance with its higher meaning.'^'*
Dramatically, humans experience the possibility of engagement with a horizon. But
only Christologically are they 'enabled to take on a genuinely dramatic role in the
realm, not of the theatre, but of life.'^^
[A]nthropology ... ought to be treated as a function of Christology.
Christology governs Balthasar's anthropology. The true mutual horizon is the infinite
life of the Trinity and the necessary connection between it and genuine relational
actions is Mission, primordially Christ's and receptively Christians'. In a Christology
of Mission, thus, dramatic anthropology finds its ultimate term: human freedom finds
its proper, personal place within divine freedom. A natural dramatic anthropology is an
implication of God's dramatic actions in Christ. However, human drama can never find
its ultimate term - it can never be what drama truly is. The ultimate dramatic truth can
only be received soteriologically, in a relational reality through which a natural
dramatic anthropology and a revealed dramatic Christology are 'not... simply parallel,
one beside the other: instead they are merged one with the other, intimately connected
and indissolubly linked.'^^
2.222: Dramatic Soteriology: Life in Christ
Balthasar describes 'for us' as 'the two fundamental words of all theology'^^
and his soteriology maps the Christological engagement of infinite freedom with finite
Thomas Dalzell, The Dramatic Encounter of Divine and Human Freedom in the Theology of Hans Urs
von Balthasar (Berne: Peter Lang, 1997), p.l 14
TDI,p.645
TD2, p.428
Ellero Babini, 'Jesus Christ: Form and Norm of Man according to Hans Urs von Balthasar' in David L.
Schindler (ed.), Hans Urs von Balthasar: His Life and Work (San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 1991), p.226
Balthasar quoted Saward, March, p.39
41
freedom, as the engagement for us, the only one in which humanity can live properly in
its constitutive tension between assent and choice. For 'God himself has created us in
such a way as we must hear the Word of God in order to be ourselves.'^^ And this
hearing changes human perspective, revealing by engagement the true analogy between
humanity and God. In the Theological Dramatics, this analogy is 'understood ... as an
analogia libertatis.'^^^ The dynamically analogous nature of human freedom with
respect to divine freedom renders soteriology a matter of participatory personhood. The
priority of God in this analogy of freedom raises two questions to which Balthasar
considers only Christian theology capable of adequate response. In what does the
person participate? And how does participation offer personhood?
With respect to the former question, I look to the first two of the Dramatics'
five aspects of New Testament soteriology.The first is a double surrender in Christ's
death: the Father gives up the Son to sin and the Son gives up his spirit in obedience to
the Father. Both surrenders must be understood as for us all. This leads to the second
imperative of appreciating the Son's surrender as a wondrous exchange between Him
and humankind. In these terms, Balthasar is very sympathetic to Anselm's doctrine of
vicarious substitution and Ellero Babini argues that it is this doctrine, interpreted as
surrender and exchange, which enables Balthasar to forward a soteriology of 'radical
b e l o n g i n g . ' T h i s is a telling paradox. It reflects Balthasar's sense that salvation is
finding one's home, one's true life, inseparable from the sense that salvation is not
naturally accessible outside of reorientation in relationship with Christ. Christ as
representative stands for both God and humanity in dramatic situation and thus the
divine meets the human in exchange: God 'enters created freedom, interacts with
created freedom and acts as created freedom.''^^ Again in a commentator's paradox,
this renders the exchange 'both forensic and ontic.'^'^'^ In taking humanity's place Christ
effects an ontic transformation in which the whole of reality is theo-drama. Yet the
exchange is also forensic in that it is given to individuals by their being placed in
Hans Urs von Balthasar, Prayer, trans. Graham Harrison (San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 1986), p.35
Babini, 'Form and Norm,' p.225
See TD4, pp.240-244
Babini, 'Form and Norm', p.226
'"^ TD4,p.318
Nichols, No Bloodless Myth, p. 171
42
relation with God, given a mission in their finite freedom. It is this Christie exchange in
which humans participate soteriologically. Dramatic participatory salvation of the finite
in the infinite is dependent on the prior substitutionary participation of the infinite in
the finite. Thus salvation is analogical, with God's substitutionary act as the ultimate
term of human substitutionary acts. Humanity is found primarily in Christ and salvation
obtains in grace when individual recognises this primacy and it becomes her goal. In
each particular case this takes a personal form. As such
every human fate is deprivatized so that its personal range may extend to the whole universe,
depending on how far it is prepared to co-operate in being inserted into the normative drama of
Christ's life, death and Resurrection.'"^
This soteriological co-operation must be distinguished from natural human co-

operation and Balthasar does this by describing the former as apocalyptic. Apocalyptic
interruptive imagery intimates salvation's unique relationality. Given Christ's Mission,
human and divine, 'his life ... must follow an "apocalyptic" r h y t h m ' . T h i s rhythm
informs the soteriological action as it encompasses the stage and timescale of all
heaven and all earth but yet is relative to particular events. Balthasar finds this imaged
in John's Apocalypse, where the ultimate visionary canvass is engaged with seven
specific communities. It is only in such engaged relations between ultimate horizon and
particular churches that salvation attains its full shape. Salvation is, then,
'simultaneously a liturgy of worship and a b a t t l e f i e l d . ' I t s radical interruptive
command and its prayerful meditative home are dependent on the apocalyptic contact
of God with man, revealed as the universal framework when the Lamb, slain in glory
before its foundation, steps in particular actions on the world stage. This will forever be
a relational salvation demanding responsive participation.
The soteriological question of how such participation offers personhood relates

to the next two New Testament aspects - liberation: firstly from sin and death and
secondly for Hfe in God. Balthasar claims that, theologically speaking, there is a
distinction among human beings between those who are also persons and those who are
'"^ TD2, p.50

TD3,p.llO
TD2, p.33
43
not. '[PJarticipation [in the total mission of Christ] us what makes conscious subjects
into persons in the Christian sense.''^^ On Balthasar's view, this distinction is a
requirement of dramatic soteriology. He approaches the characters in theodramatic
reality on the understanding that they are 'definable as persons within the total Person,
as supporting roles to the title role.''*^^ Thus, the individual becomes a person as she
steps onto Christ's theological stage:
Jesus is a person. Others can claim to be persons only in virtue of a relationship with him and in
dependence on him. In the case of other persons, we cannot speak of an identity between the "I"
and the mission as it exists in Jesus; but we can say that their conscious subjects are endowed
with a part or aspect of his universal mission. ... Accordingly, the greater the participation, the
greater the subject's personal definition will become and the more universal his mission.""
This distinct concept of personhood, dependent on being called into the acting area,
ensures a fully relational, dramatic conception of the soteriological move that takes
place. On Balthasar's view, the theodramatic stage is Christ's 'personal realm of
i n f l u e n c e . ' A s such it is not 'a mere fluid medium. It is a personal and personalising
area, set up for the encounter with God in Christ.''^^ This encounter, in which one takes
on one's mission in Christ, constructs both one's proper stage and proper role, in a
move of personalisation. As actions in role and the stage horizon are mutually
informative, without participation in relation with God in Christ the human cannot play
her proper role, that of a theological person. Personalising is also socialising, a placing
of the human among others in a shared form of life. Personal relations, on Balthasar's
theological view, can only occur within this personalising encounter with Christ. Aidan
Nichols presents the communal implication of this forcefully: i f the Church is the only
corporate theological person then 'the other ecclesial communities are not - for
Balthasar - really on the stage.'^^^ It is Balthasar's definition of personal identity as
dramatically relational, coupled with a thoroughgoing location of salvation in the
interplay between finite and infinite freedom expressed uniquely in the mission of
'"^ TD2, p.207

TD2, p.270
"" TD3,p.207
'"TD3,p.246
"^TD3,p.249
44
Christ, which leads him to require this specifically theological understanding of
personality. In personalisation, human beings 'become what in God's sight they always
are' in a Christie participation itself both concrete and universal.^'"^
As '[tjhere is room within the incomparable uniqueness of Christ... for others

to have analogous, unique, personal missions',''^ so - in Balthasar's fifth aspect of New
Testament soteriology - salvation is a gift within God's Trinitarian love. God cannot be
said to require it and it cannot be said to add anything to God. Christ reveals the
contours of the ultimate Trinitarian horizon as he comes from it, plays it out in
expositional engagement with both it and us, and returns to it. The Son needs the Father
and the Spirit to be himself and thus the space for analogous personal missions is 'room
within himself, that is, an acting area for dramas of theological moment involving other
created persons.'"^ Between persons and God, 'the analogy as one of personality' is
one of 'active readiness ... for every possible initiative on the part of God's will. ...
This readiness was taken up and fulfilled in Christ which shows exactly what analogy
here means.''^' On this view,
[f]inite freedom cannot be located in a void, for there is no such void. It is "set loose" in the
realm of infinite freedom and so finds itself, right from the start, in a realm of meaning
governed by the infinite "idea" of the Son, which, as the prototype of creation, uniformly
permeates it and, in so far as the creation is in dramatic motion, accompanies it."^
Christ 'has been given a mission not accidentally but as a modaUty of his eternal
personal being.'^'^ In this event, the eternal relations of God have engaged with the
temporal relations of humanity and given life's structure its ultimate ground, a ground
that can be related with and only in that way experienced. Francesca Murphy shows
how a dramatic conception of soteriology enables Balthasar to hold anthropology and
Christology together in this way. Balthasar neither objectivises salvation, making it so
radical as to be pure Christological imposition, nor does he subjectivise salvation.
TD3,p.270
"5TD3,p.207
"'*TD3,p.I62
Balthasar, 'Implications', p.75

"^TD2, pp.276-277
45
making it belong to us to the extent that it is the anthropological home. Rather,
dramatic soteriology is 'phenomenology upended', where salvation is not imposed,
either by humanity or by the divine, but created in the spaces between the two in
interplay. It is phenomenological as a form of life, meaning that in Christian
soteriology 'we have to do, not with a fixed - linguistic or metaphysical - structure,
which defines the positions of each character, but with the opacities of free action
within a drama.' It is upended by the presence of God, as the participation of the divine
styles this form of life particularly.Dramatic soteriology is personal and analogical.
It allows Christian living both formal affinity and qualitative incomparability with
respect to all other ways of living.
2.23: Theo-drama as Relational Ontology
By combining ontology and relationality in a dramatic mode, Balthasar's

theology couples both a strong sense of communal formation and an inescapable focus
on gracious interruption. Theological truth is inseparable from both the particular
dramatic patterns of Christian life, the communal formation, and the apocalyptic
distance from which Christ's mission forms the ultimate dramatic arena, the gracious
interruption. Balthasar's Dramatics centres on Christological relations that can only be
appreciated from within the ontological reality that those relations open up.
Furthermore, a theodramatic, soteriological relationship with Christ reveals the
unsurpassable limitations of dramatic anthropology, of all attempts at truly dramatic
relations between humans outwith Christ's personalising reality. And so 'Grace for all
depends on the form of life of Him.'Balthasar's Christian Hfe is participation in
Christ's, with a shared form. The form (gestalt) of artistic presentation and response is
a key idea in the Theological Aesthetics. And in the Dramatics it is dynamised to leave
the impression of a 'Pattern of Redemption' in which the behever can pick up the style
122
of the Gospel rather like the rhythm of a Shakespeare or the imagery of a Kurinawa.
This picking up of style is fundamentally responsive, as creation must be is in respect
to the creator. It is however active in being responsive, and the saints, thereby, are
model interpreters of theological truth. They provide its material - 'being as
120
Murphy, Form of Beauty, pp. 146,184
121
Balthasar, 'In Retrospect', p. 201
Oakes, Pattern of Redemption - from which the example analogies are taken
46
experienced by actual living according to Christ and the Church' - and they exemplify
its activity, as 'the life of the saints is theology in practice.''^'' Note the singular, life.
Balthasar perceives the lives of the saints to be imitations of Christ's to the extent that
they may be referred to as one communal life. In the Theological Dramatics, he relates
the Christian form of life with the Primal Idea. The Primal Idea of God's creation of
humankind is Christ. Consequently, the form of Christ is the form that all humankind
should take as its origin and goal. But the Primal Idea remains relational, for God,
ultimately primal, is ultimately relational. The same Spirit that holds the Trinity
together as it forms its boundless love through cross and resurrection forms the Church
in community and in that Spirit the Church is the body of Christ in the world. In this
context, grace is not available by comparison with the form of Christ exhibited by the
Church but only by joining it. This dramatic sense that one must be not merely in on
the act, through comparative appreciation, but in the act, as participant, opens
Balthasar's conception of communal formation to the necessity of gracious
interruption.
One of the nine theological trends that Balthasar integrates dramatically is

orthopraxy. It is interesting to note the weakness he considers inherent to a non-
dramatic account of orthopraxy, that it cannot give a full enough account of the 'faith
that precedes all personal initiative.'^^"^ It is the dramatic mode that rescues Christian
orthopraxy from being construed as one way of life and renders it the way of life. As
dramatic, the impetus to participate in Christian hfe is not derived from a supposed
inner religious attitude but from being engaged by a wider horizon manifest in
particular acts, the phenomenon of Christ himself. Epistemologically, there is no
general religious sense, from which to appreciate the drama between God and
humankind. The ontological correlate of this is that there is no being per se to validate
the dramatic analogy of being. Rather God himself is dramatically - 'the analogatum is
even more true of Him than it is of us!' Our dramas, analogously, are included in his.
'It is a case of the play within the play: Our play "plays" in his play'^^^ As the ultimate
dramatic encounter is that with Christ, so dramatic reality - ultimately - exists

'^'*TDI,p. 33
Oakes, Pattern of Redemption, p.231
'^*TDI,p.20
47
relationally within the divine life that encompasses the lives of humankind. For
Balthasar, all identity is relational and Christian identity is ultimate because it is held
properly, responsively in the ultimate Trinitarian relations. Identity in relation is key to
Balthasar's dramatic mode of theology for
[u]ltimately not even a fellow human being can tell another who the latter really is in himself
The most emphatic affirmation can only tell him who he is for the one who values him or loves
him. And as long as the subject cannot discover his qualitative identity he cannot find any
absolute meaning.
On this account, '[ejverything is stuck in a web of relative, reciprocal, provisional

values and revaluation.''^^ Yet, a quality of identity that is unachievable from within
this web still functions within in. It enters the web in the Incarnation. This brings the
possibility of relation with God, of knowing oneself as the one valued by God, and
concomitantly of receiving a mission from God whereby one's identity is dramatically
fulfilled. Such identity remains relational and so does not break the structure of the
web. Its governing form is eucharistic, 'a thankful allowing of oneself to be poured
f o r t h . ' I t can be achieved only by personal, analogical participation in the primary
pouring forth of God in Christ. Commenting on Balthasar's Christology, Donald
MacKinnon describes the Incarnation as
an act without parallel, constitutive of a series of relationships which are, for all their multiple
differences, transformed by that act into what otherwise they could in no sense have been.
And, regarding the truth of this transformation: 'as in any drama, it is the total action
that is to supply the sense.' '^^ This total action, the ultimate horizon, is engaged in the
specific inter-related activities that participate in it. And to appreciate the ultimate
horizon as such the person must herself be so engaged. Thus, for Balthasar, reahty is a
Christological combination of communal formation and gracious interruption.
TD3, p.205
'^^ Nichols, Aô Bloodless Myth, p. 167
MacKinnon, 'Balthasar's Christology', pp.171-172
48
Gerard O'Hanlon makes a perceptive distinction when outlining the second and
third volumes of Balthasar's Theological Dramatics. In TD2, Ma?i in God, he finds
Balthasar exposing the 'space of owed freedom' in which all humanity operates and
which can only be fully appreciated theologically. TD3, Persons in Christ, 'clarifies'
this as the 'graced context' in which 'we develop from the status of human being to that
of true personhood by our association with the person Jesus Christ.' O'Hanlon
concludes his discussion with this claim:
by being related particularly to Jesus Christ we are drawn into the event of infinite freedom and
love which is the relationship between the Father and the Son in a way which reinforces our
own freedom and the openness of our history.'^"
To my mind, O'Hanlon's distinction between owed space and graced context embraces
the tensions of Balthasar's dramatic theology. These tensions are Christologically
generated. There is the inscription of the form of the cross in created reality from
eternity and yet there is the radical need for relational reorientation i f humans are to
open up and live in the salvific patterns this inscription allows. All humans live in owed
space; there is nothing unnatural about relational patterning as a process; this is a
dramatic anthropology. However, only Christologically, in the clarified graced context,
does this natural process operate truly and constitute salvation. Ontologically, owed
space and graced context are identical with an identity only recognised in Christ.
Reception of his personalising mission is the relational precondition for appreciating,
not only the graced context, but also the owed space. The human remaining in the owed
space in no sense experiences it as a graced context. Furthermore, she lacks awareness
of its true contours as owed space, misplaying its process of relational formation in
freedom.
Balthasar's Theological Dramatics reflects a 'relational ontology'.'^' Reality is

perceived relationally, theologically and in any other discipline. Nonetheless, only
Christian relational patterns operate soteriologically and so only Christian theology
offers a proper ontology, a viable understanding of being. Balthasar's powerful
dramatic account of theological reality incorporates the human owed space within the
'^^ O'Hanlon, 'Theological Dramatics', p.96

Dalzell, 'Social Drama', p.455
49
theological graced context. This is a hermeneutic process, interpreting all life's dramas
from within soteriological participation in life's dramatic reality. Balthasar uses the
Christian dramatic pattern both to judge and to integrate all other dramatic patterns. His
dramatic vocabulary applies primarily to God's activity and secondarily to human
activity and from this appreciation of drama's ultimate form he appropriates human
theatre by a theological dialogue with it, an interpretative strategy I discuss in the next
chapter.
50
3; BALTHASAR'S THEODRAMATIC H E R M E N E U T I C S
3.1: T H E O D R A M A T I C H E R M E N E U T I C S
Aidan Nichols notes that Balthasar's Theological Dramatics provides 'a new
hermeneutic' in the following terms.
As is well known, in Catholic teaching the truth of revelation cannot be demonstrated through
verification in the court of appeal of some higher and more comprehensive truth - for the simple
reason that no truth can be higher and more comprehensive than revelation's. Indeed, the
contrary is the case: revelation enables us to recognise distortions or narrownesses in all other
truth claims we encounter. At the same time, however, certain rational indices ... can point to
the credibility of [revelation's] unique truth claim - and ensure in this way that the act of faith is
not misconceived as a denial or inversion of truth's extra-revelatory sources. Translating that
into theodramatic terms, Balthasar argues that, on the one hand, the dramatic action which
unfolds in its totality in the 'theatre' of Judaeo-Christianity is self-interpreting, and, on the other
hand, that what - for those who have not yet heard the gospel - already 'seems ultimate within
the human horizon, and is experienced as such' is taken with full seriousness in theo-drama,
indeed with more seriousness than anywhere else.'
Balthasar's theodramatic hermeneutics interprets natural human dramatic expression as

internally relative to God's gracious dramatic expression, consistently with a traditional
Catholic conception of nature and grace. It is introduced in stage D of the first section
of TD2, a section that bridges between the literary prolegomena behind and the
theological volumes beyond. Balthasar leads up to D with three stages, each of which
governs a sub-section. Stage A is to 'let the phenomenon speak for itself. Stage B is to
'attempt a purely intramundane presentation of the drama of existence.' In stage C, 'the
ultimate failure of this attempt will legitimately point... toward a transcendent,
theological drama.' A drama that, of a necessity shown by stage D, 'has the power to
interpret and expound itself.'^ I shall discuss this theodramatic hermeneutics with a
view to its implications for dialogue with theatre practice.
' Nichols, No Bloodless Myth, p.55, citing TD2, pp.94-95

^TD2, p. 19
51
Stages A and C, which I will consider initially, outline Balthasar's theological
dramatic approach. He interprets human dramatic activity as unsustainable without the
prior gracious dramatic activity of God. Thus any attempt at purely intramundane
drama, drama that does not acknowledge an ultimate dramatic horizon, will fail. Stage
B, which illustrates this failure, explains the rationale for a theological dramatic
appropriation of theatrical vocabulary: human dramatic activity can only be properly
understood by those who participate in the ultimate drama. I will consider this stage
secondly, and show how Balthasar finds theatre vocabulary - terms such as author,
actor and director - to have its primary meaning in God's gracious dramatic action and
to apply secondarily to the human arena. Stage D, which I shall consider thirdly,
defines theodramatic hermeneutics explicitly as Christian ontology, dramatically
integrating nature within grace.
As it relativises human dramatic activity within the ultimate dramatic reality of

God in Christ, Balthasar's theodramatic hermeneutics implies a post-Christian, natural
dramatic dimension for those who live in theo-drama's owed space without recognising
its reality as graced context. Theatre, as a symbol of this dramatic dimension, 'yield[s]
a whole set of resources' for the theological task.^ Particular plays and practitioners are
'chosen for their theological fruitfulness - an admittedly one-sided approach.'"* And
theatricality is also a resource for theological style. It encourages good theological
habits, especially the habit of looking for a higher meaning in a dynamic, corporate
way^ and 'invit[ing] the approach of a revelation.'^ Its 'wealth of material, relationships
and connections ... provide a complete, ready-made set of categories ... which can be
used to portray God's action.'^ This natural, human dramatic dimension - and the role
of theatre in it - will be considered further in the next chapter. Here I outline
Balthasar's theodramatic hermeneutics, the four-stage methodology in which he
postulates such a dimension.
3.11: Theological Dramatic Approach
^ TD2, p.9
''TDl,p.9
'See TDl,p.21
*TDl,p.l2
^TDl,p.l8
52
At stage A, the phenomenon that Balthasar determines to let speak for itself is
'the phenomenon of the theatre - as a metaphor that is closely bound up with life's
reality.'^ Life has a theatrical dynamic and the concepts with which this dynamic
speaks (for itself, through Balthasar) are Form, Word and Election. Form is understood,
as in Balthasar's Theological Aesthetics, as a self-disclosing and enrapturing fullness of
beauty manifest in an object of beauty. Its enrapturing dynamic is developed here as the
'interplay of grace and gratitude.'^ Such dialogical expression is the meaning of the
form, moving between its giving and its being received. Thus theatrical meaning is a
rhythmic measure intrinsic to that relation in which a person is carried by the form, and
not an externally stable measure. Meaningful expression's dynamic of giving and
receiving is the reason for speaking of Word. Word is the 'call ... from the form', a call
in which there is presumed a reply: either a 'Yes of willing attentiveness' or a 'No
which deliberately overlooks.''" Yes is the only dramatic reply. It opens the way for
communal response in the form. A negative reply refuses the given dramatic dynamic,
rendering it absurd. Word thus governs freedom, with dramatic freedom interior to
response in the form. The phenomenon of theatre speaks Election in that the spectator,
struck by a form, is 'not simply placed in a universal perspective from which he can
survey the totality.' Rather she is placed in a relational situation through which her life
must change; 'henceforth' she will 'live in response.'"
This transition from a form's perception to responsive communal intra-

participation is the move from the static to the dynamic, the movement of experience in
outline. Life exhibits this theatricality of which theatre practice is a metaphor. Balthasar
traces this transition from perception to response, the theatricality inherent 'even in the
realm of intramundane drama' and finds that the fact that it 'only attains its full
intelligibility ... when seen against the background of the divine revelation in Jesus
Christ does not in any way alter the phenomenon...; it simply ... renders it optimally
visible.''^ Theological dramatics explains the phenomenon of life's theatrical reality
*TD2,p.l7
' TD2, p.24
TD2, p.29
" T D 2 , pp.30-31
TD2, p.23
53
and it is not theology from below. Balthasar does not build from purportedly extra-
revelatory theatrical experiences to theo-drama. Quite the opposite:
[i]f the infrastructures prove useful, it is because the created world is oriented toward the world
of redeeming grace, and the fragmentary nature of the former receives its unity and wholeness
in the latter.
The 'infrastructures' are 'dramatic categories of worldly drama' and particular

