ISSN 1798-4769

Journal of Language Teaching and Research, Vol. 2, No. 6, pp. 1411-1419, November 2011
2011 ACADEMY PUBLISHER Manufactured in Finland.
doi:10.4304/jltr.2.6.1411-1419

A Short Introduction to Semantics

Karim Nazari Bagha
Department of English, Islamic Azad University, Astara Branch, Astara, Iran
Email: [email protected]; [email protected]

AbstractSemantics is the study of meaning in language. Although it can be conceived as concerned with
meaning in general, it is often confined to those aspects which are relatively stable and context-free, in contrast
to pragmatics, which is concerned with meaning variation with context. Semantics is sometimes described as
concerned with the relation of linguistic forms to states of the world; more sensibly, it may be seen as
concerned with the relation of linguistic forms to non-linguistic concepts and mental representations, as well as
with relationship, of meaning between linguistic forms, such as synonymy, antonymy and hyponymy. Semantic
theories have influenced approaches to describing word meaning, and are thus particularly relevant to
Lexicography and vocabulary teaching.

Index Termssemantic theories, compositional semantics, lexical semantics, semantic features, semantic roles,
lexical relations

I. INTRODUCTION
Semantics is the study of meaning. Seen by Breal, in the late 19th century, as an emerging science (French,
semantique) opposed to phonetics (phonetique) as a science of sounds: similarly for Bloomfield in 1930, it was a
field covering, as one account of meaningful forms, and the lexicon. Also seen more narrowly, in a traditional lasting
into the 1960s, as the study of meaning in the lexicon alone, including changes in word meaning. Later, in accounts in
which the study of distribution was divorced from that of meanings, opposed either to grammar in general; or, within
grammar and especially within a generative grammar from the 1960s onwards, to syntax specifically. Of the uses
current at the beginning of the 21st century, many restrict semantics to the study of meaning is abstraction from the
contexts in which words and sentences are uttered: in opposition, therefore, to pragmatics. Others include pragmatics as
one of its branches. In others its scope is in practice very narrow: thus one handbook of contemporary semantic theory,
in the mid-1990s deals almost solely with problems in formal semantics, even the meanings of lexical units being
neglected.

II. DEFINITION
Semantics is the study of meaning in language. We know that language is used to express meanings which can be
understood by others. But meanings exist in our minds and we can express what is in our minds through the spoken and
written forms of language (as well as through gestures, action etc.). The sound patterns of language are studied at the
level of phonology and the organization of words and sentences is studied at the level of morphology and syntax. These
are in turn organized in such a way that we can convey meaningful messages or receive and understand messages. How
is language organized in order to be meaningful? This is the question we ask and attempt to answer at the level of
semantics. Semantics is that level of linguistic analysis where meaning is analyzed. It is the most abstract level of
linguistic analysis, since we cannot see or observe meaning as we can observe and record sounds. Meaning is related
very closely to the human capacity to think logically and to understand. So when we try to analyze meaning, we are
trying to analyze our own capacity to think and understand our own ability to create meaning. Semantics concerns itself
with giving a systematic account of the nature of meaning (Leech, 1981).

III. WHAT IS MEANING?

Philosophers have puzzled over this question for over 2000 years. Their thinking begins from the question of the
relationship between words and the objects which words represent. For example, we may ask: What is the meaning of
the word cow? One answer would be that it refers to an animal who has certain properties, that distinguish it from
other animals, who are called by other names. Where do these names come from and why does the word cow mean
only that particular animal and none other? Some thinkers say that there is no essential connection between the word
cow and the animal indicated by the word, but we have established this connection by convention and thus it continues
to be so. Others would say that there are some essential attributes of that animal which we perceive in our minds and
our concept of that animal is created for which we create a corresponding word. According to this idea, there is an
essential correspondence between the sounds of words and their meanings, e.g., the word buzz reproduces the sound
made by a bee. It is easy to understand this, but not so easy to understand how cow can mean a four-;egged bovine
there is nothing in the sound of the word cow to indicate that, (Children often invent words that illustrate the

