The Beginnings of World History: Essential Question
The Beginnings of World History: Essential Question
The Beginnings of World History: Essential Question
The Beginnings of
World History
Essential Question
How has the way that we think about and study world history changed over time?
About the Photo: A researcher examines In this module you will learn about how new archaeological finds and
hominid fossils from Rising Star Cave in technology continue to change our understanding of early human life.
South Africa.
2 Module 1
Timeline of Events, Prehistory2500 BC Explore ONLINE!
World
4,000,000 BC
40,000 BC Cro-Magnons
emerge.
7000 BC Community at
Jericho is wiped out.
4 Module 1
Geography
Geography can affect historiography, as well as the course of events that
happen throughout world history. Geography includes physical, human,
and cultural characteristics. When studying history, social scientists
consider these aspects of geography but also factors such as who made a
discovery and the place and time where the discovery occurred. These fac-
tors are important in the study of world history and our understanding of
the past because they can influence peoples interpretations and theories.
Not everyone understands or interprets a historical event in thesameway.
The Impact of Geography Scholars have tried to address the role and
impact of geography in world history. In his Pulitzer Prizewinning book
Guns, Germs, and Steel, Jared Diamond examines the role of geography in
the success and failure of civilizations, or complex cultures that developed
at least five key characteristics. These characteristics include advanced
cities, specialized workers, complex institutions, record keeping, and
advanced technology. In addition, Diamond points to several factors that
made Eurasian civilizations successful in conquering other civilizations.
He suggests that Eurasias location and climate provided good conditions
for agriculture, resistance to certain germs that wiped out or decimated
other civilizations, and the ability to develop stronger and better technol-
ogy and social institutions. Other civilizations that developed outside of
this geographic area were unable to surmount these challenges that many
Eurasian civilizations were able to overcome.
But what other geographic factors affect the development and success of
civilizations? A civilization that is landlocked and does not have access to
bodies of water is posed with certain challenges for survival. On the other
hand, civilizations that are surrounded entirely by water face other chal-
lenges. Yet, sometimes those challenges have been used to their advantage.
An Island Nation in the East Island nations are, for the most part, iso-
lated, and throughout history they have developed differently. Japan, for
example, was largely isolated from the West. Before the mid-1800s when
Commodore Matthew Perry arrived with a fleet to open Japanese trade
with the United States, Japan had very limited trade with the West. The
Japanese had traded with the Chinese and the Dutch, but it was limited
and controlled. After the Japanese began to trade with the United States
and other Western countries, they wanted to modernize and Westernize
their own country. By the early 1900s, the Japanese had engaged in war
with the Russians and defeated them. The former isolated island nation
had now entered the world stage and was considered a world power.
An Island Nation in the West The island nation of Great Britain devel-
oped differently than Japan. It also became a world power, but at a much
earlier time. We can examine its interaction with Rome, for example, to
better understand how geography has impacted its history. In ancient
times when Rome became a republic and later expanded into an empire,
many lands came under its rule, including Britain. Yet, because Britain is
an island, it took the Romans much longer to conquer it compared to other
places that became part of its empire. Another example of how geography
impacts the history and development of a place is to look at Britains role
in the Age of Exploration in the 1500s and 1600s. It joined other European
nations in the quest to start colonies in the Americas, Asia, and Africa
between the 1600s and 1800s. By the late 19th century, it had built a vast
empire around the world. As an island nation, Britain developed into a for-
midable sea power. This was due in large part to its geography and its need
to protect its empire, which spanned the globe.
Beyond Location In studying history, one should examine not only place
and time in assessing the role of geography. Climate must also be consid-
ered. Climate can affect food availability and variety, as well as other natu-
ral resources. Along with physical features such as mountains and bodies
of water, climate can enable or discourage migration. It can be a factor in
wiping out a civilization if successive crop yields are poor. It can also cause
involuntary migration, in which people are forced to move because a place
that was once suitable for humans is no longer livable.
Scientists know from their research that a phenomenon known as the
Little Ice Age started between 1100 and 1250. It had devastating effects
across Europe, causing crop failures, famines, forced migration, and the
failure of settlements. Even though by this time peoples and civilizations
had been successfully using agriculture to meet their food needs for cen-
turies, they could not control the weather. Cold weather over long periods
of time wiped out crops. To avoid starvation, some people had to abandon
growing crops and go back to relying on hunting and gathering.
