Advances in Aquaculture Fisheries Villay 1976
Advances in Aquaculture Fisheries Villay 1976
Advances in Aquaculture Fisheries Villay 1976
Advances in Aquaculture
Papers presented at the
FAO Technical Conference on Aquaculture
Kyoto, Japan, 26 May 2 June 1976
Edited by
T. V. R. Pillay
Fisheries Department
FAO, Rome, Italy
and
Wm. A. Dill
730 North Campus Way, Davis
California, U.S.A.
by
Organisation
630'.9162 SHI 35
Chapter II
List of Contributors ix Finfish Culture in Ponds
Physical Problems in Fish Farm Construction
Foreword xiv
Y.A.Tanx 99
opment of Fish Farming Ian S. Macfarlane W Elevage dc Truite en Eau de Mer Dans le Her d'Ars,
He de Re (France ) ./, Masse 1 70
International Aspects of Disease Control m (Trout Culture in Sea Water in the Fier d'Ars, Island of Re
Aquaculture P, Ghinino 92 (hrance))
Page Page
No. No.
L'Elcvage des Poissons en Eau de Mcr: Nouveaux Etude de Maturation et la Ponte Chez Penaeus
la
Resultats Frangais en Matiere de Recherche et dc japonlcus en Captivite
Developpement M. Cirin and Y. Harache \ 73 J. /.. Caubere, R, Lafon, F. Rene and C. Sales 111
(Hsh Breeding Sea Water: New Results Obtained
in in France (Studies on the Maturation and Spawning of Penaeus japom-
with Respect to Research and Development) cus in captivity)
ct la Production dc Juveniles J. Perrot 247 Las Kxperiencias en el Cultivo de Ostiones del Man-
(Progress in Shrimp Culture Techniques and the Production
of Juveniles) gle (Crassostrea rhizophorae)
M. Nikolic, A Bosch and B. Vazquez
.
339
Recent Progress in the Farming of Kuruma Shrimp (Experiments in Mangrove Oyster Culture (Crassostrea
Penat'usjaponicus ) //. Kurala and K. Stugueno
( 258 rhizophorae))
Cl Cultivo de Camarones Comerciales Peneidos en la Tropical Mangrove Oyster Culture: Problems and
Argentina y la Posibilidad dc su Produccion en Prospects
Mayor hscala /f, E, Boschi and M. A Scelzo. 268 A. B. Kamara, K. H. McNeil and D, B, Quayle 344
(The Culture of Commercial Prawns (Pcnacids) in Argentina
and the Possibility of Producing them on a Large Scale) Oyster Mortalities and their Control
C\J,Sindermann 349
Penaeid Shrimp Culture Research at the National
Marine Fisheries Service Galveston Laboratory Cultivo del Mejillon, Mytilus edulis, y Posibilidades
R,A.Neal 270 para su Expansion A Figueras . 36 1
Expansion )
Culture of Algae and Seaweeds Biological and Economic Aspects of Fish Production
in a Closed Warm Water System \
HUge '. 505
Developments the Culture of Algae and Seaweeds
in
and the Future of the Industry /. Nvish C 395 A Technical and Economic Review of the Use of
Seaweed Aquaculture Reconditioned Water in Aquaculture R. D, Mayo 508
in the Northwest Pacific
Y.Sailo 402 A Model Closed System forAquaculture Incorporat
The ing the Recycling of Wastes
Industrial Development of Farmed Marine Al-
R,A,NealandC.R.Mock 521
gae: The Case History of Kucheuma in the Philip-
pines and U.S.A. L, E, Deveau andj. R. Castle 4 10 An Experiment in Growing Rainbow Trout in Rccir
culated Water T,K,Hill 523
Chapter VI Mariculture in Controlled Environment Seawater
Recent Developments
Transplantations
in Cage and Enclosure Aqua Inland Waters
culture in Miller 447 Improvement of Fishery Resources in
Norway /).
Through Stocking
Coastal Culture of Yellowtail (Seriola qutnqucra V. G. Jhingran and A . V. Natarajan 532
diata) and Red Seabream (t'agrus major) in
Advances and Problems in Culture-Based Fisheries
Japan M.hujivu 453
in Japan N. Hanamura 54 1
Feedstuffs
Crossbreeding Hungarian Races of Common Carp to
J. Gropp, H, Koops, K. Ttews and II. Beck 596
J. Bakos 633
Develop More Productive Hybrids
Kvaluation of Squid Mantle Meal as a Protein Source
A Proposal for the Continuous Production of F,
in Penaeid Nutrition
I
lybrids Between the European and Chinese Races
J< /,, Kmucci and Z, P. Zein Eldin 60 1
of the Common Carp in Traditional Fish Farms of
Nutritional Diseases in Channel Catfish /?. 7'. Lovell 605 Southeast Asia
R. Moa\\ T. Hrody, G. Wohtfanh and G. Hulata 635
Chapter X
Indices
Genetics and Genetic Improvement of
Fish
Taxonomic index 641
Genetic Improvement in Aquaculture Industry Geographic index 646
R.'Moav 610 Subject index 647
Vlll
List of Contributors
Page
Aii.i'N,G.H .......
Fisheries Department, School of Natural Resources,
478,492
Humboldt State
No
BucK.D. H
Illinois Natural History Survey. Kinmundy, Illinois, U.S.A.
No.
489
AlllSON.R ........
Department of Fisheries and Allied Aquaculturcs, Auburn Univer
168
BUSCH.R. A
Fisheries Department. School of Natural Resources,
University, Areata, California, S,A, U
Humboldt
492
State
ARALS .........
Freshwater Fisheries Research Laboratory, Fisheries Agency, Min-
584
BlIYUKHAllPOGl U,S
Institut fur Tierzucht und Haustiergcnctik dcr UniversitatGottmgcn,
Gottingen, Federal Republic of Germany
141
AKMI.IO OKNZ, A.
Instituto Nacional de Pesca,
.... Mexico DK Mexico
. 149
CAHKIRO,J
Department of Fisheries and Allied Aquacultures, Auburn Univer-
sity, Agricultural Experiment Station, Auburn, U.S.A.
168
CHAKKAHAKTY.R. D 153
ii , L. . . 239 Central Inland Fisheries Research Substation. Cuttack, India
5630 Strandebarm, Norway
BoiTON.E.T ........
College of Marine Studies, University of Delaware, Lewes, Delaware,
525
CnAt;i>Hi:m,
Central Inland Fisheries Research Substation. Cuttack, India
BOSCH. A .........
Centro de Investigaciones Pesqueras, Institute Nacional de la
339
Pesca.
Department of Fisheries,
Col i INS, R. A
FAG, Rome, Italy
472
La Habana, Cuba University of Central Arkansas, Conway, Arkansas, U.S.A.
BosrHLE. E ........
Instituto dc Biologia Marina. Mar del Plata, Argentina
268 CONKOY. D. A
FAO/UNDP Inland Water Fisheries Development Project. Bogota,
201
C. H ........
Department of Fisheries and Allied Aquaculturcs, Auburn Univer-
120
COKMSS.J.
DE, Colombia
592
sity, Agricultural Experiment Station, Auburn, Alabama,
U.S.A. National Marine Fisheries Service. Gulf Coastal Fisheries Center,
iCiS, P .........
The Commercial Fish Farmer, Little Rock, Arkansas, U.S.A.
40
Galveston, Texas, U.S.A.
COSTHIO.T.J 299
BRODY,T .........
Department of Genetics, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jeru-
635
NOAA National Marine Fisheries Service, Southeast Fisheries Ccn
ter, Miami, Florida, U.S.A.
BROWN, E. E ........
Agricultural Economics Department, University of Georgia, Athens,
235
Di
Shearwater Fish Farming Limited,
I MFN[>o. M. N.
U.K
. 472
Georgia, U.S.A. Department of Fisheries. FAO, Rome, Italy
IX
Page Page
No. No.
DU.IONUO.WJR 50
Soil Conservation Service. Fort Worth, Texas. U.S.A. Gut'RKi-.KO.L. A 305
Freshwater Aquaculture Center, Central Luzon State University,
Muno?., Nueva Hcija, Philippines
EDWARDS, R,D 466
White Fish Authority, Marine Farming Unit, Ardtoe, Acharaclc.
GULRRF:KO, R.D. Ill 166,305
Argyll, Scotland
Freshwater Aquaculture Center, Central Luzon State University,
Munoz, Nucva Ecya, Philippines
Hi'iiANlo.C. E 525
College of Mar me Studies, University of Delaware, I -ewes, Delaware,
U.S A.
HM \TR.J. E 574
U.S, Fish and Wildlife Service, College of Fisheries, University of
Washington, Seattle. Washington, U.S.A.
FAnoRovicH. K. A 628
State Research Institute of Lake and River Fisheries, Leningrad,
U.S.S.R.
HAMLISC H, R 77
Department of Fisheries, FAO, Rome, Italy
FAKWILKM K 560
HANAMURA, N 541
Department of the hnvironment. Fisheries, and Marine Services, St
Nansei Regional Fisheries Research Laboratory. Hiroshima. Japan
John's, Newfoundland. Canada
KARACHI. Y 173
FiNUcrU.l 601
Centre Oceanologique dc Bretagne, Brest, France
Gulf Fisheries Center, National Marine Fisheries Service, Galveston,
Texas. U.S.A.
HASTINGS. W.H 568
A 361 Sedro Woollcy, Washington, U.S.A.
FlCilll-KAS,
Institute de Investigaciones Pesqueras. Vigo, Spam
HiiMfiR.B 478,487
H'II\A, M 453 Fish and Aquaculture Research Station, Dor, Israel
HlRASAWA.Y 288
Gl RIIAKI>SI'N,G. M 10
Tokyo University of Fisheries, Minato-Ku, Tokyo, Japan
Institute of Fisheries bconomics. The Norwegian School of Econom-
ics and Business Administration. Norway
HoiivKM 622
Institute of Marine Research, Directorate of Fisheries, Bergen,
GIIIMINO, P 92
Norway
International Office of Epizootics (OIE). Fish Disease Laboratory,
Turin. Italy
Hoi i/,W 141
Tierzucht und Haustiergenetik der Univcrsitat Gottmgen,
Institut fur
GHOSH, S. R 153
Gottingen, Federal Republic of Germany
Central Inland Fisheries Research Substation. Cuttack, India
HOMMA, A 197
GlKIN,M 173
Department of Research and Development, Fisheries Agency, Kasu-
.
596
Institut fur Physiologic. Physiologische Chemie und Flrnahrungs- IsniDA.R 563
physiologie im Fachbereich Tiermcdizin der Universal Freshwater Fisheries Research Laboratory, Fisheries Agency,
Munchen. Federal Republic of Germany Tokyo, Japan
Page Page
JllINGKAN. V. G ........
Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute, fiarrackpore. West Ben-
No.
532 LiN(i,S. W
University of Miami, School of Marine and Atmospheric Science.
No.
299
KAMAKA, A. B ........
Fisheries Division, Ministry of Agriculture &
344
Natural Resources,
LovMi.R.T
Department of Fisheries and Allied Aquaculturcs. Auburn Univcr
186.605
KAioJ .........
National Research Institute of Agricultural Engineering, Japan
458 McNui.K.B
Industrial Development Research Centre (IDRC). Freetown. Sierra
344
cm.K ........
Department of Research and Development. Fisheries Agency, Kasu
197
Leone
McNlll.W.J 547
migaseki, Chiyoda ku, Tokyo, Japan National Marine Fisheries Service, Northwest Fisheries Center.
KAWATSI.H ........
Freshwater Fisheries Research Laboratory, Fisheries Agency. Hino-
197
MA(
Auke Bay, Alaska. U.S.A.
KU*PIC'HNIK(>\, V. S
Institute of
.......
Cytology, U.S.S.R Academy of Science, Leningrad,
628 M\CHAiK),CR
Taculdade de Medicina Veterinaria c
180
Agronomia dc Jabottcabal, Sao
U.S.S.R. Paulo State, Brazil
KOBAYASllUT ........
Hokkaido Salmon Hatchery. Hokkaido Prefecture, Japan
554 MASSi.J. .
Kooi>s,H
Institut fur
.........
Kusten- und Binnenfiseherci dcr Bundcsforschungsanstalt
596 MAYO.K. D
Kramer. Chin and Mayo, Inc., Seattle, Washington, U.S.A
508
KOKKINCiA. P
Netherlands
........
Institute for Fishery Investigations.
371
Ijmuidcn,
MH\MK,R
Institut fur Kusten- und Binnenfischerei der Bundcsforschungsanstalt
fur Fischcrci, Hamburg, Federal Republic of Germany
338
Netherlands
KlJHI MANN.
Institut fur
........
II
Kusten- und Binnenfischerei der Bundesforschungsanstalt
502 Mi SKI-. CM
Bundesforschungsansttilt fur Fischerei, Ahrensburg/Holst. Federal
527
KUKAIA, H ........
Nansei Regional Fisheries Research Laboratory, Ohnocho, Hiro-
258 MiiNKP. H
Department of Civil Engineering. University of Strathclyde. Glas-
416
I,Aii,S. P .........
Environment Canada, Fisheries and Marine Service, Halifax Labora
580 MOAV.R
Institute of Animal Science, Agricultural Research Organisation,
610,635
......
i
LANCJHOI 7, H. J. 141
furTierzucht und Haustiergenetik der Univcrsitat Gottingen,
Institut
MoCK.C.R 521
National Marine Fisheries Service, Gulf Coastal Fisheries Center,
Gottingen, Federal Republic of Germany
Galveston. Texas. U S,A
LAURIKR, L. 273
Centre Occanologiquc do Brctagne, Brest, France MouiR.D 447,622
Institute of Marine Research, Directorate of Fisheries. Bergen,
Norway
LlNDBLKCiH.J.M
Domsea Farms Inc.,
.......
Bremerton. Washington, U.S.A
441
NAIVDAI.G
Institute
Norway
of Marine Resources, Directorate -of Fisheries,
622
Bergen,
XI
Page Page
No. No
NAinu.K.S 379 RABANAI.H.R 224
Environment Canada, Fisheries and Marine Service, Newfoundland FAO/UNDP South China Sea Fisheries Development and Coordi-
Biological Station, St John's. Newfoundland, Canada nating Programme, Manila, Philippines
RAO.N.G.S 153
NAIAKAJAN, A, V 532 Central Inland Fisheries Research Substation, Cuttack, India
Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute, Barrackporc, West Ben-
gal, India RlNKF . 277
CAT, Palavas les Plots, France
NiAi.R. A 270.521
National Marine Fisheries* Service. Gulf Coastal Fisheries Center, RlORDAN, P. F 27
Galveston, Texas, U.S.A.
Groton Bioindustnes Development Company, Groton, Massachu
setts, U.S.A.
NlISH.I.C 395
Applied Marine Research Limited. Halifax, Nova Scotia. Canada Rosi.C. R 489
Illinois Natural History Survey, Kinmundy, Illinois, U.S.A.
NIKOLIC, M 339
Centre de Investigaciones Pesqueras, Institute) Nacional de la Pesca,
SAITO.Y 402
La Habana, Cuba
Aquaculture Research Division, Nansei Regional Fisheries Research
Laboratory, Ohno-cho, Saeki-gun. Hiroshima ken, Japan
NOMA.T 458
National Research Institute of Agricultural Engineering, Japan . 277
CAT, Palavas les Plots, France
NosKT 584
Freshwater Research Laboratory, Fisheries Agency, Ministry of SANCHI/., C 311
Agriculture and Forestry. Hmo, Tokyo. Japan Servicio de Recursos Pesqueros, Ministerio de Agriculture y Gana-
dena, San Salvador, El Salvador
Oi DKiS, B 141
Ticrzucht und Haustiergcnetik der Universitat Gottmgen,
Institut fur SANDIFFR, P. A 306
Gottmgen, Federal Republic of Germany Marine Resources Research Institute, Charleston, South Carolina,
U.S.A.
OLIVASt!ARF/,M 284
Centre dc Investigaciones Marinas, Umversidad de La Habana. La SAKIG.S 190
Habana, Cuba
Laboratory for Research of Fish Diseases, Nir- David, Israel
PAN-IUU\V. R 53,423
SASSO YADA, L . 149
Mekong Secretariat, ESCAP of the United Nations, Sala Santitham,
Institute Nacional de Pesca, Mexico DF, Mexico
Bangkok, Thailand
. 1.84 Srt'RMAN, P. A. D 63
Department of Fisheries, FAO, Rome, Italy The Aquacultural Insurance Service Ltd., London, England
SHANDY. C 224
PRICK K.S 525 Hawaii Institute of Marine Biology, University of Hawaii at Manoa,
of Delaware, Lewes, Delaware, Kaneohe, Hawaii, U.S.A.
College of Marine Studies, University
U.S.A.
Xll
No No
SlNUfRMANN.C. J 349 TANAKA.J 499
National Marine Fisheries Service, U S Department of Commerce, Tokai Regional Fisheries Research Laboratory. Arazaki, Nagai,
Highlands. New Jersey, U.S.A. Yokosuka, Japan
gal, India
Tnzws,K 596
SMITH, K. P 525 Institut fur Ku'sten und Bmnenfischerei der Bundesforschungsanstalt
College of Marine Studies, University of Delaware, Lewes, Delaware, fur Fischerci, Hamburg, Federal Republic of Germany
U.S.A.
TklPATHi.S. D 127
SMITH, P. L 143 Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute, Barrackpore. India
White Fish Authority, Marine Farming Unit, Ardtoe, Acharacle.
Argyll, Scotland UIKMA.Y 458
National Research Institute of Agricultural Engineering, Japan
SMITH, T. T.J 306
Marine Resources Research Institute, Charleston, South Carolina, VARMY.R. L 70
U.S.A.
Department of Industrial Science, University of Stirling, Scotland
La Habana, Cuba
SRNA.R.F 525
College of Marine Studies, University of Delaware, Lewes, Delaware. ViNCKKM.M.J 208
U.S.A. FAO/UNDP de la Pisciculture, Bangui
Project Vulgarisation
Landjia. Africa
STI-\\AKI.J. E 314
Environment Canada, Fisheries and Marine Service, Halifax Labora
WAiroKn.J 288
tory. Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
Tokyo University of Fisheries, Minato-Ku. Tokyo, Japan
Sioss.J .141
WFBBI-R.H. H 27
Institut fur Tierzucht und I
laustiergenetik der Umversitat Gottingen,
Groton Biomdustries Development Company. Groton, Massachu
Gottingen, Federal Republic of Germany
setts. U.S.A.
Sl'/t'Ki.R 161
Ucda Branch Station, Freshwater Fisheries Research Laboratory,
WoHI hARIH.G, ...
Fish and Aquaculture Research Station, Dor, Israel
. 635
Komaki, Ueda. Nagano Prefecture, Japan
157
WOYNAROMCILF 203
S/iAlllcJ
FAO/UNDP Ksher> and Fish Culture Development Project.
Polish Academy of Sciences. Experimental Fish Culture Station at
Caracas. Venezuela
Oofysz, Poland
X111
Foreword
It is my great pleasure to introduce this important publication. The book contains most of the papers presented at
the FAO Technical Conference on Aquaculture held in Tokyo, Japan, 26 May-2 June 1976. It should be read in
conjunction with the report of the Conference itself (FAO Fisheries Report No. 188, 1976) which contains a
number of recommendations based on discussion of these papers. Together they constitute a comprehensive
review of recent technical developments as well as an analysis of potentials and problems in this field of food
production.
The total yield from wild stocks of marine species of familiar types is still increasing, but at a progressively
reduced rate. While the Law of the Sea Conference has not produced a worldwide agreement, the new regime of
the sea based on the concept of exclusive economic zones is a reality as far as fisheries are concerned. Thus, the
world is now facing problems of realigning marine fishing activities. Growing attention is being paid to
aquaculture as a means to increase further the production of aquatic food, particularly animal protein food.
which have a history of many centuries. Some people view aquaculture as a way to make further contributions to
the supply of animal protein food, while others consider it as a means to raise high-priced aquatic species for
profit. Technically, aquaculture means many diflerent things, ranging from modest improvements in the
environment in which aquatic animals live, through extensive forms of fish farming, to highly sophisticated
systems of intensive culture. A great variety of animals and plants arc raised. While some forms of aquaculture
can almost be called industrial enterprises, small scale fish farming in rural areas is of special importance to
villagers and farmers.
Most of the recommendations of the Conference contained in the report are addressed to governments,
suggesting ways and means to expand aquaculture production by removing technical, economic and social
constraints and providing incentives for increased input. In summary, this book and the Conference report
together show what aquaculture is and what technical and other factors are involved in expanding various systems
of culture and increasing their production.
The Conference was attended by some 600 people and about 120 papers were contributed. It was the largest
fishery conference ever organized by FAO. Financially, it was made possible by the generous
offer of the
Government of Japan to host it and additional contributions from the United Nations Development Programme,
and the Governments of Canada and the United States of America. I wish to close these remarks by expressing
my sincere appreciation to all the people who made a great effort to make this undertaking successful, including
the secretariat of the Conference, the authors of papers, those who served as session conveners, the editors and
the publisher.
K. C. Lucas
Assistant Director-General (Fisheries)
xv
Preface
Technical conferences and symposia arc often of crucial (12) Genetics and genetic improvement in aquaculture
importance in the development of scientific disciplines; (13) Artificial recruitment and transplantation
they assume special significance in international efforts to (14) Legal, social and economic aspects of aquaculturc
identify potentials, problems and requirements, Some of the (7,5) Problems of vertically integrated aquaculture
world conferences organized by FAO have played very industries
important roles in the promotion of research and develop- (16) Strategy for future aquaculture development
ment in the field of fisheries. The World Symposium on (17) Main conclusions and recommendations.
Warm Water Pond Fish Culture held in Rome (Italy) in
May 1966 can be cited as a good example, as it was a An
overview of developments in the field of aquaculture
turning point in FAQ's activities related to aquaculturc. during the last decade revealed that there has been an
The majority of its recommendations were implemented in overall increase of about 20% in world aquaculture produc-
one way or the other, laying the foundations for regional tion since 1975. and the really significant increases have
and international cooperation for the development of the been in countries where sufficient importance was given to
sector. One of its recommendations was that a similar the industry in national agricultural and industrial develop-
fc
symposium should be held in five years' time to review the ment programmes, leading to increased government spend
major changes, trends and innovations which may have ing. enhanced private capital investment and better support
occurred in this period'. Some of the fishery meetings held services. The lack of public understanding is one of the
since also strongly endorsed this recommendation. How main constraints on creative policy development leading to
ever, it was felt that the next world meeting in this field well established aquaculturc industries. The Conference
should attempt to cover the whole field of aquaculturc, therefore adopted the following statement that has come to
which obviously meant much more preparation and effort be known as the 'Kyoto Declaration on Aquaculture'.
than conceived by the symposium. It was therefore decided
that a world conference on aquaculture should be prepared Kyoto Declaration on Aquaculture
for, through a series of regional symposia under the aus- The FAO echnical Conference on Aquaculture. assem-
'I
pices of FAO regional fishery bodies. On the completion of bled in Kyoto. Japan, on 2 June 1976. after a week-long
six such regional meetings, held from 1970 to 1975. the review of present state, problems, opportunities and poten
FAO Technical Conference on Aquaculture was organized tial for the culture offish, crustaceans, molluscs and sea-
in Kyoto, Japan, 26 May 2 June 1976. with the main weeds, declares:
objectives of synthesi/ing on a global basts the experience made encouraging
( / ) I hat aquaculture has progress in
so far gained in the development of aquaculturc, including
the past decade, producing significant quantities of
natural resources improvement; reviewing the state of the
(bod. income and employment; that realistic esti-
technology related to the different aquaculture systems in mates place future yields of food at twice the present
order to identify areas in which research and developmental
level in ten years, and five times the present level in
efforts should be concentrated in the future; and to formu
30 years if adequate support is provided,
late a strategy for rapid expansion and intensification of the
C?) That aquaculture, imaginatively planned and intelli-
industry with due consideration of the relevant social, legal
gently applied, provides a means of rcvitali/ing
rural
and economic factors and infrastructure requirements.
life and of supplying products of high nutritional
(8) Integration of aquaculture with agriculture and warding activity for farmers and other workers at
animal production many levels of skill and education.
(9) Aquaculture in raceways, cages and enclosures ( 7) That aquaculture provides now. and will continue to
( 10) Aquaculture in recirculating water
and recycling of provide, options for sound investment of money,
wastes in aquaculture materials, labour and skills.
(//) Nutritional requirements of cultivated organisms (8) That aquaculture merits the fullest possible support
and feed technology and attention by national authorities for integration
xvn
into comprehensive renewable resource, energy, ence. It was recognized that a sound production pro
land and water use policies and programmes, and for gramme based on transfer of existing technology and the
ensuring that the natural resources on which it is development of new technologies would need systems-
based are enhanced and not impaired. oriented multidisciplinary research at the appropriate level.
(9) That aquaculture could benefit greatly from support The present state of techniques for the culture of finfish,
and assistance from international agencies, which crustaceans, molluscs, algae and sea weeds and of the
should include the transfer of technology actively different aquaculture production systems in use, were dis
planned and executed, with research carried out in cussed by the Conference with special reference to the gaps
centres representative of various regions concerned. in our knowledge and requirements of research to solve the
per unit area and higher profit on investment, although adequate facilities for training of senior-level aquaculturists
extensive farming techniques, yielding relatively low pro- or aquaculture producers. Some of the legal problems
duction, are still feasible and economical in many develop related to aquaculture development received special atten
ing countries. tion and it was noted that the absence of a legal basis for the
industry is a major constraint in many countries. Govern-
The main strategy for further expansion proposed by the ments were therefore urged to enact appropriate aquacul-
Conference laid stress on wider application of known ture legislation, facilitating the establishment or expansion
technology and scientific information so as to attract much- of the industry as needed and enabling the grant of financial
needed investment in this sector. There are a number of and other incentives generally given to emerging industries,
proven systems of culture that can be used for expanding including the provision of risk guarantees,
production through horizontal or vertical transfer of tech
nology and governments and private sector agencies were A full report of the Conference, including the details of
urged to promote aquaculture production programmes. the discussions in various sessions, has been issued sepa-
Financing agencies, particularly development banks, have a rately in the FAQ Fisheries Report series (FAO Technical
crucial role in the expansion of aquaculture production in Conference on Aquaculture, Kyoto, Japan. 26 May 2 June
developing countries. A large amount of basic information 1976 (1976), bAO Hsh. Rep'. (188):93 p.).
on new systems of culture has been accumulated through
research during the last decade and its application in This volume contains the technical papers that formed
commercial production is hampered by the lack of suitable and together const!
the basis of discussions in the sessions
pilot-scale projects to test their technical and economic tutc a general account of the advances in aquaculture
viability. The Conference therefore recommended that gov- technology and its application during the last decade. A
ernments and financing agencies should support the estab- number of colleagues have assistedthe editing of the
in
lishment and operation of pilot-scale or model projects as manuscripts and the correction of proofs. Mr. T. G. Carey
required. As aquaculture, particularly small-scale fish farm helped in the pre-Conference editing of the papers. Dr.
ing, can have a major role in integrated rural development, A. G. Coche and Mr, J. Chaux helped with the editing of
it was
suggested that governments should give appropriate French texts and Or, F. A. Pagan Font of Spanish texts.
consideration to the inclusion of aquaculture as an integral Mr. M. M. J. Vincke and Mr. M. Pedini corrected the
part of rural development plans, wherever possible. As the French and Spanish proofs. Miss Gloria Soave was respon
success of aquaculture production programmes depends, to sible for checking references and Mrs. Ann Bailey-de
a large extent, on the availability of essential inputs, such as Wouytch gave invaluable help in many ways in all stages of
seed, feed and fertilizers, high priority needs to be given to production of this book. Grateful thanks are due to all of
the production and distribution of these. them and to Mr. A. R. Margetts for proof correction and
preparation of the indices,
Aquaculture research, extension services and the train
ing of core personnel for development work were other October, 1978
subjects that received the special attention of the Confer- Rome, Italy
T. V. R. Pill ay
XV111
Chapter I World Aquaculture and its Future Role
of feeds, shortage of fertili/ers, aquatic pollution and in some cases pays. Avec ['amelioration des methodes employees et la demonstration
indiscriminate application of certain environmental protection regula- de la viabilite cconomiquc des operations, les actiutes de 'sea ranching'
tions, have hampered the expansion of the industry ou 'aqua range farming' constituent mamtenant des techniques recon-
There have been a number of technological advances aquaculture m nues La reproduction en conditions controlecs ct la formulation amsi
during the last decade, the more important of which relate to the que la fabrication des aliments arttficiels constituent deux secteurs dans
improvement and modernisation of traditional practices like cage and lesquels des rccherches poussees ont etc reahsees au cours dc la derniere
enclosure/pen culture of fish, polyeulture. tilapia culture, shrimp and decennie I 'expansion de 1'aquaculture dans des ?ones geographiques
prawn farming, eel and oyster culture and recycling wastes through elargies a conduit a accroitrc les echanges internationaux d'espcccs
aquaculture including the use of waste heat The development of catfish clevees. ce qui a parfois produit des problemes. et il est devcnu ncccssaire
farming in the USA is probably a good example of technology trying to de controler ces echanges
keep up with rapid expansion of production requirements Recondition- hn Chine et dans les pays sociahstes d'Furope. 1'aquaculture est
ing and reuse of water in hatcheries has become common in some pratiquee dans des fermcs d'htat, des communautes ou par
countries,With improvements in the methods employed and demonstra i'lntcrmediaire de cooperatives, Dans d'autres pays, la production est
lion oleconomic viability of the operations 'sea ranching' or 'aqua-range cssentiellement entre les mams du secteur privc ct notamment dc pisci
farming' has become an accepted technology, Two areas of research that culteurs individuels. Ces dcrnieres annees. un certain nombre
have received special attcntiQti during the last decade are controlled d'entreprises pnvccs, pctites et grandes. se sont mteressccs a la re
reproduction and the formulation and manufacture of artificial feeds, 1 he cherche, an developpement ou a la production eommcrciale Les petits
expansion of aquaculture to wider geographical areas has increased the entrepreneurs ct les pisciculteurs de subsistence sont largement tribu-
international exchange of cultivated species, sometimes with attendant taires des institutions gouvernementales pour en obtenir des services
problems, and there is a necessity to control this traffic d'appui Les gouvernements n'ont repondu aux besoms csscntiels de
China and the socialist countries of hurope. aquaculturc is under-
In 1' Industrie
aquicole quc dans des cas exceptionnels. La situation de
taken on state farms, communes or through co-operatives, In other I'aquaculturc du point de vue orgamqueet 'absence d'un cadre jundiquc
1
countries production is largely in the private sector, mainly by individual approprie ont affecte la fourniture d'un appui suffisant a I'industne, lies
farmers, In recent years a number of small and large private companies services de recherche, de vulgarisation et d'echanges d'mformations
have become involved in research and development or commercial constituent des domamcs qui demandent une aide particuherc Hien que
production, Small scale operators and subsistence-level farmers are 1'aide au developpement fournie par le PNUD
et des organismes d'aide
largely dependent on government agencies for support services Only in bilaterale ait augmente dans une certame mesure, elle est loin de faire face
some exceptional cases have the governments been sufficiently respon a tous les besoms
sivc to the needs of the aquaculturc industry The organizational position II
optirrmtc quant aux augmentations globalcs de la
est juste d'etre
and the absence of a suitable legal framework have afiected the provision production aquicole: que 1'on eleve des especes bon marche ou onereuses
of appropriate support to the industry Research, extension services and
dependra cssentiellement des politiqucs nationales et non des techniques
information exchange are areas which require special support Although aquicoles Afin que la production aquicole sou quimuplec. ypirc decu
there has been some increase m development assistance from and UNDP plee en trente ans. il faudra disposer d'investissements massifs et d'une
bilateral aid agencies, it falls far short of requirements
legislation appropnee, reahser des recherches mtensives. former du
'I here is reason to be
optimistic about global increases in aquaculture personnel, developper les institutions et construire des infrastructures
production; whether they will be of low-priced or high valued species essentielles. On propose que la presente conference adopte un plan
will largely depend on national policies rather than aquaculturc technol- cT action contenant des recommendations devront etre
specifiques, qui
ogy. In order to achieve a projected five- to ten fold increase in aquacul miscs en oeuvre par des institutions bien definies.
Hire production in three decades, massive financial investments, suitable
legislation, intensive research, manpower training, development of msli SItuacion de la aculcultura en 1976
tutions and other essential infrastructure are required, It is proposed that hxtracto
this Conference adopt a plan of action containing specific recommenda- hn este documento se examman
los progrcsos hechos en el campo de la
tions for implementation by well identified agencies. acuicultura durante ultimo decenio y los problemas que actualmente
el
1
proteccion del medio ambicntc, han impcdido la expansion de esta ture activities, not much progress has been made in the
industria. collection of statistical data to evaluate its progress. Only a
Durante el ultimo decenio se han producido
numerous progresos few countries have established suitable systems for the
tecnologicos en la acuicultura, los mas importantcs de los cuales consis
ten en la mejora y modernization de los sistemas tradicionales, como cl collection and compilation of aquaculture statistics. The
cultivoenjaulas y recintos, el polieultivo, el cultivode Tiiapia, la criadc highly dispersed location of production units, lack of spec-
camarones, el cultivo de anguilas y ostras, y el reciclaje de desechos,
incluido el aprovechamiento de calor residual, hi desarrollo de la cria de ialized enumerators for data collection and the unwilling-
bagre en los Estados Unidos constituye probablemente un buen ejemplo ness of producers to provide detailed statistics have all
del intento de adapter la tccnologia a la rapida expansion de las
contributed to this. However, the task of estimating produc-
necesidades de produce ion, En algunos paises, el reaeondicionamicnto y
reaprovechamiento del agua en los viveros de peces es cosa comim, Al tion has become slightly easier in most countries, as some
mejorar los metodos empleados y demostrarse la viabihdad economica
1
of the basic information is now available for
making esti
de las operacioncs, la practica de 'sea ranching o 'aqua-range farming' ha
mates, in contrast to the situation in 1966-67 when the
pasado a ser una tecnologia accptada. Dos scciorcs dc mvestigacion que
han rccibido especial atcncion durante cl ultimo dcccnio son la reproduc- production offish through culture could be calculated only
tion controlada y la preparation y manufaeturaeion dc piensos artifi
on a rough percentage basis. It was then estimated to be
cialcs. La extension dc la acuicultura a zonas gcograficas mas amphas ha
aumentado el intercambio internacional de especies cultivadas, lo quc a about seven per cent of the world catch of freshwater fish or
veces ha planteado algunos problemas. que haccn ncccsano controlar 1 million tons annually (President's Science Advisory
esos movimientos
Fn China y en los paises sociahstas de Ruropa la acuicultura se Committee, 1967). In 1970, a partial estimate was made on
practica en granjas estatales. comunas o cooperativas, En otros paises la the basis of information collected from 36 countries: the
produccion precede en buena parte del sector pnvado, principalmentc de total fish production through aquaculture amounted to 2-6
productorcs individuates Fn los ultimos anos, varias companias
million tons (Pillay, 1972). A more comprehensive but
privadas, tamo pequcrias como grandcs, sc han ocupado de actividades
de investigacion y desarrollo o directamente de la produccion comcrcial again rough estimate was made in 1973 (Pillay, 1973)
Los productores a pequena escala y los agricultores que vivcn a mvcl dc which showed that the production of fish was about 3-7
subsistencia dcpcndcn en buena partc, para recibir los servicios auxi
hares necesanos, dc agcncias gubernamemales Solo en algunos casos million tons and together with the production of crusta
excepcionales los gpbicrnos han rcspondido en forma suficiente a las ceans, molluscs and seaweeds, amounted to about 5 million
necesidades de la industria acuicola. La situacion del sector en la
tons.
estructura organica general y la falta de un marco legal adecuado han
impedido que se preste apoyo adecuado a csta industria. La invcstiga
For the preparation of this paper, estimates of produc-
cion, los servicios de extension y cl intercambio dc mformacion son tion were requested from different countries; a large major
sectores que rcquieren apoyo especial Aunque laasistenciadel PNUDy ity of them provided useful information which is included
de los organ ismos bilaterales de ayuda ha aumentado algo. es aun muy
inferior a las necesidades. in Table I. This shows that the world production through
Hay razones para ser optimisms sobre el aumcnto global de la aquaculture has now risen to over 6 million tons. Of this,
produccion dc la acuicultura. Quc esc aumento de produccion corres
ponda a especies de poco prccio o de gran valor, dependera, en buena
66% consists of freshwater, brackishwatcr and marine fish,
parte, de las politicas nacionales, mas que de la tecnologia acuicola, Para about 16- 2% of molluscs, 17- 5% of seaweeds, and 0-3% of
lograr que la produccion acuicola se qumtuplique o decupliquc en tres crustaceans.
dcccnios, como sc ha proyectado, son neccsarias invcrsiones financiers
masivas, una legislacion adecuada. mvestigaciones intensivas. eapacita Owing to the incompleteness of the previous and. indeed,
cion de mano dc obra, crcacion de mstitucioncs y construccion de even the current data, one hesitates to make comparisons.
mfracstructura esencial Sc propone que la Conferencia adopte un plan
de accion con recomendaciones especificas, cuya ejeeucion habra dc Certainly better estimates are now available for some of the
confiarse a organismos claramente mdicados countries and the coverage has also increased. However, by
also using associated information, one can determine where
production is increasing or declining. Although the per-
centage increase varies considerably, in almost all the
countries there has been an increase in production during
1 Introduction the last decade and also since the 1973 estimate. As is only
The first global meeting on aquaculture, the FAO World to be expected, percentage increases are the highest in
Symposium on Warm-Water Pond Fish Culture in 1966, countries where aquaculture has been newly introduced or
recommended that a similar meeting be held in five years' a new system has been adopted. The major increases have
time lo review the major changes, trends and innovations occurred in countries where sufficient importance has been
which may have occurred in this period' (Pillay, 1967). given to this industry in national economic development
Although this FAO Technical Conference on Aquaculture plans and the essential investment and support services
is being held in ten years' time instead of the five as have been at least partially provided. For example, the
recommended, its objectives arc generally the same as those production of farmed fish rose almost five times in a period
conceived by the World Symposium, They are to synthes- of seven years in Japan (Japan Fisheries Association,
ize on a global basis the experience gained in aquaculture 1975). In the Philippines it increased 32% in a period of
development, review the state of technology for identifying about three years. In Poland it has increased about four
the research and developmental efforts needed to improve it times and Romania over two times in the same period,
and to formulate strategies to overcome the major con- Increase in seaweed production in the Republic of Korea
straints on rapid expansion and intensification of the indus- has been over 14 times in the last five years and in Japan
try. The review and experience papers contributed to the over two times in that period. Except in a small number of
Conference deal with these aspects in detail; this paper localized cases, there have been no major problems of
attempts an overview of the progress made in this field domestic marketing of aquaculture products, because of
during the last decade and the problems that face the sustained demand. Stricter quality controls imposed by
industry. importing countries have, however, affected somewhat the
export of products, such as oysters and trout, but this has
led to greater attention to the environmental conditions
2 Aquaculture production under which culture operations are carried out and to the
Although there has been a worldwide expansion of aquacul- sanitary quality of products.
TMIIF I
3980492 Clams
Korea, Republic of 24920
Taiwan, Province of China 13898
4000 The 33
Philippines
4000
3300 38851
2779
900
Scallops
549 62600
Japan
105
30 62600
15663 Cockles and other molluscs
Malaysia (cockles) 28000
229899 Taiwan, Province of China 1 243
129060 Korea, Republic of 733
"I he Philippines 11
71448
56008
45000 29987
23000
13359 Seaweeds
9200 Japan 502651
5080 China all
provinces excluding
3000 Taiwan Province 300000
2289 Taiwan, Province ol China 7347
1500 Korea. Republic ot 244795
870
782
1054793
700
191
GRAND TOTAL 6102289
591386
overall productivity and profits are achieved through the and, if this pace of increase is maintained, it may be
combination of duck raising with fish farming. reasonable to expect at least a five-fold increase by the end
Aquaculturists now try to exercise greater control over of this century.
the environment and stocks in their farms, even in what are In considering the present and future production through
it may be interesting to examine some of the
called ^rap-ponds'. They seek to produce seed by artificial aquaculture,
factors that have affected the industry in recent years. At ment of the industry. The inevitable failure of some badly
least three of these have served to focus renewed attention conceived enterprises has also contributed to give some
on aquaculture in the last few years. One is the increased credibility to arguments of the detractors of aquaculture.
cost of fishing due to steep increases in fuel cost; second, the
fear of decrease in fishery production by countries that 3 Technological advances
depend on fishing in foreign waters as a result of new laws of During the last decade, a number of technical advances
the sea; and third, the need in some countries for relocating have been made aquaculture and some new
in the field of
and finding alternative or additional employment for large technologies developed. Some of the research done during
numbers of excess fishermen or under-employed farmers, this period has been extremely valuable in understanding
The continued high demand in developed countries for the scientific bases of certain traditional practices and
high valued species, like shrimps and prawns, has also enabled the improvement and modernisation of old technol-
served to promote interest in aquaculture in countries that
ogies.Cage and enclosure/pen culture arc outstanding
wish to increase foreign exchange earnings. On the other
examples of this. Though such forms of culture have existed
hand, the steep increases in the cost of some of the essential for many years, particularly in Asia and the Far East, they
inputs, particularly feed, have hit the intensive culture were not very suited for application elsewhere. Modifica-
systems* as for catfish (Ictalurus spp. )and rainbow trout tions or changes in the design, building materials, installa-
(Salmo gairdneri). This was largely due to the increase in tion and operation, together with the preparation of suitable
the cost of fishmeal, a major ingredient in most fish feeds. feeds, including floating pellets, have made these into tech
Similar increase in price and indeed even of availability has nologies capable of being applied in other regions. Cage
occurred also for the widely used larval food, the brine culture of catfish, salmon (Salmo salar and Oncorhynchus
shrimp (Anemia). The situation regarding feed prices has spp.), trout and ycllowtail (Seriola quinqueradiata) and
eased somewhat recently, although it still remains a major enclosure/pen culture of salmon and milkfish (Chanos
element in the cost of production. This has led to a search chanvs)\\ave achieved the level of commercial-scale opera
for cheap substitutes and some progress has already been tions in some countries, particularly the United States,
reported in this direction. The shortage of fertilizers in Norway, the Federal Republic of Germany, the Philip-
developing countries and the allocation of all the produc- pines, and Japan. Several types of cages have been designed
tion for agricultural purposes has also been an adverse for use under different hydrological conditions. The
factor. marked increase in the production of trout and salmon in
Even though the prevailing environmental concern has Norway is due to the introduction of cage and enclosure
resulted in increased interest in protecting the aquatic culture. Cage culture accounts for a very high proportion of
environment and has, in many cases, helped aquaculture, in the present day production of yellowtail in Japan. In a
some countries it had the reverse effect. Aquaculture has period of about five years over 5 000 ha of fish pens have
been classed as a polluter and waste discharge regulations been established in Laguna dc Bay in the Philippines,
meant for terrestrial animal production have been made producing 7500-10000 tons of milkfish annually.
applicable also to aquaculture. This has greatly hampered
the expansion of the industry.
Water pollution has affected aquaculture production in
coastal waters in some countries; for example, oyster pro-
duction Japan has remained more or less at a stagnant
in
level since 1965 and in the United States there has been
marked decrease in oyster production due to the closure of
polluted oyster beds. Large-scale mortality of oysters, due
to known and unknown causes in important culture areas
like the French coast, has resulted in serious decline of
production.
The absence of a legal framework under which aquacul-
ture enterprises could be established and operated has also
stood in the way of the development of the industry,
particularly in industrially-advanced countries. Some of the
problems faced by entrepreneurs in getting the necessary
permits from different, only peripherally interested, agen-
cies and the need to conform to regulations not relevant to
/'/# / Floating cages used for fish culture in Norwegian fjords
aquaculture have been revealed in recent discussions (Lof-
tas, 1974; Pillay, 1975). Similarly, polyculture offish is an ancient technology in
There has been considerable interest in the private sector Asia, especially China and India. Experimental work in
in investing in aquaculture but this is largely confined to the recent years has given a fuller understanding of the signifi
culture of exportable products and, in many cases, the cancc and value of the system. This is becoming an ac-
technologies for such types of culture are still under devel- cepted practice in the culture of Chinese and Indian carps
opment. Only a small percentage of the present aquaculture (Ctenopharyngodon idella, Hypophthalmichthys molitrix,
production relates to such high-valued exportable products Aristichthys nobilis and Catla catla, Labeo rohita, Cir~
and, therefore, the investment support for aquaculture as a rhina mrigala\ especially because of the increasing need
whole remains at a very low level. These, together with a for the adoption of low-energy systems. In fact, a system of
general lack of appreciation of the economic viability of combined culture of these groups of carps along with the
aquaculture, have stood in the way of a speedier develop- common carp (Cyprinus carpio) has been developed in
India yielding up to 8 500 kg/ha with only modest supple- Although traditional systems of extensive shrimp and
mental feeding. Polyculture of common carp and tilapia prawn farming have existed in Asia for many years, it was
(Tilapia spp. ) has served to increase average production in only in the sixties that intensive culture based on hatchery-
Israel and provide an additional crop, which is of special produced larvae and juveniles was developed in Japan.
importance from the point of view of marketing in the Because of the high demand for shrimps in world markets
country because of the ceilings imposed on the production and the inability of natural fisheries to meet the demand, an
of common carp. almost worldwide interest in their culture has developed in
the last ten years. The initial attempts made were to transfer
the Japanese technology but this has not generally been
successful. Significant advances have, however, been made
in a number of countries, notably the United States. Rcpub
lie of Korea,Taiwan Province of China, the Philippines.
Indonesia, France (and Tahiti) and the UK
in establishing
place in the late sixties and early seventies. From 1966 to Many improvements have been brought about in the tech-
1975 the area under catfish culture increased more than nique of mass rearing of their larvae (Fujimura and Oka
ten-fold; so did the production (50223 tons valued at US moto, 1 972 ). There are now a large number of institutions,
^40 million). The many advances in catfish culture tech- agencies and private companies worldwide engaged in
research and development activities related ioMacrohrach
niques, including breeding and fry production, feeding,
ium. In the United States alone there were at least 25 of
pond management, disease control and harvesting have
served to develop a well advanced technology that has the them 1974 (Goodwin and Hanson, 1975). While the
in
potential for transfer to other areas. hatchery technology and procedures are considered ade-
Pond culture of tilapia has existed in tropical countries, quate, high-density commercial farming techniques have
particularly those in Africa, for many years. However, the yet to be perfected. Most commercial enterprises use earth
problem of overpopulation of ponds and consequent stunt- ponds for production purposes and, where physical and
ing due to frequent breeding of this fish made tilapia culture
economic conditions arc favourable, some operations have
been profitable. Further technological advances are needed,
generally unattractive. Two broad systems of culture have
evolved in recent years which make culture of tilapia viable however, to bring prawn farming to the level of large-scale
and capable of being practised on a commercial scale. One commercial ventures.
consists of the use of selected species, such as Tilapia
nilotica*which grow fast and attain a fairly large size, and
feeding them with suitable pelleted or other feeds so that the
majority of the stock will attain marketable size before
large-scale breeding occurs, fe, within three to five months
(FAO/UNDP, 1973). The secondis by the use of hybrids,
sources and the establishment of a si/eable export trade for in which animal and domestic wastes are conditioned for
elvers in many countries, particularly in Europe. use in aquaculture and also generated by-products, such as
methane for use as fuel, algae as animal feed and fertilizer,
have been successfully used in some of the South Pacific
islands (Chan. 9 74). 1
ture offish or shellfish can be significantly increased by the romous fishes are artificially produced annually and re-
controlled use of treated sewage for increased production of leased into the fresh and marine waters of the world, mainly
plankton. from government hatcheries. Privately-owned sea-ranching
has already made a beginning. According to recent studies 4 Organization of aquaculture
in North America, for every dollar spent for the hatchery A good proportion of current fish production through
rearing and release of coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch ) aquaculture comes from China and the socialist countries
smolts, the return has been seven dollars, and for chinook of Europe. In these countries fish culture is undertaken on
salmon (0. tshawytscha ) three and a half dollars. Large State farms, communes or through cooperatives and. be-
scale release of hatchery-reared Penaeus japonicus in the cause of its role in communal welfare, the industry seems to
Inland Sea of Japan is believed to have resulted in substan- receive special attention. In others, particularly indus-
tial improvement shrimp fishery with a cost
in the local trially-advanced countries, aquaculture production is
benefit ratio between 2:5 and 2:20, Appropriate and ade largely undertaken by the private sector. Individual farmers
quatc stocking operations have led to the improvement of dominate the scene, but many small and large companies
fishery resources of many reservoirs and natural lakes, have, in recent years, become interested and involved in
When considering the techniquespcr se two major prob- research and development activities or commercial produc
lem areas have received special attention during recent tion. An incomplete survey 1975 revealed the existence
in
years: the controlled reproduction of cultivated animals; of some 833 companies 26 countries, the majority of
in
and the formulation and manufacture of artificial feeds. The which are in North America, Japan and Western Europe. In
Chinese carps, Indian carps, and the grey mullet (A/w#/7 developing countries most of the production is still in the
spp,), which do not generally breed in confined waters of
hands of small-scale operators or subsistence level farmers,
culture installations, have been induced to breed by the although there arc also some instances of involvement by
administration of pituitary hormones. Induced breeding by large commercial firms. They are in most cases dependent
pituitary injections or adjustment of photoperiod has be-
on the government agencies for support services, including
come a recognized practice in fish culture and a number of technical and financial assistance. Only in some exceptional
cultivatedand cultivable species have been bred experimen- cases have the governments been sufficiently responsive to
Methods of mass rearing offish larvae have also been
tally. the needs of the aquaculture industry. Because of the
anomalous legal status of aquaculture not being recog-
developed and these are now being employed by culturists
in thecase of Chinese and Indian carps. One of the early nized as an agricultural, animal husbandry, or truly fishery
advances in shrimp culture technology was their artificial activity in the legal sense to be eligible for governmental
propagation based on gravid females collected from the support and other incentives the aquaculturists face for-
wild. Collection of an adequate number of breeders at the midable problems in establishing or operating their enter-
required time is often expensive and difficult. Conse prises. Nevertheless, restrictive legal provisions designed
quently, the successful maturation of shrimps in captivity and relevant only for other industries arc readily applied to
in the laboratory by eyestalk ablation is a breakthrough of aquaculture, as for example the application of waste dis-
considerable significance, but much more remains to be posal and disease control regulations meant for animal
done to perfect this technique for large-scale application husbandry. Although in some countries, such as the USA
(FACX 1974; Alikunhi et al, 1975). Similarly, the con and the UK, aquafarmers are organi/ing themselves and
trolled reproduction of oysters and hatchery production of attempting to influence governmental policies, in most
oyster seed is a development of considerable significance in others they do not have the political or social influence to
oyster farming, particularly because the supply of seed force governmental action necessary to solve the problems
quite expensive. These circumstances contribute to making the fishery sector. The tertiary phase of aquaculture indus-
hatchery production of seed economically viable in coun- try has close similarity with that of the fishing industry but
tries like the United States. Controlled reproduction has since the production phase is more allied to agriculture and
also helped in genetic selection of strains for special quali- animal production, there is a large body of opinion favour-
ties, such as resistance to diseases. ing better linkage with these forms of food production, in
With the expansion or introduction of aquaculture in order to benefit from allied experience and from the many
wider geographical areas, international exchange of culti- incentives offered for their promotion by governments.
vated species has become widespread, This has given rise to With increasing public interest and the modest increases in
considerable controversy about the introduction of non- investments, a distinctly negative attitude and rivalry ap-
indigenous species, some considering it unavoidable for pear to be developing between aquaculturc and conven-
tional fisheries interests. This is an unfortunate and unnec-
rapid expansion of aquaculture, others being terrified by the
possible adverse effect of introductions on local fauna and essary situation, as at least in the foreseeable future there is
flora. While introductions into certain countries or areas little likelihood of aquaculture supplanting conventional
have been totally banned, indiscriminate introductions con fishing. On the other hand, the world demand for fishery
tinue in others. Though appropriate and adequate guide products is increasing steadily and it is generally accepted
lines are lacking, scientists and many aquaculturists
still that it will not be possible to meet the demand by conven-
accept the need for extreme care and for critical study of all tional fishing alone. Change that may be brought about in
relevant environmental and behavioural information before the marketing and price structure due to enhanced produc-
deciding on such introductions. Recognition of the dangers tion through aquaculture has to be accepted as a healthy
of transmission of communicable diseases through ship- development and through proper integration of production
ments of live organisms has led to the consideration of an and marketing, stability can be ensured in both sectors,
international convention to control the spread of communi- Research and extension are two major support services
cable fish diseases (Dill, 1972; FAO, 1974a)and a draft required to be provided by governments in most countries.
convention is now under consideration by interested There has undoubtedly been considerable interest in
countries. aquaculture research in many developing and developed
countries. The number of experimental stations in develop- so far, the major source of technical assistance in aquacul-
ing countries has certainly increased, though very few of ture. In the early part of 1976 there were some 35 opera-
them have adequate research personnel, equipment and tional large- and small-scale projects and about 1 2 projects
other essential facilities. In many developed countries, in the pipeline for implementation through FAO. Since
research on aquaculturc problems has expanded due to aquaculture projects have to be accommodated within the
financial support available from funding agencies. It has total allocation of development assistance for each develop-
generally been recognized that close co-ordination of re ing country and there is severe competition between differ-
search, which is highly diffused at present, is essential to ent sectors, including sectors within agriculture and even
obtain maximum benefit from the investment and effort within fisheries, the claims of aquaculture are often over-
expended. The multidisciplinary nature of aquaculture sci looked or sought to be met with token allocation. FAQ's
ence and the need for teamwork to undertake systems- Freedom From Hunger Campaign/ Action for Develop-
oriented research to improve or develop new aquaculture ment (FFHC/AD) and the World Food Programme
systems is gradually being understood. (WFP) have given some assistance to aquaculture. The
One of the weakest areas of aquaculture activities at United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) continues to
present is extension services, which creates serious prob- give limited aid for fish culture development through its
lems in the implementation of development programmes. FAO/UNICEF Applied Nutrition projects in Bangladesh,
This is very much connected with the shortage of ade- India, Indonesia, and the Republic of Korea in the form of
quately trained and experienced field personnel who have equipment, training facilities and, in some cases, technical
the ability and knowledge to aquafarmers. The large
assist assistance.
majority of aquaculture personnel employed in government In earlier years small projects were useful to show the
organizations and in senior positions even in the industry, potential of the aquaculture industry but now the need is for
arc those who developed their knowledge of the subject projects capable of demonstrating its technical and eco-
through specialized research and then tried it in the field, nomic feasibility in order to attract investments for large-
often learning by trial and error. This is no doubt a costly scale development. The funding available for the majority
and slow means of acquiring expertise for large-scale devel- of projects, from national or international sources, is too
opment programmes. Recognizing this, some of the coun- inadequate to achieve this objective. One is often inclined to
trieshave established extension training centres. There is an think that it is a mistake to undertake such projects that
urgent need to upgrade the facilities for well balanced have little chance of achieving their objectives, as their
theoretical and practical training in these centres to meet performance will be held against future assistance to
the requirements for extension personnel. The regional aquaculture.
symposia and workshops organized by FAO during the last The concept of assistance
projects providing 'seed
ten years have emphasized the need for accelerated co- money' be supplemented by contributions
for activities to
operative efforts in establishing multidisciplinary research from bilateral or other sources has gained wide acceptance
programmes and training of core personnel including from funding agencies in recent years. This has apparently
extension staff. worked successfully in certain sectors but has few prece-
Information exchange has a vital role in a developing dents in aquaculture. Many of the bilateral aid agencies that
science like aquaculture, particularly since the industry has welcome co operative have yet to show positive
efforts
to depend to a large extent on transfer of technology for its example the Swedish Interna-
interest in this field, as for
expansion. During the last decade, a number of periodicals tional Development Authority (SID A), the Norwegian
technology it is expected that a doubling of world produc- angle than that of only the increased production of animal
tion can be achieved in the next ten years. The area under protein or the creation of economically viable enterprises.
aquaculturc now is estimated to be in the order of three to The planned doubling of production in the next ten years
four million hectares. A ten-fold expansion of this area is or the five decades will need
to ten-fold increase in three
considered feasible if the necessary investment becomes accelerated transfer of technology, massive financial invest
available. Improvement of techniques has already shown ments, suitable legislation, intensive research, manpower
the possibility of increasing average production at least two training and development of institutions and other essential
infrastructures. If these are left to evolve through the inner
pressures of an emerging industry, much valuable time will
be lost and it will take many more years for the industry to
fulfil its potentials.
It is, therefore, of utmost importance that this world
conference decides upon an appropriate plan of action to
accelerate the development process. It should reflect the
determination of governments and the world community to
elevate aquaculture to an appropriate level in national and
international priorities. Specific recommendations for im-
plementation by well identified agencies should be outlined
and the unequivocal support of international, inter-govern-
mental and non-governmental agencies sought to enhance
development assistance.
7 References
AIIMMII. K H ct al. Preliminary observations on induction of
N75 matuiily and spawning in Pcnuciu monodon I ahnems and
Fig 6. Aview of a fish
pond
in Israel, used for very intensive carp Penacus mvrquumsis dc Man by eye stalk extirpation Bull
culture, involving dense stocking, artificial feeding and aeration Shrimp Cult Rex. Cent Jepara, Indonesia, I(I) II I
CHAM, (J L. The use of pollutants for aquaculturc conditioning of the Workshop on the Culture of Freshwater Prawns, Si
1^74 wastesfoi aquaculturc Ptoc IPFC, 15(2) 84 91
Petersburg, Florida. 1974 Waimanalo, Hawaii, Oceanic
Dm, W. A, (Ed ), Report of the Symposium on the Major Com- Institute, 95 p.
1972 municablc Fish Diseases in Europe and their Control', Amster- JAPAN FISHHRIKS ASSOCIATION, Fish farming in Japan Tokyo, Japan
dam, 20-22 April 1972 EIFAC Tech. Pap (17)- 43 p, ,
1975 Fisheries Association, 44 p
FAO, FAO Aquacult Hull, 6 (2- 3) 4,15 LING. S. W. Methods of rearing and culluring Macrobrachium rosen-
1974 1969 bergii (de Man) FAO
Fish. Rep., (57) vol ,V 607 19
FAO, Government Consultation on an International Convention foi Lou AS, T. New fish farming lobby New SCL. 65 (928) 878-9
1974a the Control of the Spread of Major Communicable Fish 1974
Diseases, Avicmorc, Scotland, 30 April- May 1974. Report. 1
PADLAN, P G RANOLMIHARDJO, B S & HAMAMI, E Improved
,
FAO fish *</>,( 149), 17 p 1975 methods of milkrlsh culture, L Increasing pioduction in
FAO, Informe del Simposio sobre Acuicultura en Amenta Latma, shallow, undramable brackishwater ponds BulL Shrimp Cult
197S Montevideo, Uruguay, 26 de noviembre 2 dc diciembie dc Res Cent. Jepara. Indonesia, 1
(I) 13 9
FAO Fish Rep.'. (159) 17-61
1974, Pin AY, 1 V R (Hd), Proceedings of the FAO Woi Id Symposium on
FAO/UNDP, Perfectionnement et recherche Camei-
en pisciculture 1967 Warm-water Pond Fish Culture, Rome, Italy, 18-25 May 1966
1973 oun, Gabon, Republique Centrafncame, Congo Rapport FAO Fish, Rep. (44) vol 1 55 p
prepare par le Centre Technique Forestiei Tiopical Kome, PIU,A^ T, V, R Problems and priorities in aquacullure development
, ,
FAO, Ft: DP/RAh/66/054- 58 p. 1972 In Progress in fishery and food science University of Washing-
FAO/UNDP, Aquaculture planning in Africa, Report of the Hist ton College of Fisheries Fiftieth Anniversary Celebration
1975 Regional Workshop on Aquaculture Planning in Africa, Accra, Symposium, Unir Wash l*uhl /-Vs/7 (Ncu ScrJ (5), 203 8
Ghana, 2 17 July 1975 Rome, FAO, ADCP/RhP/75, 14 p, 1 1 PILI AY, V R The role of aquacullure in
I ,
fishery development and
FAO/UNDP, Aquaculture planning in Asia. Report of the Regional 1973 management ,/ A/Y/J /?<;s. Board Can 30 (12) Pt 2 2202-17 ,
1976 Workshop on Aquaculture Planning in Asia, Bangkok, PIN AY, T, V, R., Planning of aquaculture development an intro-
Thailand, 17 Octobei 1975. Rome, FAO, AIX'P/ REP/76 2
1 1977 ductory guide Partly based on the discussions at the FAO
154 p NORAD Round 'I able on the 'Strategy for Development of
FAO UNDP. Plamheaeion de la Acuiculturn en America Lntina Aquaculturc as an Industry' at Svanoy, Norway, 10 July I
1976a Informe de la Reunion Consultiva Regional de Plamheaeion 1974 Farnham, Surrey, Fishing News Books Ltd 69 p ,
sobre Acuicultura en America Latma. Caracas. Venezuela, PRnsiDrNT's St'ii'Nt'h ADVISORY CoMMmr i, The world food problem
24 novKTiibic 10 diucmbie 197^ Rome, f AC) ADCI* KM' 1967 a report of the President's Science Advisory Committee, Vol H
76 ^ 171 p
Report of the Panel on the World Food Supply Washington,
HJJIMURA, T. & OK AMOIO, H, Notes on pi ogress made in developing D C White House, 772 p
,
1972 a mass cultunng technique for Macrtthratlnum rownhcruu in RYTHER, J H Preliminary results with a pilot-plant waste lecyclmg
Hawaii In Coastal aquacullure in the Indo-Pacific region, 1975 marine aquaculture system Paper presented at the International
T V R Pillay. Farnham, Surrey, Fishing News
edited by Conference on the renovation and recycling of wastewatei
Books Lid, pp 113 27 through aquatic and terrestrial systems, Bellagio. 1975
GOODWIN, H & HANSON. J A The aquaculluie of freshwater
I
SARKI, S, Fisheries and fish cultuie in Israel in 1973 Bamidt^li, 3 (26),
1975 pi awns Vacrohrathmm species In Summary of 1974 57-8*
pioceedings of
10
de acuicultura, un desarrollo bien planeado y admmistrado de la
la
Over the last 10 years or so it has been recognized that
misma podria contribuir en forma notable a aumentar los summistros dc
alimentos, La consiguiente mcjora del bienestar fisico when a country's economic growth is speeded up, a more
y de la calidad de
vida dc las masas pobres dc las zonas rurales aumentaria su equitable distribution of income does not necessarily fol
produetivi
dad y su posibilidad de contribuir a la eeonomia nacional,
low. Experience has shown that in countries which have
hi prmcipio capital en quc dcbc basarse el desarrollodc la acuicultura
es su viabilidad, y para determinarla pucdcn utilizarse diversos managed to achieve a high rate of growth the poorest part of
parame
tros La importance socioeconomica de la acuicultura pucdc csiimarsc the population has benefited very little if at all. Growth-
mediantc el 'valor' anadido que produce y la proporcion del mismo quc
oriented development strategies of the past have, therefore,
permanecc en las ?onas rurales Para ello es preciso orgam/ar adecuada
mcntc el mercudco been seriously questioned. It has even been claimed that in
Para lograr rcsultados optimos es necesano cstudi.n los divcrsos
many developing countries economic growth has led to
factores dc produccion y su interrclacion y tomar rncdidas oportunas
increased inequality in the distribution of income.
para la integraeion vertical y horizontal de diversas aumdades, hn la
mayoria de los paises en desarrollo. teniendo en cuuita todos los The equitable distribution of income has become a major
factores. la balan/a sc mclmara probablemente en favoi dc las emprosas a
public concern and it has been realized that rural develop-
pequcna escala y con gran empleo de mano dc obra
Desdc rnuchos puntos de vista, la acuicultura no puede ni dcbc ment must receive much more attention. In this effort,
considerarse como una actividad rural apartc Muchos dc los servicios improved food supplies and basic services such as health
puedcn servir al mismo tiempp para divcrsos grupos profcsionales Son and education can improve the physical well-being and
necesarias. en cambio. investigaciones especialuudns \ aetmdadcs de
ensenanza y capacitacion de caracter cspecifico, y en muchas zonas cs quality of life of the rural poor, and indirectly enhance their
preciso cstablecer granias acuicolas de demostracion y semcios de productivity and their ability to contribute to the national
extension quc tengan una base realista, Por lo quc sc refiere a los
pequenos acuicultorcs, en especial, seria altamente litil facilitarlcs un economy. It is concerned with the modernization and
"conjunto" de asistencia que incluya asesoramiento tecnico, ayuda para monetization of rural society and with its transition from
organi/ar el abastecimicnto de material de construction, peces para
traditional isolation to integration with the national
scmilla, y picnsos, sin olvidar la concesion de creditos en condiciones
razonables para costcar las invcrsiones y los gastos de opcracion economy.
