Breathing Architecture
Breathing Architecture
Breathing Architecture
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RESEARCH ARTICLE
Received 30 September 2014; received in revised form 19 February 2015; accepted 2 March 2015
KEYWORDS Abstract
Natural ventilation of This study explores architectural design by examining air, uid mechanics, and the natural ventilation
buildings; of buildings. In this context, this research introduces a new way of dealing with the process of
Computational uid architectural synthesis. The proposed way can be used either to create new architectural projects or
dynamics; to rethink existing ones. This study is supported by previous investigation into the natural ventilation
Architectural design;
of buildings via computational and laboratory simulation (Stavridou, 2011; Stavridou and Prinos,
Architectural synth-
2013). The investigation into the natural ventilation of buildings provides information and data that
esis;
Air; affect architectural design through various parameters. The parameters of architectural synthesis
Concept that are inuenced and discussed in this paper are the following: (i) inspiration and analogical
transfer, (ii) initial conception of the main idea using computational uid dynamics (digital design),
(iii) development of the main idea through an investigatory process toward building form
optimization, and (iv) form conguration, shape investigation, and other morphogenetic prospects.
This study illustrates the effect of natural ventilation research on architectural design and thus
produces a new approach to the architectural design process. This approach leads to an innovative
kind of architecture called breathing architecture.
& 2015 The Author. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC
BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
1. Introduction
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foar.2015.03.001
2095-2635/& 2015 The Author. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
128 A.D. Stavridou
buildings. To achieve this conjunction between architecture Mathematics (DahanDalmedico, 2011) and parametricism
and uid mechanics, analytical investigation in both elds is (Schumacher, 2009) can be integrated with the dynamic
necessary. processes of nature (Weinstock, 2008b) to promote digital
Chen (2004) explores the use of computational tools to design. This creation path is directly connected to the use
factor wind into architectural environmental design. The of computers (Woods, 2008) while its maturation may lead
study compares the available techniques used to study the to the production of new forms and esthetics (Goldblatt,
wind effect in building design and illustrates several archi- 2007).
tectural indoor and outdoor environmental designs that Building performance (Lam and Yeang, 2009; Fisher, 2012;
utilize computational uid dynamics (CFD). Weinstock and Hensel et al., 2012; Hygh et al., 2012; Aldawoud, 2013; Attia
Stathopoulos (2006) discuss about advanced simulation in et al., 2013) is an important issue in the literature. The
design and explain that the advanced physics of nonlinear integration of support tools into the early stages of architec-
behavior can be incorporated into generative computational tural design (Lam and Yeang, 2009; Attia et al., 2012; Fisher,
design in exploring the dynamic changes undergone by 2012; Greenberg et al., 2013) can contribute to the optimiza-
structures and materials in response to changing conditions. tion of form and design (Attia et al., 2012; Ihm and Krarti,
The study further presents a visualization of the main wind 2012). CFD simulation (Da Graa et al., 2012) provides leading
ow parameters around a proposed building on a site in information for the optimization of natural ventilation and
Chile. This work shows that the investigation into wind building geometry. Lomas (2007) describes how the architec-
movement at the exterior environment of a building may ture of advanced naturally ventilated buildings can be shaped
provide interesting information on the form of the building in by considering environmental design and ventilation. Wu et al.
correlation with the building topography. Menges (2006) (2011) compare the CFD results of natural ventilation with the
studies instrumental geometry and explains that parametric original design concept to verify the architect's vision of
digital modeling alters the digital representations of archi- realizing the design purpose. The integration of CFD results
tectural design from explicit geometric notation to instru- into energy simulation (Hiyama and Kato, 2011) promotes
mental geometric relationships. Hensel and Menges (2008) building performance while building form and its role on
investigate the inclusive performance of built environment energy consumption (Zerefos et al., 2012) are also determining
and efciency versus effectiveness toward a morpho- factors for eco-performative design. Energy efciency depends
ecological design approach. This study reveals that computa- on the natural ventilation strategy of a building (Schulze and
tional processes provide a potential for a high level of design Eicker, 2013). Therefore, CFD analysis (Givens, 2011; Surez
synthesis and that analysis plays a critical role during the et al., 2011; Wang et al., 2012) can be decisive in bioclimatic
entire morphogenetic process. This analysis is possible not architecture.
only by examining structural and environmental capacity but The literature shows that the investigation into architec-
also by revealing the material and geometric behavioral tural design with consideration of the natural ventilation of
tendencies of a system. Therefore, the instrumental con- buildings and with information from computational and
tributions of tools such as CFD software are signicant. laboratory simulations constitutes a valuable research eld.