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correspondence between sound and meaning: they may call a cow moo-moo because they hear it making that kind of
sound.)
The above idea that words in a language correspond to or stand for the actual objects in the world is found in Platos
dialogue Cratylus. However, it applies only to some words and not to others, for example, words that do not refer to
objects, e.g. love, hate. This fact gives rise to the view held by later thinkers, that the meaning of a word is not the
object it refers to, but the concept of the object that exists in the mind. Moreover, as de Saussure pointed out, the
relation between the word (signifier) and the concept (signified) is an arbitrary one, i.e. the word does not resemble the
concept. Also, when we try to define the meaning of a word we do so by using other words. So, if we try to explain the
meaning of table we need to use other words such as four, legs, and wood and these words in turn can be
explained only by means of other words.
In their book, The Meaning of Meaning (1923), C.K. Ogden and I.A. Richards made an attempt to define meaning.
When we use the word mean, we use it in different ways. I mean to do this is a way of expressing our intention. The
red signal means stop is a way of indicating what the red signal signifies. Since all language consists of signs, we can
say that every word is a sign indicating something-usually a sign indicates other signs. Ogden and Richards give the
following list of some definitions of meaning. Meaning can be any of the following:
1. An intrinsic property of some thing
2. Other words related to that word in a dictionary
3. The connotations of a word (that is discussed below)
4. The thing to which the speaker of that word refers
5. The thing to which the speaker of that word should refer
6. The thing to which the speaker of that word believes himself to be referring
7. The thing to which the hearer of that word believes is being referred to.
These definitions refer to many different ways in which meaning is understood. One reason for the range of
definitions of meaning is that words (or signs) in a language are of different types. Some signs indicate meaning in a
direct manner, e.g. an arrow () indicates direction. Some signs are representative of the thing indicated, e.g.
onomatopoeic words such as buzz, tinkle, ring; even cough, slam, rustle have onomatopoeic qualities. Some
signs do not have any resemblance to the thing they refer to, but as they stand for that thin, they are symbolic.

IV. WORDS AND MEANINGS

When I use a word, Humpty Dumpty said, in rather a scornful tone, it means just what I choose it to mean neither
more nor less.
The question is said Alice, whether you can make words mean so many different things.
(Lewis Carroll. Alice through the Looking Glass. Macmillan 1871)
We distinguish between a word and its meaning. We will start with an ordinary word pen. What does the word pen
mean? Pen is a concept in your mind and you know a variety of facts about it the fact that it is spelt pen, that it is a
noun, and so on. Let us make this word bold and call it pen. The name of your concept for pen is just pen.
One other fact that you know about pen is that it means: an apparatus for writing, . This is also part of your
knowledge. Therefore it must be another concept. Now we have two concepts and it is essential to keep these concepts
distinct, so we shall call this second concept pen; i.e. by single quotes.
In fact, when we use the word as a name for its meaning we are actually using it in the normal way. That is what
words are: names for their meanings. So we could say pen mean pen.

V. SENSE AND REFERENT

In the above discussion we assumed that the word pen always has the same meaning, namely pen. To use a
technical term, we could say pen has pen as its sense.
Now look at the following sentence:
1) Jack put his pen next to Bettyes pen.
What is the meaning of the word pen in this sentence? On the one hand we could agree that it has the same meaning
each time it is used, but on the other hand we would also agree that it is used to mean two different things, Jacks pen
and Bettys pen. Thus we are using the word meaning in two different ways. When we agreed that both examples of pen
have the same meaning we meant that they have the same sense. But when we think of pen as meaning specifically
Jacks pen we have a different kind of meaning in mind something like the particular pen the speaker has in mind
when saying that word.
There is a technical term which we could easily use for having something particular in mind when saying a word,
which is the verb refer. This allows us to say that the speaker of (1) was referring to Jacks pen when saying his pen, but
to Bettys when saying Bettys pen. The thing referred to is called the words referent, so the two pens in (1) have the
same sense but different referents. In short, we can recognize two parts to the meaning of a word like pen: its sense
which lives permanently in the dictionary, and its referent, which varies from occasion to occasion.