One example of the effects of the Little Ice Age can be seen in the study
of Greenland. In 2011, researchers presented their conclusions after
examining ice cores from lakes in western Greenland. They determined
that Norse Vikings may have left their settlements over time because of
Reading Check the plunge in temperatures, but they could have abandoned them for other
Evaluate How has reasons. The cooler weather was gradual, but it made the growing season
geography affected
history? Cite two shorter and possibly caused lower crop yields. The cooler temperatures
examples from thetext. may have also created more sea ice, which could have hampered trade.
6 Module 1
Role of Archaeology
Archaeology plays a key role in historiography because it deals with the
study of artifacts, or human-made objects, and other evidence from the
past. Archaeologists use this evidence to discover clues about how people
lived, developed, and interacted with their environment.
Archaeology and Perception Archaeological discoveries have revealed
evidence from prehistory to the modern era, in all parts of the world.
They have providedDNA evidence of the Neanderthal genome, uncovered
theterra cotta soldiers ofChinas first emperor Shi Huangdi, and revealed
clues to how the bubonic plague spread through Asia and Europe, to name
just a few important discoveries.
Often archaeologists work with people from other disciplines to help
piece together the past. They work with genetic scientists to describe human
history. They work with environmental scientists to understand resource
allocation and land degradation. People from different fields of science often
work together. They show that the interpretation of history is affected not
only by the perspective of various disciplines, but also by the contrasting
perceptions of people living in different areas of the world. In other words,
the same event or time period may be perceived in distinctive ways. For
example, when discussing a war, the defeated and the victor may retell the
course of events differently. In a similar way, one archaeological discovery
may be interpreted differently from one discipline to another.
Archaeologists work at
a site in Denisova Cave,
Siberia, to uncover
Paleolithic bone fragments
of an early hominid.
Physical Anthropology Prehistory how the mummy Ice Man died and what happened
to him before his death; development of human race
(hominins/hominids) in South Africa
Physics/Remote Sensing Neolithic Age information about Neolithic settlements such as Skara
Brae in Scotland
Archaeology and Forensic Modern Era crimes against humanity from mass graves in Bosnia
Anthropology during ethnic cleansing
Flexible History
When historians write about and interpret history, they know that their
interpretations are subject to change. They draw conclusions based on
evidence, such as artifacts, other primary sources, and secondary sources
that are available at the time. They may also have biases in their interpre-
tations, which can be based on where they live, the time in which they live,
how history is taught where they live, and their own connection to the
subject matter. For this reason, it is important to remember not only that
history can change, but that it is also flexible and must be evaluated care-
fully to consider bias and perspective.
Changing and Revising History How does historiography change over
time? As new discoveries are made, our understanding and piecing
together of the past also change. Conclusions that are drawn from past dis-
coveries are often updated and modified by newer discoveries and inves-
tigations. Theories based on earlier evidence are rivaled by newer theories
based on more recent evidence. Essentially, history is written, revised, and
rewritten based on these new finds. Sometimes ancient languages when
they are first discovered cannot be translated. Over time, historians and
8 Module 1
Scientists in Madrid, Spain, use advanced technology to try to locate human remains from the past.
other scientists are able to decode or translate the language, which helps
them to interpret past civilizations. For example, it took a very long time
to fully decipher Mayan glyphs. Once scholars could read the language,
they were able to learn and understand more about the Mayan culture
and ways of life.
Lesson 1 Assessment
1. Organize Information Create a timeline of the Little 2. Key Terms and People For each key term or person in
Ice Age. the lesson, write a sentence explaining its significance.
3. Draw Conclusions Why does history change?
event two event four 4. Analyze Eects How has geography affected the
course of history?
5. Analyze Eects Was the migration caused by the
event one event three Little Ice Age voluntary or involuntary, and what were
the consequences of the migration? Explain.
6. Form and Support Opinions Do you think the fact
Make a mental map of the areas affected by the Little
that Britain and Japan are islands enabled or deterred
Ice Age. Write a paragraph explaining how the Little
migration to and from those places? Explain.
Ice Age caused people to migrate and adapt their ways
of life. 7. Analyze Eects How might the discovery of fossils at
Rising Star cave affect history?
10 Module 1
Lesson 2
Understanding Culture
In prehistoric times, bands of humans that lived near one another began to
develop shared ways of doing things: common ways of dressing, similar hunting
practices, favorite animals to eat. These shared traits were the first beginnings of
what anthropologists and historians call culture.