Similar ideas were put forward in the study of McLean The current research provides lines of architectural synthesis
(2008), where it is stated that a creative application of induced by air, its movement, and natural ventilation, which
CFD tools can be developed in the design process. In the enable a building to breathe. Therefore, this study examines
above study, the analysis of aerodynamic principles the impact of investigating the natural ventilation of buildings
(Bernal, 1939) and the design of surface morphologies, with on various parameters of architectural design. The parameters
which the ventilation and protection of internal climate can inuenced and analyzed in this study are (i) inspiration and
be achieved by designing and envisioning airows and analogical transfer, (ii) initial conception of the main idea using
turbulence, appear to be an interesting prospect. In his CFD (digital design), (iii) development of the main idea through
article on architectural design and research, Weinstock, an investigatory process toward building form optimization, and
(2008a) notes that architectural designs usually need an (iv) form conguration, shape investigation, and other morpho-
optimal resolution of conicting parameters. When design genetic prospects. This study illustrates the effect of natural
goes beyond existing forms, spaces, or material systems, the ventilation research on these parameters and thus produces a
design can converge with research to achieve the idea of new new approach to architectural design that leads to "breathing
and preserve the goal of being optimal. Leach (2009) architecture".
explores digital morphogenesis and observes a shift of focus This paper is organized as follows. First, the concept of
within contemporary architectural design from an architec- breathing architecture is analyzed, and the role of the
ture based on purely visual concerns toward one that is natural ventilation of buildings in this kind of architecture is
justied by its performance. The privileging of performance introduced. Subsequently, information on the computa-
within the design process is described as an interest in tional and laboratory simulation of the natural ventilation
morphogenesis. Rahm (2009) hails the emergence of a of buildings is provided. Then, the effect of the investiga-
new meteorological architecture, in which the invisible tion into the natural ventilation of buildings on vital
takes precedence over the visible and elements such as the parameters of architectural design is elaborated. Figures,
atmosphere, conduction of heat, and shifting weather and descriptions, and discussions accompany the analyses of
climate conditions are foregrounded. This research provides each parameter. Lastly, several conclusions are derived
a new sort of creations, which consists of typologies related regarding a creative view of natural ventilation, architec-
with meteorology and physics, articulation of air movements, tural design through displacement ventilation, building
transformation of water into vapor, rates of renewal of air form optimization, morphology and contours of velocity,
mass, sound pressure, temperature, respiration etc. turbulence intensity and turbulent kinetic energy for
Breathing architecture: Conceptual architectural design 129
displacement, transitional and mixing ventilation, and the with the concept of breathing architecture, as illustrated
breathing attitude of architectural design. in Section 2.
Figure 1 (a) Dimensions of the building form (three-dimensional space), (b) Experimental model made of plexiglass.
midpoints of the windward and leeward openings. The dened as the ratio initial n = initial 100. The
reduced gravity is given by variable initial is dened as the temperature difference
between indoor and outdoor air at t = 0 min. The variable
g0 g g 2 n is dened as the temperature difference between the
mean temperature of indoor air at each new time selected
where g is the acceleration due to gravity; T and are the (t = n) and the temperature of outdoor air. The indoor mean
temperature and density difference between the internal and temperature of each time selected changes as time passes
external environments, respectively; and T and are the while the outdoor temperature is considered to be constant.
temperature and density of the external environment, respec- Note that when the decline rate of mean temperature is
tively. It is noted that for an ideal gas, /=/. of about 95% or higher than that, the transient phenomenon
is considered to be completed.