'literary' accounts of theatre practice, such as Balthasar offers in the Prolegomena.^^
They are structural in that they exemplify the theatrical reality of life, a reality inherent
to life and optimally visible only in Christian revelation. More precisely, they are
m/rastructural, in that they exist, necessarily, within that Christian reality. While being
infrastructural of reality, they are not con-structural, for reality is itself a function of
revelation. Theatrical experiences are fragmentary. As fragments of reality, they are
only open to integrated understanding through revealed and participatory appreciation
of the theodramatic Whole. The phenomenon of theatricality, that speaks for itself at
stage A, is the formal transition from the aesthetic to the dramatic which can be
illustrated through fragments of human theatrical experience but the full intelligibility
of which is a function of revelation. Theatre performances, reflections and theories
speak to Balthasar in this formal delineation. Revelation itself has dramatically
structured nature and thus the elements of theatre, as metaphors of human dramatic
expression, are presented by Balthasar (and, for Balthasar, are) 'in their relevance for
theology.'
From this perspective Balthasar can, in stage C, present Christian truth as 'The
Unfolding Drama' using a theatrical vocabulary to 'enable us to get a better view of the
content, the seriousness and the sublimity of the divine-human drama.'Christian truth
can be outUned from within but, in contradistinction from all other dramatic acts, it
cannot be subject to interpretation as a theatrical phenomenon, for than it there is no
greater standpoint. It is the single drama, lifting all that is natural and human beyond
itself in its own unique and concrete reality. For Balthasar, the dramatic holds event
1
TD2, p.53
TDl,p.268
TD2, p.53
54
and horizon together, dynamically and relationally. Complete dramatic meaning would,
therefore, hold life's ultimate horizon together with a particular event. This occurs
Christologically. As Balthasar puts it boldly, the drama of reality has a 'central
meaning called Jesus Christ.''^ Such a claim could be extracted from many a vacuous
sermon. In Balthasar's Theological Dramatics it has a sophisticated rationale. Meaning
was previously defined, in Stage A when the phenomenon of life's theatricality spoke
for itself. It was the dialogical expression of grace and gratitude that renders Form
dynamic. Jesus Christ is himself the form of God's expression, the form of Grace in
which is embraced the responsive form of humankind, the form of gratitude. Balthasar
here has a dramatic understanding of Christ as representative. Dramatically, Christ
represents God to humankind and humankind to God. This representative Christ is the
ultimate term of the phenomenon of theatricality, expressive form of God and
responsive form of humankind, concrete universal:
[a]s the perfect man with his peerless drama, he is the living framework within which every
human destiny is carried out."
Christ's unique actions form a single shape, and in their unique particularity
dramatically render the ultimate horizon. Thus, Christ reveals the total drama: the
ultimate theatrical occasion and the foundation of theatrical possibility in human life.
Key terms of Balthasar's Christology - action; horizon; representative; concrete
universal - are coming in here. And with Christ as the shape of the dramatic reality of
life, the stage is very much set for the Christological meditations of TD3. But
remaining with the dramatic methodology, Balthasar is concerned to emphasise that
natural, human dramatic existence is neither 'overwhelmed' nor 'narrowed' by its
ultimate Christological term. For it is already a 'presupposition' of such revelation as
its '(ante-) room in which human freedom makes decisions.''^ In this anteroom, for
Balthasar, waits the theatrical vocabulary whose primary purpose is for exposition of
the dramatic acts of God.
3.12: Theatrical Vocabulary
TD2, p.63
TD2, p.87
TD2, p.86
55
[I]t is a basic Christian requirement that existence should represent itself dramatically.
Stage B of Balthasar's theodramatic hermeneutics is called 'The Unfinished Drama.' It

emphasises finitude as that through which human existence is dramatic. Finitude finds
human freedom 'wrapped in many kinds of conditioning' and yet, precisely as it is
'provoked by conditions', a force through which 'man in his inner freedom is critically
shaped.' Freedom and conditionaHty, in tension, render finitude dramatic. The main
consequence of this is that no static framework can furnish a solving explanation for
humankind, neither from above rendering humanity a function of a context, nor from
below rendering humanity an expression of a rule. Rather, a human can only be
understood dramatically, as an interplay of freedoms in a 'field of force he shares with
others.'^'^ A true account of humanity will be a dramatic account and Stage B presents
the ultimate failure of any attempt at purely intramundane dramatic accounts of human
finitude: an ultimate failure that points towards the transcendent theological drama as
the only true dramatic account of humanity. It is vital to appreciate the vast difference
Balthasar perceives between the intramundane and the purely intramundane.
Intramundane drama is understood by Balthasar as the appropriate theatrical behaviour
of natural, human existence. In it humans reflect upon the mystery of their selves by
constructing minor horizons and concomitantly provisional events. Such activity
achieves a formal truthfulness and so is dramatic. It can be seen for the non-ultimate,
intramundane phenomenon that it is from the greater perspective of participation in
theo-drama. With respect to the purely intramundane, however, Balthasar plays the role
of phenomenological pathologist.^' For the purely intramundane is natural, human
existence in as much as it tries to find its own universal, dramatic significance,
alternative to personal relations with others in God through Christ. It tries to make for
itself the ultimate term of its formal truth. Given that what it is to be dramatic is itself a
function of Christian theodramatic revelation, if theatre attempts to take on its own
ultimate dramatic significance, not only does it necessarily fail in that task but it fails to
be dramatic at all. It collapses from dramatic expression either in to the lyric or the
"TDl,p.22
^ TD2, pp.37-38
^' Aidan Nichols presents Balthasar's phenomenology as 'clinical', with human life a 'pathological'
subject: No Bloodless Myth, pp. 146-147
56
epic. In stage B, Balthasar presents a phenomenology of this potential for failure. He
surveys the history of theatre - Ancient Greece; Thornton Wilder; Baroque; Noh;
Christopher Marlowe - and intimates a predicament for all theatrical expressions. Will
they stay in their intramundane place, where the hero does make a broadly tragic claim
over the audience: thus being minor, if not self-aware, analogues of the Christological
claim? Or, will they attempt to be purely intramundane? Will they try to offer their own
universal, dramatic claim, based in a competing ontology, and so, as dramatic ontology
is Christian theo-drama, reduce themselves from the dramatic to either an epic attempt
to construct a world narrative or a lyric attempt to predicate reality on their own self-
expression? Balthasar's survey shows a tension in his dual reading of human theatre as
intramundane or purely intramundane. He does not want to own a precision, whereby a
certain play, genre or practitioner is necessarily one or the other. He does, however,
imagine a genuine competition, in the sense that at every instance a theatrical
expression will be one or the other. Furthermore, both the intramundane limited success
and the purely intramundane over-ambitious failure are internally relative to Christian
dramatic truth. Balthasar operates with a theologically intuited understanding of
natural, human dramatic reality to which the drama of God with persons in Christ is the
ultimate term. Only from internal, participatory appreciation of this term, can human
drama be properly understood. And that understanding divides theatrical experiences
between the intramundane and so limitedly dramatic and the purely intramundane and
so finally non-dramatic.
How does this analysis play out in theatrical vocabulary? Firstly, it is clear that
the dramatic is primarily theological. Theology, through its participation in the ultimate
drama, has true purchase on its categories. Yet, humans are dramatic and can be so in a
natural, human sense - in an anteroom where the Incarnation is not appreciated. For
even before this final event comes to light, a play is going on "in front of the curtain": this play
is not a purely secular one and can only be played with one eye on the Absolute.^^
What counts as human play, in front of the curtain, is decided in terms of the final
event. Theatre, as symbol of human play, cannot be purely secular (purely
TDl,p.l29
57
intramundane) but only operates with one eye on the Absolute (as intramundane)
opening an individual's horizon beyond themselves. Here we see the relation between
theatrical activity and theologically appreciated dramatic reality. Theatre is, on
Balthasar's view, 'an arcane symbol of the dramatic dimension of existence, in so far as
existence, in its metaphysico-religious self-interpretation, assumes a horizon of
meaning.'^^ As such the theatre is necessarily inconclusive; its 'multiphcity of ideas ...
does not yield adequate clarity.''^'* For it symbolises the human dramatic reality, which
is in a tension that it of itself cannot resolve. Indeed, Balthasar 'cannot reprove the
theatre ... for its ambivalence, since the latter characterises existence itself and its self-
understanding.'^^ It is important for Balthasar that 'theatre practice springs from
existence and is characterized by it.' It is then an 'illumination' of existence. The
tensions of dramatic reality that lead it to theatrical expression are highlighted 'under
the spotlight of the stage.'^^ Worid theatre symbolises the (theologically appreciated)
dramatic reality of the human situation without Christian awareness and so is bound
into the inherent ambivalence of that situation. Consequently, from the outset of the
Theological Dramatics, Balthasar insists that he 'shall not be making any direct
transition from the stage to theology.' His route runs from theology to the stage via
the revealed appreciation of dramatic life in the natural, human situation.
In T D l , Balthasar introduces his dramatic resources. He takes two triads of

theatrical vocabulary - Author/Actor/Director and Presentation/Audience/Horizon - and
uses them as primarily applicable to theodramatic reality and secondarily to natural,
human dramatic expression. They are both relational triads. They are also both
formational, in the sense that they structure a reality, the former in rehearsal and the
latter in performance. In the intramundane realm of world theatre, the former triad -
Author/Actor/Director - operates as follows. The actor's real presence is the centre of
encounter between existence and truth: existence in that the actor embodies a role in a
concrete situation; truth in that by doing so the actor is related to and presents an
ideality, the horizon of the drama as artefact. Consequently acting makes a claim on the
TDl,pp.249-250
'"TDl.p.nO
TDl,p.249
^*TDl,p.259
^^TDl,p.ll
58
audience. Its claim is communicated through its actualisation of the analogy between
the play's horizon and the event on stage, allowing the audience imaginative entrance
into it.^^ Balthasar's understanding of the horizon of the dramatic artefact informs his
belief that the 'primacy ... in the author is ontological.'^^ The author provides that
'antecedent context of meaning', that horizon within which the performance develops.
It will develop 'unhindered' if it stays within the context. Thus, on Balthasar's view,
'the author has already placed a particular perspective in the play.' The perspective
requires actors for its realisation, and they could distort or ignore it, yet it still stands
over their success by dehneating their 'area for creativity.'^ The director, similarly
subject to the author's primacy, has a specific responsibility.
Between the dramatic poet and the actor there yawns a gulf that can be bridged only by a third
party who will take responsibility for the play's performance making it present here and now.'"
Such making present requires the director to graft the audience's horizon in to the
author's context, forming free and meaningful relations between author's word and
audience election. Here the former triad opens into the latter triad of
Presentation/Audience/Horizon. As the 'three elements of dramatic realisation,' this
latter triad offers the author, actor and director a scheme for success. In presentation, a
communion between the stage and the audience is required. To achieve this both
audience and actors must be open, expecting a revelation from a horizon beyond each
alone. As the actor must be determined to communicate, so the audience must want to
be transported by being open to the promise of a revelation. Audience expectation is
thus integral to dramatic success. The conventionalisation of theatre, so that its
revelation is so predictable as already to belong to the audience, leads to absurd
discomfort or an air of disinterest. Truly, an audience is encountered by revelation,
which is dramatic presentation and is itself the communion between audience and stage
that drama achieves.^^
TDl,pp.281-297
''TDl,p.269
^ TDI,p.297
^' T D l , p.298
T D l , pp.305-323
59
Balthasar's triadic theatrical vocabulary models what, according to his
theological dramatic intuition, it is to be dramatic. When it comes to differentiating
styles within this model his terms are drawn not from performance theory but are
theological: pre-Christian, Christian and post-Christian. And he returns to his triadic
schema in the Conclusion of T D l , where he is prepared to 'anticipate' that the 'two
triads ... find their blueprint in Christian theo-drama.' He emphasises that this is the
case, however, only 'from the vantage point' of relational participation in that drama.^^
He is not building from an account of natural, human dramatic activity to God's
gracious dramatic activity but showing how the vocabulary of the former can resource
an understanding of the latter because it is its imphcation. Consequently, it is not until
the end of TD3, after some theology proper, that he feels he has 'vindicated' his triadic
'dramatic resources', even though when they were first presented 'every discerning
reader was bound to see the underlying theodramatic action.'^'^
The triads are Trinitarian. The first is 'a perfect metaphor for the ... Trinity.'
The Author is the Father, having ontological priority over the dramatic artefact of
creation. The Son is the Actor whose role is identical to his person and who, in his
Mission, acts with an ultimate claim. The Spirit, as Director, bridges the gulf between
the actor and the author. Thus he 'translate[s] [the Father's play] into real life' and
gathers the audience in with the stage in a communal response. The second triad, 'only
partially distinguishable from the first', exposes the Trinity's theodramatic success.
Fluidity between audience and stage is required for the intramundane possibility of
audience participation in the play's Horizon such that revelation occurs. This fluidity is
'ultimate' in theo-drama, so that 'there is no such person as a pure spectator.' The
analogical making visible of the horizon in theo-drama is 'the all-embracing "event" of
the economic Trinity.' And the theodramatic Presentation is 'God's own bending
down', where the Trinitarian relationship in its ontological priority endures peerless
suffering by living the world round. Thus, metaphorically as theatre practitioners, the
economic Trinity holds human (Audience) response within its own creative trajectory.
The communion of intramundane dramatic presentation is here 'transformed into the
T D l , pp.645-648. Balthasar puts clear space between his triadic schema and what he perceives as
Rahner's understanding of the Trinity present in human communities or activities outside the Church.
TD3,p.531-532
60
Grace of co-atonement.'^^ 'Thus', and only thus as to be fully intelligible the
intramundane dramatic dimension must be viewed from a participatory theodramatic
appreciation,
the two triads of the Prolegomena merge into each other. The first triad, lit up with inner
radiance, reveals the immanent-economic Trinity; the second is simply the way in which this
Trinity, guiding and fashioning the world drama, draws it into itself.^^
In this sense, God's theodramatic activity is the ultimate term of human dramatic
activity. Human dramatic activity can be used 'to draw a range of resources ... which
can then be of service to the Christian theory of theo-drama.'^^ Nature, when it is
appreciated from the vantage point of revelation, can illuminate Grace. And to be
dramatic at all, human theatricality must remain in this provisional natural place, with
formal truthfulness that is a limited analogue of the divine reality.
This triadic/Trinitarian scheme structures theatrical vocabulary in theological

terms. What it means to be dramatic is located ultimately only in the drama of God with
persons in Christ and from this perspective there are theatrical activities that find their
final treatment theologically. Such activities are dealt with in a leisurely and allusive
manner across T D l and the first section of TD2 and circle around themes of morality,
judgement and truth. Each theme can be related to one of T D l ' s three dramatic
'leitmotifs' of theatre in 'all its variations', which together make a fourth leitmotif of
dramatic tension , a tension that - it is revealed at stage B - is recapitulated in
Christian theo-drama.^^ The first leitmotif relates to morality. It is the distinction
between the 'finitude of the performed play and its non-finite meaning.' In it, the play's
finite performance enables one 'to glimpse but not seize' its non-finite meaning.
Morally, this is the conundrum of freedom and conditionality. For theatre suggests a
transcendental concept of goodness. It expresses a simple human desire to achieve and
perceive goodness in an action together with the conditioned complexity which appears
" TD3, pp.532-535

TD3, p.535
" TDl,p.l30
TDl,p.249
TD2, pp.49-51
61
to make the desire unrealisable. This raises questions of judgement. In its second
leitmotif theatre as symbol of reality distinguishes between I and role, between personal
freedom and inter-constituted destiny. This reveals the full extent to which the dramatic
dimension pushes one towards an ultimate judgement one can never make. Verdict
becomes a natural expectation: as I , I should be able to judge my actions; but in the
flawed, inter-constitution of role no judgemental perspective is available. Theatre's
unfulfilled but unavoidable desires for goodness and judgement feed into the dramatic
attempt at truth. A leitmotif of two-fold responsibility is left by the desire for a truthful
performance - in this respect, the human actor has personal responsibility in his
freedom and yet, simultaneously in his conditionality, he remains responsible to a
directorial involved spectator. Thus he is 'answerable but free' and for his action to be
truthful an interpenetration of these responsibilities is required. These three aspects of
morality, judgement and truth (which theatre demands more than it can achieve)
combine in the fourth leitmotif of dramatic tension. Dramatic tension requires theatre,
as symbol of dramatic life, to be integrative and representational. A dramatically
charged reality cannot include boundless plots but must allow standpoints to be
integrated into a single, final one. Understanding, in that context, must be a
representative process, where the final horizon in some sense represents itself so as
both to engender and yet to gather together the tensions of dramatically constituted
reality.'*'^ According to Balthasar, to the extent that theatre is dramatic it respects these
contours, of dramatic categories, leitmotifs and tensions. To the extent that theatre
respects these contours it is intramundane, operative within a greater dramatic reality
(known only through revelation) that it does not purport to cope with itself. If it rejects
these contours and attempts an alternative account of dramatic truth then it is purely
intramundane, not only ultimately unsuccessful but not even truly dramatic.
Having collapsed purely intramundane drama, by arguing that all dramatic

activity is an implication of God's dramatic life, Balthasar concludes stage B by
addressing the leitmotif of dramatic tension to Christianity. In this he 'justifies' his
assertion ... that, in Christian terms, the dramatic dimension of human existence can only be
taken in complete seriousness - and that, accordingly, the Christian revelation can only appear
at its full stature - if it is presented as being dramatic at its very core.
''"TDl,pp.249-257
62
He shows Christian truth, as theo-drama, to be a 'recapitulation' of the human dramatic
dimension in such a way that its tensions are fulfilled. This is true of both the dramatic
tensions, integration and representation. Christian truth appreciates that one event
reveals the ultimate horizon and integrates all human destinies within the claim of this
one dramatic act. Thus Christ's drama is 'normative' but a response requires co-
operative representation on the part of the person. Representation, then, is recapitulated
sacramentally. For the Catholic sacraments 'continually make the one event present'
and are the 'meaning of the Church' as the 're-presentation of the drama of salvation'
once for all on each particular occasion.'*' The dramatic dimension of human reality, of
which theatre is a symbol, cannot be fully understood without appreciating that it finds
its ultimate term in the revealed drama of the Incarnation. Any reader who Balthasar
calls discerning, will survey world theatre with him, and in communion intuit its
ultimate dramatic term.
Stage B, 'The Unfinished Drama', is a short section of the dramatic approach

dealing with the theological reality of the intramundane dramatic dimension, such as
presupposes the failure of any attempt at purely intramundane drama. At first reading it
may seem awkwardly situated in the massive structure of the Dramatics. Tracing its
ideas back into the Prolegomena, however, enables the reader to appreciate its
significance in rendering human theatrical activity internal to theodramatic
hermeneutics. For,
[t]he reason Balthasar can so freely and sovereignly survey the results and artefacts of world
drama from the Greeks to Bertolt Brecht and find them of... theological use is because he sees
them as already grounded in the prior drama ... established by God."^
Oakes, there, astutely links the sense in which Balthasar's finds theatre useful
theologically with Balthasar's confidence in the theologian's capacity to survey worid
drama. The capacity to survey is a function of the fact that the theologian reflectively
participates in the prior, ultimate drama of God with humankind. From this revealed
dramatic reality, a scheme of dramatic categories is drawn and in respect to these
" TD2, pp.49-51

Oakes, Pattern of Redemption, p.220
63
categories, theatrical expressions are evaluated as limitedly dramatic or finally non-
dramatic. Balthasar has claimed that what seems ultimate in the human dramatic
horizon and is experienced as such theatrically is taken with full seriousness only in
theo-drama. This applies both to intramundane and purely intramundane theatre but in
different ways. Intramundane theatre is fragmentary and so appreciable as a
phenomenon by the theologian from the perspective of the theodramatic Whole. In this,
it cannot obtain the theodramatic ultimacy that implicitly, by formal parallel, it
acknowledges. It is precisely in the limitation of its success that it is dramatic as it
operates dramatically in as much as it is a formal miniature of theo-drama. The ultimate
failure of purely intramundane theatre to be dramatic also points to the transcendent,
again in a way only appreciable through an intuition of the dramatic given in revelation.
From revelation it is seen that there is no dramatic reality other than the Christian and
that theatre perceived to propose an alternative is as a distortion of the natural dramatic
dimension. In the Theological Dramatics, what seems ultimate in both intramundane
and purely intramundane theatre is put in its proper place: the former through
appropriation as a limitedly dramatic resource and the latter through judgement as a
finally non-dramatic aberration.
Theatre symbolises the natural, human dramatic situation. This situation is a

theological implication, ultimately internal to the drama of God with persons in Christ.
Balthasar finds it formally analogous to theodramatic reality. And so theatre practice,
as its symbol, must have such similarity in greater dissimilarity in respect to theo-
drama as its analogical place supposes. Theatre vocabulary and practice need not be
used metaphorically; they are metaphorically. Balthasar is unequivocal on both the
Christian origins and the universal impHcations of the dramatic categories that divide
theatre into either intramundane dramatic success or purely intramundane non-dramatic
failure, explainiing how he can 'establish a kind of system of dramatic categories':
[ujltimately, the Catholic "dialectic" between nature and Grace presupposes that such a system
can be useful to theology: a natural dramatic dimension is presupposed by, and prefaced to, the
supernatural drama which adopts it afterfirsthaving clarified and transformed it, and brought it
to its true proportions."^
TDl,p.l28
64
3.13: Theodramatic Hermeneutics
Balthasar summarises his theodramatic hermeneutics at stage D.'*^ It is a

participative hermeneutics that provides regulations for what Balthasar terms 'Inclusion
and Exclusion': the business of distinguishing between intramundane and purely
intramundane theatrical expressions.'*^ It works on two premises. First: '[a]ll theology is
an interpretation of divine revelation. Thus, in its totality, it can only be hermeneutics.'
Second: 'in revealing himself in Jesus Christ, God interprets himself and ... his plan for
the world - and this too is hermeneutics.' Balthasar determines that '[t]he first
hermeneutics must be oriented and regulated by the second. ... For God does not play
the world drama all on his own; he makes room for man to join in the acting.' It is in
the light of this theological necessity for theological hermeneutics to participate in a
prior divine hermeneutics that Balthasar finds the hermeneutics itself to be a dramatic
activity in which the Spirit 'causes [man] to adopt God's standpoint.' This is stronger
than Balthasar's characteristic claims and he qualifies it to make it clear that such
adoption is taking on a responsive and participatory stance within God's standpoint:
seeing within God's sight by being within God's act. Still, the key to the 'overall
situation of a theodramatic hermeneutic' is that 'man must involve himself with God's
drama. With respect to the implications of theodramatic hermeneutics for inclusion
and exclusion, it is important to appreciate two related points: the 'fundamental law
according to which ... the phenomenon is self illuminating''*^; related with the
'structure of theological proof.''^^
The fundamental law according to which the dramatic phenomenon is self-

illuminating is the law of 'unrolling a horizon.' The dramatic performance, as Balthasar
understands it, opens a shaped field of space for the audience, imaginatively, to enter.
Thus the unrolled horizon is pertinent 'not [as] a fortuitous instance of something long
familiar' but as a revealed context in which participatory knowledge can take place. In
this sense the author's own dramatic horizon unrolls itself through the actors and
''''TD2, pp.91-150
TD2, pp. 126-130
TD2,p91
TD2, pp.91-92
TD2, p. 115
65
director. This is a hermeneutic act in which the responsive, audience hermeneutics
participates.'*^ Such natural hermeneutics, in which human drama and its symbol thi
theatre operate, is respected but transcended by theo-drama.
The horizon - not just any horizon - has been unrolled in the life and death of the man Jesus of
Nazareth: it is manifest for all to see; all can follow the action. But, thus manifest, the horizon is
transcended, in a movement that comes from God and goes to God ... by the ultimate lines of
human destiny being drawn to a ... point of convergence. This point... is called "resurrection
on the third day". Initially ... [the] point toward which the lines converge ... is a point purely
within the individual drama of Jesus of Nazareth: only as such, as individual, does it become
universal, relevant to all men. ^
In God's act in Christ, which is the ultimate, particular hermeneutic act, itself revealing
and participating in the ultimate horizon, all human hermeneutic acts can be properly
located.
This hermeneutic law relates to the structure of theological proof in that

theological proof is a matter of 'self-attesting fact', fact that provides 'pointers to the
(ever-greater) totality.' This recognises the sublimity of God, transposed through God's
initiative into the drama of God and persons. Thus theo-drama must be demonstrated
'[i]n such a way that i t . . . shows itself to be something 'than which nothing greater can
be thought." On Balthasar's view, theological hermeneutics with a dramatic shape
must point to the ever-greater totality. Its 'starting point' is 'in relationship': where
human finite freedom is related to ultimate infinite freedom while both remain distinct,
the human in its conditionality and the ultimate in its utter lack of external dependence.
This remains the fundamental mystery and to maintain it theodramatic hermeneutics
must uphold analogicality between the ultimate and the mundane, the infinite and the
finite. It must not become pantheistic, where God is dissolved into the world, or
dualistic where the world and God are isolated one from another. If this happens there
is no interplay between the infinite and the finite and as such no dramatic ultimate
reality. Creation, incarnation and redemption are God's hermeneutic acts in Christ,
God's self-interpretation. It is by analogically hermeneutic acts of personal
participation in God through Christ that the Christian shape is the ultimate shape of
TD2, pp.92-93
^ TD2, p.94
66
dramatic truth. Its particular sacramental acts point out the ever-greater horizonless
horizon of the Trinity.
The implications of theodramatic hermeneutics for inclusion and exclusion stem

from this dynamic between God's self-interpretation and Christian responsive
interpretation. God's self-interpretation in revelation 'does not throw partial,
unconnected rays of light on individual truths, but is intended to communicate a
complete orientation concerning God's guiding action and man's response.'^'
Responsive hermeneutics, in complete reorientation, is no 'allegedly overall view', for
an overall view would 'destroy both this contemplation and its object.' Rather it is
'salvation', which 'takes the form of happening and letting happen.'^^ As such, this
hermeneutic 'method of [theodramatic] proof is indivisibly two-fold':
it excludes all the one-sided views that refuse to accept that all things can be integrated into the
free God/world totality, as interpreted by Christian revelation; and it includes everything that
allows itself to be thus integrated. Thus it operates simultaneously by inclusion and exclusion.
The consequent question for theodramatic hermeneutics is whether a view being

considered 'presses toward communio'; communio being
the primal mystery, namely, that God, out of his freely bestowed love, allows that which is not
God to participate in ... his love; and this comes about in a reciprocity which, in Christian
revelation, has again to be grounded in God (in the Trinity), yet without abolishing the
creatureliness of the creature.^^
Inclusion and exclusion does not require an objective view of totality, therefore, but it
does presume a participative appreciation of ultimate reality in which the participation
or otherwise of others can be judged. Such judgement is situational. It cannot be
predicted in advance and it should not be held certain for all time. Nonetheless, there is
no middle ground: at any given time any activity will be either included or excluded.
Exclusion, however, is only provisional on account of what Balthasar calls the
Johannine comparative.
TD2,p.l24
TD2, pp. 126-127
" TD2,p.l27
67
The Johannine comparative can exclude everything that refuses to submit to it. Everything that
calls a halt at any point belongs to the "world" and is excluded, because in doing so it has
already excluded itself. ... But such exclusion only serves to highlight and do justice to the
stronger, inclusive power of God's truth, which, when it is lifted up from the earth, draws all
men to it.^"
In respect of theatre practice, this process of exclusion within inclusion becomes

exclusion as purely intramundane within inclusion as intramundane. In successful
theodramatic hermeneutics, where unequivocal exclusion stands within ultimate
inclusion, 'the whole intramundane dialogue of standpoints, world views and
perspectives is overtaken by an ultimate dramatic dialogue.'^^
3.14: Christian Dramatic Ontology
I have left to this stage the issue of dramatic genre. Balthasar considered it
possible to glimpse 'a genuine Christian dramatic genre' in the drama of the
Incarnation, post-figured in the Church.However, when considering the standard
literary genres for drama, he insisted that the Incarnation's 'mystery eludes all literary
categories and relativizes them.'^^ For Balthasar, theo-drama is both genuinely
dramatic genre and beyond capture in terms of genre. And, in this tension, it is the
ontological drama. As is his way, Balthasar treats genre in the Prolegomena (with a
sub-section titled 'Tragedy, Comedy, Tragicomedy') but does not really cash in this
literary discussion theologically until later volumes.
In respect to the discussion in the Prolegomena, it has been suggested that

Balthasar's theo-drama is tragic. Francesca Murphy proposes this in a critical line,
arguing that Balthasar defines comedy from within tragedy and thus sees Christ as the
ultimate tragic figure, with solely tragic precursors. It does not seem clear to me, as
Murphy suggests, that Balthasar's theological dramatics 'presses analogy to univocity'
TD2, p. 130, alluding to John 12.32