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VI. REFERENCE
The study of reference, like the study of sense, can be divided into two areas: speaker-reference and
linguistic-reference. Speaker-reference is what the speaker is referring to by using some linguistic expression. For
example, if someone utters the sentence Here comes Queen Elizabeth facetiously, to refer to a snobbish acquaintance,
then the speaker-reference of the expression Queen Elizabeth is the acquaintance. Speaker-reference, because it varies
according to the speaker and context, is outside the domain of semantics; instead it is part of pragmatics.
Linguistic-reference, on the other hand, is the systematic denotation of some linguistic expression as part of a language.
For example, the linguistic expression Queen Elizabeth in the sentence Here comes Queen Elizabeth refers in fact to the
public figure Queen Elizabeth. Linguistic-reference, in contrast to speaker-reference, is within the domain of semantics,
since it deals with reference that is a systematic function of the language itself, rather than of the speaker and context.
Lets now consider some concepts that seem useful in thinking and talking about reference (referent, extension,
prototype, and stereotype); then we will take a look at some different types of linguistic reference (coreference,
anaphora, and deixis).
Referent. The entity identified by the use of a referring expression such as a noun or noun phrase is the referent of
that expression. If, for example, you point to a particular robin and say That bird looks sick, then the referent for the
referring expression That bird is the particular robin you are pointing at.
Extension. Extension refers to the set of all potential referents for a referring expression. For example, the extension
of bird is the set of all entities (past, present, and future) that could systematically be referred to by the expression bird.
In other words, the extension of bird is the set of all birds.
Prototype. A typical member of the extension of a referring expression is a prototype of that expression. For example,
a robin or a bluebird might be a prototype of bird; a pelican or an ostrich, since each is somewhat atypical, would not
be.
Stereotype. A list of characteristics describing a prototype is said to be a stereotype. For example, the stereotype of
bird might be something like the following: has two legs and two wings, has feathers, is about six to eight inches from
head to tail, makes a chirping noise, lays eggs, builds nests, and so on.
Coreference. Two linguistic expressions that refer to the same real-world entity are said to be coreferential. Consider,
for example, the sentence Jay Leno is the host of the Tonight Show. The expression Jay Leno and The host of the
Tonight Show are coreferential because they both refer to the same entity, namely the person Jay Leno. Not, however,
the coreferential expressions do not mean the same thing; that is, they are not synonymous. For example, before Jay
Leno hosted the Tonight show, Johnny Carson held that position; thus, there was a period of time when Johnny Carson
was corefereential with host of the tonight show. However, we cannot describe Johnny Carson and Jay Leno as
meaning the same thing. The fact that they are not synonymous is illustrated by the unacceptability of the sentence
*Jay Leno used to be Johnny Carson.
Anaphora. A linguistic expression that refers to another linguistic expression is said to be anaphoric or an anaphor.
Consider the sentence Mary wants to play whoever thinks himself capable of beating her. In this sentence the linguistic
expression himself necessarily refers to whoever; thus himself is being used anaphorically in this case. Note, moreover,
that it would be inaccurate to claim that whoever and himself are coreferential (i.e., that they have the same
extralinguistic referent). This is because there may in fact not be anyone who thinks himself capable of beating Mary;
that is, there may not be any extralinguistic referent for Whoever and himself.
It is common, however, for coreference and anaphora to coincide. Consider, for example, the sentence The media
reported that Congress voted themselves a raise. The expressions Congress and themselves are coreferential since they
refer to the same real-world entity, namely the legislative branch of the federal government. At the same time,
themselves is an anaphor since it necessarily refers to the expression congress. Note that there is no reading of this
sentence such that themselves can be construed as referring to the expression the media. In sum, coreference deals with
the relation of a linguistic expression to some entity in the real world, past, present, or future; anaphora deals with the
relation between two linguistic expressions.
Deixis (pronounced DIKE-sis). A deictic expression has one meaning but can refer to different entities depending on
the speaker and his or her spatial and temporal orientation. Obvious examples are expressions such as you and I, here
and there, and right and left. Assume, for instance, that Jack and Jill are speaking to each other face to face. When Jack
is speaking, I refers to Jack, and you refers to Jill. When Jill is speaking, the referents for these expressions reverse.
Likewise, when Jack is speaking, here refers to a position near Jack, and there refers to a position near Jill. When Jill
speaks, the referents for these expressions reverse. Similarly, right and left can refer to the same location, depending
upon whether Jack or Jill is speaking; his left is her right, and vice versa. Likewise, expressions such as Jack or Jill is
speaking; his left is her right, and vice versa. Likewise, expressions such as yesterday, today, and tomorrow are deitic.
Jack may say to Jill, Yesterday I told you I would pay you tomorrow, which is today.
Note, moreover, that deixis can intersect with anaphora. Consider, for example, the sentence Members of Congress
believe they deserve a raise. The expression they can refer either to the expression members of Congress or to some
other plural entity in the context of the utterance. When, as in the first case, a pronoun refers to another linguistic
expression, it is used anaphorically; when, as in the second case, it refers to some entity in the extralinguistic context, it
is used deictically.