3.3. Decline rate of mean temperature in function
of time 4. Impact of the investigation into the natural
ventilation of buildings on four parameters of
In the computational simulation (Stavridou, 2011; Stavridou architectural design
and Prinos, 2013), for dening the duration of the phenom-
enon of natural ventilation, the decline rate of mean The natural ventilation of buildings can constitute an
temperature in the function of time is introduced and is incentive for innovative architectural design. Thorough
Breathing architecture: Conceptual architectural design 131
4.1. Inspiration and analogical transfer 4.2.1. Architectural synthesis of a building form
generated by air motion in displacement ventilation
Inspiration refers to the source of an idea. Investigating During the investigation into the natural ventilation of
natural ventilation of buildings can become the source of buildings (Stavridou, 2011; Stavridou and Prinos, 2013) and
important conceptual ideas in architectural design. If a the analysis of various ventilation types, one crucial ques-
concept is involved in the design process, then architectural tion emerges: What formation and type of natural ventila-
synthesis can be said to be under the inuence of the tion can be formed inside a building form which is shaped by
inspirational concept. Hence, an analysis and research on taking into account air motion caused by natural ventila-
the inspirational concept can enable architects to move tion? Therefore, a new building form is designed.
toward improved architectural design. For example, assum- The architectural synthesis of the building form,
ing that air is the inspiration of an architectural synthesis, described in this section, is produced by the investigation
several parameters related with air have to be analyzed. into the ow eld and the temperature prole of the
The analysis should cover the manner by which this theme is displacement ventilation in an orthogonal building volume
connected with the concept selected by the architect, as with low windward and high leeward openings. A simple unit
for example breathing architecture. as an orthogonal volume provides useful information even
Analogical transfer, in this study, refers to the creative for complicated systems because such volume can consti-
analogical transfer of elements from the subject of inspira- tute a kind of synthesis cell.
tion (namely, air and natural ventilation of buildings). As observed through computational and laboratorial
Creative analogical transfer constitutes a logic that provides analysis, displacement ventilation with low windward and
freedom for the architect because such transfer offers the high leeward openings (Fr0 = 1.15) has great interest and
potential of choice, selection, estimation, evaluation, and often generates better time results compared with other
creation of elements for each synthesis. In case of the ventilation types, as for example, mixing ventilation due to
investigation of natural building ventilation, analogical the position of the inlet opening (high windward and high
transfer can be used, either through laboratory simulation leeward openings) (Stavridou and Prinos, 2006b; Stavridou,
(Figure 2) or through computational simulation with the 2011). Moreover, for constant wind velocity and geometry
view of creating architectural synthesis that reects, with low windward and high leeward openings, displace-
reveals, and releases airow. In Figure 2, two windows of ment ventilation (Fr0 =1.15) results in the emptying of the
the model are opened (low windward and high leeward indoor space faster (at a lower duration of time) than
openings). transitional (Fr0 = 2.79) or mixing (Fr0 = 4.85) ventilation
132 A.D. Stavridou
(Stavridou, 2011; Stavridou and Prinos, 2013). Therefore, in the central longitudinal section (z = 0.75 m) of the three-
the design of a volume in which shape comes from indoor air dimensional space. This case refers to the displacement
movement under this type of ventilation is found to be ventilation with low windward and high leeward openings
appropriate. and an initial Froude number equal to 1.15 (Fr0 = 1.15,
To design a building form that comes from indoor air U = 0.62 m/s). The indoor and outdoor temperatures at
motion, the natural ventilation phenomenon is observed in t = 0 min are equal to 292 K and 288 K, respectively.
two-dimensional elds and then extended to three- The time shown in Figure 7 is t = 30 min. For this time
dimensional cases. instant, the phenomenon is considered to be completed (in
In Figure 3, representations of indoor air movement in particular, for t = 30 min, the decline rate of mean tem-
various two-dimensional spatial geometries (two-dimensional perature is higher than 95%). The black arrows indicate the
rectangular spaces with various opening positions) are pre- main ow direction while the blue line indicates the outline
sented. Accordingly, in this gure various morphological con- of the area with velocities of relatively high value.
gurations that come from contour lines of parameters such as Through this process of observing, marking, analyzing,
velocity, temperature, pressure, and turbulent kinetic energy, elaborating, and understanding natural ventilation, a new
are observed. This careful observation provides architects with building form is designed. The form generated is organic. Its
the opportunity to get into air behavior and realize its main facade is depicted in Figure 8a while the total volume
tendency. This attitude is important and releases architectural
design, as designing is not limited by restrictions but is guided
by an adopted behavior.
Figure 4 depicts a sketch based on the observation of the
natural ventilation phenomenon in buildings. The natural
ventilation of different types, the contours of various
parameters, the displacement ventilation with low wind-
ward and high leeward openings, and the congurations
produced by computational simulation and laboratory
experiments converge to the shape that is illustrated.