Culture is the way of life of a group of people. Culture includes common practices
of a society, its shared understandings, and its social organization. By overcoming
individual differences, culture helps to unify the group.
COMPONENTS OF CULTURE
Media Government
Religious
Institutions
Family
School
Friends Workplace
Critical Thinking
1. Form and Support Opinions In U.S. culture, which 2. Make Inferences Which do you think has a greater
shared understanding do you think is the most impact on culture, observation and imitation or direct
powerful? Why? teaching? Explain your answer.
12 Module 1
Scientists called anthropologists study culture, or a peoples unique way
of life. Anthropologists examine the artifacts at archaeological digs. From
these, they re-create a picture of early peoples cultural behavior. (See Ana-
lyze Key Concepts on culture on the following page.)
Other scientists, called paleontologists, study fossilsevidence of early
life preserved in rocks. Human fossils often consist of small fragments of
teeth, skulls, or other bones. Paleontologists use complex techniques to
date ancient fossil remains and rocks. Archaeologists, anthropologists,
paleontologists, and other scientists work as a team to make new discover-
ies about how prehistoric people lived.
Early Footprints Found In the 1970s, archaeologist Mary Leakey led a
scientific expedition to the region of Laetoli in Tanzania in East Africa.
(See map on page 17.) There, she and her team looked for clues about
human origins. In 1978, they found prehistoric footprints that resem-
bled those of modern humans preserved in volcanic ash. These foot-
prints were made by humanlike beings now called australopithecines
BXtTUSBZtMPItPIHTHtJItTZO[
XIJDIMJWFEGSPNBCPVUUPNJMMJPO
years ago. The Laetoli footprints provided striking evidence about human
origins.
The Discovery of Lucy While Mary Leakey was working in East Africa,
U.S. anthropologist Donald Johanson and his team were also searching
for fossils. They were exploring sites in Ethiopia, about 1,000 miles to the
OPSUI*O
+PIBOTPOTUFBNNBEFBSFNBSLBCMFGJOEBOVOVTVBMMZ
complete skeleton of an adult female hominid. They nicknamed her Lucy
after the Beatles song Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds. She had lived
around 3.5 million years agothe oldest hominid found to that date.
Finding Lucy
We reluctantly headed back toward camp. Along
Donald Johanson and his team had been the way, I glanced over my right shoulder. Light
conducting a search in Hadar, Ethiopia, glinted off a bone. I knelt down for a closer look . . .
when they discovered a forearm and other Everywhere we looked on the slope around us we saw
bones that seemed to be related.
more bones lying on the surface. . . The find launched
a celebration in camp.
Analyze Historical Sources Donald Johanson
1. Compare How was the discovery of Lucy from Ancestors: In Search of Human Origins
similar to Mary Leakeys discovery in Tanzania?
2. Draw Conclusions Do you think that
Johanson and his team knew they had made
a significant find when they found Lucy?
Explain.
Hominids Walk Upright Lucy and the hominids who left their footprints
in East Africa were species of australopithecines. Walking upright helped
them travel distances more easily. They were also able to spot threatening
animals and carry food and children.
These early hominids had already developed the opposable thumb.
Reading Check This means that the tip of the thumb can cross the palm of the hand. The
Draw Conclusions opposable thumb was crucial for tasks such as picking up small objects and
Why were the making tools. (To see its importance, try picking up a coin with just the
discoveries of hominid
footprints and Lucy index and middle fingers. Imagine all of the other things that cannot be
important? done without the opposable thumb.)
14 Module 1
Timeline: Hominid Development
2 MILLION 1 MILLION
.*--*0/ 3 MILLION YEARS AGO YEARS AGO 8000 BC
YEARS AGO YEARS AGO
Homo habilis May Have Used Tools Before the australopithecines even-
UVBMMZWBOJTIFE
OFXIPNJOJETBQQFBSFEJO&BTU"GSJDBBSPVOENJM-
lion years ago to 1.5 million years ago. In 1960, archaeologists Louis and
Mary Leakey discovered a hominid fossil at Olduvai (OHLtEVItWZ
(PSHF
in northern Tanzania. The Leakeys named the fossil Homo habilis, which
means man of skill. The Leakeys and other researchers found tools made
of lava rock. They believed Homo habilis used these tools to cut meat and
crack open bones. Tools made the task of survival easier.