" TD2, p. 128
TDl,p.ll8
" T D l , p.429
68
in respect to the relation between tragedy and theo-drama.^^ In my view. Murphy
underestimates the theological implications of what she considers to be a definition of
comedy in tragic terms and what Balthasar's proposes as an acceptance that tragedy
and comedy are intertwined. Balthasar considers theatrical talk of tragicomedies as a
'modem construct'. He suggests, however, that the phenomenon itself is not so new, for
tragedy and comedy have always required each other. Thus he would dispute any
suggestion that modems invented tragicomedy; they merely focused on a mixture of
style that was already there. Theo-drama cannot fit into any literary category - it
transcends them all. With that proviso it seems that Balthasar's theo-drama is the
original tragicomic drama, because of which tragedy and comedy could never be
discrete. Undeniably, Balthasar insists that Christ's abandonment on the cross 'is more
profound that anything we can imagine and, according to the Christian understanding,
underpins everything in the world that can be termed "tragic".'^^ However, he insists
that tragedy needs comic intermption or 'shorn of transcendence, shorn of "faith"' it
'annihilates itself.''^'^ Thus tragedy and grace are intimately connected. Finitude and
flaw, which Balthasar takes to be the stuff of tragedy, are themselves, at the same time
without priority either way, the comic stuff of interruption, joke and potential harmony.
[CJomedy ... is an equally valid approach to the unfathomable meaning of the "Whole" no less
than tragedy. Each has its rightful place next to the other, not one within the other. It is beyond
man's competence to dissolve one in the other or to cause the two to coincide.^'
It is beyond man's competence to cause the two to coincide. Hence Balthasar's critical
interest in modem tragicomedy. For, on his view,
tragi-comedy hovers between despising and accusing God and accepting that the world has a
hidden meaning. This creates an insecurity that makes so much noise precisely because it wants
to provoke an answer to the question of existence.*^
58
Murphy, Form of Beauty, pp.158-159
TDl,p.429
T D l , p.430
^' TDl,p.437
TDl,pp.449-50
69
Balthasar considers this to be a recent development - but not exactly an achievement
for the answer is such that it can never be provoked but only received. Balthasar returns
to genre in TD2 with a, characteristically, brief but considerable clarification.
If the once-for-all drama of Christ is to be exalted as the norm of the entire dramatic dimension
of human life, two things must happen simultaneously: the abyss of all tragedy must be
plumbed to the very bottom (which no purely human tragedy can do); and, in it and
transcending it, we must discern the element of gracious destiny that genuinely touches human
experience (and not merely seems to touch it).^''
Thus occurs as Christ accepts the suffering of his death, which MacKinnon asserts is
the 'point and place' for Balthasar's Christology to 'press from drama to ontology.'^'* It
is the ultimate tragicomic moment where the desperate tragic abyss and the gracious
comic hope coincide. And it reflects the eschatological last act, where 'however
baffling it may be to the finite mind ... "tragedy" is played out [in] eternal
blessedness.'^^ Human drama can be a fragment of, but can never achieve, such
theodramatic coincidence. Theo-drama is the ultimate revealed term not of one
particular dramatic genre but of the 'confusing plurality' of the whole business of
dramatic genre.
Balthasar makes a dramatic ontological claim, which is more than a literary

ontological claim. In his early essays on revelation, Balthasar described the Incarnation
as story, on the understanding that '[w]e cannot interpret this story in merely human
terms' as it has a 'logic thought out... ad hunc.'^^ Responsive, communal participation
is already a theme in Balthasar's early essays on redemption, where Christians are
participants in a 'dialogue between bride and bridegroom in the unity and
communication of the spirit.'''^ This dialogue is corporately dramatic, beyond being
merely storied. With respect to both revelation and redemption, the category of story is
being pushed toward something more: being dynamically thought out towards humans
" TD2, pp.83-84

MacKinnon, 'Balthasar's Christology', p. 172. His analysis is more attached to tragedy than mine.
TD5, p.246
^^TDl,p.424
Balthasar, 'Implications', pp.66-67
70
and ultimately in participation with persons. Christian truth is dramatic more than it is
hterary. Balthasar's great work was designed to recognise, from within, this ultimate
dynamic. That plan is reflected on in his final resume.
A being appears, it has an epiphany: in that it is beautiful and makes us marvel. In appearing it
gives itself, it delivers itself to us: it is good. And giving itself up, it speaks itself, it unveils
itself: it is true.^'
Balthasar's ontological claim is that the Incarnation as act is the ultimate term of this
fundamentally dramatic process. This furthers theologically literary ontological claims.
In such claims, the Gospel story is ultimate and the person should respond in an
ultimate version of appropriate literary response. Entering the story is the soteriological
requirement of much narrative theology. As such it is important, while accepting that
the Gospel cannot be reduced to any one genre, for narrative theology to have a sense
of its literary form. This is a way of knowing how to enter: grotesque surrealism and
social realism, say, may have very different requirements. Post-Balthasar, however, a
theology that shifts from story to drama attempts better to express the ontological status
of the Incamation by providing an inherent rationale for gathering in participative
response. A dramatic model opens space for the analogicality between humankind and
God. There is no need to stop at a soteriological aporia of the literary model: either
divine and human stories are forever the same, and known to be such in salvation; or
they are forever different with a soteriological step from one to the other. For, on a
dramatic model, human responses - whether attentively positive or negatively
overlooking - are analogical functions of the dramatic move from God to humankind.
In theo-drama
- the starting point... is that primal relationship between God and the world (man) that leaves
God, the Creator and Redeemer (through his self-communication), free to allow free, created
beings to exist. ... We can speak of the "analogia entis " here, in so far as... [t]he possibility of
distinguishing between God - who "is all" (Sir 43:12) and thus needs nothing - and a world of
finite beings who need God remains the fundamental mystery. It grounds everything ... without
being deducible from anything. To it there is no "greater" alternative.
69
Balthasar, 'Resume', p.4
TD2, pp. 118-119
71
It is in respect of this understanding of dramatic analogicality that Balthasar offers what
Victoria Harrison calls his 'crucial claim':
an explanation of the Christian life form cannot be provided within our mundane reality ... [for
one] cannot ground it prior to personal participation.^'
A dramatic, more-than-literary, Christology makes dialogical participation itself a

function of the ontological claim. For it supposes the dramatic event, with its unique
actor and ultimate horizon, itself to form the world 'stage [as its] meaning conferring
space.'^^ Thus, on MacKinnon's account, Balthasar holds the 'ontological styles of the
older traditional theology' with a dramatic dimension whereby 'the very being of God
as he is in himself [is] transcribed into terms of an engagement with his creation, that is
at once his own initiative and at the same time fulfillment and promise.'^^
This analogical dramatic model supposes a relational ontology. The ontological

reality - of both God and creation - is in terms of an engagement. As Murphy
expresses it, both the divine and the human 'have ... their apprehensibility by being in
relation' whereby, on God's initiative, a 'Trinitarian shape [is] extended into the
world.'^'^ A dramatic ontological claim lessens the attachment of soteriology to literary
genre by presenting theological truth as the ultimate term of a dramatic dynamic, such
as is necessarily relational and participatory. Salvation, then, is no literary elevation
into an overriding story but a personal share in the ultimate drama. Raymund Schwager
summarises such a Balthasarian approach to 'Drama and Theological Reasoning'.
[A] purely narrative theology runs into the dilemma of either abandoning itself to a narrative
thread which leads on endlessly, dissolving the Christian memory of events into a sea of other
narrations, ... or limiting itself, without any particular justification to the biblical narratives. ...
A purely narrative doctrine of redemption [is thus] unsupported by a corresponding line of
reasoning. ... [A] theology which takes drama as its model ... is clearly differentiated from a
narrative-based doctrine in that it is able to integrate a genuine line of reasoning. Balthasar has
" Victoria S. Harrison, 'Human Holiness as Religious Apologia', International Journal for Philosophy
of Religion 46, 1999, p.65
Murphy, Form of Beauty, p. 170
MacKinnon, 'Balthasar's Christology', pp.168-169
Murphy, Form of Beauty, p. 145
72
... convincingly demonstrated ... that the categories of drama ... are appropriate to Christian
theology. The theological line of reasoning can be developed out of drama, since drama itself
does not advance without end ... but expresses itself in conflict and its corresponding
resolution. In the case of biblical drama, moreover, we are not dealing with just any conflict.
The event of the cross proves so radical, and the subsequent denouement... so overpowering,
that "greater than these cannot be thought".
Theodramatic hermeneutics participates in God's own hermeneutic act of self-

interpretation in Christ. It appreciates, by dialogue with it, this ultimate dramatic reality
in which all other dramatic expressions can be judged. Theatre symbolises natural,
human dramatic expression and thus is open to judgement. Theodramatic hermeneutics
encourages dramatic dialogues with theatre practice from the perspective of a prior
dramatic dialogue with God in Christ. Balthasar finds that theatre achieves dramatic
success in as much as it is a limited, formal analogue of God's dramatic activity and
fails to be dramatic in as much as it attempts an altemative version of dramatic reality.
He does not shy of using this theological hermeneutics of life's dramatic reahty to
make specific interpretations of individual theatre practitioners and the next chapter
will offer a three-fold model of Balthasar's understanding of life as drama from which
to consider his dialogues with particular theatre directors.
Raymund Schwager, Jesus in the Drama of Salvation: Toward a Biblical Doctrine of Redemption,
trans. James G. Williams and Paul Haddon (New York: Crossroad, 1999), p. 12
73
4; BALTHASAR'S DIALOGUES W I T H T W E N T I E T H - C E N T U R Y
THEATRE
4.1: L I F E AS DRAMA^
Balthasar dialogues with theatre on the understanding that Ufe is dramatic. In

the second chapter, I show that Balthasar has a theologically intuited sense of drama
that pervades his Christocentric soteriology and anthropology. In the third, I outline
Balthasar's theodramatic hermeneutics, which by a process of exclusion within
inclusion dialogues with human dramatic expressions as internally relative to the
divine. I show how, for Balthasar, the figure of Christ forms the shape of theo-drama
and discuss the methodological priority Balthasar ascribes to theo-drama as it reveals
the ontological reality of drama. In the first section of this chapter, I draw together
Balthasar's understanding of life as drama as one grounded in a theatrical
eschatological vision. It seems to me that the Theological Dramatics assumes three
dimensions of dramatic reality, which I will call natural-human, ecclesial-personal and
eschatological-final. I will suggest that Balthasar's dramatic integration of these three
dimensions indicates the priority of the eschatological-final dimension and renders the
(current) natural-human dimension necessarily post-Christian.
4.11: Three Dramatic Dimensions
4.111: The Natural-Human Dramatic Dimension
Balthasar found nature fragmentary, unable to appreciate itself and only

completed in Grace. Natural-human existence cannot set standards for theological
expression of Grace and indeed non-theologically is not able fully to understand itself.
For the natural realm is as it is oriented by God in Christ and so open to judgement and
fulfilment only when it is read theologically. Such reading will not allow humans
merely to appreciate their natural reality, but require and enable them to transcend it as
new humanity in Christ. Thus 'man', at the purely natural level, 'achieves his full
stature in failure.'^ Nonetheless, in the natural-human dimension, it is 'a basic Christian
' A sub-title used by Nichols: Aô Bloodless Myth, p.l 1

^ Balthasar, Truth is Symphonic, p.187
74
requirement that existence should represent itself dramatically.This representation
occurs as relative actions and absolute horizons are mutually related. The performance
of inter-relational actions of claim and response supposes participants to have an
absolute, although neither static nor necessarily shared, horizon. This is a requirement
for meaningful exploration of life, as a dramatic reality, and exposes 'what' - as
Balthasar puts it - 'seems ultimate within the human horizon.''^ There is no reason why
what seems to be ultimate should be the same for all in the natural-human dimension,
however its appreciation will necessarily take a dramatic form. For the natural-human
dramatic dimension is one in which as 'God desires all men to be saved, there is no
room for a ''purely natural" event.'^ That humanity is not purely natural but
dramatically natural, with relative and absolute combined, is an implication of its
theologically appreciated situation of being open to integration in Grace. An
anthropological account that defined humanity with governing reference to either
horizon or event would not reflect the dramatic openness implied by the divine
soteriological will. Yet, the various acknowledgements of a dramatic relation between
the relative and the absolute in natural piety or in religions provide 'no evidence of
intrinsic movement toward the extraordinary and unique event of Christ.'^ Only
gracious theo-drama can eschatologically effect the ultimate dramatic reality of
salvation, and the analogical natural-human dramatic dimension is stunted by its
similarity in greater dissimilarity.
4.112: The Ecclesial-Personal Dramatic Dimension
This natural-human dramatic dimension is only properly appreciated in Grace -

the personal dramatic relationship between individuals and God through Christ towards
which it is oriented and in which it is as it cannot be elsewhere. Thus Balthasar
appreciates 'osmosis' between Grace and nature:^ a 'fluid relationship between [the]
Q
ensemble of the Church and the total human community.' This osmosis is the
^TDl,p.22
" TD2, pp.94-95
^TD3,p.410
^ TD4, p.226
^TD4,p.418
*TDl,p.647
75
integration into itself that Grace effects in respect to nature and is only known from the
Christian perspective. In the fluid relationship between the Christian ensemble and the
human community, the gracious dramatic truth in the ensemble is the ultimate term of
human community in its natural-human dramatic dimension.
Gracious dramatic reality, the ecclesial-personal dramatic dimension, is

sacramental. Balthasar opposes natural sacramentality - a belief that sacramentality
unites, by being integral to, a variety of dramatic expressions. This is one example of
his opposition to what he called 'integralism': a 'debilitating mechanical attempt to
hold together a disparate collection of individual truths and traditions.'^ His general
concern is that integralism offers human nature a disposition with respect to the divine
such as would constitute a 'longing after grace and the vision of God, a longing that
includes a latent claim to these.'''^ In Balthasar's theodramatic context, there is no room
for general explanations of sacramentality in which it is a natural-human, biological or
sociological, impulse and through which sacramentality as Christianly expressed is
comparable with other modes of sacramentality under a unitive rubric, such as the
dramatic. It makes no difference, on Balthasar's view, whether or not Christianity is
seen as best, or ultimately, expressing nature's (dramatic) sacramentality. Still
sacramentality is located in a human capacity, by implication sufficient to encompass
our experience of finitude and infinity. Instead, theo-drama reveals integrational
sacramentality: one in which sacramental activity has universal implications but is yet
located solely within the particular inter-personal community of Christ's Church. There
[t]he individual is a real part of the total sacrament, which is not simply the Church per se (for
the Church does not exist per se) but the Church as an extension of Christ. For Christ himself is
the real primal sacrament: he is God's embodied and distinctive offer of salvation to mankind."
With Christ as real primal sacrament, Balthasar's concern is to outline sacramental,

specific, figural mediations of God as Trinity to persons in Christian community. In
their revealed specificity, they do not confirm the dramatic rhythms of natural
humanity, but can reorient them by gathering them into an ever-greater rhythm.
' Balthasar, 'Another Ten Years', pp.230-231

"* Balthasar, 'Implications', p.75
"TD3,p.434
76
Balthasar would not deny that a sacrament, such as the Eucharist, is a dramatic event -
with appropriate themes such as sacrifice and sharing. However, in being sacramental,
it takes the new apocalyptic, soteriological rhythm. In the natural-human dimension, it
is 'impossible to find that r h y t h m ' , b u t as it is given 'the Christian rhythm between
the individual and the community becomes a concrete metaphor of trinitarian life
within God.'^'' The sacramental rhythm cannot on Balthasar's view be separated from
the content of a sacramental act. Christian sacraments mediate the Trinity dramatically,
in a way that renders it impossible for them to be comparable with other dramatic
occasions, for this rhythm cannot be achieved elsewhere. Consequently, non-Christian
non-sacramental drama cannot be pertinent to Christian sacramental drama in an
integralist sense. The apocalyptic, theodramatic rhythm of the latter alone is the one in
which God is both ever-greater and involved and so it heightens the stakes and engulfs
other rhythms. Sacramentally, the human dramatic search for actions and horizon
properly related is answered by the ultimate actor from the ultimate horizon - with
specific universality whereby it is impossible that the explicit answer should have been
implicit in the question.''* In their particular formed occasions, which are inter-fused
with this rhythm, sacraments make their meaning. They 'are gestures and gifts from
God to us. We are primarily recipients and only because we have received are we in a
position to give to others.''^
The fluid relation between the ecclesial-personal and the natural-human

dramatic dimensions does not represent a capacity of natural community but rather its
opennness to receiving the sacramental reorientation that has been given to the ecclesial
ensemble. Such reception is the soteriological move of personaHsation and the fact that
it is itself dramatic indicates the importance of drama to Balthasar. 'The "natural"
drama of existence (between the Absolute and the relative) is consummated in the
"supernatural" drama between the God of Jesus Christ and man.''^ The potential for the
ecclesial-personal dramatic dimension, the communio, to integrate within itself the
natural-human dramatic dimension depends not on its sharing the rhythm of other
TD4, p.227
'^TD2, p.415
TD3, p.422
Balthasar, Truth is Symphonic, p. 100
TDl,p.l30
77
dramatic acts in an integralist sense, but on its analogical relation to them as the
ultimate performance in which they are but limited fragments.
4.113: The Eschatological-Final Dramatic Dimension
Since in God there is eternal life and hence "eternal surprise", we too shall experience this
surprise. Since ...there is a kind of eternal "ever-more", "everything in heaven seems to be
growing"; but this takes place ... in the mode of being of eternal Love.'^
Heavenly relationships, on Balthasar's account, retain 'the fundamental "distance"

which alone makes love possible.'^^ The dramatic mode of existence here results from
the general judgement where God recreates all of existence corporately and
consequently it cannot be fully imagined but only partially pre-figured. Still, the
eschatological-final reality will be dramatic, for it will represent all in the mutual self-
giving of Trinitarian life. In this ultimate drama the inter-personal distance that is
required for intimacy remains while yet all is gathered in.
The final, heavenly shape of the communio as the reciprocal openness of the redeemed is so
much a part of the mystery of the Trinity that there are hardly words and concepts to describe it.
... What is difficult to grasp is that the triune divine freedom, which provides scope for each
Hypostasis to exercise its own mode of seeing and deciding, similarly does not absorb all
created freedom into itself but freely and generously gives itself to all. In the harmony of all
freedoms the freedom of each individual retains its own timbre. The divine freedom is so all-
encompassing that it makes room, within its single Truth, for countless aspects; thus it does not
... infringe the area of mystery of each individual's creaturely spontaneity. In the community
that comes into being through the Son's eternal communio, everyone is utterly open ... to each
other... [as] free persons freely available to each other on the basis of the unfathomable
distinctness of each. What is offered to the other is always ... [a] surprising gift. ... God's will,
embracing the entire, infinitely diversified heaven, is so generous that it draws into itself all the
fullness of redeemed human freedoms, pride of place being given to that of the incarnate Son."
Balthasar accepts that it is difficult to express this dimension without biblical imagery.
And he finds no need to do so, able instead to 'discern' the 'inner connection' between
TD5, p.400, citing Adrienne von Speyr

'^TD5,p.l05
" TD5, pp.485-486
78
eschatological distance and intimacy in the vision of '"the marriage feast of the lamb",
an invitation to which means blessedness.Balthasar uses the imagery of meal and
marriage to show the priority of the eschatological-final dramatic dimension. Meal and
marriage, both dramatic events, have always been fulfilled in the nuptial feast of the
Lamb. Thus it is the Lamb who governs the imagery: the Lamb being the Son who 'in
the descending analogy from the triune God, is offered to the world both as the "seed of
life" ... and as the "bread of life.'"^' The Son's descent informs the dramatic quality of
both the ecclesial-personal and the natural-human dimensions. In the former, there is a
'"vertical" communication', whereby in Christian meal and marriage - both of which
are sacramental and eucharistic in a ritual and ethical sense - people respond
dramatically to God's dramatic communication in inter-personal events that pre-figure
the eschatological drama. In the latter, meals and marriages involve 'gestures and
needs' that in their 'natural ... necessity' open into a creative intimacy that is inter-
relational and presumes a distance of otherness: 'even in earthly life they are situations
of self-surrender, reciprocal nurturing, fruitfulness and joy.' Meals and marriages here
intimate an absolute in and with the relative, which is the requirement of natural-human
dramatic existence. When their theodramatic heavenly term is recognised, both
dramatic dimensions in differing ways 'point to' the priority of heavenly life 'fulfilling
(and overfulfilhng) the dimension of human intimacy with God.'^^ Ecclesial-personal
meals and marriages pre-figure heaven's nuptial banquet and natural-human meals and
marriages are analogues of it. Neither is comparable with their heavenly completion but
both intimate it, from their respective dimensions, to those who in Grace intuit the
eschatological-final dramatic dimension.
4.12: Eschatological Integration
Balthasar encouraged theological integration of the natural and human as a

'spontaneous art of aiming always at the Whole through the fragments of truth
discussed and lived.'^^ This is an ecclesial art; it occurs in the Christian community in
received pre-figuration of the eschatological-final dramatic reality. The Christian
TD5, p.471, citing Rev. 19.9

^' TD5, p.475, citing lJn.3.9 and Jn.6.35
TD5, pp.470-475
79
community should open onto the natural worid, witnessing by being itself. And the
theologian, reflecting in that community, should give an account of how in it might be
gathered all life in pre-figuration of God's eschatological-final dramatic glory. This
account is what Balthasar terms hypothetical universalism. Christians have a duty to
hope that all will be saved, and they can elucidate the openness for dramatic integration
in the natural-human dimension. However, this integration can only occur personally
and dramatically and so it is inappropriate to beheve in any static guarantee.^'*
O'Donnell understands Balthasar's universalism as a 'lifelong concern to show how
Jesus Christ in his person and mission incarnates the meaning of catholicity.'^^ I
wonder whether Balthasar, always wary of abstraction, would be associated with a
Christ who incarnated the meaning of anything. Yet O'Donnell's gloss of Balthasar's
Christ as Concrete Universal rings more true: '[h]e who bypasses this concrete man
will never find Totality.'^^ Rather than saying that Christ incarnates the meaning of
catholicity, I would draw on Balthasar's Word and Revelation and say that Christian
universalism is implied by the Incarnation. For there Balthasar defines the theological
task as 'bringing out the cosmic presuppositions that the Word of God implies.'^^
Implications are 'the conditions which revelation pre-supposes for the integration of
man to God through Christ.'^^ And one such implication is Christian universalism,
whereby currently both nature and ecclesia are dramatic in differing dimensions of the
ultimate, eschatological dramatic reality and ultimately God will be all in all.
Given Balthasar's understanding that 'God's word in Christ arranges a

participation'^^ and his related claim that the Church is 'the only community that is
unrestricted in scope',^ how will this integration occur? Eschatologically: then natural-
human drama will become universally integrated into theo-drama. This reality is pre-
See Hans Urs von Balthasar, Dare we Hope: "That All Men be Saved"?, trans. David Kipp and Lothar
Krauth (San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 1988).
O'Donnell, Balthasar, p.9
" Balthasar, 'Implications', p.60
Hans Urs von Balthasar, 'In Retrospect', Communio 2.3 (1975), p.205
Balthasar, 'Implications', p.75
Balthasar, 'Communio', p.7
80
figured in the Church and Balthasar's exposition of such theodramatic integration is
four-fold.
Christian 'exclusivity' demands precisely the inclusion of all human thinking: as something
judged ... it is 'broken', realigned and reset.^'
Balthasar plays on words here: the initial term gerichtes (judged) is developed in the
following ab- aus- ein- gerichtet ('broken', realigned, reset). This reinforces the
translation's impression of judgement as the governing concept, operative in the other
three. O'Donnell considers that such judgemental, universal inclusion, 'does not entail
radical rejection of [non-Christian traditions]. Their elements of truth must be
preserved and integrated into the Christian vision.'^^ Again, I think Balthasar would be
wary of abstraction. Talk of 'elements' suggests that aspects of non-Christian forms of
life are susceptible to direct transference into truth. Riches and Quash put it better when
they suggest that Balthasar shows a 'respect for the way human nature finds expression
in a great variety of forms' as something to treat 'with seriousness as having ... relation
to the revelation centred in Christ.'^^ This more effectively couples Balthasar's
acceptance that humanity can develop dramatic forms, including forms of life, with the
thoroughgoing re-orientation he requires of all non-Christian forms i f they are to be
reformed in the dynamic of Grace. Balthasar's Christian universalism, then, sets
'definite terms on which ... inclusion ... can take p l a c e ' a n d these are very much
terms of engagement. Inclusion supposes a relational repositioning in becoming
engaged with the ultimate horizon, an engagement that Balthasar describes as
'trammelled'.The horizon is trammelled in the contours of its Trinitarian acts of
infinite love; in inclusion the Christian person in community in trammelled in
participation in that love. This has been described as Balthasar's 'fundamental meaning
of Tradition, which is the sharing in the divine life.'''^ From this perspective non-
theological disciplines are subject to judgement. Yet they are valuable in as much as
^' Balthasar, 'In Retrospect', p.204

" Riches and Quash, 'Balthasar', p.l36
Balthasar, Truth is Symphonic, p.9
John R. Sachs, 'Hans Urs von Balthasar: 1905-1988', in Donald W. Musser and Joseph L. Price (eds.),
A New Handbook of Christian Theologians (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1996), p.501
81
they represent nature, which only points to grace by its broken 'inchoate character'^' -
human endeavours, unable to achieve what they set out to do. This brokenness is
known from appreciating its radicalised alternative, in Christian reflection on that
particular endeavour. Theologians thereby realign a particular human, dramatic
endeavour by reflecting on how it might pre-figure eschatological fulfilment, if it were
radically drawn into the apocalyptic rhythm. Thus the theologian expresses the reality
of the endeavour in the whole ecology of God with the world, showing its term as
Christological implication. For in the final analysis, universal inclusion through
judgement will obtain only eschatologically. The harmonious, and still relational,
resetting will occur when God becomes all in all.
This realigning and resetting, as eschatological integrative inclusion through

judgement, is itself dramatic. So drama becomes Balthasar's 'field of analogy' in
respect to the great theological analogies of heaven and earth, grace and nature, God
and humankind. In dramatic fields, humans explore their boundaries and beliefs,
corporately inter-related. These fields are analogical in respect to the divine, inter-
personal exploration of the world in Christ, an exploration that is ultimately dramatic,
forming the ultimate dramatic field. Human dramatic activity is then the widest of its
analogical capacities, its inter-relational, field-making activity whose ultimate term is
God. Being dramatically presupposes a horizon for properly situated meaning: a
horizon engaged with the dramatic activity within itself. Natural-human drama operates
between relative and absolute poles. It can be met by the personal drama from the
ultimate horizon: the meeting, itself dramatic, offered in theo-drama. The infinite
eschatological-final dramatic rhythm of the Trinity grounds the possibiUty of finite,
analogically dramatic activity in the natural-human dimension and directly opens up to
include finite, pre-figuratively sacramental dramatic activity in the ecclesial-personal
dimension. There is thus an analogy of theatricality, of dramatic dynamic, from God to
humankind.
4.13: Post-Christian Drama
"Balthasar, 'Implications', p.75

Riches and Quash, 'Balthasar', p.l41
82
It is a requirement of Christian dramatic, eschatological inclusion through
judgement that there is ultimately one dramatic Trinitarian horizon. In as much as this
could be appreciated from the natural-human dramatic dimension, every human
dramatic relative action supposes an absolute horizon and so all dramatic relative
actions have an ultimate horizon. This is an intuition, not an argument, and Balthasar
accepts that not everyone sees it - although his hope is that everyone will. The intuition
itself is dependent on appreciating the interruptive reality of the eschatological horizon
in particular events: that '"God" ... steps onto the stage of life's play as "a person" in
the action' making theo-drama possible.'^^ The Incarnation is ontologically dramatic in
revealing, and effectively creating, the human acting area as the stage that 'has been
designed for the one drama that is to be played on it.''**' This plays out in Balthasar's
three categories for analysis of drama: pre-Christian, Christian and post-Christian. Post-
Christian drama is twentieth-century theatre appropriated theologically as symbolic of
the natural-human dramatic dimension after the Incarnation. As such, it is the category
to focus on in order to study Balthasar's dialogues with twentieth-century theatre.
In the background lies the pre-Christian dramatic achievement, which was to

relate anthropology and ontology and thus in various ways to articulate humanity as
both natural and yet a-cosmic and propose possibilities for harmony that respect this
dramatic tension."*' Christian theological anthropology, as I have discussed in Chapter
Two, heightens this dramatic tension by exposing its ontological Trinitarian ground.
Thus, it opens up both con-crucifixion and joy in communion with a revealed and
responsive rhythm that goes beyond humanity's own style. Given the ontological
significance of the Incarnation 'post-Christian anthropology differs essentially from
pre-Christian anthropology because of the presence (or former presence) of the
Christian element.'"*^ Balthasar considers that humans cannot return satisfactorily to
pre-Christian dramatic anthropology once its ontological meaning and destiny have
been revealed. Thus, in a commentator's summary, there are 'post-Christian gropings
to find a new vision of the human.' For, after the Incarnation,
TD2,p.l89
TD2, p. 173
TD2, pp.346-355
TD2, p.417
83
the plight of post-Christian people is that they are ... unable to re-establish the ... harmony of
pagan antiquity. Hence they are left with the burden of carrying their own freedom which now
has a weight they are unable to carry.''^
Christianity 'releases' the person from this religious 'burden by inserting him, right
from the start, into the dramatic dialogue with God, so that God himself may cause him
to experience his ultimate definition of man.''*'* As salvation, this interruption 'signals
the end of the other religions."*^ And by religions Balthasar means all non-Christian
'mythical or religio-philosophical anthropology."*^ Christian dramatic anthropology
thus renders all other anthropological accounts as burdens.
In this system, post-Christianity can be dramatic in two ways: parody or protest.