The two-dimensional case, shown in Figure 5, refers to
natural ventilation with low windward and high leeward
openings and represents a space (two-dimensional domain)
with a height of 7 m and width of 8 m; the height of each
opening is 1.2 m (Stavridou and Prinos, 2006a). The initial
temperature difference between the internal and external Figure 4 Sketch generated by the observation of the phenom-
environments is initial = 10 . Computational results of enon of natural ventilation of buildings.
this case at t = 200 s are presented in Figure 6. In particular,
the contours of temperature are depicted for two different
wind velocities (3 and 1 m/s); the velocity vectors for the
wind velocity of 3 m/s are depicted as well. A curved shape
(as an arcuation) at the bottom left corner of the space is
observed both in the temperature prole and in the ow
eld. As shown in Figure 6b, a black curved arrow indicates
the characteristic ow direction at the respective region.
The three-dimensional space (scale 1:1) described in
Section 3.1 and presented in Figure 1a is used for the
computational simulation (three-dimensional domain). Figure 5 Space conguration and position of openings (two-
Figure 7 depicts the temperature prole and the ow eld dimensional case).
Figure 3 Two-dimensional depictions of indoor air ows (various two-dimensional simulations). Contours of parameters as velocity,
temperature, pressure, turbulent kinetic energy.
Breathing architecture: Conceptual architectural design 133
Figure 6 Two-dimensional domain, t=200 s: (a) Contours of temperature for wind velocity equal to 3 m/sec, (b) Velocity vectors
for wind velocity equal to 3 m/sec, with note of curved arrow, (c) Contours of temperature for wind velocity equal to 1 m/sec.
Figure 7 Central longitudinal section (z =0.75 m) of the three dimensional space presented in Figure1(a): Displacement
ventilation with low windward high leeward opening for Fr0 =1.15 at t =30 min (a) Contours of temperature (b) Velocity vectors
with note of curves showing the main ow eld.
is presented in Figure 8b. This conguration comes from the The aim of the investigatory process is not to produce a
investigation into indoor air ow and natural ventilation, univocal optimization solution but to reveal a course that can
which yields extensive useful data from the computational lead to rened architectural choices and rened congura-
and laboratory simulations. Nevertheless, the synthesis tions. Importance is attached to the route and the orientation
follows a free course without strict constraints and limits. instead of a unique destination. Therefore, this process can
With the creation of this architectural volume, the expres- assist in producing advanced and improved solutions in
sion of non-visible elements of the natural ventilation of comparison to conventional architectural design.
buildings and their involved uidity is achieved. The outcomes of the computational simulation of the
natural ventilation of buildings cover indoor air movement
and temperature distribution (e.g., streamlines and con-
tours of different parameters). Accordingly, an architect
4.3. Development of the main idea through an can move toward building form optimization considering the
investigatory process toward building form digital information produced.
optimization
The development of the main idea constitutes a funda- 4.3.1. Investigatory process toward building form
mental part of the synthetic process because the nal result optimization
depends directly on the direction to which this development The investigatory process examined here involves a methodol-
moves. This section deals with the investigation into the ogy of isolating the indoor area with the best air circulation.
development of the main idea to the direction of building This area denes a new form without regions of trapped air,
form optimization. that is, low-moving or stagnant air. In this way, architectural
The investigatory process begins with specic conditions design can move toward building form optimization.
of a selected type of natural ventilation with good ef- The building volume selected to undergo this process is the
ciency based on previous investigation into the natural orthogonal three-dimensional building form (scale 1:1), described
ventilation of buildings. The process then continues by in Section 3.1 and presented in Figure 1a. The methodology of
applying a logic of selecting the indoor region with the best isolating areas and avoiding trapped air is applied through ve
air circulation. This logic intends to determine a direction different techniques that produce ve different yet related
for building form optimization and to assist the architect in results. This process leads to a transition from an orthogonal
reaching enhanced architectural design decisions. form to ve new forms with organic character.