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VII. SPEAKERS MEANING AND SEMANTIC MEANING

Everyone knows that language can be used to express meaning, but it is not easy to define meaning. One problem is
that there are several dimensions of meaning. Imagine that I ask you, Can you give me an apple? while looking at
bowl of apples on the table beside you. What I literally asked is whether you have the ability to give me an apple; this is
the semantic meaning of what I said. Sometimes people will make an annoying joke by responding only to the semantic
meaning of such a question; theyll just answer, Yes, I can. But what I almost certainly want is for you to give me one
of the apples next to you, and I expect you to know that this is what I want. This speakers meaning is what I intend to
communicate, and it goes beyond the literal, semantic meaning of what I said.
Linguists study both semantic meaning and speakers meaning. Lets look at semantic meaning first. To understand
semantic meaning, we have to bring together three main components: the context in which a sentence is used, the
meanings of the words in the sentence, and its morphological and syntactic structure. For example, suppose you say to
me:
1) My dog chased a cat under the house.
Because (1) contains the pronoun my, part of its meaning depends on the fact that you uttered it, my refers to you. So
to some extent the semantic meaning of a sentence depends on the context of use the situation in which the sentence
was uttered, by a particular speaker, to a particular addressee, at a particular time, and so forth. The semantic meaning
of (1) also depends on the meanings of the individual words dog, chased, a, cat, etc.; therefore, semantic meaning
depends on the lexicon of English. In addition, the morphological and syntactic structure of sentence (1) is crucial to its
meaning. If the words were rearranged to A cat Under the house chased my dog, it would mean something different. So
semantic meaning depends on the grammatical structure of the sentence.
Now lets think about the speakers meaning of (1). Suppose that you know Ive lost my cat and you say (1) to me. In
that case, it would be likely that your speakers meaning is to inform me that my cat may be hiding under the house, and
to suggest that I go there to look for it. To understand where this meaning comes from, we need to bring together two
components. First, the semantic meaning is certainly part of the picture; there is some kind of connection between your
saying that your dog chased a cat under the house and your suggesting that I look for my lost cat under the house. But in
order for me to understand your speakers meaning, I have to assume that we both know my cat is missing, that you
know I want to find it, and that you want to see that my cat is safely back home. These are additional aspects of the
context of use which help to determine your speakers meaning.
We can visualize the two kinds of meaning as follows:

VIII. THE TWO MAIN BRANCHES OF SEMANTICS

Grammar (morphology and syntax) generate novel words, phrases, and sentences in fact an infinite number of them.
This gives us an infinite number of words, phrases, and sentences that can have meaning. In order to explain how an
infinite number of pieces of language can be meaningful, and how we, as language users, can figure out the meanings of
new ones every day, semanticists apply the Principle of Compositionality.
The Principle of Compositionality: The semantic meaning of any unit of language is determined by the semantic
meanings of its parts along with the way they are put together.
According to the Principle of Compositionality, the meaning of a sentence like Mary liked you is determined by (a)
the meanings of the individual morphemes that make it up (Mary, like, you, past) and (b) the morphological and
syntactic structures of the sentence. The Principle of Compositionality doesnt just apply to sentences. It also implies
that the meaning of the verb phrase liked you is determined by the meanings of its parts and the grammatical structure
of the verb phrase, and that the meaning of the word liked is determined by the meanings of the two morphemes that
make it up (like and (e)d). The subfield of semantics known as compositional semantics (or formal semantics) is
especially concerned with how the Principle of Compositionality applies, and consequently formal semanticists study
the variety of grammatical patterns which occur in individual languages and across the languages of the world. Formal
semantics developed in linguistics during the early 1970s under the influence of philosophers, especially Richard
Montague (Montague 1974).
Linguists who are interested in the meanings of words, and the relations among words meanings, study lexical
semantics. Thematic roles provide one very popular framework for investigating lexical semantics, in particular the
lexical semantics of verbs, but not the only one. Lexical semantics is very interesting to syntacticians, because the

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meaning of a word often influences how it fits into syntax; for example, the fact that ripen can have two different
patterns of thematic role explains why it can be used grammatically either with or without an object.