Both possibilities are respective of Christianity and grounded in the reality of
competing Catholicisms, best expressed by quotation from the Dramatics: the
Incarnation 'is the moment at which the two universalisms or "Catholicisms", that is,
that of Christianity and that of mankind, begin to enter into dramatic competition with
each other.'*^ This conflict results from a
titanic rejection on man's part: he resists being embraced by this very mystery of the Cross. This
anti-Christian aversion is something new; it has only existed since the coming of Christ. "If I
had not come and spoken to them, they would not have sin." It is only when heaven is wide
open that hell too yawns at our feet."*^
In this reality there is 'no medium ... between atheism and Catholicity.''*^ Natural piety
is passe; there is only stark choice. And '[t]his is no mere battle of words and ideas
between human beings: here mankind is drawn into the theodramatic war that has
broken out between God, in his Logos and hell's anti-logos.'^'' Such battle-lines may
not seem obviously drawn, and this is because the anti-Christian side gathers various
O'Donnell, Balthasar, pp.55-56

TD2, p.343
TD3, p.420
TD2, p.343
TD4,p.210
TD4,p.ll
49
Norris, 'Symphonic Unity', p.246
^ TD4, p.412
84
protesters and the Christian side is variously parodied. It is such protest and parody that
sustains the post-Christian dramatic dimension.
In the theodramatic context, atheism is anti-Christian. This is because atheism,

on Balthasar's view, abstracts Christological claims and makes them secular human
capacities. Trends such as Marxist economic messianism, Nietzchean divinisation of
man, and communist hope for absolute community evidence this claim. Islam and
Judaism, as non-Christian theism, are considered particularly susceptible to such
abstraction. Balthasar uses such examples to support his claim that
[m]ankind only becomes conscious of its unity in breaking loose from, and protesting against,
the claims of the Church to be the ... form of unity willed by God ... and [this] is bound to lead
to a kind of entente cordiale between all non-Catholic forms of religion.^'
This protesting existence reveals a post-Christian dramatic predicament; for
attempts to take the Christian heightening of tension in created nature and reduce it... will only
be alive ... as long as they manifest the element of protest. Once separated from what they are
resisting they collapse, because they draw their power to transcend ... solely from themselves,
and so are bound to ruin the finite human being.'^
Any human dramatic relationship, the sort which is alive, is ultimately sustained by the
Trinitarian relationship that is its ontological ground. If post-Christianity lost sight of
the Christian dramatic reality against which it was protesting, it would lose its capacity
to be dramatic. Balthasar considers this dependence 'proved ... by the collapse of the
dramatic in the post-Christian age.'^^ Thus, perversely in protest, anti-Christian trends
in the natural-human dimension draw their sustenance for dramatic living from
theodramatic reality and thus meet the 'requirement of Christianity that existence
should represent itself dramatically.'^"^
'Post-Christian parodies of... the Christian Church', such as positivist, humanist

political hope where it is believed that 'the common good can be implemented using ...
^' Balthasar quoted Oakes, Pattern of Redemption, p.268

TD2, p.424
" TD3, p.532
TDl,p.22
85
immanent resources', are the other style of post-Christian dramatic possibility.^^
Further parodies, both humanistic and religious, can be gathered from the Dramatics.
An example is the 'dialogic principle' in its humanistic form, which values
communication and sincerity in inter-human encounter where my reality is perceived as
in some sense given through the other. Yet
however much philosophical dialogism exerts itself to understand how the "I" becomes a person
through the "thou", it simply cannot give that precise answer. For however much a genuinely
fulfilling encounter with a "thou" may seem, to the individual, to have a quality of "destiny", it
remains ultimately fortuitous and is at most transitory. For one "I-thou" relationship can be
followed by a second ... In each of these the "I" is endowed with a different name and nature:
Who am I, then, in the end? ... [T]he philosophers ... take up residence in this precarious inter-
human area.^^
Human encounter remains parodic on theodramatic encounter - it is a version that

mimics but cannot meet that theodramatic scale or depth without which it cannot
properly be understood. For human others cannot give the definition and destiny that a
Divine Other does. Religious trends are also parodic in respect to Christianity. After the
Incarnation, any reading of the Bhagavad Gita, 'remains stuck fast in contradictions' as
the text draws the batde of the world drama into a unity within divine stillness. This
religious drama fails to be ultimately dramatic because its term is univocal reception
into divine unity, yet it is dramatic in a minor way, a way that correlates with the extent
to which it is parodic on Christian truth. Contemporary Judaism and Islam have the
converse problem in their understanding of the world drama as a battle; their ultimate
term is univocal action, rather than reception, on the part of the divine.^^ Religious
parodies of Christian truth need not be deliberate, but after the Incarnation their
existence is indicative of a search to attain dramatically what can only be given in theo-
drama. Thus their parodic drama will never fully succeed. Religious and humanistic
58
dramatic parodies may indulge in 'plagiarism and looting' from Christian truth, and
may offer an 'anthropological correlate for every theological aspect of the definitive
word of God'. Still,
" TD2, p.425

TDl,pp.628-629
" TD2, p.34
TD3, p.420
86
the sum of these fragments would not amount to the indivisible unity we see in the Word-made-
flesh, "full of grace and truth." There has to be a leap in which we leave the sum of fragments
and embrace the unity; this corresponds to the stumbling block in ... Christ's call for
conversion.^'
Post-Christian parodies of theo-drama cannot achieve what theo-drama does and in as

much as they are dramatic remain fragments in its Trinitarian ontological ground. They
are the activities of 'post-Christian man, who ... in passing through Christianity, has
grown used to the heightening of his creaturely rhythms and wants ... them as if they
are his personal hallmark, a gift that now belongs to him entirely.'^" Only such sad
parody is left for human dramatic searches. After the revelation of ultimate dramatic
truth, parodic theatre can 'provide us with a preliminary understanding, they cannot
offer anything like a complete grasp.'^' Not only does it not attain the status of theo-
drama it cannot even meet its full dramatic form.
What Balthasar calls post-Christianity is both an ontological and a temporal

reality. It exists after Christ and its character is defined by Christ's ontological
significance.
The totality of [Christ's] accomplished work can confront, head-on, every religious myth or
ritual, every figure claiming to mediate salvation and every path that aims to purify and
enlighten man.... Objectively, since it fulfils all the ... seekings of mankind, it signals the end of
the other religions, even if they continue to exist for a few hundred or thousand years and even
if they join forces against the intruder.^^
This parodic continuing to exist or this protest of joining forces is the post-Christian
dramatic search. Both its parody and its protest are parasitic on Christianity and it is
clear that the extent to which they are thus parasitic corresponds with the extent to
which they are dramatic. These polarised possibilities affect even the vocabulary of
performance theory: 'the conceptual categories of secular drama ... remain at the level
5' TD3,pp.421-422
TD2,p.417
^' T D l , p . l 8
TD3, p.419-420
87
of image or metaphor, as is clear from their ultimate ambiguity.'^'' Our drama, in as
much as it is, is post-Christian.
4.2: T W E N T I E T H - C E N T U R Y T H E A T R E
The reason for Balthasar's 'longing to write about' the theology of the theatre^'*
may be found in relation to his understanding of theatre as 'an arcane symbol of the
dramatic dimension of existence, in so far as existence in its metaphysico-religious self-
interpretation assumes a horizon of meaning.'^^ Theatre, as such a symbol, provides a
triadic dramatic vocabulary for transposition into talk about God's dramatic act.
Furthermore, the participatory theodramatic perspective enables Balthasar to survey
twentieth-century theatre, appreciating the parodies of and protests against theo-drama
that it must spothght as symbol of post-Christian dramatic existence. Proper awareness
of what it is to be dramatic is revealed through participation in Christian truth. From
this awareness, the natural-human dramatic dimension is appreciated analogically.
Balthasar expects theatre to symbolise the natural-human dramatic dimension as the
theologian knows it to be and, when he dialogues with twentieth-century theatre,
Balthasar is bringing the ultimate dramatic dialogue between God and persons in Christ
to bear on theatre's provisional dramatic dialogues between absolute horizons and
relative actions.
Commentators are beginning to examine Balthasar's appropriative analogy

between drama in the theatre and theodramatic reality. For example, Dalzell looks at
acting, a component of Balthasar's first triadic analogy, and suggests that Balthasar's
account of the Son as first actor fails to take account of sociality inherent to acting and
thus distorts human drama through a theological conception of proportionality.^^ In
relation to the second triad, Quash's work plays with Balthasar's concept of an
analogous dramatic horizon. He suggests that an overemphasis on harmony and
resolution in the final horizon of theo-drama renders the inter-action of it and the
person more stable and predictable as a middle ground between God and humanity than
TDl,p.l8
^ Balthasar quoted Henrici, 'Sketch', p.33
T D I , p.249-250
'''' See Dalzell, 'Social Drama'; also Dramatic Encounter
a theatrical model should a l l o w . S u c h commentators seem to me to probe and
question the analogicality Balthasar finds between divine and human modes of drama.
Their shared concern is to suggest that Balthasar's account of what I call the ecclesial-
personal drama is weakened by the limitations in his expression of this analogy. I will
look at this analogy with respect to Spirit and director. Spirit/director links Balthasar's
two theatrical triads, as the Person/practitioner who is responsible for the dramatic
success of the Play/production, and so might prove an incisive point at which to probe
and question. I intend to consider the analogy not in relation to the personal-ecclesial
drama but in relation to the extent to which the theologian, appreciative of theodramatic
reality, can be said to dialogue with the work of the natural-human theatre practitioner.
The ontological priority accorded to theo-drama has significant implications for the
way in which theatre practice is appreciated and Balthasar's Spirit/director analogy
exemplifies this. Balthasar makes clear judgements over particular twentieth-century
theatre directors on the basis of his pneumatological standard and these provide cameos
of his analogical approach, sustained enough to reveal how it works by polarising post-
Christian dramatic possibility as either protest or parody.
4.21: Dialogues with Post-Christian Theatre Directors
In Balthasar's dramatic analogy between the theatre director and the Spirit they
both, the Spirit ultimately and the theatre director provisionally, bridge the gap between
author and actors and bring the play alive. This implies an analogy of skill whereby the
68
'mystery of a play's perfect direction cannot be disassociated from pneumatology.'

The skill is transposing the play's horizon into particular actions through which to draw
the audience's horizon into the play's. Balthasar found that '[e]very transposition
embarked on by man has a theological a priori: the Holy Spirit, whose task it is to
universalise the drama of Christ.'^^ A successful director's transposition will, then, be a
formal miniature of the Spirit's. I summarise Balthasar's account of the director's
transpositional skill as mediation of a transcendent horizon in a particular
representation. Taking each phrase in turn, I will show how Balthasar's pneumatology
See Quash, 'Ends of Modernity'; also 'Theology of Drama'

Nichols, A'o Bloodless Myth, p.32
TD2, p.96
89
sets the standard for human theatre direction and judges post-Christian practitioners
accordingly.
4.211: Mediation
[T]he Father entrusts his play to [the Spirit] to be translated into real life ... and ... the Church
must entrust herself to [the Spirit] if her mission ... is to succeed. As for the individual, either he
would never find his "person" or he would subsequently lose it and its authentic freedom if he
did not have the humility to submit himself to the Spirit's "direction".
The Spirit's work in the Church sets the standard for the director's mediation. The
Spirit engenders personahsing, socialising mutual engagement with the ultimate
horizon. The Spirit mediates this horizon in forms of worship and forms of life that are
true to the play entrusted. These forms - finally eucharistic, both ritually and ethically -
ensure that supporting actors, Christians, are participant in the reality of Christ as lead
actor and enable them to witness to that reality.^^ The Spirit ensures this relational,
inter-personal participation that moves from and reveals the ontological horizon and
thus his work is ultimately dramatic. The main implication of this for the human
director is that by 'penetrating the dramatist's mind' he must 'keep before [the actors]
the creative goal which they all share.' To keep the creative goal before the actors
presumes that the director engages them in it, as it cannot be brought into life without
their intra-participation. It is only i f the director mediates through elicitation in this way
that the actors in rehearsal and the characters in performance will 'form an ensemble in
the spiritual sense.'^^ And only in ensemble can a dramatic horizon be appreciated and
then bodied forth. As a requirement of dramatic success, this has significant
implications for theatre direction:
TD3, p.534
^' Christ as lead and Christians as supportive is key to Balthasar's theodramatic account of acting, with
theatre performances understood in terms of one lead into whose destiny other characters fit. In 'Social
Drama', Dalzell argues that this reflects an analogy of proportionality that distorts the dramatic resource
of theatre acting, it being more social than this allows. Balthasar's understanding of acting informs his
judgements on directing, with no consideration of what directors do with plays that do not have a lead-
supporters structure. Given that 'theodramatic theory is ... primarily concerned ... with acting and the
ability to act' (TD2, p. 13), if, as Dalzell reasonably claims, this presumed structure itself distorts
dramatic sociality this represents a significant problem.
TDl,p.301
90
[i]t is a sad fact that in this century there are star directors who have forgotten their function of
simply mediating and eliciting; they conduct themselves like virtuosos and act as if they
themselves were the real creators of the performance. The director's book, which should be
nothing more than a fluid collection of the most diverse notes, becomes a kind of full score."
Balthasar goes on to criticise Edward Gordon Craig's employment of the actor as

supermarionette. Craig viewed the actor as a scenic individual purposed towards
expression of the director's vision: the 'stage' as whole theatrical performance was 'the
pure artefact of the director.'^"* Such theatre, on Balthasar's view, is not dramatic
because it does not allow for the mutuality among actors that reveals a dramatic
horizon and can open that horizon to include the audience. Such mutuality is revealed
to be theatre's proper dramatic aim in the opening of God's Trinitarian relations around
the world in the Incarnation. The Person of the Spirit ensures that a dramatic horizon,
greater than He could have alone, is mutually experienced, primordially in the Trinity
and soteriologically in the Church. So the natural-human theatre director, to be
dramatic, must open up the play's horizon by mutual creative engagement and not by
expressing her own individual vision. Balthasar's Craig determined to impose,
vertically, his directorial vision and in this determination he denied the horizontal,
communal embodiment required for dramatic success.
4.212: Transcendent Horizon
In the Trinity, the Spirit mediates between the Father and the Son by holding
always before the Son the transcendent horizon of the ontological drama, to the point
where the Son appreciates this horizon by living it round and so gives up the Spirit to
the Father. As such,
the Son of God, in order to carry out his mission does not look at himself (his "divine ideal", his
"conscience") but at the Father's will, which is set before him anew at every moment by the
Holy Spirit, or - using the stage metaphor - at the Holy Spirit's "prompting".^^
"TDl,p.300
TDl,p.300
TD3, p.533
91
Beyond the implication that the theatre director's mediation must be corporate rather
than individual, the transcendence of the horizon requires him to use his intermediary
power in such a way as to 'keep to the "hierarchy" of antecedent powers.'^^ Theology
shows that 'theatre is only meaningful when seen against the background of a given,
absolute meaning.'^^ And so, to be dramatic, the director must recognise the given-ness
of the play's authored horizon standing over the company horizons in order that the
performance will graft the audience horizon into the play's. For
[Constantin] Stanislavksy is surely right: "If you force contemporary reality on to an ancient...
classical work, you are putting proud flesh onto a magnificent body and distorting it beyond
recognition." If, on the other hand, a modern approach is prepared to insert itself organically
into the "higher task" of the older play and thus enrich it, developing it inwardly in a particular
direction, a valid aggiornamento can be brought about.'*
Thus the theatre director is responsible to the transcendent horizon of the authored play:
transcendent in the sense of being greater than the action yet expressed in the action,
natural-human analogue to divine transcendence. Balthasar considers this responsibility
to involve entering a reality that is vertical as well as horizontal. The critical deduction
Balthasar makes from this is that what he calls propagandist theatre direction cannot be
dramatic because it deals only in the horizontal. Balthasar's named representative of
this is Bertolt Brecht, whose work 'signals the abdication of drama in favor of a
narrative philosophy of history.'^^ In the dramatic event of the Incarnation 'absolute
Goodness and Beauty choose for themselves an ultimate, definitive shape, a
definitively incarnate Word.' Because Brecht's productions did not operate with
absolute horizons but found that all horizons, all conditions, can be changed, they are
not appropriately dramatic in respect to the Incarnation.^" On Balthasar's view, this
non-dramatic, epic theatre occurs because, according to Brecht's alienation effect, the
actor is to be 'beside not in the role' and for his didactic and political aims theatre
illustrates the social situation, rather than represents inter-relational events. Brecht's
direction is 'purely "horizontal"', lacking the vertical presence required for dramatic
TDl,p.299
T D l , p.74
T D l , p.302, citing Stanislavksy
TD2, p.40
* TD2, p.33
92
freedom.^' Thus he 'reduces all personal destiny to that of a puppet' as 'the individual
person ... is not to be presented for its own sake; rather it is a peg on which to hang the
urgent demand for the "conditions" to be "changed."''In terms of world view, Brecht
and Christianity are in close competition.'^^ And when Brecht's theatre did attain
dramatic moments, it was despite not because of his intentions, and resultant on his
protest against the Christian perspective. This, at least, seems to be Balthasar's analysis
in TD2 where he comments that the moral, dramatic significance of Brechtian theatre
occurs
not, let it be said, through "alienation effects" and the various measures employed to prevent the
audience becoming involved, but by all the "spectators" being impressed by the explosive
nature of election and the scent of their ultimate collapse, in such a way that everyone is obliged
to breathe in something of the spirit of this having-been-chosen for the Good. The instance par
excellence of this is where absolute Goodness and Beauty choose for themselves an ultimate
definitive form, a definitively incarnate Word.^*
For Balthasar, Brecht's theatre, when it is dramatic, is playing against the director's
theory and instead playing from the sustaining theodramatic reality - of form, word and
election - with which it attempts to compete. Balthasar reads both the cry of IVIother
Courage^^ and the 'outburst... with its shrill succession of question marks' at the end
of The Good Person of Szechwan in this way, as dramatic events that go against
Brecht's theory and suggest that 'there is still a horizon emitting something like a hght
of meaning.'^^ To Balthasar, the repeated questions about what we are to do and the
demand that the audience find among themselves a good person, represent an attempt
to make goodness and hope, which are Christologically, a natural-human capacity. As
the audience breathes in this demand, they participate in the dramatic, protesting
process of abstracting from Christian truth. This illustrates what it is for the human
dramatic dimension to be sustained in protest. For fundamentally it remains the case
that one cannot achieve a field of dramatic tension
TD2, p.331
TD2, pp.48-49
TDl,p.86
TD2, p.33 (my emphasis)
TDl,p.331
T D l , p.322
93
in "epic theatre" [where] the unfolding action is only an "instance" of"... conditions", and
these conditions are not really metaphysical but merely economic; ... [and where] the
character's story must never become so engrossing as to acquire a significance of its own, cut
loose from and transcending the "conditions". This, at least, is the theory; fortunately Brecht the
poet does not always follow it.*'
As the Spirit reveals the ultimate, transcendent horizon in the Incarnation, so the
director should reveal a provisionally transcendent horizon in human theatre. 'It is
possible to detect an eschatological theme emerging here.'^^ The required vertical
presence is analogous to the vertical communication of the apocalyptic, soteriological
rhythm. The soteriological rhythm is unique to God's dramatic act in Christ and solely
pre-figures the ultimate eschatological drama where the divine, while beyond, is all in
all. But a limitedly vertical dynamic from a transcendent (greater, yet involved) horizon
is thus made essential to the dramatic as all dramatic moments are analogous to the
Incarnation. 'The director who fails to recognize this fundamental impulse of all
mainstream drama and tries to adapt it to political propaganda has in fact betrayed the
on
dramatic dimension.'
4.213: Particular Presentation
Theatre must, then, be both horizontal and vertical - a communal participation

in a transcendent horizon - and the particular presentation achieved in direction is at
the heart of its pneumatological mystery. Balthasar points to the Spirit as
the socializing 'between', rooting human fellowship in a (trinitarian) personal depth that cannot
be realized by purely earthly means.'"
*' TD2, p.93

** Dalzell, Dramatic Encounter, p.122
*' T D l , p.305. Clearly, Balthasar's analysis depends on his theological account of drama and there are
many comments that Brechtian practitioners would question. For example, even if one accepts that
verticality is a dramatic requirement, it would seem that the distance between actor and role, which
Balthasar finds non-dramatic, itself provides verticality alternative to the style that Balthasar considers
normative. Balthasar on Brecht is a complex study in itself Here I have considered Brecht as director - it
would be possible to discuss the way in which his theology of theatre contrasts Brecht and Eugene
lonesco as playwrights.
' T D l , p.647
94
Aidan Nichols comments that the Spirit 'renders us participants in a process of divine
formation.'^' He is true to Balthasar's claim that indwelling is insufficient as an
account of the Spirit's relation to the person for it does not indicate the 'insert[ion] into
ensemble' that the Spirit effects.The Spirit guarantees the Church's corporate pre-
figuration of the ultimate eschatological drama as an ongoing processional
participation; he does not itemise Christian life by stamping each individual with an
independent, static guarantee. He is between. The Church is a community of true action
in its sacramental relationship with God in Christ precisely through this self-effacing
mediation of the Spirit. Analogically, making a particular presentation of a transcendent
horizon in the natural-human dimension, the theatre director should 'devote his
energies to rendering himself superfluous.'^^ It is vital that the audience should not see
the director's struggle with the text, as if the director was interpreter. Such Director's
Theatre, on Balthasar's view, places an obstruction between the audience's horizon and
the horizon of the action into which it should be directly grafted. Constantin
Stanislavsky's classic method is respected by Balthasar because of Stanislavsky's
determination to enable the actor to embody the truth of the role so that the spiritual life
of the play is on stage not in visible directorial interpretation but immediately
substantiated by the physical life of the action. Balthasar understands Stanislavksy's
aims in the terms above and also outlines in broad-brush strokes the method's
techniques: relaxation exercises to enable gesture; observation tuning to enable
attention; a combination of physical technique and emotional empathy to develop and
sustain total activation of character. This total activation is disponibilite: the availabihty
whereby the actor in character is able to receive the impact of other characters in the
cast and so in rehearsal contribute to an integrated corporate development of roles in
the play. And Balthasar concludes, astonishingly given his stance on sacramental
theology, that
[t]here is something sacramental about Stanislavsky's method.'*
'' Nichols, Aô Bloodless Myth, p.237

T D l , p.647; see TD4, p.418
" T D l , p.300
TDl,p.289
95
To what does this statement amount? I think it is grounded in a feeling for
'"disponibilite" (and the training that aims at it).'^^ As a director, Stanislavsky employs
both observational development of physical technique and imaginative development of
emotional empathy to enable this availability, in which each actor will develop a
character and interactively, without the directorial influence remaining obtrusively, the
engagement of characters will become formed roles. The Spirit operates also both
through the technique of observable eucharistic structures and through imaginative
saintly empathy in generating the Church. And his is ultimate inobtrusion in that he
thus enables formation in truth, where role is person, known inter-actively without any
special stopping-point in him. For Balthasar, Stanislavksy's work is an intra-human
analogue of the Spirit's. Stanislavsky's avowed focus on truth, but truth as occasioned
in dramatic art as opposed to any broader philosophical account helps Balthasar here.
Particularly appealing to Balthasar is Stanislavsky's belief that the actor's embodiment
of poetic truth requires his acceptance of the author's purpose for his character by
'entering into the horizon of meaning that encompasses the role.'^^ Safe as artistry, the
formal truth of Stanislavksy's work is so striking that it can be considered to have
something sacramental about it, a fictional analogue of sacramental reality only
occasioned in fact through the Spirit in the Church.
4.22: The Pneumatological Standard
I have shown that Balthasar judges the creation of drama by theatre directors
through a pneumatological understanding of what dramatic success is.^^ As the Spirit
sustains one theo-drama, on the one ultimate stage of the one ultimate actor, there is
one way to be dramatic; the theatre director can only sustain natural-human drama
according to this dynamic.
TD3, p.533
TDl,p.279
'' Whether Balthasar's interpretations would be persuasive to those who do not share his theological
dramatic approach is another question. I have avoided introducing reflections on what drama is from the
relevant theatre directors or from performance theorists and merely presented Balthasar's evaluations.
However, I have mentioned points of potential discussion - for example, performance and dramatic truth
in respect of Stanislavsky and the actor and dramatic role in respect of Brecht.
96
The director must sensitively listen for the text's spirit and infuse it, in its integrity, into the
troupe's multifarious organism. ... Here it is possible for an "impure spirit" to usurp a major role
and spoil everything (like many a modern director). ... [T]his shows us how important it is for
the director to be a - modest - reflection of the operation of the Holy Spirit on the world stage.
Balthasar's pneumatological standard for theatre direction is one that no human director
can exactly meet. For
a dramatic dimension that comes from God's heaven and is implanted in the world,
comprehending and judging everything in the world and leading it towards its redemptive
meaning, is so unique and exuberant that it can only be reflected in a fragmentary and broken
1 99
way on the stage.
In the unique, ultimate status of its characters and action, theo-drama alone is dramatic
ontology. And, as with all aspects of the dramatic analogy, to relate 'the divine Spirit
and the director' is a 'poor metaphor'; in employing such natural-human practices 'we
need to complement them and go beyond them.'"^" In its analogical weakness, which
from a theological perspective is its ontological reality, natural-human theatre direction
is polarised as either parody or protest with respect to the theodramatic standard. In the
Theological Dramatics, Stanislavsky exemplifies the former pole and Brecht the latter.
In either case, the director, in their responsibility for the performance, is placed in a
predicament that they may not appreciate themselves with regard to what a
performance's dramatic success is. This evaluative polarisation of theatre direction is
an example of Balthasar's theology judging other discipHnes. It goes beyond a literary
judgement, where a play's themes may have their ultimate term theologically, into a
theatrical judgement of the ways that particular practitioners work, from the theological
perspective. As God's is theatrical activity, experienced by the theologian, so the
theologian is in a position to judge theatre practice and its techniques. As Balthasar
dialogues with theatre directors, their processes of making theatre are relativised within
a theological understanding of dramatic success.
TD3, p.533
TDl,p.320
'TDl,p.l7
97
Alongside the great twentieth-century theatre directors already mentioned,
Balthasar's Theological Dramatics gathers one other. He is still working: creating
theatre, as one commentator puts it, 'as many ways as possible.'Balthasar's dialogue
with him illuminates this polarised appropriation. His work is, apparently, both parodic
and protesting, polarised both ways. He is Peter Brook.
Shomit Mitter, Systems of Rehearsal: Stanislavsky, Brecht, Grotowski and Brook, (London:
Routledge, 1992) p.4
98
5; B A L T H A S A R AlVD B R O O K
5.1: BALTHASAR'S D I A L O G U E W I T H B R O O K
5.11: Peter Brook
Peter Brook's memoir, Threads ofTime\ puts his career into three phases. The
first is that of the new man at the Royal Shakespeare Company, where Brook was a
director before he turned 25. His pioneering, ensemble approach to both performance
and rehearsal of theatre and opera peaked with his famous 1970 production, 'A
IMidsummer Night's Dream', and is reflected in The Empty Space , a series of lectures
published in 1968. The second phase begins when, later in 1970, Brook founded CICT,
an international theatre group mainly based in Paris but travelling through Africa and
the IVliddle East. They performed large scale and often ritualised productions, notably
'Orghast', but also engaged in village improvisations seeking cross-cultural
communication in a more intimate style. Something of an unresolved conflict between
the two activities emerges, and accounts of this phase are found in The Shifting Point?
This second phase closes with the late 1980s theatrical adaptation of The Mahabharata,
which toured internationally, closing at the Bouffes du Nord in Paris, where Brook has
been based since. In the third phase. Brook's concern has been to appreciate the
theatrical moment. Productions have been on a smaller scale and he has published a
series of lectures that complement and develop themes from The Empty Space, There
Are No Secrets^
I can take any empty space and call it a bare stage.'
It is difficult to make a unity of Brook's career; it is hard to know what that would
mean. There is no common style: theorists whose ideas stand opposed are combined in
' Peter Brook, Threads of Time: A Memoir (London: Methuen, 1999)