134 A.D. Stavridou
Figure 9 (a) Grid of the half orthogonal volume including the ve vertical planes (z= 0.09375, 0.1875, 0.375, 0.5625, 0.75 m),
(b) Outline of the main air circulation for vertical plane z =0.75 m, (c) Technique of full and void areas at the ve vertical planes,
(d) Full and void areas at the four vertical planes forby the central one, (e) Total volume generated with the full and voids areas
technique, (f) Wireframe depiction of the total volume.
architectural synthesis of the building. Morphogenetic pro- Fr0 =2.79 for transitional ventilation, and Fr0 =4.85 for mixing
spects in architecture can move toward various forms encoun- ventilation. The building volume examined is the orthogonal
tered either in the visible or in the non-visible world. The three-dimensional building form (scale 1:1) with low windward
adoption or transfer of such elements can diversely inuence and high leeward openings, as described in Section 3.1 and as
the volume and plasticity of an architectural piece. shown in Figure 1a. In the computational simulation examined
Considering the investigation into the natural ventilation here, Fr0 increases by changing wind velocity while the initial
of buildings during the design process can transfer non- temperature difference between indoor and outdoor air is kept
visible behaviors of nature into the visible world. This effect constant (initial =4 ). In particular, indoor and outdoor
provides a new dimension in architectural design. This new temperatures at t=0 min are equal to 292 K and 288 K,
dimension relates not only to esthetics harmonized with the respectively. The values of wind velocity are 0.62, 1.5, and
laws of nature but also to the improvement of the efciency 2.6 m/s for Fr0 equal to 1.15, 2.79, and 4.85, respectively.
of physical phenomena that occur in buildings. The three different wind velocities indicate different
In this section, three non-visible parameters of the natural external conditions. Thus, the outcoming diagrams
ventilation of buildings (velocity, turbulence intensity, and of the computational simulation cover a respective range
turbulent kinetic energy) are presented and examined for three of results. Accordingly, the estimation of the results gen-
types of ventilation (displacement, transitional, and mixing). erates a corresponding context of creative action in design
Three initial Froude numbers are selected to represent each that offers new potentialities and advanced prospects in
ventilation type: Fr0 =1.15 for displacement ventilation, form, shape, and morphology.
136 A.D. Stavridou
Figure 10 Volume denition with the technique of solid layers (a) half part, (b) total volume. Volume denition with the technique
of curved solid layers (c) half part, (d) total volume.
The three parameters presented at the contour diagrams Based on the congurations of the velocity contours, as the
of natural ventilation are dened as follows (Allen and initial Froude number (Fr0) decreases, by changing wind
Ditsworth, 1972; Fluent Incorporated, 2001): velocity, the region with zero or approximately zero velocity
-
Velocity ( ) is dened as the rate of change of posi- increases. While as the initial Froude number increases, the
tion with respect to time. Turbulent kinetic energy (k) is congurations of the contours with relatively increased velo-
dened as cities (e.g., Z0.09) approach the orthogonal form. This
effect shows that an orthogonal form may have regions with
1 02
extremely low velocity, particularly in days with weak wind.
k u v 0 2 w 0 2 3
2 Digital congurations such as contours of velocity and stream-
lines assist in designing forms able to avoid low-moving or
where u0 , v0 ; and w0 are the uctuation velocities in the x, y,
stagnant air areas. Such forms are particularly important when
and z directions, respectively.
wind velocity is small. Speed gradation also guides distinguish-
Turbulence intensity (I) is dened as
ing different space uses with different needs of air movement.
p This kind of architectural design is related to good air
2=3k
I 4 circulation and high ventilation efciency.
ref
Figure 14 depicts the respective contours of turbulence
where the reference velocity (ref ) corresponds to the mean intensity while Figure 15 shows the lled contours of
velocity magnitude for the ow. In this paper, the reference turbulence intensity with extra indicated values per region.
velocity is assumed to be equal to the inlet velocity at the These congurations have several characteristics that are
low windward opening (0.62, 1.5, and 2.6 m/s for Fr0 equal similar to those of velocity, but the two types of congura-
to 1.15, 2.79, and 4.85, respectively). tions are not alike. For Fr0 = 1.15, the upper right corner of
Figure 12 depicts the velocity contours in ve vertical the space has low values of turbulence intensity (close to
planes of the building volume (z = 0.75, 0.5625, 0.375, zero), while this area has also zero (or approximately zero)
0.1875, and 0.09375 m) for three initial Froude numbers: velocity values. As the initial Froude number increases,
(i) Fr0 = 1.15, (ii) Fr0 =2.79, and (iii) Fr0 = 4.85. The times the contours with relatively increased turbulence intensity
are t = 30 min, t= 15 min, and t = 10 min for Fr0 equal to (e.g., IZ 1.8%) approach the orthogonal form. Neverthe-
1.15, 2.79, and 4.85, respectively. These values are time less, the turbulence intensity congurations exhibit differ-
instants for which the phenomenon is considered to be ent shape characteristics in comparison to the velocity
completed (in particular, for these time instants, the congurations, particularly at planes with z = 0.1875 m and
decline rate of mean temperature is higher than 95%). The z = 0.375 m. High turbulence intensity values are observed
lled contours of velocity with extra indicated values per at the central zone (z = 0.75, 0.5625 m) near the oor
region are shown in Figure 13. (approximately y r 0.5 m). Increased turbulence intensity
Breathing architecture: Conceptual architectural design 137
Figure 11 (a) Grid segmentation, (b) Grid of the one solid volume technique (side face of half part), (c) Grid of the one solid
volume technique (back side of half part), (d) Form denition with one solid volume technique (i) half part (ii) total volume,
(e) Form denition with curved solid volume technique (half part), (f) Form denition with curved solid volume technique (total
volume).
