CHAPTER 1: BOILERS AND COMPONENTS

Boiler Ratings

1) one m2 = 10kW so heating surface of boiler x 10 kW/m2

2) for electric boilers, take max kW rating of heating element

3) if neither of above methods applicable, 36 MJ/hr output = 10kW

Steam Output: output/capacity of boiler usually expressed as kg steam/hr

Max continuous rating: the hourly evaporation (kg/h) that can be maintained for 24hrs at design T&P

Equivalent Evap:

Factor of Evap:

Fundamental Requirements in Design of Boiler

1) Efficiency

boiler must be efficient

must be able to transfer a max of heat available in the fuel to the water and steam in the drums
and tubes

2) Reliability

must be capable of remaining in service for long periods of time

must be constructed of materials capable of withstanding high P&T

3) Cost

depends largely on materials used, firing equip required, and aux necessary

4) Serviceability

should be designed so that it is readily accessible for cleaning, inspection, and repair

5) Safety

design should conform to ASME code regarding materials used, fabrication method, and fittings
installed
important safety factor is the type of control system used to operate boiler
Natural Circulation

downcomers unheated due to baffle positioning, risers sections receive the heat = less mass on
water/steam side = dF as driving force for circulation
d is highest at low pressures = positive natural circulation
as P , d -> 0 and @ 22100 kPa d = 0 AKA forced circulation is necessary

Factors affecting Nat Circ:

1. height of steam drum above mud drum (height = mass difference = d)

2. amount of heat applied to the tube (heat = steam rate = dm)
3. operating pressure of boiler (P = d)
4. cleanliness of tubes
d is the driving force behind nat circ: P causes d BUT P's deal with decreasing friction
loss
Designers must be careful so that there is always adequate mass flow at every load to keep the
tube metal below max temp limits
Forced Circulation

necessary for boilers critical pressures, preferred for boilers 14000 kPa

ADV

1. positive circulation assured at all loads = smaller** diameter tubes

** better heat rates, lower costs, thinner tubes with thermal stress

2. layout of boiler components is more flexible (ie can arrange components horizontally to reduce height
of unit)

3. boiler can be started more quickly & enables it to adjust to load changes more quickly

DADV power required for pump(s) operation

Two types:

(A) Controlled Circulation:

used for 14000-20000 kPa

large boilers employ suction header tied to tied to pump suction & discharge header tied to
several pumps discharge end

Fig: main feature is recirc pump(s) that provide circulation

Water from steam drum through downcomers to inlet header, through pump, discharge header to tube
inlet header and via orifices distributed to steam generating tubes -> steam/water mixture discharged
into steam drum -> (via separators) sat. steam removed to SH then to outlets. Orifices control the
amount of water flowing to steam generating units.

(B) Once-through boilers

used for subcritical & supercritical pressures

Fig: main feature is FW is pumped into tubes and leaves as SH steam

FW pump to economizer -> furnace wall tubes -> steam - water mixture (85-15%) to evaporator section
(any impurities deposit here) = 100 % steam -> radiant then convection SH sections

ADV

1. used for any design pressure

2. drum and separating equip not required

3. circ pumps and downcomers not required

4. CBD is not necessary (deposits flushed during periodic S/D's)

5. can be started up quickly

DADV

1. vulnerable to scale deposits b/c of 100% evaporation

2. corrosion is likely in tubes located in water/steam transition zone

3. flow must be maintained through unit anytime it's fired up to prevent overheating the tubes

Superheaters

turns wet saturated steam to dry saturated steam (latent heat) and then to SH steam (sensible)

ADV: (1) increase temp = more heat, energy, work /kg of steam = cycle eff.

(2) avoids excessive condensing in LP turbine stges = avoids LP end blade erosion

usually consists of smaller diameter tubing = (1) produces high velocity steam = better heat
transfer + (2) produces sufficient pressure drop = good steam distribution to tubes

Types:

Pendant - tubes suspended vertically

Horizontal - tubes run horizontally
Integral - are part of the boiler setting
Separately Fired - located in furnace apart from the main steam generator and is independent of
the steam generator operating conditions
Platen - Fig can be horizontal or vertical, assemble of tubes as below with inlet and outlet
headers
 can be drainable or nondrainable
pendant is common type, coils hanging vertically downward with inlet and outlet headers at the
upper ends of the loops (nondrainable)

SUPERHEATER TEMPERATURE
Steam temperature depend on:
(1) temperature of furnace
(2) temperature of gases through convection superheater
(3) cleanliness of superheats
(4) boiler feedwater temperature
(5) steam load

1,2, - increase with steam load = increase in steam temperature

3 - cleaner tubes = higher temperature
4 - increase with load = less heat release required in furnace / kg of steam generated = tendency to
decrease the steam temperature
5 - increase with load b/c (higher firing rate) major part of superheater and reheated heat is transferred
by convection

Convection:

located within path of hot combustion gases but shielded from furnace radian heat
Rising steam temperature characteristic = rise in superheated steam temperature as firing rate
or boiler output increases. Low loads = low steam temperature and at high loads = high steam
temperature B/C at high loads increase in combustion gas flow and combustion gas
temperature (from higher firing rate) more than increase in steam flow.