^ Peter Brook, The Empty Space (Middlesex: Penguin, 1972)
^ Peter Brook, The Shifting Point: Forty Years of Theatrical Exploration, 1946 - 1987 (London:
Methuen, 1988)
Peter Brook, There are No Secrets: Thoughts on Acting and Theatre (London: Methuen, 1993)
' Brook, Empty Space, p. 11
99
Brook's practice. There is no constant theme, in the sense of an overt political or
philosophical agenda - although Brook's anti-Vietnam production, 'US', made his
mark as a socially relevant director. And, of course, there is no normative performance
space. Brook has worked in Iranian quarries, Parisian hostels and African villages;
while he may have settled at the Bouffes du Nord his love is for it as a 'chameleon
space' and he tours where he is invited and where the space has the quahty that the
production needs.^ There seems to be no line: Brook's work, as his reflections, suggests
patterns rather than progress. Brook's reflections never stray far from specific
experiences of rehearsals or of performances. They are anecdotal - drawing points
from, rather than imposing schemes on, practice. Nonetheless they have the coherence
of firm, flexible principles, which inform and are formed by his determination to meet
this calling he voices in the first line of his first book, that any empty space can become
a bare stage.
I will focus on Brook's reflections on theatre rather than his productions.^ His
reflections resist systematisation but one key insight of his early lectures, The Empty
Space, can be combined with one from his later lectures, There are No Secrets. In the
former Brook outlined his aim of immediate theatre, and in the latter this is developed
through his commitment to quality as both the activity and the aim of theatre practice. I
shall consider the implications of these ideas for an understanding of life as drama. In
respect to Balthasar's theodramatic dialogues with Craig, Stanislavsky and Brecht, I did
not discuss the practitioners' outlooks directly but merely illustrated Balthasar's
approach. Here, I consider Brook's understanding of theatre and Hfe first, after which I
shall outline Balthasar's dialogue, his polarised appropriation of Brook's theatre as
parody and protest. This will enable me, in the next section, to develop my account of
Brook to discuss his use of Christian imagery, particularly that of incarnation and of
grace, in relation to theatrical activity. Analysis of Brook's Christian rhetoric will
question whether his work suggests both protest and parody, in the way that Balthasar
Brook, Threads, p. 193
^ A chronology of Brook's productions up to 1993 prefaces Albert Hunt and Geoffrey Reeves, Peter
Brook (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995). They offer clear production-by-production
analysis. David Williams (ed.), Peter Brook: A Theatrical Casebook (London: Methuen, 1988) includes
a chronology of work up to the late 1980s, more detailed especially in regard to venues and
collaborators.
100
and other Christian theologians have interpreted it. It could rather represent an
informed, viable a-Christian understanding of theatre and life.
5.12: The Quality of Immediate Theatre
In The Empty Space Brook outlines four types of theatre: deadly, rough, holy
and immediate. Deadly theatre is theatre with predictable, stereotypical
characterisation, theatre that is designed to run for too long and so ignores the daily
modifications of truth, theatre that reconfirms expectations and offers no revelation. It
is 'a real deadly theatre man' who comes as director to rehearsal with all the moves
mapped out for the show.
The problem of the Deadly Theatre is the problem of the deadly bore. Every deadly bore has
head, heart, arms, legs; usually, he has a family andfriends;he even has his admirers. Yet we
sigh when we come across him -... somehow he is at the bottom instead of the top of his
possibilities.^
Holiness and Roughness, which are theatrical metaphors as well as events, develop
Brook's reflection away from the ever-present danger of deadliness and towards
immediate theatre. Brook's concludes The Empty Space with a poetic account of
immediate theatre.
In everyday life, 'if is a fiction, in the theatre 'if is an experiment.

In everyday life, 'if is an evasion, in the theatre 'if is the truth.
When we are persuaded to believe in this truth, then the theatre and life are one.
This is a high aim. It sounds like hard work.
To play needs much work. But when we experience the work as play, then it is not work any
more.
A play is play.'
Here, Brook emphasises the fact that theatre plays with life. It does so by shaping life
in a way strong enough to bring the audience into its representation but open enough to
allow their assistance as a requirement to render the event immediate. As the theatre
'Brook, Empty Space, p.45

'Brook, Empty Space, p. 157
101
narrows life down, corporately, its contingent events become not evasions of life's
infinite complexity but moments of truth within life's unending web. Such theatre
requires collective integrity and in order to express truth it must achieve 'freedom ...
within the highest disciphne.'^'^ For this combination, the practitioner begins always in
the free empty space.
In order to start one must always create a space, both internally and externally. The emptier the
better. One has to keep coming back to the basic imperative of having nothing at all to start
with. In an empty space everything can become an event."
The empty space has no form: no narrative, theme or scenery. From it the company
becomes disciplined by texts, ideas or properties. With the assistance of a director in
rehearsal, and an audience in performance the freedom is focused, generating the
sparks of immediate theatre.
When immediate, the theatrical event overcomes any distinction between

holiness and roughness. Brook's sympathetic critique of holy theatre is particularly
pertinent for relating his work with Balthasar's Theological Dramatics. On Brook's
account, successful theatre engages in a process of 'tapping the forces that are swirling
around us.''^ When tapping the forces, in life or in theatre, moments of truth can be
revealed. But, in the context of the empty space, revelation with an already defined
channel and rhythm is an unhealthy pre-narrowing of what is on offer from an infinite
source. Holy, commune theatres offer a total way of life. They draw the audience
completely into the company. With small means, intense work, rigorous discipline and
absolute precision they open in the theatre 'a possibility of salvation.' Praise from
Brook, but praise undercut: '[t]hese theatres explore life, yet what counts as life is
restricted.''^ Soteriological performance takes holy theatre too far. Salvation, both in
theatre and life, represents the obsession with the holy such as would deny the rough
Brook, Empty Space, p. 127

" Georges Banu, 'Brook's Six Days: Theatre as the Meeting Place between the Visible and the
Invisible', in David Williams (ed.), Peter Brook and the Mahabharata: Critical Responses (London:
Routledge, 1991), p.270.
Peter Brook, 'Search for a Hunger', Encore 8.4 (1961), p. 14
Brook, Empty Space, pp.66-68
102
and so hmit the possibility of immediacy. It projects an encounter out to encompass the
whole and thus is 'hollowly holy,' unable to achieve 'the most vivid relationship
between people.' ' ^ Without a lively roughness, it is bound in a universal projection of
one purportedly sacred occasion. This is the danger of tradition and it informs what
Brook calls the 'declining decadence of religion' where the sacred is seen as a form and
consequently the sparks of quality become frozen in predictable patterns that do not
give.^^ Soteriological tradition, where the contours of truth are outlined before one
discovers them, generates a pure theatre that lacks life. This is because it denies the
rough context required i f one is attain the sparks of quality. In Rough Theatre any
object and any form can be transformed by the investment that is made in it. So, as
Brook explains in There are No Secrets, a plastic bottle can become a baby through the
relational investment that the actor makes and in which the audience assist. The bottle's
roughness ensures that 'the sacred is a transformation of that which is not sacred at the
outset.''^ If holiness is left to its own tradition, purity will spread, objects or actions
themselves will come to hold the sacred and theatrical encounter will be redundant.
To be successfully immediate, theatrical encounter requires the rough along

with the holy and Brook expresses this in relation to wider society as well as to the
stage.
In Coventry ... a new cathedral has been built.... Honest sincere artists, the 'best', have been
grouped together to make a civilised stab at celebrating God and man and Culture and Life
through a collective act. So there is a new building, fine ideas, beautiful glass-work - only the
ritual is threadbare -... sadly inadequate here. The new place cries out for a new ceremony, but
of course it is the ceremony that should have come first. ... [T]he outer form can only take on
real authority if the ceremony has equal authority - and who today can possibly call the tune?"
This sense that old forms are being imposed where they can no longer have resonance
is the starting point for the claim that traditional purity is fossilised. It does not
convince theatrically. Brook does not want simply to refashion soteriological theatre
for new times. He accepts that 'we need to stage true rituals ... and for rituals that could
Brook, Empty Space, p.74

Brook quoted Banu, 'Brook's Six Days', p.272
Brook, No Secrets, p.60
103
make ... an experience that feeds our lives true forms are needed.' Yet, he denies that
humans can create new, improvised, soteriological theatrical traditions from where we
are now. Such theatre is shallower than any communal encounter. For then 'the artist
... imitates the outer form of ceremonies, pagan or baroque, unfortunately adding his
18
own trappings - the result is rarely convincing.' Human genius will not produce our
form of theatrical salvation in some new old-fashioned way. Part of the reason for this
is that people have come to appreciate their situation as 'electrons of living, belonging
to no system, no order', finding nothing which tells us that it stands out.'^
Consequently, 'we do not know how to celebrate because we do not know what to
celebrate', a fact which is the 'barometer of... irredeemable isolation.'^" While
accepting the need to operate within rhythms that are given, Brook's response to this is
not to offer one new form that stands out. Rather, by seeking immediate theatre, thus,
Brook disassociates himself from what he perceives as a non-theatrical, pre-narrowing
tendency inherent in all soteriological drama, whether humanistic, Christian or other-
religious. In the immediate - 'case-by-case ... depending on the needs' - theatre, 'all
questions of style and convention explode and one finds oneself before an
extraordinary richness, because everything is possible.'^'
[Brook] has made one law his own - the law of fresh beginnings.'^^
Brook's theatrical ' i f of immediacy assumes that there is revelation from beyond the
individual, only through which one can experience theatrical truth where gesture and
response combine in representation. It also assumes that, as this beyond is formless,
there can be no predictable pattern to such revelation. It is not guaranteed through trust
in a given tradition or through trust in one's power of self-expression but only in trusts
" Brook, Empty Space, pp.50-51

'* Brook, Empty Space, p.51
"Brook, 'Search', p. 14
Peter Brook and John Lahr, 'Knowing What To Celebrate', Plays and Players 23.6 (1976), p. 18. The
first quotation is from Brook. The second is Lahr's suggestion that 'the absence of ceremony is the
barometer of... irredeemable isolation'. Brook responds simply: 'Quite so.'
^' Brook, No Secrets, p.61
Banu, 'Brook's Six Days', p.270
104
between the particular company and the particular audience in front of the formless
mystery that is greater than both of them. And so, revelation must be continually re-
sought, in every different company, on every different space, with every different
audience. This re-seeking propels theatre, which begins always with the recognition of
the ultimately formless context of the empty space. Thus '[tjruth in theatre is always on
the move.'^^
In his memoir, Brook explains that through his career as a theatre director he
has 'reached only one luminous certitude.'
Quality is real and has a source. At every moment a new and unexpected quality can arise
within a human action - and just as quickly it can be lost, found and lost again. This unnameable
value can be betrayed by religion and by philosophy; churches and temples can betray it; the
faithful and the unfaithful betray it all the time. Still, the hidden source remains. Quality is
sacred, but it is also in danger.^''
In this notion of quality, Brook expresses the aim and activity of theatre, the moments
where gesture and truth combine. Theatre searches for 'the movement and flow that is
life itself in which the immediate coincidence of gesture and truth is the mark of
success, of what Brook calls quality. Quality remains, as all terms, an inadequate name
for the event and Brook is never able to do more than guess at the source of quality.
IVloments of theatrical truth are like 'golden fish' that come, 'we guess', from
somewhere in the 'collective mythic unconscious, that vast ocean whose limits have
never been discovered.'^^ Particularly in his earlier work, Brook understood this ocean
as a trans-personal archetype. He argued that theatre is legitimated in as much as it
searches for this archetypal reality, claiming that 'we are each only parts of a complete
man' with theatre as the space in which 'this great jigsaw can be played.'
Commentators associate this stage primarily with 'Orghast', where gesture and
language drawn from 'archetypal ideograms' were intended to 'produce images

Brook, Threads, p.225
Brook, 'Search', p. 10
Brook, Aô Secrets, pp.84-85
^' Brook, Shifting Point, p. 129
Peter Brook, 'The Complete Truth is Global', The New York Times (20.1.1974), p.D13
105
corresponding to the same archetypes in the minds of the audience.'^^ In The Shifting
Point Brook suggests that a universal theatre 'tr[ies] to relate the smallest... detail to
the widest framework' and that to relate to the universe in this way it is essential to
share between individuals.'^'^ ' A true performance has some of the same values as a
meeting with strangers.'^' In this sense, he has always seen the collective archetype as
in some sense relative to encounter. Brook's cross-cultural theatre attempted to start
f r o m zero with no shared assumptions in order to see, through encounters, how widely
the archetype stretches. Brook increasingly understands the global reality as inter-
(rather than trans-) personal. A n d the universal boundaries of theatre, once intimated as
undiscoverable through the image of the complete man, are considered more to be
infinitely flexible in every slight change of relations. Here it is contacts with others that
are quahty. This plays out in his presentation of the actor's three fidelities. The actor
must keep a triple balance between fidelity to himself, his partners (the company) and
the audience substituted for in rehearsal by the director. This balance in contact ensures
that theatre is a mystery; it requires an inter-relational superfluity that 'can be found
and lost each time [the actor] steps.''^^ Whether the source of quality is construed as
archetype or contact its occasion remains a mysterious process because it is never
relieved by a given person, rhythm or style. Such relief would be relief f r o m
engagement with an unknowable archetype in the ongoing tension of inter-personal
contact. Brook's theatre must remain without relief, for it exists by distilling the 'idea-
less intensity of life'^^ through experiment, error, listening and finding - and by
crafting the company and through them, the audience into this representative process.^'^
Success in this art is the momentary coincidence of gesture and truth.
Philip Auslander, "Holy Theatre' and Catharsis', in From Acting to Performance: Essays in
Modernism and Post-Modernism (London: Routledge, 1997), p.l9
^ Brook, Shifting Point, p.l33
^' Brook, 'Global', p.D3
Peter Brook, 'Theatre with a Message? The Very Idea!', Independent on Sunday: Sunday Review
(28.10.1990), p.24
See Brook, No Secrets, pp.97-119 for a case study with regard to his 1991 production of The Tempest.
106
Brook's reflections on theatre and life circle around the claim that theatre is 'life
in a more concentrated form,'^^ 'more readable ... because it is more concentrated.'^^
This concentrate is created through the company's groundwork in focusing the empty
space into particular events, but it is completed only by the assistance of the audience.
As i n the theatre the practitioner is dependent on mutual and ever-changing patterns of
trust, which give the production its greater purpose, so in life 'we only begin to exist
when we are serving an aim beyond our own likes and aversions.'^^ In the theatre.
Brook distils ever-greater, unbounded possibility into specific gestures and acts. In his
memoir he articulates the spirituality that surrounds this theatre practice. Practising in
the theatre, developing rhythms for encounters, poses a question of life: '[h]ow can one
live one single day in its true rhythm, a day composed of a multitude of finely
intertwining rhythms?'^^ Brook acknowledges that this question cannot be answered;
but it can be responded to in moments of quahty that occur even in the formless reality
of life itself. Quality can be found in life among people who have learned to open
themselves to the rhythms surrounding them; 'remarkable men and women do exist,
remarkable because of the degree to which they have worked on themselves in their
lives.' In both the theatre and life, this manifestation of invisible quality in visible
action is 'not a question of a permanent truth, since it is constantly in search of itself;
it's simply a series of true moments.'''^ Brook maintains that 'truth can never be
defined, nor grasped, but the theatre is a machine which enables all its participants to
taste an aspect of truth within a moment.''**' While the carefully narrowed contours of
the theatrical event offer people such an engagement, it is not impossible for the person
or community who devote similar care to their lives to experience such moments in the
everyday. Brook would not suggest that theatre is necessary or even directly helpful for
a spiritual life, but he does f i n d theatre an active 'metaphor [for life] that can give one
the force to go into life knowing that it's going to be much more difficult once you get
Brook, Shifting Point, p. 111

Brook, No Secrets, p. 10
Brook, Threads, p.226
Brook, Shifting Point, p.234
107
outside.'"*' The implication here is that the experience of the theatre involves inter-
personal contacts and shared touchings of mystery, which w i l l inspire - and possibly
assist - the person towards something similar in life. In this hne. Brook claims that
'[tjheatre is life. A n d at the same time, one cannot say that there is no difference
between life and theatre."*^ A n d in this context "theatre' is a fundamental human need,
while 'theatres' and their forms and styles are only temporary and replaceable boxes.''*^
The need f o r immediate quality, the coincidence of gesture and truth, is more easily
satisfied in the concentrated moments of theatre but not impossible to meet in the free-
flow empty space of life itself.
5.13: Balthasar's Dialogue with Brook
Albert Hunt and Geoffrey Reeves employ theatre as search as a governing
metaphor f o r studying Peter Brook. A t the outset they admit that 'the precise object of
the search is hard to define' and in conclusion they question such questions as 'where
... has the search led him?'"*^ It is unsurprising, perhaps, that Balthasar finds such
theatre - open-ended, perhaps inherently unfulfilled, search - ready as a dialogue
partner, material f o r theological appropriation.
In a paragraph's discussion in T D l , Balthasar considers himself 'heartened' by
the 'basic position of Peter Brook.'"*^ Here Brook is being appropriated as limitedly
dramatic and so parodic. It is important to consider the position of this discussion on
the Dramatics' theological co-ordinates. Balthasar is considering objections to
contemporary theological dramatics resultant on the claim to the death of the drama,
specifically that the dramatic sense of a spiritual horizon has been irretrievably eroded.
W i t h modem sociology is lost a spiritual relational framework and with modem
psychology is lost spiritual personal heroism: the sense of the dramatic is dead."*^ I f this
Brook quoted Dale Moffitt (ed.), Between Two Silences: Talking with Peter Brook (London: Methuen,
2000), p. 149
Brook, A'o Secrets, p.92
Hunt and Reeves, Brook, pp. 1,272
T D l , pp.78-79
See TDl,pp.70-87
108
claim were upheld, Balthasar would only be able to employ pre-modem theatrical
forms as resources for expressing theo-drama. Among the practitioners Balthasar
marshals against the claim, Brook opposes the purported psychological erosion of the
dramatic. In dialogue with Brook, Balthasar comments on the famous opening lines of
The Empty Space.
"I can take any empty room and call it a bare stage. One man walks across the room while
another watches him; that is all that is necessary for theatrical action." Life manifests a
fundamental urge to observe itself as an action exhibiting both meaning and mystery.""
Balthasar relates this with Brook's belief that theatre does not need to mimic the
scenery, structure and plot of its various classical hey-days but should instead accept
that it exists 'only fragmentarily' and use its current indefiniteness to ask 'the one
crucial question ...: W h y theatre? What is it for? ... Does the stage have a real place in
our lives?'"^^ Thus Balthasar contends that in its attempt to embody a dramatic horizon,
theatre has not found itself bound to past forms but has occurred in contemporary
patterns. To do so requires the contact between actor and audience signalled in Brook's
opening lines, representing inter-relational mystery rather than illustrating
psychological factors. This theatrical concern f o r mystery over psychology is central to
Brook's reflections beyond the classic Balthasar quotes."*^ O f particular relevance is
Brook's programmatic essay 'Search for a Hunger'. Here Brook describes an 'old-
fashioned,' 'psychological' understanding of character as 'pitifully inadequate' for
theatre. He claims that because practitioners 'still think of people in naturalistic terms'
rather than as 'a f l o w ... in and out of interaction,' theatre remains 'complacent, safe,
dull [and] lifeless.'^*' Balthasar is heartened to feel that some twentieth-century theatre
still parodies the mystery in relation that is Christian theo-drama and so remains
dramatic: Brook, f o r example, is concerned for mystery in an open relational context
rather than the closure of dramatic arts into rigid psychological explanatory structures.
TDl,pp.78-79
Brook quoted TDl,p.78
Perhaps Balthasar wisely avoided further reference to Brook in this regard. Brook consistently presents
this position in direct opposition to Stanislavsky's psychological approach to action. Such contradictions
among limitedly dramatic practitioners may muddy Balthasar's theological waters.
^ Peter Brook, 'Search', pp. 12-13
109
Brook's claim that his theatre is 'fragmentary'^' must have jumped o f f the page at
Balthasar. For Balthasar, all parodic, human dramatic searches can be but unaware
fragments of theodramatic reality.
Through forceful allusion, Balthasar makes Brook's incompatibility with theo-
drama clear.
The world is the stage which has been set up for the encounter of the whole God with the whole
man - stage not as an empty space, but as the sphere of encounter of the two sided form which
unites in the encounter.^^
The context of empty space is fundamental to Brook's theatre. It recurs throughout his
reflections, variously transposed: the space for theatre must be free, theatre must begin
at zero and, recently, '[o]ne basic area out of which all theatre comes and to which it
retums, which is silence.'^^ Silence, zero, freedom, emptiness is the formless reality
pre-requisite for theatrical success by its distillation into the stage concentrate.
However, as Raymund Gawronski explains, 'Balthasar rejects an ultimate silence ...
because it is not tme.'^'* For Balthasar the possibility of success in the natural-human
dramatic dimension depends on there not being such a formless start but on there being
ultimately one dramatic horizon, as human dramatic fields are formal miniatures of the
ultimate theodramatic field. In the theodramatic field, silence is not empty because it is
formed within the conversation of Trinitarian inter-relations that carry Christ through
death. As Gawronski shows in his discussion of Balthasar's encounters with Eastem
religions, Balthasar considers it natural for human, non-revealed searches to end in
Absolute silence. They cannot get further than a natural, stunted '"empty" spiritual
tradition' in which 'a silent void is beyond all relative, individual being.'^^ However, in
theodramatic terms
^' Brook quoted T D l , p.78