values and a relatively high gradient of turbulence intensity 0.5625 m). Moreover, increased values of turbulent kinetic
are also observed at the bottom left corner, particularly at energy are shown particularly in the central zone near the
the central vertical planes (z =0.75, 0.5625 m). The oor (approximately y r 0.5 m). As moving from the central
increased gradient is discerned by the close distance vertical plane to the side wall, the congurations show a
between successive contours. High turbulence intensity relatively loose morphology, and the turbulent kinetic energy
indicates high aesthesis of intensity for people residing in values, especially those near the oor, decrease. In addition, as
the respective areas. Moreover, increased turbulence inten- Fr0 increases, turbulent kinetic energy values also increase.
sity indicates increased pollutant diffusion. Accordingly, the Areas with increased values of turbulent kinetic energy indicate
bottom left corner and the central zone near the oor in increased intensity perception, as well as increased pollutant
this building geometry (low windward and high leeward diffusion.
openings) show better diffusion prospects than the upper The above data provide useful information on air
right corner does. circulation and movement, as well as the aesthesis of
Figure 16 depicts the respective contours of turbulent kinetic intensity applied to the inhabitants due to turbulence
energy. Meanwhile, Figure 17 shows the lled contours of intensity and turbulent kinetic energy. Architectural
turbulent kinetic energy with extra indicated values per region. design can be inuenced by one or more of the para-
These congurations differ from those of the two other meters analyzed above, depending on the intended
parameters. Nevertheless, a relatively high gradient of turbu- results. Hence, architects can collect data, elements,
lent kinetic energy is also observed at the bottom left corner of congurations, lines, areas of intensity, regions of move-
the space, particularly at the central vertical planes (z=0.75, ment etc and create the synthesis that they desire in a
138 A.D. Stavridou
Figure 12 Congurations of velocity (m/s) contours for Fr0 =1.15, 2.79, 4.85 at t=30, 15, 10 min respectively, at z =0.75, 0.5625,
0.375, 0.1875, 0.09375 m.
free manner. Examples of building forms are depicted in of a new kind of design that uses new tools in an innovative,
Figure 18. fresh, and virtually creative architectural design process.
Through this research, various morphological congura-
tions can be generated and they are not only harmonized
with different esthetic trends of contemporary architec- 5. Conclusions
tural design but they also create a new substantial sub-
stratum. This substratum concerns the improvement of the This paper introduces the concept of breathing architec-
natural ventilation of buildings, the expression of non- ture. In particular, this research explores effects of the
visible natural phenomena in buildings, and the advance investigation into the natural ventilation of buildings on
Breathing architecture: Conceptual architectural design 139
Figure 13 Filled velocity (m/s) contours for Fr0 = 1.15, 2.79, 4.85 at t= 30, 15, 10 min respectively, at z =0.75, 0.5625, 0.375,
0.1875, 0.09375 m. (Note: The velocity values indicated into the schemes of indoor space are considered to be approximative and
they intend to present color variation. In particular, for image discernibility and space saving, each value depicted into the diagrams
corresponds to the lower limit of each interval of values of the colorbar scale. The colorbar scale includes twenty color tones that
correspond to twenty intervals of values.).
architectural design and thus proposes a new kind of analogical transfer, (ii) initial conception of the main
architecture called breathing architecture. The investi- idea using CFD (digital design), (iii) development of the
gation into the natural ventilation of buildings provides main idea through an investigatory process toward building
information and data that affect various parameters form optimization, and (vi) form conguration, shape
of architectural design. The parameters examined in investigation, and other morphogenetic prospects. The
this research are the following: (i) inspiration and following conclusions are derived:
140 A.D. Stavridou
Figure 14 Congurations of turbulence intensity (%) contours for Fr0 =1.15, 2.79, 4.85 at t=30, 15, 10 min respectively, at z =0.75,
0.5625, 0.375, 0.1875, 0.09375 m.