A mvcl gubernarncntal, es necesano establecer "objctivys cuantilica Aquaculture embraces a wide range of activities from
dos" rcalisticos sobre remuneracion de la manode obra, cantidad quc ha
extensive 'sea-ranching' and management activities in large
dc producirsc, empleo y propiedad. etc La participacion dc los gobier-
nos habra de incluir, de ordinario, estudios de los rccursos naturalcs, bodies of water to intensive culture with fertilization and
asistencia tecnica nacional c mternacional, y servicios c miraestructurns
feeding offish in small man-made ponds. It is carried out in
dc caracter general y especial
tropical as well as semi-arctic climates and a number of
problems cannot, therefore, be covered in a paper of this
kind. But hoped, nevertheless, that the paper will
it is
The magnitude of the industry as expressed in procluc produce species that are reasonable in price and have a wide
tion quantities is afiectcd by limiting factors which will acceptance among all social and economic groups in the
influence the possibilities of development. respective countries.
The main factors are: (/) natural resources; (//') labour In the paper a simple system is presented for assessment
and management; (///') capital and technology. The objec of viability, in the widest socio-economic context. True, in
tives and measures chosen for developing aquaculture will some cases it may be found that maximum profitability
highly influence the standard of life for those engaged in this should not necessarily be the aim; there arc so many roles
industry as well as in associated industries. which aquaculturc may play in a community. But viability
In this paper an attempt is made to elucidate, from an is the leading principle on which development planning
economist's point of view, the most important factors of should be based The orientation must therefore be clearly
production in aquaculture and ways and means of influenc- toward increasing production and raising productivity, so
ing these factors. It main
further purports to enumerate the that aquaculture may contribute, jointly with the other rural
constraints, and to discuss possible ways and means of activities such as agriculture and fishing, to the improve-
increasing production by developing viable enterprises ment of health, education, housing, nutrition standards, and
within the framework of an integrated approach. other social values in rural areas.
Development is thus an interplay between objectives, Many sconces are involved and must be called on for the
resources and measures. development of aquaculturc. To some people the main
The contribution which aquaculturc already makes to problem may appear as being biological or technological;
the world's fish production is not insignificant- probably to others socio-political or legal. There is a clear need for
some 5- 10 million tons or some 10% of total production research in a number of fields at a fairly high level of
but, as vast possibilities are as yet not fully utilized, it is the sophistication.Emphasis may vary from one country to
author's contention that when properly planned, co-ordi- another and which factor is the most important may be a
nated and integrated, expansions and improvements in the moot point. The main purpose of this paper, however, is to
field of aquaculturc may assist greatly in achieving the aims emphasize the socio economic purpose and the need for a
of rural development. simultaneous and balanced approach.
11
While
in the past progress with rural development proj- trial fish or fishery products (eg, for reduction to meal or
ects as pointed out by the World Bank have often been fertilizers; seaweed for marine colloids; oysters for cultured
disappointing, owing to lack of knowledge, incomplete pearls).
understanding and limited institutional, technical and Formulation of the long-range macro-economic objec-
financial capabilities, the future outlook has many promis- tives of aquaculture is a political decision which should
ing features,It is firmly believed that Yural development balance the different interests in order to attain the greatest
schemes benefiting large numbers of people can be as possible benefits for all people.
productive and economically attractive as schemes of a Society is therefore interested in neither overproduction
conventional kind directly benefiting far fewer people", nor underproduction. Over-production, which cannot be
sold in the home market and cannot be exported at
profit-
able prices, represents a waste of production resources.
2 Possible objectives for development of aquaculture Conversely, underproduction may result in high prices,
While there may be many objectives for development of insufficient food supplies, poor utilization of resources and
aquaculture, the main one is to produce food and preferably contribute to unemployment in general.
animal protein food and thus improve dietary standards. Different targets of aquaculture may easily be incompat-
This is especially important in areas where other protein ible (targets are defined as quantified
objectives). Examples
resources are few and insufficient; these might benefit of targets are: (a) production quantities; (b) employment in
relatively more from a possible increase of fish supplies number of persons; (c) income per yearly man-hours; (d)
resulting from development of aquaculture, si/e and number of enterprises; (e)
productivity of re-
Production of animal protein is energy demanding. If sources utili/ed.
different sources of protein arc compared, then production No such targets can be set in isolation but have to be
of fish protein comes out rather favourably in terms of established in the natural and socio-economic setting of the
It could be a useful source
efficiency of energy conversion. area concerned and with an eye to the means available for
of protein both as subsistence production and in market implementation of a development programme. The various
economies. From the global viewpoint, the difference in the development objectives are to a high degree interrelated,
economic structure and immobility of labour and capital and considerations of the most suitable economic and
has the effect that resources arc not optimally utili/ed. technical level and the level of productivity must be carried
Much remains to be done, therefore, with regard to the most out in a simultaneous evaluation of all relevant factors.
economical operation of aquaculture. If a minimum profitability and income are not attained,
Natural resources such as water, and feed arc
fertili/ers other objectives can hardly be achieved. If, therefore, aqua-
factors of production which are the first to become scarce. culture is to contribute to enhancement of the standard of
Labour is plentiful and, with respect to technology and living in rural areas, its ability to pay wages, as calculated
capital, it
hopefully, only a question of time until these
is,
per year of work, should be at least the same as for other
production factors will be abundant relative to natural rural activities and thus preferably exceed the
prevailing
resources even in developing countries. In the long run, opportunity cost of labour.
therefore, only those areas where natural resources for The objective of the individual fish farmer may be cither
development of aquaculture are abundant or well suited can to maximize income or to maximize return on investment.
there be any expectation of significantly increased In the case of income maximization the fish farmer seeks to
12
site of living is not only a question of the economy of the political decisions which in turn might pave the way for
industry but also a question of social and human conditions technological and economic progress.
of the local society. Aquaculture can only be developed as a The question of structural rationalization, leading to a
viable industry if both objectives of profitability and those determination of the optimal si/e of the fish farms, may also
of social welfare are fulfilled. entail a reduction in total employment and an increase in
one must ask why terms of trade have turned against 1975), and it is with these objectives in mind that the
traditional rural activities. The reasons are probably to be growth and development problems of aquaculture should
found the changes which have taken place in technology,
in be reviewed.
in political factors, and in the relationship between popula- The direction and intensity of the development process
tion and natural resources. There is a trend toward speciali- in these fields are highly dependent on the initial stage of the
zation and division of labour and this will gradually trans industry, and the society at large,and on the general and
form rural subsistence economy to a commercialized special objectives for future development. Development in
production economy in which prevailing prices of output a society does not necessarily involve increasing the pro
and of input in the primary industries highly influence duction volume in all fields of endeavour; theoretically,
income level in these industries. Despite the adverse effect development can take three directions: expansion, stagna
which they might have, technological innovations can lion or contraction.
hardly be arrested or, even less, reversed, and in the long Stabilizing or reducing the production volume may,
run they will reduce real production costs and thus improve under certain circumstances, be necessary in order to attain
standards of living. objectives like increased income for those engaged in aqua-
The supply of agricultural and fishery products is often culture. Depletion of natural resources and pollution are
characterized by instability causing fluctuations in prices two additional examples of possible reasons for such poli-
and income. This is due to inelasticities in supplies and cies. However, taking all factors into account, aquaculture
demands with regard to price fluctuations. is a field in which an expansion is most likely to take place.
In developed countries in particular, demand for staple As pointed out by the UN World Food Conference (1974),
food generated by growth in population or income tends to much of the potential area for expansion of aquaculture
be less than the increased supply created by productivity consists of mangrove swamps, estuaries, lagoons, lakes and
improvements. Thus, free prices fall and farm incomes shallow coastal waters, and there is very little competition
deteriorate. inelastic price and income demand, prices
With for space between aquaculturc and other rural activities.
fall for a dual reason. Small shifts in quantities generate In the process of development, external events may
great extent, determine the level of living standards, the purifying water arc also continually increasing problems
authorities in many countries regulate food prices, thus throughout the world. Many countries may soon be enact-
influencing, indirectly, income in the primary industries of ing 200-mile exclusive economic zones, thus reserving
which aquaculture a part. Changes in rural economy are
is some of the world's major fishing areas for the adjoining
very much a political question, not only as far as prices of coastal states. These factors all have indirect implications
output are concerned, but also with respect to decisions on the growth or development potential for aquaculture,
which, directly or indirectly, influence factor prices. both in absolute terms and relative to traditional
ture may be carried out, one of the main economic prob- The development of aquaculturcas expressed in growth
lems is the uneven distribution of natural resources. Owner- potentials take place in four main areas: (a) new
may
ship of land may be such so that a great portion of the land markets; (b) new products; (c) improved efficiency; (d)
is owned bya few people. This may augment the problem of restructuring present activities.
efficient use of natural resources and improvement of the If economic growth is to be accompanied by a more
rural income distribution. equitable distribution of income, better knowledge of basic
Low educational standards in many rural districts are economics of production and marketing is essential.
13
model contains the most important technical and economic Production per cubic metre of water 8 00 kg/m
'
4
data pertaining to production and it can be used for analys- Utilization of capacity 80%
ing both a specific type of production, the total production
1
of an enterprise, or the total production of a region. An 'Production' is defined as quantity offish sold plus increase or minus
decrease m stocks offish. 'I his is the quantity from which the operating
example, calculated to illustrate how the figures can be income is calculated
arrived at, is set out in the model, In this case, the model is '
production factors arc natural resources, labour and capi- planners to establish more reliable budgets and prognoses,
tal. To a certain degree, these factors may substitute each and improve both profitability of the industry and alloca-
other to achieve a given level of production. tion of production resources.
An example of this relationship is the universal mecham-
/ation process which is substituting labour by capital.
Another possible substitution in aquaculture is in the feed: 4 Evolutionary aspects of integrated rural development
water surface or land area relations. Development of aquaculture is influenced by tour factors
The substitution relations do apply both between pro which include: (a) obstacles to rural economic develop-
duction factors and between products. When the produc- ment; (/)) sale prices and markets; (c) factors influencing
tion quantity is given, the question is how to produce this real cost in production and marketing; (d) policy issues in
by cheaper ones. but are found in developed countries as well. Some of the
obstacles arc easily removed and can be handled at a local
3.3.3 Product /product relations. These relations deal with level; others require long-term adaptation of environment
The availability of production resources limits produc water, land, feed and fertili/ers. The ownership of these
lion volume in aquaculture. Resources arc scarce to varying resources may be biased in that only a few people own or
made between control them. This may contribute to an inefficient utili/a-
degrees. Therefore, a choice has to be differ-
ent products that can be produced. tion of resources and to inequality in income distribution in
The production can be achieved at a given state of areas where population densities and growth are high.
Rivers, lakes and seashore are in many cases common
technology and with a given aggregate of resources. Both
technology and resources are changing and so are produc- property while land is usually not. In this event, aquacul-
tion possibilitites. There are examples which can result or ture could represent an alternative occupational activity for
have resulted in expansion and contraction of aquaculture landless rural inhabitants. Some fish farming techniques
like the use of floating cages represent such a possibility,
production, eg* pollution of fresh water may reduce produc
lion, while improved techniques, utilizing marsh lands or By imposing or initiating different taxes or subsidies on
the use of landand water, production quantities can in fact
swamps, have expanded aquaculture production.
be increased so that marginal production resources become
3.3.4 Economies oj scale. Kconomics of scale are associ almost as remunerative as those of better quality.
ated with mass production and large-scale enterprises. In The natural resources can be marginal owing to climatic
many industrial processes, when all inputs are doubled, we and topographical conditions, structure of ownership, dis-
tance to markets, etc. These are all factors that result in
may find that output is more than doubled. This phenome
non is called increasing return to scale. different production costs.
The most dominant characteristics of economies of scale The monopolisation of land and other resources in one
are the use of a relatively high level of capital and technol- way or another, will greatly influence the level of wages as
those without land have no alternative but to offer their
ogy per man-year and a low number of working hours per
unit produced. Savings or economics of large-scale produc- services to landlords.
tion only come into full play if there exist possibilities for Irrespective of whether an enterprise is large or small, the
division of labour and specialization of production. owner adapts his
production quantity in such a way that
When planning development of aquaculture, it is import- marginal production cost is equal to the price of the
ant to take into account possible economies of scale both in products. Large farmers tend to substitute labour with
aquaculture and in competing industries. Depending on the machinery and thus adopt techniques of production with
objectives or formulated targets for the development of relatively high land:labour ratios. Small farmers, on the
other hand, adopt very labour-intensive techniques.
aquaculture, economies of scale may either be discouraged
or encouraged. From the point of view of optimal resource allocation
The theoretical basis of economic studies in this field is this may be wasteful for two reasons. Firstly, as long as
well developed in production theory, and research and labour is readily available and no alternative occupation
study of aquacultural farm records may provide all the exists, its substitution by machinery could be an alloca-
tional mistake. Secondly, yields per unit area of water or
necessary data.
The method and procedures used in agriculture can be land tend to increase with decreasing farm si/e; /V. the
15
smaller the farm, the greater the productivity of land, Experience from agriculture is showing a positive correla-
Conversely, the larger the farm, the greater the average tion between education and innovation, and the same rela-
enterprises are operated by big land-owners, others arc resources to the greatest possible extent. As a supplement to
operated by tenant farmers. What should be stressed in this research stations, demonstration farms should be estab
connexion is that established ownership should not be a lishcd in co-operation with theaquaculturistsand theexten
hindrance to effective utili/ation of land and water areas sion service. On these farms, research results from labora
suitable for aquaculture. Moreover, well integrated small tones and stations would be verified through practical tests
scale enterprises will often be an important managerial and the farms may provide a very efTective stimulus both to
form to further the socio-economic objectives of rural research institutions and to the local technical milieu. Also,
development. demonstration farms are a relatively inexpensive way of
To this end, land reforms and reforms in the traditional collectingand analysing technical and economic data and
pattern of water use may well be some of the most impor- introducing improvements to aquaculture,
tant measures, In many countries aquaculture is not of a sufficient
magnitude present to justify separate education and
at
4.2 Problems related to pollution and recirculation
extension services. Administratively these functions arc
Aquaculture can be both a polluter and a purifier of the more often placed under the fisheries agencies of govern
aquatic milieu. Culture of dense fish populations contrib
ments rather than under the agricultural agencies.
utes to water pollution through addition of excess feed and
Research programmes for developing aquaculture
fish excrement, and depletion of oxygen, thus making the
should be given a high priority and should comprise both
water less suitable or unusable for many purposes. Conver
bio-, techno- and socio-economic problems.
sely, aquaculture itself is very sensitive to many forms of
So far, it seems that priority in the public sector has been
pollution, thus increasing the risk of failure in this industry.
given to basic biological research, while technological inno-
On the other hand, aquaculture can be deliberately inte
vations have, in most cases, come from the industry itself as
grated into plans for purifying water and utilization of
a result of the need for immediate improvements to farm
resources that otherwise might be wasted.
In addition to evaluating profitability of the separate
management.
Socio-economic research has, to a large degree, been
enterprises, social costs of pollution will most certainly be
neglected, partly because in many countries aquaculture
calculated in future into the production cost. With increas-
has only recently developed into an industry of any impor-
ing awareness of the social cost of pollution, the tendency is
tance. At the same time, gradual transition from rural
now for polluting industries to cover the cost of water
subsistence economy to commerciali/.ed production econ-
purification, either by installing their own purifying devices
or by paying special taxes.
omy has created socio-economic problems. Basic biologi
cal research is well suited for international co-operation, as
Successful experiments and operations using sewage
resultsand conclusions arrived at are not influenced by
water for raising fish have been carried out. In most of these
and economic disparities.
local, social
cases the fish have been reduced to meal. Research related
Co-ordinated research efforts, both on national and
to methodsfor recycling water containing organic matters
international bases, are suggested in order to avoid dupli-
(wastes could
) also provide aquaculture with an alternative
cating effort and to stimulate and improve research.
source of feed.
16
be financed by them, but there is reason to believe that in will often arise. Such schemes should not only comprise
many cases facilities such as fish seed producing units, financing of stock of fish and investment in buildings,
storage facilities, market installations, etc, will have to be machinery and equipment, but may also have to be ex
provided through government investment and sometimes tended to activities such as major engineering works and
even operated by government agencies. strengthening of transport systems. How much of this
should be financed by individual enterprises and how much
4.5 Liquidity and financial resources should be provided as infrastructure and financed by the
For both fish farmers and planners it is important to authorities will depend a creat deal on the social structure
understand the interaction between rentability and liquidity of the country and area concerned.
in an aquaculture enterprise. Good rentability and high
For the various phases of aquaculture industry, insti
all
profits do not necessarily involve good liquidity. To keep tutional credit is an essential prerequisite. It has been found
the enterprise running, the necessary means of payment in agriculture that, so far, large farmers have been the main
have to be provided. A
beneficiaries. majority of the small farmers have limited
One way to analyse the liquidity situation of the enter or no access and available supply of
to institutional credit,
prises is to use the historical flow of fund analysis, and look credit has been heavily skewed in favour of short-term
at the balance sheet and the changes in the figures as they
credit, particularly in the case of small farmers.
occur over a period of time. The asset side of the balance These findings in the fields of agriculture will no doubt
sheet shows the use of the capital, while the liability side also be true for aquaculture. It is, therefore, worth para
shows the course of capital. The use of capital may be to: (/ )
phrasing from the World Bank Sector Policy Paper the
increase current assets, stocks and fixed assets; (//') repay characteristics of condition under which credit is needed
loans and other liabilities; and (///) cover deficit of and can be used effectively: (a) Clear opportunities for
operation. economic gain from adoption of new production technol
The source of capital can be to: (a) retain net profits of
ogy or other improvements; (b) Widespread recognition
operations; (b) cover depreciation; (c) increase loans and and acceptance of such opportunities on the part of the fish
other liabilities; and (d) reduce assets. larmer, along with access to training in the necessary skills;
The sum of (a ) + (A) is increasing the owner's capital and (c) Delivery systems which provide ready and timely avail-
isone way of improving the liquidity situation. In addition,
ability of inputs.
liquidity may be improved by measures under (c)and (d\ For small fish farmers, security is always a problem and
The composition of the assets and liability sides should some kind of arrangement has to be made to guarantee the
match each other, as investment in durable fixed assets loan both for investment and working capital. It should also
should be financed by long-term loans or equity. Current be accepted that credit administration costs are relatively
assets and stock can be financed by short term liabilities.
higher for smaller amounts of credit.
For lending institutions, the security of their lendings is a
Productivity of the small fish farmer would be consider-
specialproblem in aquaculture because of the risk involved. ably enhanced if he could be provided with a comprehen-
As it may be difficult to obtain sufficient working capital, sive package of advice and assistance. Institutional credit
the working capital is often wholly or partly financed by an could replace or augment credit from traditional sources in
owner's capital. order to check situations which cause exces-
monopoly
The working capital in aquaculture should be used for The farmer could gradually in
sively high interest rates.
financing: (a stock or raw material, mainly feed, fertilizers market some of his output. The
)
crease his production and
and wrapping material; (b) stock offish in production; (<:)
package approach could also include land reform which, if
stock offish in warehouses; and (d) claims on customers.
pursued widely, could sharply increase the credit needs of
The size of the working capital depends on a number of the former tenants who were previously supplied by
factors, including: (a) Sales. The need for working capital landlords.
will increase by the increase in sales, (b) Seasonal varia- As government development programmes for a given
tions.Large variations in sales will often involve increased region involve investment schedules, the effect of invest-
need for working capital among other things because of ment on the income in the region concerned should be taken
increases in stocks during the year, (c) Profit per unit. The into account.
higher the profit per unit, the lower will be the need for Modern income analyses have shown that an increase in
working capital per unit sold, (d) Capital turnover. In net investment will lead to a multiple increase in national
creased capital turnover will, everything else being equal, income. k\ an investment aquaculture will not only
in
lead to reduction in the need for working capital, (e) The create new jobs The increased income in
in aquaculture.
relationship between fixed assets and current assets. In-
aquaculture which the investment entails will be used for
creased mechanization leads to a reduction in the need for
demanding goods and services in other sectors of the
working capital, while, on the other hand, the need for economy, and there will thus be a secondary expansion of
capital to finance fixed assets will increase. income and production.
It must be assumed that this multiple effect can be
4.5. 1 The
cost of capital. The main cost item of capital is.
on loans, The rates of interest are significant in rural districts if a large portion of the in
of course, the interest paid
creased income is re-spent in that particular area, and not
influenced by demand and supply of capital and some rates
most countries, to government regulations.
put away as savings or transferred to other districts.
are subject, in
There are various ways in which authorities may influ-
The time of repayment of loans influences liquidity as long
ence this by encouraging the localization of other enter-
term loans will ease the situation.
prises and service institutions in rural rather than in urban
4.5.2 Institutional credit. As capital is often scarce in rural areas. Some of the means which would normally be availa
areas, financing problems and the need for credit schemes ble are: (a ) tax differentiation by districts; (b ) localization
17
control: (c) subsidized institutional credit; (d) regional different and successive levels. According to the method of
transportation support; and (e) free extension service, integration, also possible to distinguish between: (/)
it is
for in most cases there arc many small farmers and effective Aquaculturists' co operatives may be considered as a
special form of vertical integration. The farm may be
competition, and the individual fish farmer has very limited
considered the production centre from which integration is
possibilities of influencing the final market prices. More
initiated forward toward the market (in the case of member
over, the prices of aquacultural products are to a large
extent fixed in competition with other fisheries and agricul- ship in marketing co-operatives ) and backward toward raw
material for farm supplies (in the case of purchasing co-
tural products. Pond reared fish are often the same species
as fished in inland or coastal waters, or at least the con- operatives).
In the case of what may be called co-operative integra
sumer can easily substitute other types offish products and
lion, the farmers themselves act as a collective integrator. In
animal protein for pond fish.
such cases, maximization of profit from aquacultural pro-
In the markets for
aquaculture products there are differ
duction would be the main goal.
cnt reactions to changes in prices; various products have
different price-elasticities. For sales organi/ations and cen
The form of integration in actual practice depends on
factors such as magnitude and location of aquaculturc
tral planning agencies, it is important to have information
side, consumers can be influenced through consumer edu- greater magnitude of the industry, and poor possibilities for
cation to direct their demand to seasons when the supplies integration with other industries arc factors which will
are largest, or laught to increase the demand for these normally promote integration through the formation of
special purchasing and sales organi/ations within aquacul-
products.
turc. Both of these organizational forms can be found at the
Fish farmers can sell their products through various
same time in a region.
distribution channels or directly to the consumer. In some
areas separate sales organizations for aquaculturc products By integrating aquaculture into other rural development
have been formed or fish farmers have joined existing sales projects, both aquaculture and other rural activities could
benefit. The advantages to the aquaculture industry may be
organi/ations in fisheries or in agriculture.
Various forms of both horizontal and vertical integration
listed as: (aOpportunities to provide economics of scale:
)
5, 1 Vertical and horizontal integration integration which will be supported and sometimes even
Horizontal integration refers to an organizational co-ordi promoted by the authorities will have to be decided in an
nation of the activities of two or more firms on the same evaluation of the proper balance required between eco
level, while vertical integration refers to an organizational nomic and social components of the rural development
co-ordination of the activities of two or more firms on programme.
18
5,2 Price support programmes prices and regular availability of fish for consumption, In
The supply offish will normally increase with rising prices, any attempt to increase productivity, therefore, efforts must
as production in marginal enterprises will then become also be made to improve marketing systems and pricing
profitable. This increase in production may. however, be policies. In the absence of an appropriate and timely em-
upset by a corresponding reduction in the quantity pro- phasis on the development of markets, intensification of
duced by those enterprises which enjoy more favourable production may lead to difficulties in the disposal of
conditions for production. With higher fish prices these marketable surpluses.
enterprises may obtain the same profit with less production.
In order to secure the same profitability in enterprises with
different natural conditions and at the same time keep 6 Factors influencing real cost in primary production and
aggregate production at a relatively high level, measures marketing
must be taken to influence profitability in the enterprises. 6. Productivity and employment
1
Production in marginal enterprises may be stimulated with The productivity of aquaculture is important both to the
price subsidies, credits on reasonable terms, extension individual farmer and to the national economy. For the
service, etc. individual farmer, productivity is the foundation that can
It should be clear from the above that the quantity provide him with a reasonable standard of living, and for
produced is influenced both by sale prices of the product the nation, productivity is the basis for ensuring the con-
and by the cost of production. It must be emphasized, sumer food products at reasonable prices. The individual
however, that when production expands rapidly, quality farmer, his organization and the government can, by differ
may decline and thus tend to reduce the prices and endanger ent means, influence the productivity of the industry. But
profitability. Therefore it is important to take into account how should this be reconciled with the fact that in many
the level of prices when major changes in production are developing countries unskilled labour is, generally speak-
planned. ing, the only production factor in abundant supply in rural
The main
specific measures used to influence profitabil areas, while capital, foreign exchange, skilled labour and
ityand production volume could be: (a) Regulation and managerial ability are in short supply? The most suitable
establishment of control of production volume at each industries for establishment in such conditions are those
farm; (b) Direct monetary support m the form of subsidies thatmaximize total output and use these scarce factors in
and various forms of grants; (<) Purchase-loan storage combination with as much unskilled labour as possible; one
programmes to guarantee or support prices; (d) Purchase of the main purposes of rural development is to create
and-rcsale differential subsidy plans; (e) Programmes that employment and reduce the drift of unemployed people to
aim to influence the demand for aquacultural products or urban slums.
influence the real cost of production. As use of capital in the form of technology is improving
None of these programmes except (e) are to be recom- productivity but reducing employment, the productivity
mended in terms of effective long term resource allocation. objective and the employment objective in aquaculture may
In (a ) the consumers suffer through a scarcity of goods and easily become irreconcilable. High productivity often
higher prices as production volume is restricted. In (r)the means fewer working hours per unit produced and. accord
government is creating additional demand to support ingly, fewer persons are employed. In fish farms of a given
prices. The quantity bought by the government may cither size, measures taken to improve the yield per unit area or
be exported at dumping prices, or be destroyed or stored. In volume of water (/<?, more intensive production) are prefer
(/) the government lets the price fall to a low level and pays able. These measures increase the income and profitability
the difference between the market price and the desired without reducing the need for labour. However, the greatest
support price. In this case the consumers are ensured impact on the labour market will be created by the expan-
supplies at a low market price and the aquaculturist is sion of old farms and the establishment of new ones.
ensured relatively high income. In developed countries the situation is often different.
The different measures described all have different influ- After the second world war, labour has the limiting become
ences on prices and production quantities, but do not factor and, with increasing competition for labour, great
contribute to reduction of the real cost of production. In the prominence has been given to wage paying ability per
broadest sense, reduction of real cost of production is the working hour. For the individual small-scale fish farmer
only possible way to increase real income per caput. who includes his labour in the operation, this measurement
Fish is a perishable product and one of the mam prob is of particular interest. Where alternatives to fish farming
lems in fish marketing will be the highly fragmented nature arc available, he will tend to choose that occupation which
of the market and, connected with it, uncertainty about fish gives him the largest total income. Hence, fish farming will
T\HH I
AVI K\GF ( OSTOI N\ \C,|?S, IN' 1 1 Kl SI \Nl> 1>I PKI C I ATION IN | Nil RPRISI S NMIII PRODI ( I ION \HO\I \ND HI 1<>\V 15 IONS PI K I MP1 OYfl PI R VI \K IN
NOR\\ \>. 197 1
19
only be carried out if it is at least as remunerative as any of water) with an estimated total carrying capacity of
1 50 000
other rural occupation. kg salmon (Salmo salar)\n Norway amounted to
USS 125000 in 1970.
6,2 Size of enterprise and type of production Transportation costs of both inputs and outputs limit the
In aquaculture it must be assumed that the size of the size of a farm. In particular, transportation costs of finger-
enterprise does influence cost of production. Thus total unit lingsand large quantities of perishable feed like trash fish
cost diminishes with increase in size* mainly due to higher may be expensive. For a well run trout or salmon farm in
productivity (ie, quantity of product per employee), while western Europe, about 15 000 kg of dry feed per year is
fixed costs such as interest and depreciation tend to increase required for a profitable operation. If the fish farm is mainly
with the si/.e of the enterprise. This is illustrated in Table I. using trash fish as feed, some 90 000 kg is needed at a feed
It should be noted that the table does not show the total conversion ratio of 6:1. As a consequence the transporta-
production cost per unit. In order to arrive at this, variable tion cost of the feed per kilogramme will increase by six
costs, such as feed and stocking material, must be added. times and will be reflected in the price of marketable fish.
These costs are in the main changing proportionally with
the quantity produced, and the size of the enterprise has 6.3 Intensity of production
little or no influence on
unit costs. (Apart from the fact that In aquaculture several yardsticks are used to measure
larger enterprises can often obtain reduction in feeding intensity of production. The most common ones arc: (a)
costs in the form of quantity rebates on prices.) annual yield in kilogrammes per cubic metre of water; (b)
in which the fixed costs constitute a rela annual yield in kilogrammes per hectare of water surface;
Enterprises
of the cost arc more vulnerable to a (c) annual production in kilogrammes per employee per
tively large part
decrease in and especially to a decrease in the
prices year; (d) annual yield in kilogrammes per feeding unit or
teed conversion ratio; and (<?) investment per kilogramme
utilization of capacity. Changes in technology may also
of fish produced per year.
make production equipment obsolete, as illustrated by the
introduction of floating cages in the beginning of the 1970s,
It must be stressed that these yardsticks hardly give any
which in many cases involved a switch of production away information about the profitability of the enterprise as they
from raceways on shore, where expensive pumping installa- only indicate one of the many factors which determine the
tions had often been constructed.
income of the enterprise, and do not take costs into account.
In many fish culture operations, feed costs constitute a
For development, the question of capital-intensive
rural
versus labour-intensive aquaculture is of decisive impor- major cost item ranging from 40-60% of total cost. Im
tance, for to some degree capital and labour may substitute provement of the feed conversion ratio will largely contrib-
ute to reducing feed costs. This can be accomplished mainly
each other. If, therefore, a given quantity is produced in a
few large enterprises, fewer people are employed than through better feeding practices, including less feed was-
would be the case if the same quantity was produced in tage, more suitable types of feed, and improvement of the
fish strains tor this purpose.
many small enterprises.
In a free market the balance between capital-intensive The feed conversion ratios in fish culture compare well
and labour-intensive techniques is indirectly a question of with other types of high quality protein production
(Moller. 973 ). Thus fish utilize their iced more effectively
the cost of both labour and capital, as expressed in produc- 1
tion cost per unit. High wages and low rate of interest than in the case of pigs. While about 4-5 feed units per
kilogramme (approximately 7 400 kg eal is needed lor the
contribute to the substitution of labour by capital and vice )
become labour-intensive. fishes compare favourably with pork with regard to nutrient
cheap, enterprises are tending to
content (Table
labour-saving equipment and
II).
Conversely, investment in
1 \BI I II
facilities may often improve the productivity of an Nl'lRll NTS IN Illl I DIIU PORTION OK ONI POl'ND (0 454 kg )OF PORK
1
enterprise.
KJDACUITIIRI SPM n s
Complex production techniques usually favour larger-
sized enterprises. In aquaculture the complexity of produc
tion may be defined with regard to the; (a) steps in primary
20
From China and Malaysia it is reported that
by rearing 6.4 Risks
fish in rice fields, yields of nee alone have increased hy 10 - The risk in aquaculture is substantially greater than in any
15%. other form of animal husbandry, mainly due to the fact that
Within some additional variable costs, the practice of production takes place in water, an environment which is
polyculturc gives higher yield and accordingly higher reve- relatively little known and difficult to control by man. As is
nues for the same volume of water, These costs are mainly always the case in ventures with great uncertainty, profits
labour, feed and fertili/ers. Then fixed cost of polyculture must usually be larger than in enterprises where that risk is
may be the same as for a monoculture. However, whether lower, as recovery of the risk has to be stipulated as part of
polyculture or any other changes in production practice the profits.Low profit enterprises in a risky business are
will lead to increased profit for the individual fish farmer especially subject to failure.
depends on whether the additional income is greater than The financial structure of the enterprise may reflect a
the additional cost, irrespective of whether it is fixed or lesser or greater degree of risk as expressed in the figures
variable cost. showing the solidity of the enterprise (a solidity measure is
Four general forms of aquaculture are enumerated by the percentage of equity in relation to total capital of the
sea ranching is considered primarily for salmonid species. Cauw Per cent age of (oral losses
of /oii
The main benefit obtained by this practice is enlarging the
Disease 28
base of the protein source for feed, as the fish utili/e
Climatic conditions 19
naturally occurring food organisms. However, from the l-aulty construction 16
compared to fish farming are that in the latter case feed Total 100
costs are high, while in the former, additional stocking and
harvesting costs are incurred. Moreover, predators create As fish stock in aquaculture may represent values equal
greater problems in sea ranching than in regular fish farm- to the total yearly sale, it is especially important for small-
scale operators to be able to safeguard against losses.
ing. The profitability of sea ranching is dependent on the
interaction of the following factors: Insurance is a way of spreading risk, but insurance offish
stocks in aquaculture is rather expensive because of the
high frequency of losses, and the difficulties in assessing the
Income aide
risk involved and tracing and assessing the source of losses.
Production cost per fish stocked Average weight ol fish In many countries the aquaculture industry docs not have
recaptured
Number of fish released Number of fish recaptured sufficient dimensions to provide a market for insurance, and
Harvesting cost Market price of catch
the absence of possibilities for insuring the stocks often
constitutes a serious obstacle to the development of
21
enterprise. For example, consider cash sales -f
that: (a) - of policies and approaches for socio-economic progress in
accounts receivable paid, (/>)- cash sales + credit sales, (c) the rural sector.
cash sales+ credit sales + increases/decreases in stock. In many developed as well as developing countries,
Most aquaculturists will certainly prefer the first alternative statutory arrangements have played an important part in
as in this case no income is taxed until it is paid by the development. There is no doubt, however, that government
customers. Alternatives (/?) and (c) may have the effect of initiative and activities must be expanded and accelerated.
forcing fish farmers to pay taxes two to three years before In this process, aquaculture cannot and should not be
any cash flows are generated. Another equally important entirely separated from agriculture and fisheries, and there
point which must be made with regard to taxation systems is often no reason to make special arrangement for the
is that as aquaculture income may fluctuate considerably aquaculture sector. These can often be provided as an
from year to year, and as income taxes in most countries are adjunct to other activities in the fields of research, extension
progressive, it would be an advantage to the industry if an service, financing, marketing, etc. To provide these services
average tax assessment could be introduced. in time is, however, a major responsibility of governments.
Intensive research has revealed that degrees of sustained
economic development are most closely associated with
improvement in the effectiveness of financial institutions, h
7 Policy issues in the promotion of aquaculture has been found for Africa, and is probably true for other
7.1 Government responsibilities and programmes
regions as well, that very little of the institutional agricul
The kind and amount of assistance which governments tural credit hasbeen directed toward development of small
provide or should provide for the development of aquacul holder subsistence farming. It is to be hoped, however, that
ture depends on the size of the target population in the area,
aquaculture development may benefit from the general
the stage of development already achieved, the relationship
trend toward more democratic credit schemes. One of the
with other sectors, and the skill and the physical, human
many problems awaiting a solution is to channel financial
and financial resources that can be mustered to help popula resources to the small-scale fish farmer engaged primarily
tion groups which are severely disadvantaged. in the production of subsistence fish supplies,
A large variety of situations can be envisaged. Economic The
agrarian structure and the need for tenural reform is
and skill resourcesor may not be adequate for working
may a major concern in many countries' agriculture develop-
out a solution. probably be found in a majority of
It will
ment. Thus it has been concluded (Asian Development
cases that the first step to be taken is to provide a survey of fc
aptly pointed out by the United Nations World Food and speciali/ed research and demonstration units. This will
Conference in 1974: The main needs in the field of aqua- mean restructuring and upgrading the advisory agencies so
culture arc for increased government support in the form of new knowledge to the fish cultunsts.
that they may carry
grants, loans and subsidized interest rates and similar
incentives, as well as an increase in the number of qualified
extension workers ... 8 Acknowledgements
it is likely that continued growth in
world fisheries production will by the end of the century be This paper has been prepared in co-operation with Mr. L.
dependent to a substantial degree on increases in output Berge, Fisheries Economist, and his valuable contribution
from aquaculture'. is gratefully acknowledged.
9 References
7.2 Organizational and statutory arrangements ASIAN L)i VLLOIMLNT BANK (ADB), Regional semmur on agricultuic
It is increasingly recognized that human resources are the 1969 Sydney 1969
most precious resources the developing countries have, and IDYLL. C, P. Marine aquaculture problems and prospects 7 Fi\h Kc\
,
zation of economic activity and the institutional and admin- Suney Hshing News Books td 69 p I ,
22
Aspectos Juridicos, Sociales y Ecdnomicos de la R. Ramirez Granados
Acuicultura
Kxtracto la pcchc d'interet commercial (Japon), dans les pays en voie de devel-
La acuicultura. como teemca biologica destmada a dirigir la production oppcment, ellc cst importante, tant au plan economique que social, car
de organismos utiles en el agua. esta llegando a una etapa de consolida elle offre a un grand nombre de personnes un
emploi, dc la nournturc ct
cion para colocarla en igualdad de eondieiones con la agncultura y la dcs revenus en echange d'mvestissemcnts moderes,
ganadena. Del puntodc vista socio eeonomieo, esta rama de la cconomia Une bonne partie des especes (qu'elles soient natives ou introduites)
tiene importancia secundana en paises dcsarrollados frente a la pesca s'elevent scion dcs procedes techniques dont le mode vane sur la base de
deportiva (EE.UU.)
o la pesea de gran valor comercial (Japon) En los Inexperience acquise (qu'cllc soil onginale ou provienne d'autres pays)
paises en vias dc desarrollo la acuieultura tiene importancia ecomSmica y parfois avec d'excellents resultats (rcndement maximal par hectare par
social pucsto quc olrccc, a tin gran numero de personas, trahajo, alimento an). La pisciculture se detourne de certames cspcces lorsque les res-
o mgrcsos mediante mversiones moderadas, sources naturcllcs existantes sont trop abondantes, ou lorsquc la produe
Muchas de las cspecies (nativas y/o intr(xiucidas) sc cultivan apli tion de Pelevage ne scrait pas concurrentielle sur le plan des pnx. Dans
cando procedimientos tccnologicos con patrones varios conocidos. tous les cas, des etudes economiques dcmontrant la rentabilite de
hasados en experiences (propias y/o de otros paises) a veces con Taquaculturc sonl la condition indispensable de son developpcmenl, Peu
cxcclentes resultados (maximos rendimientos por hectarca por ano), El de pays tirent parti dc Integration horizontal, et Ton devrait accorder
cultivn de ciertas especies no se inicio puesto que las cxistcneias une plus grande attention a Integration verticale, e'est a-dire aux
naturalcs son aun mas abundantes y la production cultivada no podria operations qui englobent 1'elevage tout entier jusqu'aux formes les plus
com pet ir en los precios Kn todo caso los estudios cconomicos, que avancces dc la commercialisation (exportation),
demuestran redituabilidad dc la acuicultura. son la eondicion indispensa- Le mode de propriete et Tusage des eaux ct dcs terres est un autre
ble para su desarrollo Hay muy pocos paises que aprovechan la aspect de la question qui pose des problemes politiques, sociaux et
intcgracion horizontal, de la acuicultura y debian dar mas atencion a la economiques.
mtegraeion vertical o sea a las operaciones quc abarcan el cultivo hasta la La concurrence entre les activites aquicolcs ct d'autres modes
forma mas avanzada dc la comcrciahzacion (cxportacion) d'exploitation donne parfois naissance a de graves conflits. qui
peuvent
La tcnencia y el uso del agua y de las t terras es otro aspecto que neanmoms trouvcr dcs solutions en termes de complementarite ou dc
irnplica problemas politicos. sociales y eeonomicos, Por la competicion simultaneite (usages
multiples)
de actividades en acuicultura con otras agropecuanas se crean a veces Dans le monde entier, aquaculture se heurte aux graves problemes
1
fncciones de gravedad, sin embargo, estas pueden solucionarse mediante imputables a la contamination des eaux, ainsi qu'a la propagation des
un uso multiple racional maladies et des infestations qui s'attaquent aux especes Grace
d'clevage.
En todo el mundo la acuicultura afronta serios problemas con la a une rcglemcntation Internationale et a des accords bilateraux ou
contaminacion acuatica asi como con la propagacion de plagas y internationaux, il devrait ctrc possible de favoriser et de vulgariser cette
entermedades que afeetan las especies cultivadas v al hombrc. Mediante activite, de prevcnir la deterioration de la qualite de 1'eau. de luttcr
una reglamentacion internacional, acuerdos bilaterales y/o internacion- contre la propagation des infestations et des maladies Dans le cadre
ales se podria auspiciar y divulgar la acuicultura. impedir el detenoro de national, il cst indispensable d'adopter des reglements rigoureux to-
las propiedades del agua, controlar la introduccion de plagas y cnferme uchant Tutilisation dcs tcrrcs ct dcs eaux. conformement au systeme
dades, hn el ambito nacional sera indispensable dictar reglamentos politique et au developpcment socio-economiquc dc chaquc pays
preeisos sobre el uso dc ticrras y el agua en cada pais segun su sistema
politico y el desarrollo socio eeonomieo
1 Introduccion
Legal, social and economic aspects of aquaculturc
Abstract La acuicultura como tecnica biologica dirigida a producir
Aquaculture as a biological technique oriented towards the production en agua organismos utiles, esta llegando a una etapa de
cl
of useful aquatic organisms, is reaching a stage of consolidation which
will place it on an equal footing with agriculture and animal husbandry, consolidacion que la colocara a la par de la agriculture y
hrom a socio-economic point of view, however, this branch of economy ganadcria, como actividad tendiente a dirigir y racionalizar
is of secondary importance in developed countries compared with
23
iorma continua. Ellos argumentan que los numerosos inten- ralmente sc dcdican primero al estudio y uso de las especies
tos dc rcpoblacioncfcctuados para rehabilitar especies nativas y despues, a las que han sido cultivadas traditional
marinas ban tcnido rcsultados muy limitados o nulos. mcntc en diversas regiones del mundo. Estas se seleccionan
Pasan por alto cl hccho cscncial de que en dichos experi- segun el caso y el uso particular a que esten destinadas.
mentos no se ejercio control sobre un ambientc acuatico tan Regularmente la acuicultura no sc cncucntra intcgrada
variable como el mar y olvidan tambien los informes segun region, pais. especie y objetivos que en cada caso se
la
tccnicos rcvcladores de resultados positivos. persiguen. En cuanto a integration horizontal hay muy
La acuicultura, ademas, es una tecnica biologica que pocos paises que aprovechan al maximo los recursos hidro
debe llevarse a cabo preferentemente en ambientcs contro logicos (depositos naturales y artificiales, lagunas costeras,
lados o semi controlados. El exito economico depende del etc,) disponibles para la acuicultura, pues carecen dc una
grado de control sobre cl ambicnte acuatico. Buen ejcmplo pohtica general para lograr el uso multiple del agua, Lo
de ello son los cultivos intcnsivos dc difcrcntcs especies en mismo puede decirsc dc las numcrosas especies potencial
ambientes confinados. mcntc cultivables, de las cuales se aprovecha un porcentaje
Hn consecuencia, cabc esperar la participation creciente minimo, La integration vertical, referidaal grado detecnifi-
dc la acuicultura en la alimentacion humana, en la medida cacion alcanzado en los cultivos y a su transformation
que se controle el ambiente acuatico, a la manera de los paulatina dc cxtcnsivos a intensivos, debe comprenderse
paises con tccnologia mas avanzada y dc aqucllos cuyas tambien, desde el punto de vista economico, como la
cxpericncias los han llevado a la obtcncion dc grandes operation que abarca el cultivo, y la forma mas avan/.ada de
rendimientos. comercializacion, que cs la exportation. Las cuantiosas
exportaciones dc truchas cultivadas por Japon y Dina-
marca muestran la importancia que la acuicultura puede
2 Signification socio-economica de la acuicultura tencr para cl comcrcio exterior.
1
En los paises industnalizados la acuicultura destinada a la De igual manera el Japon cxporta la "semilla de ostion
alimentacion tienc importancia secundaria frente a la pro hacia los EE.UU. e importa a su vcz anguilas juveniles para
duccion de especies como por ejemplo la pesca deportiva complctar su crianza hasta la talla comercial. Existc tam-
(EE.UU. o dc gran valor comercial (Japon, Francia, etc.
) ), bien tcndencia a modi fi car el cultivo de especies que alcan-
aunque esta situation tiende a cambiar a medida que sc zan prccios clcvados por aquellas con las cuales se obticnc
cuantifican las nccesidadcs futuras. En los paises subdesa una production masiva dc protcinas a bajo costo. Esta
rrollados o en vias de desarrollo, la importancia cconomica tendencia se observa incluso en los EE.UU. en donde
y social de la acuicultura radica en la posibilidad de tradicionalmente se ha rechazado el cultivo dc especies
producir alimcnto y dar trabajoe ingresos a gran numerode como las carpas y algunos catostomidos. De esta manera
personas mediante inversiones moderadas. los paises se preparan a afrontar una probable crisis alimen-
transformado la cconomia cerrada, cie subsistencia obser caractcr social, desde los proyectos muy elementales a mvcl
vada en centros de poblacion marginados. en cconomia de familiar hasta los esquemas comcrcialcs mas elaborados
consumo. Dc ahi la ncccsidad dc realizar estudios (los cultivosde camaron, madreperla, ostrasopeces)deben
economieos de preinversion que demuestren la redituabili- producir utilidades y no solo medios de subsistencia, Por
dad dc la acuicultura, pucs dc cllo dcpcndc cl valor social de esa ra?6n las investigacioncs economicas deben recibir mas
los proycctos. La condition indispensable para cl dcsar- atcncion, especialmente en el analisis dc costos y precios,
rollo viiioroso dc la acuicultura es lograr que scan reditua- unidas a los aspcctos biologicos que mas influycn sobre la
bles las inversiones en trabaio y recursos financicros y redituabilidad de los proyectos como velocidad de creci-
pueda asi crearse y distribuirse riqueza como medio de miento, densidad de siembra, mortalidad, conversion de
lograr el mcjoramicnto social que sc pcrsiguc. Si un pro alimcntos y muchas otras variables.
yecto economico no es product ivo o redituable carece de Los cultivos que han alcanzado mayor relevancia son los
signification social ya que esta depende de la distribution de especies comestibles y algunos dc uso suntuario como
las perlas, pero abarcan ya a numcrosas especies de diver-
equitativa de las utilidades generadas,
Las formas de propiedad agraria y uso del agua difieren sos grupos dc animalcs y vegetales. Las carpas, truchas,
considerablemente de pais a pais de acuerdo con el sistema 'bangos' (Chanos chanos), tilapias y bagres entrc los pcces,
politico y economico. las ostras y abulones entre los moluscos y los camarones
Aunque los factores mencionados influycron en el pro- entre los crustaccos, son objeto de gran demanda comercial
grcso y desarrollo relativo de la acuicultura, el factor
cl y por cllo han dado lugar a numerosas obscrvaciones e
decisive) parece haber sido la nccesidad humana de alimen- invcstigaciones que han conducido al cultivo. Existe ya
tos. No es sorprendente por eso su gran desarrollo en los abundantc bibliografia acerca de los aspcctos tccnologicos
paises asiaticos, desde tiempos rcmotos y bajo diferentes y economicos importantes en el cultivo dc dichas especies.
sistemas de tenencia y grados de desarrollo. Moderna- Los logros economicos fundamcntan y abarcan los obje-
mente, se observa algo semejante a escala mundial, pues al tivos socialcs de la acuicultura, ya que el hombre, ademas
lado de paises que aplican una tccnologia muy avanzada al de comer, necesita comerciar para adquirir los bienes de
cultivo de las especies de alto valor comercial, existen otros uso e indispensables para la production. La acuicultura ha
que aplican procedimientos basados en experiencias que, dcmostrado su importancia economica bajo las variadas
sin embargo, producen excelentes rendimientos. circunstancias crcadas en paises dc diferentc regimen
Los pueblos de los diversos continentes siguen patrones politico y grado de desarrollo. En tanto que los paises
muy variados en el desarrollo de la acuicultura adecuados a altamente desarrollados concentran su atencion en el cul-
las condiciones naturalcs y economicas de la region. Gcne- tivo de especies de alto valor economico, bien sea por su
24
valor alimenticio o deportivo, los paiscs en dcsarrollo dan tccnologicos necesarios para su control. F.n cstos casos la
prioridad generalmcntc a las cspccics dc mayor rcndi acuicultura llega al rcscate de la riqueza natural perdida: la
miento por hcctarea y por ano, Hn este ultimo easo, la liberation de grandes numeros de alevmcs de diversas
acuicultura intensiva es preccdida por pcnodos a veees especies ha mantenido la riqueza pcsquera en areas muy
prolongados dc acuicultura extensiva que se practica en afectadas como los Grandes Lagos. Los dafios economicos
depositos naturales o artificialcs mcdiantc la combination por este concepto suelen ser dc gran magnitud y de 'efectos'
cmpirica de varias especies. La etapa intensiva sobrcvicnc persistentes por lo que el problcma merece aiencion inme-
cuando se justifica cconomicamente. Ksto sucede cuando la diata y conjunta.
demanda supcra a
oferta y origina precios suficientc
la Hn muchos paiscs capitalists avanzados y algunos en
mente atractivos para que se inicie el cultivo comercial. proceso de desarrollo, las aguas o tierras de propicdad
En Norucga funciona desde 1969 una mstalacion para la federal o nacional son arrendables o bien objeto de venta.
cria comercial de salmon del Atlantico. Se inicio con Ra/6n por la cual el uso de las mismas csta sujeto al arbitrio
capacidad para producir de 500 a 600 toncladas anuales y del propietario.
ha alcan/ado las 1 500 toneladas con valor dc SnE.UU. 4/5 En rcgimenes considerados de economfa 'mixta' se ha-
millones. Cl Reino Unido fomcnta el cultivo de los pcccs ccn ensayos que cstablecen la propicdad social, como en
marinos mas redituables, sobre todo los pcccs pianos (len- Peru por cjemplo, o bien. en el case de Mexico donde se
guados, rodaballos y platijas). otorgan las especies principales en usufructo exclusivo
Los cultivos de ostras en Francia producen anualmente (inclusive el cultivo) a los Pescadores organixados en coop-
mas dc ShR.UU. 2 millones. Fl Japon rcaliza grandes erativas. Estc dcrecho no es cnajcnable o transfcrible.
inversiones para incrementar los cultivos de langostas, y En propiedad de las aguas o
los paises socialistas la
embalses y la construction de sisiemas de canales, que estructura politica, cconomica y social. En tanto que dicho
mantienen comunicadas a las lagunas costeras con el mar. analisis mcrcce un estudio especializado y profundo, aqui
La erection de tales presas afccta a especies migratorias de solo pueden subrayaise difcrencias notables en obictivos
sociales entrc regimenes que todos los paises cncaran en los
importancia, aunque cste dano se repara mediantc la cons-
truccion de pasos y escaleras para peces. diversos aspectos tccnologicos dc la acuicultura.
Otros cfectos derivados del desarrollo economico son Ya sc hi/o notar que en muchos paises subdesarrollados
diversas formas de contamination, sobre todo cuando lasurgentes necesidades ahmentarias han determinado. aun
ocurren en paises carentes de los mcdios economicos y cuando sea sobre bases cmpiricas (Asia y Africa, por
25
ejemplo), una evolution considerable de la acuicultura. Los En el ambito nacional cada pais debe decidir la forma dc
paises muy dcsarrollados del campo capitalista ban impul- reglamentar cl uso dc la tierra y el agua, para cimentar las
sado la acuicultura para atender dcmandas muy espccificas soluciones tccnicas sobre un substrate adecuado dc cam-
dc la sociedad de consume, incluso la production de bios sociales y economicos. La legislation interna debe ser
articulos dc lujo, alimentos dc alto valor comcrcial o bien congrucntc con los acuerdos internacionales sin menos
para las necesidades recreativas como la pesca deportiva. cabo de los interest's nacionales.
en detnmcnto de la produccion masiva para el consumo Como ya se menciono, uno dc los obstaculos mas series
humano. para la reali/acion de proyectos en acuicultura es la con-
En todo el mundo se afrontan scrios problemas de frontation frecuentc con la politica regional en la utiliza
contaminacion acuatica. Debe tcnerse presente que todo cion dc tierras y agua, pucsto que cempitcn con la alta
cultivo intensive conlleva la propagation de plagas y enfer- demanda de agua de la industria, la agricultura, la ganaderia
medadcs. En 969 Noruega y Suecia prohibicron la impor-
1 y el consumo domestico. Ante esa situacion debe demos-
tation de huevos de trucha proccdentes de Dinamarca para trarse la conveniencia y factibilidad del uso multiple del
cvitar la introduction de enfermedadcs virales, en esc caso, agua y proceder a establecerlo juridicamente. En Mexico,
la necrosis pancreatica infecciosa. Las cxportaciones dane per cjcmplo, la Ley dc Aguas reglamcnta su uso y concede
sas se han visto mas tarde restnngidas tambicn por las prioridad a las necesidades domesticas, incluye tambicn su
disposiciones de otros paises importadores dc trucha, como aplicacion con fines acuicolas y crca los Distritos dc Acui
los EE.UU. La FAO ha reali/ado evcntos referentc a las cultura con cl objeto de asignar en cada caso los volumenes
enfermedadcs de los peces, con el objeto dc tomar deci- necesarios a ese proposito.
sioncs comunes al respccto. Otro aspecto que debe ser legislado tanto nacional como
Kn muchos paises la acuicultura ha contribuido a resol mternacionalmcntc es el referentc al peligro de la introduc
ver agudos problemas socialcs y economises, No obstantc, cion y dispersion de plagas y enfermedadcs, que frecuentc-
tiene aim poca signification general, excepto en el caso de mente abatcn la production o impiden el comercio de los
algunos paises asiaticos. preductos derivados dc la acuicultura. En tales cases
Las finalidades socioeconomicas dc la acuicultura en el precede la aplicacion de una Legislation Cuarcntenaria
mundo contemporaneo debe dirigirse esencialmente a: (/) semejantc a la utilizada para la production agricola y
proporcionar trabajo y producir cantidades abundantcs de ganadera. Sc han tornado ya algunas resolucioncs interna-
alimento para atender las necesidades prcsentes y futuras de cionales al respecto.
las masas humanas que habitan los paises subdesarrolla
dos; (//') continuar proporcionando los bienes dc uso y 4 Conclusiones y recomendaciones
consumo que solicitan los paises dcsarrollados (productos El desarrollo dc la acuicultura en el mundo cs tan
comestibles de exportation ) y resolvcr los problemas tecni- dcsigual como el desarrollo economico, pero no coincide
cos que obstaculi/an este comcrcio; (//'/) ayudar a contra- ncccsariamente con este. Hay paises subdesarrol lades
rrcstar los efectos dc la contaminacion y cvitar la destruc economicamente que muestran sin embargo un cxcelente
cion irreversible dc los recursos acuaticos. desarrollo en la acuicultura.
Una estructura juridica adecuada debe contribuir a la La acuicultura ha desempenado y desempcna un impor-
realization de los objetivos senalados. tante papel en la solution de problemas sociecconomicos
que afectan a les paises subdesarrollados (emplco y
alimentation).
3 Estructura juridica nacional e international para nor- Es nccesaria la integration horizontal y vertical de la
impedir el dctcrioro de las propiedades biologicas del agua, aunque siempre en torne a los lineamientos generales dcri
alteradas por efecto dc la contaminacion industrial, agri- vados dc experiencia dc les paises acuiculteres tradicio
la
cola y urbana. Se puedc seguir la pauta marcada por paises nales y de aqucllos que han desarrollado tecnelogias
desarrollados que han sentado las bases legates a travcs de elaboradas. Los metodos se aphcan ajustandolos a las
acuerdos bilaterales o multilaterales, para encarar conjun condiciones naturales y a los problemas sociocconomicos
tamente el peligro de un deterioro ambiental catastrofico. de cada pais.
Los Estados Unidos y Canada firmaron en 1971 un Del conjunto de circunstancias cencrctas surgen las
acuerdo de grandes alcanccs dirigido a lograr la rehabilita diversas estrategias de desarrollo que sc observan en cl
cion de los Grandes Lagos. Hay acuerdos internacionales mundo y se plasman en cucrpos de ley que norman la
tambien para impedir el avance de las plagas y enferme- acuicultura y la encauzan hacia el cumplimiento de sus
dades que afectan a los organismos acuaticos, Mediante la fines.
creation de agencias nacionales e internacionales y disposi Las disposiciones legales que se aplican actualmente se
clones juridicas que funcionen igualmente en ambos sent! rcfieren a aspectos csenciales para la practica de cualquier
dos se reforzara la lucha que la humanidad debe librar para actividad economica, a saber: (/) disposiciones legales que
asegurar su future. rigen la tenencia y uso de tierras y aguas; (//) legislation que
Durante otra reunion se crearian instruments interna- establece las condiciones bajo las cuales debe practicarse la
cionales para la difusion de los objetivos y metodos de la acuicultura, inclusive las normas limitativas para la impor-
acuicultura, sobre todo entre los paises subdcsarrol lades. tation indiscriminada de especies exeticas y para evitar la
26
introduccion y propagation de plagas y enfermedades; (///) conducira al uso multiple de los mismos y entre las aplica-
Aquaculture
Ahstrcict Problemas de la acuicultura a gran escala integrada verticalmente
As aquaculture evolves from small scale fish farming (sometimes only E\tnic to
family si/e or on a subsistence basis) to the level of large-scale agnbusi A medida que la acuicultura pasa de actividad a pequena escala (a veces
ness enterprises, its meramente familiar o de subsistence )a empresa comercial a gran escala
problems proliferate
It is expected that world aquacultural production will exceed the los problemas proliferan
value of the capture fishery before the end of the century This Se espera que antes de finales de este siglo la produccion acuicola
present
increase will occur primarily through growth of large-scale vertically mundial sea superior al valor actual de las capturas pesqueras Pste
integrated aquacultural enterprises le .
centrally managed systems in aumento se debera ante todo al desarrollo de las empresas de acuicultura
which all components of the system from original provision ofenergv to a gran escala mtegradas verticalmente. es decir. sistemas admimstrados
final marketing of the product are co-ordinated centralmente en los que todas las fases. dcsde la aportacion original de
The problems of vertically integrated aquaculture are outlined. thc> energta hasta la comerciah/acion final del producto. estan coordmadas
are concerned with- species' limitations (in the market, biological and Se senalan los problemas de la acuicultura integrada verticalmente,
technological), site selection, feed, manpower needs, and legal, instuu limitaciones de especies (por razones de mercado, biologieas \ tecnolo-
tional and financial requirements gicasK seleccion de empla/amicnto. piensos. necesidades de mano de
The gaps in understanding of. and the constraints limiting, large scale obra. y requisitos jundicos. institucionales y financicros
aquaculture are listed, and courses for future action recommended with Se enumeran las lagunas aiin existentcs en los conocimientos sobre la
respect to types and diversity of species to be cultivated, marketing,
1
acuicultura a gran escala v los obstaculos que se oponen a su desarrollo \
se rccomicndan algunas Imcas de accion para el futuro en lo rclativo a
1
of supporting it Investment in pilot projects is suggested to demonstrate La falta de datos sohdos basados en la experience hace que la
that large-scale aquaculture can be a fully functional arid successful acuicultura integrada a gran escala sea una empresa muy arnesgada y.
business Construction and operation of such pilot farms is judged to be dadas las grandes mversiones de capital que son necesarias. los bancos y
in the interests of both the public and private sectors las mstituciones financieras se mucstran mu\ cautos a la hora deapoyar
esas actividades, Se sugiere que se hagan mversiones en proyectos piloto
Les pr obi ernes de 1'aquaculture de grande echelle a integration vcrticale para demostrar que la acuicultura a gran escala puede ser una empresa
Resume perfectamente funcional y fructifera, Se estima que la construccion \
A mesurc que 1'aquaculture evoluc. passant des exploitations piscicoles funcionamiento dc explotaciones piloto de esc tipo responde a los
de petite echelle (parfois seulement d'importanee famihale on travaillant interescs del publico \ a los del sector pnvado
sur une base de subsistance ) pour se hisser au niveau d'agro-industnes dc
grande echelle. ses problcmes se multiplient.
I 'on
escompte que la production dc 1'aquaculture mondiale excedera
la valeur presente des captures de la peche avant la fin du siecle. Cet
1 Introduction
aecroissement sera realise en premier lieu grace a la croissance des
grandes entrepnses aquicoles a integration verticalc. qui sont des sys
As aquaculture evolves from the small-scale fish farms
temes a gestion centrale dans lesquels routes les composantes sont owned and operated by the single family unit primarily for
coordonnees, depuis rapprovisionnement initial en energie jusqu'a la small cash crop into large-
subsistence or at best for a
commercialisation finale du produit
Le document esquisse les problemes de I'aquaculture a integration scale agribusiness enterprises incorporated and conducted
verticale: les contraintes d'ordre specifique (sur le marche. des points de for economic profit, many new problem areas are engen-
vue biologique et tcchnologique), le choix des sites. 1'alimentation. les
besoins de main d'oeuvre, les exigences juridiques, mstitutionnelles ct
dered and many of the old problems become more critically
financicres. significant.
Le manque de connaissances sur 1'aquaculture de grande echelle When subsistence or the family food budget is the
comme les constraintes qui en constituent les faeteurs limitatifs sont
enumerees et Ton recommande des modalites d'action pour Tavenir dans underlying motivation for undertaking farming, the criteria
les domaines suivants: types et diversitc des especes d'elevage, commer- for success or failure arc those that relate essentially to the
cialisation, bioteehnologie (approvisionnement en gcmteurs, lutic centre
survival of the family, and economic profit or loss is rarely
lesmaladies, qualitc d'eau et efTorts concertes), choix des sites, alimenta-
tion,main-d'oeuvre, aide juridiquc ct institutionnclle (octroi de permis. measured or judged. However, a corporate entity designed
subventions, exonerations fiscalcs, importations en detaxc. etc.) et compete in the market place with
to generate a profit cannot
financement adequat
Le manque dc donnees precises fondees sur Texperience permet de
subsistence farmers who
are merely making a living unless
penser que 1'aquaculture de grande echelle a integration verticale est une it can provide a favourable return on equity to its share-
entrepnsc qui s'expose a gros risques. Etant donne les gros mvestissc holders. Consequently, what may in fact be a tolerable
ments qu'elle necessite, les banques et les institutions de credit hesitcnt a
condition for subsistence aquafarming as a way of life, may
la financer L/on
propose de proceder a des investissements dans des
projets pilotes afin de demontrer que cctte activite pent etre une cntrc be a problem area of major consequence to corporate,
prise pleinement fonctionnelle et fructueuse. L'on estime que la con- (VIA) as a
vertically-integrated large-scale aquaculture
struction et le fonctionnement de tclles exploitations pilotes scrviraient
les mterets tant du sccteur public que du sectcur prive, wealth generating enterprise.