Radiant:

exposed to radiant heat of furnace

Falling steam temperature characteristic = high superheated steam temperature at low loads
B/C furnace temperature does not rise as rapidly as steam flow does as load increases.

Located btw Conv and Rad:

section exposed to radiant heat and section located away in hot combustion gas path
nearly cosntant steam temp over wide range of load
same result if combination type (rad connected in series to conv)
Separately Fired: (Fig below) has its own burner and steam temp control.
ADV wider range of temp control DADV higher cost, lower eff, requires more space

Factors in SH design:
1. steam temp desired (& amount of SH surface)
2. gas temp zone in which the surface is to be located
3. type of material used
4. velocity of steam through tubes
Desup (Attemperators)
Controlling steam temp by removing heat from steam

(A) Surface type:

cooling medium does not contact the steam
condenser type - loop tubes in SH inlet header, portion of boiler water passes through these tubes
shell type - shell & tube design downstream of primary SH, FCV: FW amount entering, DADV limited
range of control
drum type - loop tubes in boiler drums surrounded by boiler water, FCV: "..." SH steam, DADV limited
capacity, takes up space in boiler drum

(B) Direct Contact (Spray type):

FW introduced into SH steam via spray nozzles, venturi, thermal sleeves (protects piping from thermal
shock from water droplets hitting hot surface)

Fig: generally between stages of SH to ensure that final stage of SH is not subject to excessive temp's &
reduces risk of carrying water droplets from SH to turbine (compared to putting it at the end)
ADV quick acting, sensitive, inexpensive
DADV high purity (<2.5 ppm TDS) water to minimize SH tubes and turbine blades deposits
Tilting burners - at high loads steam temperature tends to go above desired valve = tilt burners
downward = increased heat absorption by furnace = decrease in gases leaving furnace to superheater.
Low loads = burner tilted upwards = less heat absorption n furnace = increased temperature of gases
going to superheater.
a) tilted down to give high heat transfer in furnace
b) tilted horizontal to give normal heat transfer in furnace
c) tilted up to give low heat transfer in furnace

Reheaters
raises steam temp has expanded through portion of turbine to temp provided by SH
design is similar to SH's, can be located in convection, radiation zone, or comb of the two
pressure drop more critical than SH b/c steam pressure is much lower than that entering SH
Reasons:
1. to prevent excessive condensation of steam in LP stages of turbine
2. to cycle efficiency by available energy/kg of steam
Economizers
about 80% heat transferred to water walls, SH, preheat section, 20% in economizer & air heater
section
generally designed with downward gas flow and upward flow of FW: ADV max mean temp
difference between gas & water, uniform temp difference in all parts of econ, upward flow of
water lessens risk of water hammer
can be integral or separate (more common)
every 6OC in FW temp = 1% efficiency of steam generator

Advantages
1) Increased boiler efficiency due to the fact that heat is recovered from the flue gases that
would otherwise be lost up the stack.
2) Less thermal shock to the steam drum from the feedwater.
Disadvantages
1) Increased resistance to flue gas flow, bigger fan required
2) Increased resistance to feedwater flow, bigger pump required
3) Corrosion problems
4) Economizer heat surfaces must be clean for efficient operation
Air Heater
recover heat from flue gas & also improve and stabilize combustion process

(A) Recuperative
heat transferred from heating medium on one side of heating surface to air on other side
Fig: plate type - parallel plates forming alternate air and gas passages

steam type - steam coils heat comb air to raise air temp to keep metal temp above dew point of flue
gases
tubular type - shell & straight tube design where flue gas on tube side from bottom, through tubes, exits
top. Cold air enters top on shell side, multiple passes (via baffles), exits bottom
(B) Regenerative
heat transferred to air from heat absorbing material that has been heated by hot flue gases
thermal liquid type - uses liquid (ie diphenyl oxide) that is heated in HEX by flue gas and goes to another
HEX to give up heat to air (not common)
rotary type (fig) - can be vertically or horizontally oriented, baskets containing plates (most common) of
corrugated metal (form heat transfer medium) pick heat from gas and transfer (2-3RPM) it to air

Corrosion
All sized as large as possible to boiler efficiency = temp's on cold end of A.H.
If dew point reached, moisture forms which can become acidic in presence of sulphur
compounds (from fuel) = corrosion
Sol'n
(a) Bypass: allowing portion of air inlet to bypass heating surface
(b) Recirculation: portion of preheated air from AH outlet diverted to DC fan inlet ] -> cold end temp
(c) Economizer bypass: used to limit outlet water temp b/c if economizer outlet reaches steam sat. temp
then steam forms in economizer tubes = affects circulation in drum, causes water carryover
bypass hot flue gas OR bypass FW side

Sulphur in fuel partially oxidized to SO2 then partially to SO3 (in presence of water vapor):
SO2 -> H2SO3(aq) , sulfurous acid ] -> both attack steel
SO3 -> H2SO4(aq)