Balthasar quoted Norris, 'Symphonic Unity', p.248
" Peter Brook, Jonathan Miller and Oliver Sacks, 'Six Hemispheres in Search o f i n Maria Delgado
and Paul Heritage (eds.). In Contact with the Gods? Directors Talk Theatre (Manchester: Manchester
University Press, 1996), p.316
Raymund Gawronski, Word and Silence: Hans Urs vcn Balthasar and the Spiritual Encounter between
East and West (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1995), p.217
Gawronski, Word and Silence, p.218
110
[fjinite freedom cannot be located in a void, for there is no such void. It is "set loose" in the
realm of infinite freedom and so finds itself, right from the start, in a realm of meaning
governed by the infinite "idea" of the Son.^^
On Balthasar's view dramatic meaning and dramatic freedom are incompatible with
contextual emptiness; Brook's theatre requires such an empty space and thus must
ultimately be judged non-dramatic. How then does Brook's theatre sustain itself
dramatically? Only in as much as it attempts to form this greater emptiness into specific
moments of truth. It does not end, as it naturally should, in emptiness, but attempts to
begin there. From Balthasar's perspective, attempts to f o r m reality are human claims to
a Christological capacity. Implicitly, they protest against the ultimate Trinitarian
formation (behind which there is no emptiness) that already gives the form in which
drama plays. Only bound up i n such protest could a theatre that searches f r o m the
empty space be dramatic.
Balthasar's dialogue appropriates Brook. I suggest that it does so by rendering
his direction both parodic and protesting, polarised both ways. I have shown
Balthasar's account of Brook to be brief, allusive but reasonable enough for further
illustration f r o m Brook's writings. Perhaps a performance theorist would find it
amateur. But then, as Balthasar comments when outlining his methodology, 'a man can
no longer be a specialist in all fields of study.' Consequently, Balthasar focuses on
revelation's 'truths derived f r o m the centre' in order to 'inform whatever formable
material he may receive' f r o m other disciplines.^^ It is clear that, in this dialogue,
Balthasar has selected appropriate aspects of Brook's search. The anti-psychological
bent can be appropriated theologically as it is seen to be a parody, deliberate or
otherwise, of ecclesial relations. The prerequisite empty space can be judged
theologically to require a protesting denial of the Trinitarian formed horizon. However,
by developing Brook's understanding of theatre and life through his own rhetorical use
of Christian imagery, I w i l l question the extent to which such theological appropriation
represents a dialogue with Brook's searching theatre.
56
TD2, p.276
" Balthasar, Love Alone, pp. 124-125
111
5.2: B R O O K ON T H E O L O G Y AND T H E O L O G Y ON BROOK
5.21: Brook's Cliristian Rhetoric: Incarnation and Grace
I can't make the simple statement that theatre is religious with the faintest hope of
communicating what 1 mean.^*
A 'tendency to choose an evocative word and then to leave it hanging characterises
Brook's use of terminology.'^^ It is this tendency that leads me to talk of his rhetorical
use of Christian imagery. He uses Christian imagery distanced f r o m the Christian
narrative. In this sense. Brook's theatrical project is not soteriological but it employs a
Christian rhetoric and finds theatre events to be in some sense religious. Brook's stated
aim in using any religious rhetoric was to intimate contact with 'alive-making
elements' and suggest theatre's potential to express 'concrete realities so thrillingly
above our everyday experience that we have to use a word of a different flavour.'^
What he finds d i f f i c u l t about religious rhetoric is its association with those,
'fundamentalists' as he calls them, who say 'this is our story' and do not wish the
universal 'meaning' of that story to be expressed in a different ' f o r m ' . ^ ' On Brook's
Brook, 'Search', p.20
Paul B. Cohen, 'Peter Brook and the 'Two Worlds' of Theatre', New Theatre Quarterly 7.26 (1991),
p.l47
^ Brook 'Search', p.20
^' Peter Brook, 'Peter Brook', in Maria Delgado and Paul Heritage (eds.), In Contact with the Gods?
Directors Talk Theatre (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1996), p.Sl.This comment is made
with reference to some critics of Brook's production, 'Mahabharata'. Brook felt that the Hindu epic
contained universal dramatic themes of loyalty, heroism, fate and destruction and in that sense was an
Indian story that belonged to the world. He wished to express this dramatic kernel in a new theatrical
form. His collaborator, Jean-Paul Carriere, made it clear that the theological truths of the epic were
controversial and separate from its universal dramatic truth, which the production would embody. The
most heavily criticised example of this approach in the production was the inaudible whisper of
Krishna's pivotal self-revelation - the perceived implication, substitute your own truth. Brook has found
it difficult to respond to those critics who claim that the universal dramatic truth of the epic is its
theological truth; it is the claim of Krishna. As David Williams puts it, 'he seems unwilling to confront
the dangers of applying a culturally non-specific, ... humanist aesthetic to such material.' The production
and the ongoing responses to it, both sympathetic and critical, provide insights into the relation between
Brook's spirituality and the Hindu religion, which could be developed in relation to other traditional
112
view, these fundamentalists conflate the particular form of their own theatre with the
infinite reality of theatricality and so betray the infinite source of ever-possible quality
to the predictable limitations of traditional forms and patterns
While he does not mention Brook as one of his examples. Rowan Williams
notices how difficult it is for Christian theologians to engage with such rhetorical
'appropriations of the Christian narrative at or beyond the boundaries of the Church.'^^
It is hard to maintain a theological distinction between the text of faith and the text of
culture in the face of such appropriations, for they presume an alternative relationship
between the individual and universal truth of which the Christian narrative is but
illustrative. The theatrical, rather than narrative, mode of Brook's appropriation
transposes this difficulty into a more demanding register. For, as a practitioner, Brook
is not employing aspects of the Christian narrative in a non-Christian narrative
understanding of life. Rather, he is making rhetorical use of Christian imagery in the
service of a non-Christian and non-narrative understanding of life's drama,
concentrated in the theatre. Brook shares what Irena Makarushka calls a contemporary
'frustration with linearity'.^^ His reflections value the inexplicable interruption of one
by another and the infinite possibilities for reshuffling the fragments of existence,
generating an unending variety of theatrical experiences, rather than total drama that
traps the imagination in one narrative interpretation of life. It is from this ostensibly a-
Christian perspective that Brook makes rhetorical use of Christian imagery.
Brook's reflections on theatre can be seen as both protest and parody i f read
back into a Christian dramatic ontology, such as Balthasar's. Then they stand as hints at
what one might call 'post-Christian, Christian' theatre:^'^ they invite theatre to become
religions including Christianity. David Williams (ed.), Peter Brook and the Mahabharata: Critical
Responses (London: Routledge, 1991) describes the production and introduces the debate.
Rowan Williams, 'The Judgement of the World', in On Christian Theology (Oxford: Blackwell,
2000), p.30
Irena Makarushka, 'Redemption and Narrative: Refiguration of Time in Post-Modern Literature', in
David Jasper and Colin Crowder (eds.), European Literature and Theology in the Twentieth Century:
Ends of Time (London: Macmillan, 1990), p.l47
^''The term 'post-Christian, Christian' is taken from Ed Block, 'Brian Friel's Faith Healer as post-
Christian, Christian Drama', Literature and Theology 14.2 (2000), 189-207. Block considers Faith
113
revelatory by appropriating Christian imagery; thus they are parasitic on the one
revelation of God in Christ, transposed through protest and parody into a non-Christian
frame. However, Brook's accounts of his theatre practice do not fit easily with the
assumptions of such an appropriation. This can be highlighted by considering Brook's
own rhetorical use of Christian imagery of incamation and grace. I relate incamation to
Balthasar's understanding of Brook's theatre as protesting and grace to Balthasar's
understanding of Brook's theatre as parodic. In each case, I will firstly introduce
Brook's rhetoric. I will then discuss difficulties inherent in a Balthasarian, protesting or
parodic, interpretation of that rhetoric and illustrate the problem from a theological
commentator on Brook, Max Harris in respect of protesting incamation and T.J.
Gorringe in respect of parodic grace. I will conclude by drawing on Paul Cohen's
analysis of Brook's understanding of theatrical communion to propose that in Brook's
own reflections, even when they employ a Christian rhetoric, his practice stands as
viably altemative to - and not dependent in protest and parody on - any Christian theo-
drama and to argue that Balthasar's appropriative dialogue with Brook is only
sustainable from prior acceptance of the Christian context in which it is made.
5.211: Incarnation
In The Empty Space, Brook describes holy theatre as the 'theatre of the
Invisible-Made-Visible', 'the yeaming for the invisible through its visible
incarnations.'^^ His sympathetic critique of holy theatre rejects any purely holy
understanding of incamation. When the actor 'sets out to capture something, to make it
incamate,'*^*^ he does so in a theatrical process of repetition, representation and
assistance. Repetition is paradoxically tedious and life giving, as the actors go over the
text, in each rehearsal never the same but never different. The director hones down
these repetitions, drawing them into a 'formless hunch', in a process of representation.
This process reaches completion only in performance: at the hottest point is formed the
Healer as post-Christian, Christian through a Balthasarian lens in order to use its 'parodic ... religious
references' (p.200) to argue that it 'portrays the human mystery as it shadows forth fragments of the
Christian mystery' (p.207).
Brook, Empty Space, pp.47,79
114
final s h a p e . H e r e the director's guidance is replaced by the, equally necessary,
audience assistance. A performance can be 'lifeless or incarnate' and for the latter the
audience, in assistance, must be taken into the repetition to representation process.
Then the word representation no longer separates actor and audience, show and public: it
envelops them. ... The audience too has undergone a change. It has come from a life outside the
theatre which is essentially repetitive to a special arena in which each moment is lived more
closely and more intensely. The audience assists the actor and at the same time for the audience
itself assistance comes back from the stage.^^
In this account of theatrical action the reciprocal assistance between stage and audience
renders theatre incarnate, as it transcends repetition in representation. To achieve
reciprocal assistance, there must be a rough context as well as holiness, for such theatre
is immediate.
The term incarnation re-appears developed in There Are No Secrets. Here it is
clear that incarnation, as a theatrical reality, is temporally and spatially limited. Brook
elides incarnation with the 'ancient Hindu' term sphota: sphota 'can be called an
'incarnation'.' A n d Brook prefers the Indian concept, one that is
magnificent because its actual meaning is already there in the sound of the word. Between the
unmanifest and the manifest there is a flow of formless energies, and at certain moments there
are kinds of explosions which correspond to this term: 'Sphotal'^^
Such moments of incarnation presume a contextual formlessness in the unmanifest. I f
the unmanifest is considered to be formal, as in Balthasar's Trinitarian Theological
Dramatics, then the possibilities for sphota, for explosions of truth in the theatre, are
pre-limited. This does not mean that a performance with Christian themes is necessarily
unsuccessful. But, i f the forms of faith are held for all time, then one is caught in the
trap of purity. The forms for that particular moment - the particular gestures in
rehearsal as they combine into performance must be trusted but never owned. Brook
puts it well, in maxims that apply both to theatre and life.
" Brook, Shifting Point, pp.3-5

115
1 have never believed in a single truth. Neither my own nor those of others. 1 believe all schools,
all theories can be useful in some place, at some time. ... I have discovered that one can only
live by a passionate, and absolute, identification with a point of view.... Yet at the same time
there is an inner voice that murmurs: "Don't take it too seriously. Hold on tightly, let go
lightly."
Incamations can be held to rhetorically, by Brook, but one incamation, whether human
or divine, must not govem as an ultimate form for all time, for this would deny the
open sparks of new theatricality.
Brook's discussions of Ta'azieh find incamation as a theatrical phenomenon to
be spatially, as well as temporally, limited. A n eclectic, spiritually-minded travelling
director. Brook was drawn by unexpected accounts of a Muslim performance tradition,
the Iranian Ta'azieh. The main performer, the holy man, sang with
emotion ... no way his own. It was as though we heard his father's voice, and his father's
father's, and so on back. He stood there ... powerfully, totally convinced of his function, and he
was the incarnation of that figure that for our theatre is always the most elusive one of all, the
hero.^'
As the play continued,
[a]n event from the very distant past was in the process of being 're-presented', of becoming
present; the past was happening here and now, the hero's decision was for now ... and the
audience's tears were for this very moment. The past was not being described or illuminated,
time had been abolished. The village was participating directly and totally, here and now in the
real death of a real figure who had died some thousand years before.'^
Here, in the village, the spiritual role is incarnate in the performance. However, in
further recollections. Brook suggests that the intemationalisation and cross-
culturalisation of incamation is doomed to mediocrity. He describes the Shiraz
Intemational Festival of the Arts, where the Ta'azieh was 'present... to the world.' The
Brook, Shifting Point, p.xiii

^'Brook, Aô Secrets, p.39
^^Brook, No Secrets, p.41
116
finest actors were gathered f r o m villages across the world, the village props were
smartened and, well lit, in front of an audience in gala dress, 'the long trumpets hooted,
the drums played, and it meant absolutely nothing.' Everyone smiled, enjoyed the
performance, and followed on 'towards the buffet.'^^ These recollections of Iranian
heroic incarnation provide a sort of parable of the necessary limitations of particular
theatrical events given the ultimate formlessness of life's theatrical space. Not
accepting any given anthropology. Brook does not conceive of the possibility that this,
or any, spiritual theatre w i l l resonate with everyone - or w i l l provide such a challenge
that everyone may be changed. Of course, it does not help that the rough style has been
rarefied, the scruffy scenery tidied up and especially not that the particular companies
have been combined. But the point remains that, for Brook, theatrical incarnations
involve developing bonds of trust between actors and audience and depend on the
truthfulness of the former and the assistance of the latter. These bonds cannot be
universalised, and the attempt to f i n d a focal point for all space pre-limits the boundless
possibilities.
Brook's rhetoric of incarnation reveals difficulties for a Balthasarian dialogue
with Brook, which appropriates his theatre as protesting against Christian dramatic
reality. For, in Brook's direction, an understanding of incarnations as spatially and
temporally limited, and not instantiating a greater form, lies
at the heart of the problem. Nothing exists in life without form: we are forced at each instant...
to look for form. But one must realise that this form may be the ultimate obstacle to life, which
is formless. One cannot escape from this difficulty and the battle is permanent: the form is
necessary, yet it is not everything. Faced with this difficulty there is no point adopting a purist
attitude and waiting for the perfect form to fall from the heavens, for in that case one would
never do anything at all. This attitude would be stupid. Which brings us again to the question of
purity and impurity. The pure form does not come down from the sky. The putting into form is a
compromise that one must accept whilst at the same time saying to oneself: 'It's temporary, it
will have to be renewed.' We are touching here on a question of dynamics that will never end.^"*
A n eclectically incamational spirituality is used to express and encourage ongoing
representations of and searches f o r truth in theatre's empty space. I would not deny that
^^Brook, No Secrets, p.43

Brook, No Secrets, pp.53-54
117
Brook's rhetoric of incamation is well beyond Balthasar's theological understanding of
the term. In the light of the importance of the form of Christ and the attachment to
biblical imagery in the Dramatics, a claim that it is stupid to expect a perfect form from
the heavens can hardly be read favourably. Indeed, Brook finds it inherent to theatrical
success that 'one must not confuse the virtual form with the realised form.'^^ Any
particular show is a realised form - the rhythms and gestures of performance that must
be developed with care. Yet the virtual form, the opportunities arising from the text of a
play or the theme of an improvised piece, has no limits. A dramatic, ontological
Christian theology operates on the basis of the transposition of holiness from immanent
to economic Trinity played out in particular eucharistic forms of personal community.
This involves a transposition f r o m virtual f o r m to real form, which Brook would
consider their confusion and thus reject.
Although altemative to theo-drama. Brook's understanding of incamation may
not be a protest against it in Balthasar's sense. Discussing the relationship between
theatre and life, Brook comments that
for there to be a difference between theatre and non-theatre, between everyday life and
theatrical life, there needs to be a compression of time that is inseparable from an intensification
of energy. That is what creates a strong link with the spectator.'*
Theatrical incamations effect this compression, both temporally and spatially, in the
context of formless openness. That incamational revelation is necessary for theatre
work is emphasised through a parallel Brook draws between rehearsal and
performance. I f you, as an actor, w i l l accept that your part is greater than you are, then
'the character comes towards you and says "No, there is something that you never
thought you could understand but you're beginning to f i n d i t . ' " A parallel process of
revelation occurs in the audience. 'Each person is taken beyond himself and feels "Ah,
this is something about my own deepest feelings that I've never known and this person
standing there is speaking f o r me and helping me to know something I could never
Brook, Aô Secrets, p.51

118
have known without that.'"^^ In such theatre the invisible source of revelation is
formless and so not susceptible to complete expression in the visible event. Theatrical
incarnations reveal some aspect of this formless reality in the moment but it is inherent
to the theatrical dynamic that no one theatrical moment could ever express the whole.
Brook's process requires that incamational reality is not of universal import. In Brook's
non-soteriological strategy, theatrical incarnations are not expected to have a similar
effect to that of Christ's incarnation. According to Balthasar, theatrical activity that is
sustained in protest claims a Christological capacity as a purely human one. It does not
seem clear that Brook intends to achieve an incarnation parallel to Christ's on the stage.
Indeed, Brook ridicules the view that 'theatre is a religion' as 'lunacy [and] hubris':
'people with their limited human experience setting themselves up in direct rivalry to
Christ, Mohammed and Buddha.'^^ Brook makes no rival claim to a Christological
capacity in a purely natural, secular context and the revelatory dynamics of Brook's
theatre, expressed in his rhetoric of incarnation, do not clearly protest against
theodramatic incarnation.
A theological commentator on theatre. Max Harris, interprets Brook's
understanding of incarnation as incompatible with the Christian 'evaluative stance'
towards the theatrical themes of time and space, celebration and escape, and conflict
and resolution.^^ He believes that 'the Christian God may be understood to have
declared his commitment to a f u l l y theatrical and not merely verbal mode of addressing
his people.'^ Consequently, he considers human theatrical events in terms of 'whether
they endorse or not... the testimony of the Incarnation to the value of the flesh and of
81
human time and space as a proper dwelling for God and therefore for humankind.'
Harris focuses on Brook's production of Ted Hughes's Orghast, commenting that
Peter Brook, 'Peter Brook' in Royal National Theatre, Platform Papers, 6: Peter Brook, (London:
Royal National Theatre, 1994), p. 10
Brook quoted Edward Trostle Jones, Following Directions: A Study of Peter Brook (New York: Peter
Lang, 1985),p.l99
Max Harris, Theatre and Incarnation (London: Macmillan, 1990), p.xi
* Harris, Theatre and Incarnation, p. 11
Harris, Theatre and Incarnation, p.xi
119
theatrically ['Orghast'] was in many respects a tour de force; philosophically, it was an instance
of what Nathan Scott has called the 'stifled panic' of the modem literary imagination in the face
of time.
Harris's problem with 'Orghast' is that it w i l l not be content in the ambivalence of
human time and space but attempts to unite humanity through a mystical archetypal
reality. This relates to his concem over 'the kind of 'incamational' theatre that Brook
has in mind.'^^ He argues that
[i]t is one thing to suggest that God chose a 'theatrical' mode of self-revelation and quite
another to propose that human art may conjure up an incarnation in the theatre.
Harris makes a viable distinction between Brook's understanding of the theatrical event
and the Christian, particularly in as much as his comments are limited to reviewing the
particular production, 'Orghast', rather than evaluating Brook's theatre more widely.
But, as with Balthasar, the formless and ever-changing context in which Brook
perceives himself to be working does not impact upon Harris's analysis of Brook's
understanding of the mystery of the theatrical process. In judging Brook's
understanding of theatrical incamation, Harris rests with an account of holy, rather than
immediate, theatre as i f it were Brook's ideal. Furthermore, while he recognises that
Brook signals a variety of incamational possibilities, he treats Brook's understanding
of incamation as i f Brook were continually encouraging theatre to body forth one tmth
f r o m one overarching i f invisible reality. The context of Brook's incamational rhetoric
is elided with the Christian context before the comparison of evaluative stance takes
place. This parallels Balthasar's move of reading Brook's reflections as written with
direct pertinence to the theodramatic context, the move that renders it possible to
consider Brook's theatrical endeavour as protesting.
Harris, Theatre and Incarnation, p.79

Harris, Theatre and Incarnation, p. 114
Harris, Theatre atid Incarnation, p. 109
See Harris, Theatre and Incarnation, p.78, where he suggests that in The Empty Space Brook is
making a 'model for a new 'holy theatre".
'.. .whether it take the form of the gods flying in from Africa to possess the Haitian dancer or the
'abstract notion of mercy' sliding down the 'voodoo pole' of Isabella's silence...' (Harris, Theatre and
Incarnation, p. 114)
120
5.2/2; Grace
I have suggested that as Brook's reflections on theatre develop inter-personal
encounter takes prominence over trans-personal archetype. One way this can be seen is
in an emerging rhetoric of grace. Rather than grounding the fragmentary nature of
theatre in a universal archetype through which communication occurs, fragmentariness
itself enables contacts within a company and between a company and an audience. In
an article entitled 'The Complete Truth is Global', Brook expresses a growing
realisation that 'a true performance has some of the same values as a meeting between
two strangers, which is lifeless i f it mechanically follows a ritualistic formula, and only
has meaning i f each time there is a new, human variation.'^^ Improvising in European
hostels. Brook focuses on the specific gestures that catch on and form links required for
that performance.
[T]hemes almost always arise by themselves.... Andreas fiddles with the television set - it has
been broken for months - the audience laughs, complicity is established, and immediately a
story develops. ... Or Miriam Goldschmidt, in a Portuguese hostel, without thinking, raises her
thumb and suddenly discovers from the audience reaction that she is in fact thumbing a truck ...
and this naturally develops into a saga of immigration that involves everyone in the room.^^
Such inter-personal trust was what was required away in Africa, although the gestures
may have taken longer coming. 'We had become used to meeting the spectator on his
own ground, taking h i m by the hand and setting out on an exploration together.'^^ In
this endeavour, stylised, ritualised gestures, such as might contact archetypal collective
reality fell away to be replaced by the ordinary in which the sparks of, what he might
later call, grace w i l l more readily ignite.
[W]alking became the obligatory opening routine; one after the other, this disparate collection
of eleven actors would present themselves to the audience, accompanied by a percussion beat
onto which each laid his own particular rhythms. Then they would hover, trip, leap, tease or
oppose each other playfully, until the sense of a game would emerge and a situation would start
87
Brook, 'Global', p.D3
Brook, Threads, p.n4
Brook, Threads, p.\91
121
to evolve. How to begin is a lesson that can only be learnt by daylight, when there is nothing to
hide the performers. ... [I]t is because the audience sees and begins to trust the actors as
ordinary human beings that it opens to their imagination and willingly enters their play.*"
The 'central observation' that 'nowhere in the world is there a complete theatre but
only fragments of a theatre' does not lead Brook does to yearn for total performance so
much as to engage as fragments on 'a basis of t r u s t . I t is precisely because they are
fragmentary, not able ever fully to gather in the formless whole, that theatre events can
be moments of grace. Brook's metaphor for the transition from rehearsal into
performance is a fisherman making and using a net.
As he works, care and meaning are present in every flick of the finger. He draws his thread, he
ties the knots, enclosing emptiness with forms whose exact shapes correspond to exact
functions. Then the net is thrown into the water, it is dragged to and fro, with the tide, against
the tide, in many complex patterns. A fish is caught, an inedible fish, or a common fish good for
stewing, maybe a fish of many colours, or a rare fish, a poisonous fish, or at moments of grace a
golden fish.
This shows the formation of initial emptiness through careful repetition that, as it
moves in representation, can catch truth in its patterns. Here, the concern is not to
understand the ocean of our humanity - which is taken on trust - but rather as fragments
within it to meet, to make and receive contact, with others.
[I]mprovisation means that actors come before an audience prepared to produce a dialogue not
give a demonstration.... We have learned that improvisation is an exceptionally difficult and
precise technique and very different from the generalised idea of a spontaneous "happening."
Improvisation requires great skill on the part of the actors ... and also great generosity. Genuine
improvisation, leading up to a real encounter with the audience, only occurs when they feel that
they are loved and respected by the actors. We have learned for this reason that improvised
theatre must go to the places that people live. ... The greatest tact and sensitivity are needed to
avoid giving the impression that their intimacy is invaded. If there is no sense of an act of
charity, only the feeling that one group of human beings wants to make contact with the other,
then theatre becomes life in a more concentrated form.'^
90
" Brook, Shifting Point, p. 125
Brook, No Secrets, p.84 (my emphasis)
Brook, Shifting Point, pp. 111-114
122
The refusal to engage in charity distances Brook's rhetoric of improvised grace in
encounter from the Christian source of the imagery. He does not work for a
spontaneous happening, but neither is his theatre a clear analogue of theodramatic
performance. Brook's experiments in communication have lead him to trust a silence
that is beyond all tradition, which offers as crumbs from a table, 'scattered moments of
grace.' He gives examples from his life - including opening a car door, snow on
Christmas Day, digging in an orchard, seeing a statue of the Buddha - and examples
from his theatre work.^'^ The intimate connection between theatre and life is grounded
in tradition-less silence, given which people can connect in innumerable ways when
'chaos' is developed into a 'field' of 'common ground' through the 'basic material' of a
'story' or a 'theme' and so shared experience of quality in the moment is achieved.^^
Developing a relational possibility for inter-personal grace depends on the

foundational chaos, on 'the reahty of zero.' Brook describes beginning theatre from the
reality of zero, beyond geography or history, in which 'can come an infinity of forms.'
This zero is dependent on recognising 'the qualities each person brings', their
fragmentary baggage, in the context of utterly open possibility.^^ Thus 'the life within
zero is relational' and you can 'open yourself to the grabbing by what God gives at that
moment' only 'if you are in the state of improvisation, having no concept whatever to
start with.'^^ A similar idea of gracious deity emerges in Brook's myth of God's
ancient Sanskrit document on the theatre, 'As The Story Goes':
God, seeing how desperately bored everyone was on the seventh day of creation, racked his
overstretched imagination to find something more to add to the completeness he had just
conceived. Suddenly his inspiration burst even beyond its own limitless bounds and he saw a
further aspect of reality: its possibility to imitate itself. So he invented theatre.'^
^'^Bmok, Threads,-p.m
Brook, Aô Secrets, pp.82-83
Peter Brook and Richard Schechner, 'Talking with Peter Brook: the Reality of Zero', The Drama
Review 30.1 (1986), p.55
Brook and Schechner, 'Reality of Zero', p.58
98
123
Brook begins thus with God's invention of the theatre, focuses on the one word with
which God helps the theatre practitioners when their art turns to dust in their hands and
QQ
ends with a reahsation. 'With this word we could go very far...'
The word is 'interest'.
Mutual interest feeds the immediate theatre, and fabricated interest kills it. Sometimes
human theatrical encounter images the bursting of the limitless bounds of infinite
imagination. These times seem to deserve to be called God-given and in recent writings
Brook has called them moments of grace.
Balthasar's parodic appropriation of Brook might run into difficulties with this
rhetoric of grace. Brook requires fragmentariness for any such gracious moment. This
informs his ever-eclectic approach to theatrical style: ' I refuse to allow a consistent
style to emerge because I dread the idea.''' Brook's company have 'worked on all
styles' of theatre and thus 'striven for ... an absence of s t y l e . ' A theological account
of grace presumes a tie to a particular style (a key term for Balthasar) of encounter. But
Brook believes theatrical creativity must not be stylistically bound. Brook's is grace
without holiness, grace without purity. Grace is style-free encounter because the
revelatory quality of theatrical experience is not governed by an over-arching form but
occurs within a contextual formlessness. In fragmentary grace. Brook cannot conceive
of such a moment occurring in a universal, once-for-all, sense. This would narrow
down the boundless unmanifest, the boundlessness of which enables theatrical
fragmentariness and resultant grace. Brook conceives of 'theatre as a meeting [of] ...
actors and audience together in a single space - empty except for their unique
transaction.'And it is a condition of such moments of encounter that their space
began empty, with no inviolable scenery. Balthasar finds human fragmentary searches
to be components of one construction, God's dramatic story, and suggestive of an