27
It is, therefore, not scale alone which differentiates be 1.2 Definition of large-scale vertically-integrated aquacul-
tween these two forms of endeavour, but rather the purpose, ture (Y1A)
motivation and the modus operand! which define the differ- By VIA enterprises, we mean those comprehensive systems
ences. applicability within the framework
The consequent which are centrally managed so that all the components of
of the socio-economical political status and development the system, from the input of energy from the sun to the
goals of the society must be judged accordingly. of the product in the marketplace, are co-ordi-
final sale
nated and kept in balance.
1 .
Aquacultural production
1
occur too frequently, and can only be controlled and a problemin many operations.
eventually prevented after gaining considerably more prac- A serious limitation in our ability to manage dense
tical experience with high-density culture which teaches us populations of aquatic animals in intensive culture is a
how The Danish
to limit the course and extent of diseases, consequence of an inability to determine quantitatively the
trout industry an example of an aquacultural industry
is absolute numbers of animals m the confinement. Without
that has been severely limited by disease. A virus which precise measurements of the number of animals in the
infects the channel catfish (/ctaluruspunclatus)\i\ the early production system at any one time, many of our efforts to
finger ing stages has caused appreciable mortalities in the
I
manage water quality, feeding rate, disease, etc, are
southern United States, frustrated.
As more crustaceans, such as shrimps, lobsters and Lack of knowledge regarding nutrition of several candi
crabs, are grown in confinement m high population densi- date species interacting with other significant variables
ties, one may expect to encounter disease and parasite exercises a powerful leverage on the health of the animals as
problems which have not as yet imposed any serious well as the economic health of the venture.
constraints on aquaculture production of these forms. Re-
ports of diseases of shrimps and lobsters due to fungi 2. 1.3 Technological. Although the technology of the vari
similar to Dermocyuidium and bacteria of the genus Vibrio ous parts of many aquacultural systems is developed so that
have been published, but are still infrequent occurrences, technology per sc is seldom limiting, the components are
whereas diseases due to certain parasites, such as micro- not always completely integrated into a working system.
sporideans. gregarines, and cestodes are reported more One major technological problem relates to pollution, a
frequently. Certain worms, such as trematodes and nema deterrent to culture both in the context of pollution by
todes have been noted as parasitic on penaeid shrimps, external sources and because of a need to reduce the
lobstersand other decapods. polluting effect of the culture effluent. Pollution of the
Molluscan mariculture has frequently been seriously coastal zone which is widespread throughout the world has
constrained by diseases, and in several instances disease has a very deleterious ettect on VIA. Furthermore, pollution
been reported to be the primary factor curtailing or in enhances fouling of net fencing and screens, and is a serious
eliminating oyster culture in large littoral regions in the problem in embayment aquaculture (Huguenin and
Northern Hemisphere. Malpaque Bay disease in the Cana Ansumi, 1975).
dian Maritimes. MSX disease in Chesapeake Bay and the High density culture of aquatic animals in confinements,
recent devastation of the Portuguese oyster (Crassostrea which requires the use of large quantities of organic matter
angulata) in Portugal and hrancc are typical of disease in the form of formulated feeds, results in a commensur-
outbreaks in established oyster cultures. ately large amount of faeces and other waste products. The
A serious problem common to extensive culture in expulsion of these waste products into the environment
intertidal confinements or embayments is the cost and may be a source of considerable pollution if not properly
difficulties encountered in the production of seed animals. managed. As a point source of eutrophication. aquafarm
K>r instance, it appears that the supply of eyed eggs is now environment as
effluents can be as serious an insult to the
the limiting factor on the growth of salmonid culture in the urban domestic wastes. Consequently, pollution abatement
United States (Klopfenstcmand Klopfenstein, 1975), Most practices and costs mupt be factored into the plan and
often in the lower latitudes there has been a dependence on operating budget of VIAs, In a modelling study of intensive
natural recruitment of juveniles on a tidal influx or from homand lobster culture, by the Bodega Bay Laboratory of
trapping or netting in the surf, as. for example, with the the University of California, the cost of pollution abate
milkfish (Chanos chanos). Although considerable effort ment was noted as limiting of the enterprise's commercial
has already been expended in laboratory and even pilot validity.
culture to understand the reproductive physi
programmes Other technological problems relate to control in inten-
ology of penaeid shrimps, success on a commercial scale sive closed culture systems.Although there are many such
has not yet been achieved. Until completion of their life systems in the experimental or pilot phase, no full-scale
cycle in captivity is realized, there will always remain the aquaculture venture operates profitably using this
hatchery to sustain an economic scale of production. The Poor siting of large aquafarms has been a major contribut-
risk is similar when we are dependent on the capture of ing factor to poor performance of many ventures resulting
finfish fry or natural molluscan spat-fall. in some cases in total failure of the business (Webber,
aquatic 'weed' animals may be introduced into the culture dissolved solutes, bacteriological and viral content, turbid
waters as airborne inocula or on the legs of wading birds. ity, colour, detritus content. pH, hardness, and alkalinity.
Although useful in the case of starfish infestation of oyster This is a major problem if not confronted before the
beds, chemical means have not successfully controlled decision to start a venture.
29
The location of Manfarms in Panama City. Florida, high mortalities, or when the project is burdened with
where winter temperatures are inappropriate for year round import duties on essential machinery or supplies, or when
growth, has been a significant problem in achieving eco- labour is costly and intransigent, then obviously the busi
nomic success. Crops have been lost due to winter free/es. ness will be seriously impaired. VlAs may be more vulnera-
However, because of a major commitment in capital con ble to these site sensitive effects than small rural farms.
struction and improvement, the company has been unwill
ing or unable to move closer to the tropics.
2.3 Feed
Depending on the production methods to be used, many
Feeding with specially formulated rations to provide a
other criteria must be satisfied in order to optimise profit by
complete diet in the case of closed systems, cages or
reducing capital requirements and operating costs, and by baskets, and raceways, or a diet supplementing natural
increasing productivity. Among factors critical to a deci-
productivity in the case of static pond systems constitutes a
sion arc (/ ) prevailing meteorological conditions, eg. wind,
:
30
unpredictcd and unwanted change and to be promptly growth of large-scale molluscan aquaculture in many parts
responsive with the appropriate remedial action. of the world.
The management structure for large scale aquaculture The 'maritime mile' that is often defined as a strip of
operations generally follows the patterns of other corporate some distance inshore from the mean high tide
coastal land
or co-operative business organizations. The skills required mark was originally set aside by many governments as a
for directing the various diverse essential functions of a security area for military purposes and for the control of the
vertically-integrated agribusiness can rarely be provided by movement of contraband. With the increased awareness of
one or a few individuals. Thus, a team of specialists is often the ecological significance of the coastal /one, and of the
required to be assembled that represents: the disciplines of estuarine habitats as nursery grounds for many commercial
corporate planning; finance and investment promotion; and sports fishery species, governmental controls over
various technologies, including engineering design and these regions have become more strict and exploitation for
construction; both broad and specialized biological sci private use has become more difficult.
enccs; and food science including processing technology. Some aquafarming undertakings have en-
large scale
Finally, marketing and merchandising skills must be en countered great difficulty m procuring both governmental
listed to monitor the demand and to design and carry the and popular approval for use of public waters for pen or
product inappropriate forms into the market place. The embayment cultures. The arguments presented against
organisation of these disciplines into a working system these proposed farming ventures include the following:
requires the very special competence of a general manager interference with navigation by floating pen structures,
or chief executive officer which has so often been lacking in unsightly obstruction of the view and other arguments
recent attempts to organize vertically-integrated aquacul- based on aesthetics; interference with commercial or sport
ture. Probably the most critical single requirement of the fishing; and finally the argument that the effluent of the
manager, in common with the need in most business organi- aquafarm is a serious organic pollutant,
zations, the ability to deal with people
is in a way to engage
operation of a business that is designed to use waters quence of the venture being oversold by the scientist whose
generally judged or taken to be in the public domain. Such enthusiasm and optimism may blind him to the realities and
waters include the littoral region at the edge of the seas, the time frame of commercial development. A realistic
great ponds and public reservoirs, lakes and rivers, and perspective on this scene is most readily achieved from a
even private reservoirs that become integral parts of the 'hands on' experience and since commercial aquaculture is
overall water resources management system of a region. so new an endeavour, often the technologists are too inexpe-
Even if concessions or leases can be procured from public rienced, and there is too little empirical evidence available
regulatory agencies, the extensive water and land develop- from which to project realistic costs and time for the
ments of large scale aquaculture become attractive poach- development of VI As.
ing grounds for people who judge that aquatic animals are
part of the commonwealth, and arc thus subject to open
fishing. Surveillance and security become more of a prob 3 Gaps and constraints and recommended courses for
lem in large-scale aquaculture than in subsistence or family future action
farms where the areas are small and the owner lives nearby. Having earlier character i/ed the major problems confront
Such custom, sometimes crystalli/ed into law, has made ing VIA, we may now identify the major gaps in our
the capture of aquatic animals for human food a public understanding and the constraints which limit aquaculturc,
prerogative to all members of the community. These prac- so that, in effect, we may also suggest a course of future
tices, which have been so long a part of the culture, are action.
difficult to change and have, for instance, served to limit the Large scale aquaculturc must be viewed as a high risk
31
undertaking whether performed by private industry or in in response to demand, A restructuring of the fish market-
the public sector. These risks have their origin not only in ing system for a production oriented marketing to a
the maze of uncertainties that new industries confront as market-oriented production, provides vertically integrated
old arts are translated into new technologies, but also aquaculture with the most appropriate business strategy
because many forms of large-scale aquaculture must still be (Coale el al, 1974).
viewed as being in the start-up phase and new bio-engineer
ing is still being developed. Invention of new techniques 3.1.2 Biotechnology. A cluster of enigmatic variables in-
and adaptation of those which were developed elsewhere fluencing the interaction of the many biological parts of an
arc sources of risk which will continue to frustrate the aquatic animal husbandry system appears as a serious gap
development of aquaculture, Although an adequate meth- in our knowledge. Some of the biological parameters can
odology exists in all phases of culture, processing and only be understood by acquiring fundamental knowledge of
marketing of several species, there still remains the need for the physiology and behaviour of our crop animals.
more pragmatic systems development (Webber, 1973). Anassured seed supply must be achieved. This should be
accomplished through the operation of a managed breeding
3.1 Species related programme with animals whose gametogenesis is con
As VIA industry grows, there ma> be a justification for trolled; where mating, larviculture and nursery culture can
considering the use of highly developed techniques in the yield an abundance of healthy young of known genetic
culture of a greater diversity of species. However, the composition. This capability is essential and is not now
decision to grow a particular species of plant or animal in a certain for all species which are being cultured. It is pre-
commercial aquacultural system requires a detailed evalua- cisely because of concern that we seek to operate in
this
tion of a greal and disparate number of considerations, regions in close proximity to reliable, high productivity
Many of the obvious gaps and constraints which, if re- spawning and/or nursery grounds where young may be
solved, promise early success are species related. recruited from natural stocks. Although this wild source of
On the other hand, when one views the experience with young will suffice for the present, long-term success of
terrestrial animal husbandry, we find only a few species aquaculture and stock improvement requires a closed life
intensively investigated and developed. It is also true that cycle under the command of the culturist.
the successfully domesticated terrestrial species are herbi- Lack of knowledge of disease can also limit success. We
vores, or, as in the case of swine and poultry, omnivores must identify the etiological agents and determine effica-
which readily adapt to a diet based predominantly on cious therapeutic procedures in order to limit disease out-
vegetable protein. Generally, no carnivores are cultured, breaks. Most importantly, we will have to develop prophy-
probably because of poor cost effectiveness in the manage- lactic practices to avoid the conditions which induce
ment of food energy. diseases. We
can be encouraged from our experience with
terrestrialanimal husbandry systems, where we have
3.1.1 Market. VIA enterprise will be dependent on a learned how to use antibiotics and other Pharmaceuticals to
worldwide system of market monitoring to identify species : treat certain diseases.
and product form (eg. live, fresh, frozen; round or gutted or It is of even more consequence that we manage the grow-
filleted; or processed into a convenience food); packaging; out facility and learn how to avoid the imposition of
price levels; control of portion size; transportation require- environmental stress, which apparently predisposes the
ments; quality requirements in terms of wholesomcness as animals to attack by ubiquitous disease inducing orga-
well as in terms of taste, colour, texture and other such nisms. The inadvertent introduction of alien species bearing
values. For institutional markets, appropriate gross ship disease organisms or parasites must be avoided. However,
ping weights, delivery schedules and numerous handling appropriate quarantine measures, properly administered,
requirements must also be satisfied. should enable the domestication of new animals for husban-
Ultimately, the most significant market criteria of con- dry without incurring inordinate disease incidence. These
cern to the VIA and structure of the
industry are the size measures should be instituted voluntarily by VIA
market and the elasticities of price and demand for the enterprises.
products which can be produced from the species which are High population densities in cultural confinements de
grown. This information must be available on a worldwide mand sophisticated monitoring of water quality and crop
basis because of the inter relation of various national mar animal hygiene. There is also a need for better ecological
kets. For example, the pcnaeid shrimp price in the United management to prevent or lessen the severity of oxygen
States is influenced by what the Japanese will pay, and vice depletion, disease and parasite attacks, predation and
versa. Such worldwide market intelligence is not now competitition.
available and constitutes an obvious gap in knowledge There appears to be sufficient technical knowledge about
which makes planning a large-scale venture more precari- several species, drawn from the early experience of the
ous. Differences in acceptance criteria among markets can culture of aquatic animals as an art, and from the very
also contribute to failure or profitability. considerable body of fundamental biological knowledge.
Since aquaculture is viewed by many as an ancillary arm Even at this early stage of the evolution of aquaculture as an
of the fishing industry, which operates with the attitude of a industry, technology, per se, is not the limiting factor in the
it is possible to insert products into the market specifically nents function in concert. Although the technology may not
32
be limiting, this incipient industry has a dearth of on-the- Clearly, an aquafarming venture may be designed to take
job experience and a lack of cost accounting history for advantage of the increased return per increment of invest
each of the many steps in the process. As noted above, the ment that polyculture can provide at the same time that
industry is thus fraught with much uncertainty regarding pollution abatement is achieved. Hence, the species to be
profitability. grown must be critically chosen to integrate into the var-
ious ecological niches that will be provided by controlled
3.2 Sites environments in the culture system (Sarig and Marek,
Whereas and management of
the scientific basis for culture 1974). The opportunity to recycle wastes through several
high density, high productivity aquaculture has had its coprophagous animal species and certain plant species,
theoretical development in temperate zone laboratories and such as the macro-algae which can remove the soluble
experiment stations, the more appropriate geographical nutrients from the effluent of a polyculture community can
areas for practical application of the technology of certain be of considerable economic advantage, worthy of deliber-
species arc proving to be in selected regions of the warm- ate species and site selection (Ryther and Goldman, 1975).
water environments of the tropics and sub-tropics, Year- Such strategies reduce the polluting effect of the aquafarm
round warm water and high productivity allows for year- itself, and also conserve and utili/e the total energy of the
round harvests which in turn lends a competitive advantage system more efficiently,
over capture fisheries since a continuity of supply can be
assured to market. Since the biological systems to be 3.4 Manpower
managed are extremely sensitive to the many influences of The highly productive food and fibre agribusiness enter-
the environment, technology transfer has been slow as the prises of the world have matured into vertically diversified
process of adaptation of basically sound knowledge to new industrial systems and can serve well as analogues for the
aquacultural ecosystems has been progressing. The most developing aquatic food industries (Goldberg, 1975). Sue
economic means to achieve this transfer and to gain the cessful management personnel may well be recruited from
experience and generate the engineering data for scale-up to land based agribusiness enterprises because of their experi-
commercial size is in a pilot farm. ence and attitude toward biologically based industry.
In some lesser developed countries, lack of infrastructure Whatis lacking and required is manpower development
can be limiting to the success of a poorly thought-out at middle and lower levels of farm management. Techni
venture. On the other hand, expansion of infrastructure into cians and field workers will be required m the hatchery, the
the rural sectoris often an additional consequence of large- nursery, the grow-out facility and for harvesting. The
scale aquacultural development, A development plan for majority of these may best be trained in the field, in the
aquaculture for the lesser developed countries of the world country, and in the language of the country where the farm
should, therefore, include as one of the options large scale isto be located. Other workers could be trained in regional
vertically-integrated systems with the considerable attend- centres. Although extension services are more important to
ant investment funds for justifiable infrastructure develop small-scale rural aquafarming than to large-scale VI As,
merit. These may better satisfy some of the goals of a they are needed in both systems. Pillay (1977) has dis
developing country than would a complete dependence on cussed these needs in more detail and offered appropriate
small-scale subsistence aquafarming. solutions.
budget of an aquafarm that grows species depending on lack of laws which define aquaculture as one of the valid
formulated rations for a significant portion of their diet. competing uses of public waters.
Feed formulation for aquafarming use has been generally Private property is more difficult to define and defend
based on experience with salmonids. Cost efficient, nutri when it is under water, as noted above. In most societies
tionally sound formulations remain to be worked out around the world, and particularly in the developing coun-
species by species. Optimisation of feed from both the
tries, waters supporting food fish are judged to be in the
nutritional and cost aspects is a promising area of new commonwealth and in the public domain; it is felt, there-
work. For example, the feed cost is one of the limiting fore, that they should be accessible for fishing by all
factors to the viability of large scale homarid culture which members of the society. This principle is deeply embedded
must be conducted without benefit of natural productivity in many cultures around the world and may constitute a
in the culture water. serious risk to aquaculture. VIAs may require expensive
To relieve of the dependence on a formulated,
some surveillance measures to protect the investment of the
33
National and supranational planners must confront this as in the private sector interest. This responsibility may
problem and devise ways to encourage the economic require society at large, through governmental agencies,
growth of large-scale VIA while protecting the environment such as national banks and the national scientific commu
and considering the rights of competitive uses of the waters. nity, in conjunction with private investors to share the risks
Incentive programmes in the form of tax abatement and and confront the problems of an incipient large-scale VIA
duty-free imports are often offered by developing countries industry, One such mechanism may be through subsidies
to pioneer industries, such as VIAs. However, the incentive which contribute to the support during the learning curve,
programmes initiated to attract investment do not ensure but which are scheduled to sequential withdrawal as this
freedom from the imposition of restrictive laws, such as important food resource matures into a self-sufficient
limiting percentage of foreign equity participation, cur- industry.
rency convertibility, staffing patterns and labour costs. Aquaculture as a VIA industry has only recently re-
Doing business in certain societies
requires industry ceived the attention from experienced business managers
participation in many social programmes, such as provid- and technologists that so complex a system of interacting
ing health care and housing and ensuring job security. variables requires to be integrated into a manageable diver
These requirements may be viewed as a burden on a new sified enterprise. It is just now in effect emerging from the
enterprise, but they are part of the social, economic and conceptualization phase into the stage of critical pre-mvest
political reality of the developing countries and must be mcnt feasibility studies and detailed analyses which can
judged in the context of the opportunity to make a signifi lead to commercial implementation, and to ultimate social
cant contribution to both social and economic profit (Wil and economic benefit.
liams, 1975).
Washington. I) (*"
! int.
major risk may lie in the failure to achieve the appropriate FAO. Yearbook of fishery statistics Catches and landings Yeurb Ft\h
economic scale, and/or in being seriously undercapitalized. 1971 StatM, FAO, O6) pag, vat
This matter was discussed above from the perspective of a f AC) Repoit of theTAC W oik my liioup on Aijuacullim- Consulla-
197"^ live Group on International Agnuiltmal Research Icchnical
problem area.
Advisory Committee Seventh Meetmii. Rome, 4 S Frbiuary
The high capital investment demanded by closed cycle 1973 Rome. hAO. DDDK
1AR 73 75 (restricted) Nov 1973
25 p
systems of culture generally can be justified only when sites Gou)Hi-K(i, R, A US
agribusiness bieaks out of isolation llununl
for more extensive systems arc no longer available, and 1975 Bus, Rev May June 81 95
,
sources of financing, such as commercial banks and even NOR AD Round Table on the "Stiategy loi
Development of
VIA Aquacultuie as an Industry" at Svanoy, Norway, 10 luly I
Farming in Europe
Abstract Four operations can be embraced in a totally integrated fish farming
In general, vertical integration can be justified only if it enhances the business- (/) supply of materials and services, (//) farming itself (/<
efficiency of the industry and, hence, the returns of its investors* the test breeding and growing), (///) processing, and (iv) distribution and final
seems to be how far such integration is 'natural' in that it links operations sales
with similar management skills and between which lack of co-ordination Aquaculture is essentially farming, not an extension offish hunting, 4
is wasteful and it is often difficult for 'fish hunters to understand the fish farmers'
34
concern with veterinary standards, feed conversion, etc Administrators el que medida la inlegracion es 'natural' es
criterio decisive) parece ser en
should not miss the opportumt) to integrate fish farming with existing decir. vmcula operaciones que exigen tecmcas de gestion analogs \ en
las cuales la falta de coordinacion se traduce en un despilfarro
activities of agricultural communities.
Chicken meat production, a highly integrated industr>, is frequently Una empresa piscicola plenamenle mtegrada puede abarcai cuatro
cited as amodel for the development ol fish farming. In the UK all the operaciones (/) summistro de matenales \ scmcios, (//) piscicultura
misma (es decir. la produccion y cna (///) elanoiacion y (n )distnbu
leading groups have achieved sufficient operation integration to obtain
),
the planning advantages that this offers Processing has now become the a on v venla final
in integrated industries such as the La acuicultura es esencialmente unu acti\idad de cultivo no una
dominating co ordmating stage
extension dc la cacena de peces. y a menudo a los "pescadoies" les
British chicken industry anticipated that the hsh farming industry
It is
will follow this pattern and take for its model those orgam/ations which
resulta dificil entender prcocupacion de los piscicultores por el cstado
la
undertake co ordmatcd distribution and marketing sanitario de los peces, conversion de nhmentos. etc. Los responsables
la
lishedfarm species like carp and mussels there is no reason to see major capiuili7acion de los mctodos utili/ados.
change
Muchas de las emprcsas que invierten en piscicultura son mdustrias
Two factors will limit the integration of ownership (/ ) desire of que abastecen a los piscicultures Los abastecedores ven en la integration
con la piscicultura una oportunidad de dar sulida a sus pioduetos. pero
owners of good sites to operate independent farms, and attitude of
(//)
who wish to see fish farming restricted to independent familv los abastecedores europeos de piensos no se esfuer/an por combmar la
politicians
farms piscicultura con el summistro dc piensos a terceras paries,
Las fuer/as favorables a la integracion actuan con mayor fuer/a en la
Involution en Furopc de
la pisciculture verticalcmcnt integree piscicultura que en cualquier otro sector pecuario y en muchos seclores
Resume de la industria surgiran empresas integradas La integracion sera mas
DC maniere generate ('integration vcrticale tie se justifie que si elle permet accntuada en paises como el Remo Umdo. donde el podcr de compra nl
d'accroitrc Teffieacite de 1'industnc et, partant les revcnus dcs mvestis- por men or esta concentrado en cadenas multiples y afectarn sobre todo a
seurs- le critere semble ctrc la mesure dans luquellc cctte integration est aquellas especies. como los peces mannos. en cuya cna se utiliran
'naturelle'. eYst a dire associe des operations qui exigent des capacites mctodos tccmcamcnte nuevos \ uri coeficiente de capitali/acion elevado
dc gcstion analogues et ou un manque de coordination serait source de Con las especies piscicolas ya afian/adas. como las carpas y los men
domaine de la pisciculture que dans tout autre forme d'elcvagc ct des distribution and final sales. Factors influencing the tend-
entreprises integrees sc crccront dans de nombreuses
branches de
^Industrie. Cette integration sera particulieremcnt marquee dans dcs ency to integrate breeding and growing are examined in
pays comme le Royaume-Uni ou le pouvoir d'achat au mvcau du detail section 5, and integration forward into distribution and
est concentre dans les chaines multiples File sera entremcment import- backward into supply are covered in sections 6 and 7
ante dans le cas d'especes comme les poissons de mer qui exigent des
methodes techniquement nouvelles ct beaucoup de capitaux. Aucune respectively.
grande transformation n'est a prevoir avec les especes d'elcvage tradi-
tionnclles telles que la carpc ct la moule. 2.2 Is integration worthwhile?
Deux elements limiteront 1' integration au niveau dc la propriete: 0) le
desir des proprietaircs de bons sites de les exploiter de fat; on indcpen
A strategy of vertical integration can only be justified if it
dante, et (/'/)les
prcssipns politiques
visanl a restreindre la pisciculture a enhances the efficiency of the industry and hence the
des exploitations fami Hales autonomes.
returns of its investors. There is no automatic case for
Desarrollo de la piscicultura integrada verticalmente en Europa integration; no fundamental law that says that it is a good
Extraclo
thing.
Fn general, la integracion vertical esta justificada solo si aumenta la
eficiencia de la industria y. por tanto. los beneficios de los mversiomstas Economic texts stress the securing of sources of supply
35
and market outlets as the prime drive toward vertical but it takes away the competitive pressures and flexibility
integration. However, there are abundant examples where which comes from market forces operating at the interface
such integration has been no more than a strategy of despair between the stages of an industry, One must distinguish
by concerns finding themselves unable to increase their between integration where all the operations are in common
share of existing markets. ownership and those where contractual arrangements arc
Analysts argue that market-related horizontal integra- set up to give the benefits of co-ordinated planning, but
tion has been a more successful route to growth, By extend- where no links of ownership exist.
ing the range of goods and services offered to a single
market place, concerns can exploit their established com
3 Aquaculture fishing or farming?
mercial skills,whereas vertical integration often takes the
Before looking at what is the 'natural' level of integration, it
cobbler far from his last. We should question whether
is appropriate to consider whether fish farming is an exten-
vertical integration in stock-rearing businesses like fish sion offish hunting or whether its roots lie in stock farming.
farming does lead to increased effectiveness, or whether it It is submitted that the skills and attitudes needed to farm
merely satisfies the operator's ambition to expand and the fish are those of the stock farmer not the hunter, and that it
national planner's search for tidy structures to direct.
is important for the development of the fish-farming indus-
The test would seem to be how far such integration is
try in Europe that its farming nature is recognized.
'natural' in that it links operations with similar management
skills and between which a lack of co-ordination is wasteful. 3.1 Farmers, not fishermen, are becoming fish farmers
Vertical integration gives scope for central i/ed planning. The farming nature of fish culture is reflected by the
Feed
SUPPLIES Ingredients
i
Dry Feed
Consumables Equipment and
Compound! ng
Farm
Construct ion
e.g. Oxygen
Drugs
Dressing 2~ Bi-Products
PROCESSING
Packing
Freezing
DISTRIBUTION
Wholesal ing
End User Sales
36
numbers of individuals and firms with interests in livestock 4 The chicken industry an example of integration
farming who
are investing m
the industry. This is to be Chicken -meat production is frequently quoted as an exam-
expected with established freshwater species such as carp ple of integrated livestock fanning and as a model for the
(Cyprinus ccirpio) and trout (Salnut sp. ) which still ac development of fish farming. UK chicken farming is an
count for 99% of Huropcan fmfish production. Landowning example of a highly integrated industry. Its success can be
farmers are in an advantageous position to develop suitable measured by the increase in output from 25 million birds in
waters. However, 'farming' concerns are also the investors 1955 to 330 million birds in 1973, during which time
in major innovative projects. Corporations investing in fish chicken meat prices were practically constant whilst the
farming in the UK include Fitch Lovell, Unilever, Rank UK cost of living rose threefold. The question is, how far
Hovis MeDougall, Booker McConncL Shell and Fisons.all integration was a cause of this success? By 974 the top ten
1
Fishing communities are active in the 'natural feed' national production with the market leader. Ross, having a
shellfish industries, such as Spanish mussel farming and 22% share. Five of the top ten are now subsidiaries of major
French oyster growing, which represent an intermediate international companies and the remainder are independent
between hunting and farming methods which use controlled groups built up by individual farmers and cooperatives,
feeding. In contrast, fish hunters are conspicuous by their The management of the leading groups are committed to
absence from developments in controlled feeding ap- integrated operations. However, this philosophy is tem-
proaches. Crivisa, the Spanish salmonid farmers owned by pered by pragmatism and each company has a slightly
the fishing company Pleamar. appear to be the only different mix of activities under its own control. In many
tudcs, and hence they are not 'naturally integrated? cornerstone of integrated operations and yet Thornhill has
opted against company-owned hatcheries and prefers to
buy chicks in the open market. The trend to company
3.2. Administrative consequences owned sites contrasts with the USA. where much of the on-
Many of those involved with the administration of fish growing is by small family operations contracted to the
farming have a lifetime's experience in boat design and processors. The different US and UK approaches illustrate
fishery conservation, etc, but they are obliged to make a how cultural norms influence the balance of advantage
total switch of attitudes to understand the farmer's view between the motivation achieved by contracting out and the
point, with his concern about veterinary standards, feed extra discipline of company-operated units. The organi/a-
conversion and stockmanship. lional requirement of combining co-ordination with indi-
It development of European fish farming if
will assist the vidual commitment met in some European chicken in-
is
Governments avoid the superficial convenience of tacking dustries, notably in Denmark, through producer co
responsibility for fish culture onto fish-hunting operatives. This form of organization, which is the excep
administrators. tion rather than the rule in British agriculture, has much to
The EEC Commission sees fish culture as an alternative commend it for intensive livestock farming. Yet some
source of income for fishing communities which are being observers question whether co-operatives, although ideal in
encouraged to lay up uneconomic boats. These social established industries, permit sufficient flexibility for an
engineering objectives feature strongly in the Commis industry which is growing rapidly or undergoing major
sion's directives. Natural feed methods such as shellfish change.
grow-out and ocean release ranching seem particularly Another lesson from the chicken industry comes from
appropriate as a response to these social objectives. The lie examining how far the companies have integrated back into
d'Huet project in southern Brittany is an interesting pilot the supply of goods and services and forward into the
for such operations. The local fishermen's co-operative has market place.
contributed to the funding and the fishermen themselves The integrated concerns stress the importance of con
have built a hatchery to produce oysters and lobsters for trolling their own feed supplies and most operate their own
restocking local coastal waters. mills and reprocess offal through them. It is also considered
It is hoped that the administrators, by thinking of fish vital to control the transport fleet which is the link between
first and farming second, do not miss the chance to integrate the stages of the integrated operation. Marshall is an exam-
fishfarming with the existing activities of agricultural ple of a group which uses company owned vehicles for
communities. Throughout history, communities have been transporting feed ingredients, feed, chicks, birds for pro
either hunters or herdsmen the roles do not easily mix, cessing and processed products.
Will men who have spent their lives hunting the seas readily A number of the concerns even have timber construction
turn to husbandry? Perhaps fishermen's sons will become subsidiaries which build their new chicken houses, al-
fish farmers more readily than their fathers. though this is not seen as an essential element of an
37
integrated operation. involvement in the integrated project. Such difficulties of
Many of the groups, for example. Union International establishing rights to develop particular sites relate not only
and Fitch LovelL have wholesaling subsidiaries operating to the farm site itself, but also to site access where this
in the traditional meat markets. In general, these trading involves rights of wav controlled by others. Difficulties
activities were established many years before the integrated of access have also arisen with some foreshore shellfish
chicken operations developed. Diverse field groups like beds.
Fitch Lovell and Unilever also own supermarket chains but Such limitations on the potential for integrated
site
there is little management overlap and intra group trading ownership are less with open-sea technologies such as cage
is at arm's length. The conclusion from studying the UK culture, mussel rafts and yellow-tail enclosures. There is
chicken industry is that, whilst the degree of integration of much greater flexibility of access to these facilities once
in the sea have been established.
ownership varies to some extent, all the leading groups have ownership rights
achieved sufficient operation integration that they can ob-
5.3 Capital intensity
tain the planning advantages that this offers. Whether such
An impetus toward vertical integration in the chicken
integration is likely to develop within fish farming is con
industry was the escalating capital requirements as
sidered below.
methods became more industrialized. With capital mtcn
sive methods, the financial penalty for under utilization of
5 Factors the of fish-farming plant can be crippling. This had led to pressures for inte-
influencing integration
grated planning rather than dependence on the vagaries of
operations
the market.
The scope for integration offish farming operations will
The capital intensity of the methods used will similarly
be influenced by the following factors:
influence the level of integration in fish farming. Traditional
5. 1 rhc state of technical development pond culture methods have negligible fixed costs. Labour,
as well as feed,is a truly variable cost for a farmer who can
A concern farming a species for which the basic culture
turn his attention to other crops when there are no fish to
methods are not established desires control of the whole
tend. Hence the penalty for undcr-utilization of ponds is
farming operation from brood stock to fattening. Otherwise
its own progress can be hamstrung by the failures of others
inconsequential. In contrast, with intensive units, the aim is
to reduce variable costs such as feed and labour and stock
to solve technical problems. Examples of European con-
losses sufficiently to compensate for the fixed overhead
cerns working on all order to provide
farming stages in
incurred in providing operational control. In this case, a fall
technical completeness are Fitch Lovell's turbot (Sco-
in tank utilization from 95 to 90% can make all the
phthalmus maximum ) programme and the sea-bass (Dicen
difference between attractive and not so attractive returns.
trarchus labrax) operations being set up in the Mediterra-
This creates an incentive for the intensive unit operator to
nean. Such research programmes covering all the farming
integrate backward in order to secure year round supplies
stages, including nutritional work, are natural precursors of
of eggs and fry: a pressure not similarly felt by the pond
integrated industries.
cultunst.
Salmon (Salmosular) and trout farming show a different
picture. Key technical problems with salmon relate to the
smoking, acclimatisation and seawater grow-out stages.
With freshwater trout farming, grow-out is also the limiting 6 Integration of farming and marketing
stage of production, due to shortages of water of suitable Growing sophistication of food retailing, with amalgama-
quality. Establishments devoted to sport fishing and re- tions leading to fewer, more powerful buying points, has
supplies of juveniles. Also separate stations arc needed for livestock industries such as the British chicken industry.
fresh and salt-water stages, and hatcheries and freshwater Similarly, processors of hunted fish have grown in impor-
grow out units have differing water requirements. These tance at the expense of traditional markets which they
reasons have resulted in specialist juvenile producers set- frequently by-pass.
French and Danish trout farming illustrate the extremes
ting up in the major salmonid industries.
in processing organization a reflection of the differing
5.2 Site requirements food distribution channels that they serve. There arc French
With some fish farming methods, particular locations pro- trout farms in almost every Dcpartement. Practically all of
vide an ongoing cost advantage, eg. in the use of large the 6 000 tons they produce each year is sold unprocessed,
1
springs for salmonid hatcheries. With other operations the much through local and regional markets. This fits with the
number of possible sites is strictly limited. For example, French housewife's habit of buying meat and fish fresh at
smoking stations require supplies of both fresh and salt the market. On the other hand, the Danish industry is
water of good quality; and at most accessible river mouths concentrated in a small area of Jutland and is geared to
in Europe communities have developed, making the sites external markets, principally exports. In markets such as
unsuitable for fish farming. In these situations vertical the Federal Republic of Germany and the UK there is
integration under one ownership is complicated through the demand for branded, dressed and fro/en products. This has
likelihood of the owner of each advantageous site wishing been efficiently met through forward integration into pro
to farm fish independently or at least expecting a financial cessing by farmers' co-operatives.
38
Centralized processing of all species of farmed fish will Spain and Skrettmg in Norway. The other major groups of
be the rule in countries such as the UK where retailing fish feed
companies are specialist ingredient suppliers who.
organizations arc large and frozen food is widely accepted. by moves which can be classified as forward integration,
This processing will be by fish farming concerns integral have become involved in fish feeds. The leading illustration
ing forward and and more probably, by horizontal
also, is Sterling H. Nelson, the Utah based
ingredients factory
integration as fish processing companies widen their activi- which entered the US trout-feed market with the brand
ties to cover farmed fish. It is understood that in Italy the Silver Cup. Licensees of Silver Cup operate in each of the
integration has developed in the opposite direction, with major European trout markets, Astra Kwos. Sanders. Trou
fish-processing interests setting up some of the country's and Cooper-Zeltia, are amongst the leading salmonid feed
largest trout farms. companies and arc also offshoots of organizations involved
To the processor the critical difference between farmed in feeds, supplements and concentrates or veteri
speciality
and hunted fish is the controllability of supply. Supply of nary chemicals and Pharmaceuticals. Such concerns are
farmed fish should in due course be easier to regulate than geared to the high margin, low volume technical marketing
that of farmed meats, due to the greater ability to speed up needed to pioneer new specialist feeds. The question is
or slow down growth with a cold blooded animal. Hven so. whether the speciality companies will make way for the
the fine balance between glut and shortage which so typifies national compoundcrs or will fight to maintain their market
agricultural markets will also exist for farmed fish, and calls position in fish feeds. Either way the European fish farmer
for co-operation in regulating supply. Co-operation is not stands to gain. Increased competition among feed suppliers
necessarily easier, however, when there is a handful of will reduce the incentive for fish farmers to integrate back
vertically integrated concerns fighting for market into feed production in the way that the Danish Trout
domination. Farmers' Co-operative have.
Whilst the development of freezing has reduced supply BP Proteins acquired control of Trou, Jouet and Cooper,
fluctuations, the structure and philosophy of hunted fish making them by far the largest European fish-feed sup-
channels of distribution is still geared today to-day match pliers. BP's investment in fish feeds, which is reputedly to
mg of demand with varying supplies. It is anticipated that establish a market for their single-cell proteins, is another
the fish farming industry will increasingly ignore these
example of forward integration by a supplier seeking a
traditional distribution channels and take as its model the product application opportunity. Feed suppliers are not
organizations which undertake co-ordinated distribution increasing their direct involvement in fish farming. None of
and marketing of farmed meats. the companies arc attempting to combine farming and
them control over both wet and dry feed supplies. integration are stronger for fish farming than for any other
The
proprietary dry fish feeds in Europe are all for type of livestock farming and that integrated concerns will
salmonids, principally trout. A number of feed suppliers develop in many sectors of the industry.
were established compounders who extended their product Integration will be most marked in countries like the
ranges to include salmonid pellets, eg, Cipasa and Bioter in UK, where retail buying power is concentrated with
39
multiple chains. It will be most marked for those species, There arc two influences which will limit the integration
such as marine fmfish. where farming methods are techm of ownership. The first will be the desire of owners of good
cally new and capital intensive. With established farming sites to operate independent farms. The second and less
species like carp and mussels, there are no reasons to sec easy to forecast influence will be the attitudes of politicians
major change from the present mix of integrated and who in some parts of Europe arc keen to see fish farming
independent operations, restricted to independent family farms.
Aux Etats Unis, les producteurs dc truites, d'huttres, de poissons tion is a common characteristic of most of the successful
chats et dc poissons exotiques n'atteigncnt pas en general un degre elevc
large companies in those industries which are oligopolistic
d'integration verticale. Par contre. les industries des poissons d'appat et
des crustaces, bien que petites, sont hautement profitables et ires inte-
in character.
grees. Le dcgre le plus pousse d' integration verticale a etc realise par les
industries qui pratiquent I'elevagc des crevettes et du saumon du Paci 1 . 1
Vertically integrated industry
fique; elles tendent en efTet a ctre dominees par un nombre relativcment
In the field of aquaculture, a vertically integrated industry is
restreint dc societes qui, a leur tour, appartiennent a de plus grosses
rirmes qui s'interessent a des marches extremement vastes one which the owning, managing or controlling company
in
Dc nombrcux facteurs favorisent 1'integration verticale des industries controls the hatching operations, grow-out operations*
aquicoles et la plupart de ces industries se preterit a ce type
d' organisation qui a les avantages suivants; elle favonse la recherche et manufacture of feeds, processing capability and marketing
developpe la technologic, stimule dc gros investissements de capital, of the product. Totally vertical integration might be inter
recourt a une structure speciahsee et encourage la mise au point ct la
commercialisation des produits. preted as control of the product clear through to sale to the
Le clirnat americain que ce soil du point de vue social, economique final consumer, but in most cases the marketing function
ou governemental favorisc
^expansion constante dc Integration verti- stops short of that; /*, the product is sold at the wholesale or
cale en aquaculture. Les petites affaires aquicolcs du type artisanal
mais retail level. It still, however, attains most of the advantages
persisteront, les grandes societes multmationales dont les ventes
annuelles sont enormes joueront un role determinant dans cette industne. of totally vertical integration.
40
1.2 The concept trout-producing facilities being further reduced in number
There is a latent force in industrial organizations moving through mergers and acquisitions.
them toward vertical integration. This force can basically
be described as a need to control, as much as possible, all 2.2 Shrimp
facets of product development. One reason for the wide At no companies known to be operating
this time, there are
spread development of vertically integrated industries is the shrimp production facilities at a profit in the United States
fact that if the price goes up after a product has been sold to or Central America. However, it does appear that within
the next level, in a vertically integrated industry, the sudden one to three years, a number of companies will probably
loss or profit as the case may be can then be spread over cross the break -even point and begin to operate at an
the different increments of product development thus economic profit. Most of the companies in the industry plan
lessening the impact of cyclical economic fluctuations. substantial vertical integration, and in the intci mediate to
Another reason is that when different levels are broken up long-range future we shall see most of the major shrimp
into different proprietary interests (for example, when an culturing companies totally integrated. Furthermore, they
independent producer sells to an independent processor) willprobably be owned by large corporations who will have
the producer has little interest in the quality of the product: goals of a forty or fifty million dollar market for shrimp. A
whereas in a vertically integrated industry the controlling company in excess of a thousand million dollars must
interest concerned with quality throughout the process.
is develop a facility generating at least forty to fifty million
Implicit in the trend toward vertical integration is the dollars before it becomes a worthwhile undertaking.
concomitant trend toward bigness; the more successfully
an industry is integrated the more large companies it will 2.3 Oysters
have. Within the oyster industry in the United States, some
Most
of the larger companies which go into the field of companies have full control of all the processing, eg, a
aquaculture aspire to ultimately control all aspects of pro- private planter will collect or buy the seed, raise the prod-
duct development of the particular species with which they uct,shuck it, and sell it at wholesale, or retail to the
are engaged. For example, the Pacific salmon industry has consumer. There are a number of examples of this process
seen a number of companies acquired and merged into within smaller oyster companies. On the other hand, there
larger corporations. The commercial farming indus
catfish are some that do as little as buy seed, plant it and then have
try is another example where consolidation has begun. It somebody else harvest the product. Most oyster companies
has, however, been less predominant because of the key role on the west coast control the process through harvest and
of the farmer himself and the fact that most catfish farmers shucking. After shucking, most of the smaller or medium
arc, by experience, farmers of row crops who have histori- sized companies will sell the product, usually to a market
cally not lent themselves to vertical integration except was a United Marketing Co
ing group. Until recently, there
through the use of co-operatives. The trend has also been operative for oysters, and more recently. Coast Oyster
less predominant in the trout farming industry. Company became large enough to dominate the industry.
Most of the smaller companies now sell through its market
mg organization. Again, they arc not completely vertically
2 Present status of vertical integration in aquaculture integrated they arc integrated only up to the point where
Probably the most parallel example of an industry com- they have shucked the product and put the product into
pared to aquaculture is the poultry industry. In this field, Coast Oyster Company jars. There are others that can the
there are companies which hatch and grow their own product and sell it at that point on a distributor basis. It may
product, produce their own feed, process and market the be that some of the smaller companies tend to be vertically
product with a brand name in retail stores and through fast- integrated in that they carry their product through to sale to
food restaurants where virtually all of the birds sold have a retailer or in some cases directly to the consumer. The
been produced by the company. With this in mind, let us large companies tend to be integrated up through the
examine the principal aquaculture industries in the United production of a product but not generally as far as market
States with significant commercial activity: trout, shrimp, ing. The marketing follows the pattern of most other canned
oysters, catfish, crayfish, salmon, baitfish and exotic fish. or processed food products.
ducers purchase feeds from companies speciali/ing in the tions. There are two companies which are substantially
manufacture and sale of trout feeds. Many producers also vertically integrated. Farm Fresh Fish and ConAgra. Each
buy from other producers who specialize
the juvenile stock of these spawns, grows-out and markets the fish. They buy
in trout spawning. Other than this, most producers grow- their feed, however, from independent feed-manufacturing
out their own fish, process them and market the product. companies, and also purchase a large portion of the fish
The method and type of sale and marketing effort depends which they process from independent producers. Most of
upon the volume of production. Smaller producers will the industry is characterized by free-standing producers
typically market their product within close range of the who manage their own grow-out operations and, in a
processing area. Larger producers, concentrated primarily number of cases, also spawn and grow their own finger lings.
in Idaho, sell their product throughout the United States. There are a number of farmers who have fingerling opera
The future of this industry will probably see the continuing tions exclusively and who market their fingerlings to other
situation with ten to twenty per cent of the trout production grow-out operators. There are perhaps ten companies mar-
produced by cottage-type businesses with the largest dozen keting substantial quantities of feeds to the industry. There
41
are four major processors who maintain significant process 3 M^jor problems of vertical aquaculture
ing and marketing operations. All the processors maintain Aquaculture appears to have an important future. There
their own marketing arms. are, however, a number of trends in the food industry and in
In the future, it appears that the farmers will continue to the demand for protein which will have a substantial impact
produce the large majority of the catfish independently with on certain aspects of the commercial aquaculture industry
little vertical integration. A number of farmers have as we know
organ it in developed countries. It is difficult to
ized a feed co operative, with headquarters in Bel/oni,
predict the impact which these developments will have on
Mississippi, and managed by the Mississippi Federated Co- aquaculture until one can assess the impact on society as a
ops, a major agricultural organization which provides man- whole.
agement for varied types of farmer co operatives. The
catfish industry is beginning to reach maturity. There are 3. 1 'Ihe need for large economic units
fewer and fewer producers but these produce an increasing If aquaculture is to develop, significant amounts of re-
quantity of product in a more efficient fashion. The industry sources must be invested; these will come from two basic
is growing primarily as a result of
increasing efficiencies but sources: government and private industry. The budget
it does not appear that there will be increased vertical pressures on governments, at all levels and throughout the
integration. world, are such that it is not anticipated that investments of
the required magnitude will come from them, except with
2.5 Crayfish respect to certain species where short-range results can be
In the crayfish (Procambarus ) industry, a unique aquacul- expected. Private industry will, therefore, play a significant
ture venture, practically all the producers are substantially role in the development of aquaculture. Private industry
integrated. The industry is relatively small. Because of its willinvest the funds necessary to develop a species for
unique features, it does not appear that this industry will commercial purposes only if it can be developed to reali/e
change significantly in its manner of organization. Most of profits large enough to interest an investing company. Most
the product is produced by relatively small producers and of the companies able to invest the amount needed to
will so continue. develop economically viable enterprise estimated to be
between one and twenty million dollars (depending on the
2.6 Salmon species and the level of technological evaluation), are in
The salmon excess of a thousand million dollars in size. Companies of
industry, which cultivates Pacific salmon
(On
such size are not interested in developing ventures unless
cor hynchus) stocks, becoming more and more vertically
is
integrated; the trend is toward a relatively small number of they will ultimately produce forty to fifty million dollars in
highly integrated companies. Two production methods are gross sales annually. At this time, the companies which are
used: pen rearing and ocean ranching. Both methods lend investing in the aquaculture industry on such a scale are
themselves to vertically integrated operation. Only one of investing significant amounts in anticipation of reaching an
the producersnow produces its own feeds; however, several economic break-even point within a five-year period. If
these companies do not succeed, it could result in a major
larger companies probably begin to produce their own
will
feeds when they reach significant volumes. Moreover, most step backward for all areas of aquaculture. Losses in the
of the companies producing salmon now use outside pro- catfish forming industry have already led to a severe back
ward step in commercial aquaculture.
cessing and marketing facilities but, as volume becomes
significant, it is
anticipated that the larger producers will
3.2 Fossil fuel dependence of aquaculture
process and market their own product. As mentioned be-
fore, the trend toward merger and acquisition is manifest in In the United States (and other developed countries) most
the salmon industry with purchases of small operations by aquaculture activity is dependent upon fossil fuel and fossil
fuel derivatives. It is anticipated that fossil fuels will con
Wcyerhauser and Union Carbide, two giant companies
involved in the salmon industry. It appears that there will be tinue to increase in price probably faster than the declining
a place in salmon culture for small producers who have value of the American dollar, which will result in cost
freshwater raise a million increases in the commercial aquaculture field at rates higher
facilities. They may pounds of
than the cost of living index.
salmon and sell it to a larger integrated company which will
raise them in salt water.
3.3 Need for protein sources for feeds
The impact of the Peruvian anchoveta shortage in 972 was 1
ever, only a short- to intermediate-term problem because as consequent increase in the ability to finance new ventures.
food prices increase the consumer will turn to alternative This interest will come from: corporations which invest and
sources of cheaper food. It can be anticipated, therefore, manage their own money, investment syndicates which
that commercial aquacultunsts will (in addition to continu invest independent operations, and financial houses
in
are less than a thousand highly qualified commercial aqua- product and they arc able to secure a fair return. Smaller
cultunsts. There arc probably an additional twelve to four producers have the advantage of very limited overheads and
teen hundred aquaculturists who have competence but are no significant expenses for personnel. Many employ family
not highly skilled and experienced managers. members with all the income going to one family unit.
These smaller producers sell their products at or near their
production facility and through fee fishing operations,
3.6 Limited uses for offal
where appropriate.
A minor problem inhibiting the development of vertically
integrated aquaculture industry is the limited use for waste
4.4 Inherent suitability for vertical integration
products or offal. It is anticipated that as the volume of offal
Aquaculture is an industry which generally lends itself to
increases, more uses will be found for it. demand for it will
vertical integration. Some of the reasons for this suitability
increase, and the problem will substantially be solved.
follow:
(/)Aquaculture development requires large scale tech
nology which requires vertically integrated major
4 Factors which favour the formation of vertically inte-
companies.
grated aquaculture industries
(//') Aquaculture development requires skilled capital
In spite of the aforementioned problems, the American
formation which in general will come from vertically inte
industrial matrix contains so many successfully vertiealh
grated companies, rather than from governmental
integrated companies that, given the necessary technology,
programmes,
there is sufficient industrial creativity to develop a profit-
(///) Aquaculture product development requires a
sus-
able vertically integrated aquaculture industry. The most
tained and organized team effort, which functions best in a
promising indication of its bright future is the presence of
vertically integrated industry with regular and open
inter-
major corporations who are already in the aquaculture field.
change between the different segments of product
development.
4,1 Involvement of major corporations
(/r) Aquaculture is still such a new field with possibili-
The major companies in the USA involved in the field of
ties for large technological breakthroughs which can result
aquaculture and their total annual sales from all sources are
in substantial profits that corporate and financial dcvel
listed below:
opers are willing to take inordinate risks in the industry. As
Total annual
most of these investor developers equate successful large
Cowpan v Specie* cultivated 90/tfv fwm all
wurces US$ development \\ith \erticall\ integrated operations, this is
Cities Service Oil Crayfish and prawns 2 806 300 000 another positive force for its establishment.
ConAgra Catfish 633 644 000
(r) As yet no substantial company holds a dominant
Dow Chemical Freshwater prawns 4 9*8483 000
General Mills Freshwater pi awns 2 000 1(H 000 position, either in si/e or technolog\ in the field of aquacul
.
Lament Corporation Lobster and trout 413 584000 ture. Therefore any one of a number of companies can
Kulston Purina Freshwater prawns 3073 210000
245 S61 000 emerge as the most successful in the field. The significance
Syntex Corporation Freshwater prawns
Union Carbide Pacific salmon 5 320 123 000 of the larger more profitable companies is that they often
Pacific salmon and shrimp 2 529013 000
Wcycrhauscr acquire the smaller ones and so maintain a greater control
A large number of public utilities are growing different over the market, thus enabling them to further profit from
species in fresh water, but as yet none are making a profit. successful vertical integration.
(w) The need to have expertise in the production of
4.2 Interest of the business press various species is aided by a vertically integrated industry
Involvement of such large companies in aquaculture will which is apt to possess such experience. As in most other
draw the attention of the major business journals in the industries, international market fluctuation and new tech-
United States, t'#, Barrons Business Week, Forbes, For
t nological discoveries may have a heavy impact on the field
tune and the Wall Street Journal, which are read by most of aquaculture- even if they first appear to have no direct
major managers and investors, When such publications bearing on it. For example, when the price of petroleum
rose and consumers travelled less, an unexpected demand
report on the participation of these companies m experi-
mental projects such as aquaculture, this draws the atten- arose for more long distance telephone services. A similar
43
scenario of aquaculture might go as follows: as food prices (mi) Vertically integrated industries will greatly en-
rise,the consumer will search for lower cost sources of hance the level of research in genetics and nutrition in both
protein. Heretofore, the American consumer has not eaten the public and private sector.
carp in large quantities. However, carp is easily cultured (ix Vertically integrated companies, as they reach matu
)
and a high level of technology exists in other countries nty, will provide substantial levels of support for university
where carp is widely cultured and enjoys extensive con and governmental research projects*
sumer acceptance. In response to a demand for this prod (A*) The successful development of commercially profit
uct, existing aquaculture management and technological able vertically integrated industry will bring about rapidly
expertise might be turned to the production of carp result- maturing trade associations to represent the interests of
ing in an increase in quantity and profitability of the these companies primarily in the nation's capital and result
operation. Integrated companies who now have catfish, in a much closer liaison between the federal government
bait-fish and in some cases, trout production facilities could and private industry in the field of aquaculture.
conceivably convert to carp cultivation with increased (xi) If commercial aquaculture is eventually inhabited by
profit. a number of large companies with vertically integrated
aquaculture operations there will be, within the US Depart-
ment of Commerce or Agriculture, a sub-cabinet level
5 The future of vertical integration in aquaculture
agency for aquaculture.
If there is to be significant increase in production offish for
Cv/7)Thc successful development of large vertically inte-
human use through aquaculture in the United States there
grated companies will result in experiments with various
willbe a concomitant increase in the vertical integration of
types of production units including cages, raceways, silos,
the industry. The following predictions can be made.
recirculating systems and others not yet conceived.
(/)The development of vertically integrated aquaculture
(,v//7) Most of the vertically integrated companies of the
will vary directly with the involvement of large corpora- size previously mentioned will be involved in several areas
tions in the field of aquaculture. Some of these corporations
of aquaculture with perhaps one species dominating 70-
may be producer co-operatives and new corporations not
80% of their total aquaculture generated income.
currently involved in the field.
(jc/v) Regulations by the Environmental Protection
(//') Further acquisition in the field of aquaculture will
Agency (EPA ) will enhance rather than inhibit the develop-
result in further vertical integration.
ment of vertically integrated aquaculture industries.
(//'/') More companies will use hot
water effluent as a by-
(AT) The vertically integrated companies will success
product to produce fish. Most of these companies will
fully market the fact that their product is produced by
initially limit involvement to production. If their
their
aquaculture rather than by nature. This will have a market
production becomes substantial and profitable, they will
ing thrust that the product is, therefore, superior in quality,
start vertical integration, and there will be a number of
palatability and nutritional value.
mergers. The remaining companies will be those with the
highest level of management expertise and financial
capitalization.
(iv) It is anticipated that the companies in the field of 6 Summary
aquaculture seven years will operate at a volume of
in five to Vertically integrated aquaculture will be a vital part of the
between fifty and one hundred million dollars a year from future of commercial aquaculture in the United States and
aquaculture operations. They will be a part of a larger the developed world. If aquaculture is to become a signifi
corporation, probably involved in unrelated business as its cant source of fish and shellfish for the world consumer,
primary source of income. numerous species will be produced on a vertically inte
(v) Vertically integrated operations will result in initially grated basis by these companies. The companies will vary
exponential increases in the efficiency of production which in si/e from very small cottage-type businesses to large
will then move to arithmetical increases and finally a multi-national companies. A discussion of vertically intc
plateau in developing efficiency of production. grated aquaculture industry logically dwells primarily on
(w) As vertically integrated operations become estab- the role of large companies since most vertically integrated
lished, they will uncover new species for production, and industries are large. However, as commercial aquaculture
44
The Aquaculture Industry in Japan Its Present A, Furukawa
and Future
A hstraci 400 000 tonnes ) a environ
( 1 800 000 tonnes 1973 ). soit quelque
963 (
The production from aquaculture Japan, a country with a long m 44 pour cent du des debarquements de la pecherie cotiere, qui ont
total
tradition of cultivating aquatic organisms, is steadily increasing. By atteint 1,81 millions de tonnes en 1973 Le rendcment financier de
1973 the marine aquaeultural yield was more than seven per cent of the I'aquaculture marine s'est egalement accru- de US -22U millions 1963).
s
(
total yield from marine fisheries as a whole. I his increase in yield is a il est passe a USs750 millions 1973) soit 65 pour cent des reecttes
(
iejection not only of Japan's general economic development, but of (USs 1, 5 milliard irnputables au total des debarquements de la pecherie
1 )
increased demand for high valued products Moreover, the Japanese cotiere (1973)
have a traditional preference for sea foods in their diet, In comparison. Parmi les especes marines actuellement cultivees 7 sont particuhere
the development of freshwater culture has been quite slov\ This is partly rnent importantes la seriole (Senolu quinqucrudiata)* la crevettc Ku
1
due to preference for mat me fish, but is mainly to be attributed to ruma (Penaeus japonicus). 1'huhre perliere (Pinciada fucctia). riuiitre
competition for water use with other industries. japonaise (Crasswlrea #/#$). la eoquille Saint Jacques (Patinopectcn
The marine uquacultural harvest increased from about 400 000 tons vessoensH). et deux algues. Nori (Porphyry et Wakame (Undana) (On )
s
produced through marine aquaculture also met eased- from 1 18 220 soit quelque 95 poui cent du montant total des gams de mdustiie
*
1
million (1963 Mo USs 750 million ( 1 973) or 65% of the mones (US^ aquicole, a ['exclusion de ceux fourms par la production d'alevins
1 1 S thousand million resulting from the entire coastal fishery landings
) select lonnes. Ces temps dernicrs, la culture de deux autres especes a fait
des progres rernarquables en 1973. I'elevajic du sparide (PaK^us major)
Of the marine species now cultured, seven are the most important a donne 2 741 tonnes de produit, et la culture de I'aljaue brune konbu
yellowtail (Scuvla qulnquetadiata). Kururna shrimp (Penueus /oponi (Laminana] a donne un rendement de 7 681 tonnes
//,$ ),
pearl oyster (Pmctada Jticutu). Japanese oyster (Crasunnva Sur unc superficie totaledispomble pour I'aquaculture marine estunee
tf/tfws scallop (Patinopecten ve&wenih) and two algae, Nori (Pot
) en 1968 a 71 430km" (fends de a 50 m) dont il faut retranchet les
p/iw;)and Wakamc iUndaria) (Their production in 1973 is summa zones reservees aux hlets fixes, les Dories portuaires. etc.. ainsi que les
n/'ed in Table he total amount of money earned by cultuie of all
I ) "I aires inutihsables parce que polluces ou parcourues par les navires. les
seven species was US^ 717 million or about 95% of the total amount demandes de permis d'cxploitation pour 1'aquaculture n'ont porte que
earned by the entire aquaculture industry excluding that gained by sur 5 pour cent dcs surfaces. Les trois organismes marms representatifs
seedling production, The culture of two othet species has made tcmark mdiquent une croissance reguliere mesuree pai 1'augmentation du
able growth lately, in 97 * red seabream (/'#///$ major culture yielded
1 ) nombre des filets a porphyras, des radeaux a huitres et des aires
2 741 tons and' the brown nljza Konbu (/ amuuinu) culture yielded eonsaerees a 1'elevage dc la' seriole,
7 681 tons Les pnnupales especes utilisees par I'clevage Japonais en eau douce
Of a total estimated area ol 71 430km' potential^ available for sont les suivantcs. truite (essentiellement truite arc-en ciel, Salmugcwd
marine aquaculture in 1968 (with water from to M) m in depth minus )
wv/), carpe commune (Cypnnua carpw), carpe argcntce (llypophthal
the areas (or set nets, those restricted for harbour /ones, etc., and those michth\\\ mulirrtx)* anguillc (Anguil/a). mulct (MugiD* lochc (famille
unavailable because of polluted water or use as ship mutes, onlv 5% were Cobitidae) et ayu (Plecuglossus attivelu) En 1973. la production
licensed for aquacultural use, Recent pioduction trends in the culture of annuelle de la pisciculture en eau douce a atteint quelque 64 000 tonnes
three representative marine organisms indicate steady growth as meas (2.8 fois le ehiffro de 1963). et les recettes ont etc d'environ US^ 73,6 1
ured b\ the increase in number of Nori nets oyster rafts and area millions. (5.6 fois cedes dc 1963),
occupied for vellowtail culture Parmi les problemes techniques qui restent a resoudre touchant le
The major species used in Japanese freshwater culture are: trout developpement futur de I'aquaculture au Japon, on cite les suiyants: (/) II
(mainly rainbow Salmo gairdnerii common carp (Cvpnnu\ curpio) ). faut assurer un approvisionnement stable en jcunes alevins sclcctionnes
silver carp (Hvpophihalmichthys nwlitn\ eel (AHRuilla). grey mullet ). ct mettre au point des techniques d'alevmage (//) On doit concevoir des
(AfMj;//). loaches (family Cuhitidac) and ayu (PlerngloMUb altnvlis) systemes nouveaux qui non sculcment ameliorcront 1'effieaeitc et
With respect to freshwater culture, annual production in 1973 reached r'equipement de chaque unite au sein d'une exploitation aquicole. mais
about 64 thousand tons (2 X times that of 963) and earnings in 1973 1
Resume tabu rnas del por ciento de la produccion total de las pesquenas
7
Au Japon, pays qui jouit d'une longue tradition de culture des orgn mannas. F'stc aumento del rendmucnto se debe no solo al desarrollo
nismes aquatiques (tant ammaux quo vegetaux). la production de economico geneial del Japon smo tambien a la creciente demanda de
I'aquaeulturc augmente rcgulieremenl, en eau douce comme en eau productos de alto \alor Ademas, losjaponeses sienten tradicionalmente
de
mer. preferencia por los alimentos de ongen
marino, El desarrollo de la
En 1973, le rendcment de I'aquaculture marine a execcde de plus de 7 acuicultura en aguas dulces ha sido. en comparacion. hastante lento,
pour cent celui dcs peches mantimes dans Icur ensemble, Non seulcment debido en parte a la preferencia por los peces mahnos. pero sobre todo a
cet accroisserncnt du rendcment reflete le developpcment economique la competence pot el uso del agua con otras industrias,
nellement unc preference pour les produits de la mer dans Icur regime cerca del 44 poi ciento de la pesca costera total, que alcanzo 1.81
alimentaire. millones de toneladas (197^). lambicn aumento el valor de la prociuc
Par comparison, le de I'aquaeullure en eau douce a cion de la acuicultura en aguas marinas, pasando de US^220 millones
developpement
_.j relativement lent. Cctte difference s'explique en partie par la prefer
etc ( 1963) a US^ 7 50 millones 1973). que representan el 65 por ciento del
(
para la acuieultura en aguas mannas (con aguas de a 5()m de aquaculturc industries of Japan, and presents perspective
profundidad mcnos las superficies reservadas para calamcnto de redes
).
on them in accordance with the concept of aquaculturc as
fijas y /onas portuarias, etc.. v las inutili/ablcs por cstar las aguas
contaminadas o por servir de rutas maritimas, solo se eoncedieron defined by the Resources Council. Individual practical
liccncias para utih/ar un 5 por cicnto del total para fines aeuicolas. La techniques arc not detailed.
reeiente trayectona de la produccion rncdiantc cultivo dc tres organ is
mos rnarinos representatives muestra un contmuoaumento. eomo mdica
el incrernento del numero dc redes
para Non, dc balsas para ostra v de la
/ona ocupada para el cultivo de pe/ limon. 2 Production trends in aquaculturc
Las pnneipales especies utili/,adas en el Japon para la piscicultura en
aguas dulces son trucha (prmcipalmente it ucha areo ins SalmoRaird
2. Long-term trends
1
twri). carpa comun (Cyprinus curpio), cnrpa plateada (Hvpvphthalmi The marine and freshwater aquacultural production of
chthvs molltrlx ).anpuila (.inxuitla). mugil (Muxili locha (familiaCohi
tidae y ayu (I'lecoglussui alnvehs
) La produceion amial llego en
).
during the period of the second world war and the years
en 1963).