IX. DIFFERENT ASPECTS OF MEANING OF A WORD

(i) Denotative meaning. The logical meaning, which indicates the essential qualities of a concept which distinguish it
from other concepts.
(ii) Connotative meaning. The additional or associated meaning, which is attached to the denotative, conceptual
meaning. It consists of associations made with a concept whenever that concept is referred to.
(iii) Social meaning. It is the meaning that a word possesses by virtue of its use in particular social situations and
circumstances.
(iv) Thematic meaning. It lies in the manner in which a message is organized for emphasis.

X. THEORIES OF MEANING
Here, we will briefly discuss the theories concerned with semantics.
1. The Theory of Naming; This theory, explained in Platos dialogue Cratylus maintains that language is a
communication system which works with two elements; the signifier, and the signified. Plato says that the signifier is a
word in the language and the signified is the object in the world that it stands for or refers to. Thus, according to this
theory words and things are directly related. Traditional grammar was based on the assumption that the word was the
basic unit of syntax and semantics. The word was a sign composed of two parts, or components: the form (signifier)
and its meaning (signified).
There are some difficulties with this view, however. Firstly, it seems to apply to some nouns only. You may locate the
signified (object) which the signifier (word) chair refers to. However, there are some nouns which do not refer to
objects in this world: examples are Unicorn and Raxsh (Rostams special horse in the Iranian epic written by Ferdousi).
Secondly, there are other nouns that do not refer to physical objects at all. Thus, what are the objects which love and
hatred refer to? Thirdly, with a noun we can draw a picture of the object that is denoted (referred to). But this is
impossible with verbs. How should we show run, hesitate, and annoy? The same problem remains regarding adjectives
and adverbs, as well.
2. The Conceptual Theory of Meaning: In the theory of meaning, just explained, words and things are directly related.
But in the conceptual theory of meaning words and things are related through the mediation of concepts of the mind.
Ogden and Richards (1923) saw this relationship as a triangle:
Thought (or Reference or Meaning or Concept)

the symbol = the linguistic element; the word, phrase, sentence

the referent = the object in the world
thought or reference = concept

Thus, according to this theory there is no direct link between the symbol and referent the link is through reference
or thought (our concepts). The problem with this view is that we do not precisely know the nature of the link or bond
between symbol and concept.
The conceptual theory of meaning or mentalistic theory is maintained by Chomsky. He believes that intuition and
introspection must play a crucial part in our investigation of language.
3. The Behavioristic Theory of Meaning: The term context of situation is used by two scholars, first by an
anthropologist called Malinowski, and later by a British linguist called Firth. Both of these scholars stated meaning in
terms of the context in which language is used. These two maintained that the description of a language is not complete
without some reference to the context of situation in which the language operated. A more extreme view sees the
meaning of the linguistic elements AS the situation in which the word is used. Bloomfield, the structuralist, maintained
this behavioristic view. He explained his view through his famous account of Jack and Jill.
As we know, Bloomfield is a follower of Skinners school of psychology called behaviorism. However, Skinners
model has been severely criticized by Chomsky, a proponent of the conceptual theory of meaning.

XI. SEMANTIC FEATURES

One obvious way in which the study of basic conceptual meaning might be helpful in the study of language would be
as a means of accounting for the oddness we experience when we read sentences such as the following:
The hamburger ate the boy.
The table listens to the radio.
The horse is reading the newspaper.