Brook quoted Mitter, Systems of Rehearsal, p. 137
Brook quoted Margaret Croydon, 'Peter Brook: the Centre', Canadian Theatre Review 31 (1981),
p.27
Brook quoted Jones, Following Directions, p.207
124
aspiration to be properly positioned. Brook, by contrast, sees fragmentariness as
organic: tangled twigs, branches, leaves and stems, the sun through which enables one
to 'revel in ... inexhaustible patterns.'"^"* So Brook's understanding of fragmentariness
is not one that recognises a need for completion. He aspires, not for a position in one
over-arching pattern but for ongoing moments of true participation in ever-changing
patterning. For this reason, Brook will not have any governing instance, form or rhythm
to the particular gracious interactions that make a theatrical event. The fragmentariness
of Brook's theatre is not a weakness that parodically intimates openness to the Person's
grace. Rather fragmentariness itself generates gracious inter-personal mutuality.
Whereas Balthasar read Brook's account of theatre as indefinite fragment as indicative
of a lack, fragmentariness has become Brook's potential for contact. In respect to
Brook's rhetoric of grace, it seems difficult to claim that Brook's theatre is an unaware
parody of theo-drama. His reflections on theatrical encounters as moments of grace, the
conditions for them and their import are articulated, and in such a way as to differ
significantly from a theodramatic understanding.
T.J. Gorringe finds Brook's techniques in directing a theatrical production

analogous to those of the Christian God directing the world. He reads Brook's account
of his first rehearsal at the Royal Shakespeare Company as 'a marvellous parable of
God's activity' in C h r i s t . B r o o k prepared sweatily all through the night before with
stage model and promptbook until every first scene move was blocked. But he found
the rehearsal itself impossibly muddled. By the end of move A not one actor was where
he was supposed to be for move B: actors and models, stage and book proved not to be
interchangeable. And, as Brook famously puts it,
my whole future work hung in the balance. I stopped and walked away from my book, in
amongst the actors, and I have never looked at a written plan since.'"*
Gorringe draws out three further analogies. Firstly, he cites Brook's distaste for the
director who leaves everything to the actors' autonomy and integrity: the director must
104
T.J. Gorringe, God's Theatre: Towards a Theology of Divine Providence (London: SCM Press,
1990), p.78
Brook, Empty Space, p.l20
125
intervene in order to find in the actors the source of energy from which the actor can
develop the patterns of speech and actions for that particular performance. Gorringe
compares this with God who intervenes without manipulating for 'pressing Brook's
analogy, we believe that without divine direction there would really be 'no speech nor
language'.'"^' Secondly, Brook's insistence on mutual exploration rather than
directorial governance deepens the sense in which a director God can be thought of as
ultimately responsible for while not dictator over creation.Here Gorringe can draw
on a metaphor of Brook's own.
It is a strange role, that of director: he does not ask to be God and yet his role implies it.... In a
sense the director is always an impostor, a guide at night who knows not the territory, and yet
has no choice - he must guide, learning the route as he goes.'"'
In the final analogous theme. Brook's sense that direction limits as well as creates
opportunities appeals to Gorringe, who finds in it the makings of particular, ongoing
community as the goal of direction"*^ - a goal well suited to the formation of a holy
people and a glorious city. Balthasar's appropriation as parody amounts to such an
analogical reading. There may be viable comparisons between the theatrical and the
theological in respect to the particular techniques of Brook that Gorringe selects.
However, the analogical method in which Gorringe finds Brook so 'profoundly
suggestive''" brackets out the context in which Brook perceives himself to be working
and thus appropriates isolated techniques directly into a Christian theodramatic
situation. A director God, who narrows down in advance is fundamentally incompatible
with both Brook's essential insistence that 'in the early stages of rehearsal everything is
open' and the idea of God present in Brook's own use of the term. This
incompatibility informs Brook's critique of holy theatre. He emphatically rejects
tradition-bound holiness and his spiritual alternative is one of a boundless horizon that
liberates the company, in mutual trust with the audience, to fashion the formless
'"^ Gorringe, God's Theatre, p.79

Gorringe, God's Theatre, pp.80-8I
109
Brook, Empty Space, pp.43-44; cited Gorringe, God's Theatre, p.77
Gorringe, God's Theatre, p.8I
Gorringe, God's Theatre, p.78
' Brook, Shifting Point, p.3
126
swirhng of life in infinite possibility of ways. For '[a]ny object can serve whatever you
invest in it.'^^^ A traditional pre-narrowing of the options represents form as an obstacle
to expression of truth and thus to theatre as gracious meeting place. This is not to say
that truth will be expressed whatever you do, but that it is the contacts and not the
forms of actions that are decisive. 'An infinite quality of unexpected forms can appear
from the same elements, and the human tendency to refuse the unexpected always leads
to the reduction of a potential universe.'"'^ If you close off options before you begin
and live within predictable patterns, you hmit the potential for contact. Deadly theatre
is your end; your beauty. Brook might say, is that of a dying bird that dared not leave
its cage. Brook's theatrical practice, especially when it employs a rhetoric of grace, is
not the unaware parody of inter-personal relations with God in Christ, which
Balthasar's theodramaticatic dialogue and Gorringe's analogical reading conceive.
5.22 Brook on Theology and Theology on Brook
I have taken an atypical focus on Brook's Christian rhetoric of incarnation and

grace in order to respond to the theological agenda of Balthasar's theodramatic
dialogue, and the similar approaches to Brook taken in more detail by Harris and
Gorringe. This had led necessarily to the introduction of more major terms in Brook's
theatrical vocabulary such as empty, truth and quality through which I have tried to
convey something of the shifting sense of Brook's vision of the inter-relationship
between theatre and life. I have introduced (rather than systematised) Brook's
vocabulary in order to suggest that, in respect to Balthasar's, Brook's is an alternative,
a-Christian version of the relationship between theatre and life. If it is not read directly
back into a Christian dramatic ontology, Brook's theatrical desire for quality,
graciously incarnate through distillations of the empty space, raises variant challenges
for truthful living.
Paul Cohen has studied the rhetoric of 'communion' in Brook's reflections. As I

have found with incarnation and grace, so Cohen comments that it is difficult to trace
' Peter Brook et al., 'On 16 May 1993 in the Cottesloe Theatre...' in Royal National Theatre, Platform
Papers: 6. Peter Brook, (London: Royal National Theatre, 1994), p.31
127
communion through the phases of Brook's career. Brook uses language in a process of
shifting paraphrases in order to intimate something that he feels cannot be expressed.
Rarely does he clearly repudiate or precisely develop what he has previously said, but
rather he continues in his repertoire of images with unsystematic enthusiasm. Cohen
recognises that Brook's use of communion is, in part, 'borrow[ed] ... from theological
parlance.'"^ It is suggestive of what Cohen calls total commitment on the part of the
actors and the audience, a commitment required for theatre to be revelatory and to
allow the participants to be 'actually all within one thought and within one feeling.'"^
However, Brook also uses communion in what Cohen calls a pluralistic sense: there is
'no formula' for attaining these moments and for precisely that reason there is 'always
possibility.'^'^ Communion 'is a dynamic process; it is not something that happens
118
once-for-all.' Cohen finds various patterns in Brook's rhetoric of communion and

each of them replays this tension between commitment and pluralism, a tension that
Brook himself articulates in his maxim: '[h]old on tightly; let go lightly.'"^ This
tension can be appropriated in theodramatic terms: belief in the ability of human
commitment to engender communion protests against what can only be given by God
in Christ and the pluralistic variety of communal possibilities parody the true Christian
communion. However, such appropriation judges the ongoing tension that Brook's
reflections articulate not to be existentially coherent or viable. This judgement is made
by interpreting Brook's theatre out of its formless context and within an ontological
theodramatic context, which itself sets Brook's dramatic standard. Critical dialogue is
then with that theodramatic interpretation.
Even within theology it is suggested that Balthasar 'tends to impose his

categories and use the details [of the other's life] as illustrations' because he 'assumes
something like an overview of the drama, judging [another's] performance according to
his criteria' and can miss their "mini-dramatic' mode' by subsuming their face into
'generalities concerning sancitity'. In this critique, David Ford advises 'detour[s]
Cohen. 'Two Worlds', p. 149

Brook quoted Cohen, 'Two Worlds', p. 156
Brook, Shifting Point, p.xiii
128
through the details' to achieve better encounters.^^'^ Beyond the theological
communion, where the dialogue partner is (ostensibly, at least) engaged in an
alternative play, rather than a differing performance, the problem may be more severe.
It is not clear that Balthasar dialogues with Brook i f that suggests that Brook speaks on
his own terms and in his own context. There is engagement with Brook's theatre
vocabulary: the accounts of theatre as fragmentarily non-psychological and theatre as
grounded in the empty space become theological resources. But the theodramatic
reality in which - for Balthasar - Brook's theatre plays has already rendered it protest
and parody, before dialogue begins. Any attempt at a genuinely dramatic alternative is
considered unsustainable from the start.
Rather than construct a dialogue partner by outlining Brook's own approach to

theatre and life, Balthasar dialogues by selecting from Brook aspects that illustrate
where Brook is in post-Christian relation to the dialogical reality of theo-drama. While
the former option might seem more respectful of Brook, Balthasar would consider it a
weakly patronising (and dangerously secular) approach to dialogue: treating the other's
view as if it were sustainable. In my conclusion, I will explore the implications of
Balthasar's location of dialogue within theodramatic reality. Here, however, I have
shown that Balthasar takes a selective approach to dialogue. He does not allow the
possibility of a viable a-Christian context for the other in dialogue, but appropriates
post-Christian partners as they represent distortions ('various defective instances''^') of
Christian theodramatic reality. In Brook's a-Christian context. Brook's reflections and
practice may express life as drama in a way alternative to the Christian theological
account. Perhaps the alternative has more force than is recognised when it is designated
as both protest and parody?
David F. Ford, Self and Salvation: Being Transformed (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1999), p.234 - discussing Balthasar's interpretation of Therese of Liseaux.
TD2, p.315
129
6; BALTHASAR'S THEODRAMATIC DIALOGUES
6.1: CONCLUSION
Balthasar's dialogues with theatre directors occur within his theological

dramatic perspective and are consequently, as I have argued particularly in relation to
Peter Brook, selective and appropriative. Can this be dialogue? I conclude that on
Balthasar's theological terms it is, and consider the achievement and potential of such
an account of dialogue.
6.11: Balthasar's Theodramatic Dialogues
There can be no drama without dialogue
As one of nine trends that converge on theo-drama, Balthasar understands the

phenomenon of dialogue as a theodramatic implication. Consequently, it operates in
each of my three dramatic dimensions (outlined in the fourth chapter) in a way by
which its ultimate reality is found in the dramatic act from God to humankind. Finally,
there is a 'necessary', 'unfathomable', 'primal dialogue in God himself.' Personally,
the Incarnation reveals God the Son become man, 'so that there may be a genuine
dialogue between God in heaven and God as human being on earth.' Christ as
representative of both God and man effects a representative dialogue between the two
into which people can enter as co-actors. And, for the human dimension, this Christian
theodramatic revelation 'puts the internal human dialogue of mankind in an entirely
new light.Formally, across these three dimensions, dramatic dialogue is defined as
'the interplay of grace and gratitude''^ in which knowledge 'is no longer a mere
commodity, it is fused with the knowing person, people "communicate", "share
themselves".'"^ Theodramatic dialogue provides the ultimate term of dramatic dialogue
and any humanistic understanding in which both participants dialogue respective to
open-ended possibilities on which neither of them has special purchase is rendered
'TDl,p.36
^TDI,p.34
^ TD2, p.24
*TDI,p.35
130
undramatic. For dramatic dialogue is properly illuminated from the theodramatic
perspective and this illumination reveals two important aspects. Firstly, successful
dramatic dialogue occasions a priority. There is one governing form, that of grace, in
which the dialogue partner, in gratitude, is formed. Consequently, the responsive
partner in dialogue operates with polarised possibilities. She can maintain the dialogue
by accepting in gratitude the form offered by the governing partner. Or she can collapse
the dialogue by absurdly - as far as its dynamic is concerned - rejecting the governing
form. There is no sense that a third outlook can be constructed from dramatic dialogue.
Balthasar believed that in a dialogue involving a Christian and a non-Christian

the Christian should be the governing partner. For he is participant in the personal
theodramatic dialogue, which in reaching through death into the mystery of
resurrection provides a hope that 'may be more absolute than that of his dialogue
partner who is ... concerned for the (earthly) future of ... humanity.'^ As governing
partner, the Christian can expect two alternatives from dialogue. One: '[djialogue can
achieve something when both partners are looking in the same direction' - he can find
the non-Christian's perspective limitedly dramatic, interior and inadequate to his, even
in such a way as she may experience conversion. Two: dialogue 'can fail when the
horizons prove to have no common ground' - he can find the non-Christian's stance to
be ultimately non-dramatic, bound in protest; this leaves the Christian with only 'the
testimony of his existence - or his blood.'^ Balthasar's Theological Dramatics was
'deliberately concerned with [a] premiss ... for the dialogues with all the non-Christian
visions of the world.' This premise is that 'the Catholic must first of all be prepared for
it. He cannot enter and take part in it with a purely empirical and theologically
dilettante awareness of what Catholicity and the Catholic Church ... are.' As a result of
this, the Catholic must 'acquire'
[ajuthentic Catholicity ... before he can afford to engage in dialogue with other ... visions of
the world. Otherwise he runs the risk of his Catholicism being considered as one 'confession'
among others and then of attempting, along with these other confessions, a higher synthesis.'
5
TDl,p.36
*TDl,pp.36-37
' Balthasar, 'Another Ten Years', p.229
131
Balthasar's theodramatic understanding of dialogue presents Catholic Christians as
participant in the true, personal dramatic dialogue with ultimate horizon and unique act
combined. The Dramatics exemphfies the way in which Catholic Christians should
then dialogue with others, including twentieth-century theatre directors. In being
engaged with as dialogue partners, they are treated as those of provisional horizon,
either parodic or protesting in respect to Christian truth. By outlining a dramatic,
relational Christian ontology, Balthasar reminds Catholics that dialogue between
Christianity and other confessions is itself intra-systemic - it happens within Christian
theodramatic, dialogical reality. The Christian should speak in dialogue with a
governing voice because she lives in dialogue with the governing form. In the
Dramatics Balthasar reiterates his concern that most Christians, having lost this sense,
hope for dialogue in an increasingly secular manner. For dialogue has come to mean
an attitude that remains open to further listening, that allows the other his "otherness" ...; it is
the attitude that refuses to give up, that is, it is closely related to hope. At this point, however,
the Christian must consider the shape of his hope.^
Balthasar's intention is to reposition dialogue with others as a theological trend within

the 'truth mainfest in dialogue'^, the Christian dramatic dialogue with God in Christ
that is the ontological, relational shape of Christian hope.
Dialogue, then, operates as do all other dramatic trends. It occurs primarily

within God and is exhibited ultimately in the Incarnation, the dialogue between Christ
as representative of God and Christ as representative of humankind, and the resulting
drama of God with persons in Christ. To participate in Christian truth is the only way to
experience dialogue personally and the Church opens this possibility to the world.
Nonetheless dialogue does occur in an analogous but stunted way in the natural-human
dimension. And, consistently with his general approach to theatre, Balthasar finds
theatre practice symbolic in respect to his theological appreciation of natural-human
dramatic dialogue. He views theatre as an 'ecumenical institution.' It is
TDl,p.36
' Williams, 'Balthasar and Rahner', p.27
132
a public act in which, through the participation of the audience, something like a "communion"
is brought about. One could think of the theatre as a kind of ecumenical institution: it does not
get too close to any particular denominational form, nor yet does it aim at a watered down
common version; it points the different beliefs onwards and up, toward a unity that is at present
unattainable. This unity lies in the larger-than-life content of the performed play. "Freely
consenting to the dramatic fiction, the various forms of belief converge towards the proposed
universe, forgetting personal ideologies and opinions." ... They are by no means levelled out...
but here is a place where every proposal... has to re-examine itself in the face of the publicly
posed question.'"
Aidan Nichols glosses Balthasar's concept of ecumenical theatre as follows:
just as in good ecumenism partial versions of Christian truth are propelled towards their
Catholic fullness ... so, even in a self-consciously secular theatre, well-posed questions are
nudged towards the most 'open' of all horizons."
I am not quite persuaded by this interpretation. I agree with the reading of how
Balthasar understands good Christian ecumenism. However, I do not find Balthasar
suggesting that theatre practice can be nudged towards the theodramatic ('most 'open")
horizon in this way. Balthasar insists that theatre cannot replicate the Incarnation in
being personally dramatic. Theatre practice itself will not push people towards personal
encounter with the ultimate horizon. Rather, the claim that theatre is analogously
ecumenical reflects Balthasar's belief that theatre symbolises the natural-human
dramatic dimension and that dialogue in that dimension is analogous to in form,
although distinct from in effect, the dialogue between persons and God in Christ. The
horizon of the theatre play (its 'proposed universe') is any humanly constructed,
provisional and fictitious, one: not the ultimate one. Nonetheless, the form of the
ultimate dialogue governs the form of dialogical engagements in any dramatic
performance. Thus there is an analogy of ecumenical dynamic between theatre practice
in the natural-human dramatic dimension and theo-drama as experienced in the Church.
Theatre practice supposes a governing horizon of the play that is made particular in the
action and thus dialogue partners in the audience who must be prepared to submit their
horizons to that of the play if there is to be dramatic success. A 'spiritual horizon [is]
the precondition for a meaningful play' and it must be a transcendent horizon that
' T D l , p.323, citing A. Villiers

" Nichols, No Bloodless Myth, p.35
133
dialogues with the audience's horizons by interrupting, judging and gathering them in.
Theatre as ecumenical phenomenon symbolises the reality that natural-human dramatic
dialogue does not take place in a neutral free-flow manner such as Balthasar
understands a humanistic, purely natural, account of dialogue to assume. Rather, it
operates in a dynamic analogous to that of theo-drama, where one horizon must submit
to another - the audience horizon must accept in gratitude the gracious presentation of
the play's horizon if there is to be successful dramatic dialogue between them. No
sense that this phenomenon of theatrical ecumenism can be nudged towards the
personal theodramatic horizon is required by the analogy. Instead, theatre as dialogical
remains similar in greater dissimilarity with respect to theodramatic dialogue. Theatre
operates an analogous dynamic, in which all elements (including the transcendent,
governing horizon of the play which dialogically engages the audience's horizons)
remain naturally stunted, 'ephemeral, this-worldly roles on a closed world stage.''^
Balthasar claims to have
indicated the Christian breadth and depth of the horizon, which shows that the post-Christian
perspectives are only fragments of it. [He] can go farther however and suggest that true
ecumenism - however anonymous, unconscious or rejected it may be - takes place within this
most open of horizons.'^
The suggestion farther does not give license for natural-human dramatic dialogue to
consider itself pertinent to the ultimate personal dramatic horizon. Rather it is a claim
that the natural-human dramatic phenomenon is completely interior to the ultimate
theodramatic reality. Every component of human theatre's dramatic dialogue is
formally analogous to dialogue's theodramatic reality, sustained in ('anonymous,
unconscious') parody or ('rejected') protest. In effect it remains naturally stunted and
unable to achieve the ultimacy within which it can, by the theologian, be appreciated.
Balthasar's Theological Dramatics is significant for a theological understanding

of dialogue in three senses. Firstly, it claims that Christian truth is itself a dialogue: the
ultimate dialogue between God and persons in Christ, appreciation of which is
necessary for the Christian who wishes to dialogue with non-Christian views. It shows,
'^TD3,p.258
'^TDl,p.343
134
secondly, how the Christian is to treat the non-Christian dialogue partner. She should
make an appropriative engagement, such as Balthasar exemplifies with twentieth-
century theatre practitioners. Thirdly, it outlines how, in the natural-human dimension,
dialogue operates analogously to the dialogue that occurs ultimately in theo-drama.
People may believe that dialogue is free-flow, constructing a third position, but theatre
- an ecumenical institution that symbolises the natural-human dramatic dimension -
shows that it is not. Ultimately, then, true dramatic dialogue is Christological,
completing 'all meaning' in 'the realm of an infinite dialogue.'This occurs in the
polyphony of Christian truth where the formal dramatic unity comes from God's
eschatological reality and opens up into a multiplicity of particular ecclesial-personal
dramas.'^ It is incompatible with humanistic pluralism in as much as such pluralism
claims that dialogue requires no ultimate ontological contours but rather an open space.
For the Incarnation reveals such a concept of dialogue to be non-dramatic and
concomitantly unsustainable in a world which is dramatically. Christian polyphony,
however, is ultimately dialogical in that its participants are many (hopefully all) but
they are gathered into unity by their dialogue with one governing form. This dramatic
dialogue, just as all other aspects of theodramatic reality, opens up personally only as
the eschatological-final drama opens into the ecclesial-personal drama. Yet it has
fragmentary analogues in the natural-human dramatic dimension, spotlighted in the
dynamics of the dialogical - 'kind of ecumenical''^ - institution of the theatre.
6.12: Achievement of Balthasar's Theodramatic Dialogues
This study shows that Balthasar's dialogues with twentieth-century theatre have
much by which to commend themselves to those commentators, such as O'Donnell and
Norris, who stand with Balthasar in the communion of theodramatic reality. In my first
chapter, I have shown that Balthasar's theology remains focused on an intuition of the
dramatic that is drawn from revelation. Thus drama is Christocentric and this is
expressed by gathering dramatic anthropology into dramatic Christology through
dramatic soteriology. By this dramatic ingathering the theological imagination is
TD2, p. 19
See Balthasar, Truth is Symphonic, where this line is explored through the metaphor of music.
T D I , p.323
135
committed to a relational ontology, which is key for constructing a concept of dialogue
that is itself a theological implication. Balthasar's theodramatic hermeneutics, which I
discuss in my second chapter, then provides a methodology for distinguishing between
human dramas that are properly natural and parodically dramatic and human dramas
that purport to be purely natural and so are ultimately non-dramatic except in their
protest. Balthasar employs a theological interpretative scheme of two inter-related
dramatic triads and consequent dramatic themes, which assists the theologian in this
engagement of inclusion through judgement with respect to dramatic expressions of
human life (and, as a symbol of that life, human theatre). By theodramatic
hermeneutics, Balthasar appreciates human dramas from participation in the Christian
ultimate term of what it is to be dramatic. Thus, theodramatic reality itself presses for
dialogues with theatre practice: the dialogical imperative is not a response to present-
day pluralism but it has its own theological rationale. In my fourth chapter, I set out the
grandeur of Balthasar's conception of life as drama, with what I call the natural-human
and ecclesial-personal dramatic dimensions dependent, in differing ways, on the
eschatological-final dramatic dimension, which God, in Christ, promises to his
creation. I show that within this all-embracing, ontological dramatic scheme, Balthasar
comments very specifically on theatre directors, with clear alternatives of protest and
parody through which to make an evaluation. The theodramatic approach to dialogue
remains Christocen trie ally focused and precisely by being so, looks for universal
inclusion through judgement of particular dramatic activities. My sixth, concluding
chapter highlights the fact that, for Balthasar, the form of dramatic dialogue is itself a
theological implication, with its ultimate term in the Incarnation. Balthasar's
achievement is to offer a consistent theological approach to dialogues as specific
functions of ontological and relational truth. Balthasar's concept of dialogue is such
that, accepting the all-embracing theological reality, the Christian theologian is
encouraged to be both open and confident in the face of the non-Christian dialogue
partner.
The Theological Dramatics provides both a methodological account and

exemplary occasions of appropriative dialogue with theatre in the context of Christian
dramatic ontology. I outlined this process in respect to dialogues with the theatre
directors Stanislavsky, Brecht and Craig. My fifth chapter gives a more critical account
in respect of Peter Brook. Dialogue with Brook appeared to be more a reading than an
136
encounter. Brook's own understanding of the relationship between theatre and life
received little voice, except in as much as it might be read relative to Christian dramatic
ontology as protest or parody. Probing in this way, however, offered few, if any,
opportunities for critical commentary that gets under the skin of Balthasar's
Theological Dramatics, for he succeeds in drawing the phenomenon of dialogue itself
within his theological dramatic ontology. One might sense that his discourse is
totalising; but Balthasar can claim, in the invocation of the dramatic, a relational
openness that goes beyond any such structuralist agenda. One might feel that non-
Christians as dialogue partners are being defined, whether approvingly or
disapprovingly, in Christian terms with which they would not relate; yet theodramatic
ontology recognises personal orientation and relationality as a phenomenon itself
respective to ultimate Trinitarian relations and so it would be expected that the non-
Christian would not properly appreciate the place in which they stand. One might sense
that alterity is stifled by the one ontological play; yet Balthasar can claim that its
tension is in fact heightened by recognition of human polarisation with regard to the
ultimate horizon, rather than its being let loose to drift in a purportedly free-flowing
arena.
6.13: Theological Dramatic Dialogue after Balthasar
Not all theological commentators share the unequivocal admiration for

Balthasar's theodramatic dialogue with culture shown by Norris and O'Donnell. Some
are concerned by such a stifling, totalising and other-defining atmosphere in the
Dramatics and their commentary can be considered in two respects. Firstly - 1 will
exemplify this in Francesca Murphy's commentary and develop it through remarks of
Max Harris - there are commentators who are sympathetic to Balthasar's understanding
of dialogue but wish to clarify it to ensure that it makes proper acknowledgement of
non-Christian stances. Secondly there are commentators who find Balthasar's approach
to pluraUty unacceptable and consequently press for significant modification of his
theological stance on dialogue, a response recently expressed by Victoria Harrison and
which I shall develop by considering David Haberman and Frank Burch Brown. What
potential in Balthasar's theodramatic understanding of dialogue is suggested by these
two critical strands?
137
6.131: France sea Murphy and Max Harris
Murphy's clarification is to distinguish between Balthasar's ecumenical
methodology and his ecumenical dialogue, praising the former while questioning the
latter. On the latter she is quite severe: 'on the level of dialogue Balthasar does not give
plurality its due' because
the objective givenness of the Christian drama is so deeply dyed into [his] imagination that he
can forget that every non-Christian thought form is not a conscious contribution to that drama.
She recognises Balthasar's tendency to read the other directly into Christian categories
and she considers that this risk, of not giving plurality its due at the level of dialogue, is
an inherently human risk. For i f 'we commence by making a general survey of the
gestalten, of each art f o r m - or religion - we shall not imaginatively grasp the meaning
of any. Understanding is by analogy: it must be oriented or locahsed by an accepted
image.' The general survey, as alternative to Balthasar's approach to dilaogue, is a dead
end for the imagination. Thus, on Murphy's view, it is natural to human understanding
to begin with some colour dyed in, by analogy with which other shades and different
colours can be appreciated. The source of the stifling atmosphere in many of
Balthasar's particular attempts at dialogue is that the accepted (Christian) form is read
too far into the partner in dialogue before, or without, engaging with their self-
interpretation. Nonetheless Balthasar's 'methodological recognition that one only sees
the forms through a f o r m gives Christian ecumenists a method of speaking with 'the
faiths' through a faith.' Murphy supports Balthasar's methodology through appealing to
analogicality as the natural mode of imagination, which requires us to begin reflection
on others f r o m what is already given (revealed) to us. She finds Balthasar's dialogical
confidence anthropologically appropriate, in that humans must appreciate others
through their own defining concepts. However, she questions Balthasar's
implementation of this methodology in surveying non-Christian forms and, with
presumptuous ease, gathering them so readily into a Christian whole.
In a discussion of 'Incarnation and Other Dialogues', Harris takes a similar line.
He is not directly indebted to Balthasar, but his Barthian stance makes his approach
Murphy, Form o/BeaMfy-PP-177-178