:
ntre los problemas leemcos para el desanollo de la acuicultura en el
f
immediately following. Maricultural production has in-
Japon que quedan aun por resolver (iguran los siguientes- (/) Ha dc creased remarkably since 1950. coinciding with the eco
asegurarse un suministro cstable de formas juveniles para semilla y nomic development of Japan after the war. This increase
determmar las tccmcns de sicmbrn (//) Han de prepararse nuevo's
sistemas que pcrmiian mejorar la eheiencia \ cl equipo de eada umdad dc
can be attributed primarily to the culture of four organisms:
las mstalaciones dc cultivo y perm tan combmar entre si vanas mstala
i
a red alga called "Non* (/'o/yj/MTfl). a fish, the 'Hamachi' or
eiones I-s neeesano ademas arnpliar la superdcic acuatica utili/ada para
'Kakf or oyster, and another alga.
yellowtail, a shellfish,
cultivo. (//'/') Es prcciso cultivat nuevas especies y controlar cuidadosa
mcntc la calidad de los productos finales, fuse por fase. segun los fines a 'Wakame' (Unduna). The first two were the major
que se dcstmen, (/r Hay que mejorar las mstalaciones y el equipo paia la
) contributors. The annual marine aquacultural yield occu
alimentaeion de los peecs y pteparar raeiones alimentieias de prccio
ra/onable y clcvada eficieneia Han de establccerse mcdidas para pre pied merely a small portion of the total marine fishery yield
vcmr y tratar las enfermedades This occupancy has increased step
for a long period of time.
Se crec que. en el futuro, las mstalaciones admimstradas por however, and in 1973 it was more than 1% of the
grupos by step,
lamilmres y las cxplotadas por corporaciones seguiran progresando
total marine yield,
paralelamente, La acuicultura tendera cada ve/ rrias al empleo de
tecnicas mten&ivas lal ve/ sea necesario tarnbien
preparar nuevas
The organisms which are profitable in aquaculture are
politicas para el uprovcchamiento dc las /onas de cultivo those which bring a high price in the market; and an
increase in their production, r/r., an increase in demand tor
them, reflects the general economic development of a coun-
try. This is strongly emphasi/ed in Japan, a nation which
1 Introduction has a traditional preference for sea foods m its diet.
'Aquaculture', a major book on the subject, with the sub- The development of freshwater aquaculture in Japan has
title. The farming and husbandry of freshwater and marine been quite slow compared with thai of marine culture (Fig
organisms' states that, 'In a general way, aquaculture prac- 1 This is attributed to the competition in water use with
).
tices may be characterized by the relative intensity of other industries which have developed rapidly since the war
human effort applied to them' (Bardach, Kythcr and Me and which consume the greater part of available water.
Urney. 1972). Such competition necessarily suppressed the development
Japan has the longest history of aquaculture in the world of freshwater aquaculture. The use of water for irrigation is
and from their extensive experience in this field many also responsible for the very slow recovery of freshwater
Japanese workers have defined aquaculture from various culture. Not only was water removed for irrigation, but the
points of view. The Resources Council, Science and Tech- presence of agricultural insecticides in irrigation and drain-
nology Agency, provided a rather conclusive definition in age water completely eliminated its re use for aquaculture.
its report (1974): \ aquaculture is an industrial process
. . The slow growth of freshwater aquaculture may also be
of raising aquatic organisms up to the final commercial partially caused by the Japanese preference for marine
product within properly partitioned aquatic areas, control- rather than freshwater fish.
ling the environmental factors and administrating the life Aquacultural production in Japan has been expanding in
history of the organisms positively, and it has to be consid- line with the nation's economic development, k\ parallel to
ered as an independent industry from the fisheries hitherto'. the growth of consumer economy after the second world
In using public waters to produce biological products, war. It has not always followed the national policies for
there are concepts and practices similar to those employed food producing industries, but has functioned as one of the
in aquaculturc, The first, Zvhshoku (propagation ) is a way major commercial activities producing aquatic foods.
to facilitate the reproduction and growth of aquatic orga-
nisms, based on the productive potential of water bodies, 2.2 Recent trends
while controlling the environmental elements and the life During the period of 1963-73, the Japanese economy was
history of the organisms directly or indirectly; it is a rapidly growing. The apparent gross national product grew
practical technique to maintain and enhance fishery pro from Japanese Yen 25-6 trillion (USJ 85-3 thousand
duction. Similarly, coastal fisheries should aim basically at million Jin 1963 to Japanese Yen 1 15-3 trillion (USS 384
46
/jf
/ Long term trends of aquaculturc production in Japan
j SEA WATER
f FRESH WATER
1915 '20 '25 '30 '35 '40 '45 '50 '55 '60 '65 70
YEAR
thousand million) in 1973. Hlevation of the national in high valued fish, shellfish, and seaweed does not always
come modified the life style of the people not only m urban satisfy the demand. To meet increasing demand, a new
but also in rural areas: their selectivity of consumer goods source of supply has to be found. Aquaculture is playing
has been diversified and directed to a demand for higher this role: it is the new source which supplies the high-valued
to sea foods.
grades of goods. This has also happened with respect
their demand for sea foods during the decade.
As aquatic production is essentially governed by the
2,2. 1 Marine aquaculturc. The changes in marine aqua-
available amount of standing stock, the supply of specified culture during the period of 1963-73 are shown in Fig 2.
800-1
l l
2 in marine aiiuaciilture production in Japan, l )6? l )73
ig Changes
700-
1
d
600-
o
o
o
o -10
500-
o
400-
-9
Q. - 6
300-
O I- 7
200-
O U.
- 6
o
100-
\ / ^~2^ NUMBER OF PLANTS
, 1 1
1 1 1 1 1
T
,
1963 '64 '65 '66 '67 '68 '69 '70 '71 '72 '73
YEAR
47
The total number of aquaculture plants in this field de- availability of processed Nori seems to have stimulated
creased sharply in 1964, and then gradually increased; consumer demand, and the traditional final product of
growth has been stagnant in recent years, The decline in Porphyra, paper-like Nori, has been steadily replaced with
1964 is mainly to be attributed to the decrease in the processed Nori. Such a change in consumer preference also
number of Mori (Porphyra) culturists who were obliged to seems to have induced rapid growth in Nori production. A
leave their algal farms because of industrial invasion of large amount of paper-like Nori has been used as the
coastal areas. material for processed Nori; and the many Nori culturists
The amount of harvest increased year by year; it grew have become the material suppliers to the food industry. It
is estimated that the processed Nori now constitutes more
approximately twofold during these 10 years, reaching
about 800 000 tons in 1973. This was about 44% of the than 70% of all the final products. In general, when an
total coastal fishery landings of 1-81 million tons in the aquacultural product saturates demand at a market, the
same year. Japanese economy requires that the culturists locate an
The amount of money earned through marine aquacul other market where a new way of utilizing the product can
lure during this decade also increased: it more than tripled be expected, and the final product be converted into a
in 10 vears, from USS 220 million (1963) to USS 750 material for the food industry as in the case of Nori.
T\IHI I
ANNTM pxom CIION \ ROM M VJOR JNP \NF-SH MAKINI WACt'iTtiRi s. 1973
million (1973). Growth within the last few years has been It is difficult to present the entire picture of the areas used
remarkable. The annual production of the coastal fisheries for marine aquaculture in Japan, but one may be able to
in 1973 amounted to Japanese Yen 344- 6 thousand million gain an understanding of its extent from Table II which
(USS 1-15 thousand million); marine aquaculture pro- gives estimates of the licensed and available areas for
duced an amount corresponding to 65% of this. marine aquaculture in 1968. The technical limitations in
Fifteen marine species which are now being cultured arc aquacultural utili/ation of marine areas arc also indicated
recorded individually in Table II which shows that areas shallower than 20 m arc
in fishery statistics, the others arc
lumped together. The following seven species are the most much more used in comparison with those areas 20 50 m
important: yellowtail (Scriola quinqueradlata\ Kuruma in depth.
shrimp (Penaeus japonicus), pearl oyster (Pinctada fu- Recent production trends in the culture of three repre-
cata)< Japanese oyster (Crassostrea
gigas), scallop sentative marine organisms (Porphyra, oyster and yellow
(Patinopecten yessoensis), Nori (Porphyra spp. ), and Wak tail ) arc shown in Fig 3. using the number of Porphyra nets,
ame (Undaria), a brown alga. Their production in 1973 is oyster rafts, and the area occupied by yellowtail culture as
summarized in Table 1. indices. These have all been increasing steadily.
The 1973 of these products (excluding that
total yield in
from pearl oysters which are cultured for pearls, not T\mi ii
ci I HRI IN 1968
by culture of these species was USS 717 million; this is
about 95% of the total amount earned by the entire aquacul- Water depth (m)
Sum
ture industry, excluding that gained by production of seed 0-20 20-50
lings. Even if the earnings from seedlings were included in
the total (from all aquaculture), these seven products con (I) IOTAL ARKA 29248 42 182 71 430
(2)1 censed area 2 541 560 3 101
tributed 93% of the entire earnings (USS 771 million) of
i
48
than that of marine culture, eg. in 1973 the entire fresh-
water production (64 000 tons) was less than that of the
single marine species, yellowtail (80000 tons). However,
the products of freshwater culture are of great variety, and
/
Japan. 1966 1973 must be solved to ensure a steady development in future.
< I
/ Some of these problems will be discussed below,
*
|
a
3.1 Technical problems
s
Seedlings. A stable supply of young seedlings has to
t N 3.1.1
> -
be procured to stabilize aquaculture as an independent
industry. Seedling production techniques for this purpose
X must be promptly established,
j/J
z
N s
* This applies not only to the species which are now
O YELLOWTAIL cultured but also to those to be cultured in future, and
_ -
E -A- ,.^.- systems of seeding must go hand in hand with mass produc-
2 ? tion of young.
e
*
I s
5 s 3.1.2 Improvement offacilities and expansion ofaquacul
lure areas. To date, attention has been concentrated on
improving the efficiency of each unit of a culture plant, but
necessary to create new systems which will combine the
it is
I960 *67 '68 *69 '70 *7! '72 '73 improve their facilities and equipment. It is also necessary
to expand the aquatic areas used for aquacultural
production.
Fig 4 shows the changes in their annual production and
earnings during the period 1963-73. Both have increased 3.1.3 Variety of organisms and improvement of product
steadily during the decade: production in 1973 reached quality. Efforts should be made to cultivate new species (fe,
about 64 000 tons (Table III ), 2-8 times that of 963, and 1 ones yet untried) to meet possible expansion of future
the amount of money earned in 1973 through their culture demands for sea foods. The quality of the products has to be
was 5*6 times that earned in 1963. carefully controlled to suit the requirements for consump-
The production of freshwater culture is much smaller tion or processing.
DOLLARS
60-
1963 '6 '65 '66 'T 'M '68 '70 '71 '72 '73
YEAR
49
TAUM III
ANNTAI PKOIHK MON FROM MAJOR JAP \NI:SI rRrsiiWATFk AQUAruiTUkrs, 1973
3.1.4 Nutrition and disease. It is very important to im parallel courses forsome time. Aquaculture will tend more
prove the feeding facilities and equipment, and formulate and more toward an intensive form in future, and manage-
diets of reasonable price and high efficiency for each ment will have to keep pace with this technical develop-
species. ment. Finally, as multiple-use of the environment increases,
Although prevention of diseases is paramount, therapeu new policies may also be necessary with respect to the use
tic methods for each disease of cultured organisms should of culture areas.
also be established quickly.
4 References
3.2 Future management
Plants operated by family labour and those managed by
IURDACH, I F, RVIHIK, .1 II & M( LARNI Y, W O, AqiUU UltUIC
1972 he farming and husbandry of freshwater and
I mm me oitui-
corporate bodies of various classes will continue along msms N Y, New York, Wiley- HUM science, 86S p
1
50
Growth of the channel catfish industry has been phenom- research have helped the fish farmer to produce more
enal. This although normally a stream dweller, has
catfish, weight of fish/acre. In 1969, the average farmers were
readily adapted to still water culture. Prior to 1959, suc- producing about 1 200 Ib offish/acre (1 344 kg/ha). Five
cess in growing channel catfish in ponds was limited. What years later, production of 800-2 000 Ib (2 017 2 240
1
had kept the industry from developing up to this time was kg/ha) offish/acre was common.
the lack of a dependable spawning method that would The catfish aquaculturist is striving for better production
produce the millions of fingerlings needed for stocking each methods. Such interest on the part of the fish farmer has
year. stimulated research agencies, universities and individuals
Clemens and Sneed's (1957) work was the first success- to probe new fields. Research is underway in many areas:
ful attempt at spawning large numbers of this species. As superior strains of fish; polyculture; more efficient feed;
spawning methods were improved, several farmers, using improved water quality; pollution control; better feeding,
the method of reproduction developed by Sneed and Cle harvesting and aeration equipment; and others. As results
mens (1959), began to produce large numbers of finger- are published by researchers, fish farmers take and use new
lings to stock their ponds. The year 1960 was a year of methods. seems certain that freshwater aquaculture has a
It
moderate expansion, yet the acreages were still small com- among the uses of land and water resources in
definite place
Pond spawning does not produce the large number of crop sold 0*75 million fish for stocking sport fishing
fingerlings necessary to support a farmer who produces waters, 0-25 million fish were maintained as brood fish or
only fingerlings. But the advantage of pond spawning to a spawners and the remaining fish were marketed as pro
farmer is that he can: (/) produce the number of fingerlings ccsscd fish for human consumption (Klont/ and King.
he needs cheaply; (//) produce fingerlings with a minimum 1975).
of labour; and (///) readily sell any surplus fingerlings. Although the southern United States is not normally
During the development years of catfish farming, few thought of as a trout producing area, it produces from 5 to
records were kept of the number of producers or area of 6 million Ib (2-25-2-7 million kg) of trout annually. The
water used. Meyer (1968) estimated that approximately fishproduced arc mainly rainbow trout (Salmo xairdnerii)
24 000 acres (9 720 ha) were producing table-size fish and but some brown trout (S. /rwfta)and brook trout (Salveli
another 1 600 acres (648 ha) were producing fingerlings. nus fontinalis ) arc also produced. All but three southern
Dillon (1969) reported a moderate increase to approxi states (Florida, Mississippi and Texas) produce trout. A
mately 30 000 acres (12 150 ha) in food fish and 3 000 unique combination of limestone caves and abundant rain
acres (1215 ha) in fingcrling production. The U.S. Depart fall produces springs which have a water temperature of
ment of the Interior (1970) estimated that 39 300 acres about 56F (13C) all year round. In designing trout-
(15917 ha) were producing catfish, another moderate raising facilities, the amount of flow in the spring is used as
increase. In the spring of 1974, the Soil Conservation the basis for determining raceway length, width and the
Service made a survey offish farming and found that 2372 number offish such a system could produce. Commercial
fish farmers were producing channel catfish on 59 128 operations need springs with a flow of at least 500 gal/min
acres (23 947 ha). The year of 974 was the peak year. The
1 (1 -9 mVmin). One of the largest facilities in the South was
1975 survey showed that the number of producers was designed at a spring with a 30 000 gal/min (114 m Vmin)
down to 1 934 and the area down to 46 44 1 acres ( 1 8 809 flow.
economic factors have caused a decline in the area of water ponds and sold to fishermen by the weight offish caught. As
devoted to producing channel catfish. Late in 1973, feed the southern United States becomes more urban and fewer
costs rose rapidly as the world demand for soybeans and people have access to rural fishing areas, such fishing ponds
fish meal increased. Prices received for fish did not increase become more attractive. Fishermen who have been fishing
as rapidly as feed costs. The price squeeze soon eliminated on trout streams with little success may stop at a fee fishing
the marginal or inefficient producer. Efficient producers are pond to catch trout to take home. Many people like to fish
still growing fish. Increased costs of production, such as where they can enjoy scenic surroundings, but there arc
labour, feed, equipment and water-pumping, resulted in a many others who just want to catch fish.
net loss of 12 687 acres (5138 ha) used for catfish produc- Marketing of trout in the South by the fish farmer is
tion in 1975. The weight offish produced has not decreased diversified. No fish farmer in the South produces trout eggs,
in direct proportion to the loss of acreage. Experience and Most are one-man operations and are just too small to
51
maintain brood fish. The fish farmer in the South purchases autumn or winter. Bait minnow production
harvested in the
his trout eggs from large producers in the Pacific is not affected and food-size catfish are produced. The
Northwest. difference in food habits of each species is the apparent
The trout producer hatches the eggs, raises the trout and reason why they can be raised together.
sells them in several ways. A
few are sold as 2-3 inch (5-8
cm) fingerlings to stock sport fishing ponds. But most are
raised to larger sizes and sold as catchablc fish. Again, there 5 Largemouth buffalo
is a choice of markets commercial sales of 500 The largemouth buffalo (Ictiobus cyprlnellus) is a highly
Ib (225
kg) or more, or sales directly to a fee fishing pond. Com- regarded food fish in the South. About 1 million Ib (454
mercial prices average U.S.S 1/lb (U.S.S 2-20/kg)and fee metric tons) are produced each year by aquaculture. Since
the fish sell at a lower price, U.S.S 0-50-0-75/lb (U.S.S
fishing prices average U,S.$ 1-50/lb (U.S.S 3-30/kg), Fee
fishing operators also sell bait, tackle, cold drinks, etc, and MO-l-65/kg). than catfish, the fish are produced by
dress, ice and package fish for about U.S.S 0-25/fish, thus
extensive rather than intensive methods so feed costs are
minimal. Yields by such methods rarely exceed 1 00 Ib/acre
bringing additional income to the pond operator. There is a
limited market for dressed trout sold directly from the (112 kg/ha). The fish are usually grown in irrigation or
other water storage reservoirs, although some are produced
producer to the consumer. The total income generated by
in ponds stocked only with largemouth buffalo.
trout in the southern United States is in excess of U.S.S 6
million annually, a welcome addition to the limited income As with catfish, largemouth buffalo are excellent for
of small farmers. polyculture and are grown with both catfish and minnows.
They arc stocked at 25-50 fish/acre (62-125/ha) in the
spring and are harvested when other fish in the pond are
4 Bait minnows harvested in the autumn or winter.
Bait minnow culture began in the United States in the early
1900s. It ranks number two in area of water used for
6 Tilapia
aquaculture in the 1968)estimated the 1968
South. Meyer (
Catfish farmers and researchers have been successful in
production as just under 24 000 acres (9 7 ha ). As with 1
that catfish require for maximum production. Being smaller greatly from year to year. It was very difficult to base an
and having different feeding habits, bait minnows get about industry or expand gourmet markets when production was
60% of their feed from the aquatic ecosystem and 30% from so unpredictable,
fish feed. Thomas ( 1963) worked out the
life history of the cray-
Bait minnows have afforded a flexibility to fish farming fish in sufficient detail to
provide the knowledge necessary
that has been good for southern aquaculture. In years when to make the growing of them in rice fields a dependable farm
catfish feed costs rose due to inflation and the high price of crop. Prior to his work, the growing of crayfish in rice fields
fish meal, the farmer easily changed from catfish to
fish was a hit or miss proposition. With the development of a
minnow production. When the demand for catfish grows or dependable farming method for crayfish, the production of
feed prices adjust to permit a more favourable profit mar- them has grown by leaps and bounds. LaCaze (1970)
gin, the fish farmer can easily go back to raising catfish for furthered our knowledge in the management of crayfish as a
human food. farm enterprise. Commercial farms in southern Louisiana
Bait minnow farming lends itself well to polyculture. produced crayfish in 26 000 acres (10 520 ha) of water in
Fifty to one hundred fingerling catfish/acre (124-248/ha) 1974.
can be stocked in the spring and marketable-size fish can be Yields of up to 1 000 Ib/acre (11 20 kg/ha) have been
52
achieved. The early harvest brings close to U.S.S 1/lb ered: financial support, labour availability, management
(U.S.S 2-20/kg), while the late season harvest may go needs, market outlets, etc.
below U.S.S 0-50/lb (U.S.S 10/kg), An average yield of If a satisfactory
-
I
opportunity is indicated by the resource
500 Ib/acre (5 60 kg/ha) at a price of U.S.S 0-50/lb (U.S.S appraisal and the landowner or operator decides to go
1- 0/kg) would return U.S.S 6 million ahead with an aquaculture phase of his farm operation, the
1
annually to aquacul-
turists growing crayfish. Research underway concerning SCS conservationist assists with the development of a farm
feeding and management of crayfish should further increase plan. Such a plan includes: design of the facilities and
yields, making crayfish farming an even more profitable details for operations which may include species and num-
aquacultural enterprise. bers to be stocked, feeding, waste disposal, water quality
control, care and management and possibly others.
As the landowner begins installing facilities, he is given
8 Provision of extension service on-site assistance to assure proper construction and adher-
The United States
Department of Agriculture, Soil Conser- ence to standards and design specifications. He is also
vation Service (SCS) has made major contributions to the advised as to sources of stocking materials, feeds, equip-
development of aquaculture in the United States. With field ment, etc, and provided with job sheets, technical bulletins
offices in nearly all counties and parishes, the SCS is able to and other written information related to the enterprise.
work directly with landowners and operators whose desires Every made to train him in all aspects of the
effort is
or farm resources indicate some prospect for fish husban- operation. As
he gains experience and knowledge, close
dry. SCS field offices are staffed with one or more college- supervision and on-site assistance is gradually phased out
trained conservationists. In addition, they can call upon until only occasional contact is maintained and he is operat-
technical specialists in biology, engineering, soils, water ing the enterprise more or less independently. By and large,
quality, waste disposal and others when specialised assist such a system has been quite successful.
ance is needed.
Assistance to private landowners, which is provided
through locally organized soil conservation districts, is 9 References
primarily aimed at helping the landowners incorporate an CIIMKNS. II P & SNM-D, K E The spawning behavior of the channel
aquacultural enterprise into their ongoing farm operation.
1957 catfish, Ivtulurus puncratui Spec, Sa Rep i S. Fish Wildl
Scn, (2W) II p,
The object is to make optimal efficient use of land, water Dn LON, ()
t
W , A summary
of commercial fish fanning in the U S
JR,
and related resources and to expand income producing 1%9 Paper presented at American Fisheries Society Annual Meeting,
New Orleans, La Sen 10 12,1969
opportunities. KLONI/, G W, & KINO, J, G, Aquaculture in Idaho and nation-wide
A relatively small number of landowners have access to 1975 Boise, Idaho, Depaitment of Watei Resources
research data and other information needed to establish and LAC'AZI. (' Crawfish farming, Baton Rouge, La Louisiana Wildlife ,
commercial fish farmers who usually have aquatic or fish- 1968 ship to the feed industry. Washington, D.C Animal Nutrition .
ery biologists in their employ. To these, the SCS provides Research Council, Get 17,1968
SNPXD, K. K & CIEMKNS, H P. The use of human chononie gonado-
only consultation or special resource data. The majority of 1959 tropm to spawn warm water fishes, Prtnj t-ish. Cult ?2I (3)
landowners, however, need a full range of assistance. 117 20
'! IIOMAS, C H A preliminary report on the agricultural pioduction of
Typical assistance to a landowner begins with a detailed 196^ the
red-swamp crawfish ( Procamharu* clwki) (Ciirard) in
resource inventory and appraisal of all resources on his Louisiana ncc fields Proc, Anw Conf. Southeast Assot (ianw ,
farm: soil suitability and its limitations, quality and quan- tish Comni .17 180 6
U S DHPARIMINI oh IMIRIOR. FISH AND Wn DI.IH Smvin, Rcpon
tity of water available, topography, climatic factors, etc.
1970 to the fish farmer Rcww Publ U.S T/s/j Wildl. .SVrr (83) ,
health, and additional employment opportunities. Taquaculture en clangs, en cages et en enclos, contre U.S.S 72 a 567 pour
It is suggested that the value of aquaculture in water resource develop- les autres speculations agricoles. Toutefois, les mvestissemcnts et les
ment projects has not been fully appreciated or understood, and appro depenses annuelles quc necessite 1'aquaculture sont ncttement plus
priatc institutes and departments, should ensure their representation in cleves que dans le cas de 1'agnculture, Parmi les avantages indirects de
53
I'
aquaculture, on peut citer 1'amelioration de Petat de sante et la creation 2 Aquaculture in irrigation service areas
de nouveaux emplois.
Le role de P aquaculture dans la mise en valeur des rcssources
A new concept of utilizing non-arable but aquaculturally
hydriques n'a sans doute pas etc plemement reconnu ou compris. Les suitable lands in the vicinity of dams in the Mekong Basin
instituts et departements competents devraicnt veiller a se faire represen- (Pantulu, 1972, and U.S. Bureau of Reclamation (USBR),
ter au sein des organes de planification du developpement des ressourccs
en eau. 1972) was considered to determine whether an integrated
Funcion de la acuicultura en el desarrollo de los recursos hidricos irrigation and fish farm development project would be
estudio del proyecto de la Cuenca del Bajo Mekong practical and economically justified. Land deemed unsuit-
Extracto able for agricultural purposes because of certain soil char-
Se describe metodo adoptado por el Comite de Coordmacion de las
el
acteristics not inimical to aquaculture,
such as salinity and
Invcstigaciones en la Cuenca del Bajo Mekong para obtener un maximo
de beneficios, especialmcnte economicos, del desarrollo de los recursos high alkalinity, or land with an undulating or low lying
hidricos mcdiante la inclusion de la acuicultura, Los aspectos para los
que se tiene en cue n la la acuicultura son los siguientes: incorporacion en
topography which was unsuitable for irrigation, was
planes de riego mediantc cultivo intensive), semi-intensivo y extensivo en
assessed for aquaculture development. The criteria applied
estanques; aprovcchamiento de las ?onas del delta, mediantc cultivo for selection of such lands for aquacultural
purposes were:
combinado de arroz y peccs; cultivo en jaulas en canales de riego y
a natural ground slope of 0-3-2>0%; fertile soil, absence of
embalses; cria de nuevas espccics para repoblacion de embalses; y
rehabilitacion de especies amcnazadas por los planes de desarrollo de los toxic ions, pH values between 6-0 and 8-5; minimum
recursos hidricos. Calculando los beneficios economicos que pueden
seepage rate, protection against flooding; freedom from
obtenerse de la acuicultura, sc estima que los beneficios netos de la
misma oscilan entre US 4 543 y 232 000 por hectarea/ario en el cultivo
*
I
contamination by polluting substances, particularly agri
en estanques. jaulas y recintos, frente a un rendimiento dc los cultivos cultural chemicals; access to main roads; and capability for
agncolas de US'* 72 a 567, Por otro lado, las inversiones y los gastos
anuales para la acuicultura son notablemente superiores a los de los
gravity water service from an irrigation canal.
cultivos agricolas, Entre los beneficios mdirectos que pueden denvarsc A survey (USBR, 1972) conducted in connexion with
de la acuicultura figuran la mejora del estado de salud y
mayores the proposed Pa Mong Dam on the Mekong River (Thai-
posibilidades de emplco.
Sc sugiere que no se ha apreciado o entcndido plcnamente el valor de land/Lao), for example, indicated that about 106 000 ha of
la acuicultura en los proyectos de desarrollo de los recursos hidricos y non-arable land suitable for aquaculture was available in
que los institutes y departamcntos correspondientes debenan ascgurar la the irrigation service area associated with the dam. The
de estos intereses en los organos responsables dc la
representation
planificacion del desarrollo de los recursos hidricos. study revealed that irrigation canals would be more fully
and profitably utilised if used to supply water to fish ponds
1 Introduction as well. Furthermore, benefits from aquaculture would be
A perplexing feature of many water resource development so significant as to positively affect the benefit/cost ratio of
programmes in the world is the scant attention given to one the entire development.
of the most important aquatic resources, namely fish. This To determinewhether the predicted aquaculture benefits
is particularly regrettable in the case of water resource could be realized, theMekong Committee approved the
projects in developing countries, where integration offish- construction of one 5 ha pilot freshwater fish farm in
1
cries development could lead to substantial economic and association with an irrigation scheme in each country.
nutritional benefits. An exception to this general trend is the Prcconstruction feasibility studies and operational plans,
development project in the Lower Mekong Basin (Mekong conforming to conditions that would be encountered in
Project ) which is directed by the Committee for the Coordi- irrigation service areas, have been prepared for three of
nationof Investigations in the Lower Mekong Basin these fish farms (SKR
International Consultants, 1974).
(Mekong Committee) based in Bangkok, Thailand. The pilot farmsdemonstrate three types offish culture
will
The purpose of this project is to develop water and at three production levels: intensive, semi intensive and
related resources of the Lower Mekong Basin for hydro extensive. Each production level represents a specific sys-
electric power, irrigation, navigation improvement, flood tem of raising fish in ponds and yield is principally a
control etc. The Mekong Basin area includes substantial function of water inflow directed through ponds for aera
parts of Thailand and Viet Nam, and virtually all of tion, and the quality and quantity of artificial feeds that are
Kampuchea and Lao. A characteristic feature of this region used. Table I shows the estimated water requirements
is that fish and
products are of great economic and
fish
54
corresponding to different levels offish yields. Water taken structure should not be regarded as typical for aquaculturc
from irrigation outlets will pass successively through inten- development in large tracts of non-arable lands in irrigation
sive, semi-intensive and extensively farmed ponds and service areas.
finally return to the irrigation network. Therefore, water Estimates of capital construction costs (USBR, 1972) to
used for fish ponds in this system of culture is virtually implement large fish farm developments, corrected to 974 1
nonconsumptive, a distinct additional advantage for the prices, are about USS 3 500/ha in the Thailand/Lao region.
overall water resource project* With this amount of capital expenditure it would be possi
The proposed fish farms will each have a total water ble to develop aquaculture using extensive level techniques
surface area of 5 ha. Of this, 45 ha would be for produc-
1
yielding an average of six tons of fish/ha/year. As already
tion ponds and 6 ha for service ponds (ie, hatchery, nursery, indicated, this culture system can be relatively easily
and storage ponds). The 45 ha production area would be adopted by local fish farmers and the inputs and level of
subdivided into three subareas to demonstrate to local fish technology needed are relatively low. Table III shows the
farmers techniques which could increase their current aver- recurring costs for this level of production and the income
age annual fish yields of 0-3 tons/ha, obtained through that could accrue from this type of operation. Figures given
traditional methods, to 10 40 tons/ha by progressive in the table are based on costs and prices prevailing in
application of increasing levels of modern technology. 1974. In comparison, the cost of development of land for
Species cultured would differ from country to country irrigated agriculture is about the same, while resultant
and would be selected on the basis of achieving high growth benefits are considerably lower. Estimates of annual net
rate in culture systems, suitability for artificial breeding, benefits per hectare obtained under good management from
knowledge of feeding and breeding habits, compatibility of some agricultural crops (Mekong Committee, 1975) and
individual species with others in polyculturc, consumer aquaculture are given in Table IV.
preference, high market value and ease of transportation as
TABLE III
live fish. The
species selected for different levels of produc ESTIMATFl) ANNUAL COSTS AND RI- URNS PER HECTAKfr FOR
I FISH FARM
tion at a typical pilot farm are listed in Table II. DEVELOPMENT AT THh EXTENSIVE FVH I
T\nn II
Item Amount (US$)
PkOPOSF I) SI'M'IFS C'OMRIN \T IONS H)R DIFFFRFNT I'KOIUKT ION I FVf LS
\\ A MFKONG BASIN IMIOI FISH FARM
Expenses.
Fish fingerlings (10000/ha) 200
Production level 2500
Feeds (10 tons/ha/year)
Weedicldes, insecticides, disease and preda-
tor control 32
Labour:
Unskilled 100
Technical assistance 100
Annual non-project maintenance and return
equipment and
costs (machinery, electricity,
facilities) 188
Land tax 50
Miscellaneous expenditure 63
Interest on short term operating capital 18
Annual return to capital investment 18
Source SKR International Consultants (1974)
Total expenses 3 269
Artificial feeds will also be important in increasing
productivity, particularly in the proposed culture tech- Returns to enterprise ((> tons fish/ ha/year at
USSO-79/kg) 4 740
niques to be used in pilot farms. It is intended that intensity
Adjustments for operator and family labour 72
of feeding will increase progressively from extensive
through semi-intensive to intensive culture methods. Feed (Jross income 4 812
composed of 30% protein for intensive and semi-intensive Net income 1 543
culture ponds and 21% for extensive culture ponds would
be prepared from locally available materials, such as fish
meal, rice bran, broken rice, soyabean meal, peanut oil
cake, and sorghum. 3 Aquaculture and delta development
considered that the proposed pilot farms will yield
It is 'Delta development' programmes with the objective of
impressive economic benefits. It is estimated that the Inter reclaiming vast areas of delta lands for year round agricul-
nal Rate of Return (1RR) will be 35% overall and the tural production (mainly rice paddies), are important ele-
benefit/cost ratio calculated at a 15% discount rate is 2-8. ments water resource development programmes in the
in
The 35-8% and profit/investment Mekong Basin area. Unfortunately, m delta development as
profit/returns ratio is
ratio 37-3%. Each farm, which requires an investment of in other facets of water resource development, either the
USS 588 000 over a five year period, would yield an annual protection or promotional aspects of aquaculture usually
net profit of USS 214000. Compared to pilot irrigated receive little attention. This is particularly disheartening,
agriculture developments where IRRs generally range from considering that waterlogged areas in deltas are more suited
6 to 1 3%, returns from the fish culture development would and are more readily and relatively inexpensively converted
be very high. into aquaculture sites than into agricultural lands. Ling
Capital costs for the pilot fish farm development, which (1972) cites instances in several Asian countries where,
average about USS 500/ha, are high. However, this is
1 1 depending on inputs and culture techniques employed,
attributed to the high value of the land acquired, the high annual profits ranging from USS 500 to USS 2 500 are
initial cost of expatriate technical expertise, and manage- realized through aquaculture in delta areas. The cost of
ment costs for a period of five years. Therefore, this cost reclaiming delta lands for aquaculture ranges between USS
55
TAHIfc IV
ESTIMATED COSTS AND BENEFITS FOR AOUACI/I IURAI AND AGRICULTURAL OPERATIONS IN inh MEKONG BASIN
Per halvear in US$
200 and USS 1 500 depending on the degree of sophistica- Experimental trials and reports from fish culturists in
tion in construction and the material used, and agricultural Thailand indicate that production ranging from -9 to 8-0 1 1
enterprises are hardly comparable to aquaculture in profit tons/ha/year was possible in pen culture, depending on the
ability. There is, therefore, room for imaginative proposals species used and the quality and quantity of feed adminis-
to develop aquaculturc as an integral part of water re- tered. In contrast to these high yields, standing crops in
Pen culture and cage culture could play very important in floating cages (Pantulu, 19 79) or nets suspended in water
roles in enhancing fish production in man-made lakes and is a common practice in the countries of the Mekong Basin.
Fish yields from such practices are known to be very high.
irrigation canals. These techniques could also provide a
lucrative occupation to people resettled from the reservoir In Thailand, production of 160 kg/mVyear was obtained
basins. With the object of gauging their economic potential from cages with the catfish, Pangasius sutcht, even though
under conditions pertaining to the region, relevant informa the feeds provided were inadequate in terms of amino acid
tion on these practices in the Mekong Basin is summarized balance and vitamin content (Swingle, 1972), Other spe
below: cies used in Thailand in this type of fish culture arc:
(/) Sub impoundmentculture. Shallow marginal areas of Cyprinus carpio, Tilapia nilotica and Clarias spp. The
reservoirs up to 2 m
depth are fenced off with closely-set
in International Center for Aquaculture at Auburn Univer-
bamboo stakes, netting or wire-mesh screens. These en- sity, USA, reported obtaining yields ranging from 150 kg/
closed areas are used to culture fish. Erection of these pens nr with Tilapia aurea to 190 kg/nr' in four months using
is a common practice in Kampuchea and parts of Thailand. channel catfish. In both cases complete floating pelleted
The space between two adjacent bamboo stakes or the mesh feed was used. Pantulu (1979) reported that annual yields
size of netting used in the construction of pens is 1-2 cm. of 45-133-3 kg/m' of cage were obtained by fish culturists
The soil substratum of the pen encourages production of in Viet Nam using different fish species, such as barbs
bcnthic organisms. Water circulating through the fencing (Barbus hoeveni and B. altus\ catfish (Pangasius larnau
material helps to replace the oxygen and remove the carbon del and Pangasius spp.), murrels (Channa micropeltes and
dioxide within the pen and facilitates heavy stocking with C. striatus ) and the common carp (Cyprinus carpio ). Float-
fish. High production of fish is obtained if the pens are ing cage and suspended net culture offish can be practised
stocked with plankton and bottom -feeding fish species, and profitably in man-made lakes and rivers.
if supplementary artificial feeds are provided. In 'back -up' The practice of culturing fish in pens or cages in irriga-
research for the Department of Fisheries, Thailand, tion canals is also common in many Asian countries,
Swingle (1972) reports having achieved production of Swingle (1972) cites some experiments conducted in Thai-
1 2 000 land in irrigation ditches leading to rice fields or vegetable
kg/ha/year in pen culture experiments conducted in
Auburn, Alabama, USA using a combination of channel and fruit farms. Ditches used in these experiments were
catfish Ictalurus punctatus and Tilapia aurea and feeding approximately 1 m deep and 1-3 m wide and, depending on
with a complete pelleted feed. Even without supplementary fertilization, supplementary feeding, the amount of water
feeding Swingle (op. cit.) reports yields up to 1 *4 tons/ha/ passing through the ditches and the species used, annual
year with tilapia as a result of their plankton feeding habits. yields ranging from 500 to 70 000 kg/ha of water surface
56
area were reported. Cost/benefit figures are not available in Kloke and Patros ( 1975), holds considerable promise for
this case, but it is presumed they would be similar to those integration in agricultural systems, if effective measures are
for pen and cage culture mentioned earlier. However, one taken to insulate ponds from agricultural pollutants.
factor inhibiting development of this type of aquaculture
would be pollution by insecticides and pesticides that are 6 Introduction of new species to impoundments
applied to agricultural crops in the vicinity. Aquaculture plays an important role in the introduction of
new species, where considered necessary and desirable, into
5 Integrated agriculture and aquaculture man-made lakes. It is common practice in several Asian
Rice cum fish culture is often cited as a promising method countries to construct fish farms near these water bodies
of producing a carbohydrate and a protein crop simultane- with the specific objective of breeding and raising desired
ously in the same with resultant increases in economic
field, indigenous or exotic species offish to a size where they can
benefits. Experimental Thailand have indicated that
trials in be introduced into the lakes.
it is possible to
produce, in addition to rice, a fish crop Although the introduction of exotic species may not
averaging 220 kg/ha without supplementary feeding and up always be desirable, there is no doubt that carefully planned
to 400 kg/ha with feeding (Swingle, 1972). Experimental introductions have been highly successful (eg, North
fish culture trials conducted in irrigated paddy fields at one American trout into New Zealand, European trout into
of the agricultural experimental and demonstration farms in North America and parts of India, Chinese carps into India,
the Mekong Basin yielded a fish crop of about 100 kg/ha the Indian carp (Labeo rohita ) into Thailand, etc). In man-
without supplementary feeding, Trichogaster pectoralis, made lakes in many parts of the world introduction of
cyprinus carpio and Tilapia sp. are species commonly used indigenous or exotic species has contributed to increased
in rice cum fish culture in the region. fish production. For example, in Lake Ayame, Ivory Coast.
Construction of homestead fish ponds, for fish culture it is claimed that fish production has been doubled
by the
and other purposes, is a common practice in the Mekong introduction tf Tilapia nilotica\ also, in India, introduction
Basin. In a study conducted in northeast Thailand, Kloke of species which are new to a particular water body but are
and Patros (1975) cited instances of some farmers con- indigenous to the country has resulted in significantly
structing homestead ponds for culturing fish as an integral increased fish production.
part of an agricultural system. They concluded that, for a
comparable area, farmers received 21 times more net in- 7 Rehabilitation of endangered species
come from supplemental farming than from irrigated
fish Water resource development projects inevitably forge
rice farming and 74 times more net income than from non- changes in the environment that might endanger some
irrigated rice farming. species offish and other aquatic life. Where the species so
While in theory there appears to be little doubt that rice endangered are commercially or biologically valuable,
cum-fish culture holds promise of yielding considerable measures have to be taken to rehabilitate them. In the
additional economic returns and nutritional benefits to the Mekong Basin, it is believed that construction of dams on
farmer, in practice, the usefulness of its role in water the main river may endanger the survival of the following
resource development programmes is questionable when fish which are possibly migratory (Pantulu, 1973):
tied to the development of modern intensive agriculture Cyprinidae: Schilbeidae;
involving the use of pesticides and insecticides. Confirma- Cirrhinus microlepis Pangasianodon gigas
tion of this statement is reflected in the fact that, despite the C. jullieni Pangasius pangasius
general knowledge of its benefits, aquaculture in irrigated Probarbus jullieni P. sutchi
rice fields is not being adopted in the Mekong Basin as Thynnichthys thinnoides P. sanitwongsei
resources to modify their rice fields if they undertake fish Artificial propagation one of the principal means
is
culture as well. Such modifications involve construction of employed by the Mekong Committee for rehabilitating
higher dikes, as well as ditches around the periphery and endangered species. However, techniques for propagating
sometimes in the centre of the fields to serve as sanctuaries all the potentially affected species are not yet known.
for fish, The initial cost of stocking material (young fish ) is Efforts arc, therefore, being made to induce breeding and
also high. Set against this investment is the risk of losses establish culture techniques for M. rosenbergii* Pangasius
through mortality during drought periods, predation by pangasius and P. sutchi in Viet Nam and Pangasianodon
snakes and birds, poaching by neighbours and escape due gigus in Thailand. Ultimately, the Committee intends
to flooding. Added to these is the ever-present risk of launching large-scale programmes to produce juveniles of
mortality through contamination by agricultural selected, valuable, endangered species through artificial
chemicals. means. It is hoped this will replace the possible loss of fry of
It would, therefore, appear that rice-cum fish culture is these species from natural sources for culture purposes and
incompatible with modern intensive agriculture, unless also make fry available for stocking rivers or man-made
development of new insect-resistant strains of rice are lakes if required. It is expected that the culture fishery
developed rendering the use of insecticides unnecessary. developed for some of these species would replace the
On the other hand, homestead fish culture, as described by losses that might occur in the natural fisheries,
57
8 Conclusion development programmes, it could contribute substantially
A question very often asked is how can we account for to improvement of the overall development programme.
the scant attention paid to aquaculture in water resource The increased production of cheap protein through aqua-
projects, despite what appear to be its glaringly obvious culture would be reflected in improved standards of health
advantages? The possible answers to this question are of the population covered by the project; additional em-
outlined below: ployment opportunities can be provided by an aquaculture
(/) Unfamiliarity with facts regarding aquaculture at means of livelihood for many
industry, ensuring lucrative
decision-making levels, which seldom include fishery people; and enhancement of economic benefits through
scientists. aquaculture could be so significant as to convert an other-
(/7)The lack of an authority to advocate development of wise uneconomic water resource development project into
aquaculture and fisheries since fisheries in many govern- an economically attractive one.
ments and agencies are subordinated both administratively
and technically to agriculture. With agriculturists being 9 References
themselves uninformed in this field, they are hesitant to
promote fisheries interests. Moreover, they generally con-
CAI i>wri i , M Hsh and its nutntionul significance in the l.owci
1972 Mekong Basin, SEADAG Mekong Development Panel
sider it both convenient and advantageous to their pro Seminar, 21 p
grammes to give short shrift to fisheries considerations, COMMIMM I-OK iHi' COORDINATION oi INVESTIGATIONS IN TIII LOWLR
I97S MIKONCJ BASIN, Production costs ol a ruimbei of majot agn-
(//7)The lack of promotional ability among fishery scien
cultural products in the Lowei Mekong Basin Committee foi
tists is also a limiting factor. Fishery scientists, trained as the CooidinaLion of Investigations in the Lower Mekonu Basin,
they usually are in the disciplines of pure science, find it MKG/17 1-210
Also, characteristic of their training in pure science, is an LACJMK, K \< Sixth quarterly report of the Mekong Basmwide
1975 Fishery Studies Committee- for Coordination of Investigations
ignorance or disregard of the economic aspects related to of the Lower Mekong Basin 5
1
their fields.This makes it difficult for them to present their Ii\<.., SWA levicw of the status and problems of coastal aquaeultuie
1972 in the Indo-Pacific region, In Coastal aquaculture in the Indo-
points of view convincingly to planning bodies. Fortu- Pacific region, Papers presented at the IPFC Symposium on
nately, efforts are now being made to correct this deficiency Coastal Aquaculture, Bangkok, Thailand, 18-21 Novemhei
and studies on economic aspects of fisheries aro being 1970, edited by 1 V R Pillay. Farnham, Surrey, Fishing News
(Books) Ltd,. 2 26
encouraged. PAMUIU, V R Development of fish culture in Pa Mong inigation
To correct this situation, fishery scientists should dis- 1972 service area. In Pa Mong phase II. Appendix VI Economic,
seminate knowledge of aquaculture through publication of Agricultural, Social and Financial Analysis 2 to 36 I I
ments dealing with fisheries. More emphasis should be SKR INIHKNAIIONAI CoNSuiiANis, Feasibility study on pilot fish
1978 farm projects in the Mekong Basin, In Report of the Committee
placed on initiating actual and theoretical studies of differ
for the Coordination of Investigations m the Lowei Mekong
ent types of aquaculture operations, especially their eco Basin, I--41
pp 1
58
ura et autres clupeidcs, Fngraulisjapunicus, Chanoi chanos, les mulcts, pelagic tuna fisheries in the Pacific, in spite of the fact that
lescyprinides et Kuhli&sandvicensui, met en relief les problemes poses
techniques other than pole and line fishing are being
par felevage dans cet objectif et fait ressortir la necessite d'cnlrcprcndrc
des etudes complcnicntaircs sur les cspcccs qui se pretcraient a une telle adopted in certain areas for some species.
utilisation. Several attempts have been made in the past to solve the
catching this species in the region (Baird. 1973; 1974), The baitfish shortages and recorded that every support should
estimated potential of skipjack fishing with live bait in the be given to the culture of suitable hardy live baitfishcs
South Pacific is a minimum of 60 000 tons and. for the (Baird, 1974).
exploitation of such a fishery, a substantial quantity of live Fish culture techniques developed in recent years are
bait at attractive prices will be required (Doumengc. 1973). considered to have application in the baitfish industry and
Evaluation of the natural bait resources of the Pacific have, in fact, been used on a small scale in some countries to
Ocean indicates that baitfish populations are unevenly meet tuna sport fishing requirements (Pillay, 1 973 ). A tuna
distributed and Iheir abundance fluctuates significantly workshop was also organised by
baitfish the U.S. National
from year to year. Although baitfish are not scarce in the Marine Fisheries Service, m Honolulu in June 1974, to
Hawaii area, it has also been estimated that skipjack fisher review the problems of baitfish cultivation. The importance
men spend up to 50% of their time fishing for bait instead of of developing culture of baitfish in many regions was
for tuna(Shomura. 1964; Rothschild and Uchida. 1968). highlighted during the discussions and the need recogni/ed
and mortality in bait wells can be as high as 35%. for conducting feasibility studies and field trials using a
In other areas, availability of live bait is a key factor variety of potential species.
governing exploitation of tuna stocks, even in existing This paper reviews the available information related to
fisheries. For example, the tuna fishery resources around culture of fishes with potential use as baitfish for tunas,
the different islands of the Gilbert and Ellicc group are especially skipjack, in the Pacific region.
reported to be appreciable and the catches of skipjack have
been particularly good as long as live bait was available in
the lagoons (Gopalakrishnan. 1974). Similarly, a survey
conducted by the Fisheries Department during 1970-72 2 Potential baitfish species for the Pacific region
indicated the existence of large stocks of yellowfin (Thun The general qualities required of cultivated baitfish are well
nus u/bticares)&m\ skipjack tunas but only limited stocks known. The species must be prolific and have an extended
of live bait were available for polc-and-lme fishing. Ameri- breeding season, good growth rate, and must be resistant to
can Samoa is another example where natural baitfish re- handling, transport and diseases (Huet. 1970). Other quali
sources arc inadequate for the potential tuna fishery ties thatshould be considered in selecting suitable baitfish
(Swerdloff, 1973) species include: survival, fishermen acceptance, availabil-
Urgent steps are therefore required to provide the neces ity, behaviour, size, colour, and body form. It is also
sary bait supplies for future large scale commercial tuna important that the species selected for culture in any partic-
fishing ventures. Development of the live-bait industry is ular areamust be adapted to the prevailing environmental
expected to be an important component of plans to expand conditions.
59
2,1 Tilapiamossamhica Tilapia the fish is not popular as a food fish, the feasibility of
This is which can withstand high water
a robust fish culturing the species for bait purposes has to be seriously
temperature as well as high salinity. The species has been considered. The fish is very hardy and tolerates a wide
introduced and cultivated in several countries in both range of salinities, and survives well in bait containers and
freshwater and brackishwater ponds (Jhingran and Gopa- bait wells. The main objection appears to have come from
lakrishnan, 1974). The fish is an omnivorous feeder, con- the non-acceptability to Hawaiian fishermen of the species
suming a wide variety of plants and animals. Its respiratory even as a supplementary bait, but this need not detract from
demand is relatively low and large numbers of juveniles can the use of cultured tilapia as an auxiliary bait in other areas,
be transported easily in containers. The fish can spawn A programme of extensive sea trials is now required as well
almost throughout the year in warm waters at 5-7-week as promotion of the use of tilapia as a useful baitfish.
intervals, with an average of 8 times per year, The reproduc
tive potential is high, mainly due to parental care. Tilapia 2.2. Dorosoma petenenseThreadfin Shad
can spawn even in salt water, though the activity may be This which was introduced into rivers and reservoirs in
fish
inhibited with increasing salinity. Hawaii during 1958 and 1959, became established by
Studies by King and Wilson (1975) showed that young 1960 (Brock, 1960; Hida and Thomson, 1962). The spe-
Tilapia mossambica is a suitable species for use as live bait cies has several of the qualities required for a
good skipjack
in skipjack fisheries. They found although the species
that, bait, themost important being hardiness, desirable silvery
is slightly inferior to the popular bait in Hawaii, r/r., nehu colouration, favourable breeding habits and easy acclimati
7ation to sea water (Iversen, 1971). Hida and Thomson
(Stolephorus purpureus ), on regular overall skipjack catch
results, it has
compensating qualities including hardiness, (1962) found that the fish spawned and established itself
adaptability to artificial conditions in bait tanks and possi well in several Hawaiian reservoirs. They considered that,
bility of holding for indefinite periods. With respect to size, although cultivation of the species as live bait for skipjack
it has been observed that tilapia of 3 -8-5 -Ocm length is the fishing is difficult due to the shad's low resistance to
optimum for skipjack pole-and-line fishing (Brock and handling, this species might be cultured in drainable tanks
Takata, 1955; King and Wilson, 1957). Brock and Takata, and ponds with facilities for acclimatization to sea water
however, considered that it may not be possible to culture and for direct loading of stocks into bait wells of vessels.
tilapia economically on a large scale in reservoirs and Iversen (1971 ) after extensive trials found that the threadfin
ponds. In order to overcome this difficulty, further studies shad occurring in Hawaiian reservoirs during the peak
in Hawaii were concentrated on intensive culture of the season of skipjack fishing are hardy, readily handled in
species in concrete tanks (Hida, Harada and King, 1962). large numbers and easily acclimatized to salt water. He
These investigations, which were conducted in 1958 and found similarities in the chumming behaviour of the thread-
1959, gave very encouraging results. The sea trials con fin shad and nehu. It was estimated that sufficient quantities
supplementary bait to nehu. It was also reported that tilapia bait requirements could be cultivated in a 120 ha reservoir.
gations on the possibility of producing bait si/e tilapia in ments in Hawaii during the peak season. Harvesting the
tanks constructed in Honolulu. It was observed that a shad from an existing reservoir was also found to be
combination of physico-chemical and biological factors profitable. The authors concluded that further investiga-
influenced the rate of fry production and crowding, quality tions would be necessary in raising subsidiary crops to
and quantity of food, and salinity of water affected the determine maximum levels of production, performances in
growth of tilapia to bait si?e. actual sea trials, and construction of lower cost facilities,
species has several advantages in this respect. Yuen (1969) 1973). The species also has many characteristics which
measured the response of skipjack to nehu and tilapia, and facilitate its use as live bait (Bell and Higgins, 1939;
found that the tuna responded to the former better in terms Baldwin, 1974). Under intensive culture conditions the fish
of increased catch rate, feeding attack rate and number of has been observed to behave well, and Baldwin (1972)
tuna attracted. found satisfactory growth and survival in 10-50% sea
Considering the fact that tilapia has been introduced and water. The ideal physico-chemical factors and bio-ecologi
become established in most of the Pacific islands and that in cal parameters relating to stock density, sex ratio, food and
many islands, such as those of the Gilbert and Ellice group. feeding, etc, for the mass culture of the species have been
60
determined (Hernck and Baldwin, 1975 ), Details of brood unknown, rearing the fish in bait receivers for periods
and rearing ponds, as required in a baitfish culture industry* extending to four months, with regular feeding pro-
have also been designed. The estimates made by these grammes, has been reported from Japan. Progress has also
authors have indicated economic viability of commercial been achieved in the hatching and rearing of larvae of the
production. They suggested further investigations on per- anchovy, Engraulis mordax (Kramer and Zweifel, 1970).
formance of the fish as live bait, behaviour in bait wells,
genetic make-up, etc. The operations have been estimated to 2.9 Chanos chanosM\\kfis\\
be of potential profit at production levels of approximately Techniques for the intensive culture of milkfish have been
100 tons (30 000 buckets) and 200 tons (60 000 buckets) developed in several countries in the Indo-Pacific region.
annually. Recent reports indicate that production rates up to
4 000 kg/ha/year have been achieved in the Philippines
2.4 Poecilia mexicana Mexican Molly through rearing the species in fish farm enclosures (fish
This species, which reaches maturity in four months, has pens) (FAO, 1975), Milkfish are known to have suitable
been under intensive culture in American Samoa for use as characteristics for use as live bait (June and Reintjes,
live bait (Swcrdloff, 1973). It bears 30-180 fry every 28 1 953 ). They are resistant to sudden changes in salinity and
days and the mortality of young and adults is less than 0%, 1 tolerate low oxygen content, are hardy and adapted to high
The possibility of setting up production facilities is under temperature conditions, the rate of growth is good and they
serious consideration by the Government of American adjust well to crowding (Gopalakrishnan. 1972). Their
Samoa. effectiveness as live bait for skipjack pole-and-line fishing
has been indicated from trials conducted in the Philippines
2.5 Other Poeciliids and Line Islands (Baldwin, personal discussions). The
The molly, Poecilia latipinna, has been introduced
sailfin Philippines Fisheries Commission planned to use surplus
successfully into fresh and brackishwater areas of Oahu cultured milkfish as tuna bait and investigations on the
(Hawaii) and is reported to be a good live bait (June and culture of the species as live bait have been reported (FAO,
Reintjes, 1953). This molly may also be investigated for 1970). The possibility of culturing the species for tuna bait
intensive culture as skipjack bait. in some Pacific islands has been receiving active considera-
The poeciliids. as a group, offer interesting possibilities tion, and pilot investigations on the problem have been
as cultured live bait for the skipjack industry in many undertaken by the FAO/UNDP project in the Gilbert and
regions of the Pacific. This author has found that one F.llice Islands (Gopalakrishnan. 1975). On the basis of
species is prevalent in some freshwater tanks in Tarawa, preliminary surveys, it has been determined that a few of the
Gilbert and Ellice Islands, and investigations on the poten- islands in the Gilbert and Ellice group have potential areas
tial for culture of this species have been initiated. for culture of this species. The milkfish seed resources are
The mosquito Gambusia qffinis, has been intro-
fish, appreciable and experiments on culturing the species
initial
duced into many countries. The species is hardy, grows to in ponds without fertilization and feeding have given very
about 5 cm, withstands exposure to poor water conditions, encouraging results, Fry have been stocked m nursery
overcrowding, etc, and generally breeds within four ponds at the rate of 0- 1 milhorv'ha and have been observed
months. The mosquito fish is known to be used as live bait to reach bait si/e in about 8 to 10 weeks. Further intensive
(Bell and Higgins, 1939) and hence it is possible that mass trials are now being planned.
culture of this species can be tried.
2.10 Mullets
2.6 Sardinella marquesetms Marqucsan Sardine Culture methods for many species of mullets are known
Attempts to introduce this species into Hawaiian waters and rapid progress is being made in culture techniques for
have apparently not been successful (Hida and Morris. this species in many countries of the Indo Pacific region.
1963). These authors found indications that the fish had June and Reintjes (1953) list the following mullets as good
spawned successfully in the new environment but their bait for pole and-line fishery false mullet,
:
Neomyxus chap-
failure to become available in sufficient numbers was per tallii black-fin mullet, vaigiensis: blue-tail mullet,
Mugil
haps due to their occupation of the same ecological niche as Mugil longimanus: striped mullet. Mugil cephalus; and
the local anchovy, nehu. thick-lip mullet, Crenimugil crenilabis* Sea trials using
mullets as live bait have shown that their performance is
2.7 Other Clupeids good (Yuen and King. 195 3; Yuen, 1969). Since these fish
Several members of the family Clupeidae form important behave well under controlled conditions and their seed are
live bait for skipjack tuna in the Pacific region, as for plentiful, the possibility of culturing them for live bait
example: Harengula spp., Sardine/la wpp^Herklotsichlhys purposes deserves active consideration (Gopalakrishnan,
punctatus, Sardinops spp., etc. Although reports of actual 1975). The feasibility of breeding mullets under controlled
cultivation of clupeids for the purpose of livebait supply are conditions has been demonstrated in several countries (Go
not available, the culture of clupeid larvae under controlled palakrishnan. 1972), and further intensive pilot studies on
conditions appears promising. Laboratory rearing of clu- their breeding and culture in the Pacific islands are
61
investigations have been made in Japan on the use of 1972 sharpnose mollies (Poecilia iphenops) as a live baitfish for the
skipjack tuna fishery, American Samoa Report prepared ioi
juveniles as live baitfish (Baldwin, personal discussions). It the Government of American Samoa Kaneoke, Hawaii
is reported that, although the species has most of the of Marine Biology, 1 p.
Institute 1
cultured species, the goldfish, Carassius aura- BROCK, V. E, The introduction of aquatic animals into Hawaiian
commonly 1960 waters Int Rev Ges. HvdrohioL, 45 (4): 463 80
tus. Baldwin (personal discussions) has indicated that the M
BROCK, V. E. & TAKAIA, Contribution to the problems of bait fish
tawes, Puntiusgonionotus, the ugui, Tribolodon hakonensis 1955 capture and mortality together with experiments in the use of
and the common carp, Cyprinus carpio* have been tried as tilapia as live bait. Final Rep fnd Rex Advis Counc Hawaii, ,
(49); 39 p.
tuna live bait, but detailed reports are not available. DouMbNUi-, h Aquaculture in equatorial and tropical Pacific islands
The golden shiner minnow, Notemigonus crysoleucas* is 1973 Present status and prospects of future development South
Pacif. hi, M'w.s/,(8)' 36 1
cultivated in fresh water over wide areas for use as bait for
FAO, FAG Fish Cult Bull,, 2 (4); 24 p
sport fishing. has been estimated that about 1 000 ha in
It 1 1970
Arkansas, U.S.A. are used for farming golden shiners (J. FAO, FAO Aquacult Bull ,
5 (2) 6-7
1973
Mayo Martin, personal communication). In North Ameri- FAO, FAO Aquacult. Bull,, 6 (1): 32 p
can waters, techniques adopting "single-phase rearing' may 1973a
FAO, FAO Aquacutt Bull 7 1 -2) 40 p.
produce 1 50 000 fish (bait size) per hectare and the figure
, ( .