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We should first note that the oddness of these sentences does not derive from their syntactic structure. According to
the basic syntactic rules for forming English sentences, we have well-formed structures.
NP V NP
The hamburger ate the boy
This sentence is syntactically good, but semantically odd. Since the sentence The boy ate the hamburger is perfectly
acceptable, we may be able to identify the source of the problem. The components of the conceptual meaning of the
noun hamburger must be significantly different from those of the noun boy, thereby preventing one, and not the other,
from being used as the subject of the verb ate. The kind of noun that can be the subject of the verb ate must denote an
entity that is capable of eating. The noun hamburger does not have this property and the noun boy does.
We can make this observation more generally applicable by trying to determine the crucial element or feature of
meaning that any noun must have in order to be used as the subject of the verb ate. Such an element may be as general
as animate being. We can then use this idea to describe part of the meaning of words as having either plus (+) or minus
(-) that particular feature. So, the feature that the noun boy has is +animate (= denotes an animate being) and the
feature that the noun hamburger has is -animate (= does not denote an animate being).
The simple example is an illustration of a procedure for analyzing meaning in terms of semantic features. Features
such as +animate, -animate; +human, -human, +female, -female, for example, can be treated as the basic elements
involved in differentiating the meaning of each word in a language from every other word. If we had to provide the
crucial distinguishing features of the meanings of a set of English words such as table, horse, boy, man, girl, woman, we
could begin with the following diagram.
table Horse boy Man girl woman
Animate - + + + + +
human - - + + + +
Female - - - - + +
Adult - + - + - +

From a feature analysis like this, we can say that at least part of the meaning of the word girl in English involves the
elements [+human, +female, - adult]. We can also characterize the feature that is crucially required in a noun in order
for it to appear as the subject of a particular verb, supplementing the syntactic analysis with semantic features.

This approach would give us the ability to predict which nouns make this sentence semantically odd. Some examples
would be table, horse and hamburger, because none of them have the required feature [+human].
The approach just outlined is a start on analyzing the conceptual components of word meaning, but it is not without
problem. For many words in a language it may not be as easy to come up with neat components of meaning. If we try to
think of the components or features we would use to differentiate the nouns advice, threat and warning, for example, we
may not be very successful. Part of the problem seems to be that the approach involves a view of words in a language as
some sort of containers to carry meaning components. There is clearly more to the meaning of words than these basic
types of features.

XII. SEMANTIC ROLES

Agent: The entity that performs the action.
Theme: The entity that is involved in or affected by the action.
Instrument: if an agent uses another entity in performing an action, that other entity takes the role of instrument. For
example, consider the following:
The boy kicked the ball. The man opened the door with a key.
Agent theme agent theme instrument
The theme can also be an entity that is simply being described.
The ball was red.
theme
Although agents are typically human, they can also be non-human forces, machines, or creatures.
The wind blew the ball away.
agent
The car ran over the ball.
agent
The dog caught the ball.
agent
The theme can also be human.
The boy kicked himself.
theme
Benefactive: The noun or noun phrase that refers to the person or animal who benefits, or is meant to benefit, from

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the action of the verb. For example in the sentence John baked a cake for Louise, Louise is in the benefactive case.
Experiencer: When an NP designates an entity as the person who has a feeling, apperception or a state, it fills the role
of experience. If we see, know or enjoy something, we dont perform an action, but we are experiencers.
Did you hear that noise?
Experiencer
Location: It explains where an entity is.
Source: From where an entity moves.
Goal: Where an entity moves to.
She borrowed a magazine from George.
source
She handed the magazine back to George.
goal