Homo erectus Develops Technology About 1.9 million years ago to
50,000 years ago, before Homo habilis left the scene, another species of
hominids appeared in East Africa. This species is now known as Homo
erectus, or upright man. Some anthropologists believe Homo erectus was
a more intelligent and adaptable species than Homo habilis. Homo erectus
people used intelligence to develop technologyways of applying knowl-
edge, tools, and inventions to meet their needs. These hominids gradually
became skillful hunters and invented more sophisticated tools for digging,
scraping, and cutting. They also eventually became the first hominids to
migrate, or move, from Africa. Fossils and stone tools show that bands of
Homo erectus hunters settled in India, China, Southeast Asia, and Europe.
According to anthropologists, Homo erectus was the first to use fire.
Fire provided warmth in cold climates, cooked food, and frightened away
attacking animals. The control of fire also probably helped Homo erectus
settle new lands.
Homo erectus may have developed the beginnings of spoken language.
Reading check Language, like technology, probably gave Homo erectus greater control over
Recognize Effects the environment and boosted chances for survival. The teamwork needed
How did Homo to plan hunts and cooperate in other tasks probably relied on language.
erectus use fire
to adapt to the Homo erectus might have named objects, places, animals, and plants and
environment? exchanged ideas.
History in Depth
Present
Timeline of Planet Earth
Imagine the 102 stories of the Empire State Building as
a scale for a timeline of the earths history. Each story 40,000 years ago
Cro-Magnons appear.
SFQSFTFOUTBCPVUNJMMJPOZFBST.PEFSOIVNBOCFJOHT
200,000 years ago
have existed for just a tiny percentage of the life of this 1 billion Neanderthals appear.
planet. Yet, since those prehistoric days of making stone years ago
tools and learning to control fire, the technology of modern 4 million years ago
Australopithecines
humans has advanced considerably. appear.
16 Module 1
Explore ONLINE!
Early Human Migration, 1,600,00010,000 BC
ARCTIC OCEAN
Arctic Circle
Heidelberg, Germany Diuktai Cave, Russia
600,000 years ago Malta, Russia 14,000 years ago
15,000 years ago
Mladec, Czech Rep.
33,000 years ago
ASIA NORTH
EUROPE Denisova Cave, Siberia AMERICA
30,00050,000 years ago
Lantian, China 40N
700,000 years ago Blackwater Draw, U.S.
Ubeidiya, Israel Meadowcroft
1 million years ago 11,000 years ago Rockshelter, U.S.
Qafzeh, Israel
92,000 years ago
P A C I F I C O C E AN 12,000 years ago
Tighenif, Algeria
700,0000 years ago Liujiang, China Tropic of Cancer
67,000 years ago Buttermilk Creek Complex, Texas ATLANTIC
15,500 years ago
AFRICA OCEAN
Homo erectus fossil site
s
Trinil, Indonesia Liang Bua Cave, Homo sapiens migration route Pedra Furada, Brazil
700,000 years ago Indonesia 12,000 30,000
Area o
160W
120W
160E
South Africa
0
Interpret Maps
1. Movement To what continents did Homo erectus groups migrate after leaving Africa?
2. Human-Environment Interaction What do the migration routes of Homo sapiens reveal
about their survival skills and ability to adapt?
and thick bones. To many people, the name Neanderthal calls up the
comic-strip image of a club-carrying caveman. However, archaeological
discoveries reveal a more realistic picture of these early hominids, who
lived roughly between 200,000 and 30,000 years ago.
Evidence suggests that Neanderthals tried to explain and control their
world. They developed religious beliefs and performed rituals. About
60,000 years ago, Neanderthals held a funeral for a man in Shanidar Cave,
located innortheastern Iraq. Some archaeologists theorize that during
the funeral, the Neanderthals family covered his bodywith flowers. This
funeral points to a belief in a world beyond the grave.
Neanderthals were also resourceful. They survived harsh Ice Age
winters by living in caves or temporary shelters made of wood and animal
skins. Animal bones found with Neanderthal fossils indicate the ability of
Neanderthals to hunt in subarctic regions of Europe. To cut up and skin
their prey, they fashioned stone blades, scrapers, and other tools. The
Neanderthals survived for some 170,000 years and then mysteriously
vanished about 30,000 years ago.