1975
is doubled with 'double-phase farming' (Huet, 1970). The GOPAI AKRISHNAN, V. Taxonomy and biology oi tropical fin-fish for
1972 coastal aquacultuie in the Indo-Pacihc Region In Coastal
species has favourable qualities as skipjack live bait and the
aquaculture in the Indo-Pacih'c region, edited by 1 V R Pillav
possibility of culturing it in Hawaii is under active hurnhurn. Siurey Hslimg Nous (Books) td pp. 120 49 I .
port in bait tanks. The fish has been found to behave well in 1975 A
preliminary economic analysis. Sea (it-am Adris
minnows
Rep HIMBConmb Umv, Hawaii, (464) 18 p
skipjack fishing trials (Brock and Takata, 1955; Yuen, HUM, S HARADA, J. R1 &
KINO, J E Rearing tilapia foi tuna bait
,
1969). However, attempts to cultivate the species as live 1962 Fish. Bull USFWS, 62 < 198) 20 p ,
bait did not give favourable results, mainly due to slow HIDA, T S &
MORRIS, R. A. Preliminary lepoit on the Maiquesan
1961 sardine, Ilarenaula vittata in Hawaii, l\i<if Set 17 (4). 431 7
growth, late maturity and difficulty of breeding under
,
on the availability of adequate quantities of quality live bait. Rep rrOH, (14): 84 7
Pn AY, T V. R, The role of aquacultuie m fishery development anil
i
In view of the considerable distances involved and varying 1973 management J. Fish, Res Board Can,, 30 (12)- Pt 2 2202-17
abundance of the natural populations of bait fish species, ROIHSCHII L>, B J. & UCHIIM, R N. The tuna resources of the oceanic
1968 regions of the Pacific Ocean Univ Wash Puhl, Full ,(4) 19 51
aquaculture can play an important role in providing bait at SHANG, Y C & IVKRSLN, R 1 B The production of threadfm shad
specific locations as demanded by the industry. With the 1971 as live bait for Hawaii's skipjack tuna fishery, an economic
technical advancements that are expected to take place in feasibility study. University of Hawaii. Rconomic Research
Center, 42 p,
the field of aquaculture, many of the Pacific islands should SHOMURA, R. S. Effectiveness of tilapia as live bait for skipjack tuna
make a determined effort to meet the challenge of produc- 1964 fishing. Trans Am. Fish Sot' 93 (3): 291 4 ,
1974 m the SPC area. South Pacif Comm, Fish. New*! ( 12) 54-6 , YUEN, H. S H & KING, J. h Sampan from Hawaii makes visit to
BALDWIN, W
J A preliminary study on the feasibility of pond rearing 1953 Line Islands. Pan Am Fisherman, 7(12) 10- 1
62
Insurance and Risk Management for the P. A. D. Secret an
Aquaculture Industry
Abstract cmeute, et dommages par actes dc malveillance, D'une maniere
generate,
Insurance concerned not only with buying peace of mind but with the
is la seule assurance stock viable est celle qui donne une couverture 'tous
spreading of risks and hazards and even reducing them by the control risques',
and management of pure risk, /?, 'risk management'. The fundamental Les prmcipaux domames de la responsabilite aquicole sont: la respon
principles of all insurance concern: insurable interest, utmost good faith, sabilitcde 1'employcur (accidents du travail), la responsabilite civile
material facts, indemnity, proof of loss, proximate cause, subrogation, (maritime et non maritime) et la responsabilite produits. La premiere
and contribution, concerne 1'cxposition a un risque standard qui n'est pas particulier aux
The ultimate success of an aquacultural insurance service depends not aquacultcurs, Toutefois, la pisciculture debordant sur Ic domaine de la
only on the efficiency and standard of its services, but on the formation mer, la responsabilite maritime imputable aux collisions ou a d'autres
and continued existence of a long-term underwriting service market for dommages provoques par les radeaux, pilotis. cages, filets, etc.. utilises
aquacultural insurance risks, particularly the risks to stock and en aquaculturc devient une rubrique plus
liabilities.
importante qui nccessite une
couverture. La couverture de la responsabilite produits est egalement
Existing insurance market procedures are applicable to many aqua importante, car Pactivite aquicole peut transmcttre les affections a
cultural situations, but stock insurance wordings need to cater for the d'autres stocks de poissons, ses produits peuvent causer un prejudice a
peculiar interests of aquacultural stock and problems also rise in the area Thomme, et Pequipement fabrique peut causer un prejudice ou d'autres
of protecting aquacultural liabilities, particularly products liability and
dommages a des tiers.
marine liabilities associated with offshore installations, Aquaculture is a Etant donne que Passurance aquicole est une nouvelle categoric
high-risk business, its stock is exposed to many perils, such as: pollution, d'assurance, un libelle nouveau est en cours d'claboration pour les
disease, slaughter made necessary by disease, food poisoning, failure of
polices et il incombe aux pisciculteurs d'cxaminer la police proposee
water supply, breakdowns, net and cage failure, predation, flood, incle avec grand som, notamment en ce qui concerne les
ment weather, power failure, theft, negligence, storm and tempest, fire, moyens d'etablir la
valeur des animaux aquatiques qui peuvent faire I'objet d'un simstre Les
explosion, earthquake, impact, aircraft, riot, and malicious damage, portcurs d'une police qui subissent des pertcs devraient toujours agir
Generally, the only viable stock insurance is full 'All Risks' coverage comme s'ils n'etaient pas assures et respecter les procedures stipulccs
The mam areas of aquacultural liability are- employers' liability, dans la police pour les dcmandes d'mdemnite.
public liability (marine and non marine) and products liability. I he first II est difficile de di scute r des couts de 'assurance aquicole, mais il est
1
of these is a standard exposure not peculiar to aquacultunsts. However, rccommande a Pacquereur de recourir aux services d'un agent ou d'un
as fish farming encroaches farther into the sea, marine liability
owing to courtier, qui peut explorer le marche pour y trouvcr la couverture la plus
collision or other damage caused by aquacultural rafts, pilings,
cages, economique et la plus efficace. La couverture tous risques est recomman
nets, etc, becomes a more important item requiring coverage, Products dee et il peut etre economique pour le piscicultcur et interessant pour le
coverage also important in that aquacultural activity may
is
liability souscnpteur que le premier contracts une assurance dc groupe.
spread disease to other stocks offish, its products may cause injury to La gestion des risques, complement nature! de Passurance, se fixe les
man. or the equipment manufactured may cause third party injury or laches ci-aprcs: decouvnr les sources eventuelles de risques, evaluer
other damage,
I'ampleur du dommage sur la personne ou sur I'orgamsation en cas de
Since aquacultural insurance is a new class of insurance, new policy
pertes, ct choisir les techniques les plus efficaccs pour trailer de tel ou tel
wordings are evolving and it behoves a fish farmer to exam me a proffered risque. Les risques d'entreprisc, de type technique, social ou econo
policy with great care especially with regard to the means for establishing mique, ont des repercussions sur les risques de production, de commerci
the value of the aquatic animals that may be the subject of a claim. Policy alisation et d'activite financiere, Ceux ci se situent tous hors du champ
holders faced with a loss should always act as though uninsured and
d'application de gestion des risques Les risques purs, ou administra
la
observe the claims procedures laid down in the policy, bles mcluent: les effets physiques d'origmc naturelle ct technique (tels
It is difficult to discuss costs of
aquacultural insurance, but it is que les pannes), les derogations sociales a la conduite normale et les
recommended that the buyer should use the services of an agent or effets prejudiciables au personnel. L'cxperience acquise en matiere
broker who can search the market for the most economical and effective d'as&urancc peut rcduire les pertcs auxquelles sont exposes les piscicul
coverage All risks coverage is suggested and bulk buying of insurance teurs par I'apphcation de la gestion des risques.
may be economical to the fish farmer and attractive to the underwriter.
Risk management, a natural adjunct to insurance, concerns itself with:
discovering the sources from which risks may arise, evaluating the
impact on the individual or organisation if a loss should occur, and Seguro y control de ricsgos en la Industrie acuicola
Extractu
selecting the most effective techniques ) to deal with the risk, Business
risks of a technical, social or economic type, have a bearing on produc- Los seguros. aparte de permitirle al asegurado vivir tranquilo. tienen por
tion, marketing and financial business ris'ks All of these fall outside the objeto distribuir los ricsgos y peligros e mcluso reducirlos mediante un
scope of risk management, Pure, or manageable risks include physical control dc los mismos 1 .os principles fundamcntales de todo seguro son :
effects of nature, technical (such as breakdowns), social deviations from valor asegurable. buena fe, hechps pertinentes, mdemnuacion, prueba dc
standard conduct and ill effects on personnel. Insurance experience can las perdidas sufndas, causa proxima. subrogacion y cotizacion
reduce losses to fish farmers through application of risk management, En ultimo tcrmino. el cxito de un scrvicio de scguro acuicola depende
no solo de la eficacia y nivel de sus servictos sino. ademas. de que se cree
y mantenga un mercado de scrvicios de seguro a largo plazo para los
Assurance et gestion des risques dans I' Industrie aquicole
nesgos propios de la acuicultura, especialmente los nesgos dc las
Resume poblaciones de peces y las responsabilidades ante terceros
[/assurance a pour objet non seulement d'acquerir la tranquillite Los procedimientos ya existentcs en el mercado de seguros pueden
d'esprit, mais aussi de repartir les risques ct les dangers, voire de les aphearse a muchas situaciones del sector de la acuieultura. pero el seguro
reduire en controlant et en gerant les risques purs, c'est-a-dire en de las poblaciones dc peces ha dc responder a los mterescs concretos de
pratiquant ce que 1'on appelle Ma gestion des risques' Les prmcipes las poblaciones cultivadas Tambien las responsabilidades denvadas de
fondamentaux dc toute assurance sont les suwants' interet assurable, la acuicultura, especialmente las debidas a los productos y las
responsa-
bonne foi absolue, faits matcncls, indemms-ation, preuve du dommage, bilidades mantimas relacionadas con las instalaciones acuicolas, plan
cause dirccte, subrogation et contribution tean vanos problemas, La acuicultura entrana un elevado nivel de
En fin de compte, la reussite d'un service d'assurance aquicole depend ricsgos. Las poblaciones de peces estan expuestas a muchos peligros,
non seulement de I'efficacite et de la quahte dc ses services, mais aussi de como contammacion. enfermedadcs, sacrificio de los peces por razon de
la formation et de Texistence continue d'un marche dc cnfermedad, envencnamiento ahmentario. intcrrupcion de los sumims
souscnption a
long termc pour Passurance des risques inherenls a Paquaculture, en tros de agua. avenas. roturas de redes y jaulas. depredadores, munda
particular ceux encourus en ce qui concernc le stock et les ciones, mal tiempo, falta de encrgia electrica, hurto. negligencia. icmpcs
rcsponsabilites. terremotos, choques, aeronaves, tumultos y
ladies, fuego, explosiones,
Les procedures cxistantes du marche de 'assurance sont applicable* a
1
danos causados con mala fe. En general, el unico seguro viable para las
nombre de situations aquicoles, mais le libclle dc la police d'assurance poblaciones es el seguro 'a todo riesgo'.
sur le stock doit tenir compte des intcrets
particulars au stock aquicole. Los principals sectores de responsabilidad en la acuicultura son-
et des problemes qui se posent egalement en ce
qui concernc la protection resppnsabilidad del patron, responsabilidad publiea (mantima y no
des responsabihtes aquicoles, notamment la responsabiltte produits et les maritima) y responsabilidad por los productos. El primero de estos
responsabilites maritimes associccs aux installations a terre. riesgos no es cxclusivo de los acuicultores. hn Gambia a mcdida que las
L'aquaculture est une activite ou le risque est considerable. Son stock est cxplotaciones piscicolas se internan en el mar, las responsabilidades
expose a de nombreux perils tels que: pollution, maladie, destruction mantimas debidas a colision u otros danos causados por balsas, pi totes,
rendue necessaire par la maladie, empoisonnement alimentairc, msuffis jaulas, redes, etc., se conviertc en un aspccto importante, que es necesario
ance de 1'approvisionnement en eau, pannes, destruction des filets et des proteger con un seguro lambicn el seguro contra las responsabilidades
cages, predation, crues, intemperies, pannes de courant, vol. negligence, por los productos es importante, ya que la actividad acuicola pucde
tempete, incendie, explosion, tremblement de terre, choc, aeronefs. difundir enfermcdades a otras poblaciones de peces, sus productos
63
pueclcn causar danos al h ombre o cl equipo fabricado puede causar danos aquaculture. Risk management, however, concerned as it is
a terccros u otros danos.
with the elimination of waste by the reduction and elimina-
Dado que el scguro acuicola representa un nuevo tipo dc seguro, sc
estan redactando nucvas polizas, por lo el piscicultor debe exam mar tion of wasteful risks and hazards, is global in its
cjue
la poli/a que sc Ic ofrezca con gran atencion. cspecialmcme por loque sc
application.
refiere a los medios de detcrminar cl valor dc los animales acuaticos quo
In this paper the author has dealt with both insurance
pucdan scr objeto dc reclamacion. Los poseedorcs de la poll/as, en caso
de perdidas, debcran comportarse como si no estuvicran asegurados y and risk management in the belief that, together, they will
observar los procedimientos de reclamacion cstablecidos en la poliza. most
eventually constitute one of the influential, single,
Es dificil exammar la cuestion dc los costos del seguro acuicola, pero
sc recomienda que el piscicultor utilice los scrvicios de un agente o
outside contributions made to aquaculture wherever
corredor que pueda buscar en el mercado los scguros mas economicos y practised.*
eficaccs Se sugiere el seguro a todo nesgo: la contratacion de seguros en
bloque puedc ser economica para el piscicultor y atractiva para el
ascgurador.
El control de los nesgos, que representa un apendiee natural de los 2 Aquacultural insurance
seguros, se rcfiere a: descubrir las fuentes de posiblcs riesgos, evaluar las 2. 1 The basic function of insurance and the rules that
repercusiones que pueden tcner las pcrdidas en el individuo o la organi
/acion, y elegir las tecmcas mas cficaces para afrontar los riesgos, Los govern it
riesgos del ncgocio que son de tipo tecnico, social o economico repcrcu- 2.1.1 The function of insurance is to spread risks. The
ten en los nesgos de produccion, mercadeo y financiacion, Todos estos
cacn fuera del ambito del control de riesgos. Entre los riesgos puros o most simple statement of the concept of insurance is prob-
controlables figuran: cf'cctos fisicos de la naturaleza. riesgos tccmcos ably that used in the first Act of the English Parliament
(como avcrias), desviaciones sociales de la conducta normal, y repercu
sioncs negativas en el personal. La expenencia en el campo de los seguros
regulating insurance, dated 1601: \ by means of which . .
pucde reducir las pcrdidas de los acuicultores mediante la aphcacion del policies of assurance it cometh to pass on the perishing of
control de riesgos, any ship there followcth not the undoing of any man, but
the loss lighteth rather easily upon many than heavily upon
few . . .'. The Act was, of course, concerned with the
1 Introduction insurance of ships from which the modern insurance indus-
The very existence of a flourishing world insurance market try can trace its origins, but the logic that 'the loss lighteth
must point to a need for insurance. It does not, however, rather easily upon many than heavily upon few' expressed
answer the question, why buy insurance protection? as it is in modern terms as 'the spreading of the risk over
To many, this question is answered simply: to insure many shoulders' is the reason for the existence of an
'brings peace of mind\ Through purchasing a policy of insurance market whose function is to spread risks.
insurance, the financial losses that result from the fortuitous
risks and ha/ards of life arc effectively shared with others 2.1.2 The fundamental principles of all insurance. The
and reduced accordingly. Such a 'feeling of security' is not fundamental legal principles of insurance arc so important
to be underrated but it is of secondary importance in the that an explanation of each is a prc-requisitc to any compre-
business context where a viable insurance policy represents hensive paper on insurance.
security of their interest to investors and shareholders, (/) Insurable interest. Any party wishing to take out
bankers, suppliers of equipment and services, and others insurance must have an insurable interest m the property or
financially interested in a business. There are few levels of which coverage is required, te, he must benefit
liability for
industry or individual companies to which this does not by the safety of the insured property or the absence of
apply. In the context of aquaculture, even the small opera- liability.
tor will find his bank manager more considerate if, accom- (//) Utmost good faith. The duty of utmost good faith
panying a request for loan facilities, he is presented with applies to all contracts of insurance and is permanent, It is
evidence that the operator holds valid, secure and appro- the duty to disclose material facts (see (///) below) and is
priate policies of insurance on all the important insurable required, equally, of both parties to an insurance contract;
interests of his operation. With large, sophisticated opera- inevitably, it is of greater relevance to an insured than to his
tions, the situation is exactly the same, except that the The full facts relating to a risk are usually
underwriters,
capital requirements are bigger and thus the interests of known, or should be known, by the prospective insured,
bankers and investors tend to be correspondingly larger and whereas they are not known by the insurer who is the other
more important to them. party to any insurance contract issued, The responsibility,
Insurance, however, is not only concerned with the
*Thc description based largely upon the experience gained by the
spreading of risks and hazards, it is also vitally concerned is
Bain Dawes Group Limited which carried out an extensive study of
with reducing them and a natural adjunct to insurance is the
aquaculture and its prospects in 1973. The findings of this study
control and management of pure risk, otherwise known as encouraged further investigation into existing insurance arrangements
Yisk management'. Risk management is an objective busi- covering the unusual insurable interests of fish farmers. 1 his mvestiga
lion revealed an apparent lack of any concerted progress in world
ness discipline concerned with the economically viable insurance markets toward developing new, and adapting existing, insur
reduction and, if possible, elimination of risks and hazards. ance techniques to aquaculture's needs 1 o remedy this apparent gap in
the insurance industry's all round service, the Bam Dawcs Group formed
It is practised, naturally, by insurance underwriters who an independent subsidiary, the Aquacultural Insurance Service Limited
will often warrant that action is taken to reduce certain high (AIS) to provide an insurance service for all parties with a direct or
risks before granting coverage, and by the specialist depart- indirect interest in insuring aquacultural risks and hazards The service
was primarily intended to offer advice to insurance brokers and agents on
ments of insurance brokers and agents and insurance com-
arranging insurance coverage on the aquacultural interests of their
panies whose function is to concentrate on defining, evalu- clients, and to make available to insuring underwriters and companies
information and assistance over such matters as arranging insuring
ating and dealing with the risk element of many different terms, conditions and procedures to apply to aquacultural risks, deter
industries. Insurance is an industry that functions princi-
mining the material facts relevant to h'sh farming, arranging re insurance
facilities and selecting experts in various fields capable of carrying out
pally in the western world. If aquaculture is to flourish and
inspections of aquacultural installations for insurers and assisting them
grow in the western world it is vital that the insurance in technical aspects of claims settlement, A complementary risk manage-
market accommodates and spreads the risks and hazards of ment service was included
64
therefore, mainly rests with the insured to observe the duty of proof rests with underwriters to prove that a fact is
(b) Facts suggestive of some special motive for indemnity would be compromised if the loss having been
recovered from underwriters by the insured, the insured
insurance.
also received recompense from a party responsible for the
In aquaculture. for example, this would relate to aquatic
loss, Secondly, the insured must at all times protect the
species that were only insured because, for some reason, the
interests of underwriters. Both points arc linked and require
insured felt that they were at greater risk than his other
an insured to carry out such basic procedures as holding
stock.
(c) Facts necessary to explain the exceptional nature of a
responsible third parties liable for a loss by written, regis-
tered, letter and duly pursuing recovery of the loss until
risk where in their absence the underwriter would justifi
assigning rights of subrogation to underwriters, following
ably believe the risk to be normal.
This a wide-open subject. payment of the claim.
is Many aquacultural opera-
tions are in themselves exceptions, though, as other similar
The legal right of an insured to recover from any third
party not reduced by the fact that he has been indemnified
is
operations develop, a norm will be gradually established.
(d) Facts which show that the proposer himself is in by his insurers; nor is this legal right one that can be
transferred to his insurers. It can, however, legally be
some sense abnormal.
assigned, ie. insurers can use the insured's name to effect a
This is, again, very difficult to relate to aquaculture. As
far as general insurance is concerned it would cover, for recovery. Thus, insurers will always require a letter of
example, an unfortunate claims experience which might be acceptance to be signed by an insured prior to actually
indicative of accident proneness, or the declination of the making payment to an insured in settlement of a claim. This
risk by a previous insurer, It is generally intended to bring
letterof acceptance assigns to underwriters themselves the
insured's rights of recovery against any third party, in his
out the moral hazard as opposed to the physical ha/.ard. In
name.
aquaculturc, in the author's opinion, lack of experience with
a certain species would be a material fact that would fall (r/7/) Contribution. This is, again, linked to indemnity
under this heading. and provides for the equitable distribution of a loss among
There are many unresolved questions as to what are the insurers if two or more policies are in effect on the same
material facts concerning any aquacultural operation. Only msurable interest. It prevents an insured, who holds several
time will resolve these questions but, as far as the buyer of policies covering the same perils on the same insurable
an aquacultural insurance policy is concerned, there is interest, from being indemnified several times over, thereby
some comfort to be drawn from the essential point that onus breaching the principle of indemnity (see (/r) above).
65
2.2 Paramount insurance problems associated with thus, clear that the most important insurance policies the m
aquacuiture portfolio of any commercial aquacultural operation are
Ultimate success of an aquacultural insurance service de- those that protect the loss of its stock. All the more is this
pends not only on the efficiency and standard of its services the case when the extremely delicate nature of aquacultural
but, of paramount importance, on the formation and contin- stock is taken into account,
ued existence of a long-term underwriting market for aqua-
People in and associated with aquacuiture are the first to
and
cultural insurance risks, particularly the risks to stock admit that it is a high risk business. There are few other
There would be no long term insurance market
liabilities. stock -rearing industries that are so exposed to such a rapid
unless underwriters made a profit from spreading the risks and extensive loss of stock from so many varied causes. The
and hazards of aquacuiture (see 2*1.1.). dependence of stock on water adds a totally new dimension
Rigid adherence to the underwriting profit criterion to livestock insurance and creates a whole series of prob-
would necessitate recommending to insurers only the most lems that are entirely different from those problems associ-
carefully selected and 'best' risks. If this were done, the ated with the air breathing animals that are familiar to most
benefits and advantages of insurance coverage would be insurers.
denied to many engaged aquacultural industry, be-
in the Aquacultural stock is open to loss or loss of value from a
sides which, the whole problem of what is 'the best' aqua- most formidable number of very different perils which may
cultural risk has still to be determined. broadly be listed as follows: (/) pollution; (//') disease; (//'/')
The history of insurance contains many examples of how slaughter made necessary by
disease; (iv) food poisoning;
the insurance industry has met and solved the problems in (r) failure of water supply (from natural causer, and cli
insuring industries founded on new and often high-risk malic conditions, blockages and breakages); (r/) break
technologies, *#. offshore drilling, chemical, aviation and down of equipment and machinery; (r/7) net rupture and
shipping industries. In every case, it has done so by resort- cage failure; (r//7) predation; (/.v) flood; Or) cold weather;
ing to very old but well tried principles (see 2. 1.2) and by (A-/) power and pilferage; (.v//7) negli
failure; (xif) theft
anticipating many of the problems through careful analysis gence; storm and tempest; (AT) fire; (AT/) explosion;
(.v/'v)
of relevant information and material facts. Further, it has (AT//) earthquake; (xvlii) impact; (A/A) aircraft: (xv) not;
been achieved by developing and adapting its procedures (xx i) malicious damage.
(not least of which is the discipline of risk management) in Many of the perils listed above are inter related and as
the light of practical experience. yet undefined. Therefore, whilst it is common practice in
other branches of insurance to provide what is called
2.3 The special Insurance needs of commercial 'named-perils' coverage (ie. insurance against certain listed
aquacuiture perils only), the dangers to the aquacultural operator of
One of the first tasks of AIS was to compile a list of the insuring his stock on a named perils basis, where the
basic insurance coverages that should be included in the definitions of the specific perils named are new and untried,
portfolio of any commercial operation exploiting aquacul is very great due to the likelihood of misinterpretation
by
ture on a multi species basis. Standard policy wordings for either or both parties to an insurance contract. Such cover-
each type of coverage listed were assembled and their age of dubious value as the burden of proof of loss is on
is
individual suitability to a commercial aquacultural situa- the insured |see 2.1.2 (r)|.
tion examined. The survey showed that, in the majority of The difficulty of defining a named peril is easily demon-
instances, existing policy wordings were quite suitable to strated using "pollution' as an example. The author has been
aquacultural situations. The risks of fire and other major asked on many occasions to arrange pollution coverage on
perils to onshore and offshore installations and their con stock. Every time the same questions arise. What is pollu
tents,of theft and breakdown of machinery and equipment, tion? How can it be defined? It must be borne in mind here
to money, office contents and other items, in motor vehicle, that a policy of insurance is intended to be evidence of a
employers' liability and public liability (as distinct from contractual agreement between insurer and insured and, as
products liability) exposures, to name but a few, major, such, put into effect the exact intentions of both parties.
insurable interests, can all be adequately protected under Looking into the Oxford Dictionary, the following defini-
existing insurance market procedures. tion is found; 'pollutedestroy the purity ... of make
. . .
;
The survey also showed, however, that existing stock (water, etc) foul or filthy'. Now, might not the "purity" of
insurance wordings did not cater for the peculiar and water be destroyed if infested by disease organisms? If so.
special insurable interests of aquacultural stock (see 2.4). how can a contract be drawn up between insurer and
Furthermore, it showed that when the relevant material insured which expresses a mutual understanding by both
facts of aquacuiture were considered and later disclosed to parties of what is meant by 'pollution'. It would not be the
insurers, problems arose in the area of protecting aquacul intention of insurers, in granting pollution coverage only, to
tural liabilities, particularly products liability I sec 2.5.2 cover disease risks. The logical step, therefore, is to produce
(//V)| and the marine liabilities |scc 2.5.2 (//) (a)\ associated a definition of pollution that specifically excludes disease as
with offshore installations. a destructor of the "purity' of water.
The author submits, that to do this would immediately
2.4 Aquacultural stock insurance and perils prejudice the position of the insured as it is entirely possible
The most important asset for an aquaculturist to protect is for a polluting substance
(>#, quarry finings) to pass
the stock of particular species to whose health and growth a through a farm without causing death of stock immedh
fish
company's entire expenditure of effort and capital is com- atcly but, nevertheless, causing injury (t'#, gill infection) to
pletely devoted and upon which its profitability entirely fish who later die from injury induced disease. The cause of
depends. If anything happens to prevent that product reach- the loss would thus appear to be disease and, therefore,
ing its market, then all effort and expense is wasted. It is. would be excluded under the policy. The insured's chance
66
of proving otherwise would depend, probably, on his ability privilege of a shipowner being able to limit his liability
to prove that the injurious substance had passed through presumes that the act of negligence arises without the fault
the system, and that
had caused the injury that had led to
it or privity of the owner.
the disease that had led t<3 the loss. Given the present state Unlit rafts or other offshore structures (even a pole for
of the science of aquaculture, the odds are heavily stacked mussels or oysters) could be considered a danger to naviga-
against the insured doing this. tion unless the appropriate authorities in the country of the
It is the author's submission that, however pollution is waters concerned have approved such structures
territorial
defined, and there are several ways that this can be done, and A fixed offshore structure, be it a pole or
their location.
claims will arise under all definitions of pollution that will a platform would, in our view, never be deemed to be a
lead to disputes between underwriter and insured and, vessel and, therefore, its owner would have no method of
therefore, it is unwise for fish farmers to purchase coverage limiting his liability in respect of the full amount of damage
where pollution is a named and defined peril. caused. The maricultural operator, therefore, faces unlim-
As a general rule, the only viable stock insurance is full ited liability in this respect. Rafts might, in certain circum-
'All Risks' coverage, though it is certainly reasonable to stances, be deemed to be vessels but Marine Law is not
work in reverse and exclude individual perils from broad usually specific on this point and inquiries into the subject
All Risks coverage. The onus is then transferred to insurers should be made by every operator in the country in which
to prove that a particular loss is inadmissable because a he operates.
specific peril that caused it is excluded. By using exclusions Up to now. the majority offish-farming structures, cages,
in conjunction with All Risks coverage the best interests of nets and rafts, have remained close inshore and have usu-
the policy holder are served in difficult and borderline cases ally been small m si/e. Now that the scope offish farming is
ally stems from an act or omission which causes injury, The non-marine liabilities of an aquacultural operation
disease, loss or damage to a third party and which can be are really no more unusual and certainly no greater than in
proved to be the result of negligence. Legal codes vary from other industries and it is really the level of liability insur-
one country to another and may be based upon common or ance that must concern the operator. This depends to a
statute law. This is the basic position but it can be amended great extent on the country he is operating in and on such
by agreement between relevant parties under contractual material facts as whether or not the public are encouraged
arrangements. to visit his farm. It is unlikely that any special non-marine
public liability hazard will emerge and make aquaculture a
2.5.2 The main areas of aquacultural liability. There are particularly difficult industry for insurers to handle, and
three main categories of liability, two of which are particu- there should be no lack of insurers willing to offer this
larly important by virtue of their special implications in an coverage to operators at a reasonable cost.
aquacultural situation. These are discussed below: (ill) Products liability. Any manufacturer of any product
1
(I) Employers liability (workman's compensation). This needs to carry products liability coverage; as fish farmers
is a standard liability exposure which does not hold any are now producing primary products it is most important
great problems for the fish farmer, providing the material that they too carry adequate insurance protection of their
facts surrounding his business are disclosed to insurers. It is liability in this area. There arc a number of aspects to this
possible that in time, maricultural operations may prove question which should be considered: they relate primarily
from the insurers point of view, slightly more hazardous to the nature of any operation. Some farmers produce only
particularly if divers are regularly employed. However, it small fish for sale to on-growers or for the stocking of sport
should be possible to place employers' liability risks with fishing lakes; other farmers only on-grow stock for the table
out too much difficulty. market; a third type of operation does both of these and
(//) Public liability some farms even manufacture equipment for sale to others
(a) Marine liability in mariculture as a by-product of their main business.
As fish farming encroaches farther into the sea and closer In the context of a very active aquacultural industry in
to navigational channels, it is very important to be aware of which fish are continuously being moved :"-ound, hatcher
the law of the sea in relation to collisions. ies and suppliers of livestock increasingly face the possibil-
A shipowner under Marine Law is entitled to limit ity of being held liable for loss or damage, etc. as a result of
liability for third party personal injury or property damage theirsupplying diseased fish to another farm or to a sport
to approximately USS 300/GRT subject to a minimum For such hatcheries, a products liability policy is a
fishery.
contributing tonnage of 300 tons. Therefore, the small most important item in their insurance portfolio.
boatowner (and many maricultural operations use such On-growers, too, face a products liability exposure.
boats) should be adequately protected by purchasing some Botulism is a word which should not be especially
USS 100 000 liability insurance for any one accident. The associated with fish farming any more than with other
67
stock-rearing industries like pig or poultry farming. How- with in a policy wording, of equal importance are the terms
ever, itan example of an on-grower's products liability
is of indemnity offered under a policy (see 2.1.2 (r)).
exposure because, if it can be proved that fish from a certain A viable policy of insurance must include a section
origin contain the organisms Clostridium botulinum. the expressing the agreed intentions of insured and insurers as
on-growcr could be held responsible if death or disability to the financial or other procedures for compensating an
results from eating his product. Botulism is not the only insured following a loss. If aquacultural stock is involved,
hazard associated with farmed aquatic creatures. Cholera there must be in a policy a means of establishing, without
virus has been found in molluscs and they have been dispute, the value of different sizes and species of the
designated as a source of outbreaks of that disease in human aquatic animals that are likely to be the subject of a claim.
beings. It is well known that certain metals, such as mer These procedures must reflect the principle of indemnity
cury, can accumulate in fish and cause severe disability or and be expressed in such a way as to allow practical
death to consumers, as can other chemicals. The Minamata settlement of a claim.
disaster that occurred only a few years ago, when the
Chisso Corporation's mercury effluent caused widespread 2.6.3 Claims procedures and standard rules, A policy of
death and even congenital disease through the agency of the insurance, particularly one covering aquacultural stock,
fish eaten by the inhabitants of Minamata, provides a good should contain instructions on how an insured should act in
example of this. In all these situations, the fish farm pro- respect of a loss.Such instructions may or may not be very
ducer can be held responsible and must protect himself with whatever they say, they are unlikely to give a
specific, but,
a good products liability insurance policy. policy holder all the guidance he needs, particularly as the
Finally, manufacturers of equipment will undoubtedly policy itself may not be readily available while a claim is
he held responsible if their equipment is found to be the actually happening. Any policy holder faced with a loss
cause of injury, disease, loss or damage to a third party, and situation should always observe two rules: (/)act as though
they should protect themselves accordingly. uninsured; and (//') observe the claims procedures laid down
in the policy.
2.6 Aquacultural insurance policy wordings If an insured acts as though uninsured in a loss situation
2.6.1 Covering conditions. An insurance policy is evi- he will naturally do all he can, within reason, to ameliorate
dence of a contract between an insured and his insurers. The the situation; if he is held liable for some action or negli-
over-riding importance of a policy is that it should put into gence, he will deny liability and if his business assets are
effect the intentions of the parties to the contract it evi hazarded he will do all he can to minimize or prevent
dences. It must, therefore, be a carefully worded document damage or loss and hold liable any party who may be
expressing accurately these intentions or it becomes the responsible for such damage or loss. Acting in such a
cause of contentious disagreement between an underwriter manner he will, thus, effectively protect the interests of his
and an insured that it should obviate. insurers which he is required to do and, once the immediate
Insurance wordings for different established classes and loss situation has passed, he can turn to his insurance policy
types of insurance have evolved and developed in the light and comply with the claims procedures laid down therein.
of practical underwriting experience and legal decisions.
Aquaculture represents, in certain repects, an entirely new 2.7 Premium costs
class of insurance and, as a result, new insurance policy 2. 7. Cost of general insurance coverages. It is impossible
1
wordings have been and will have to be developed and to give any precise guidance on this subject. It is up to the
changed to meet its needs. This change and development is insurance buyer to obtain quotations on his portfolio from
inescapable and, by the same token, because aquacultural different sources. The author can only recommend that
policy wordings are so new and untried, it is most import- every insurance buyer should use the services of an insur-
ant for the potential buyer of aquacultural insurance to ance broker or agent whose task is to search the insurance
examine closely the terms and conditions of the policy market for the most economical source of coverage. This
wordings offered to him. service is normally provided free and, aside from providing
Any farmer
fish would be very unwise to accept any the best means of searching the insurance market for the
insurance quotation offered to him, unless it comes from a most cost effective insurance coverage, it offers a most
company specializing in aquacultural insurance and with- important source of advice on what coverage is needed to
out first receiving a full written copy of the exact terms and best suit the particular buyer's situation.
conditions being offered. He must then consider whether or The author strongly advises against going direct to an
not those terms and conditions express accurately what he insurance company because the buyer is only able to obtain
himself understands will be covered by the policy he is coverage according to the terms and cost offered by that
purchasing. In order to analyse the relevance of an offer of one company. He can never be sure that he is being offered
insurance coverage, a fish farmer can do no better than sit the best coverage available, or that it is provided at the most
down and examine the offer in terms of those risks, perils competitive cost, or that all his insurable interests are
and hazards (see 2.4) that he alone knows his business is protected.
open to, and ask himself the same questions of every peril:
is it covered by this wording? If he is at all unsure of the 2.7.2 Cost of aquacultural stock insurance. This subject
answer then he must question those who provided the needs to be treated separately because of the novelty of
insurance offer accordingly, and he would be well advised insuring aquacultural stock, and there are a number of
to obtain their answers in writing. general aspects on this subject which should be borne in
mind by buyers of aquacultural stock insurance.
2.6.2 Indemnity terms. Though coverage of particular Firstly, the actual number of insurance markets offering
perils and hazards must be clearly and unequivocally dealt stock insurance is very limited (see 2.3 ) and, as a result of
68
this, the range of choice of the prospective buyer as regards three criteria: (/) discovering the sources from which risks
premium and coverage is also limited. Secondly, and of may arise; (//) evaluating the impact on the individual or
greater significance, insurers are, inevitably, engaged in organization a loss should occur; and (//'/') selecting the
if
finding out what are the correct premium levels and base most effective technique(s) to deal with the risk.
rates for given degrees and types of stock coverage (see Within these criteria there exists a science in its own
2.2). This is a fundamental part of the evolution of aquacul- right. Many books have been written on the subject of risk
tural stock insurance. All that can be said is that All Risks management, and in a paper of this length it is not possible
of Mortality coverage has been successfully arranged for to deal fully with the subject but only with basic risk
the stocks of a considerable number of small and large management in aquacultural terms in the context of reduc
aquacultural operations, farming quite a number of differ- ing and eliminating risks and hazards and thereby waste in
ent species, at premium levels which have proved entirely aquaculture.
viable economically. Only time and experience will tell if
the premiums currently being offered are of such a level as 3. LI Business risks as opposed to pure risks. There is a
to prove profitable to underwriters, or whether they need to distinction between business risks, or the factors in man-
be raised or can even be reduced. agement sciences, and pure risks. Broadly, business risks
There is one further aspect of cost which should be can be split number of headings as follows: (/)
into a
mentioned, concerning bulk buying. Ordinary farmers have technical (eg, snags in new processes, lack of knowledge);
often found it economical to purchase their general require- (//) social (eg, changes in consumer tastes): (///') economic
ments centrally, through co-operatives. This cuts down (eg, inflation, change in level of economic activity, actions
distribution costs and middlemen's commissions, and in- of competitors; (z'v) political (eg, nationali/ation, political
surance, like commodities, comes cheaper in bulk. Aside unrest, war, trade restrictions).
from the administrative savings, a sizeable block of insur- All of the above have a bearing on: (r) production (eg,
ance business is attractive to underwriters because of the interruption, change in costs, problems of raw material
Maw of large numbers'. The offer of an entire group's supply); (w) marketing (eg, errors in forecasting demand, 1
aquacultural business in one package enables the insurer to loss of markets to competitors); (n /) financial (eg. bad
calculate more exactly the catastrophe element in the par debts, changes in availability or cost of credit).
ticular package of risks and. as the premium volume is All these headings in the context of the examples shown
much more significant, underwriters arc presented with an are ones which fall outside the scope of risk management
investment income that tends to be overlooked where indi and, of them, number (/) 'technical', must be the most
vidual farms are concerned. A
third advantage arises in that relevant as far as aquaculturc is concerned. It is important
the individual underwriter's share of the overall risk can be that it be recognized as falling outside the scope of risk
increased due to the greater spread. His reinsurance provi- management; it could
perhaps, as far as aquaculture is
sions can also be reduced, and purchased more cheaply. concerned, be better termed 'fish management'.
2.8 The insurance market for aquacultural stock 3. 1.2 Pure, or manageable, risks. Risks that can be man-
The world insurance market for aquacultural stock insur-
aged that fall outside business risks can be broadly catego-
ance can only, at best, be described as tenuous, disparate rized under the following headings and these should be
and very short of the capacity needed to cover the potential considered alongside the list of perils shown under section
maximum sums insured that may be required for aquacul- 2.4: (/) physical effects of nature (eg. wind, storm, earth-
tural operations in the near future. But, slowly but surely,
quake, flood, drought); (//') technical (eg, breakdown of
the market for aquacultural stock is widening, thus the
plant, failure of safety devices, hazardous processes); (z'z'z)
existing, somewhat restricted, insurance market will hope social deviations from expected standards of conduct (eg,
fully soon be a thing of the past. theft, fraud, riot, negligence); (/r) personnel (eg. death,
To a very great extent, the development of an insurance sickness, injury, working conditions),
market for aquacultural stock lies in the hands of fish It can be seen that all the risks and hazards generali/ed
farmers themselves and the authorities who govern them. It
under these headings can, in some way. be reduced or
is up to to support the efforts being made on their
them obviated and all have implications in
significant
behalf which, if successful, will stimulate the interest of
aquaculture.
insurers generally and thus contribute to the development
of the competitive market for aquacultural stock which is so 3.2 The contribution of insurance experiment to risk man-
very much in the interest of the development of aquaculturc agement in
aquaculture
itself.
Responsible insurers have always put their experience at
the disposal of industry in various ways, since the improve-
3 Aquacultural risk management ment of insurable risks benefits both parties. In dealing with
3. Risk management, a science in its own right
1 this subject it is important to stress that insurance experi-
The ultimate efficiency of aquaculturc and indeed the scope ence should be available to all of aquaculture. regardless of
for its continuance and expansion can be shown to depend geographical barriers or political persuasions. The preven-
upon achieving and maintaining an optimal level of return tion of waste which is synonymous with risk management
of the mature product over the input of eggs or juveniles. must be, and is, available to all, as it rightly should be.
However, the folly of making safety and the saving of waste In the insurance context, there is a great deal that fish
paramount at the expense of cost effectiveness can be fully farmers can do to reduce and eradicate losses by adopting
demonstrated. The techniques of getting these two diverse risk management practices and procedures, thereby benefit-
1
69
But what are those 'practices and procedures'? Who 4 Conclusion
better to ask than the insurers who, in the western world are The increase in the world's population and the static catch
covering the risks and also paying for the losses of aquacul of various species renders the development of aquaculture
ture? Who. but insurers and their brokers and agents, can unquestionable. Nevertheless, the increasing success offish
have such a comprehensive knowledge of the losses that can farming will introduce a new style of competition and
occur to aquacultural stock, why they occur, and thus, how eventually margins will be brought under pressure. We
they can be prevented, reduced or avoided? There is no have seen this happen in poultry farming and we have seen
greater outside contribution to be made to aquaculture than the huge growth and, therefore, risk increase in such
that contribution that can, and will, be made by the insur- enterprises.
ance industry in the field of risk management. History Huge concentrations of values make for good, economic
shows time and again that whenever and wherever the administration, but they lead to big fires, big disease losses
insurance industry has been called on to exercise its func- and, without fantastic planning expertise and care, extreme
tions of spreading risks and hazards it has always turned the vulnerability to machinery breakdown. A mistake by a fish
experience it has gained into practical ways of preventing food manufacturer can destroy 10 million farmed fish in
the occurrence of those losses it is required to pay for, and one disaster and, as the industry flourishes and grows more
ways of limiting them. In the marine and aviation fields, in sophisticated, still bigger losses will arise. Insurance com-
and
fire allied perils insurance, even in life insurance, the pensation has saved many great companies and vigorous,
insurance industry has continually strived to maintain and flexible, sound insurance facility merits the support of the
improve standards that will lead to lower losses. The same industry of aquaculture.
is already happening in aquaculture.
1-49 incidents per 1000 tons of production respectively) and their por cada mil toncladas A las demas causas se dcbc solamentc una
Se observe) una
greatest effect was on small si^cs of trout. The most common causes of perdida de 5.22 toneladas por cada mil de produccion
small losses were systems and husbandry/management failures. The mayor frecuencia dc pcrdidas pequenas que de perdidas importantes
pattern of causes of loss changed through the production system, and the ( 9, 2 y
1 1 .49 casos. respectivamente, por cada mil toneladas de produc-
1
number of fish lost decreased as the fish grew, cion) y su efecto se aprecio sobrc todo en las truchas de pequcna talla
The risk of small and many large losses can be reduced by improved Las causas mas frccuentes de perdidas pequenas son las deficicncias de
los sistemas utili/ados y de la 'enan/a/manejo'. El patron dc las causas
management. Some large losses arc less easily controlled and mortality
insurance may reduce the financial risks involved Accumulation of data de las perdidas cambio a lo largo del sistcrna de produccion y el numero
on causes of mortality will enable risks to be reduced during the planning de peces quc se pierde dismmuye a medida que los pcces crecen.
stages, by improved management of existing farms and by continued
Es posible reducir los nesgos dc perdidas pequenas y muchas pcrdidas
provision of mortality insurance at a cost acceptable to the trout farmer mayores con una mcjora del mancjo. Algunas perdidas importantes son
and the underwriter. menos faciles dc controlar, y los seguros^contra la mortalidad pueden
reducir los riesgos financieros quc cntrana. La acumulacion dc datos
sobre las causas de mortahdad permitira reducir los riesgos durante las
Stations europ^ennes de tnittlculture: risques, mortality et assurances fases de plamficacion gracias al mejoramicnto del mancjo de las granjas
la mortalidad de las
Resume para truchas y a la dispombihdad de seguros contra
Les causes de la mortalite, qui provoque une perte de production truchas a un costo accptable para el truticultor y cl asegurador.
annuellc depassant 5 pour cent, sont examinees pour 25 stations
d'elevage trutticole aux lies Britanniques, en France et en Espagne. On
examine egalement toutes les causes de mortal ite dans 6 entreprises
1
1 Introduction
trutticoles en Angleterre et en Ecosse. La pollution des eaux est de loin le
facteur le plus important de mortal ite et est responsable de la pcrtc de
Trout farming in Europe has undergone a transition during
29, 10 pour mille, alors quc toutes les autres causes n'ont fait perdre que the last ten years, from a relatively small industry centred in
5,22 pour mille. Les incidents mineurs ont etc plus frequents que les Denmark and producing some 10 000 tons per annum to
accidents graves (19,12 et 1,49 pour mille dc production, respective-
ment) et leur cffet s'est fait sentir plus particulierement sur les truites de
an industry producing in excess of 50 000 tons per annum.
petites dimensions, 11s ont etc le plus sou vent provoques par des pannes In some cases, this expansion has been accompanied by an
de materiel et des deficicnces dans les methodes d'elevage ou de gestion
intensification of farming methods, with a trend toward
Les problcmes entramant des mortal ites de poissons varient suiyant le
systeme de production, et le nombrc de poissons perdus diminue a culture of high densities of trout within expensive produc-
mesure de leur croissance. tion facilities. There has also been a development of more
On peut reduire les risques de petits incidents et souvent meme les cas
d'accidents graves en ameliorant la gestron. II est plus difficile d'eviter professional attitudes toward the operation of trout farms,
certains gros dommages et 1'assurance centre la mortahte est susceptible and an increased awareness of the risks involved.
de limiter les risques financiers. Le rassemblement de don nee s sur les
causes de mortalite permettra de rcduire les risques en cours de planifica-
tion, par ('amelioration de la gestion des stations existantes et par la
2 Risks and causes of mortality
possibilite constante de s'assurer contre la mortalite a un cout acceptable
tant pour Peleveur que pour la compagnie d'assurances, Risks in trout farming may be classified as technical,
70
technological or price related* Technical risks are those time, eg, 24 hours. The premium may be between 1% and
associated with the production of the fish, particularly 20% of the maximum value of the stock at any one time,
biological problems such as the determination of correct depending on an assessment of the risks on an individual
stocking densities and feeding methods, maintenance of farm. This premium may be reduced if a franchise or excess
adequate standards of hygiene, prevention and treatment of is included, whereby claims are met only if losses exceed a
disease, and control of predation. Problems of pollution certain predetermined level or percentage of the stock.
and water quality, and of design and construction of the
facilities, and the operation of the system, may also be
included. The risks covered in this paper fall into this
4 Materials and methods
category.
These may be distinguished from those risks associated Information was collected from two sources (described in
with technological development, which, by the introduction (/) and (//) below), and the two sets of data were analysed
of new construction materials and methods, can make separately. All farms from which data were obtained are
included, where inconsistencies were found in
except
existing enterprises less cost effective. Price-related risks
are those connected with the markets for raw materials and replies to questionnaires. In some cases it was possible to
verify data by personal visits and for purposes of analysis it
finished products, which affect the ability of the trout
is assumed that all data are reliable.
farmer to produce fish at a profit.
Most trout farmers expect to lose a percentage of the (/) Group A: Data were obtained from proposal forms
stock through genetic, competitive or environmental fac completed by European farmers wishing to purchase mor-
tors, and production is planned allowing for this "normal' tality insurance cover. Applicants were asked to give full
details of any losses which had occurred on their farms. Of
mortality rate. Such losses occur at a fairly predictable low
the 25 farms sampled, 9 were within the British Isles, 13 in
level throughout each of the production stages, and are
manifested in lower apparent food conversion efficiency
France and 3 in Spam. Table I gives some details of the
than would be the case without mortality. types of farms represented. All use freshwater supplies
The data m this paper relate to occasional incidents of only, and most produce only rainbow trout (Salmo gaird
neri \ and, in fact, rainbow trout comprise more than 80%
high mortality due to one or more identifiable causes. The
of the total production from all farms. Their annual produc-
importance of such incidents to the trout farmer depends on
tion ranges from 8 to 120 tons.
their frequency and scale relative to the 'normal' mortality
(//') Group B; Data were also obtained
rate. Some trout farmers may expect a certain number of by the circulation
incidents of a more dramatic nature,and production may be of questionnaires to British trout farmers requesting infor-
mation on the size and type of farms, and details of
planned to allow for these as well as for 'normal' losses. The
larger catastrophic incidents can not be predicted or
magnitude and causes of losses during the previous 3 years.
The sample comprised 16 farms in England and Scotland,
planned for, and frequently have a very damaging effect on
the commercial viability of the individual trout farm. producing both rainbow trout and brown trout (Salmo
There is at present little information on the major causes trutta) for the table market and for restocking purposes.
( 1973) discussed losses as a variable cost of production in by 12 separate incidents, ie 1-49 incidents per 000 tons
t 1
trout farming. He gave some information on 'normal' ex or production. Actual losses of production due to these
pected losses, which are often implicit in feed costs, and incidents totalled 277-1 tons, ie. 34-32 tons per 1 000 tons
differentiated these from higher losses against which insur- of production, giving an average of 23-09 tons lost per
ance cover may be offered under various categories. incident. In only one case was there a total loss; this was
due to pollution, and contributed 80 tons to the total
mortality recorded.
3 Insurance in trout farming Where losses were confined to small fish, sometimes
The ability of underwriters to provide effective insurance sufficient numbers survived so that little or no final produc
cover depends upon a knowledge of the inherent technical tion was lost and restocking was unnecessary. This indi-
risks of trout farming, and an accurate assessment of the cates that the trout farm was
deliberately overstocked with
financial losses resulting from accidents. fry on the expectation of a reduction in numbers during the
Mortality insurance may be provided against various ongrowing stages, either through incidents of this type or
infectious diseases, against pollution and malicious poison- by grading and culling. In other cases, the number offish
ing, and against other losses if they are due to definite surviving was insufficient to maintain production but re-
identifiable causes or are incurred within a stated period of stocking with fish from an outside source was possible so
71
T ABl h I
TABU II
Group A covers the large, insurahlc losses, whereas Group B involves mainly small incidents,
that actual production losses were minimized although 1 975 in the UK, and converted to US dollars at the current
financial lossesmight have been considerable. exchange They rates. are approximations only and confi-
The 6 farms in Group B represent a total of 84 1 tons
1 1 dence limits of 25% should be assumed.
of production during the entire period for which records are The greatest losses by number of fish and by value
available. During this time, 14 of the farms were affected by
35 incidents resulting in loss of stock, /<?, 19-12 incidents TAKII III
72
occurred amongst the smaller groups of trout but loss by pean trout farms is based upon very small samples, which
weight was greatest in the 100-200 g group. These differ- may be unrepresentative of the many hundreds of trout
ences are due to small fish being more valuable, weight for farms in Europe, Those in Group A may be representative
weight than large fish. of the type of farm which requires mortality insurance
The number and percentage of incidents attributable to cover, since all the farms included have at least seriousl}
various primary causes, for both sets of data, are shown in contemplated purchasing such insurance. The farms in
Table IV. Causes of loss are assigned to several categories Group B may be representative of trout farms in England
which, to some extent, are arbitrary and overlapping. Thus, and Scotland. Of the 16 farms, 8 had purchased insurance
a blockage of part of the water system might be due to a of some kind. A larger sample might reveal that trout
design fault (systems failure) or to negligence or manage- farmers insuring against mortality are either more careful
ment error (husbandry/management). Where interactions or professional in their attitude to trout production than
occurred (eg, high water temperature and overfeeding), others, or that they are more accident prone and thus more
losses were attributed to what was regarded as the major conscious of the risks involved. There may also be a greater
predisposing cause of loss. The categories shown in Table incentive to insure against larger, newer, or more capital-
IV are: (/) Systems failure: all losses due to faults of design, intensive farms.
engineering, construction, choice of materials and fittings, The following points emerge from the results:
and standby facilities. This category includes blockages of Large insurable losses are less common than small
(/)
the system, mechanical breakdown, power failure, breakage losses which would not be covered by any mortality insur-
and structural failure; (//) Husbandry/management: all ance, but are nonetheless in excess of normally expected
losses due to negligence, accident, lack of experience, or mortality. Many of the small incidents do not significantly
faults of judgement on the part of those responsible for the affect final production, whereas the larger losses may sub-
fish; (///') Infectious disease; (/v)Climate and site selection: stantially reduce it. Difficulties arise in attempting to com
flood, drought, excessively high-water temperatures, freez- pare the costs of large and of small losses, but it seems
ing, storm damage, deoxygenation by natural factors (eg. possible that, for the industry as a whole, the total value of
algal bloom and decay); (r) Pollution of the water; (w) the many small mortalities may be greater than that of the
Pollution of the food; (r//) Vandalism, theft, and other few catastrophes.
malicious acts; (v//V) Unspecified. (//) The major causes of high mortality differ from the
73
TABU V
Sl'MMXKY OF PRODUCTION 1 OSSES HY CAUSE IN GROUP A
I otal 12 34-32 1 00 00
T \Bifc VI
Nl'MHf RS OF 1ROUI IOST IN' GROl'P B A OKDINCi IO f AUSF AND SI/I GROUP (PFRCL'N Adi OP TOT A
F I lORTACHSl/l GROUP IN PAKfcN III! SI'S )
that the mortality insurance now available to the trout 1969 Econ Bus Admin., Bvrqen. (5) 79 p
NoRWKilAN Sl'HOOt Ol- ECONOMICS AND BUSINISS ADMINISTRATION.
farmer continues to be provided at acceptable cost and
1971 Norsk oppdrctt at Damhsk Bergen, I'iskcrikonomisk Insti-
without exposing the underwriter to excessive financial tuttet Ved Norgcs Handcl&hoyskole, 110 p
(24) 491-3
7 Acknowledgements
KOIIIKIS. R & SHIIMIIRD. C
I Handbook ot tioul and salmon
I
The authors wish to express their thanks to the trout C J Studies on the biological and economic fdctois
1973 involved in fish culture with special reference to Scotland
farmers whoprovided the information upon which this Ph 13 Thesis, University of Stirling
paper is based. The second author is supported by a grant H H. Risks to the aquaculture enterprise Aquaculture t
Aquaculture in Japan
Abstract central and local governments and private enterprise, Recent develop-
Aquaculture plays an important role in Japanese fisheries, producing a ments and future activities related to aquaculture research and extension
total of 0-6 million tons of oysters, scallops and seaweed alone in 1974. services, and the activities of private enterprise are described. The central
Its contribution to the fishing industry is both indirect, through stimulat government plays an important role in providing supporting services for
ing harvest of trash fish to be used as feed for cultured organisms, and the aquaculture industry, and it is estimated that the central government
direct, through production to meet the high demand for aquatic foods in invests Yen 100 000 million (USS 33 million) annually in its compre-
Japan. hensive aquaculture programme.
Considerable success has been obtained recently through culture-
based fisheries (ie< artificial of juveniles, which are stocked
propagation
environment ) for Kuruma shrimp (Penaeusjapomcus ). red
in the natural Planification du devcloppement futur de I'aquaculture au Japon
scabream (Pagrus major) and Pacific salmon (Oncorhynchus), and Resume
development of this form of aquaculture is expected to supercede the I
/aquaculture joue un role important dans les pcches japonaises, en
'feeding' type of aquaculture in the future. 1974, la production cThukrcs, coquilles St-Jacques ct algues a atteint a
elle seule le total de 0,6 million de tonnes. La contribution de
Japan must be
It is essential that planning aquaculture development in
considered with the development of the coastal fisheries economics, and Paquaculture a 1'industnc de la pcche esl a la fois indirecte, puisqu'elle
should include, as in the past, support from and involvement of the stimulc la recolte de poissons dc rebut qui seront utilises comme aliments
74
ing) in 1974. New stocks of fish are being artificially
dans les clcvages, et dirccte,
puisquc la production cst destinee a
repondre a la forte dcmande d'aliments d'origmc aquatique enregistree
au Japon.
created in areas where they have never existed, eg, pond
Des succes considerables ont reccmment etc obtenus grace aux smelt (Osmcrus), landlocked red salmon (Oncorhynchus
pccheries basccs sur 1'eleyagc (propagation artificielle de juveniles, qui nerka), black rockfish and seabream (Pagrus)\ and fish are
sont relaches dans le milieu nalurel) de crevettes Kuruma (Penaeus
japonicus), de daurade japonaise (Pagrus mtyor) et de saumon du being produced through aquaculture in numbers never
Pacifique (Oncorhynchus}\ en sc developpant. cette forme d'aquaculture achieved by the native stocks (eg. salmon and prawn).
devrait dans Tavenir supplanter I'aqtjaculture du type 'nourrissage',
Au Japon, il est indispensable que la plantation du dcveloppement
de Taquaculture soil consideree dans le cadre du developpcment des 2.1 Indirect contribution to fishery production
economies halieutiques cotieres el qu'il soil fait appel, comme dans le
Anchovy (Engraulis japonicus) and sand eel (Ammodytes).
passe, au soutien et a la participation du gouvernement central et des
autontes locales, ainsi que des cntrcprises pnvees. On decnt 1'evolution caught incidentally in purse seine and trawl fisheries and
recente et les activites futures des services de recherche et de vulgansa formerly discarded, are now being used as feed in aquacul-
lion aquicolcs, ainsi que les activites des entrepnscs pnvees. Le gou
ture and it is now possible to encourage further investment
vernement central joue un role important en fourmssant des services de
soutien au secteur de Taquaculture ct Ton estime qu'il investit chaque in these fisheries. Unless there was a market for these
annee Yen 10 milliards (US^ 33 millions) dans ['ensemble du pro species, the production from these fisheries would not be as
gramme d'aquaculture, now.
high as it is
1^74 de 0,6 inillon de toncladas. La contnbucion de la acuicultura a la Today, demand by the Japanese people for 'sashimi (raw
mdustna pesquera es tanto indirccta como directa, ya que, adetnas de fish ) and Hempura' is more than one million tons and quite
fomentar la captura de morralla para utilizar como pienso para los constant. As the price offish used in these traditional dishes
orgamsmos cultivados, produce parte de los reeursos que son necesarios
para atcrider la elevada demanda de alimentos de origen acuatico
isvery high, fishing effort on these stocks has been high and
cxistente en el Japon, has resulted in reduction of their stock sizes. Even though
Kecientcmente han icmdo mucho exito las pesqucrias basadas en el
cultivo (es deeir, la reproduccion artificial de formas juveniles y su
intensive fishery management measures have been intro-
siembra en el medio ambicnte natural) de camaron Kuruma (Pcnaeus duced their populations have not yet been restored. Short
japonicuil pargo (Paf>rut> majur) y salmon del Pacifico (Oncorhvn- ages that have consequently emerged have been met by both
chus ). v sc espera que esta forma de acuicultura sustituya en el uturo a la
aquaculture and imports.
f
acuicultura convencional,
Es csencial que. al planificar el desarrollo de la acuicultura en el Japon, Aquaculture activities are generally divided into the
sc tenga en cucnta el desurrollo de la cuunomia de las pesquenas eosteras following categories:
y se cuente, igual que en el pasado. con el apoyo y participacion de las
) Aquaculture without feeding, eg,
autondades centrales y locales y de las empresas privadas, Se descnbcn
(/'
oyster, scallop and
los ultimos progresos y lasactividades iuturasde la investigation y de los seaweed culture.
servicios dc extension en el campo de la acuicultura, y las actividades de
las empresas privadas Las autondades centrales desempenan una fun
(ii) Aquaculture with feeding, eg, yellowtail (Seriola
eion importante mediante sus servicios dc apoyo a la mdustna aeuicola. qumqueradiata)znd red seabream (Pagrus major) culture.
y se calcula que el gobierno central in\iertc anualmente Yen 100000 seed of new species can be obtained this type of
If sufficient
mi Hones (STI'MJU 33 millones)en el programa aeuicola.
aquaculture will increase further.
(//7) Culture-based fisheries ('saibai gyogyo'), eg. Ku-
1 Direction of development of Japanese fisheries ruma shrimp (Penaeus japonicus} and red seabream. In this
Fishing is an important industry in Japan which helps to category, seed is obtained by artificial propagation and
meet more than half of the total animal protein requirement juveniles are released to natural fishing grounds after a
in the country. short rearing period. Production and stocking of high-
Although Japan is the largest fish producer in the world priced fish has been increasingly undertaken in this fish
(10-7 million tons in 1973), it cannot meet its own strong farming type of aquaculture. As a result, recent production
demand for fish for human consumption and for the live- of shrimps in some areas in which stocking has been carried
stock feed manufacturing industry, and has to import more out is increasing.
than one million tons offish annually. Considering fisheries
on the global basis, the rate of increase of production from
3 Recent technical innovations
fisheries is higher than that for grams and livestock indus-
tries, and the trend to exploit the source of animal protein in Recently, seed production techniques have developed re-
fisheries is becoming more and more evident. markably and. in future, the 'stocking' type of aquaculture
As Japan cannot obtain sufficient quantities of imported will predominate over the feeding' type of aquaculture.
fish products to fill the gap between demand and supply, it With the development of stocking techniques, it will be
has been trying to exploit new fishing grounds and develop- possible to produce species beyond their natural productiv
ing unproved techniques for fishing and processing. Con- ity, In this respect, techniques have been developed for seed
siderable effort has been made to develop aquaculture production of shrimps, seabream and Pacific salmon
techniques as well as fishing methods to take advantage of (Oncorhynchus ).
the high productivity of Japanese coastal waters. In the feeding' type of aquaculturc, eg, of yellowtail. the
combined production of yellowtail from capture fisheries
and aquaculture has* in recent years, resulted in the highest
2 Role of aquaculture in Japanese fisheries recorded catches of this species. Thus, aquaculture is im-
Aquaculture plays an important role in Japanese fisheries portant in Japan because it contributes not only to increas-
through its increased fishery production. For example, ing the income of fishermen, but also to increasing fish
211*5 thousand tons of oysters (Crassostrea)* 62-6 thou- production.
sand tons of scallops (Pecten ) and 337-7 thousand tons of However, the feeding type of aquaculture has several
seaweed were produced by aquaculture (without any feed- disadvantages. Firstly, feed conversion rates are too low
75
and the loss of animal protein used for feed is too high. Fisheries Research Laboratories and the Far Seas Fisheries
Secondly, the productivity of fishing grounds decreases Research Laboratory. The freshwater laboratories have
because of the environmental hazards caused by intensive aquaculture departments and conduct basic research. Re
use of marine areas. The former problem should be dealt
cently, besides studies related to the promotion of aquacul
with as a part of the national food production programme. ture, research has also been conducted on ocean pollution
In this case, we should take into account not only the and the accumulation of toxins in fish.
amount of animal protein to be produced but also the Research requiring action on a nation-wide scale is
variety of food. A certain amount of production of high- carried out jointly and in co-ordination with all labora-
priced fish is always necessary to meet the particular tastes tories. One such recent project is 'comprehensive research
of the Japanese. The latter problem is purely technical and on the development of grounds for aquaculture in shallow
could be solved by fishery scientists. One method of resolv- waters',
ing it is to use the stocking type of aquaculture.
As already pointed out, in order to meet the demand for 5.2 Prefectural experimental stations
seafood in Japan, a more efficient and proper fish produc- Every prefecture has at least one fisheries experimental
tion system should be established. From this point of view, station; there are 82 of these in Japan, including inland
promotion of aquaculture is necessary and the government water stations, The main task of these stations is to apply
has been taking the necessary action. research results, obtained at universities and national re
search laboratories, in the prefectures. They also conduct
studies jointly with universities, national laboratories or
4 Planning of aquaculture development other prefectural stations.
In Japan, it is essential that planning of aquaculture devcl The government subsidizes these stations in cases where
opment must be considered together with the development the research is important, and also educates and trains
of the coastal fishery economics. In 196 K an amelioration researchers of these stations when they study new subjects,
programme of coastal fisheries was started with a view to such as fish disease or ocean pollution.
utilizing the coastal fishing grounds rationally and effi
ciently, and to make the fishing industry stable and prosper 5.3 Cons/ruction of pilot plants
ous. In order to implement this programme, the Japanese The central government, in co-operation with the prefec-
archipelago was divided into 42 areas according to their tural governments, establishes the bodies which apply the
different oceanic environments, ecological situations and results obtained by the prcfectural research experimental
the structures of the local society, etc. The programme has stations to commercial-scale operations on an experimental
been sponsored by the central and local governments as basis.
well as by local fishermen, and it contains different features One of these bodies is the Scto Inland Sea Farming
for different areas, Fisheries Association. This Association, with six stations,
The main work has been to: set out fish shelters in a ispromoting a new type of technology. This is an experi-
systematic fashion with a view to increasing fish and shell- ment to increase fishery resources on a gigantic scale
fishproduction, establish or improve facilities for culture through massive artificial seed production and stocking.
based fisheries, and rationali/e the distribution of fish This technique has already been applied to freshwater fish,
products, such as common carp (Cyprinus carpio), ayu (Plecoglossus
A
second amelioration programme started in 1971. At altivelis), and rainbow trout (Salmo gairdm rii)\ and to
i
the same time, the Marine Fishery Resources Development anadromous salmon. Recently, a start has been made in
and Promotion Law was enacted with a view to promoting applying this technique to other species such as Kuruma
aquaculture. Under this law, the Minister of Agriculture shrimp and red seabream.
and Forestry was to establish a fundamental aquaculture As these efforts proved to be successful, action was
policy every five years. In the basic policy, the Minister initiated in 1973 to establish at least one fish farming centre
designated the species of marine animals and plants for in each prefecture and 16 centres are now under construc-
which aquaculture should be promoted, environmental tion. The central subsidi/ing the construc-
government is
standards, the target production for aquaculture and neces- tion and providing financial and technical assistance for
sary measures to achieve this target. In accordance with the their operation.
basic policy, governors of prefectures also designated areas
in the waters under their jurisdiction, in which aquaculture
76
business to fishermen, but they also examine as a whole the scientific research in co-operation with the governmental
present conditions and the future direction of the fishing development programme, and have established aquaculture
villages, There are also groups of youths in the coastal research groups for each special field. The government
fisheries co-operatives studying technology and other pro- encourages these activities.
motion activities, and the extension officers serve as good
consultants for them.