XIII. LEXICAL RELATIONS

Not only words can be treated as containers or as fulfilling roles, they can also have relationships. The types of
lexical relations are as follows:
Synonymy: Two or more forms with very closely related meanings, which are often, but not always,
intersubstitutable in sentences. For example, Broad = Wide. It should be noted that the idea of sameness of meaning in
synonymy is not necessarily total sameness.
Antonymy: Two forms with opposite meanings are called antonyms. Antonyms are usually of two main kinds:
1) Gradable: They can be used in comparative constructions. The negative of one member does not necessarily imply
the other; e.g. not old doesnt mean young.
2) Non-Gradable (complementary pairs): They are not normally used in comparative constructions and the negative
of one member does imply the other; e.g. not dead means alive. But it is important to avoid describing most antonym
pairs as one word meaning the negative of another. Consider the opposites tie-untie. The word untie doesnt mean not
tie. It means do the reverse of tie. Such pairs are called reversives. Pack-unpack; raise-lower; dress-undress; and
lengthen-shorten.
Hyponymy: When the meaning of one form is included in the meaning of another, the relationship is called
hyponymy. In this category, we are looking at the meaning of words in some type of hierarchical relationship e.g.
animal-horse, animal-dog. We can say that two or more terms which share the same superordinate (higher up) term are
called co-hyponyms. So, dog and horse are co-hyponyms, and animal is superordinate. The Hyponymy captures the
idea of is a kind of e.g. Asp is a kind of snake.
Terms for actions can also be hyponyms; e.g. cut, punch, shoot, and stab can all be found as co-hyponyms of the
superordinate term injure.
Prototype: It explains the meaning of certain words like bird not in terms of component feature (e.g. has wings) but
in terms of resemblance to the clearest examplar; e.g. native speakers of English might wonder if ostrich or penguin
should be hyponyms of bird, but have no trouble deciding about sparrow or pigeon. The last two are prototypes.
Homophony: When two or more differently written forms have the same pronunciation but different meaning; e.g.
sea-see.
Homography: When two or more forms are the same only in writing but different in pronunciation and meaning they
are described as homographs such as lead ([lid]) and lead ([led]).
Homonymy: It is when one form (written or spoken) has two or more unrelated meanings, but have the same
pronunciation and spelling; e.g. bank (of a river) and bank (financial institution). They have quite different meanings
but accidently have the same form.
Polysemy: It can be defined as one form (written or spoken) having multiple meanings which are all related by
extension. e.g. head refers to top of your body, top of a glass of beer, top of a company. If two words are treated as
homonyms, they will typically have two separate entities.
Metonymy: This relationship is essentially based on a close connection in everyday experience. It may be
container-content relation (can-juice); a whole-part relation (car-wheels); or a representative-symbol relation
(king-crown). Sometimes making sense of many expressions depends on context, background knowledge and inference.
Collocation: Those words which tend to occur with other words; e.g. hammer collocates with nail; wife with husband
and knife with fork.

XIV. TRUTH.
The study of truth or truth conditions in semantics falls into two basic categories: the study of different types of truth
embodied in individual sentences (analytic, contradictory, and synthetic) and the study of different types of truth
relations that hold between sentences (entailment and presupposition).
Analytic Sentences. An analytic sentence is one that is necessarily true simply by virtue of the words in it. For
example, the sentence A bachelor is an unmarried man is true not because the world is the way it is, but because English

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language is the way it is. Part of our knowledge of ordinary English is that bachelor means an unmarried man, thus to
say that one is the other must necessarily be true. We do not need to check on the outside world to verify the truth of this
sentence. We might say that analytic sentences are true by definition. Analytic sentences are sometimes referred to as
linguistic truths, because they are true by virtue of the language itself.
Contradictory Sentences. Contradictory sentences are just the opposite of analytic sentences. While analytic
sentences are necessarily true as a result of the words in them, contradictory sentences are necessarily false for the same
reason. The following sentences are all contradictory: A bachelor is a married man, A blue gas is colorless, A square has
five equal sides. In each case, we know the sentence is false because we know the meaning of the words in it: part of the
meaning of bachelor is unmarried; part of the meaning of blue is has color; part of the meaning of square is
four-sided. It is not necessary to refer to the outside world in order to judge each of these sentences false.
Consequently, contradictory sentences are sometimes referred to as linguistic falsities, because they are false by virtue
of the language itself.
Synthetic Sentences. Synthetic sentences may be true or false depending upon how the world is. In contrast to
analytic and contradictory sentences, synthetic sentences are not true or false because of the words that comprise them,
but rather because they do or do not accurately describe some state of affairs in the world. For example, the sentence
My next door neighbor, Bud Brown, is married is a synthetic sentence. Note that you cannot judge its truth or falsity by
inspecting the words in the sentence. Rather, you must verify the truth or falsity of this sentence empirically, for
example by checking the marriage records at the courthouse. Other examples of synthetic sentences include Nitrous
oxide is blue, Nitrous oxide is not blue, Bud Browns house has five sides, and Bud Browns house does not have five
sides. In each case, the truth or falsity of the sentence can be verified only by consulting the state of affairs that holds in
the world. Thus, synthetic sentences are sometimes referred to as empirical truths or falsities, because they are false by
virtue of the state of the extralinguistic world.