18 Module 1
Now and Then
Chad Discovery
In 2002, an international team of scientists
announced the discovery of a 6- to 7-million-
year-old skull in northern Chad. The skull is
similar in size to a modern chimpanzee, with
a similar brain capacity. (See photograph.)
The team reported that the skull, nicknamed
Toumai, or hope of life, was the earliest human
ancestor so far discovered. Its date is, in fact,
millions of years older than the previous oldest-
known hominid. The skull dates from the time
that scientists believe the ancestors of humans
split from the great apes. Whether the skull is
actually human or ape will require further study.
of one of the specimens found in Denisova Cave. They concluded that the
Denisovans came from a common ancestor that dates back before the
Neanderthal. They believe that these hominins lived in Denisova Cave
Reading Check
Analyze Effects
some time between 50,000 and 170,000 years ago.
How has the ability to Later, in 2013, a group of evolutionary anthropologists drew new con-
make new discoveries clusions based on a new genome from the same cave. They said that based
about how prehistoric
peoples lived changed on this genome, they believe that the Denisovans and Neanderthals
over time? interacted.
Lesson 2 Assessment
1. Organize Information Complete the diagram with 3. Draw Conclusions What clues do bones and artifacts
details about hominids and Cro-Magnons. Which give about early peoples?
advance by a hominid group do you think was the 4. Summarize What were the major achievements in
most significant? Explain. human history during the Old Stone Age?
5. Recognize Eects Why was the discovery of fire so
important?
6. Make Inferences Why will specific details about the
Hominid Group
physical appearance and the customs of early peoples
never be fully known?
Cro-Magnons
7. Synthesize How do recent findings keep revising
knowledge of the prehistoric past?
Cave Paintings
Cave paintings created by primitive people are found
on every continent. The oldest ones were made about CAVE PAINTINGS AT
TASSILI NAJER, ALGERIA
35,000 years ago. Cave paintings in Europe and Africa
These paintings depict women,
often show images of hunting and daily activities. In the children, and cattle. Located
Americas and Australia, on the other hand, the paintings in Algeria, the Tassili nAjer
tend to be more symbolic and less realistic. UBItSEELtFFOBItZHEER) site
Scholars are not sure about the purpose of cave paintings. DPOUBJOTNPSFUIBO
JNBHFT
They depict shifts in climate, animal
They may have been part of magical rites, hunting
migrations, and changes in human
rituals, or an attempt to mark the events during various life. The oldest paintings date
seasons. Another theory is that cave paintings (especially back to about 6000 BC. Images
the more realistic ones) may simply be depictions of the continued to be painted until
surrounding world. around the second century AD.
20 Module 1
HISTORY THROUGH ART
Critical Thinking
1. Analyze Motives Why do you think primitive peoples 2. Compare and Contrast How are these paintings
used the walls of caves for their paintings? similar to or different from public murals created today?
22 Module 1
Artistic Expression in the Paleolithic Age The tools of early modern
humans explain how they met their survival needs. Yet their world best
springs to life through their artistic creations. Necklaces of seashells, lion
teeth, and bear claws adorned both men and women. People ground mam-
moth tusks into polished beads. They also carved small realistic sculptures
of animals that inhabited their world.
As you read in the Cave Paintings feature, Stone Age peoples on all con-
tinents created cave paintings. The best known of these are the paintings
on the walls and ceilings of European caves, mainly in France and Spain.
Reading Check There, early artists drew lifelike images of wild animals. Cave artists made
Summarize colored paints from charcoal, mud, and animal blood. In Africa, early art-
How did tools affect
the food supply of ists engraved pictures on rocks or painted scenes in caves or rock shelters.
Paleolithic hunters? In Australia, they created paintings on large rocks.
History in Depth
The Neolithic Ice Man
In 1991, two German hikers made an accidental discovery that gave
archaeologists a firsthand look at the technology of early toolmakers. Near
the border of Austria and Italy, they spotted the mummified body of a
prehistoric traveler, preserved in ice for some 5,000 years.
Nicknamed the Ice Man, this early human was not empty-handed. The tool
kit found near him included a six-foot longbow and a deerskin case with 14
arrows. It also contained a stick with an antler tip for sharpening flint blades,
a small flint dagger in a woven sheath, a copper ax, and a medicine bag.
Scientific research on the body concluded that the Ice Man was in his 40s
when he died in the late spring or early summer. It revealed that he was
likely murdered after engaging in hand-to-hand combat two days before he
bled to death. Scientists also determined that before his death, he ate wild goat,
red deer, and grains. The Ice Man is housed in a museum in Bolzano, Italy.