8 Financing
The annual investment by the central government for the
7 Activities of private enterprise comprehensive aquaculture programme amounts to about
In order to develop the aquaculture industry, necessary Yen 100 000 million (USS 33 million ). In addition to this,
materials and equipment and construction techniques are as educational activities, including school education and
important as oceanographical and biological information social education for aquaculture. have been financed by the
and techniques. Therefore, private enterprises also promote central government*
Resume credito. por otro lado, no represent mas que un aspecto de los esfuer/os
La misc en oeuvre des plans futurs de developpcment aquicole sera de desarrollo y ha de ostar estrecharncnte vmculada con todas las demas
fonction des credits dispombles la acmeuhura a pequena escala
fases del desarrollo dc
Des programmes dc credit specialises devraient etre elabores chaquc mformacion sobre la expenencia adquinda en un numero hmitado
L a
fois que Ton prevoit des developpements importants; de la sortc, les de programas de acuicultura ha proporcionado algunas indicaciones
demandes de credit pourraient etre traitees par un personnel au courant sobre lo que debe y no debe hacerse al proyectar planes de creditos para
des questions d'aquaculture: d'autrc part, le risque de discrimination a esc sector. Son demasiado pocos los paises con planes ambiciosos de
I'encontrcdu pisciculteur, qui pourrait se produire lorsqu'un programme desarrollo dc la acuicultura que hasta el momento ban hecho un esfuerzo
sc propose pour principal objectif le financement dc Tagriculture ou des seno para determmar, durante la ejecucion del plan, si los semeios y
pechenes. disposiciones en matena de creditos son suricientes para atender a la
Pour ce qui est des programmes d' implantation a grande echelle, les demanda Para que los creditos para ese sector scan suficientes, es
gouvernemcnts doivent en prendrc Fmitiative en fourmssant les credits necesario revisar los semcios nacionales de credito a la lu? de los planes
necessaircs car la terre ne saurait, au mieux, que constituer une garantie de Ibmento de la acuicultura, mejorar los programas cxistentes de credito
nominate et les banques devant degagcr des fonds nc sont guere aprovechando la expenencia conseguida en planes quo hayan funcionado
experimentees en matiere de risques tiempo sufieiente para poder apreciar sus ventajas y desventajas
On peut s'attendre a ce que les petits entrepreneurs cherchant a se
procurer des credits de facon repetee eprouvcm des difficult^ du fait de
Icur inaptitude a fournir des garanties a payer les taux d'mtcrct en
1 Introduction
vigueur dans le domaine commercial, etc L/aide des gouvernements
dans ce secteur devrait sc proposer non seulcment Amelioration tech- Plans for aquaculture development in developing countries
nique des stations, la fourniture d'inputs et le financement des captures have been substantially expanded in recent years because
mais aussi tenir compte des impcratifs soeiaux ct fondamentaux pour
of, among other reasons, world trends in capture fisheries
permettre a la famille du pisciculteur de jouer son role dans la societe.
D'ailleurs, fa ire face aux demandes dc credit ne constitue qu'un aspect and food economies which have made it necessary to look
des efforts de developpcment et doit etre soigneusemcnt imbnque a
for new animal protein supplies for human consumption.
toutes les autres phases du developpcment aquicole a petite echcllc.
Inexperience acquisc dans quelqucs programmes d'aquaculture fait Realization of these more ambitious aquaculture plans, it is
77
generally acknowledged, will hinge to a large extent on the in credit procurement, since the land is
quite often only of
availability of finance. Since planned
development usually marginal economic value. Also, where aquaculture is pro
involves creation of new or expansion of relatively young moted by the state, the land may be made available to the
enterprises, prospects for generating adequate funds from settler on a lease basis and banking institutions
may refuse
within the aquaculture sector must be considered poor. It to accept the lease contracts as loan collateral.
can be expected, therefore, that credit will have to play a Aquaculture, it is sometimes said, may be at a disadvan
key role in achieving growth targets. There is a dearth of tage in certain respects vis-a-vis capture fisheries and agri-
information on the subject, and for this reason there are culture, because it is a relatively new branch of industry. In
good grounds to consider some of the issues associated with many countries there are still gaps in knowledge on techni-
the provision of credit facilities for aquaculture. cal and economic aspects (FAO, 1973) and there may be
onl> a limited number of examples of viable and successful
operations from which one could draw yardsticks for ap-
2 The risk element in aquaculture and capture fisheries praising project proposals.
A sector's ability to attract finance, and specifically credit Also, because the industry is comparatively new, and
funds, depends very much on the evaluation of risk cle because it often still lacks appropriate organizational struc-
ments by prospective financiers or creditors. The risks tures as well as political support, aquaculture in many
commonly experienced in aquaculture operations have countries has not been able to obtain for itself certain
been discussed in some detail in the aquaculture literature benefits from the state such as, for instance, production
(Webber, 1973 Occasionally, one also finds in this litera-
). subsidies, which farmers and capture fishermen have come
ture comparisons with risk factors in capture fisheries to accept as part of what is 'naturally due' to them.
which are made for the purpose of assessing the relative On balance, however, taking into account all the afore
two branches offish production to raise loan
abilities of the mentioned as well as some other factors, it would appear
funds. that aquaculture is a less risky economic activity than
Compared with capture fisheries, which for the most part fishing, primarily because problems associated with locat
exploit common property resources, aquaculture opera ing and controlling the resource (/<?. fish-finding and fishing
tions in areas where ownership rights are established are in competition with others who have access to the same
less 'mobile' (FAO, 1 975 ). In theory, capture fishermen are fishing areas) are avoided.
able to move, within the technical limitations imposed by The individual investor, of course, will appraise risk
the boats and gear they employ, from one fishing area or factors on a situation by-situation basis in addition to
from one fish stock to another. Where fish stocks located consideration on a sub industry basis. Aside from biologi
within the operational radius of the equipment are less than and physi
cal risks (fish diseases, parasites, predation. etc )
fully exploited, and where market conditions, too, arc cal risks (poor water quality, storms, heavy rainfalls, etc).
favourable, this mobility of capture fisheries may be taken there is a variety of economic factors he will consider in
into account in investment appraisal and assessment of estimating the soundness of an investment. At the national
funding possibilities. In other situations, where alternative level, additional factors are taken into account in the
fishing areas must be considered as fully exploited, the determination of the net social benefits which the country
wandering fishermen may "export" economic difficulties may expect from aquaculture development.
from one area to another, and mobility may be a vice rather
than a virtue. Even where the mobility of capture fishermen
tends to enhance potential earning power, it may still be a 3 The place of credit in an aquaculture development
disincentive to credit extension, since collection of evidence programme
for an appraisal of creditworthiness, as well as acceptance Rough estimates have been made of increases in aquacul
of the fishing vessel as chattel mortgage and loan repayment ture production that occur through expansion of areas
may
arrangements, may present serious difficulties. under culture, through improvements of existing systems of
Another factor mentioned in comparisons between aqua- aquaculturc operations, and through the development of
culture and capture fisheries relates to the circumstances new culture techniques. These estimates indicate that the
that, in capture fisheries, production is largely determined potential may be as much as ten times or more the present
by uncontrollable natural forces, while in aquaculture it can levelof production (Pillay, 1973). For this reason, one may
be expected to vary with the quantity and quality of inputs foresee a very large demand for credit for aquaculturc
feeds and fertilizer) (FAO, 1973).
(<?#, artificial investments notwithstanding technical and other con-
Capture fishermen are sometimes considered to be at a straints that may hold back investments in some cases as
serious disadvantage in procuring credit assistance because well as government grants and owner capital contributions
they are unable to furnish acceptable loan collateral. Banks to project costs which will reduce the need for borrowed
usually prefer, and even insist on, immovable property (real funds. Credit facilities, furthermore, will be required to
estate and buildings) as security and often refuse in prin- assist established fishfarmers in input and in crop financ-
ciple to accept a chattel mortgage on a fishing vessel. Even ing, and for consumption loans.
where vessels are acceptable as security, banks may be Government which operations, and
priorities will decide
reluctant to extend a loan on such collateral if there are no which sector of the population, are to be supported by
safeguards against a transfer abroad of the property title or credit as well as other facilities that are made available for
if the vessel has not been insured. The established aquacul aquaculture operations. The emphasis may be on: (a)
turist usually owns land or other real estate property, which development of new farms versus assistance to existing
may be of help in obtaining loan funds from a bank. For the farms; (b) large-scale commercial versus small-scale or
new settler, possession of title to the land on which aquacul- subsistence operations; (c) export-oriented operations ver-
ture operations are to be initiated may be of little or no help sus operations for domestic markets; (d) one or more of
78
different types of culture operations, including culture for 5 Sources of credit for aquaculture
food production, for improvement of natural stocks, for the From the above it might be concluded that government can
production of bait, sport or ornamental fish, etc. (FAO, be expected to take the initiative primarily in
financing
1973); (c) one or more of different methods of production, infrastructure facilities, pioneer ventures, large-scale new
including hatchery operations, capture and confinement of development and small-scale operations at the economic
young, and raising of the young from eggs obtainable from margin. These, incidentally, are also the fields which usu-
wild parents (Idyll, 1973), ally are of special interest to international or regional
Aside from, or as an alternative to, financial assistance, financing institutions which extend credit for agricultural
government is likely to make available a variety of services. and fisheries development. Other credit, especially for
The close to 30000 aquaculturists of Japan, for example, short-term working capital and for consumption needs, is in
were reported a few years ago to be benefiting from pro- general made available by other sources, including the
grammes that included the supply of fry and young inverte- established banking system, agricultural estates, and a large
brates, disease control, scientific and technological experi- variety of other lenders (family members, middlemen, pri
mental work and extension services which assisted in vate lenders, suppliers of requisites, etc).
introducing improved methods, promotion subsidies and The question may be raised whether specialized credit
administrative guidance (Milne, 1973), facilities need to be created because existing institutions
Credit facilities, it must be reali/ed, are just one means of might tend to ignore the financing needs of aquaculture,
lightening financial burdens. Depending on how far the since in many cases it is a new industry which has to
government wants to go in achieving given policy objec-
compete for loans with well established, commercially
tives, the range of possibilities extends from outright grants oriented enterprises. While it is doubtful that the volume
to concessional credit terms, fiscal relief of some sort, and size of aquaculture credit transactions in any country
provision of inputs or management expertise, and to sales to
might, within a foreseeable future, reach levels to justify
the industry on advantageous conditions. establishment of special investment agencies such as the
Fishery Banks which have been set up in a very few
countries, agood case can be made for the organi/ation of
special aquaculture credit schemes. Only too frequently,
4 The role of government in the provision of aquaculture development potential is not adequately exploited because
credit of lack of separate arrangements for the examination and
A general principle that applies to government credit is that
processing of aquaculture loan requests. As long as loans
itshould be extended only if other credit facilities are not in for aquaculture purposes are extended under fisheries or
a position to meet the need or arc not in a position to agricultural credit schemes, one can expect that aquacul-
meet it to the extent, and as rapidly as, desired under public ture applications often will not only be given a lower
policy of the section seeking loan assistance, Govern* have the benefit of expert appraisal
priority but also will not
ment credit and other financial assistance, therefore, has a and administration necessary for achievement of the credit
mam role in helping to launch pioneer ventures opera support objectives.
tions which the private banking system will shun because it Once there is a general consensus on the desirability of
lacks a gauge for assessing risks. In contrast, an established
setting up separate aquaculture credit arrangements, a deci-
industry that is prosperous should have no difficulty in sion has to be made on the administrative locus of such
obtaining finance on reasonable terms and should be able to facilities, especially where a variety of credit institutions
dispense with public credit support. under agricultural, fisheries and co-operative auspices
To cite an example, the Government of the Philippines k
exists. Because of property rights to the place of business',
hopes to use an estimated 500 000 ha of marginal land for the need for making improvements to the land, the charac
aquaculture purposes and for this reason is prepared to ter of the inputs used in production, ek\ aquaculture resem-
provide extensive public assistance, including credit facili- bles agriculture agood deal more than it resembles capture
ties.In Thailand, on the other hand, where the average would tend to favour having an
fisheries. If this, in general,
income of aquaculturists is six times as large as that of aquaculture credit scheme administered by an agricultural
farmers and substantially higher also than (hat of coastal, credit institution, the deciding clement should be the availa-
small-scale fishermen (FAQ/UNDP Aquaculture Develop-
bility of specialized expertise for servicing the aquaculture
ment and Coordination Programme. 1976), it may be loan scheme. In some countries, loan schemes for certain
expected that the credit needs of the bulk of the fish farmers marine aquaculture operations have been administered by
will be readily met by existing banking facilities. Even in
agencies which are also responsible for credit for capture
Thailand, however, the Government may continue to shoul- fisheries operations. In the long run. it would seem to be
der important burdens in connexion with aquaculture de
preferable, to ensure the most economic use of expertise, to
velopment, since, to ensure the healthy growth of the bring all credit operations for aquaculture under one roof.
industry, it will have to finance aquaculture research, train- Where aquaculture is only one of the components of
ing, extension and other infrastructure requirements. In integrated rural development (IRD), aquaculture credit
addition, it will incur expenditures for
pollution or disease must be considered a part of the entire financing package
control to protect the fish farmer against developments in for implementation of the IRD programme, since setting up
areas beyond his control. Finally, if it intends to help the a separate fund for aquaculturc development would be
financially weak small-scale operator to survive or if it inconsistent with the basic philosophy of integrated
wants to settle additional
areas suitable for aquaculture by development.
transferring capture fishermen from subsistence fisheries, it Since no systematic survey has been made in this field,
will have to devise integrated programmes for assistance, an little is known of the identity of the agencies which adminis-
important component of which will be concessional credit. ter credit schemes for aquaculture in different countries of
79
the world. In Japan, the following institutions have some operators with smaller holdings (FAO/IBRD Cooperative
share in the provision of credit to fish farmers (Japan Programme, 1972). For effective servicing of the small-
Fisheries Association, 1975): (a) The Fisherman's Mutual scale sector, a net of branch banks is needed which is
Relief Fund (Gyogyo Kyosai Kikm ); (/; ) Central Union of capable of maintaining local contacts for the determination
Fishery Credit Guarantee Corp. (Gyogyo Shinokikin of credit needs and the supervision of loans. With over 600
Chuokai); (c ) National Federation of Fisheues Mutual branches, the Philippines Rural Banks system is best suited
Relief Association (Zcnkoku Gyogyo Kyosai Kumiai Ren- to provide such services.
gokai); (d) National Fisheries Cooperatives Mutual Relief Allocating loan funds through 'estates' has been consid
Association (Zenkoku Suisangyo Kyodo Kumiai Kyosai ered as a possible alternative for distribution of loans to
kai); (e) The Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries Finance small operators (FAO/IBRD Cooperative Programme,
Corp. (Norin Gyogyo Kinyukoko); (/)The Central Coop- 1972). The
idea has appeal because it might ensure better
erative Bank for Agriculture and Forestry (Norin Chuo management of the holding and might facilitate supervision
Kinko), of the loans. One estate-like operation, to cite an example,
While particulars on the nature and scope of lending was initiated in the Philippines (Parker, 1974) a few years
operations of the above institutions are not at hand, the list ago under the auspices of a private company, the object
indicates that four of them (the first four) are concerned being the commercial farming of red algae (tiucheuma ).
exclusively with the fisheries sector, whereas the remaining The local operation involved very little overhead expense,
two are banking organizations serving all branches of no out-of-pocket labour costs since only family labour was
agriculture, forestry and fisheries. In Japan, the fisheries employed, and virtually no transportation costs. In order to
its size, has more of an identity of its
industry, by virtue of further reduce the farmer's initial expenditures, the spon
own thanhas anywhere else, which may account for a
it
soring expatriate company had established a policy of
close association of aquaculturc with capture fisheries loaning nets without interest or collateral for as long as the
operations. farmers used them for red algae cultivation purposes. To get
Many of the financing institutions active in the distribu the programme underway, the company had undertaken a
tion of credit to aquaculture are either directly or indirectly cultivation research and farmer training programme, set up
controlled by the state, which owns all or a part of their a pilot farm, and had provided assistance in site selection
capital. Financial resources for aquaculture development of for individual holdings and in the promotion of efficient
these institutions have, in some instances, been supple- cultivation techniques. In addition, the company had
mented by credits from international and regional banks. agreed to buy the entire red algae production of the families
The World Bank, for example, has financed two sizeable participating in the project,
programmes in the Philippines (one administered through The 'estates' idea is not always very popular at the grass
the Development Bank of the Philippines, the other through roots level, because the farmer may feel he is being down
the Central Bank, with the Rural Banks system being used graded to the position of an employee. Moreover, where
as a 'retail distribution' channel) which had important private expatriate firms are involved, there may be appre
aquaculture components (FAO/IBRD Cooperative Pro- hensions about a return to colonialist conditions. Still, the
gramme, 1972). availability of management, training, marketing and other
The financing of large scale aquaculture development assistance may help to overcome these apprehensions.
schemes might be undertaken by institutions experienced in
backing investment projects of similar size in other
branches of industry, such as specialized development or 6 Credit for launching an aquaculture development
investment banks (Pillay, 1977). Agricultural or fishery scheme
banks may be best suited for channelling credit to existing What should be done to create an efficient credit system for
enterprises in the private sector, while co-operative banks aquaculture development may be most appropriately dis
may be able to provide similar services for enterprises cussed by the type of needs to be filled. Arrangements for
organized along co-operative lines. The average commer- the provision of investment capital, thus, will differ from
cial bank ordinarily confines itself to
providing credit for those for loans for working capital or for consumption
low risk, short-term operations such as the marketing of loans. Fven within these categories, requirements may
higher-value export products. Other institutions which differ substantially according to size and type of operation,
sometimes have a role in the distribution of credit to fish and stage of development of the industry.
farmers are public bodies concerned with industrial, agri- The initial capital outlay for a fish farming operation
80
credit programmes for the new fish farmer must take instances it
may be up to government to remove deficiencies
account of working capital and consumption expenditure in seedsupplies if to be
aquaculture development is
needs for a long enough period until the farms become accelerated.
productive. The necessary provisions can be made either by One word of caution may be given, however, on how far
including relevant amounts in the original funding or by government should go in creating facilities and incentives
facilitating (through guarantees, interest support, etc. ) to stimulate development. While government provision at
credits by banking institutions made available at a later below-cost prices of seed supplies and the making of other
stage when the project becomes operational. substantial concessions to producers may be fully justified
An
essential condition for launching a larger-scale devel-
by the order of priority which aquaculture has been given in
opment programme is the conduct of a comprehensive and the national plan of a country, incentive schemes should
thorough This study has to cover human
feasibility study. never be as comprehensive and liberal as to remove the
resources and environmental constraints that may affect the entire burden of risk-bearing from the producer. Unless the
implementation of an otherwise quite promising pro- beneficiary of an aquaculture development programme has
gramme, in addition to biological, technological and eco- a stake in the venture by virtue of his own contribution to
nomic factors. costs, he not be sufficiently motivated to help make
may it
Sometimes it is quite difficult at the feasibility stage to succeed, In the United Kingdom some years ago, the
envisage the kinds of obstacles that may be encountered in government insisted, for this reason,, when the question of
implementation. A fish
farming development project pre- financing basic research and development work for marine
pared for World Bank financing a few years ago had the aquaculture first arose, that enterprises potentially inter
objective of raising national fish production through the estcd in entering the field make financial contributions to
construction of new, and the improvement of existing, fish these activities. In a developing country, such pre invest-
ponds in a sparsely settled area of a country in southeast ment work is more likely to be undertaken with public
Asia (FAQ/IBRD Cooperative Programme, 1972). Dur- funds; even there, however, the fish farmer should be
ing the preliminary study, components of the proposed expected to make at least a modest investment in the
project were found feasible. Eventually, however, only the construction of his farm.
improvement project involving the enlargement, strength- By fixing the shares of the total investment cost which
ening, and lengthening of dikes, excavation of canals, level- borrowers must cover from their own resources, govern-
ling of pond bottoms, etc was implemented. The construe
,
ment is able to discriminate between different classes of
tion part of the project proposal, which foresaw the loan recipients or types of projects. In some instances,
establishment of 200 ha fish farming estates, was shelved therefore, operators farming larger areas are required to
among other reasons because of: (a) lack of management make a larger contribution to capital cost than smaller-scale
staff, (A) social factors- the new settlers would have been farmers, making it relatively easier for the latter to qualify
of a faith different from that of the prior settlers, (c) as beneficiaries of the loan scheme.
ecological reasons the removal of tree stumps might have Since the main capital investment in aquaculture is the
had a serious impact on the environment (flooding), and (cl) cost of installations (FAO, 1973), the farming of village
possible land-use competition- there was some evidence ponds and multi-purpose community-owned water bodies
that the populationwas deriving an income from the sale of requires little initial capital. The experts, however, conclude
firewood taken from the area on which the farms were to be that there is little known as yet on the costs and benefits of
constructed. such operations beyond the fact that they may present
Almost as basic a requirement for the success of any serious difficulties in regard to rational input use and
aquaculture credit scheme as careful feasibility study is the business management. For this reason, governments may
integration of loan with other development support opera be hesitant to place too much emphasis in their aquaculture
tions. Efforts must be made to co-ordinate credit with credit programmes on meeting the needs of operators of
supply, marketing extension and other services, especially such facilities, notwithstanding the large number of people
insofar as facilities for the small-scale sector are concerned, that might be assisted with relatively modest expenditures.
where a fully integrated approach is essential for the Even where the major objective of programmes is to help
achievement of development aims. Also, because aquacul- the small-scale or the subsistence operator, it may be better
ture is a relatively new industry, loan supervision to ensure to limit credit extension to operators that have been proved
that credits arc used for the purposes intended and in the to be economic, no matter if this might increase the size of
most efficient manner is even more important than in other the individual loan and, conversely, decrease the total
industries. number of operators that can be assisted by a scheme.
Another essential requirement for the successful opera- Decision-making should be related to the number of opera-
tion of a credit scheme for that matter for the implemen- tors who are likely to reach the stage of economic indepen-
tation of any major aquaculture development pro- dence rather than to the total number of people assisted,
gramme is the availability of appropriate infrastructure unless a scheme has no other than welfare objectives.
facilities. In instances, availability of adequate and
many
high-quality fish seed has been a basic requisite for aquacul-
ture development. Not surprisingly, therefore, shortages of
seed have been identified as being among the principal 7 Credit for small-scale aquaculture operations
constraints to the expansion and intensification of aquacul- The established aquaculturist may have several reasons for
ture in the Asian region (FAO/UNDP Aquaculture Devel- seeking credit assistance for his farm. Funds may be neces-
opment and Coordination Programme, 1976). While in sary for improvements in his installations and facilities to
some countries private companies are playing a major role prevent deterioration or to raise the efficiency of operations,
in the production and distribution of seed, in the majority of for the purchase of inputs such as seed and fertilizer, for
81
working capital purposes in advance of the receipt of producer and his family are not ignored, in some societies
proceeds from the sale of crops, etc* the value of improving the quality of one's assets, instead ol
The successful large-scale operators may not find it very merely adding to them, has not yet been fully recognized
difficult to secure whatever loan funds he wants to apply for (FAO, 1973a). Where this is the case, every effort should
in order to increase the profitability of his farm or to bemade to make fish farmers realize that application of
improve the management of the capital at his disposal. He loan proceeds for the purchase of improved tools of produc-
will not lack collateral and his commercial and financial tion (better seed, feeds, etc) rather than for expenditures on
record usually will suffice to support his application for non-csscntial consumption goods will, in the longer run,
credit extension from a commercial banking institution. enable them to obtain disproportionately greater
Thesmall-scale operator, in contrast, will be in a very satisfactions.
different position. He will be handicapped in a number of Inability to produce collateral acceptable to the lending
ways. He may lack acceptable collateral, the loan interest institutions has in many cases prevented small-scale opera-
rates may be too high for him, there may not be any banks tors from deriving full benefits from credit schemes.
from which he might be able to borrow in his vicinity, and Provision of collateral in small-scale operations is re-
credit institutions may not be able to obtain any knowledge ported to be a problem for aquaculturc (South China Sea
on his business operations or his personal record; he, in Fisheries Development and Coordinating Programme, et
turn, may be ignorant of existing facilities to which he could ai 19 74) as much as for capture fisheries. While real estate
have recourse to meet his credit needs. Any of these factors, owned by the fish farmer is generally accepted as security,
and most likely several of them, may explain why the small- banks may provide evidence
insist that the loan applicant
scale operator may experience difficulties in raising loan that he has full title to it cannot produce a document
or, if he
funds and to reach the stage for independent economic in evidence of his possession of title, other proof that no
k
growth of his business. shairf ownership is involved (fc, they may ask the owner to
To some extent, ability to secure credit assistance de provide evidence, for instance, that the property has been
pends on the purposes for which the funds are requested. If declared by him for tax purposes for a given number of
the object is to obtain funds, for example, for shrimp export years and that he and the preceding holders had been in
operations, even the small scale farmer may not have any continuous and uninterrupted possession for a given length
problems approaching regular banking channels. Many
in of time) (FAO/IBRD Cooperative Programme, 1972). As
commercial banks, thus, arc said to sec in crop financing an already indicated, farm land is often of little importance as
excellent way of employing their funds on a short-term collateral because of the low valuation placed on it by the
basis (FAO, 1973a). Expansion of lending of this type, it banks.
has been pointed out, has been held back by lack of crop Where fish farmers are operating on land leased from
insurance programmes (FAO/IBRD Cooperative Pro- government, extension of credit facilities may be hampered
gramme, 1972). by difficulties in obtaining bank acceptance of the leases as
Credits for the acquisition of inputs may be made avail- security. In the Philippines a few years ago, the Develop-
able under revolving fund arrangements, with the original ment Bank (DBP) was not prepared to accept a ten-year
allocation of finance coming from budgetary sources. lease as collateral but indicated that it would consider a 25-
Another potential source of funds for these purposes may year lease, renewable for another 25 years if the lessees had
be the large company which, with the already mentioned complied with all lease obligations, as tantamount to full
'estatc'-type of operation, may undertake to finance inputs ownership (FAO/IBRD Cooperative Programme, 1972).
in addition to purchasing the small farmer's harvest, and to Questions relating to land tenure and ownership of water
processing and marketing the crop. bodies were reported to have been detrimental to a wider
A fairly general feature of schemes facilitating the acqui- use of credit facilities for aquaculture operations in a
sition of inputs is that the borrowers are not provided with number of the countries of the Asia and Far East Region
cash but with the actual equipment they want to buy. The (FAO/UNDP Aquaculture Development and Coordina
rationale for this procedure is two-fold; on the one hand, the tion Programme, 1976). To overcome such obstacles and
lending agency, which has a certain expertise in the field, to facilitate credit operations, national banks in Indonesia
helps decide what and how much are needed; on the other indicated that they were ready to accept, in lieu of collateral
hand, there is no possibility that beneficiaries of the scheme security, carefully prepared feasibility studies providing
use cash funds made available to them under the scheme for evidence of good prospects of success, In Nepal, the Gov-
purposes other than those for which the scheme is operated. ernment announced its readiness to guarantee loans ex
Even then, however, the aims of loan assistance may still be tended to recent fishery graduates who entered the industry
frustrated if the beneficiaries of a scheme which is to in order to encourage newcomers to take up fish farming.
facilitate the acquisition, for example, of feed, harvesting Credit costs, too, have been mentioned as a major
gear, fertilizer, etc, sell the supplies which they have ob obstacle to expansion of credit for aquaculture (Pillay,
tained as a result of this assistance in the open market, and 1977), especially for small-scale operations. In Asia and
there is therefore need for close supervision in all credit the Far East, therefore, where credit facilities were available
operations. throughout the region, it was thought that credit costs in
In some rural societies, small-scale farmers have been many cases were prohibitive for a majority of potential loan
wont to use short-term cash credits extended for production applicants.
purposes, for personal consumption uses including hous- The suggestion has been made that agencies extending
ing, socio-religious ceremonies, and to meet family finan- credit to aquaculture should charge a concessional rate of
cial commitments such as expenses for school fees, hospital interest during the initial stages of development of the
While a comprehensive credit programme must
bills, etc. industry (Pillay, 1977). Concessional rates of interest, fora
ensure that the more important personal needs of the set period of time, may be defended on the ground that they
82
may serve as an incentive to induce borrowers to take out part of the Rural Banks in publicizing the availability of the
loans for ventures that merit priority support, that the lower new credits for small fishermen. This failure to publicize the
costs may be necessary for the critical initial period of availability of these credit schemes may have had some-
operations, or that they may help the entrepreneur to take thing to do with relatively low returns on aquaculturc
full advantage of favourable opportunities in a given situa- credits and the existence of reportedly more profitable
tion. In principle, interest rates on loans to fish farmers outlets for the Banks' loan funds.
should not differ from those applicable to loans for other
sectors of theeconomy which are given the same order of
economic and Within the sector,
social planning. 8 Features essential for the success of aquaculture credit
priority in
of course, distinctions may be made between different types schemes
of operations (eg, export versus domestic consumption- In addition to proper consideration of the ability of benefi
oriented and classes of borrowers (large-scale versus small- ciaries to take advantage of a credit scheme (/<?, to raise
scale operators), again in line with the priority criteria laid necessary collateral, pay stipulated interest rates, etc\ and
down in the economic and social plan. Care has to be for co-ordination of credit with other assistance, there are a
exercised that the social objectives of support policies are few more general conditions which a credit scheme must
not lost sight of by, for example, giving large-scale opera- satisfy to stand a reasonable chance of working
tors the opportunity to borrow at below-market rates from successfully.
government institutions and banks, while leaving marginal Prospects of success may hinge far less on the overall
operators at the mercy of private money lenders who charge total of loan funds for distribution than on the availability
usurious rates. of the right amount, at the right time, through the right
Even if the cost of the loan to the individual borrower channel, to the intended borrower.
through a concession on the interest rate has not been The object of credit assistance may easily be frustrated if
intentionally lowered, there arc ways and means of keeping the loan funds extended are below the amount the borrower
the overall cost of a loan programme down in order to needs and has applied for (Pillay, 1977). There are several
increase thenumber of potential beneficiaries. One way in reasons for this shortfall in the loan sum (a ) the magnitude
:
which savings may be made in the administration of credit of the borrower's credit needs may have been underesti-
schemes assisting fish farmers who are geographically dis-
mated in the feasibility
study; (b) working capital require-
over a wide area, is to enlist the collaboration of ments a specified period after the project becomes
for
persed
local agencies (eg, field personnel of the administrative operational may have been ignored in drawing up the credit
services concerned with agriculture or fisheries, bank application (in some countries, long-term loans for aqua-
branch offices) and institutions (eg, co-operatives) in ap- culture almost routinely include a line for annual produc-
tion expenses); (c) there may be limitations on the ability of
praisal and supervision activities.
Another way of achieving savings is through improve- lending agencies to extend funds which, in turn, may reflect
ments in the management of schemes. Lack of efficiency (or the small size of the capital resources of the lending institu-
cumbersome procedures) in administration may not only tion, ormay result from statutory lending limits applicable
to certain types of banks; in addition, various banking
prevent the lending institutions from realizing savings that
could be used to expand the credit programme but also may institutions may have specific restrictions with respect to
the extension of certain types of loans, eg. for fish farms of
adversely affect the inclination of would be borrowers to
avail themselves of the facilities (FAO/1BRD Cooperative given si/es.
was reported To cite an example in the Philippines, an amount of USS
Programme, 1972). In one instance, it that,
under centralized approval procedures for aquaculturc 1 '9 million destined for fish pond development, which was
loans, it took up to three months to process a loan applica- part of a si/eable World Bank loan in 1969, was to be
tion. Since the fish farmers had to have on deposit the share disbursed by the Central Bank of the Philippines through
of project costs for which they were responsible while the selected banks of the Rural Banks system (FAO/IBRD
loan application was being processed, many withdrew their Cooperative Programme, 1972). According to statutory
money because they did not want to wait until approval was restrictions. Rural Bank loans to a single borrower could
obtained. Administrators of loan schemes for small scale not exceed 5% of the Bank's combined paid-in capital and
1
processing procedures are speeded up. which was considered not quite sufficient for the construc-
tion of a 25 ha farm, the minimum size operation that was
There ample evidence that in the small-scale sector,
is
pines, a disappointing disbursement record was explained, which the World Bank loan was intended to finance.
among other reasons, by lack of promotional efforts on the Timing decisions are of importance where not only loan
83
disbursement but also loan repayment is concerned. The of the countries concerned, by studying existing aquacul-
money must be available for the borrower when he has to ture credit facilities in relation to present and prospective
make his input purchases or
arrangements for the shipment plans for development. As more and more of the developing
of his crop; the repayment instalments should be scheduled countries are taking steps, within the framework of Re-
to ensure remittance when the sales proceeds are likely to be gional Workshops organized under the FAO/UNDP
obtained. Aquaculture Development and Coordination Programme,
The advantages of using local channels for the adminis- to outline their plans for aquaculturc development, and as
tration of aquaculturc credit schemes has already been supplementary information is being assembled on credit
discussed. As in any kind of credit scheme, geographic and facilities available for aquaculture support, a data base for
close acquaintanceship between credit agent and borrower the proposed exercise is being created. By using this statist!
are invaluable assets in administration* cal material, an experienced credit operations specialist,
Although it may be true that the development of aquacul- working in close collaboration with fish farming experts,
ture credit facilities has been retarded at times by failure to should not find it too difficult to draw up proposals for
pay one or more of the above factors,
sufficient attention to improved facilities and procedures in aquaculture credit
the relatively slow growth of such facilities on a global basis administration.
It is suggested, therefore, that this Conference consider
may have other roots. In the main, it is suggested that this
slow growth reflects a lag in technical, management and the desirability of reviewing national aquaculturc credit
economic expertise on aquaculture operations, which has schemes to determine their adequacy in the light of sectoral
held back the development of the industry in some develop- development plans, and that it further consider ways and
ing regions. Country reports from the Asia and Far East means of organizing the study (including funding, neces-
Region on aquaculture development thus, without excep- sary expertise, and duration of research).
tion, refer problems associated with introduction of
to
suitable designs and construction methods for ponds, lack
of knowledge and experience in modern culture techniques, 10 References
lack of availability of seed (considered by some as the most FAO, Report of the 'I AC Working dioup on Aquaculturc Papei
important constraint to expansion ), lack of competent man 1973 presented to the Seventh Meeting of the Consultative Group
on International Agricultural Research, Technical Advisory
agement and of other expert staff to carry out project Committee, Rome, February 1974 Rome, FAO, TAC Sec-
feasibility and analysis work (South China Sea Fisheries retarial
FAQ, Agnculluial credit three areas noith-eastem
Development and Coordinating Programme, et aL 1974).
in village in
1973a Tanzania, a case study, Working Paper No. 2. Rome, I
1
AC).
Not all of the countries in this region, however, are handi- I'AO Agiicultuial Credit Case Studies
capped in equal measure. The specialists processing aqua- FAO/IBRD Cooi'LRAiw PROGRAMME Repoit of the I-ishencs
culture loans in the Philippines, for instance, are considered 1972 Project Prepaiation Mission to the Philippines Rome, I'AO,
vols 1and 2 (confidential)
highly qualified (FAO/IBRD Cooperative Programme, I-AO UNDP.
Aquatulturc Planning in Alnca Repoit of the Hist
1972). At the same time, though, it has been felt that the 1975 Regional Woikshop on Aquacultuie Planning m Afnca Accra.
Ghana. July 1975 ADCP RFP 75 1, Rome. I AC)
Rural Banks system in that country might have been able to I-AO UNDP, Aquaculture Planning m Asia Repoit of the Regional
handle a substantially larger number of loans if additional 1976 Woikshop on Aquacultuie Planning in Asia Bangkok
Thailand, October 1975, ADCP/REP/76/2, Rome, I'AO
fishery technicians had been available to assist in the
li>Yii,C I* Marine aquacultuie problems and prospects ,/ hish
,
ment. With funding a main constraint in most countries of PILLAR T V, R. Planning of aquacultuie development an intio-
dilatory guide, (partl> based on the discussions ;u (he FAO
1
>""
( ?
the world, the emphasis must be on creating, expanding, or NOR ADRound I able on the "Strategy foi Development of
strengthening aquaculture credit schemes that meet the Aquacullurc as an Industry", Svanwy, Norway, July 1974)
Farnham, Surrey. Fishing News Books Ltd
industry's requirements for investment capital, input pur- SOUTH CHINA SI-A FISHI-KMS DrvnoPMiNT AND C<K)RI>INATFNC:
chase, crop financing and essential consumption expendi- 1974 PROGRAMME, et aL, The South China Sea fisheries a pioposal
tures of the operator. for accelerated development. Rome FAO, SCS/DEV/73,1
Before programmes to effect such improvements can be pag var
WLHBUR. H, H. Risks to the aquaculture enterprise.
launched, it will be necessary to identify the specific needs 1973 2 157-72
Aquaculture Development
A bstract Directed research at a level appropriate for solving the problems
Aquaculture is a relatively new science which has. in its early stages, encountered m production programmes has to be carried out to support
been heavily oriented to biological investigations. Production practices aquaculture development. Such research has necessarily to be rmiltidisci
have evolved through trial and error, and recent researches have helped plinary and systems oriented. The facilities required for experimental
in understanding the scientific basis of some of the successful practices, and pilot scale studies make research of this nature relatively expensive.
hxpansion of aquaculturc in the future is expected to be based on transfer Although both agriculture and animal husbandry arc based on a limited
of technology, improvement of existing practices, and the development number of species, aquaculture has, for various reasons, to be based on a
of new technologies much larger number of species and consequently calls for much greater
84
research etlort, The development of appropriate technology for the a Pamelioration des pratiques piscicoles soit utilisec au micux, Autres
culture of even a small number of species requires more effort and aspects importants de I'efficacite des activites dc vulgarisation: un
resources than most existing institutions can now afford. materiel audio-visuel appropnc ct la facilitc d'acces a un systeme
A wide spectrum of interrelated studies is required to develop an d' information bien organise.
aquaculture system or to effect improvements in the existing systems. La mise sur pied du reseau regional de centres de recherche recom
Recent assessments of current research and future needs on both national mandee par les groupes d'experts devrait se faire grace aux efforts
and international bases have underlined the need to channel diverse conjoints d'agences donatrices interessees en aquaculture. La planifica
efforts into co ordmated programmes, tion du developpement, notamment au niveau de 1'organisation de la
A Working Group of the Technical Advisory Committee (TAC of ) recherche et des services de vulgarisation, devrait recevoir de la part des
the ConsultativeGroup on International Agricultural Research and later gouverncments la prioritc qu'il convicnt. Pour faciliter la realisation des
a Sub Committee appointed by 1 AC' reviewed research needs in devel programmes de recherche, la collaboration de Pindustrie et des mstitu
oping countries and proposed the organization of co ordmated regional tions academiques est a rechcrcher
networks, consisting of regional research centres closely linked to
selected national centres for research and training purposes. Regional Investigacion y serviclos de extension para el desarrollo de la
85
analogy rests there because aquaculture research has to go a which the prospects of success and the anticipated difficul-
long way to reach the level of agricultural research even a ties are of a different order, in somewhat the same way as
century ago. It appears to have originated as part offish or has been done in agriculture research (Salmon and Hanson,
fishery biological studies and continues to be heavily ori 1964). Research at a relatively simple level would be
ented to biological investigations. Individual researches on designed primarily to use known principles and derive
the life history and behaviour of cultivable aquatic orga answers to the aquaculturist's immediate problems; con-
nisms still form a good part of aquaculture research. cerning, for example, induced breeding of fish, stocking
With or without research support, aquaculture has devel- densities, fertilizer use in ponds, feeding and management
oped into a significant food production industry in some practices. At a deeper level would be observations or
countries, particularly those of Asia and the Far East, experiments to determine why certain practices are better
Largely, through trial and error, certain systems of culture than others. At a third, and even deeper level, would be
have evolved and recent research has helped understanding research designed to determine the basic physiological or
of the scientific basis of many of these practices, enabling chemical reasons for certain phenomena, such as the inabil
improvements to be effected in the techniques. Transfer of ity of some organisms to attain maturity in confined waters,
these existing technologies is conceived as the first step in or the need for specific elements in the nutrition of particu
the expansion or introduction of aquaculture, particularly lar organisms, or the mode of inheritance of animal and
in thedeveloping countries. This will undoubtedly involve plant characteristics including resistance to disease and
testingand modifications of techniques to suit local require- environmental ha/ards. Such research is relatively more
ments. Research so far carried out in aquaculture has expensive, difficult and time-consuming. At a fourth and
demonstrated that existing technologies can be greatly still deeper level might be research to obtain a better
improved, enabling intensification of culture operations understanding of the reproductive physiology, the nature of
and consequent increases in yields and profitability. The genes, development of toxicity in certain organisms, etc.
need for developing new technologies and new systems of This type of research needs a high level of scientific exper
culture based on new species to meet domestic or export tise and sophisticated equipment and facilities. Distinguish-
market requirements is widely recogni/ed; and scientific ing between these four levels of research docs not imply that
research is obviously required for this purpose as well. they should be conducted separately or independently. In
Thus, any form of aquaculture development needs scientific fact, research at more than one or even at all levels may well
research as has been emphasized in almost every important be carried out in the same institution. It is, however,
meeting held on the subject. Unfortunately, and often not important to ensure that the level of research is appropriate
recognized, the fact is that in the absence of effective for the solution of the problem under consideration. It is in
extension services much of the results of research will this context that the catcgori/ation of aquaculture research
simply remain in experimental stations. One can identify becomes relevant, for the nature of the problem or the
several examples where industry has not been able to take phenomenon to be studied will determine the type of
advantage of the results of research. This may be due to the research required. It is necessary, therefore, to establish m
lack of appropriate follow-up action, or defects in the advance what the problems are and what is sought to be
structure and nature of the extension services. achieved as a result of study.
Trained scientific personnel, adequate equipment and
facilities and indeed a scientific atmosphere are essential for
2 Some general considerations development of research at any level; but in the ultimate
The need for research in aquaculture is
generally accepted, analysis much of these devolve on appropriate funding. In
but the nature of research and how
should be carried out
it
spite of the general interest, research funding in the aqua-
remain somewhat unclear. Aquaculture involves the con- culture sector has been very limited. To a cerain extent, this
trol of adverse conditions that usually cause high mortali- isascribable to the unfamiliarity of funding agencies with
ties, and inhibit rapid growth and reproduction in selected aquaculture and its potential for future development. Con
organisms. Real husbandry would involve maximum con- siderable scepticism is sometimes expressed about the eco-
trol of the factors that limit production, and would include nomic viability of aquaculture, the possibility of producing
genetic manipulation of the organism to improve its quali- aquafoods at prices that the common man can afford and
ties and suitability for culture* Aquaculture research has to even the usefulness of some of the research. In this respect,
be directed toward producing the science on which hus aquaculture cannot compare with agriculture or even con-
bandry practices can be based. ventional fisheries, where production is widely spread out
Two categories of research relevant to aquaculture need and, because of a well accepted need to produce, govern-
to be considered: (/') applied research and development; and ments are willing to subsidize production heavily and
(//') directed basic research. In applied research, science is provide other necessary incentives, including research and
applied to the solution of practical problems and most extension support. Although the current aquaculture pro-
aquaculture research falls into this category. A good deal of duction of over 6 million tons a year is substantial, particu
it.however, is directed toward gaining an understanding of larly so since almost all of it is used as human food and its
the under lying phenomena necessary for solving practical value is comparatively high, large-scale production is re
problems; this forms directed basic research. Develop- stricted to a small number of countries. This is a question of
mental research, as an extension of applied research, takes what comes first: the chicken or the egg? However, it
into account the fact that in applying recognized principles clearly shows the need for promoting a production pro-
in industry, additional research may be necessary to adapt gramme using the existing technology where feasible, in
laboratory procedures to large-scale operations. order to attract the necessary support for research and to
Instead of trying to classify research, one may try to clear the misconception among some that aquaculture is
determine the different levels of aquaculture research in still in an experimental stage. It may also be prudent to
86
orient initial research in most countries to the solution of re use of water, maintenance of optimal temperatures, oxy-
the more important problems facing production,
practical gen content, etc.
so that the impact of research on production can be demon (viii) Diagnosis and control of diseases including factors
strated in a reasonable period of time. This can be expected responsible for the occurrence of diseases, such as stress,
to facilitate support for long-term deeper research neces- contamination by pathogenic organisms, etc.
sary for even greater development of the industry. (u) Predators and their control.
A further major consideration in regard to aquaculture Ox) Genetics to develop suitable strains with desired
research is its multidisciplinary nature and the extent of qualities, such as hardiness, resistance to diseases, and
facilitiesrequired for experimental and pilot operations. enhanced food conversion.
Aquatic animals used for culture have a number of physio- (xi) Bio-energetics with a view to determining optimum
logical advantages compared to land animals, such as low- age or si/e to which the organisms should be grown, best
energy needs for growth and maintenance; but, these arc to time to harvest, best utilisation of food and evaluation of
a large extent counter balanced by some very serious limi- other production techniques.
tations imposed by the aquatic medium, such as susceptibil (xii) Harvesting and post harvest technology.
ity to pollution from external sources or by the metabolites (jf///) Marketing of aquaculture products.
excreted by the animal itself. (jc/v) Economics, including the comparative economics
The nature of the medium which aquatic animals live
in of different techniques applicable in a production system
also imposes restrictions on the introduction of non indige- and the economics of the system as a whole, determination
nous species for culture. Both agriculture and animal hus of economic size of operations and construction of appro-
bandry arc based on a limited number of species which have priate models to determine the inter-relationship of vari
already been widely distributed through human transfer, ables and their values in each technology, sensitivity of
but there are some serious objections to international ex- output measures, etc.
change of fish and shellfish. In the aquatic environment, The above outline illustrates the wide spectrum of inter-
even under controlled conditions, it is often extremely related research required to develop a system of aquacul-
difficult to eradicate an unwanted species and the effects of ture or to improve the existing systems.
escape of prolific species into natural water bodies are often A number of attempts have been made recently to review
difficult to observe and even more difficult to predict. It also the status of research in aquaculture and future needs on a
requires caution and technical expertise to prevent the national as well as international basis. The most recent
fortuitous introduction of pests, parasites and diseases made in the USA and
national studies appear to be those
through such introductions. The trend has, therefore, been Canada (NOAA/NMFS and Sea Grant, 1975; Pritchard.
to use locally occurring species with the result that present 1975). Reviewing the work carried out during the last
production is based on hundreds, rather than a few, species. decade in the USA, the NOAA study states that 'Past
This calls for much greater research effort, as the develop- approaches . were highly skewed toward biological re-
. .
ment of appropriate technology for the culture of even a search, often for purposes of management, not aquaculture.
small number of species requires more effort and resources Most efforts were sporadic and poorly funded. Few, if any,
than most existing institutions can now afford. engineering, economics or market-related information
needs were met and a systems approach was never applied
to aquaculture'. It recogni/ed the need to channel the
diverse efforts spread over some 20 agencies or organi/.a
3 Aquaculture research needs tions into a coordinated programme. The basic problems
Since aquaculture systems vary so considerably in the recognized in this study apply to a large majority of
species used, environmental conditions required and cul- countries.
ture methods followed, extremely difficult to outline all
it is According to information compiled by FAO in 1971
the types of research that need to be carried out. However, and 1973, there are 56 institutions in different countries
the mam elements of a research programme can be listed as meant solely for aquaculture studies and 103 institutions
follows: where aquaculture forms a part of the research programme.
(/) The selection of species for culture and study of the A number of these institutions, especially in developing
general features of their biology. countries, are small stations attached to experimental or
ing hatchery and farm installations and implements. A detailed review of research needs in aquaculture with
(/v) Reproduction of the species and mass production of particular reference to the needs of developing countries
seed with minimum mortality. was made by a Working Group on Aquaculture appointed
Determination of appropriate stock densities and
(v) by the Technical Advisory Committee (TAG) of the Con-
combinations of species and size groups for optimal sultative Group on International Agricultural Research
tion systems, has strong feed-back components. For /ation of such research on a regional basis. Because of the
instance* improvement in seed supply requires new food or diversity of species cultured, and the need to develop
feed production techniques as well as changes in engineer- technologies to suit different ecological and economic con
ing and management. The same is, of course, true when new ditions,it was considered impractical to centrali/.e aquacul-
strains or varieties emerge from the research effort. Thus, ture research in a single international centre. They pro-
the research in any one culture system must be considered posed that one existing centre in each of the three regions
as indivisible and selection of certain research problems for (Africa, Asia and Latin America) be developed into a
solution at the expense of others would be technically and regional research and training centre. Selected national
%
economically imprudent'. It reaffirmed that an integrated centres were recommended to be strengthened for under-
systems approach to such research is essential if a major taking research on problems of national or local importance
impact on aquaculture production is to be made in a and close linkages established between regional and
reasonable period of time'. The possibility of ccntrali/ing national centres forming three regional networks enabling
all major research on aquaculturc in an international centre free exchange of expertise and experience. Thus, both the
was considered and the Sub Committee was of the view that TAG Group of aquaculturists and the representatives of
it would be counter-productive to do so, because of the developing countries that participated in the regional work-
differences in species cultured and the need to study the shops have accepted the concept of systems oriented re-
search through regional networks. FAO has prepared draft
k
various aspects \n the set of environmental conditions in
which the particular species occurs and those in which it plans for the establishment of such networks in Africa, Asia
has to be reared'. The Sub Committee therefore recom- and Latin America and efforts are being made to obtain
mended the establishment of coordinated regional networks necessary funding to implement these plans.
of aquaculture centres for research and training in Africa, As a good number of countries have perspective develop
Asia and Latin America, consisting of regional centres for ment plans and have already selected the production sys
of local nature, field tests of techniques developed at the already been tried on pilot or production scale, the identifi
regional centres and adaptation of these to meet local cation of problems to be solved is also relatively easy; in
requirements. most cases this has already been done.
The establishment of such networks does involve appre
ciablc investments but far less than what is invested now in
animal husbandry. These
allied fields like agriculture or 4 Extension services
proposals remain
still unimplcmented. Questions have been The importance of extension services in aquaculturc devel
raised as to whether enough personnel arc available for opment will become obvious when one considers the anal-
advanced aquaculture research. It is true that the majority ogy of agriculture, where effective application of improved
of aquaculture scientists are general biologists by training farming methods has been achieved through well organized
and there is a scarcity of specialists with experience in extension work. Two levels of extension work arc often
aquaculture engineering, economics, or the biological fields involved in aquaculture: one for the transfer of the results of
like genetics and nutrition. But this is not an argument through field technicians and
scientific research to the field
against the establishment of research institutions as this the other for the application ofnew and improved methods
in production programmes through assistance and advice
problem can be solved through suitable organizational
arrangements. Interdisciplinary research is generally based given to farmers. A two-way exchange of experience be-
on teamwork and, if a team can have a core of aquaculture tween research scientists and field technicians is of mutual
scientists to provide orientation and guidance, the require- benefit: it helps the prompt application of research results in
ments for some of the specialists can be met by borrowing the field, and the research centres get feedback in the form
from allied disciplines, as for example, agriculture or irriga of results of field applications of laboratory techniques and,
lion engineers, agricultural economists, animal and plant more importantly, knowledge of problems faced by aqua-
culturists in the field. At the second level, extension work
geneticists, veterinarians, animal nutritionists, and animal
feed technologists. Institutions with adequate research involves provision of direct assistance and advice to aqua-
culturc practitioners. Such work is of special significance in
facilities,challenging research programmes and satisfac-
small-scale rural aquaculture. The extension agent has to be
tory working and living conditions can be expected to
attract capable scientists and technologists if imaginatively an excellent technician with the personal qualities and
administered. Such institutions can also offer the opportu appropriate attitude to work with farmers and persuade
nity foryoung scientists to gain experience through partici- them to employ new and improved technology. He will,
therefore, need specialized training in extension methods,
pation in research programmes.
As a part of the activities of the FAO/UNDPAquacul- besides having knowledge and practical experience in
ture Development and Coordination Programme, a series aquaculture.
of planning workshops were held in Africa, Asia and Latin While the technical knowledge and personal qualities of
America in 1975 (FAO/UNDP, 1975, 1976 and 1976a), extension agents are key factors, the organization of exten-
Participants from 34 developing countries prepared ten- sion services is of equal importance. Besides the advice and
year plans for aquaculture development in their countries, assistance that an extension agent may provide through
88
periodic visits to a farm, his services have to be available to like the Norwegian Agency for International
Development
the farmer at short notice to deal with emergencies; and this (NOR AD X Swedish International
Development Authority
necessitates the provision of an adequate number of agents (SIDA ), the World Bank Group and the Area Development
at thecommunity level, depending on the size and distribu- Banks have interest in aquaculture research. If these
that
tion of production units. The extension service should have agencies decide to co-operate with each other, the financing
institutional backing to provide the various services that the of the network of research centres is likely to become
farmers will need, such as selection of sites, design of ponds relatively easy. In fact, the FAO/UNDP Regional Work
and other culture facilities, soil and water analyses, diagno shop on Aquaculture in Asia (Bangkok, Thailand, 7 J 1
sis of disease and control measures, and periodic health October 1975) has recommended that a meeting of the
inspection. Financial assistance and credit provided to agencies involved and interested in providing assistance in
farmers should also be closely linked to extension services. the field of aquaculture should be convened to discuss
The availability of suitable audio-visual aids is of de- effective co-operation in the establishment and operation of
cided importance in effective extension work. There is a the proposed regional network of research centres.
great scarcity of instructional films, film strips and other Multilateral or bilateral assistance can only supplement
aids for use in training of aquafarmers. Preparation of such or strengthen national efforts. The organization of research
aids as well as the production of handbooks in different and extension services form the responsibility of govern-
languages deserve priority attention. ments and appropriate priority has therefore to be given to
A well organized information system is an important this in the public sector development plans. In advanced
requirement for effective extension work, to the same extent countries, the industry may be able to carry out research or.
as it is for proper scientific research. The extension agent at least, partially support it.The co-operation of industry
should have a ready source of information to keep himself and academic institutions should, therefore, be obtained to
well informed on new developments in the field. An efficient facilitate the implementation of research programmes.
system for collection, storage and retrieval of information is The laboratory and field facilities of the regional and
complex and expensive and therefore it might be advisable national research centres could be used for training of the
to organi/e it on a regional or international basis. However, core personnel needed for aquaculture development. Be-
arrangements can and should be made for prompt retrieval sides the in-service training of young scientists as aquacul-
of such information for national use by research and exten- ture research workers, the regional centres could be used
sion personnel. The national centres will
for the training of aquaculturists.
be most suitable for the training of extension workers and
such specialized training facilities could go a long way to
5 Conclusion improve extension services for aquaculture development.
For achieving the projected five- to ten-fold increase in
world aquaculture production through transfer of technol-
ogy, improvement of existing technology and the develop-
ment of new techniques and systems, appropriate levels of 6 References
or laboratories can have only limited impact on aquaculture hAO, Department of Fisheries, Fishery Resources Division, Aquu-
1973 culture Team. Supplement to Directory of fish eultuie leseaich
production. Although the organization of such research institutions f'AO T/s/i Tech, Pap (85) Rev, 1, Suppl,
, 6 p, 1 ,
cannot be inexpensive, the benefits to be derived from it are hAO/ UN DP, Aquaculture planning in Africa Report of tin hiisl 1
bound to be proportionately very much higher than from 1975 Regional Woikshop on Aquaculture Planning in Africa, Accra,
Ghana, 2 17 July 1975, Rome. FAQ, ADCP/REP/75, 14 p. 1 : 1
the fragmented efforts currently undertaken. hAO I'NDP. Aquacultuie planning in Asia, Report of the Regional
A
number of agencies have shown interest in aquaculture 1976 Workshop on Aquaculture Planning in Asia, Bangkok,
research and some of themarc providing modest support Thailand,! 17 October 1975 Rome, FAO, ADCP, REP, 76/1 ,
154 p.
for certain research programmes, eg, the United Nations \-AC) I'NDP, Plamlicacion dc la Acuicultuui en America alma I
Development Programme (UNDP), United States Agency 1976a Informe cle la Reunion Consultiva Regional de IManificacion
sohre Acuicultura en America Latma. Caiaeas Vene/uela
for International Development (US-AID), International
24nov 10 die 1975 Rome, hAO, ADCP
RKP 76 2: 173 p
Development Research Council (IDRC), the Canadian NOAA/NMFS AND OSG, NOAA
Aquaculture Plan -final diaft
International Development Agency (CIDA).and the Inter 1975 Seattle, Washington. U.S.A., 157 p. (MS)
89
A Role for Private Contract Research in the Ian S. Mtufarlane
mvestigaciones sc mide por la traduccion eficaz dc sus resultados en capital-intensive schemes involving high cost, high value
tecnologias practicas que puedan utilizar los piscicultores. species destined for the upper end of the market, may be
Las orgamzaciones privadas de mvestigacion por contrato son orga
chosen. Such roles are usually decided on the basis of
nos de especialistas que ofreccn una vasta gama de servicios de mvcstiga-
cion y dcsarrollo a la industria privada o publica. Realizan sus trabajos economic criteria,
con caracter privado y sc caracterizan por su gran eficiencia, su flexibili- cases where the aim of research is to provide a
In
dad, su adaptabilidad a las necesidades dc sus clientes y su eficacia en
funcion de los costos (capital fijo y utilizacion de mano de obra) Como subsistence-type fish farming activity, labour is usually
reahzan proyectos muy diversos, a menudo simultaneamente. pueden relatively cheap and available and inexpensive, biologically
acumular expcriencia sobre diversas cuestiones afines, que esta a disposi-
cion dc sus clientes. systems of fish production are often acceptable.
inefficient
90
Pillay (1973) states that 'action by the private sector, companies, public corporations or individuals, the informa-
due to proprietary nature has, unfortunately, not spread
its tion which they generate may, or may not, remain confiden-
very far and has contributed little to the overall develop- tial to the client. Usually a private contract research body
ment of the (aquacultural) industry'. It is true that private will provide its services simultaneously to a number of
industry has found it difficult to see a part for itself in the different contractors, some of whom may be m direct
development offish culture technology, and unlikely that it commercial competition. Two
main considerations stimu
will do so in relation to those underdeveloped regions of the late the use of contract research, rather than the conduct of
world where the low economic status of the population Mn house' research. Firstly, it is often financially attractive
precludes the existence of a true demand, as opposed to since the contract organization, conducting several projects
need, for the products offish farming. Financial support for simultaneously, can be highly cost-effective in terms of
development in these regions and support from inter manpower and fixed capital utilization, and can usually
national bodies will continue to be very important. undertake projects more cheaply than the contractor him-
The strategy of research has been defined for a number of self. Where high fixed capital costs are involved, the smaller
established industries, eg. the chemical industry (Baincs, company would frequently be unable to do research at all,
Bradbury and Suckling, 1969). The technology of fish other than by contracting it out. Secondly, the contract
farming is more akin to that of agriculture than of industry. research company is valuable in acting as a reservoir of
Thus, it is a diverse field whose form and efficiency depend knowledge and information. Whilst the results of any re-
upon such factors as local conditions of climate, terrain, search project arc confidential to the client, each client will
water quality and availability, economic conditions, market benefit from the pool of expertise developed by virtue of the
requirements and available expertise. Only seldom is there contracting organi/ation 's activities for other clients. By its
a specific problem requiring research solutions of a basic, nature, a contract research organi/ation is extremely fiexi
fundamental or academic type. More commonly the need is ble and responsive to the requirements of its clients. It is
lor steady progress in the development of husbandry and able, therefore, to respond rapidly to those requirements
management techniques, facility design and equipment, or and, having the basic equipment necessary to undertake the
of improved supplies in the form of foodstuffs, basic stock, work, can usually adapt to new demands quickly without
construction materials and Pharmaceuticals. Despite a re incurring large additional costs for plant. In general, the
quirement for more basic research in certain areas, most contracting organi/ation is smaller than any of its Individ-
research needs are best met by target research where the from bureaucratic inertia and better able to
ual clients, freer
need is first defined and then satisfied by a variety of forms cross political and geographical barriers.
of research activity, often of an interdisciplinary nature. The approach of a private contract research body to
The need may be complex but it is usually capable of questions of secrecy can be flexible. In the most extreme
definition in terms of economic and technical criteria. cases a client'sname may require protection; more com
Frequently a gulf exists between the fundamental re- monly, of research or product is secret, or it may be
his line
search worker and the worker in technological research. that only the results of his work will require confidential
Aquaculture research is no exception and it is common for treatment. Where work is done for national governments or
research effort to be concentrated upon one particular other government bodies, or where a supplier is developing
species, geographical location or culture method. Such a product for sale, the requirements may not be for confi
research will have no practical impact upon the develop dentiality but for rapid dissemination of new information.
ment offish farming unless it is part of a properly planned In these cases the contracting organization may be required
and meaningful programme aimed at a complete develop to play a part in disseminating information rather than in
ment of techniques available to. and usable by, the fish protecting it.
91
are only reluctantly drawn into participation in a new field. take place. Although the concepts of secrecy in research
This is particularly so where investment can lead to an and rapid development of a new industry may seem incom
unacceptable level of commitment too early in the life of a patible, in practice, results seldom remain secret once they
project. The use of contract research facilities minimizes are applied to a commercial project, and the resulting
commitments and enables an organization to assess the improvement in knowledge usually quickly results in ad
value of a project whilst remaining remote from it, so that vanccs in a wide range of similar or associated projects.
the consequences of its failure arc limited. Fish farming is (v) Development of pilot-scale production projects, defi-
not an obvious diversification possibility for many com- nition of methods on the production scale and development
mercial companies. They are more likely to begin work in of working production techniques.
this field, which is new to them, if they are able to do so (v/) Utilization of a background of expertise in a wide
without the need for an excessive level of direct variety of different production systems, materials, and
involvement. geographical, climatic and social conditions in the design,
To most large organizations fish farming may appear a construction and commissioning of facilities for fish
small-scale activity, capable of expansion only within quite production.
close limits at any one location. The overheads of large (v/7) Provision of a supporting service to new develop-
organizations are frequently too large to permit them to ments as production begins, This may include provision of
participate in such small-scale activities, especially where supplies and stock, staff training and resolution of early
research and development is required. The smaller si/e of a organizational problems as they arise.
fish-farming contract organization, and its inherent effi- (viii ) Provision of a continuing service of refinement and
ciency, means that overheads may be reduced and the initial improvement of techniques aimed at maximization of pro-
requirement for investment minimized, This could make duction. Aquaculturc, although by no means a new method
the difference between acceptance and rejection of a fish- of food production, is so far relatively undeveloped. In this
farming investment opportunity by a large public or private situation quite small technological advances can have con-
organization. siderable impact upon the efficiency offish production and
(//') At the feasibility assessment stage, by the collection the range of application of fish-farming methods. The
and correlation of data relevant to the project, and assess- adaptability of the contract research organization might
ment of the potential for success. During the initial stages of make it a highly desirable route by which knowledge may
development of any fish-farming project a wide range of be disseminated, and this would result in rapid exploitation
expertise must be brought to bear on the problems of of new technology over a wide range of field situations.
planning. The contract research body, with its experience of There is also a role in relaying information on the nature of
a variety of fish-farming methods in a wide range of geo- practical farming problems back to fundamental or applied
graphical and climatic situtations, can contribute signifi- research workers.
cantly to this planning phase. Thus the ability to operate on
a worldwide basis will ensure that experience is drawn,
where applicable, from one region or species, and applied to 4 Conclusions
similar situations in another region or with another species. A private contract research service, operating in a comple
It is doubtful if any organization, other than one deeply mcntary role with existing research and development agen-
involved with the practical problems offish cultivation in a cies, might encourage more investment in the development
variety of different situations, can fill this role effectively. of fish farming from government and private sources. By
(//'/') During the fundamental research stage, stimulation providing an efficient, practically oriented service, co-ordi
of academic or basic research activity and co-ordination of nated with the true needs of producers and suppliers, it
such activity with practical needs. could do much to assist in extending fundamental research
(/v) Development of techniques, and testing of produc- into field tests, pilot scale projects, production farms, and
tion methods and supplies on a proprietary basis. It is often eventually, increased food production from fish farming.
difficult for otherresearch and development organizations
to undertake their work on a proprietary basis. Without the
5 References
ability to gain some commercial advantage over competi-
tors, many commercial organizations which might contrib-
BRADBURY,
BAiNi'S, A,, RI Sue KI ING, C W, Research in the
,
research results in developments which might not otherwise 1974 Mar Bioi, 12 413 20
Aquaculture
Abstract have been actively studying fish disease problems associated with inter
Although disease in cultivated aquatic organisms isone of the major WHO
national transfers of live fish and eggs, and has been interested in
biological risks facing aquaculturc development its importance is often health problems associated with fish disease. A recent survey of
public
under estimated, While knowledge of diseases of freshwater fish has laws and regulations showed that the majority of countries exercise some
increased rapidly over the past twenty years, much less is known about form of control on shipments, but the effectiveness of health control
diseases of marine fish, molluscs, crustaceans and seaweeds. measures varies from satisfactory to ineffective,
Several international organizations, such as OIE, FJFAC and FAO A Symposium on the Major Communicable Fish Diseases in Europe
92
and their Control organi/ecl by FAO/EII-AC with the support ot OIE in
tuycn uno de los principals peligros biologicos para el desarrollo de la
1972. concluded that. (/) there was a need for international control of aciucultura. con frecuencia se subestima su irnportancia Mientras los
traffic in live fish and fish eggs. (//) the most eflcetive control measure conocimientos sobre las enfermedades de los peces de agua dulce nan
was inspection source combined with certification; and (///')aquacul
at aumentado rapidamente durante los ultimos veinte arios, se sabe muy
lure establishments under surveillance and certified free from diseases
poco sobre las enfermedades de peces marmos, moluscos. crustaeeos, \
were the ideal situation. algas
hollowing a recommendation by ElhAC (1 972) and enquiry of Vanas organi/,aciones internacionales. como la OIF, la CAEPC y la
concerned Member Governments, a Government Consultation on an FAO han dedicadoaetivamenteal estudiode k>s problemas ictiopato
se
International Convention to Control the Spread of Major Comrnumea logicos deterrninados por las transferencias internacionales de peces
blc Fish Diseases was convened by HAC) m 1974, The majority of \ivos y huevos. > la OMS se ha interesado por los problemas sanitanos
delegates at the Consultation recogm/ed the need for a Convention.'and relacionados con las enfermedades dc los peces Fn un reciente estudio
a further legal/technical consultation on the subiect. de las leyes y reglamentaciones en este campo se ha hallado quo l*t
Meanwhile, a number of governments as well as national and indus mayona de los paises controlan de una u otra forma los embarques. pero
trialorganizations are taking steps to control the spread of disease in con muy diversa eficacia: a veces las medidas resulum satisfactonas y
food, sport and ornamental fishes as well as of molluscan parasites. otras veces totalmente inefieaces.