The natural ventilation of buildings can serve as an forms and geometries. This system constitutes a unity that
inspirational motive and stimulate creative analogical provides useful information for various systems because it
transfer in architectural design. Careful physical, labora- may act as a synthesis cell. Creating a form which comes
tory, or computational observation of the phenomenon from a phenomenon that is going to occur inside this form
generates vital synthetic lines and guides architects in can become a substantial guide for a synthesis that moves
achieving breathing architecture. toward a breathing direction.
Natural ventilation in a simple orthogonal building volume
and, in particular, displacement ventilation with low wind-
ward and high leeward openings, can lead architectural A synthetic path that freely follows the master air ow
design that wants to breathe in nding new and effective without strict constraints and limits achieves the expression of
Breathing architecture: Conceptual architectural design 141
Figure 15 Filled turbulence intensity (%) contours for Fr0 =1.15, 2.79, 4.85 at t= 30, 15, 10 min respectively, at z =0.75, 0.5625,
0.375, 0.1875, 0.09375 m. (Note: The turbulence intensity values indicated into the schemes of indoor space are considered to be
approximative and they intend to present color variation. In particular, for image discernibility and space saving, each value
depicted into the diagrams corresponds to the lower limit of each interval of values of the colorbar scale. The colorbar scale
includes twenty color tones that correspond to twenty intervals of values.).
non-visible elements of the natural ventilation of buildings and outcome. An investigatory process toward building form
their involved uidity, while simultaneously promotes freedom optimization, which takes into account the natural
in architectural design. ventilation of buildings, congures the route of a respec-
tive development. This process aids in making advanced
decisions in designing and can lead to various building
The direction of the development of the main idea is forms. Furthermore, the technique selected to dene a
especially important because it drives the architectural generated building form has a signicant role in the nal
142 A.D. Stavridou
Figure 16 Congurations of turbulent kinetic energy (m2/s2) contours for Fr0 =1.15, 2.79, 4.85 at t =30, 15, 10 min respectively, at
z =0.75, 0.5625, 0.375, 0.1875, 0.09375 m.
result. The concept of isolating the indoor area with the leeward openings, as shown in Figure 1a) and for
best air circulation and excluding areas with low-moving different initial Froude numbers (here, Fr0 = 1.15,
or stagnant air can contribute to move toward optimiza- 2.79, 4.85 with U = 0.62, 1.5, 2.6 m/s, respectively,
tion in design. Therefore, the created forms reect the and initial = 4 ), provide data that can be used
uidity of natural ventilation while acquiring prospects creatively in architectural morphology and architec-
of high natural ventilation performance. tural synthesis through various manners.
In the investigation into the natural ventilation of Velocity contours show that as the initial Froude number
buildings, contours of velocity, turbulence intensity, (Fr0) decreases, by changing wind velocity, the region
and turbulent kinetic energy for a given geometry with zero or approximately zero velocity increases. While
(here, an orthogonal form with low windward and high as the initial Froude number increases, contours with
Breathing architecture: Conceptual architectural design 143
Figure 17 Filled turbulent kinetic energy (m2/s2) contours for Fr0 =1.15, 2.79, 4.85 at t=30, 15, 10 min respectively, at z =0.75,
0.5625, 0.375, 0.1875, 0.09375 m. (Note: The turbulent kinetic energy values indicated into the schemes of indoor space are
considered to be approximative and they intend to present color variation. In particular, for image discernibility and space saving,
each value depicted into the diagrams corresponds to the lower limit of each interval of values of the colorbar scale. The colorbar
scale includes twenty color tones that correspond to twenty intervals of values.).
relatively increased velocities approach the orthogonal Turbulence intensity contours show that the upper right
form. Thus, architectural design inuenced by stream- corner (interior of the windward side) of the space has very low
lines has particular importance, especially when the values of turbulence intensity (close to zero) for Fr0 =1.15. This
initial Froude number is small and the wind velocity result alters gradually as the initial Froude number (Fr0) is
is low. increased. High values of this parameter are observed at the
144 A.D. Stavridou
Acknowledgments
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