138
comparable. He applies a dialogical principle, whereby one must accept that one is a
subject in another's world view as well as their being a subject in one's own, alongside
a view that continuing a performative tradition, such as Christianity, requires one to
perform both the text of one's faith and the text of one's culture. His model for
dialogue is incamational. He draws on Mikhail Bakhtin's notion of live entering
(vzhivanie) to suggest that, in encounter, there is a surplus of seeing whereby one can
appreciate simultaneously both empathy and outsidedness with respect to the person or
culture one is encountering. For Harris, the
most startling illustration that Bakhtin offers, albeit in passing, for his concept of 'live entering'
... is the Christian doctrine of the incarnation. 'One way to imagine Christ', Bakhtin suggests,...
'is to see the incarnation as an act of vzhivanie. According to this analogy, Christ did not
empathise with people; rather he became one of them while still retaining his divine
outsidedness.' 'Christ's descent', Bakhtin wrote, is 'the great symbol of activity' that conforms
to the pattern of vzhivanie. 'The world from which Christ departed' had been enriched by his
living into it, and 'could no longer be that world in which he had never been.''^
Harris builds on Bakhtin's fragmentary remarks to suggest an analogy: Christ performs
God's life in the world; Christians perform the biblical text in culture. Balthasar
rejected the idea that dialogue operates in a free space, and proposed instead the
Christian dramatic horizon as the ultimate term of all proper dialogue: for him, then, a
Christian partner is essential to the possibility of true dialogue. Developing a Christian
understanding of dramatic dialogue through live entering, Harris seems to offer non-
Christian others more scope: his
theatrical model grants to others equal freedom to act as missionaries on behalf of their own
religion. Muslims, for example, may live into European or American culture ... simultaneously
performing their own scriptures and the local cultural text. They may tell the story on which
their own distinctive performance is based, and they may offer the Quran for independent
performance by Christians.
Harris suggests ways in which Christians may respond to such an offer and asks,
rhetorically, whether Christians can 'object i f their neighbours of another faith model
'^Max Harris, The Dialogical Theatre: Dramatizations of the Conquest of Mexico and the Question of
the Other (London: Macmillan, 1993), p. 162, citing Mikhail Bakhtin
139
their own cross-cultural outreach on the Christian doctrine of the Incarnation?''^ In this
remark, it seems to me, a hne is drawn. Harris's model of dialogical encounter does not
depend on a single horizon. The Muslim tradition is presented as validly and
distinctively dialogical, and Harris is at pains to stress that variety of ways of
performing (and concomitantly some variation in what Balthasar would term horizon)
is integral to performing even any one of life's dramatic texts. With so many
neighbouring performances in contemporary multi-religious and multi-cultural societies
this variety is stronger. Still, there is the suggestion of a uniform dynamic of
performance of a textual faith in a textual culture. When non-Christians make a
dialogical, encountering presentation of truth, they do so on such an incamational
dynamic. On Harris's Mushm example, the Quran represents the text, Europe or
America the culture, and the performance i n being dialogical between the two is open
to being re-performed and shared i n , in new ways. However, Islam - in this example -
has nothing that represents the Incarnation, the ultimate term of this dynamic, and thus
the validity of the dialogical dynamic f r o m the partner's side remains Christian.
Murphy's and Harris's understandings of the dramatic dialogical dynamic,
which, when avoiding directly theological terms, Murphy calls analogical imagination
and Harris live entering, is not itself neutral. I f one says that the dialogical dynamic is
one of seeing forms through a form, then with the rhetoric of Christ as form of God one
grounds the dynamic in Christian truth. Similarly, live entering modelled on the
Incarnation has a dynamic that is ultimately Christian. The practical importance
Murphy attaches to the fact that every non-Christian activity is 'not a conscious
contribution' to theo-drama^ is not justified against Balthasar's harsher stance: it is
such a contribution, whether consciously or not, and so should be treated as such.
Harris's account kindly offers others their right to perceive themselves as a governing
partner in dialogue. The manner of dialogue is as it is, however, on grounds of the
Incarnation and so the possibility that the dialogue partner may break with this
Christian dialogical rhythm and encounter one in a new way remains difficult to
maintain. While Murphy and Harris may appear more pleasant, it is not clear that they
"Harris, Dialogical Theatre, p. 169

^ Murphy, Form of Beauty, p. 178 (my emphasis)
140
have made many significant advances f r o m Balthasar's position by compromising his
rigorously Christian account of dialogue.
6.132: Victoria Harrison, David Haberman and Frank Burch Brown
Harrison's response to dramatic dialogue is a more radical modification of
Balthasar's stance on plurality. She suggests that on Balthasar's account '[n]on-
believers ... appear to have been put into a 'Catch-22' situation'^' and proposes that, in
order to avoid this, Balthasar's 'intuition' that human holiness apologises for
Christianity must become 'equally apphcable to all religions', even though 'it is
extremely doubtful that he would have agreed to any such extension.'^^ Given
Balthasar's ascription of a special dramatic status to the Christian form of life, in that it
is responsive to revelation and so inherently attractive, Harrison examines Balthasar's
claim that the saint is an apology f o r the Christian religion. She accepts Balthasar's
intuition in as much as it finds rationality to be coherently intra-systemic and so agrees
that Christian apologetics emerges in and with the intentional acts by which the
Christian increasingly resembles the form of Christ's life. But her question, '[i]n short',
is
what is to prevent... Balthasar's intuition about the apologetic value of human holiness being
applied to other belief systems and providing proof for a very different God? Perhaps the
experience of human holiness in any religious tradition has apologetic value for that tradition,
and perhaps it would be rational to accept any faith-stance on the grounds of one's experience
of human holiness? I f we allow that human holiness can be apologetic for Christianity, why
should we not allow that it can be apologetic for any religion?
Having argued, against Balthasar, that 'Christianity is, in its essence, a world religion,
no different f r o m other types of religion', Harrison concludes that
it is difficult to see how the apologetic value of human holiness is not equally applicable to
other religions, and hence how those sharing ... Balthasar's core intuition can, on pain of
inconsistency, avoid religious pluralism.
^' Victoria Harrison, 'Human Hohness', p.68

Harrison, 'Human Holiness', p.78
141
In Harrison's critical account, Balthasar's theological claims are perceived to be
separable from the dramatic dynamic that he outhnes in respect to Christian religious
activity and his idea that the dramatic phenomenon of human holiness apologises for
Christianity is replaced with the sense that it can provide proof, with equal application,
for the world view of its practitioner. In this move, rational proof remains performative
but particular faith-specific ontological claims are removed from its dynamic.
Balthasar's limitations for a pluralist interpretation, such as Harrison's, lie in his
intuition of the Incarnation as the ultimately holy dramatic act by which all others are
judged. An intuition that he would not perceive as separable from what Harrison infers
as his core intuition of the apologetic value of human holiness, because of the link he
makes between relationship with God in Christ and becoming a person. Thus, on
Balthasar's view, only in Christ, with the specifically Christian dramatic dynamic, does
human holiness achieve the personal holiness that might provide apology for faith. This
is his specifically Christian theological anthropology, as Harrison acknowledges. Yet
she claims that Balthasar's dramatic apologetics can still find 'deployment'
in the service of religious pluralism. For even though ... Balthasar's philosophical anthropology
is specifically Christocentric, there is no reason, in principle, why his insights about human
holiness (suitably abstracted from his Christian beliefs) could not be extended to other
religions.^^
Such deployment would implicitly reject Balthasar's theological anthropology, which
seems to me to be dramatic as much as it is philosophical; or, at least, would find
specifically Christian theological anthropology to be separable from the possibility that
a holy form of life can attract people into itself. What is lost from Balthasar's account is
his sense that what it means to be dramatic - thus apologetically attractive in holiness -
is relative to the ultimate dramatic event of the Incarnation and so Christian
performance has an apocalyptic rhythm of its own which may find analogues elsewhere
but is non-transferable as far as generating real lived proof for holy Hving is concerned.
Harrison considers it 'strained' to say that all human holiness is relative to that of
'Jesus of Nazareth', given the existence of non-Christian holy figures.^"^ This suggests
that she perceives a stifling, totalising atmosphere in the theodramatic ontology that
Harrison, 'Human Holiness', pp.77-78

142
finds the holy dramatic dynamic evidenced in only one, however polyphonous,
Christological form.
From this perspective. Christian thought could take a religious, and possibly
comparative religious, rather than Balthasarian theological approach to the dramatic
dynamic. Such an approach might be similar in style to Haberman's Acting as a Way of
Salvation. Haberman considers that
[t]he recognition that we can experience a multiplicity of realities poses a serious religious
problem. ... The human being as homo religiosus is not satisfied to occupy just any reality, but
instead thirsts for the "Real". The religious person seeks to participate fully in a reality that
stands qualitatively above all others. He or she strives not just to perform any acts, but acts that
place him or her in harmony with the paramount reality. To act in accordance with what is
considered the "ultimate reality", a reality which exists against the backdrop of a variety of
ways of being, the religious individual also has need of guides to channel conduct in a manner
conducive to what is believed to be real.^^
The implications f o r dialogue of this model of dramatic, rehgious activity are most
clear in Haberman's concluding chapter where he relates the Hindu bhakti tradition and
the Christian Cistercian tradition. His 'comparative model of religious action' is
presented diagrammatically, with stages of action accompanying changes in status from
lay to holy to saint to paradigmatic individual.^*" Here, '[t]he holy actor is a religious
practitioner who strives to enter the Ultimate Reality - or "live a myth" - by enacting a
transcendent role defined by a paradigmatic individual.' Both in bhakti and among the
Cistercians
the quest of the holy actors is a search for freedom and meaning in a transcendent reality beyond
the social reality of their own limited time and space. Thus "living a myth" may be the ultimate
act of freedom.^'
A religious dramatic dynamic, with freedom and discipline ultimately harmonious, is

OS
transposed across faith traditions, 'on to different stages.' Traditions could dialogue
David Haberman, Acting as a Way of Salvation: A Study ofRaganuga Bhakti Sadhana, (Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 1998), p.6
Haberman, Way of Salvation, p. 148
Haberman, Way of Salvation, pp.150,155
143
with each other as versions of this dramatic soteriological dynamic. Pluralism need not,
however, claim that all aesthetic dynamics are fundamentally similar. And an explicitly
non-Balthasarian, religious approach finds impressive, nuanced expression in Brown's
Religious Aesthetics. Brown rejects Balthasar's claim that theological aesthetics can
develop a theory of beauty f r o m revelation itself through theological methods. It is
'patently false':
Christian theology may indeed want to say that no truth can be inconsistent with fundamental
Christian understanding of self, others, world and ultimate reality - truth having its source in the
very God that is made known in Christ. It should be obvious, however, that Christian revelation
is not... the sufficient means by which we can discover all the truths pertaining to art and
aesthetics.^'
Brown sees aesthetics as a discipline that can be used by theology, study of religion or
philosophy but not a disciphne that can be an implication of any one. It is for this
reason that he rejects the revelation based theological approach of Balthasar, while
arguing f o r 'the right of any rehgion ... to employ criteria in some ways distinct from
those of the philosopher ... and accordingly to formulate certain aesthetic theories
appropriate to [its] own religious understanding.'^ This rhetoric of rights is interesting.
Brown is suspicious of the comparative religionist who might distort the particular
practices of the religions by unifying them under (in this case) aesthetic structures. Yet,
by distancing himself f r o m a revelation-based approach, he has also 'stopped short of
full-fledged theology.'^' It is in order to assert the right of a variety of religions to
develop theological aesthetics that Brown needs to reject revelationist aesthetics such
as Balthasar's. What he wishes to effect is a situation i n which a variety of religions can
develop theologies drawing, in part, on aesthetic tools. How do they dialogue with each
other? They treat others' theologies as 'potentially fruitful fictions' that may 'engage us
wholly and make for us a kind of meaning.'^'^ Thus the theologian can, 'hke ...
Balthasar', believe that 'certain truths come f r o m God' and still hold to a 'credible' and
Haberman, Way of Salvation, p. 145

Frank Burch Brown, Religious Aesthetics: A Theological Study of Making and Meaning, (London:
Macmillan, 1990), p.20
Brown, Aesthetics, p. 186
'^ Brown, Aesthetics, p. 194
144
'relatively autonomous' aesthetics.Brown assumes that, in having the right to its own
relatively autonomous aesthetics, a particular theology must allow others a level ground
on which to have theirs also. This denies that what it is to be aesthetic is patterned into
reality by one particular aesthetic activity, that of God in Christ. As Brown
acknowledges, this is opposed to Balthasar's revealed aesthetics. He does not explain
quite how a theologian like Balthasar w i l l work in a context in which Balthasar's
theological method is patently false.
A concern for many versions each retaining their soteriological challenge, rather
than a Balthasarian theological polarisation within one Christian soteriology is a shared
feature of the approaches of Harrison, Haberman and Brown. In the case of Brown and
Harrison, the concern is expressed with relation to aesthetics and performance
generally and particularly in contradistinction to Balthasar. Haberman does not discuss
Balthasar but his work shows how such an approach might operate in a specifically
dramatic register, with acting becoming a resource for appreciating the radical
soteriological character of religions, without having an ultimate term in any one
particular faith tradition. From these positions, claims of theological anthropology (in
the case of Christianity, Christocentric claims) are bracketed out of the dramatic
dynamic. They are not considered to bear on the dynamic itself. Rather a general
dynamic is being instanced (or non-specific tools are being used) in versions, one of
which is the Christian. This may allow for a more constructive dialogue between those
who recognise that they work on shared ground, with a common style. These three
approaches have a soteriocentric tendency, in so much as they presume that dramatic or
other aesthetic activity forms an appealingly meaningful bond between people.
However, in disputing Balthasar by considering the aesthetic dynamic to be separable
f r o m any particular dramatic ontological claim, they seem to suggest that human
behaviour might... be viewed as having apologetic value for whatever belief system it is that
seems to motivate it directly, whether it is religious or secular.^''
6.14: Theodramatic Dialogues with Theatre Practitioners

145
These considerations of theology and dramatic dialogue after Balthasar have
done little to revive a significant casualty of his approach. The possibility of viable
contemporary a-Christian, rather than post-Christian protesting or parodic, dramatic
versions of living is denied by Balthasar. Murphy's sympathetic commentary
consciously attempts to allow a greater space for non-Christian perspectives, but makes
only slight modifications.^^ A n d more radical interpretations, such as Harrison's, accept
a break with Balthasar's theological presuppositions in order to allow an alternative
account of plurality. The casualty thus seems inevitable in Balthasarian theodramatic
dialogue. Whether this casualty is acceptable determines whether Balthasar's
understanding has the potential to conduct genuine dialogues with those twentieth-
century theatre practitioners who might consider their work to be a-Christian.
Intra-systemically there is a clear rationale to Balthasar's dialogical approach to
theatre practitioners and it can be considered a genuine dialogue. He gives priority to a
theological account of what it is to be dramatic. The strengths of this account are clear.
It offers novel and yet traditional, compelling dramatic interpretations of key events in
Christ's life and achieves a formidable integration of theological anthropology and
soteriology within a dramatic Christology. It informs a distinct Christian universalism,
grounded in theodramatic hermeneutics, and it offers insights for theological
methodology, particularly in terms of relating nature and grace. It also furnishes
theologians with a clear rationale for deahng with trends in the natural-human
dimension: provisional exclusion within ultimate inclusion. In respect to theatre
practice, it is particularly noticeable that in being included or excluded from Christian
reality such trends are also being included or excluded f r o m the possibility of being
dramatic. This shows the extent to which Balthasar's approach is governed by a
I have not considered Nicholas M . Healy, Church, World and the Christian Life: Practical-Prophetic
Ecclesiology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000). In chapter 5 he makes a 'theo-dramatic
response to pluralism' in which ecclesiology moves beyond a dichotomy between inclusivist and post-
modernist accounts of plurality in respect to dialogue with others. I associate Healy with the sympathetic
commentators on Balthasar. Indeed, his claim that the context for dialogue cannot be one over against the
Christian context has some affinties with Murphy's argument for seeing faiths through the faith. And his
arguments for difference and encounter as integral to dramatic truth would relate to Harris's work. At
first reading, this chapter seems to me to retain Balthasar's perception of a-Christian stances as
ultimately not viable. So recently published, I have not been able to give it serious consideration as a
post-Balthasarian strategy for dialogue.
146
theological intuition of what it is to be dramatic. When he dialogues with theatre
practitioners, their drama is 'taken seriously by Balthasar in the belief that all human
drama ... opens on to the drama of God himself.'^^ This belief also colours the
dialogical analysis he makes. Balthasar may be considered to set up Christianised
interpretations of theatre practitioners with which to dialogue. B y defining the natural-
human dimension of existence in Christian theological terms and seeing theatre as
symbolic of the polarised dramatic possibilities open in that dimension, he reads what
theatre practitioners do theologically and considers the theological reading to be what
they actually do. From outwith the theological perspective, an ontological impossibility
in theodramatic terms, this may not be considered genuine.
Balthasar describes his dialogues with theatre practitioners in the Theological
Dramatics as a process by which he can 'put together' a 'set of dramatic resources' for
theological expression of the ultimate drama.^'' The idea of post-Christian theatre as a
theological resource recurs throughout Balthasar's work, f o r example with Brook
where Brook's opposition to psychological interpretations of dramatic role suggests
that there is still twentieth-century theatre that could resource theo-drama. The dialogue
with Brook exhibits a tendency in this approach to construct the terms of engagement
so as to interpret the theatre practitioner as post-Christian and thus to stand them ready
to resource theology, whether via the parodic or protesting route. Balthasar makes no
attempt to consider how Brook himself might try to combine the purportedly protesting
and parodic poles, nor how Brook might incorporate Christian imagery in his own
projects: this would be a concession to the possibility of a-Christian dramatic activity.
Rather, the bizarre ambivalence in which Brook is appropriated is itself a theodramatic
implication: a result of the incapacity of the natural-human dimension to have its own
f u l l y dramatic existence. Balthasar's double-edged response to his own critical
exposition of Brook as a post-Christian practitioner is an example of what O'Donnell
praises as Balthasar's method of 'dialogue through confrontation.'^^ Balthasar's belief
that human drama 'can only be played with one eye on the A b s o l u t e ' a n d
consequently that one cannot have a purely secular theatre informs his critical

" TD3,p.532
' O'Donnell, iBalthasar, p. 14
'TDl,p.l29
147
dialogues with theatre practitioners. It also informs his accounts of what these theatre
practitioners do, the very accounts with which he dialogues. Even the categories into
which he groups non-Christian theatre (post- and pre- Christian) reveal the fact that it is
being described f r o m a Christian dramatic perspective. Balthasar faces this boldly, by
proposing that to be dramatic theatre must occur analogously to the Christian dramatic
perspective, which is ultimately the only one. Whether or not the dramatic dialogue
between a Christian theologian, such as himself, and a post-Christian theatre
practitioner, such as Brook, is considered genuine may depend on one's standpoint
concerning that dialogue. Whether or not it is genuine does not. For, on Balthasar's
account, the phenomenon of dialogue itself is not neutral but a theodramatic
implication. 'Balthasar's vast gallery of ... dramatists ... are' (indeed) 'marshalled by
him and assigned roles in the 'theo-drama".'*'' But for Balthasar, the non-Christian
partner's dramatic voice is as it speaks parodically within or protesting against
theodramatic reality and so there is no need for the practitioners on view to speak
independently, outwith Balthasar's interpretation of them, for Norris to praise 'every
page' as 'dialogical'.'*'
6.15: Conclusion
Drama is a powerful but difficult model for dialogue. Brook describes one of
his theatrical aims as 'trying to relate the smallest specific detail to the widest
framework'"*^ and Balthasar proposes that it is only a dramatic mode of Christian
theology that can make the 'necessary connection ... between ... life ... and this
particular T.'"*^ Theatricality highlights an ongoing inter-relation between particular
act and universal framework, which suggests that life is a continual process of
dialogical re-negotiation. However, when two differing rhythms of dramatic life (such
as Brook's immediate theatrical concentrations of quality within an ultimately formless
space and Balthasar's ecclesial instantiations of the ultimate, formed dramatic horizon)
are placed together, it seems difficult to avoid an appropriative tendency. For the
particular act is interpreted differently depending on the understanding of the universal
Ford, Self and Salvation, p.238

Norris, 'Symphonic Unity', p.246
Brook, Shifting Point, p. 133
*^TDI,p.571
148
framework and the perception of the manner in which the two relate. Thus, dialogue
between alternative models tends towards representation of the universal framework of
the other i n terms relative to one's own. A n d f r o m this, an appropriative employment,
which elides the dramatic rhythm of its alternatively inter-related universal horizon and
particular event into one's own, seems likely. Dialogue is vital within both Brook's and
Balthasar's dramatic models but between the two appears a dialogical impasse.
Audience Member
I have a feeling that I ' m in a church service. Can you tell me why I feel that? I feel as if I've
come to communion.
PB Is that a pleasant or an unpleasant sensation?
Audience Member
It's very restful, very peaceful, and I have a very intense feeling of colour, of space, and of
being held in a spell. I ' m moved and I don't really know why.
PB Then perhaps another door should be opened. When I said that we started to work with
very simple things, perhaps the simplest thing of all was to see that silence is as real as noise. In
a way you have to go to the middle of the Sahara and sit among the dunes to have the sense of
what silence really is. Then one realises that there are two absolute silences. The silence of
going into a vault or a tomb, which is like an anaesthetic - completely lifeless. And another
silence, which goes under the same name, which you can find in certain rare places but once
you have experienced it you will realise that it is everywhere. You know that there isn't just
noise, less noise and non-noise. ... You used the word communion, and that means very
precisely the sense of being together. The true sense of being together at its finest is when one is
sharing a silence. But you can't do that all the time.
Audience Member
There's a very strong feeling that our minds and thoughts are blending together, and I
immediately thought of the religious communion - the wine and the bread. It seems to have
cleared my mind of all other thoughts.
PB Like everything else, there are very strict hidden rules. One of the rules of silence is that it
can't last too long. One can go into it, but if one tries to stretch it out or even to talk about it,
gradually it goes, and one has to go along with that. That... is one of the most marvellous
things in the theatre - to go into a silence and then come out of it.
This dialogue between a Christian and Peter Brook illustrates the difficulties of
theatrical engagement between two perspectives. There appears to be a clash between
* Brook et ai, 'On 16 May', p.30
149
the particular symbols that f i l l the audience member's horizon when considering the
spiritual community effected in the theatrical workshop on which they are reflecting
and the thematic approach of Brook, which is grounded in the behef in empty,
tradition-less silence. The two interpretations interact awkwardly in discussion. Brook
is concerned that one should not try to stretch the moment out by verbally attaching it
to a symbolic tradition of wine and bread. The audience member is reluctant to allow
Brook's thematic, in his terms precise, meaning of communion - the sense of being
together - to substitute f o r that specific imagery. Whether the two individuals were
united in the preceding event it is difficult to say. It seems, at least, that the inter-play
of encounter between them generates meaningful difference, which Balthasar's
theodramatic scheme (and perhaps Brook's theatrical spirituality also) would smooth
over when left to its own interpretative agenda.
Balthasar has undertaken to integrate into Christ all that is of value in the history of Western
culture and thought.''^
It is difficult to dispute with Balthasar's achievement in constructing a theodramatic
concept of dialogue i n which he engages with, among others, twentieth-century theatre
directors. In no small measure this is because of the appropriative tendency of the
achievement itself. With rigorous internal consistence, the dialogue partner is defined
against theodramatic reality. I f one appreciates theodramatic reality, an appreciation
that f r o m within is seen to constitute ultimate personal and social transformation, then
one accepts its implications for the phenomenon of dialogue and acts accordingly. By
definition, the non-Christian partner does not have such an appreciation.
Concomitantly, they are not aware of the f u l l potential of dialogical reality and do not
properly appreciate their own situation in respect to Christian truth that encounters
them through the Christian dialogue partner. Balthasar grounds this concept of dramatic
dialogue intra-systemically: the final-eschatological, intra-Trinitarian dialogue is
played out through the Incarnation in personal-ecclesial, sacramental dialogues and
effects judgmental inclusion over the natural-human phenomenon of dialogue. Thereby,
Balthasar gathers dialogicality itself within his Christocentric dramatic ontology. The
Escobar, 'Christo-logian', p.316
150
Theological Dramatics' dialogues with post-Christian theatre directors make up one
tiny section of Balthasar's 'program notes'"*^ for the drama in which 'the whole
intramundane dialogue of standpoints, world views and perspectives is overtaken by an
ultimate dramatic dialogue.'"*^ For Balthasar this is the genuine dialogue, a dialogue
that others can only know to be such by personal reorientation within it. His
theodramatic dialogues draw clear lines under Balthasar's theological achievement.
TD3,p.ll
TD2,p.l68
151
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Theological Dramatics and Post-Christian Drama

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What is the thesis about?

What is the thesis about?

What is Balthasar's theological vision of drama?

What is Balthasar's theological vision of drama?

Durham E-Theses

Theological dramatics and post-Christian drama: Hans

Urs von Balthasar's dialogues with twentieth-century

Allnutt, Clive Dennis

Theological Dramatics and Post-Christian Drama;

The copyright of this thesis rests with

Theological Dramatics and Post-Christian Drama:

1: BALTHASAR'S THEOLOGICAL DIALOGUES WITH THEATRE 1

1.1: HANS URS VON B ALTHAS AR 1

2: BALTHASAR'S THEOLOGICAL DRAMATICS 18

2.1: THEOLOGICAL DRAMATIC INTUITION 18

3.1: THEODRAMATIC HERMENEUTICS 51

4: BALTHASAR'S DIALOGUES WITH

4.1: LIFE AS DRAMA 74

4.2: TWENTIETH-CENTURY THEATRE 88

5.1: BALTHASAR'S DIALOGUE WITH BROOK 99

5.2: BROOK ON THEOLOGY AND THEOLOGY ON BROOK 112

6: BALTHASAR'S THEODRAMATIC DIALOGUES 130

6.1: CONCLUSION 130

Theological Dramatics = Hans Urs von Balthasar, Theo-Drama: Theological Dramatic

Is Balthasar a writer who simply presents a superbly integrated

1.1: HANS URS VON BALTHASAR

Hans Urs von Balthasar understood Christian theology to be a lived perspective,

1.11: Theological Life

Balthasar was bom in 1905 in Lucerne, Switzerland to a Catholic family. He

Many biographers share Angelo Scola's opinion that it is 'impossible in

The influence of Balthasar on others is correspondingly centred in Christian

Such biographical influences, on and of Balthasar, suggest that his is a

In Balthasar's panegyric, Joseph Ratzinger quoted Paul's letter to the

1.12: Theological IMethod

Balthasar is often grouped with the post-liberals, theologians who, John

Balthasar, Love Alone, p.lI9

Balthasar considered the Rahnerian mainstream to have laudably universalist

anthropological resources as 'emanations from the realm of genuine theology.'

1.13: Theological Style

Subject to the God who encounters humanity in Christ, theological discourse is

^ Balthasar, 'In Retrospect', p.201

Balthasar described contemplation's two roots as adoration and obedience.

Prayerful adoration of both supernatural and natural revelation informs theological

Balthasar uses pouring as a metaphor for theological style. Together with

In describing theology as an active agency he is suggesting something participative: the

Balthasar, 'Theology and Sanctity', p.57

Antonio Sicari describes the radical imphcations of Balthasar's theological style:

Balthasar's theological method and style are angled so as to contribute to

A theological intuition of what drama is propels Balthasar into his particular

In order to understand Balthasar's approach to dialogues with theatre, my third

Craig, Brecht and Stanislavksy only appear costumed by Balthasar's dialogue

2.1: T H E O L O G I C A L DRAMATIC INTUITION

Balthasar's work is predicated on a theological dramatic intuition,

2.11: The Structure of the Dramatics

The Theological Dramatics has five volumes. T D l is a literary Prolegomena, in

' Henrici, 'Sketch', pp.33-34

^ Balthasar, 'Another Ten Years', p.225

The Theological Dramatics is more closely co-ordinated than this summary

2.12: The Centrality of the Dramatic

Balthasar published three retrospectives on his theological work. The first of