In instituting and maintaining rules for health control in cultivated Hn
el Simposio sobre las Pnncipales Enfermedades Transrnisibles de
aquatic animals and plants, knowledge must be obtained concerning the los Peces en Furopa y la Lucha contra las Misrnas. orgam/ado por FAO
identification, nature arid occurrence of the most dangerous C'AEPC, con apoyo de la OIF. en 1972. se llego a la conclusion de que
pathological
organisms affecting them. Reliable and standardized diagnostic meth- (/ era necesario un control internacional del trafico de peces vivos v
)
ods, and criteria for disease-free status of aquaculture establishments huevos de peces: (// la mcdida de control mas efica^ era la inspection en
)
must be developed. First consideration must be given to fish diseases el punto de ongen. acom panada de la emision de certificados.
> (///) lo
which have already been thoroughly considered by national and intcrna ideal era con tar con explotaciones acui colas de las que. con la oportuna
tional organ i/ati on.s After that other diseases of freshwater fish and
vigilancia. se pueda ccrtificar que estan exemas de enfermedades
those of marine fish, cultivated molluscs, and seaweeds should receive
Siguiendo una recomendacion hecha por la CAhPC 1972). y tras (
d'organisations nationales et mdustrielles prennent actuellement des formerly empirical character. Nevertheless, many prob
dispositions pour enrayer la propagation des maladies aficetant les lems remain which hinder its present progress toward the
poissons de consommation, les poissons de peche sportive et les cspeecs establishment of viable industries, and its very development
ornementalcs, ainsi que la propagation des parasites chez les mollusques
Pour instaurer ct faire observer des regies dc controle sanitaire creates new problems which must be overcome to further
apphcables aux animaux ct plantes aquatiques cTeleyagc, il importe que itsprogress. Aquaculture enterprises, like other ventures in
nous cnnehissions notre savoir afin de pouvoir identifier et determiner la
nature et la frequence des organismes pathogcnes les plus dangereux. II agribusiness, are subject to a series of situations which
faudra mettre au point des methodes de diagnostic fiablcs ct les normal -
frequently govern the success or failure of such activities.
iser, ct definir des criteres pcrmettant de certifier que les etabhssemcnts
know-how, scarcity of trained person
?#, lack of technical
d'aquaculturc sont exempts de maladies. II faudra considerer en premier
lieu les maladies des poissons qui ont dcja fait I'objet d'un examen
nel and a need of funds for capital investment. But in
approfondi dc la part des organisations nationales et internationales. On addition to these* the cultivation of aquatic organisms faces
passera ensuitc a d'autrcs maladies des poissons d'cau douce et a celles
des poissons de mer, des mollusques d'elevage et des algues. many biological risks, a feature which differentiates it from
Une cooperation constante entrc les organisations internationales qui many industrial developments and brings it closer to sys-
s^nteressent
a 1'aquaculture permettra d'assurer la protection des stocks tems of agriculture and animal husbandry. Two major
d'elevage et le developpement d'une aquaculture plus rationnelle.
biological risks which threaten aquaculture arc instability
Aspectos internacionales de la lucha contra las enfermedades en in provision of water of suitable quantity and quality, and
acuicultura
Ev tract o the ever present susceptibility of cultivated animals to
Aunque las enfermedades de los orgamsmos acuaticos cultivados const! disease.
93
2 Disease in cultivated aquatic organisms 3.1 The International Office of Epizootics (OIE)
The role of diseases in aquaculture, which may be enor- The International Office of Epizootics (OIE), Paris, has
mous, sometimes underestimated. Diseases are important
is
stressed the importance of control of fish diseases and of
economically because they can cause mass mortalities, health inspection of fish products since 1960. OIE has
reduce production and diminish the quality of aquatic formulated an International Zoo-Sanitary Code (concern
organisms as food. The protection of the stock of cultivated ing mammals, birds, fish and bees) to be considered as a
aquatic organisms from diseases must, therefore, receive guide to facilitate the work of veterinary services and
1
high consideration in the initiation, development, and inten- suggested a 'model or ^pattern' certificate for use in interna
sification of any form of aquaculture. Use of intensive tional trade for live fish and fish eggs. It has established a
methods which is the general trend of modern aquaculture, Permanent Commission for the Study of Fish Diseases
is usually profitable
only under conditions of high stock which has elaborated an international prophylactic plan for
density, and in such intensified culture systems, disease fish diseases, and has organi/ed three
symposia on fish
assumes more importance. This may, however, also apply diseases (Turin, 1962; Munich, 1965, Stockholm, 1968)
to extensive aquaculture, and it should be noted that while (OIE, 1963, 1966, 1968). It has also provided support to
prophylactic and curative measures can be undertaken theSymposium on the Major Communicable Fish Diseases
economically in intensive systems, they are much more m Europe and their Control held in Amsterdam, 1972
difficult to use in the more traditional extensive culture. (section 3.2 below). During the OIH Commission meet-
Knowledge of diseases has, in general, progressed
fish ings, not only have suggestions been made for international
rapidly in the past twenty years or so, but this knowledge is rules (including those for health certificates of origin for
based primarily on the diseases that affect fish cultivated in live fish and fish eggs), but a list offish diseases including
fresh water. Examples of some of the major compendiums their nomenclature and diagnostic methods has been pre
on the subject are the publications by Schaperclaus, 1954; sented. In 1968, the OIE included in its International Zoo-
Davis, 1961; Reichcnbach-Klinke, 1966; Ghittino, 1969, Sanitary Code, four communicable fish diseases: infectious
1970; Amlacher, 1970, 1972; Kabata, 1970; Bullock, pancreatic necrosis (IPN), viral haemorrhagic septicaemia
1971; Bullock, Conroy and Snieszko, 1971; Sang, 1971 (VHS), infectious dropsy (of carp) (!DC). and furunculosis
and Bauer, Musselius and Strelkov, 1973, Although many (F) (Ghittino, 1968). In 1970, whirling disease or myxoso
diseases of cultured species in freshwater environments are matosis (M ) was added to the list (OIH, 1971). The Code
well understood and methods for their control have been reflects suggestions made for the control of diseases in other
developed, the diseases of food fishes in marine water have cultivated animals following the disciplines of veterinary
only received descriptive attention. This aspect of fish science. OIE believes that fish health certificates will aid
pathology, which is as new as is marine fish culture, has international fish exchanges, even though not all producers
been reported upon generally by Sindermann (1970) and will immediately like the idea because of possible interfer
the most important diseases occurring in cultivated marine ence with the trade in live fish.
fishes have been summarized by Ghittino (1974a). Since OIE has recently studied modern prophylactic rules to
marine fishes are being cultivated more frequently, it is be applied to the principal communicable fish diseases. At
logical to assume that their diseases will also soon be an OIE meeting of experts held in Paris in December 1 974.
investigated thoroughly and control measures developed. criteriawere discussed concerning rules that might be
Mortalities due to diseases in other cultivated aquatic followed in establishing fish farms officially considered free
organisms (molluscs, crustaceans, frogs, reptiles and sea from major communicable fish diseases. From such farms,
weeds) have been reported in the literature, <% by Reichen a veterinary service might issue official fish health certifi-
bach Klinke and Elkan (1965); Iversen (1968, 1969); cates at the source (indeed these may be the only ones of
Sindermann (1970); Snies/ko (1970); Honma (1971); significant value ) to accompany exports and imports of live
Bardach, Rythcr and McLarney ( 972); Egusa, Guary and
1 fish and fish eggs. Such certificates would attest to the
Guary (1974). absence of the five major communicable fish diseases men-
So far, much emphasis has been placed on curing fish tioned in the OIE
International Zoo-Sanitary Code.
diseases and not enough on disease prevention. Much 'Specific Pathogen Free' (SPF), 'Specific Disease Free'
research required to increase understanding of the
is still (SDF)and 'Minimum Disease' (MD) conditions were also
diseases of cultured aquatic organisms, followed by
all recognized as feasible in farmed fish, following the same
development of treatment and prevention. general procedures recently adopted for other cultivated
animals, such as swine and poultry. The criteria and meth-
ods of official inspection for recognizing water areas and
3 Interested international organizations countries as free from selected fish diseases were also
The progress of international organizations up to 1972 discussed. The proceedings of this expert meeting and a
with respect to the control offish diseases has been reported review paper will include literature that may be consulted
in detail by Thompson, Dill and Moore (1973). The follow- by the administrative bodies concerned and by reference
ing account will briefly recapitulate this history and update laboratories for fish disease (OIE, 1975). The results of
it as far as
possible. It will be noted in this account that this OIE meeting may also facilitate a programme of
considerably more attention has been paid so far to diseases measures to be applied to the national and international
of fish rather than those of other organisms (Ghittino, control of diseases in other cultivated aquatic organisms,
1974b), since knowledge is more advanced in this field.
Some patterns of disease control which have been studied 3.2 European Inland Fisheries Advisory Commission (El-
for fish have also been proposed recently for other culti- FAC) and the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)
vated organisms, such as oysters (Snieszko, 1968), and The European Inland Fisheries Advisory Commission is an
they would also be suitable in other instances. intergovernmental body of 23 Member Governments with
94
the Secretariat furnished by the Food and Agriculture lance and certified free from diseases, were the ideal
imports and exports of live fish and fish eggs, including the convention for the control of international traffic in live fish
was also suggested that the Commission as an interim Following support for this proposal a Government Con
measure seek approval through FAO of Member sultationon an International Convention for the Control of
Governments for the adoption of a common form of the Spread of Major Communicable Fish Diseases was
health certificate for import and export of fish eggs. It convened by FAO at Aviemore, Scotland, 30 April May 1
was further emphasized that the closest possible co-opera 1974. The great majority of the delegates recognized the
tion and co-ordination be maintained with OIF. during the need for a Convention, expressed themselves generally in
study. agreement with the principles behind a proposed draft of
At the Fifth Scsson of EIFAC (Rome, 1968) some such a Convention, and recommended that a revised draft
degree of acceptance of the desirability of a health certifi- be submitted to governments for further comments (FAO.
cate for imports and exports of fish eggs was evidenced. 1974).
Also, FAO presented a 'Comparative Study of Laws and The revised draft was submitted to the Governments in
Regulations Governing the International Traffic in Live mid 1975. An analysis of the replies, while generally in
Fish and Fish Eggs' (Zcnny, 1969) (see section 5). It was favour of a Convention, indicates the need for a further
manifest from the study that there was a case for the legal/technical Consultation.
establishment of a uniform system of health control of
international traffic in live fish and fish eggs. It was felt, 3.3 World Health Organization (WHO)
however, that before
implementation whatever its The World Health Organization has also had an interest in
nature of such control, an evaluation should be made of the need for sanitary control of traffic in fish and fish
the degree of implementation and effectiveness of existing products as well as that in other animal and animal prod
health controls by the responsible agents as well as of the ucts. In 1964 it met with FAO and OIE at the Meeting on
economic factors concerning present and future traffic in Basic Principles for the Control of International Traffic of
fish and fish eggs. Animals and Animal Products, Berne. Switzerland, at
The Sixth Session of EIFAC (Krakow, 1970) followed which it was noted that fish and fish products may be the
this up by recommending that a symposium be held in 1972 cause of transmission of infectious and parasitic diseases of
which would: (/) review the magnitude of international man and animals, and that control of their international
traffic was necessary. This complex subject may be simpli-
exchange in live fish and fish eggs; (//' ) study a draft code of
and (//'/') consider the practical aspects of im- fied if criteria already in force for other animal products are
regulations',
plementation of regulatory measures. applied to fish products (see Ghittino, 1964).
Accordingly, a Symposium on the Major Communi- A WHO Expert Committee of Fish and Shellfish Hy-
cable Fish Diseases in Europe and their Control, organized giene convened in co-operation with FAO in 1973 (WHO.
by FAO/HIFAC with the support of OIE, was held at 1
974), emphasized that fish is a nutritious protein food but
Amsterdam in 1972, The meetings were technical and that its extensive utilization raises public health problems
scientific with the participants contributing as individual that will increase as new resources are exploited. (The
scientists and not as representatives of governments or increase in aquacultural products can be included here.)
intergovernmental bodies. The Symposium had the follow- Consequently their hygienic character should be guaran-
ing major objectives:(/) to determine the world distribution teed before consumption, especially to prevent some fish-
ment; (///) to determine the scientific basis for and feasibil Veterinary Medical Association. Products obtained
of international control measures; and(iv) to develop through aquaculture should be suitable for human con-
ity
guidelines for legislation governing control within or with- sumption or for any domestic use, /e, the economic aspects
out international boundaries, of aquaculture should not take precedence over its hygienic
Abackground paper (Thompson, Dill and Moore, aspects. It was pointed out that fish under extensive or
1973) which incorporated reports from 22 EIFAC coun- intensive cultures can be much more hygienic than the fish
tries, the USA and the USSR, was used especially as a basis caught in open bodies of water, inasmuch as it is possible in
for points (/)and (/r) above. These and the other objectives, fish farming to control environmental conditions and thus
95
countries for aprogrammed tight against dangerous com control of communicable fish diseases transported by tropi
municable trout diseases such as VHS and IPN. Particular cal aquarium fishes, and Conroy (1975) has made an
emphasis has been paid to the national campaign in Den- evaluation of the present state of world trade in ornamental
mark to eradicate VHS
and to the question of international fish, which indicates the need for disease control in interna-
health certificates for fish and fish eggs. tional traffic.
During FES Assemblies in 1974 and 1975, fears were The question of preventing the diseases of aquarium
expressed that the proposals for a draft convention for the fishes was thoroughly discussed at a meeting of the Pet
control of fish diseases as formulated at the Government
Industry Joint Advisory Council (Ghittino, 1974). The
Consultation held at Aviemore in 1974 if applied strictly meeting recognized the possibility of importing and spread
might interfere with the commercial trade of live fish and ing with aquarium fish and their transport-water, some new
fish eggs. According to FES
would be highly suitable for
it and aquatic organisms which may constitute a
fish diseases,
each country to study eradication programmes for fish hazard to aquatic eco-systems. Rules were also sought for
diseases by means of 'Specific Pathogen Free\ 'Specific neutralizing the transport-water of ornamental fishes with
Disease Free' or "Minimum Disease' methods (see section chlorine before disposal.
compounds
3.1) and that an information service be established to
collect data concerning fish farms registered in such man-
ner in Europe. 5 Legal basis for disease control in aquaculture
The comparative study of laws and regulations governing
international traffic in live fish and fish eggs by Zenny
4 National organizations concerned with health of aquatic (1969) (section 3.2) reviews the legal basis for interna
organisms tional fish disease control so thoroughly that the next four
The American Fisheries Society (AFS) established a Fish paragraphs will be devoted to abridging some of the
Disease Committee in 1964 which has influenced laws on findings.
importation of live or frozen salmonids and their eggs. They According to this paper, the majority of countries
have to be certified by the country of origin to be free from covered in the survey exercise some form of health or
Myxosoma cerebralis and 'Egtved virus', the etiological sanitary control over traffic in live fish and fish eggs, and
agents of whirling disease and VHS. The introduction and have laws or regulations for it. The traffic might be prohib
transfer of diseases of marine and estuarine fish and shell- ited, controlled or regulated concerning: the time, place and
fish have already resulted m serious economic problems to nature of health controls; the authorities performing the
commercial fisheries and manculture in the United States. inspections or issuing health certificates; and eventual quar
eg. the transfer of organisms harmful to oysters ('oyster antine measures. This paper also reviewed the various
drill' and haplosporidian, amoeboid and bacterial infec- methods of control existing in some countries: visual in
tions) and of crustacean diseases. Co-operation by Cana- spection of sanitary conditions offish and transport-water,
dian authorities has been urged to prevent the outbreak of
species identification, quarantine measures, packing, etc.
dangerous fish diseases in North America (Snieszko, The types of certificates prescribed
for consignments of live
1968). fish and fish ova were described. Certificates might be
A Canadian Committee on Fish Diseases in 1972 em- issued from the country of origin, or by local inspecting
phasized that the future of Canada's aquaculture industry, authority at the points of entry; sometimes certificates were
its recreational fisheries, and to some extent its commercial issued only if requested by the country for which the said
fisheries, depended on the existence and development of
exports were destined.
sanitary fish cultural operations. Such needs were docu The inspecting and certifying authorities usually belong
mentcd in a report which included an inventory on distribu- to the ministerial or governmental authority charged with
tion offish diseases in Canada, a review of local regulations
regulating fishery activities, or the task is delegated to
related to fish disease control, the possibilities of managing health, veterinary, or custom authorities. Quarantine meas-
fish diseases within the country, and the size of interna- ures are seldom applied and are logically restricted to
and fish eggs, and products from
tional traffic of live fish observation m quarantine ponds for one day up to a
fishfarms (Bell and Margolis. 1972). A Canadian manual maximum of 5-15 days. Some countries apply total or
has also been prepared concerning methods for recognizing some or all species of fish.
partial prohibitions to
the etiologic agents of important salmonid diseases includ The effectiveness of the measures adopted for health
ing instructions for laboratories which must perform tests control exercised over the traffic of live fish and fish eggs
aimed at excluding fish disease agents in imported fish was considered differently by the countries, ranging from
products (Gillespie el aL 1974). being satisfactory to more or less ineffective. More collabo
Several of the countries which have the greatest interest ration in applying uniform standards of health control was
inaquaculture are concerned about fish diseases. Different sought, and the need of establishing a uniform system of
measures are taken to control them: voluntary or compul health control in international traffic of live fish and fish
sory therapeutic treatment, a slaughter policy, and compul eggs was recogni/ed.
sory notification, with all the implicated consequences. The implementation of a uniform system of health con-
This subject, which has been reviewed by Ghittino (1966). trol and certification for might be secured
this traffic
is reported annually in the FAO/WHO/OIE Animal Year-
through the establishment of a convention or the issue of
book, which provides information on the incidence offish 'norms' or 'directives' defining the methods of control and
diseases and their methods of control. model of certificates. A convention would represent a legal
Diseases affecting ornamental fishes have not been binding instrument for those countries ratifying it, norms or
neglected within the framework of international measures directiveswould not be legally binding, but would represent
for fish health. Axelrod ( 1973) has reviewed the subject of standards to which countries may agree (Zcnny, 1969).
96
As has already been related (section 3.2), steps have now by Minchinia costalis and MSX by M. nelsoni): by cope-
been taken toward establishment of an international con- pods (Mytilicola orientalis, M. intestinalis, Pinnotheres):
vention for the control of major communicable fish and by gastropods Coyster drilF, Urosalpinx cinerea).
diseases. Comparable action should be carried out on the prevention
In themeantime, several countries are making individual of some serious diseases affecting cultivated marine mus-
efforts to control the spread offish diseases
through legisla- sels and clams, particularly that caused by the parasitic
tion and regulations, c#, Denmark, New Zealand, UK and copepod Mytilicola intestinalis.
USA. New legislation has been introduced to control not Crustaceans cultivated in fresh water or sea water should
only certain fish diseases such as VHS, furunculosis and be protected from important communicable diseases such
whirling disease (Denmark Law No. 283, June 1969) but as those caused by bacteria (Gaffkaemia and 'rust or shell
1
also ectoparasitic crustaceans in New Zealand (Anon., disease by chitinoclastic bacteria) and by fungi (Aphano
1975) and the shellfish pests, Crepidula, Mytilicola, and myces astaci),
Urosalpinx cinerea in the UK (Anon., 1975). The culture of seaweeds
is affected by diseases,
preda-
Efforts to avoid further harmful introductions and tors, foulingorganisms, bryozoans, ascidians, amphipods
spread of diseases threatening aquaculturc enterprises must and undesirable algae. No effective means for their control
be internationally co ordinatcd, and they should include are known. In addition to proper management techniques,
attention to all cultivated organisms. preventive measures should be undertaken, especially for
seed transfers, as soon as a thorough knowledge of such
pathological conditions is gained. For example, a fungus
6 Prevention of serious diseases of cultivated aquatic disease, caused principally by Pythium sp,, may cause 50%
cable fish diseases which have already been thoroughly ni/ed and co ordinated on a worldwide basis. Otherwise, all
considered by national and international organizations. the health programmes in aquaculturc will risk failure,
Some diseases selected for their importance in causing especially now that intensive methods are widely applied
serious losses in freshwater fish farming are VHS, IPN, and there is a considerable transfer of stock from country to
infectious dropsy, furunculosis and whirling disease. Other country.
fishdiseases which arc less important or still under study Health programmes in aquaculturc must be managed
should be kept on a waiting list for health certificates: IHN, scientifically. Knowledge of fish diseases has progressed
swim-bladder inflammation of cyprimds (SBl), channel rapidly but primarily for diseases afiecting fish cultivated in
catfish virus disease (CCVD) and pike fry rhabdovirus fresh water. Less is known about the diseases of marine fish
disease (PFRD) (Dill, 1972, 1973; hAO, 1974; OIK. which are cultivated, and even less about those of other
1975). cultivated organisms, such as molluscs, crustaceans and
Some important diseases of cultivated marine fishes may seaweeds. Particular studies are warranted on the subject.
be included in the future, eg, lymphocystis disease (LD), eel The timing of these studies, may. of course, be regulated
papilloma (EP), eel branchio-nephritis (EBN), fish vi- primarily by economic factors. It is logical to assume that
briosis (FV), infection by acid-fast bacteria (IAFB), and the diseases that threaten the most valuable aquaculture
certain serious parasitoses (see Ghittino, 1974; Honma, stocks will be those investigated first and for which control
1971). Much more must be known about diseases of procedures will be developed first. When the knowledge of
marine fish before health certification can be suggested for the whole field approaches the in animal
level attained
lations which concern the transfer of aquatic organisms fAOFi.\h. /?</>,, (1 949) 17 p
GNU UNO, P Standardization and harmonization of regulations 01
destined to start or to enlarge aquaculture entities. The
1964 criteria regarding the import and export offish and othei fish-
introduction of health certificates vouching for the absence products Papci piesented to the F AO-Olt
eries Meeting WHO
of the major destructive diseases of aquatic organisms on Basic Principles for the Control of International Trafhc in
Animals and Animal Products, Berne. Switzerland. 7 p
should be a part of this programme.
GHIIIINO, P Suggestions poui Tetablissement d'une Lisle mtei-
Good examples of proposed health certificates for live 1966 nationale des Maladies Contagieuses des Poissons Hull Off
and mi. Epizoot 65 (7-8) 1165 72
fish concerning the absence of certain fish
fish eggs, ,
cept of the need for certifying the health (or absence of GIHTTINO, P Piesent knowledge of the pnncipal diseases of cultuied
1974a marine fish, Rn, ftal PI\CH, Itdopatol,, 9 (2): 51 6
disease) of aquatic organisms before introducing them into
GumiNo, P II controllo intemazionale dei pesci Die Internationale
an aquafarm. If aquafarms are established which are offi- 1974H Fischuberwachung Riv Ital Piscic Itnopatol 10(4) 109 IS ,
cially recognized as free from the most important commu- GILLLSIME, D, C, c/ (//, Methods loi detection of ceitain pathogens of
1974 sal monoid fishes, Mlsc Spec Publ Dcp Environ hish Mat
nicable diseases, this will further the issuance of realistic
Sen ()tto\\ti, (23) 20 p
,
health certificates. Continued co-operation by the interna HONMA. A Aquaculture in Japan, I'okvo, Japan AC) Association I
1972 .hmcdizmer und Biologen Zweitc, crwcilcitc Auflage lena, 985 1230
Vcb Gustav Fisehci Veil., 378 p, OIE III Symposium Mondial de la Commission de POII' pom Tetude
Axil HOD, H R Continuing majot communicable fish diseases b> 1968 des maladies des poissons, Stockholm, Suede Bull Off Int
1971 impmving methods of stonng, tMnspottmg and leeeivmg Kpisoot,W(7 8) 967 1278. (9 10) 347 74S 1
shipments of tiopical fishes m all pails of the woild /// Synv OIE International Zoo-Sanitary Code Pans, Ofiiee Inteination.il des
posium on the Majoi Communicable Fish Diseases in Euiope 1971 Epizootics, pp. 145-8 and 215-6
and then Contiol Panel reviews and relevant papers, edited by OIK OIK Meeting of hxperts for the study of cnteria thit may be
W A pp 242 47
Dill, 1975 followed in establishing SPK (Specific Pathogen Kiee) and MD
BARiMrn, J E, RMIIIK. H I & M<LARNIV. W O Aquacultuie (Minimum Disease) fish larnis Pans. 3 ^ Dec, 1974 Bui! OH
1972 New York, Wilev-Interseienee 868 p Int hpizool S3 743 M
BAIMR, O, N,, Mus.su M'S, V A. & STRHKOV.Y, Diseases of pond A RiiCHlNHACH-Ki.lNKL, H. H Krankhciten und Schadigungen dei
1973 fishes Jerusalem, Isiael, Program lor Scientific Iranslations 1966 Fische. Stuttgart, G, F ischci Veilag, 389 p :
IPS I Cat No 601189 217 p RLICHKNIJACH-KLINKI,, H II & Hi KAN, F The- pimcipal diseases of
Bu L, G. R, & MARGOLIS, L, C'onsideiations and iccommcndalions 1965 lower vertebiates London, Academic Pi ess, 600 p
1972 for the control of hsh diseases in Canada Mi\( Spet Puhl S The pievention and treatment of diseases of watmwatei
hish Res Board Can (16) 52 p ,
1971 fishes undet subtiopical conditions, with special emph.isis on
HIM LOCK, G, L., Identification of fish pathogenic baetena In Diseases intensive fish (arming In Diseases of fish, edited b\ S F
1971 of fish, edited by S h Smes/ko and II R Axelrod, Jersey City, Smes/ko and H, R, Axelrod, Jcisey City N I F- H Publi- ,1 ,
DAVIS, H, S Culture and diseases of game fishes Berkeley, California, 3(4) 75-9
1961 Umveisity of California Press, 332 p. SMISZKO, SI (Fi> A symposium on diseases ol fishes and shell-
)
Dn VV A, (hi) ) Report of the Symposium on the Majoi Commum- 1970 fishes Spec Publ Am, Fuh, Sot (5) 526 p
1
i
,
1972 cable Hsh Diseases in huropc and then Control organized by THOMPSON, P, E,, DILL, W
A & MOORF, (J The major communicable
FAO/EIFAC with the support of OIE. Amsteidam, 20 22 1973 fish diseases of Europe and North America. A review of
April 1972. EIFAC Tech. Pap (17) 43 p ,
national and international measures for then contiol hlhAC
DILI, W, A (I'D) Symposium on the Major Communicable Hsh Tech, Pap,, (17) Suppl 48 p 1
1973 Diseases in Europe and their Control, Panel reviews and WHO Hsh and shellfish hygiene. Report of a Expert Com- WHO
relevant papers. EiFAC Tech Pap,, (17)- Suppl 2- 255 p 1974 mittec convened in cooperation with FAO, Geneva, 18 24
hGiJSA, S, GUARY, J. C. &
GUARY, M, Infection baetenennes el September 1973, Tech Rep Ser. WHO, (550). 62 p.
1974 iongiques de erustaces peneides (Penaew japonkus BATE) en
ZLNNY, F, B. Cpmpai alive study ol laws and regulations govei rung the
elevage, Publ, CNEXO (Ser An Collogue) 1969 international traffic in live hsh and fish eggs FJh'AC 'lech Pap.,
FAO Control of the spread of major communicable fish diseases (10) 52 p.
1974 Report of the Government Consultation on an International ANON Fish diseases and theii control FAO Aquacull. Bull,, 7(12)
Convention for the Control of the Spread of Major Communi- 1975 21 4
98
Chapter II Finfish Culture in Ponds
approximately S5% or 1-5 million ha is principally fed bv stored seepage mesures efficaccs pour mmimiser ces mfiltiations lors de la conception et
water These seepage water fish farms are distributed in the interior de la construction de ce tvpe d'cxploitation,
deltaic areas of the major river s\ stems in Asia and, to a ver\ limited 'on pense quo la pisciculture en pare ct dans d autres tvpes d'cnclos
I
extent, in the southern part of North America and m eastern Furope. constants dans les eaux coneres et lacustrcs sc de\eloppera rapidcmcnt
Fish farming systems using mainlv natural food produce approxi-
mately )1% of the annual world fish farming production
(
7 million ( *
Selection of a seepage water pond site depends larjielv upon the degree
of water resources development in the delta and the degree of flood
America del None v on Furopa oriental
basado en ol ompleo de aliniontos
hi sistcina do pianias piscicolas
control m the river system. Information about hydrological features of
naturalcs produce aproximadamente el l )7n do la produccion piscicola
the area would furnish basic data for evaluating the suitabiluv of a laim
mundial anual (3.7 millones de toneladas) mientras el sistemade cultivo
site and for the planning of (arm construction Installation of drainage
con empleo do piensos artificiales lepiesenta solo el i {t de csta
facilities for a seepage water tvpc fish farm is expensive, but it is one of
the basic requirements for intensifying fish production for this t\pc of produecion
Dada latecnolopia actual oxistonte para el dosarrollo de /onas do
pond Most of the existing seepage \\atcr fish ponds in Asia are small and mar'isma v estructura oeontSmica do las pianjas piscicolas costeras
la
shallov\ for practising the traditional Chinese fish farming s\stem. I- or
hsh laim management, land consolidation max be cmpiesariales. el ompla/amiento do las granjas pisucolas alimentadas
intensifying
necessarv poi las marcas se limita generalmente a las /onas ontio In media super 101
do la maiea alta v la media inferior do la marea alia.
oss of water through seepage is a problem that faces man\ rain -fed
I
alimcntees pai des eaux d'mflltration sont disseminccs dans les /ones estanques. La mav or pane de los estanques piscicolas existentes en Asia
son pcquonos v poco profundos para practicar en el los ol sistema
dcltaiques inteneures des grands sv stemes fluv laux de I'Asie. et dans une
mesure tres limitee dans la partie mondionale do Amenquc du Nord et 1
piscicola chino ttadicional Para intensities el manoio de la grani.i
en Europe onentalc, piscicola puede ser necesano procodor a una consolidacion dc leneno
I a perdida do agua por inMtraeion constitux e un problema en muolias
es systemcs piscicoles (brides sur
I utilisation d'alimems naturels
1
^7%
de la product ion annuclle mondiale de poissons granjas piscicolas alimentadas con aguas de lluvia. dcrisadas do cuisos
procurent quelque
de agua o subterrancas I's esencial tomar medidus cticaces para leducir
d'elevage (3.7 millions de tonnes), alors quo systcme de pisciculture
le
largcment de la mise en valeur des ressources hydrauliques dans le delta increase of Asiatic carp farming in China, the rapid growth
et de la maitnse des crues dans le systeme fluvial Des renscignements sui
les caracteristiques hydrologiques de la region fourmraicnt des donnccs
of catfish farming in the USA and Thailand, and ycllowtail
de base permcttant de determiner si un site convient a la pisciculture ct de (Carangidae) farming in Japan. A great increase m fish
planifier la construction de Texploitation I 'installation de systemes de
(finfish) farming production is envisaged as a result of
drainage pour une ferme piscicole alimcntee par des eaux d'mfiltration
est couteuse, mais elle constitue Tune des exigences fondamcntales de intensification of production from existing fish farms and
raccroissement de la production de poisson dans ce type d'etang. La the expansion of areas under cultivation.
plupart des etangs de pisciculture conc,us sur ce modele en Asie sont This paper examines the various kinds of fish farms,
petits et peu profonds afin d'v praliquer la pisciculture chinoise tradition
nelle. Pour intensifier ramenagement des fermes piscicoles. il pout etre and reviews the major physical problems facing their
99
construction and the priorities for their solution if rapid China. India and Bangladesh, and appreciable areas of
development of this industry is to be achieved. diverted-water type farms for trout culture and of ground-
water lype farms for raising eel.
2 Classification of fish farm types, farming systems and 2.2 Systems of fish farming
management intensity Fish farming systems can be classified on the basis offish
2.1
Types ofjhh farms farm management techniques and procedures which would
The types offish farm now use can be categorized on the
in involve: (/) management of a fish population or popula-
basis of: (/) the environmental characteristics of the land tions; (//) feeds and feeding offish; and (///) unique proce
and water; nature of physical structures, and (///') the
(/'/)
dures or techniques that have been developed for a species
particular fish which
is used, specified by species, species- or group of species, a combination of fish and other farm
groups, or by their growing stages (Table I ). crops or livestock, or certain levels of management inten
Since water is essential to fish life, and water control sity of a farming system (Table II). Since feed is vital for
structures constitute the bulk of construction costs, classifi- regulation offish growth and constitutes the bulk of farm
cation of fish farm types based on their sources of water input cost, classification offish farming systems based on
would be useful, their sources of food supply would be relevant and mean-
Of the estimated 2-2 million ha of world fish farm area ingful.
(Pillay, 1973), approximately 18% or 400000 ha com- Of the estimated 3-7 million tons of world fish farming
prises tide-fed fish farms; the remainder includes fish farms production (Pillay, op. <//), only 3% or less (about 100 000
fed by the collection of surface water run-off, storage of tons) is produced by farming systems based on artificial
seepage or spring water, diversion of flow from rivers, feed supply, compared with the remaining production
streams or irrigation canals and, to a limited extent, the based on the supply of natural foods. Except in running
pumping of ground water. In practice, water supply to a fish water fish farms, the growth of natural fish-food organisms
farm may combine two or more of these water sources. also plays an important role in the farming system based on
Statistics on the area of these types of farms are not feed supply. This is evidenced by the fact that
artificial
available, but it is estimated that there are about 40 000 ha proper growth of blue-green algae creates a more favour-
of rain-fed farm ponds in the USA, approximately 1.5 able environment for eel culture (Usui, 1974) and the
million ha of seepage-water type fish farms distributed in production of bottom organisms provides nutritive foods to
the interior deltaic areas of the major river systems in meet the dietary requirement of common carp and catfish
TAHI h I
reared in ponds with intensive feeding.
CATKIORIF.S OH HSU F\KM IYPH T AHI ii i
100
2.3 Intensify offish farm management neap tide) are the technical difficulties associated with (/)
The intensity of fish farm management on the basis of <
constructing large earth embankments and heavy concrete
natural food production system can be grouped into four structures on soft ground or a low bearing capacity (bun
levels which are given in Table III. A prerequisite for dation. and (//) providing adequate drainage facilities for
determining the level of management intensity of a fish farm pond soil improvement and leaching (see Section 3.2).
is the quantity and quality of available pond water which Unless there is a significant breakthrough in the technology
could be provided by the construction of adequate water of tidal land development or a drastic increase of earnings
control structures in suitable farm sites. in coastal fish farming business, it is unlikelv that these
Fish production has recently been intensified by Chinese limitations will be removed in the near future.
fish fanners through implementation of five improvements
in fish farm construction: (/') deepening of the pond, (/'/) 3.2 Dry mage
enlargement of pond size. (///) provision of drainage, (/r) Drainage is the disposal of pond water as required by the
prevention of leakage and (v) construction of lake water procedures offish farm management. Excessive water from
enclosures. These measures have resulted in a significant any source of supply may directly cause damage to fish
increase in the national average offish farming production farm facilities and loss of fish crops, and indirectly affect
(China Fresh-Water Fish Culture Experiences Summing pond productivity by creating unfavourable environments
up Committee, CFFCESC. 196 1 ). for aquatic life (such as the development of soil acidity,
distributed in tropical regions in Asia (Pillay, op, cil.). The lion of mangrove roots under anaerobic conditions. This
present tidal land reclamation for use in fish farm develop- type of soil acidity reduces the pH value to 3-5. an
ment is limited to those areas situated at the tidal range unfavourable level for the growth of aquatic organisms
between the levels of mean higher high water (mean high Of a total of 170000 ha of coastal fish farms in the
water level at spring tide ) and mean lower high water (mean Philippines, approximately 60% or 100 000 ha are affected
high water level at neap tide). Ground levels of tidal lands by soil acidity (Tang. 1973). Ponds with this type of soil
that are higher than mean higher high water tide level are produce only a few hundred kilogrammes offish per hectare
usually used for agriculture, such as the planting of tree annually. Unless the soil acidity is corrected, productivity
crops (palm oil and coconut) or short root crops (rice, of these ponds cannot be improved. Field experience shows
vegetables, etc) and. to some extent, short root crops and that soil acidity caused by the decomposition of mangrove
fish/shrimp in rotation. Due to basic differences in environ roots under anaerobic conditions can be improved by heavy
mental requirements for operation of these two types of application of lime (Padlan, 1964). However, the improve
farming, this pattern of tidal land use is expected to con- ment of soil acidity caused by the accumulation of iron and
tinue for some time in the future despite the increase in land sulphide salts requires their removal by leaching, a process
demand for coastal fish
farming development. which involves removal of these undesirable salts from the
Limiting of tidal land reclamation to ground levels subsoil by percolating the tidal flow through a series of
beyond the mean lower high water (mean high water level at interceptor drains.
I \Mll III
I I Ml Of- M \NAdi MINI IMIN'Mn HWIIII F fSH f \KMI\d b> S I h M H \SI I) ON N \ U K \1 I OOO PRODI f I ION
Level of '
Level oj
'
Kewurks
Clniractensiics oj (unn
standing crop standing cro
o/ /tsh food oj //s// (kg
management '
oigamsms
1
(kg ha)
Without management (eithei.for fish population or for 1 200 140 Both the population and water
fish
fish food supply) of the impoundment aie
fertility
uncontrollable
I he stocked fish are supported by the fish food 1 200 420 Fish population of the
organisms produced only bv natural productivity impoundment is manageable but
the water fertility is
uncontrollable
The stocked fish are supported by (/) natural 7 200 To a large extent both the fish
productivity of the bodies of water, plus (//) the population and water fertility of
increased productivity by fertih/ation which is the impoundment arc
approximately 500% more than natural productivity controllable
111 The stocked fish are supported by: (/') natural 7200 7 500 Both the population and water
fish
1
Refer to Tang, 1970,
:
Wet weight Figures as indicated arc undet tropical and subtropical conditions and the sires, depths and other em ironmcms of impoundment are similar to those ot
ordinary fish farms
101
The type of drainage facility required for this purpose is The water level of a tide-fed fish pond is principally
a system of open canals along the natural waterways in the determined by both technical and economic factors which
pond site. The depths of these canals should approach the involve: ground elevation, tidal range, bearing capacity of
tidal level of mean lower low water. This is to allow removal embankment foundation and economic benefits derived
of the maximum amount of percolated tidal flow over the from this type offish farming operation. With the existing
permeable stratum, whose level fluctuates with the tidal technology and economic structures of this type of fish
level. In the process of leaching, the water level in the farming business, the increase in water level of individual
drainage canals should be kept constantly at a minimum of ponds that can be provided is limited to 30 60 cm. Chinese
30-40 cm lower than the ground level. The time required fish farmers in Taiwan Province, who have the benefit of
for leaching varies mainly with the amount of salt accumu generations of experience, have been able to substantially
lation, volume and frequency of percolating tidal flow, soil raise fish production from this type offish farm by intensi-
permeability, climatic conditions, etc. In general, the pH fying the production of microbcnthic algae which grow well
value of this type of acid soil will be raised to a satisfactory in shallow water and which serve as good food for milkfish
level within two to three years. (Chanos chanos), and by proper manipulation of the pond
fishpopulation, despite the fact that climatic conditions arc
3.3 Size and depth of pond unfavourable for the growth of microbenthic algae and
The si^e and depth of a pond affect the efficiency of land milkfish (Chen, 1951). There is no doubt that if it were
and water utilization and influence the environments of the technically feasible to increase the water level of these
pond which, in turn, govern the pond productivity and its ponds so that it approached the level of Chinese carp ponds
fish-carrying capacity. Different fish farming systems under (about 23m deep) it is conceivable that fish production
a certain level of intensity require different
management could be raised to that of traditional carp ponds (about 6-9
%
sizes and depths of pond. Chinese fish farmers say that, the tons per annum). It appears, however, that unless there is a
more extensive the water body is, the larger the growth of significant breakthrough in the technology of tidal land
the fish' and also 'an increase of one inch of pond water development and/or a drastic change in the economic
increases the growth of the fish by one inch' (CFFCESC, structures of tide-fed fish farm business, this type of fish
op. r//.). This means that, in general, under the Chinese fish pond still has to be constructed with a limited depth of pond
farming system, a larger and deeper pond gives high fish water.
production. This has also been proved to be true with tilapia
farming in many other areas.
The sie of individual ponds of tide-fed fish farms in 4 Seepage-water fish farm
Indonesia, the Phillipines and Taiwan Province of China, as 4.1 Limitations in site selection
indicated in Table IV, is determined by a combination of Seepage-water type fish farms are usually distributed in the
technical, economic and social factors. In general, the depression areas of an interior delta. The water levels of the
larger the pond size, the greater is the efficiency of land and river system regulate the water table fluctuation in deltaic
water utilization and the lower the construction costs; on areas which, in turn, control the quantity of pond water.
the other hand, the smaller the pond size, the more The suitability of the site for this type offish farm depends
convenience of pond management and the lower the earth largely upon the water resource development in the area
work maintenance costs. The most suitable size of individ- and flood control measures in the river systems. Without
ual pond for a tide-fed fish farm operation can be deter- integrated water resource development, this type of fish
mined on the basis of a comprehensive evaluation of farm development faces many technical and economic
technical, economic and social aspects in fish farm con- difficulties in constructing the necessary water control
struction, maintenance and operation. For the intensifica- structures.
tion of production and future expansion of this type offish In areas where a seepage- water fish farm is to be sited, it
farm in the Philippines, the size of individual pond should isessential to review the hydrological aspects of water
be altered to meet the requirements of intensive manage- development in order to assess the amount of water that
ment and to reduce the cost of maintaining earthworks could be made available and to obtain basic data to be used
damaged by wave action. In Indonesia, on the other hand, in planning, designing and constructing the structures re-
fish farm land consolidation may be required because the quired for water control. Data required include: river dis-
physical improvements necessary to intensify production charge, water table fluctuation, soil permeability, land
from such small -sized ponds may not be technically and gradient, rainfall and rainfall distribution, evapo-
economically feasible, particularly because of the limita transpiration etc*
tion in tidal water supply.
4.2 Drainage
The drainage problems in this type offish farm are acceler-
I'ABI t IV ated by the year-round impoundment of water. Pond pro
SlZI OF TIDF-TI I) HSH PONDS IN THh PHILIPPINES, INDONESIA AND
ductivity in an undrainable pond would be reduced because
TAIWAN PROVINCP Oh CHINA
the continuing decomposition of accumulated organic mat-
Size ters lowers the soil pH and develops an unfavourable
environment for growing fish food organisms and the fish.
102
installation of gravity drainage facilities in this
type offish In the type offish farming where disease
prevention is of
farm usually difficult because of the involvement of a high
is decided importance (eg trout farming), the use of water
construction cost of water control structures. This is diverted from streams or lakes containing disease-bearing
especially true in the areas where the water resources have populations of wild fish is also inadvisable. In such cases,
not been properly developed. Drainage by is pumping spring or even well water is usually substituted.
possible, but will depend on the economic situation.
5 1
. Rain fed fish farm
4.3 Size and depth of pond A serious problem encountered in the construction of this
The size distribution of this type of pond is not known. In type offish pond is the difficulty of installing an adequate
general, where water resources of the area have been well water spillway. Inadequacy of the spillway causes the loss
developed for a long period of time, the size of this type of of water fertility, escape of fishstock and, sometimes, the
pond is relatively small, say, usually, less than 0-5 ha. This collapse of earth embankments, The major factors that
is mainly because of generations of land inheritance. There affect the capacity of a spillway are the rainfall and rainfall
are hundreds of thousands of these ponds that are distrib distribution, water permeability of the soils, area and topo
uted in the interior deltaic areas in the Yangtze River gniph\ of the watersheds, type and densit\ of \cgetation.
system China and possibly in some major river systems
in
c\apo-transpiration, cu: Except for some information relat
in India and Bangladesh. A fish farm land consolidation M M little is known
ing to southern LISA (Lawrence,
C 1
1
programme has been implemented for some years in China. about these aspects,
The main aim of this programme is to combine a number of
small si/ed ponds to form a manageable si/e of 0- 5- -0 ha. 1 5.3 Ground-water fish farm
sometimes of 5-30 ha. depending on the physical features Most of the modern eel farms are supplied with pumped
of the land and the requirements of water supply and ground water. he recent energy crisis has greatly affected
'1
drainage facilities of the pond. It has been found that, the economic structure of the operation of this type of fish
excepting some inconvenience in pond operations (such as farm,
the harvest offish), fish production in the Chinese fish Some trout farms where control of disease is ver\
farming system from a larger pond (ranging from 5 to 30 important also use ground water. An important consider-
ha) is comparable to that of smaller ponds (ranging from ation here is the even temperature that may be required.
0-5 to 1-0 ha) (CKhCHSC. op cit.).
The Chinese carp ponds can generally be grouped into 5.4 Spring- water fish farm
three categories on the basis of pond depth and level of Many large trout farms (eg those in the western United
production (Table V). Although most fish ponds with high States) use spring water. Relatively constant temperature,
production have a depth of 3-4 m. it is suggested on the uniformity in fiow and chemical content, lack of silt, and
basis of dissolved oxygen distribution that small ponds of absence of pollutants and disease organisms are the princi-
less than 0-5 ha should generally not have a depth of more
pal reasons for their use for salmonid species,
than 3-0 m (CFFCESC. op. cit.).
Water loss through seepage from fish ponds poses a
V \ni
serious problem in fish farm management. The amount of
I i
Excepting for the flow released from large reservoirs, water With massive production of synthetic fibres for twine and
diverted from a stream or creek is usually not constant in its net, such as nylon, vinylon, polyethylene, etc. which are
supply. This is especially true in tropical and sub-tropical durable materials for use in the construction of enclosures,
regions where rainfall and rainfall distribution are ex- farming offish in net enclosures constructed in coastal and
tremely uneven and where water resources have not been lake waters is expected to be rapidly expanded. This can be
properly developed. Water pollution due particularly to evidenced in the Philippines where the culture of milkfish in
contamination by pesticides poses serious problems for the lake water enclosures has been very rapidly developed in
expansion of this type of fish farm and challenges fish recent years (Delmendo and Cedney. 1974). There are
culturists to find an adequate solution. millions of hectares of eutrophic lakes and lagoons
103
distributed in tropical and subtropical regions in Asia, Advancement ol Science, Washington. I) C.
Africa and Latin America* and a rapid expansion of this C ill v I I* Milkfish uillmc in 'laiwan /'/.v// Str Cliin,-,lnu>i Conim
1951 M// KiroHMr , (I), 19 p,
lype of fish farm is expected to occur in the future. ('MINX FRISH-WMIK
FISH Cui n RI I:\PLRII\CI St'MMiN<,-i i> COM-
The success of this type offish
farming depends largely 1961 MINN
(Cl IXliSC Fiesh-wutei fish cultuic in China IVkinu,
I
setting up fish pens or enclosures, Factors that cause 'ADI AN, R l-LM'tiliA'i key to highei tish production hish (iai
plankton accumulation are: (/) prevailing direction and 964 Qucum C itv, 4( ^) 2 '9
I'll AV V R role ot
uquaculluie in fishiM H*S development and
I'lie
velocity of water currents. (//) shape of water basin, and (///')
i I
topography of the shorelines (Tang. 1972). Major prob- I AN<I. Y, A. Lvuluution of balance between fishes and available fish
lems facing the development of this type offish farming are 1970 loojs in multi-species lish cultuie Tian\ Am. hsh AMHH ,
99(4); 70S 18
water pollution and the conflicts with other uses of the lake
TANG. Y A Milkfish culture in pens in Laguna Lake Report sub-
such as navigation and recreation. 1972 mitted to the Bureau of Hshenes and Aquulii Resouices,
(ioveinment of the Philippines, 16 p
!A\<I. Y A, Pioblems and pnoiities in coastal aquaeultuic develop-
1973 ment in the Philippines 1'apci piesented to the Fish Pond
Kstate Development Session, Los Marios. Philippines, 28 M)
7 References
Octobei 1973. 15 p.
Hi KM K, L D DI.IUCIICSIS o( iron sulfitU 1
icicnt inaiinc sediments,
in Usi'i. A Uel culluie London, hishinji News (Books) Ltd , 186 p
l%7 h\ EiMuuiics by (J II l.nutV American Association lot the 1974
Planificaclon, diseno y construction de una granja costcra de sabalotes design and construction of their physical structures.
f \tracto The modern approach in fish farm planning is to obtain
Se describe el enfoque actual y prmcipios fundamentales de la plamfica the services of: (/) aquacultunsts to evaluate the technical
cion, diseno y construccion de empla^amientos piscicolas alimentados
con agua de las rnarcas para la cria de sabalote ((.'Hanoi chanos)* asi feasibility of developing major types of fish farms and
como los cntenos para la elcccion del empla7amiento, Sc msistc en la quantify the input requirements for fish farming systems
necesidad de cstructuras pari el control del agua. en las caraetcristicas under different levels of management intensity for the
lisicas de los empla^amientos potcncialcs. y en las condicioncs
elimat icas regionales. potential sites to be developed: (//) engineers to assess the
A la hora dc elegir un lugar adecuado para la instalacion de emplaza available sources of water supply and ascertain the tech
mientos piscicolas ahmeniados por las mareas. ha de icnerse en cucnta,
elevacion del terreno y rango de las mareas. lipo del suclo. tipo y
niques of development and estimate the development cost:
den si dad de la vegetacion. eslablidad de las costas. vulnerabilidad a las and (m) experts of farm management to analyse the proper
mundaciones. obslaculos fisicos (rocas. terraplcnes ), y factores sociales combination and operation of production factors, including
y economicos. Otros faciores importances son el sistema de manejo de
los estanques que ha de utilizarse. el medio ambienle de los eslanqucs y cl
land, water, labour and capital and suggest an optimal farm
clima. management practice for higher production efficiency and
104
maximum farm earning. The combination of such expertise 1 \mi II
should ensure development of a viable fish farm and farm PltOPHtlltS Of n IM( \l SOU DIM RIMl'M l> \IO\Tr MPK \l HUM
S\\ \V1IM \\I)S'
ing system.
)
eomprewion
2 Criteria for site selection
The criteria for site selection for a coastal fish farm are
conditions and requirements for the environment of a
proposed tidal-land area that are technically and socio
economically suited to the construction of necessary struc 1
2.1.1 Ground elevation and tidal range. The ground eleva type and density of vegetation, and the si/e. \\ood densitv
lions of a tide fed fish farm approximate the lidal levels of and root system of individual trees greatly affect the meth
mean lower high water or of mean high water at neap tide. ods of clearing and the procedures of farm development and
The deviation from this lidal level depends upon ihe range development cost. Distribution of typical vegetations in
of tide (Table where the range of tide is small,
I ). In general,
tropical swamps depends principally on the land
tidal
for example 1-2 m, the ground elevations of the farm site elevation, soil type, and water salinity and current General
would be within the range between the mean tidal level and characteristics and distribution of major types of vegetation
the level of mean high water at neap tide and where the tidal relevant to land clearing are given in 'I able III.
tide and neap tide. Tidal swamplands with a ground level Perimeter dikes at the seashore or river bank which are
out of the limits between the mean tidal level and the level of subject to erosion require strong footings and slope protec-
mean high water at spring tide, are usually impractical to tion. Sediment along the shore or the bank may affect the
reclaim for this type of fish farm development because of future water supply and drainage of the fish farm.
their associated technical and economic difficulties. (//) Vulnerability of Hooding: Fish farms sited in a region
grades of the soils determine the bearing capacity of the structures and subsequently higher maintenance cost.
foundation and stability of the embankments and also affect (//"/) River and tributaries: In areas where there arc too
the cost of earth work in farm construction many small rivers and distributaries, more dikes and other
'I he textures of the alluvial soils in deltaic areas arc water control facilities have to be provided. Consequently,
generally heavy, ranging from sandy loam to heavy clay the construction cost \\ill be high.
(Tang and Chen, 1967). Soils of this type have good water (iv) Mounds, rocks and other impediments: Any impedi
retention properties but are very soft and difficult for use in merit to construction work in the area will result in an
constructing earth embankments. Moreover, these alluvia increase of cost and prolonged construction time
extending to
approximately 2-0 m below the top soil (r) Social and economic factors: Considerations should
usually have a very weak structure They are characterized be given to the availabilitv of construction materials, acccs
by a low bulk density, high liquid limit, and high plasticity sibihty of the area, facilities for transport of heavy equip
( I able With saturated moisture, soils of this type result
11). ment. availability of skilled and unskilled labourers, etc.
in poor ground and low bearing capacity of embankment Laws and regulations pertaining to the use of swamplands
foundation. should also be reviewed and consultations held with the
It is advisable that sand and silt, which can usually be agencies concerned
found layers along the seashore and the banks of major
in
river systems be used for the foundation soil to stabili/e the 2.2 Requirements for farm management
foundation of embankments. This is especially important 2.2. Pond environments. Water temperature required for
1
for large scale coastal fish farm development. brackishwatcr fish farms ranges from 25 33"C The water
1 \mi- l
0-0 0-2 rn below the level of mean lowei high water 10 1 2 m The northern coast of West Java. Indonesia and the
(or of mean high watci at neap tide) west coast of Central Lu/on. the Philippines
Approximate to the level of mean lower high watet (or 1 2 2-0 m The coasts of Panav and Negros. the Philippines and
oj mean high water at neap tide) the southwestern coast of laiwan Province of China
0'00 6 m above the level of mean lower high watci 2030 m The coast of 7amboanga. the Philippines, and the
(or of mean high water at neap tide) northeastern coast of hast Ja\a, Indonesia
105
TAHII III
GrNPRAl rHARACTrRISTirS AND DISTRIBUTION OF MAIOR TYPI S Ol VTOTTATION IN TYPICAL 1IDAI SWAMPS
106
A favourable climate for tide fed fish farm management
should have a dry season of one to three months to allow
preparation of the soil for optimum algal production.
(//) Availability and cost of farm inputs: The availabilitv
3 General layout
A farm is a complex of establishments consisting of: (/)
fish
matter are favourable for the production of filamentous management. A general layout of a newly reclaimed 600 1
2.2.2 Pond water management. In general, farms with a fish farm, maximum advantage should be taken of the
higher ground elevation (on the basis of datum level) but topographical features of the site. This basic principle of
within the limits described in section 2 I.I. will have the farm design is not just to economize on the cost of earth
work in construction: it is also to preserve soil fertility and
advantage of better water drainage: whereas those with a
lower ground elevation will be more conveniently situated furnish a better environment for operation of the farm
Other requirements, tide fed fish farm will be based on these operational types
2.2.3 (i)Weather: The amount and
intensity of sunshine, rainfall and its distribution, and the
evaporation rate directly and mdirectlv influence the 3.2 Area requirement for mtrserv pond i
growth of fish food organisms which, in turn, affect fish In the layout of a tide-fed fish farm for Types I and III
production. TV phoons and floods arc destructive to fish operation, the first step is to know the area required for
food production as well as to the farm's earthwork, In nursery ponds.
selecting a site, these factors should be taken into account A nursery system consists of a fry-acclimatization pond,
Tvnn IV
MINIMUM POND VN AM K I I VI I AN'IJ SAIINIIY KANdl KlQUIKIDfOK Mil PRODUCTION OF IHRM MAIORIMMSOI HSU I GOD CROPS
TVIUI V
M VIOK n PI s of IIDI 1 1 1> MSH i \KM OPI K VMON
107
fingerling rearing and fingerling-holding ponds. A fry- In principle, there aretwo major systems offish population
acclimatization pond is a small earth basin constructed in a management: one stage of production which is charac
(/')
corner of the fingcrlmg-rearing pond. Milkfish fry are gen teri/ed by the stocking of a combination of different size
erally acclimatized in these basins under a regulated range groups of fish in a pond for the entire fish rearing season:
of salinity for 24-48 hours before they arc released to the and (//) two or more stages of production which arc charac-
fingerling rearing pond. The area requirement for the fry teri/ed by the stocking of one size group offish in a series of
acchmati/ing basin is about 0-01% of the area of the ponds of different sizes in a given rearing period. To
fingerling-rearing pond. The area required for a fingerling maximize production, the area of ponds required in the
rearing pond can be determined by the number and size of series of production stages under the latter system offish
fingcrlmgs required, production capacity of rearing ponds, population management should be arranged proportion
as well as the time and season of fry supply and of fingerling ately to the minimum requirement of different size groups
demand. The fingerling holding capacity of a pond depends of fish during a specific rearing period. The number of
principally on the environmental conditions, particularly stages in the series of production processes indicate the fish
the oxygen content of the pond water. Under normal population management intensity under this system. The
conditions, one m' of water in the holding pond is capable proportionate pond areas that are required for different
of holding kg of fingerlings. In general practice, milk
1 -7 stages of production in four levels offish population man-
fish fingerlings are stunted in the holding pond of the agement intensity arc given m Table VI.
nursery and stored until they are needed either for stocking
the rearing ponds of the farm for table-fish production or for 3.4 Adjustment of water level and salinity range
sale to other farmers who are operating Type II farms. The water level and salinity range of a pond are basically
determined by the tidal range, ground elevation, river dis
fingerling stage) of 95%, and the production capacity of the topographical features of the area are used to their best
the nursery pond is 450 kg/ha/crop with an average size advantage. For example, ponds which require deep water
of individual weight 2-5 g (400 fingerlings/kg). the area can be located in a natural depression, those that require a
required for a fingerling-rearing pond can be calculated high salinity can be located in areas near the sluices.
as:
3.5 Optimum size, shape and alignment of ponds
As a rule, the larger the pond si?e, the more efficient is the
use of land and water and the lower the cost in farm
If theperiod between fry supply and fingerling demand is construction; on the other hand, the smaller the pond si/e.
long enough to grow two crops, the area required for the the lower the earthwork maintenance costs and the more
fingerling pond for this 50-ha farm would be 1-46 ha. convenient the farm management. This is particularly true
Further, assuming that three crops of table fish can be
when the fish are harvested by gillnet. Generally speaking,
produced annually, the size of the holding pond can be for small- and medium-scale operations, say 1C)- 50 ha
calculated as:
units, a si/c ofabout 4 5 ha for individual rearing ponds is
desirable: whereas for large scale operations (50--200 ha),
a desirable size would be about 5 6 ha.
Ponds of rectangular shape arc convenient for periodic
Ifthe holding pond is trapezoidal in shape with a cross- harvest of fish .by gillnet. These ponds should be aligned end
section of 9-0
2
m
(with a bottom width of 3 m. depth to end on their short sides: their long sides should face the
I m, and a slope of side walls of
-5 1
:2), the length of the direction of the prevailing wind, in order to minimi/e the
holding pond would be 57m. destruction of earth dikes by wave action.
3.3 Pond area requirements for different stages of 3.6 Ecological considerations
production The sites of coastal fish farms in tropical regions arc usually
Layout of rearing ponds will be based on the systems that covered by dense mangrove forest which, apart from its
are planned to be adopted for fish population management. economic benefits, makes a valuable contribution to the
1 AMI r VI
PKOHOKIION \it po\n ARFA KIQI'IRIMFNTS FOR DirnRiNi MAGI'S or PRODIKTON UNDI R FOUR i FVM s 01 NSII POPU AIFON MANAGIMFNI
INIINSm
108
environment. In laying out a fish farm, measures to retain by leaching and this is impossible without satisfactory
some portion of these forests should he given consideration drainage. Moreover, the roots of mangroves which consti
lute 30 50% in volume of the top soil of tidal swamplands
would remain and not disintegrate if they arc preserved in
4 Typical design moist condition: these roots would become decomposed
The water control structures of a coastal
farm consist fish and gradually become productive soil humus if a proper
of: (/) water-gates and canals and drain
for water supply drainage system is provided.
age; (//) levees or perimeter dikes for protecting the farm
land from tidal waves and floods as well as for retaining 4.1.3 Creating suitable environments. The main aim oi
pond water; and (//'/) dikes for partitioning individual designing and constructing an adequate water control sys
ponds, In designing these structures, some guiding princi tern for a fish farm is to create a suitable aquatic em iron
pies based on the author's practical experience, and basic mcnt to meet the maximum requirements for the growth of
data on physical features of the site are given below, fish-food organisms and simultaneously to meet the mini-
mum requirements for rearing fish.