Analyze Visuals
1. Draw Conclusions How do you think scientists 2. Make Inferences Why does knowing what the Ice
determined the circumstances that led to the Ice Man ate and the tools that he used help us better
Man's death? understand history?
24 Module 1
Domestication of Animals Food gatherers understanding of plants prob-
ably spurred the development of farming. Meanwhile, hunters expert
knowledge of wild animals likely played a key role in the domestication,
or taming, of animals. They tamed horses, dogs, goats, and pigs. Like
farming, domestication of animals came slowly. Stone Age hunters may
have driven herds of animals into rocky ravines to be slaughtered. It was
then a small step to drive herds into human-made enclosures. From there,
farmers could keep the animals as a constant source of food and gradually
tamethem.
Not only farmers domesticated animals. Pastoral nomads, or wander-
ing herders, tended sheep, goats, camels, or other animals. These herders
moved their animals to new pastures and watering places.
Agriculture in Jarmo Today, the eroded and barren rolling foothills of the
Zagros Mountains in northeastern Iraq seem an unlikely site for the birth-
place of agriculture. According to archaeologist Robert Braidwood, thou-
sands of years ago the environmental conditions of this region favored the
development of agriculture, but not anymore. Wild wheat and barley, along
with wild goats, pigs, sheep, and horses, had once thrived near the Zagros
Mountains.
In the 1950s, Braidwood led an archaeological dig at a site called Jarmo.
Reading Check He concluded that an agricultural settlement was built there about
Compare 9,000 years ago. The Jarmo farmers, and others like them in places as far
How did the Neolithic apart as Mexico and Thailand, pioneered a new way of life. Villages like
Revolution differ
from the Paleolithic Jarmo marked the beginning of a new era and laid the foundation for
Revolution? modern life.
120E
80E
0
N
W E
S A S I A
0 500 1,000 mi EUROP E
0 1,000 2,000 km
40N AKAN
LIM e
TAK ESERT
)
H
R.
D g
an
w
Jarmo Hu Yel
lo
Eu
hr Tig (
p
a te ri
s Pan-po
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Jericho R.
R.
.
Nile
us
CHINA
In d
SAHARA . RA
A
Tropic of Cancer ES BI
D
ER AN INDIA
T
A F R I C A
INDIAN OCEAN
NORTH
SONORAN
DESERT AMERICA ATLANTIC
OCEAN Major crops
Tropic of Cancer Sorghum Wheat
Bananas Grapes
Tehuacan Soybeans
Valley Barley Olives
NA
Agriculture by 5,000 BC
MI B
Agriculture by 2,000 BC
PACIFIC 0 Equator DESERT Cotton Rice
Agriculture by 500 BC
ERT
OCEAN
N
SOUTH
AMERICA
W E
S
MA DESERT
Tropic of Capricorn
0 500 1,000 mi
ATACA
0 1,000 2,000 km
A Neolithic grindstone
Agricultural Revolution and vessel used to
grind grain
Temperature Population
60 150
World Population (in millions)
Average Global Temperature
Post-
58 125
Agricultural
(in Fahrenheit)
100 Revolution
56
75 Agricultural
beginnings of
54 Revolution
agriculture 50
Hunting-
52 25
last ice age gathering
stage
50 0
25 20 15 10 5 0 25 20 15 10 5 0
Years Ago (in thousands) Years Ago (in thousands)
Source: Ice Ages, Solving the Mystery Source: A Geography of Population: World Patterns
26 Module 1
The town of Catal Huyuk formed a complex society with some characteristics of a civilization, such as religion.
Lesson 3 Assessment
1. Organize Information Complete the details in the 3. Make Inferences What kinds of problems did Stone
outline. Which effect of the development of agriculture Age peoples face?
was the most significant? 4. Summarize In what ways did Neolithic peoples dra-
matically improve their lives?
Humans Try to Control Nature
5. Hypothesize Why do you think the development of
I. Early Advances in Technology and Art agriculture occurred around the same time in several
A. different places?
B.
II. The Beginnings of Agriculture 6. Form and Support Opinions What were the most sig-
nificant consequences of the Agricultural Revolution?
2. Key Terms and People For each term in the lesson,
write a sentence explaining its significance.