XV. ENTAILMENT.
An entailment is a proposition (expressed in a sentence) that follows necessarily from another sentence. For example,
Martina aced chemistry entails Martina passed chemistry, because one cannot ace chemistry without passing chemistry.
The test for entailment is as follows; sentence (a) entails sentence (b) if the truth of sentence (a) ensures the truth of
sentence (b) and if the falsity of sentence (b) ensures the falsity of sentence (a). Our example sentences pass both tests.
First, the truth of sentence (a) ensures the truth of sentence (b). Note that if Martina aced chemistry, she necessarily
passed chemistry. Second, the falsity of sentence (b) ensures the falsity of sentence (a). If Martina didnt pass chemistry,
she necessarily didnt ace chemistry.
Note, however, that the relation of entailment is unidirectional. For instance, consider our example sentences again,
but in the opposite order: (b) Martina passed chemistry and (a) Martina aced chemistry. In this case, sentence (b) does
not entail (a) (if Martina passed chemistry, she did not necessarily ace chemistry she may have made a C); and the
falsity of (a) does not ensure the falsity of (b) (if Martina did not ace chemistry, it is not necessarily the case that she did
not pass chemistry she may, once again, have made a C). In short, then, it should be clear that the relation of
entailment is unidirectional.
This is not to say, however, that there cannot be a pair of sentences such that each entails the other. Rather, when such
a relation holds, it is called paraphrase. For example, the sentences Martina passed chemistry and What Martina passed
was chemistry are paraphrases of each other. Note, incidentally, that entailment describes the same relationship between
sentences that hyponymy describes between words. Likewise, paraphrase describes the same relationship between
sentences that synonymy describes between words. These relations are illustrated in the following figure.
Inclusion analogues between sentences and words

Thus, if sentence (a) Martina aced chemistry presupposes sentence (b) Martina took chemistry, the denial of sentence
(a) Martina did not ace chemistry also presupposes sentence (b) Martina took chemistry. If Martina did not take
chemistry, then Martina did not ace chemistry cannot be judged true or false.
The relationship between entailment and presupposition is illustrated in this figure. This figure should be read as
follows: Martina aced chemistry entails Martina passed chemistry. Both of those sentences, in turn, presuppose Martina
took chemistry.

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Relationship between entailment and presupposition

XVI. PRESUPPOSITION.
A presupposition is a proposition (expressed in a sentence) that must be assumed to be true in order to judge the truth
or falsity of another sentence. For example, Martina aced chemistry presupposes Martina took chemistry, because acing
chemistry assumes the person in question actually took chemistry. The simplest test for presupposition depends upon
the fact that a sentence and its denial (i.e., the negative version of the sentence) have the same set of presuppositions.
This test is known as constancy under negation.

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[15] Montague, R. (1974). Formal Philosophy: selected papers of Richard Montague, ed. R.H. Thomason, New Haven: Yale
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[16] Nazari Bagha, K. (2008). What is Semantics? Humanities, No. 2 , pp.58-64, Azarbaijan: Baku State University.
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Karim Nazari Bagha was born in Ardebil/Iran in 1968. He got his B.A. in English Language and Literature from Ardebil Islamic
Azad University in 1992 and his M.A. in TEFL from Tabriz Islamic Azad University in 1996. Now he is a Ph.D. student in General
Linguistics at Baku State University.
He is the Faculty Member of Astara Islamic Azad University. So far he has written 8 books and 25 articles published in different
countries. His research interests include writing books and articles. Nazari Bagha, K. (2003). Poetry in English. Tehran: Islamic
Azad University Press. Nazari Bagha, K. (2009). General English for University Students. Ardebil: Mohageg-e-Ardebili Publisher.
Nazari Bagha, K. (2011). Basic English for University Students. Ardebil: Mohageg-e-Ardebili Publisher.
Mr. Nazari Bagha has received an award from Astara Islamic Azad University and Universities of Guilan Province as being one of
the best researchers and has published many books and numerous papers.

2011 ACADEMY PUBLISHER