28 Module 1
Lesson 4
Neolithic Cultures
Lasting Materials
How much can be learned from what is perhaps the
Archaeologist Ian Hodder has led the most intriguing feature of all about Catalhoyk: that the
excavation at Catal Huyuk, a Neolithic site was built and rebuilt over the centuries in ways that
village, since 1993. In the following provide an unusually rich record of the minutiae [small
excerpt from the article This Old
details] of daily life? The main reason for the abundance
House in the June 2006 edition of
Natural History magazine, Hodder
of the archaeological record [at Catalhoyk] was that the
describes why the Catal Huyuk site is Catalhoykans used a particular kind of construction
such an archaeological gold mine. material. Instead of making hard, lime floors that held up
for decades (as was the case at many sites in Anatolia and
the Middle East), the inhabitants of Catal Huyuk made
Analyze Historical Sources
their floors mostly out of a lime-rich mud plaster, which
1. Main Idea and Details What aspect of remained soft and in need of continual resurfacing. Once
Catal Huyuk has provided archaeologists a yearin some cases once a monthfloors and wall
with a wealth of information? plasters had to be resurfaced. Those thin layers of plaster,
2. Make Inferences Based on what you somewhat like the growth rings in a tree, trap traces of
have read about other excavations of activity. . . . The floors even preserve such subtle tokens of
Neolithic finds, do you think that luck daily life as the impressions of floor mats.
plays a role in archaeological research?
Ian Hodder
Explain.
30 Module 1
These remains of stone walls and cabinets still stand in the excavated village of Skara Brae.
The excavations have shown that the people of Skara Brae buried the
dead in the earth, surrounding them with stone walls. What these and
other finds have revealed is a distinction between social classes in the
ancient Skara Brae culture, which did not exist formally until the rise of
civilizations. From this evidence we have learned about the beginnings
of social institutions and how they fulfilled basic needs of the people of
SkaraBrae.
Early Chinese Cultures Evidence of advanced Neolithic cultures in Asia
has also helped archaeologists learn about the past. Archaeologists have
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central China that date between about 5000 BC and 3000 BC. Many of
the pots have geometric shapes or designs. Other kinds of pottery, which
are painted red and black, have been discovered in north-central China.
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and Machang cultures, which came after the Yangshao. Jade has also been
found as well as pottery in the form of tripod pots and thin pots, which
demonstrates that these cultures may have developed a pottery wheel.
The pottery itself reveals details about the Yangshao culture, but where
archaeologists uncovered the pots helps provide even more information.
Archaeologists found pots and bowls buried with the dead. The dead were
Reading Check placed in designated graves, and the same kinds of pots and bowls were
Find Main Ideas found with all of the dead. This helps archaeologists draw the conclusion
What can we
learn from that there was not a social structure that divided the wealthy from the
complexcultures? poor or the common people.
Stonehenge may
come from the
ancient Saxon
word stan-hengen,
which means
stone hanging.
32 Module 1
Students from the University College London work together at the Festival of Culture
in May 2016 to simulate how ancient people may have moved the heavy bluestone
blocks to construct Stonehenge.
Lesson 4 Assessment
1. Organize Information Fill in the chart with the causes 3. Draw Conclusions Why is learning about complex
and effects of three discoveries that have affected our cultures important to our understanding of history?
understanding of Neolithic culture. 4. Make Inferences How have archaeologists learned
Cause Effect
about Neolithic social classes from excavations at
Skara Brae, Stonehenge, and Yangshou sites?
5. Summarize What tools have archaeologists used to
make new discoveries that have helped them revise
history, and where have they used these tools?
6. Evaluate Why is the discovery of Superhenge an
Which find do you think was most valuable to under- example of how new discoveries can revise past
standing complex Neolithic cultures? discoveries?
2. Key Terms and People For each key term or person in
the lesson, write a sentence explaining its significance.
Main Ideas
Use your notes and the information in the module to answer the following questions.
34 Module 1
Module 1 Assessment, continued
Critical Thinking Engage with History
1. Compare In a chart, show the differences You read in this module how interpretations of
between Paleolithic and Neolithic cultures. the past change as new discoveries are made.
Paleolithic Neolithic
You also learned that these interpretations are
Source
limited because they represent the perspec-
of food tive of the people of the time. Discuss how
Means of these factors affect current interpretations by
living
archaeologists and other scholars who have
Technology
tried to reconstruct early human and cultural
Type of
community development.