4. 1
Guiding principles Except in the fish farming system that is exclusively
4.1.1 Quantifying the water requirement. Since water con- based on artificial feed supply, the growth of fish-food
trol structures account for the major cost of fish farm organisms is essential for successful operation, However, in
development and water is one of the important fish farming many cases, the environmental requirements for the growth
inputs, quantification of water requirements for a fish farm offish foods in brackish water conflict with those for fish
in a given period of time is essential for planning and design For example, the optimal range of salinity for the growth of
of its water control structures, An example of this is given microbenthic algae in ponds is 24-45 ppt. and their toler
in Table VII. ance range is 0- 55 ppt; whereas the corresponding ranges
1
European countries, The main aims of this practice, as 4.1.4 Other guiding principles. These include:
described by Wrobel (1967) and Tang and Chen (1967). Taking advantage of natural power systems in water
(/)
arc to supply the pond soils with atmospheric oxygen, supply and drainage: Gravitation and tidal action are the
increase the rapidity of minerali/ation of organic matter available natural energy that can be used for water supply
(which accompanied by a decrease of acidity), control
is and drainage. In the design of water control structures of a
soil pests and. in some cases, proxidc a better physical fish farm, these energy systems should be utili/ed to best
environment for the growth of selective groups offish food advantage,
organisms. (//) Preventing ha/ards: In designing physical structures
Adequate drainage facilities arc essential for the im- storms and floods,
for preventing hazards, particularly for
provement of soil structure. This is especially true for economic consideration should be given equally to techni
newly reclaimed tidal swamplands, The coastal allmia. cal requirements.
consisting mainly of heavy clay, are generally highly acidic. Clearing the farm site: Land clearing is a ver\
(///)
This is due chiefly to the accumulation of iron sulphide in complicated work. This is especially true for the clearing of
the subsoil to a depth of 0-5- 1-5 m. This substance must be where skilled and experienced labour
tropical rain forests,
removed before the pond becomes productive for fish food ers, proper equipment and a well timed schedule are neces-
organisms as well as for fish, The best way of removing it is sary. Different methods and procedures of clearing
TABI \ VII
hSMMAII I) \\ All R Rl gii|R| Ml Nl I OR \ Hl'K \l TID1 111) ("ISM I
109
operations would be required for different types and 4.3 Water supply and drainage systems
densities of vegetation, structural development of ground Water supply and drainage systems consist of a number of
soils and the pattern of rainfall and temperature, water-gates and series of canals at different levels and of
different sizes. These arc to be designed for maximum
4.2 Physical features of the site utilization of tidal energy and gravitation to control ade
Basic data on physical features of the farm site required for quately the inflow and outflow of water in a given period of
planning and design of water control facilities include: tidal time required by the farm management system. In most
range, river discharge and floods, ground level and topogra- cases, water supply systems can be used simultaneously for
phy, soil properties and evapo-transpiration, rainfall and water drainage, However, in farms with high intensity of
rainfall distribution, and storms and cyclones. These data
management, they arc required to be separated from each
arc usually obtainable from local government agencies other to avoid possible contamination of the inflow water
concerned, such as the bureaux of weather, soils, forestry, by the water discharged from ponds. However, in case of
and coast and geodetic survey. emergency, both systems can be used simultaneously.
The sites of tide fed fish farms are usually situated in the
deltaic estuaries of major river systems. The principal
distributaries run through the delta, usually forming a
4.3. Design of main water-gate structures. A coastal fish
1
network of numerous channels. The tidal fluctuations in farm usually has three kinds of water gates: the main gate,
these areas are very complicated and usually vary with the secondary gate or division box. and tertiary gate. The main
gradient of the river bed, volume and velocity of river How gate is installed at the perimeter dikes for the intake of an
and distance from the shoreline. In general, the characteris adequate quantity of tidal flow, and also for the discharge of
tics of tidal fluctuations in the river channels of deltaic water from the farm as required by pond water level control
areas, as to those of adjacent coastal waters, are under a farm management practice The secondary and
compared
as follows: (/) tidal range becomes small; (//") period of ebb tertiary gates are installed, respectively, at the dikes of the
becomes becomes water canal and at the partition between ponds. The main
tide long, while the period of flood tide
short; (//'/') the mean becomes high; (/r)thc above
tidal level water-gate is very important for a tide-fed fish farm because
characteristics will become more conspicuous as the dis it controls a farm's water supply and drainage, the key
tance from the shoreline increases. factors for a successful fish farm operation.
In mart) countries a government agency issues an annual tide table Owing to the low bearing capacity of the foundation,
to give predicted tidal level fluctuations by analysis ol tide data obtained the structure should be of lightweight construction.
from tide stations in major ports (/eneral information about tide
fluctuation of a fish farm site can be obtained by referring to the nearest
These structures should not exert a contact pressure of
tidal station. more than 150 g/cm : .
T Mil I VIII
RATIOS IID\I R\\C;F \i TIDI SI \IION 10 IMF K\N(iI \T III! Sill 01 nsii r \KVT
tide station) and the mouth of River Gelancy Patah (the site of a proposed fish farm)
1
20}
J rTOP OF CANAL
x ORIGINAL GROUND -> BANK EL, 2.70 -L>
* SURFACE EL I 20
PLAN
f t DIKE
FLOW
SECTION A-A
-
OF MAIN DIKE ELS.50
^TOP
SECTION B-B
111
Example:
It is assumed that a 40 ha farm with a designed water Levels of tide
H tidal level in the river can be calculated by using the same equation as above.
h water level in the canal or pond Ilowcvcr, drainage by gravitation will occur only when the
'/'-time (calculated at 0-2 hour or 720 second levels of flood in the river system arc lower than that of the
intervals) pond water, which will be at 3-65 m after 0-35 m rain water
appears that the designed water-gates for this farm arc
It is added. It is. therefore, anticipated that the designed water
adequate for its requirements of water supply (Table IX and gates for this 40 ha farm may have some difficulties in
Fig. 4). disposing of the rain water in the case of extreme heavy
In order to check theadequacy of the designed water rainfall accompanied by a serious flood, but such a diffi-
gate for discharge of pond water in case of flood caused by culty is expected to occur only once every 7 or 10 years.
heavy rainfall, it is necessary to examine the height and
frequency of flood in the river system and the maximum 4.3.2 Design of water canals. A coastal fish farm usually
rainfall within a given time in the region. For example, has two kinds of water canals: the mam canal and subsidi
rainfall in the region amounting to more than 0-35 m/48 ary canal, The former is constructed either between two
hours is assumed to occur at intervals of about seven years main water-gates or between one main water-gate and a
and levels of flood water in the river system at heights of division box and the latter between two division boxes. In
above 4- 6 m (on the basis of datum level or the tidal level of the water supply the main canal distributes (he take off
TXHII IX
EX \MIM \- OF ( M < L'l \TION Of 111)1 \\ \11KIMAKI Oh \ I'KOI'OHM) \\ A I F-K
1
Total for Q after 3 6 hours 25 150m 1
112
from mam
water-gates to subsidiary canals and, in turn, to 4.4 Design of perimeter dikes
individual ponds; and vice versa in water drainage. The function of perimeter dikes is to retain water for use in
In addition to water supply and drainage required by the fish farming operation as well as to protect the farmland,
pond water level control, canals have the function of regu fish crops and other farm facilities from destruction by
lating the water table within the farm, which is very import floods and tidal inundation. Design and construction of
ant for soil improvement by leaching (refer to section these embankments must be based on sound engineering
4. 1.2). Canals also serve as shelters for holding fish tempor- principles and economic feasibility. A typical design of
arily. This treatment is required in fish stocking and in perimeter dikes facing the sea or the river is given in Fig. 5.
Example:
The discharge capacity of a water canal is determined by 4.4. 1
Alignment. The perimeter dikes of a coastal fish farm
the cross-sectional area of the canal and the velocity of arc aligned along the river banks or on the seaward side. In
the flow, and can be expressed by the following equation m
fixing the alignment, a belt of mangroves of 50- 00 wide
:
1
velocity of flow
I
The alignment is usually determined by a contour survey
Since can be calculated b\ the following formula:
I
of the site to be enclosed. Readjustments are required to
113
The designed height of the perimeter dikes normally has When the dike is built on a permeable foundation, the
a freeboard, after shrinkage and settlement, of 0-6- 1-Om seepage flow would be:
above the designed floodwater level, which is usually deter
mined by the occurrence and frequency of flood levels at q =
intervals of 10-15 years at the proposed farm site.
where k -
lpermeability coefficient of foundation (cm/
hour)
Example:
Consider a proposed farm site with a ground level of //-thickness of permeable foundation
Since the permeability of alluvial clay is relatively con-
3-0 m and the level of astronomical tide of 3-9 m, and
stant, the amount of seepage flow in a coastal fish farm
supposing that the previous records indicate high flood-
water levels over 4*6 m occurred at the site at intervals depends mainly upon the levels of tidal fluctuation and
effective width of the dike, which can be determined by
of years, that the rate of shrinkage of the soil, after the
1
embankment was settled, is 20% and that the freeboard calculation as shown in Fig. 6.
usually caused by the damage of the dike due to crustacean the tidal level is at 0-0 (the datum level), the seepage
intrusion, particularly by Thallassina, Anamala and Uca-
outflow through the dikes corresponding to the same
manii. They burrow in the soft mud
under the dike and
slopes as during the rising tides are also given in Table
thereby cause the occurrence of 'piping' by which silt and
X. In order to minimize seepage, dikes would require a
sand particles are moved by seepage flow. Effective meas-
wider top and a larger slope footing, particularly when
ures for preventing leakage include: (/) minimi/ing the
the dikes arc situated at a higher range of tidal
amount of seepage flow (refer to next section); and (//)
fluctuation.
minimizing the destruction by crustaceans by desalinizing
and drying out the embankment soils.
4.5 Construction
Construction of a tide fed fish farm includes three major
4.4.4 Seepage. A normal seepage line in a dike constructed
types of work: land clearing, earthwork and water-gate
with homogeneous diking material on an impermeable
construction. Execution of construction requires detailed
foundation is a parabola (Fig. 6) and the seepage flow can
planning and budgeting, and a punctual schedule,
be calculated by Casagrande's formula:
placed on a permeable foundation (after Kvoto. 1975) pond with water. It has been found that mangroves,
'l ABLE x
ShEPAGb FIOW THROUGH THE DIKFS WITH THRFF PFFFCTIVI WIDTHS
Dimension of the dikes Maximum seepage inflow in rising tides Maximum seepage out/low in ebb tides
Effective dike width Amount of seepage flow Effective dike width Amount of seepage flow
(m) (rwY/i) (w) (cmVh)
114
especially the Rhizophora and Avicennia groups, usually The cost of felling and piling by mechanical methods
wither when their trunks are constantly
soaked with water depends on the type of equipment used, efficiency of opera-
at a depth of more than 0- 5 m for a period of 4-6 months, tion, tree counting, soil and climatic conditions etc. Gener
They will eventually die if continuously inundated for ally, the requirement of machine working hours for a 250-
about a year. 270 hp crawler tractor would be about 0-05-0*07 ha/hour,
(iil) Felling and burning: Felling should commence (An example of calculating the hourly owning cost and
when the tree bark begins to peel, but before the foliage hourly operating cost of a crawler tractor is given in Table
falls. The prerequisite of felling is to dry and harden the XII.)
ground, which can be done by keeping the water table of the
en tire pond area at 0-3 -0-5 m below the surface for a period 4.5.2 Earthwork. Earthwork for a coastal fish farm in-
of 1-3 months depending on the climatic conditions. Either cludes the construction of dikes and canals, and levelling of
manual or mechanical methods, or a combination of both, pond bottoms. These constitute the major cost offish farm
can be employed for felling. The method chosen depends on development and the bulk of the construction period.
factors such as availability of equipment wages of labour, (/) Manual method versus mechanical method: The
type and density of vegetation, soils and climatic condi- adoption of the method(s) to be used will depend mainly on
tions. Generally speaking, small-scale operations, say, for a the nature of the work, cost of operation, and time require
few hundred hectares, call for manual or a combination of ment, as well as on social and political considerations.
manual and mechanical methods; large-scale operations Generally speaking, the mechanical method has the advan-
mechanical methods.
call for tage of shortening the construction period, lessening the
The mechanical felling operation commences when the cost of construction and improving the quality of the work;
ground has been sufficiently dried and is hard enough to whereas the manual method will generate employment and
support heavy equipment. A variety of equipment has been save foreign exchange, both of which are particularly im-
developed for use in land clearing, eg cutting and shearing portant to most developing countries. A
comparison of
blades for directly cutting palms, saplings and small trees; these two methods on the basis of technical and economic
the knockdown beam for felling large trees, and pluckers assessments is given in Table XI.
for uprooting small- and medium sized trees with lateral Maintenance of foundation stability: Owing to poor
(//')
root systems. ground and soft clayey soil, the bearing capacity of the
The initial burning can usually be carried out when the foundation on which the embankment is to be constructed
dead trees have become dry. Pruning and rcburning opera is low. In order to maintain the stability of the foundation,
tions should start as soon as the site is cooled enough to the following methods are generally employed:
allow access. This phase of operation is to remove all (a) Preserving the mangrove root network: It has been
unburnt timber stumps left from the previous felling and found that the network of mangrove root systems can be
burning. used as piles to strengthen the stability of the foundation
(M') Cost estimates: Cost estimates of underbrushing, soil in embankment construction. In fact, after the tree is
felling and burning operations depend largely upon the cut, mangrove roots continuously soaked with brackish
information of tree counting which is done by field survc> water will not disintegrate. In preparing the ground for
and provides information on the number, si/e. wood den embankment construction, the network of mangrove roots
shy and root systems of the trees and the growth of vines should, therefore, be preserved.
and other vegetation. The estimate will be re adjusted by (b) Replacing soft muds with sands and/or silts: since
the assessment of wages and other factors that affect work the perimeter dikes of tide fed fish farms are aligned along
efficiency.Approximate labour requirement for under- either the seaward side or the river bank, silt and sand are
brushing about 20 man clays/ha; for felling and burning
is
usually available for use in reclaiming the foundation. A
operations of an average density of mangrove forest. 50 dredger or sand pump can be used to move the sands and
man-days/ha; and for pruning and reburmng. about 70 silt from the shores of the sea or river to a shallow dam
man days/ha. The total labour requirements for clearing a which is made by bushes along the side lines of the foun-
typical tidal forest to the specifications for fish farm devel dation for holding and settlement of these replacement
opment. including undcrbrushing, felling, burning and materials.
pruning and reburning. are about 140 man-days/ha. (c) Tilling with suitable load of embankment material to
TABU XI
COMPARISON 01 MI-CHANICAI AND MANUAI METHODS FOR EARTHWORK IN TIDF-FFD MSN FARM CONS IRUCI ION'
Construction period
skilled labour (500 man days/million m') 160 days
unskilled labour (1 000 man-days/million m 3
) 440 days
1
On the basis of a case study in the Philippines in 1974.
115
cover theslip surface: When the clayey soil in the farm site volume of earth for diking, excavation and levelling. The
is used for diking material, the dumped soil should be cost for each unit will then be analysed on the basis of
allowed to spread to some extent over the berm on the actual expenses for machinery, labour, tools and manage-
landward side. This is done in order to maintain an equi ment, The cost of machinery will be further analysed on
librium between the foundation and the slip surface. hourly owning cost and hourly operating cost. An example
Generally, the dumped soil is allowed to settle and dry for a of cost estimates for earthmoving in constructing a 500-ha
period of 1-3 months. After this, an initial stability of the coastal fish farm is given in Table XII.
foundation will be established and the top of the dump will
be able to support some light equipment to trim the soil and 4,5,3 Water-gate construction.
to form an of the dike as designed.
initial profile (/) Construction pit: Water-gates are generally con-
(///) Construction equipment: For large scale develop- structed in situ. To ensure successful construction, careful
ment, suction dredgers with a capacity of 500-600 mV preparation of a construction pit is necessary. The bottom
hour arc well suited for reclaiming embankment foundation of thepit will gradually become hard enough to support the
and embankment construction. Sand pumps with a
for weight of a worker when de-watering of the pit can be
capacity of 60-70 mVhour are also found to be very useful efficiently carried out.
for this type of work. (//) Pile ground: Due to soft foundation soil, piling of the
When clayey soil in the site is used as embankment ground on which the gate is to be constructed may become
material, dragline excavators give good performance. They necessary. Specification of the pile depends largely upon
have to be supported on wooden mattresses when working skin friction for its bearing capacity. If mangrove or bam-
TABU XII
COST ESTIMATES J-OK hAKIHWORK IN CONSTRUCTING A 500 HA (OASIAI FISH FARM (IN US$)
Inital cost
Depreciation period
yearly hours
1
Working
1
Interest rate
Average capital.
Residual value 1
Owning cost
Value to be depreciated
1
Hourly depreciation
Average capital:
116
TABLF Xl\\ hSTIMAUS K)R UNIT COSI OF EARTHWORK (IN USS)
COST FSTIMAIh K)R MAIN WATER-GATE CONSTRUCTION (A SM WIIM
inn si/h op 5 x 2 5 m) (IN USS) 1
Item Unit price Total
Quantity
Concrete
Form
Reinforcement
Wood pile (0-20m
(diameter) -00m)
x 7
Excavation
Itocklill
De watering 461-00
Sloping 47m' 104-00 489-50
Steel angle and plate 50-0 kg 7 00 353-00
Handle wheel and spindle 1-0 set 230-00 230 00
1 1 541 00
5 References
\NMYSIS K)R IMh UNIl ( OS I S I'l K Vl'Ol CONCKTTI (iNtJSS) K.AIO, J Guide to design and eonstiuetion of co.ist.il *nju,icultuie
197*? ponds. "Tokyo Japan Inlcrnulional Coopciation Agent). 76 p,
Item Quantity Unit price I'otal LIM, C'uioNCi-CiiU' Rctlarmuion of tidal lands on the west coast of
1969 West Malaysia Papei picscntcd to the Second Symposium on
Cement 0-36 ton 49 20 1 8 00 development of deltaic aieas Economic commission foi Asui
54 m 3 80 00 and the Fai East, 23 p
1
Sand 2
Gravel 0-94 nV 3-80 3-50 TAN<I. Y A &('m\, S H A survey of the uluul past LUC soils of milk-
m 1967 ponds in Taiwan. FAO Fi\h /?</; (44) vol V 176 97
1
1-00 2-10 2 10 fish
Mixing
Placing 1 00 m ;
50
1 1-50 TANG, Y A, & HWAN<I, T hvaiuation of the lelative suitability ol
I
components, as well as the temperature variations in the lowest air layer mfcriores del aire. sobre los estanques. y en el agua. Se ha establecido la
over the ponds and in the water have been determined at C'Jotys/ Station. correlation entre la temperatura del aire y la del agua de los estanques \
Poland The correlation between the air temperature and the water la relacion cntre el aumcnto de peso de las carpas, singularmente, s la
C
temperature in the ponds has been found, and relation between the surna de la temperatura del agua mayor de I4 C
growth of individual carp and the sum of water temperature higher than La creciente intensificacion de la produccion de carpas limita la
I4'C was also determined. penetracion de radiacioncs solares en el agua. lo que a su ve/ limita la
The increasing intensification of carp production limits the solar 'ictividad de foiosintesis, t'sle hccho ha mosido a realgar estudios
radiation penetrating into the water, which m turn limits the photosyn detallados sobre la distribucion cronologica vertical de la radiacion solar
thetic activity. I his fact stimulated detailed studies on the time vertical en los estanques, utili?ando divcrsos metodos de cultixo de carpas
distribution of solar radiation in ponds wheie different methods of carp Se han determmado el eqmlibrio hidrico la suma e mtensidad de la*
farming were used. precipitaciones locales y de la evaporation de los estanques. Se han
The water balance, the sums and intensity ol local precipitation and hecho tambien calculos para permitir determinar inmediatamente el
evaporation from the ponds have been characterized. Calculations have mdice de evaporation de la superricie de los estanques \ la interrelation
also been made to allow immediate determination of the rate of evapora cntre la evaporacion. la presion del \apor dc agua y la \elocidad del
tion from pond surfaces, and the inter relationship between thccuipnrn viento sobre los estanques.
tion flux, the water \apour pressure and wind velocity over the ponds.
117
2 Heat balance components r
-400
Calculation of all the components of heat balance in pre- Inversion
16,
24 hours B
-LE
06J
A M J J A S month*
FIR I. Changes in the mean diurnal (A) and monthly (R) values of A - mz~\ v - cz *.
the components of the heat balance of a pond
Under local climatic conditions at Gotys/ Station the
The
constants in the above equations assume values of: 28. m-
dealing with heat exchange (Szumiec.
research
/f-0-5, c- 400. d- M.
1962, 1966) showed that in the lowest air layer over the
ponds, the temperature follows an inverse diurnal pattern in
comparison with the temperature variation over the soil or
3 Application of hydrometeorology data in pond
over large reservoirs. This means that during the day the
management
temperature increases with height above the water surface
To determine the water temperature (TH in ponds immedi- )
and falls during the night (Fig. 2). This vertical temperature 1
calculate the deviations from the normal thermal values, tions. This method is accurate within about 1C for water
allowing one to characterize the thermal conditions in each temperature (S/umicc, 1973).
season. The probability of occurrence of the days with It has been ascertained (S/umiec, 1975a) that the unit
118
weight of growth of carp fed intensively, is directly propor- of all these components of the above equation, it is
possible
tional to the sum of the water temperature higher than 1 4C to define the diurnal solar radiation distribution for any day
(Fig, 4). The fact that the weight of carp decreases when the or depth when only /? at the pond surface is known.
temperature during the farming season is lower than J4C. In the research on water balance, mean sums for long-
indicates that 14C is the lowest temperature favouring lasting periods of local precipitation (Augustyn, 1975) and
carp growth. evaporation (Szumiec, 1973a)from the pond surfaces have
AG been characterized (Fig. 6). This makes it possible to define
the deviations of these factors in individual years from the
normal values* The probability of occurrence of the defined
sums and intensity of the precipitation was characterized.
The method of intermediate definition of evaporation ()
from pond surfaces on the basis of the vertical rate of water
vapour pressure (?,,-- <.>,) and the wind velocity (r) over
the ponds was formulated. The relation between the above
mentioned values can be expressed by means of a linear
equation:
-<?,-eioo(* t
/v).
055 5
05S_J JO 0.55 it . .30 CJ55JL. JO
(), MonthK sums of precipitation (P) at dohs/ and the sums of
evaporated water ([) from the pond surfaces Bars indicate the
standard deviations
4 References
D Precipitation one ot the pond watei balance eom-
1975 portents (MS)
S/.i'Miic, M A "lime-space temperature distribution in the lowest an
1962 layers ovei watei and soil, Przeyl. Ct'ofi: 715 ("*) 157-67 ,
S/UMii-r , M. A
Hucluat'ons in the temperature of a pond dyke lew
1%5 Hydnthiol 7(2 3) 291 5 ,
119
S/UMiir, M. A, Heat balance of carp reaimg ponds al the Goiys/ 1974 basic meteorological factors in fanning season 1973 Oo&pod
1969 Experimental Farm Ada Ilvdrohiol 11 (2)' H7-78 ,
Ryhna, 289
S/UMibt, M A. Zmiany cicplne w malych 7biornikach wodnyeh (Heal SzuMiir, M. A. Thermal conditions oi carp fanning m Poland (MS)
1970 chanycsin small water reservoirs), (iospod, Wodna, (8/9), 290 I
1975
S/UMU2C, M
A Determination of water temperature in shallow water S/UMIU\ M A Influence of watei temperature on carp growth (MS)
1973 bodies. Atta HydrohioL, 15 (3). 247 V7 1975a
SzuMiiiC, M. A Evaporation from small water reservoirs, //; Pio- SzuMiir, M, A Theeffect of controlled euttophiealion on solai radia*
1973a cccdmps of International Symposium on the Hydrobiolog> oj 1975b tion penetrating into the ponds, Ana Hvdrohiol 17(2) 149 XI
,
or more. The procedure was tested in 12 ponds with varying lime given pond. Boyd (1974) found a close relationship be-
requirements, and total hardness exceeded 20 mg/1 m all but one pond tween the base saturation of bottom muds and total hard-
(I9mg/l). ness of water in Alabama ponds. Total hardness of waters
Agricultural limestone is the preferred liming material, hut other
materials may be used provided the application rate is adjusted for the exceeded 20 mg/1 when bottom muds were 80% or more
neutrali/mg value of the alternative liming material. Lime was most base saturated. A procedure for estimating lime require
effective in increasing total hardness when spread over pond surfaces,
ment of agricultural soils (Adams and Hvans. 1962) was
but some benefit resulted from dumping 500 kg piles of lime around
shallow water edges of ponds. The residual effect of liming depends on therefore modified to permit estimation of the amount of
the rale of water outflow from ponds lime required to raise the base saturation of pond muds to
80% and the total hardness of the overlying water to 20
Besoms en chaux et chaulage des etangs piscicoles
Resume mg/1 or more.
Une methodc de determination des besoms en chaux des terrains agn Methods used to lime ponds at the Fisheries Research
coles a ete modifiee pour pouvoir etre appliqucc a 1'etude des sols des
Unit.Auburn University Agricultural Experiment Station.
etangs de pisciculture. Cette methodc relativement simple, qui comporte
le mcsure du pH de la vase dans de I'eau naturelle et dans de I'eau distillee Auburn. Alabama are described and discussed in this
tamponnec. donnc une estimation fiable de la quant ite de chaux neces report. These procedures were developed for use in the
saire pour accroltre la durctc totale et I'alcalinite de 1'cau des eiangs
southeastern United States, but they can be adapted for use
lusqu'ii uric valeur de 20 mg'l ou plus. La met node a ete cssayee dans 2 1
etangs presentant des besoins en chaux differents et la d'urcic totale in other regions.
depassait 20 mg/1 dans tous les etangs sauf LIII 19 mg ( 'I ).
samples from ponds of 2- 10 ha. 2,4 Evaluation of technique to estimate liming rate
Mud samples should be collected from' a variety of The effectiveness of the procedure in estimating the liming
locations in a pond with an Eckman dredge or, if a pond has rate was evaluated for four groups of three ponds, each of
been drained, with a small shovel or similar device. To which had markedly different lime requirements (Table II).
facilitateand simplify the analysis procedure, a 100ml In all but one instance, the total hardness of the water
aliquot of each mud sample should be placed in a plastic exceeded 20 mg/1 six months after liming. Values for total
bucket to give one composite sample per pond. hardness were greater in Groups 3 and 4 (high lime require-
ments) than in Groups and 2 (low lime requirements). 1
2.3 Analysis of mud samples A total of 52 ponds on the Fisheries Research Unit.
Lime requirement determinations are normally made by a Auburn, Alabama have also been limed at rates established
soil-testing laboratory. However, the procedure is not com- by the lime requirement method; the results are:
plicated and can be conducted at most fishery stations.
Mix the composite mud sample thoroughly in the bucket
and spread it m
a thin layer to air dry. After drying, gently
Total hardness 6 months
pulverise the sample with a pestle and mortar, and sieve Number of ponds
after liming (mg/l)
through a screen with 0-85 mm
openings. Prepare a p-
nitrophcnol buffer of pH 8-0 0- by diluting 20 g p- 1
17-5-19.9 5
mtrophenol. 15 g boric acid. 74 g potassium chloride, and 20-0-29-9 21
10-5 g potassium hydroxide to one litre with distilled
30-0-39-9 17
water.
40-0-49-9
To 20 g dry mud in a 100ml beaker, add 20ml of
T\Hll I
TMUI II
Trsrs TO r\ Aii inr rm< MVIMSS 01 IMI-IIMI RM,>niRrMiM pRonm R IN' r\iri i MING iw MMINGRVM FOR PISH PONDS IN \I\M\M\
121
Total hardness increased to 20 mg/1 or more in all but five
ponds. These five ponds seeped excessively and the lime
was apparently lost in the outflow. The pH of the mud in
ponds limed following estimation of the lime requirement
\,-\
with this procedure normally ranged from 6 to 7.
3 Application of lime
Agricultural limestone is the liming material of choice.
Other materials may be used provided the liming rate from
Table I is adjusted for the neutralizing value of the alterna-
tive liming materials. Substantial amounts of calcium oxide
or calcium hydroxide must not be added to ponds which
contain fish.
\\
\ -.-._.-
application)
1975 production.
1974
I Comparison of effectiveness of liming by application in 500
kg piles near water's edge (S 2 ;md S 24 and spreading lime
o\er pond surface (doited line)) 5 References
mg/1 total hardness were limed in the winter of 1973. The soft- water ponds. Trans Am, /TV/I Soc 104 (2): 308 1? ,
C
E Lime requirements of Alabama fish ponds Auhuw Hull
following autumn, the ponds were drained and then allowed
Bovf),
1974 Unn. Aqric kxp. Sln. (459) 19 p. t
to refill with surface run-off water. Three months after BOYD, C. E, & WAU.LY, W. W
'I otal alkalinity and hardness of sui face
refilling, the total hardness of water the ponds varied in 1975 waters in Alabama and Mississippi Bull Auburn Univ. Aanc
Kxp 5/ff,,(465): 16 p
from 19-2 to 38-4 mg/1 total hardness. In these cases, it is
CiniTOKMAN, H. L Methods for chemical analysis of fresh waters
considered that residual lime in the mud increased the total 1969 IBP Uandh.l*)' 172 p.
hardness (and alkalinity) of the overlying water. HASLLR, A. D, BKYNILDSON, () M & HI.LM, T Improving condi- W
1951 lions foi fish in hi own-water hog lakes by ulkuliralion J, Wildl
Manage \5W\W1 52
4.2 Decline of total hardness in undrained ponds HICKLING, C Ush culture London,
1 Faber, 259 p,
would 1962
Hickling (1962) stated that an application of lime MOK IIMFK, C, Colon
H, Fertilizers in fishponds. Fish. Puhl, Off,, Ltmd.,
last almost indefinitely in a pond with no outflow. However, 1954 (5) 155 p.
most ponds lose some water to overflow and all ponds lose SNHDLCOR, G. W Statistical methods. Ames, Iowa, Iowa State Um-
1956 versity Press, 534 p.
water through seepage. H
iu , S. Standardization of chemical analyses for waters and
In an experiment carried out for almost three years, 1968 hAO Fish, Rep (44) vol. 4: 397-42
pond muds ,
1
122
New Trends in Fish Farm Management V. R. P. Sinha
A bs tract remain the most
systems, although the old rural ponds still
Recent advances and brackish water conventional fish culture
in fresh
management techniques promise decidedly increased yields Throughout
common and versatile structures. Most of these ponds do
the world there is increased recognition of the value of polyculture, not fulfil of the scientific criteria required for fish
many
integration of agriculture and animal husbandry with fish farming, and culture, eg. suitable topography, water supply and soil
recycling domestic wastes through fish culture Controlled breeding and
production of seed of cultivable species, feed formulation according to a quality. Nevertheless, modified or retained in original form,
fish's nutritionalrequirements, maintenance ol proper water quality, and they have frequent use as nursery, rearing and stocking
control of diseases and pests are also being employed to achieve better
ponds. In India, China and many other countries, particu
production from cultivable waters
The development of intensive fish culture, where a very high rate of larly where a Chinese population has been established,
production is made possible by rapid water flow or increased aeration cultivation of carps and other fishes, which grow rapidly,
together with high stocking rates and use of rich protein food pellets, is
attain large size and are relished as food, has been practised
likewise significant. The newer types offish farms have all the character
isties of an industry where the possibilities of development and increase in such ponds for centuries.
in production seem almost unlimited. Nevertheless, the adoption of these
Recent advances in the management of freshwater ponds
new techniques will be dictated more by the resources available and the
needs of the individual country rather than by the availability of the involve: application of organic and inorganic fertilizers (at
technology. times with trace elements), control of aquatic vegetation,
production en las aguas cultivables. or kissing gourami (Helosloma tcmmincki\ tawcs, nilem
Es igualmente sigmficativo el desarrollo de la piscicultura mtcnsiva,
en la que una mayor rupidei de flujo del agua o un aumento de la (Osteochilus hasselfi) and gouramy (Osphronemus gor
uircacion, unido a una mayor densidad de repoblacion y ul empleo dc aniy) is an ideal combination in Indonesian ponds. In
piensos granulados ncos en prole mas. permite conseguir un elevado 1 aiwan Province of China and Hong Kong, bighead (Aris-
mdice de produccion, I os tipos mas modernos dc granjas piscicolas
presentan todas las caracteristicas de una industria en las que las tiehthys nobilis)* grass carp, common carp (Cyprinus car
posibilidades de desarrollo y aumento de la produccion parecen casi plo) and grey mullet (Mugil eephalus) are stocked with
ilimitadas De todas formas. la adopcion dc estas nuc\as tecnicas
milkfish (Chanos ehanos). Tilapia mossamhica and sea
dependera mas dc los recursos disponibles y de las necesidades de cada
pa is que de la dispombilidad de lecnologia. perch (Lateolabraxjaponicus). In Japan, the main combi
nations in farm ponds include common carp, crucian carp
1 Introduction (Carassius carassius) and shrimp (Leancler paucidens)
Hmpirical knowledge gained over several centuries from with fish as the major component.
traditional rural pond culture has provided to some extent In France, species which arc co stocked include: com-
the basis for scientific fish culture, But today* great changes mon carp, roach (Rutilus ruiilm). tench (Tinea nnea) and
are taking place in fish culture both in fresh and brackish pike (/-'mv Indus).
water which represent the combined forces of hard Polyculture in Yugoslavia utilises common carp as the
earned experience, scientific research and modern methods primary species supplemented by tench, catfish (Silurm
of management. Some of these changes will be discussed in
glanis). pike perch (Snzostvdion ludoperca) and pike, In
this paper. Israel, a common carp tilapia mixed culture has been found
very successful.
2 Advances in management of rural freshwater ponds and
fish farms 2,1.1 Composite fish culture, India has reccntK made
Fish culture is carried out in a variety of enclosures and a great leap forward m evolving and populari/mg the
123
composite culture of the major Indian and Chinese carps products into high quality fish or shellfish. The success of
(Lakshmanan el aL 1971: Alikunhi. Sukumaran and Para trout farming inDenmark, eel farming in Japan and Taiwan
mcswaren, 1971: Sinha. 1972), The Indian carps used Province of China, and catfish farming in Thailand depends
were: catla (Catki cat/a), rohu (Labco rohita) and mrigal largely on the availability of cheap trash fish. Fish meal is
(Cirrhimis mrigala}. The exotic (ie, to India) carps were: now a major component in fish feed utilized for high
grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idellal silver carp (Hypo production. With the high cost of conventional feeds, at
philwlniichthys molitnx) and common carp (Cyprunts car tempts are being made to develop formulations using inex
pjo). This compatible combination, which has been termed pensive ingredients and recycled wastes.
'composite fish culture', is quite distinct from Indian poly
culture of carps where only Indian major carps are reared 2.4 Agriculture, animal husbandry and fish farming
together (Sinha and Gupta. 1975). Agriculture, animal husbandry and fish farming arc now
Centres in six Indian states utilizing composite culture viewed as both complementary and supplementary to the
have shown remarkable progress not only in augmentation ecological chain. Farmers have integrated fish culture with
of production but extending the techniques of carp seed
in pig or cattle raising and also with rice cultivation, to
production. With the six-species combination* yields of contribute substantially to their economic and nutritional
3 200-5 893 kg/ha/6 months have been obtained at differ- standards. An extensive type of paddy-cum-shrimp culture
ent centres; and with respect to individual species, it can be is a unique practice in certain parts of India. In Indonesia,
noted that grass carp has shown a iinnuh of 5 kg in a one fish culture in paddy fields is extensive and well developed,
year rearing period. though it has suffered a setback through the use of pesti
Since composite not only provides table-
fish culture cides for the rice crop. The area used for this purpose has
sized fish but also excellent brood fish, the composite fish declined from more than 003 000 ha in 1968 to about
1
culture units have been able to breed these carps for the first 80 000 ha in 1 974, (The decline
is also partly due to the use
time in many states of India. of fast yielding rice varieties which makes fish cultures
In further experiments on composite fish culture, fish relatively less profitable.) Nepal has introduced paddy
production as high as 7 500 kg/ha/year and 9 396 kg/ha/ aim-fish culture into certain areas, where common carp is
year was obtained (Chaudhuri c/ <//, 1974. 1975). In cultured. In general, paddy cum-fish culture has suffered
addition to the six species of carps, other fishes compi ising because of the use of pesticides, but short-term fry rearing
a feather-back (Nolopterus ehitala) and three catlishcs could very well be undertaken in paddy fields if proper
(Ompok bimuculatus, Mystus seenghala and Pangasius techniques were devised. A three-way rotation of fish,
pangasius) were included to feed on minnows, insects, soybeans and rice is being tried with considerable success
shrimps and molluscs. With extension of composite fish by some farmers m Arkansas. USA (Pillay. 1973).
culture to ponds of about 2 ha. a production of about 4 000 Domestic ducks and other water fowl are often used in
kg/ha/year was obtained in West Bengal (Sinha and the management of aquatic vegetation and the practice of
Sharma. 1976). duck cum-fish farming in eastern Kuropcan countries has
significantly contributed to food production and earnings.
2.2 Recycling of wastes and fishfarming Application of these techniques has become popular in
Use of domestic wastes for fcrtili/ation of ponds or feeding other parts of the world. In Nepal, carps have been cultured
fish is an ancient practice but, because of the shortage and at 5 000 6 000 per ha with 400-500 ducks. Production of
high cost of inorganic fertilizers and also availability of fish inthese ponds showed an increase of 5-10% over that
millions of litres of sewage near large cities and towns, the in ponds without ducks, and the ducks grew to an average
latter's use in fish culture has assumed growing importance weight of 2 kg in 45 50 days from the date of hatching
and is An average production
yielding encouraging results. (RajbanshL personal communication). In the Central Afri
of 3 4-5 tons/ha has been obtained with culture of carps can Empire, pig raising in conjunction with fish farming has
where sewage is used in China, the Federal Republic of increased farmers' earnings by more than three times, with
Germany. Hungary, Israel. Poland and the USSR. Almost a significant improvement in fish production (Pillay. 1 973 ).
year of Tilapia. has been obtained in India by the Central in the Americas and Africa but has a history of over 400
Inland Fisheries Research Institute from ponds irrigated years in Indonesia. Taiwan Province of China and the
with domestic sewage (Gosh, personal communication). Philippines, with the milkfish (Chanos chanos) as the
The utilization of
sewage or sludge for fertilizing fish ponds principal species and grey mullet (/V/w#//)coming next. For
is being
developed in many areas. It should be possible to many years these two non-carnivorous species were the
overcome public health hazards by modifications in the only ones cultured there; the use of carnivorous species for
techniques of culture and monitoring and treatment of farming developed rather recently. Efficient management of
wastes. milkfish ponds involves their preparation, maintenance of
The technique of using sewage to raise algae, which is proper water conditions, production of natural food orga
directly introduced as food for cultivated organisms or used nisms. supplementary feeding and pest and predator con-
as a major component in the production of compounded trol. The modern method of increasing milkfish production
feeds, is also of interest (Pillay, 1973). by stock manipulation is based on a revision of the system
of stocking one size group of fingerlings for each culture
2.3 Use of low grade products In fish feeds period with a single complete harvesting. The new trend is
There is also a growing tendency to convert low grade fish multiple stocking of different si/e groups of fingerlings
124
followed by repeated selective harvesting. The annual pro in Japan and the yield has reached hundreds of tons per
duction using this system can be increased several times hectare. Trout culture in running water has provided yields
over that achieved by the traditional method (Ling. 1972). up to 4 000 tons/ha. Eels also grow better when they are
Fertilization of milkfish ponds with organic and chemical cultured running water.
in
fertili7ers is practised in Taiwan Province of China, and is Cage culture is very close to these systems. Both carp
being adopted in the Philippines and Indonesia. Supple- and catfish cage culture show great promise and are signifi-
mentary feeds are given when the supply of natural food is cant advances in fish culture. Cage culture is carried on
poor. extensively in Kampuchea, Thailand, and Viet Nam. A
Mullet culture plays an important role, notably in the cage of 60 nv produces about 8 tons offish per year in the
1
Mediterranean area and southeast Asia, and is rapidly Mekong River in southern Viet Nam (Tal. 1974)
gaining popularity in temperate climates as well. A sophis Where water supply is limited, intensive culture can be
ticated use of mullet in fish culture is developing in Israel, carried on by recirculating the water in a closed system. In
Here, with common carp as a primary crop. Mugil ce- Japan, the water of an eel or goldfish pond is hardly
phalus, A/, capita and M, aurutus are used in polyculture. changed at all. In a closed system, the water is purified by
Considerable advances have also been made in mixed micro organisms which eliminate polluting substances
brackish water fish farming in India (Jhingran. 1975). while the water circulates between the cultunng container
Hxpcrimental polyculture of two grey mullets, Mugilparsia and the filter bed (Hirayama. 1974). Aerobic bacteria
and M. tade, and two penaeid prawns, Penaeus monodon attached to the surface of the phytoplankton assimilate and
and P. indicus. with repeated tidal flushing has given a net oxidi/e the polluting substances, and in turn the phyto-
production of 2 666 kg/ha/year. In another combination of plankton absorbs and utili/es the inorganic nitrogen and
three species of mullet, wr., M, parsia, M. tade and M. phosphate produced by the bacteria.
cephalus, the Indian major carps, catla. rohu, mrigal and Nitrification by biological filters in closed system aqua-
kalbasu (Labeo calhasu ) and the Chinese silver carp, grass culture is a primary method for removing ammonia from
carp and common carp in water of low salinity, a produc- the culture water. The use and success of such filters for low
tion of 700 kg/ha/8 months has been obtained (Anon..
1
density culture is well documented (Spotte. 1970), Micro-
1973 In monoculture of Mugll tade. a production of
). 5 1
biological filters are also feasible for high density fish
tons per ha has been obtained when the fish has been fed culture (Meadc. 1973). Though nitrifying filters are desir-
artificially. able, these are susceptible to malfunction with an immedi-
Farming of non-carnivorous species in both fresh and ate and rapid increase in ammonia. Johnson and Sicburth
brackish water still depends mainly on the production (1974) have suggested selective ion exchange using clmop
within the pond of food organisms either naturally or by the tiolite as a back-up method for removal of ammonia in
use of fertilizers. Conversely, the culture of carnivorous culture systems utili/ing biofiltcrs. This has an added ad-
species depends on feeds introduced into the ponds. Further \antage in that diseased fish can be treated with antibiotics
development farming both groups of fishes will depend to
in without harming the nitrifying flora if an ion exchange
a great extent on the development and availability of effi- column is used temporarily as an alternative method for the
cient, economical artificial feeds. removal of ammonia.
Both fresh and brack ishwater ponds are adversely Another problem to be faced in closed- system culture is
affected by pests and predators. Modern agricultural msec that of oxygen deficiency. This is specially important when
ticides and other agro chemicals show great promise in higher feeding rates are adopted to get better yields. This
controlling them. Attempts arc also being made through has necessitated introduction of a sxstcm of artificial aera-
hybridization to evolve fish strains with resistance to un tion in closed systems. Increased volumes of air result in
favourable environmental conditions such as oxygen defi- proportional increases in dissolved oxygen content, allow-
ciency, adverse temperatures and unsuitable salinity, and ing greater weights of food to be offered to fish without
also with better resistance to parasitic and infectious dis depicting the oxygen content of the water. Further, this
eases. The food conversion capacity, nutritional qualities reduces the chemical oxygen demand of water. White
and taste of pond fish are also considered in this respect. In catfish (Ictalurus cams) production was increased by over
Israel and elsewhere genetic work on the improvement of 100% by this method in comparison to non aerated culture
common carp has been in progress for years. (Lovacano. 1974).
In brackishwatcr fish culture, full utilisation of the natu-
ralspawn available from the sea. better gear for fry capture,
prospecting for new fry grounds, improved methods of
pond preparation, use of fertili/ers. supplementary feeds 5 Discussion
and pesticides, and stock manipulation will go a long way With improvements in conventional freshwater fish culture
toward increasing production. techniques, a production of 7-10 tons/ha/year has been
achieved in different Asian countries. A rural pond which
now has a subsistence level of production can have its
4 Running water fish culture production substantially increased with proper manage-
The on the growth offish
beneficial effect of running water ment and practically no investment in construction, In
is known. Kawamoto (195 7) and Chiba(,1965. 1970)
well order to do this, effective extension activities are needed to
have shown that the yield and growth of carps in ponds with improve the attitudes, skill and knowledge offish farmers
running water is 100 to 000 times higher than that in still
1 who have considerable experience but lack technical know
water because of the elimination of growth-inhibiting how. A programme of operational research in fish culture is
metabolites and the continuous supply of oxygen. Carp being undertaken in India so as to facilitate area develop-
culture in running water has become a commercial practice ment programmes.
125
The possibilities for integration of fish farming with fish. This has
the characteristics of an industry where the
all
agriculture and animal husbandry have special importance possibilities of development and increase in production
since many fish farmers arc also part-time agriculturists, seem almost unlimited. This method has a great advantage
and many small farmers who keep a few ducks or other in that the amounts of water and land
required are relatively
animals could also manage a small fish pond. It is estimated small, labour is more mechanized, and management easier.
that there are about 1 million ha of deep-water rice fields in The unit may thus be comparatively easy to control. As
Asia and the Far East, most of which could be utilized for long as the capital investment needed for this type of
fish culture as a combined culture or rotation crop, if heavy aquaculturc is relatively less than that
required for other
use of pesticides were avoided. protein producing industries.^, poultry and beef, its devcl
In any case, fish farming can be an integral part of rural opment will gather momentum throughout the world. It
development. Fish culture in community development must be cautioned, however, that its will be
adoption
areas in India, the Integrated Rural Development Projects dictated more by
the resources available in a country and
in Congo and in the Applied Nutrition Programmes in the country's particular needs rather than by availabiliu of
India,Indonesia, Republic of Korea, Lesotho and Sri the technology.
Lanka, has increased food production and rural earnings
and made substantial contributions to meet the nutritional
6 References
requirements of rural populations (Pillay, 1973).
Lands unsuitable for agriculture can often be used ad ALIMINHI, K H SUKUMARAN, K. K, & PARAMLSWAKAN, S Studies
1971 on composite fish cultuie, Production by compatible combina-
vantagcously for fish farming. At Malacca, West Malaysia,
tions of Indian and Chinese carps J. Indian Fish As.sw,, 1(1)
a fish farm was constructed on heavy lateritic, clayey, 26 57
infertile, acidic soil (pH 5-0) with impeded drainage which CHAUDHUKI, H et al, Record (ish pioduetiqn with intensive cultuic o!
1974 Indian exotic carps. Curr Sa 43 (10). 303 4
supported practically no crop even after the addition of ,
13 33
making efforts to utilize these for fish culture. Over 0-4 (I)
Cimu, K, Studies on the carp cultuie in running watei pond-Ill, On
million ha of brackish water area has been developed for 1970 the lelation between fish growth 01 harvest and cnviionmental
aquaculturc in Australia. Kampuchea, China. Indonesia, conditions in hsh ponds Bull, Frcriwat bish Re*. I. ah 'lokvo
199 21 S 20(2)
the Republic of Korea, Malaysia, the Philippines. Singa-
HIKAYAMA, Wale'- conliol by filtiation in closed culluie systems,
K.
pore, Sri Lanka, Thailand and Viet Nam. and a further area 1974 Iquaculturt?, 4 369 X*
of -5 million ha in these countries is available for similar
1 JHINC.RAN, V G, Fish and fishcncs of India Delhi, Hindustan Pub-
1974 lishmg Corpoiation. 954 p
development. In Taiwan Province of China. 600 ha of 1
JOHNSON, P W & SH-HURTIU Me N Ammonia temoval by selective
tidal land was reclaimed for milkfish culture, to demon- 1974 ion exchange, a for miciobiologjtal filteis in
backup system
strate pond construction and management techniques to closed-system aquacultuie Aquacultute, 4. 61 8^
KAWAMOJO. N Pioduetion during intensive carp culluie in Japan,
local farmers. The first year's production of 406 kg/ha has 1957 proof hub-Cull 19(1); 26 31 ,
been raised to 1 338 kg/ha (Liang and Huary. 1972). More LAKSHMANAN, MAY.
c( al Preliminary obseivation on intensive
1971
than 50% of the salt farms in Thailand have been converted lish farming in fieshwatcr
ponds by the composite culture of
Indian and exotic species J, Inland hsh Soc India, 3: 21 1
entirely into brackish water fishand shrimp ponds. About LIANU, JMJM-KUO& CIIIN-YUN HUARY. Milkfish production in
newly
1 000 ha of rice fields have been converted into shrimp 1972 reclaimed tidal land m laiwan In Coastal aquaculture in the
Indo-Pucific Region, edited by T. V R Pillay West
ponds in southern Viet Nam. and research in West Bengal Surrey, Fishing News (Books)' Ltd pp 417 28
Byfleet,
.
197*
the increasing use of supplementary feeds and fertilizers to Pi 1 T V R The lole of aquaculture in fishery development and
1 AY,
obtain higher yields. Further increases in production will 1973 management ,/ /-Vs/7 Res Board Can 30 12) Pt, 2, 2202 17 , (
to surpass the results of conventional methods. The devcl SPOI ii S. H Fish and inveitebiale culture New Yoik, Wiley Intei-
1
126
Problems of Warmwater Fish Seed Production H. ckaudhwi and s. D.
Abstract traditional methods, especially so when aquaculture is fast
Many of the important cultivable warm water fish species spawn in rivers
or estuaries or in the sea, making it difficult to obtain their seed for
becoming an important industry in several countries.
culture operations. Artificial, methods of propagation have, however, A number of hitherto uncultivated species are now in
been developed over the years for certain of these species Techniques of great demand and problems connected with their seed
successful spawning and rearing are still in their infancy with respect to
species such as the grey mullets (Mugil spp) and milkfish (Chanui
production and rearing are being investigated. The present
chanos ), review deals, however, only with the problems of seed
The paper reviews the methods
seed production and distribution of
of
production and distribution of warmwatcr fish species
both fresh- and brackish water cultivable species, and discusses, (i)
which are already being cultivated extensively,
problems of egg, spawn, fry and finger ling collection from natural waters
and those connected with the spawning of carps under artificial condi-
tions; (//) problems of seed production of catfishes and other air
breathing fishes, tilapias, eels (Anguilla spp,). and (//'/) seed production 2 Production of seed of Freshwater fishes
of the brackishwater and marine species, viz, grey mullets, milkfish, and
yellowtail (Senola quinqueradiatu) 2.1 Collection of spawn, fry and finger lings from natural
watery
Problemes relatlfs a la production d'oeufs et d'alcvins chc? les poissons
d'eaux chaudes
2.1. 1 Collection of spawn from natural waters. The fish
la collecte d'ocufs, de larves et d'alevins en eaux naturelles amsi que ceux Spawn of Indian carps (Cat la catla, Labeo rohita and
de la reproduction des carpes en milieu artificiel: (//) les problcmes de la Cirrhina mrigala) and of Chinese carps (Hypophthalmi-
production d'oeufs ct d'alevins de silures et d'autres especes a respiration chlhys mohtrix* Ctenopharyngodon idella, Arithchthys no
acnenne, de tilapias. et d'anguilles (Anguilla spp); et (///) la production
d'alevins d'especes marines ou vivant en eau saumatre (mulcts, chanos et bills, Cirrhina molitorclla and Mytophuryngodon piceus)
senoles (Scnola qutnqucradiata) par exemple) are collected during the monsoon months from flooded
rivers by means of large conical bagnets. In Indonesia, the
Problem as de la produccion dc peces para scmilla en aguas calidas
hxirano cyprinid Punt ins javanicus spawns in rivers during the
Muchas de las especies cultivable^ importantes desovan en nos, estua monsoon months and spawn and fry are collected with
nos o mares, lo que hace dificil obtener su semilla para la piscicullura.
Durantc Ips ultimos arios se han prepurado metodos arufkialeb de scoop nets made of fine cloth.
reproduction para deter mi nadas especies F,n el caso de especies eomo el A number of studies have been carried out in India with a
mugi (MuRil spp. y el sabalote (Chanos chanos ). las tccnicas de desove
I )
view to improving the collection of spawn from natural
y cria estan aun en la mfancia,
En este documenlo se examman los metodos de produccion y distnbu waters, Alikunhi. Chaudhuri and Ramachandran (1952)
cion de semilla de especies cultivables dc aguas dulces y salobres. identified the causes of heavy mortality of spawn either
teniendo en cucnta* (/) los problemas que plan tea la recogida de hucvos.
larvas y jaramugos en aguas naturales y los problemas rclacionados con
during collection or in nursery ponds and suggested im-
el desove artificial de la carpa. (//) los problemas que plantea la produe provements: (/') proper fixing of the net to avoid resistance
cion de semilla de bagrc y otras especies que neccsitan aire para respirar. to fast flowing waters: (//) a change in constructional design
tilapia. y anemia (Anguilu spp ). v (///) la produccion dc semilla de
of the cod end of the net; (///) periodic removal of spawn to
especies de aguas salobres \ mannas, es decu
el nuigil. sabalote \ pe/
limon (Scrinla quinqueradiaia) avoid overcrowding in the receptacle: (/r) proper sieving of
the collections to filter off predatory and competitor spe-
cies: (v) avoidance of overcrowded conditions during tem-
1 Introduction porary storage.
Many of the important cultivable species of fishes spawn In order to meet increased requirements for carp seed,
naturally or easily only in their natural habitats, thus several riverine stretches in India have been prospected
making it necessary for a fish farmer to collect the stocking from 1949 onward and a large number of new spawn
material directly from nature. Although the breeding re collection centres located (Jhingran, 1972). With a view to
quirements of some of these species arc partially under- assessing the spawn-yielding potential of various centres on
stood, much remains to be known before they can be bred in new measures of spawn abundance and
different rivers,
confined environments. Progress with respect to induction indices ofspawn quality and quantity have been developed
of spawning in captivity has been made primarily with the (Barrackpore. 1965). A standard spawn collection net has
following groups: (/') the Indian and Chinese major carps been devised which proved to be 200% more efficient than
(Chaudhuri and Alikunhi, 1957;Soin, 1959;Aliev. 1961): the gear in use in different parts of the country (Shetty.
(//) grey mullets (Tang. 1964; Yashouv. 1966. 1969; Malhotra and Ghosh, 1972). Catching efficiency has been
Abraham, Yashouv and Blanc. 1967; Shehadeh and Ellis. increased by developing a new gear similar to a 4-seatn
1970; Ahkunhi el al, 1971: Liao ct al, 1971. 1972: trawl instead of the commonK empkned 2 wing nets
Shehadeh, Kuo and Milisen, 1973; Kuo, Nash and She Chinese fry traders normally make a preliminary field
hadeh, 1974); (ill) Asian catfishes (Ramaswami and Sun estimate of the catch composition of spawn and fry of
deraraj, 1957 and 1957a; Tongsanga, Sidthimunka and Chinese carps. The fry arc sorted according to size groups
Menasaveta, 1963); (/V) the North American channel cat and species using graded sieves and the oxygen require-
fish (Clemens and Sneed, 1962); and (r) certain marine ments of the several species involved (Hora and Pillay.
fishes (Shclbourne, 1964). Despite these efforts to obtain 1962). Their elaborate process of sorting, though of great
the necessary stock for culture, it is difficult to discard the ingenuity, is however costly and time-consuming, involving
127
high labour and transport costs and heavy losses during eco-stimulus breeding as the required stimulus for breeding
is provided by changes in the environmental conditions
handling and distribution (Wu and Chung, 1964). Ali-
kunhi, Chaudhuri and Ramachandan (1951) also tried to such as provision of more diluted and oxygenated water,
segregate the spawn of Indian major carps from a mixed change in pH, salts, etc,
collection of riverine spawn on the basis of their oxygen It is one of the most important means of obtaining pure
requirements but the method was not found very effective in seed carps* but the hatching techniques
of cultivable
the field. Mitra ( 1972) developed a field method for distin- adopted are generally poor and result in great losses. Use of
guishing Indian major carp spawn from spawn of minor cement nurseries and glass hatching jars would be more
carps based on size and the shape and size of the yolk-sac. economical and enable handling a larger number of eggs.
This method helps in judging the quality of spawn as a The cloth 'hapas' which are used are not only expensive but
whole but it does not help to segregate the desired spawn, are difficult to operate in the limited space in the 'bundrT.
Valuable nursery space is therefore wasted by stocking
mixed collections which often comprise a high percentage Breeding the tawcs Pitntius favanicus. /'untius
2.1.3.3
of undesirable species. Riverine collections arc also very javanicus spawns in ponds with hard bottoms in Indonesia.
undependable as monsoon vagaries and consequent heavy Thailand and Malaysia. These ponds are specially prepared
flood or drought often result in poor collections. These by leaving them dry for several days till the bottom soil
cracks. Sometimes a part of the pond bottom is covered
problems emphasize the necessity for locating new centres
for the collection of quality spawn as well as the need for a with sand and gravel. The pond is filled with well-oxygen-
more dependable method of production of quality fish seed. ated water and the spawners introduced; reproduction fol
lows immediately. The eggs which are demersal hatch out
2.1.2 Collection offry andfmxerling from natural waters. in two or three days, the fry are collected when they are
Castnets, dragnets and basket traps are commonly used as three weeks old (Hofstedc, Ardiwinata and Botke. 1953).
collection gear for fry and fingcrlings. Another method of breeding P.juvanicus resembles the
The segregation of cultivable species from uneconomic 'bundh'-breeding techniques of India. The construction of
The catch the spawning pond (0- 1-0-2 ha) is undertaken in an area
varieties is fairly easy. per unit of effort at several
collection centres is very high and the operations are where sufficient rain water from the catchment gets col-
lected easily. The pond is also provided with a pit (4 x 4 m).
generally economically viable.
where the breeders are released. The fish are induced to
2.1.3 Problems injish breeding in confined waters through spawn with the entry of fresh ram water after a heavy
controlled natural or semi natural conditions. shower (Schuster. 1952).
2. 1.3. 1
Breeding of common carp. Breeding of common
2.1.4 Problems of artificial propagation. Although
carp (Cypritius carpio] in confined waters is very common.
artifi-
Carp are bred in special ponds (Dubisch type) with a grassy cial propagation of salmomds has been known for over a
raised bed in the centre as in Europe or in ponds with a hard century, artificial reproduction of cyprinids is recent and
or cemented bottom where 'egg collectors' like the 'kaka- not always dependable. The difference between breeding
bans' of Indonesia are provided. In China, Eichhornia, salmomds and cyprinids is mainly due to difference in their
Ceratophyllum and Myriophylluw are used as egg col lee genital structure, especially that of the female. Mature ova
made of polythene are being of female salmonids fall directly into the coclomic cavity,
tors. In Japan, egg collectors
the stick to the ovarian tissue and in the
ova of cyprinids
increasingly used. In India, breeding is usually undertaken
in cloth 'hapas'. fixed in ponds preferably without any fish case of carp stick to the substrate or to one
common
another soon after release by the female. Pressing the
population, and Hydrilla provided as the substratum for
egg deposition (Alikunhi. 1960). This is an improvement
abdomen or flanks of a mature female or male is thus not
4
over the kakabans' method as selected breeders alone are enough to release sexual cyprinids and effect
products in
used and a high percentage of fertilization is ensured. In fertilization artificially necessary to use intra
Instead it is
tion is brought about artificially. The stickiness of the eggs maturing carp and preserved in acetone or alcohol. Since
is eliminated by use of urea and tannin and the eggs are the Indian and Chinese major carps mature only once
incubated in jars. Hypophysation facilitates complete and during a year, it is during this short period that the glands
advance spawning and ensures a high rate of fertilization have to be collected. Inadequate knowledge of the maturity
and hatching irrespective of meteorological conditions stage, especially that of a maturing fish, from its morphol
(Woynarovich. 1969). ogy makes the choice between mature and immature fish
difficultand on a commercial scale glands are sometimes
2.1.3.2 Breeding Indian and Chinese major carps, The collected from immature fish, Common carp, which has
traditional practice of breeding Indianmajor carps in spe comparatively large glands and remains mature for a
cial types of ponds, known locally as dry 'bundhs' has greater part of the year, should be considered a good donor.
recent years (Dubey
in In India, the problem of preparing and preserving the
undergone several improvements
and Arjun Singh and Pande, 1972;Tripathi. 1974). As the extract has been solved by developing techniques for am-
factors responsible for the spawning of carps are not yet pouling and making it readily available to fish farmers
of 'bundh' breeding is still not
fully elucidated the practice (Ibrahim and Chaudhuri, 1966).
widely practised. Though is considered to be of
the soil type Administration of a single large dose of pituitary hor
prime importance, breeding has been observed in 'bundhs' mone, a common practice among Chinese fish breeders
constructed on clayey, silty and stony soils (Dubey and (Soin, 1959) results in ovulation, but affects the quality of
eggs. Fractional injections of hormone approaching
Tuli. 1961; Alikunhi?/ ai 1964). Kulkarni (1972)calls it
the
128
threshold dose, which give good results, are now widely (Banerjee, 1970). An indoor hatchery would eliminate
used (Chaudhuri, 1960; Alicv, 1961; Wu and Chung. these hazards and ensure economy and higher survival of
1964) and effect saving of pituitary material. While natural hatchlings.The hatching of Chinese carp eggs requires
spawning and fertilization is a common feature in injected flowing water.The physiological reason for this is not yet
Indian major carps, it is rarely so with Chinese major carps known (Kuronuma. 1968). Hatching in Zougjars (Woyna
(Aliev, 1961, Wu
and Chung, 1964; Chaudhuri et aL rovich, 1964) or the glass jar hatchery complex (Bhow
1967). Artificial fertili/ation by the 'dry' method is adopted mick. 1975) ensures quicker hatching and higher survival.
(Vinogradov, 1968, Chaudhuri, Singh and Sukumaran. An incubation net frame developed at the Saitama Fisheries
1966). Experiment Station for hatching Chinese carp eggs also has
The and purification of carp pituitary
fractionation a high efficiency (Kuronuma. 1968).
(Sinha, 1969, 1974) and Pacific salmon (Qncorhvnchus Certain individual Indian major carps have been bred
spp.) pituitary (Donaldson et aL 1972) have been at twice instead of only once as is normal within an inter-
tempted successfully. However, since the effective doses of val of two months, during a single monsoon season, pro
lyophilized second fraction of carp pituitary and that of ducing almost an equal number of eggs at each spawning
SG-G 100 to precipitate spawning in Indian major carps (Barrackpore. 1972). This indicates the possibility of
and ihe catfish (Heteropneustesfossilis)aTv the same as that doubling the production of spawn from an individual fish.
of the crude pituitary extract, purified preparations would The use of artificial light for simulating longer photoper-
not find much use in commercial breeding unless the iods. higher temperatures and provision of nutritive food
inhibitory factor, if any, is eliminated (Chaudhuri. 1975), may help in bringing about early maturity and result in
An essential requirement for success in induced breeding increasing the spawn production.
isthe selection of healthy breeders in prime condition. The A
major problem faced by aquaculturists in carrying out
stage of maturity of female breeders can be determined by large-scale induced breeding operations is the lack of a
collecting ovarian eggs by means of a catheter and micro suitable alternative to fish pituitary. There is a need to
scopic examination. Visceral fat. common in Cutla calla develop a natural or synthetic steroid or chemical hormone
and Ctenophuryngodon idellu from weedy ponds, affects to meet the increasing world wide demand for commercial
the development of gonads, especially the ovaries, and such production of fish seed.
have been developed in Malaysia (Malacca. 1967) to bring catfish or wels (Stlurm glani:>)is bred in ponds in I lungary.
about full maturity in grass carp. Tripathi (in press) has Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia. They breed easily in stor
observed that grass carp, reared on a diet of predominantly age basins (0-03-0-08 ha in area and 1-0- 1-5 m in depth)
terrestrial grasses, develop into good breeders and respond if proper nests are pro\ ided. Spawning takes place when the
very well to hypophysation. Malformation of the male water temperature rises to 2()C, hence filling of the ponds,
gonads is a very common feature in silver carp Hypophihal placement of lent nests' and stocking of selected breeders
michthys molitrix and unless a large number of breeders are should be done the same day. Hatching of the eggs could be
available for selection, fertilization of the ova becomes a done in hatching basins or Zougjars. The young are averse
major problem. It is
generally advisable to rear an adequate to strong light which must be avoided (Huct, 1970).
number of breeders and maintain them in ponds much
before the onset of the spawning season. 2.2.2 Seed production of channel catfish. The North
Hypophysation dependent as the changes
is still rain American Channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) breeds
brought about in the physicochemical and climatic condi when the temperature is around 21-24C. Commercial
tions of the environment are largely responsible for the culture of the species was limited due to the non availability
success or failure of induced breeding. Failure of rains and of the young. Production of channel catfish in hatcheries,
prolonged drought result in poor development of the gon- though not difficult, was erratic and necessitated the devel-
ads. Rains being erratic, especially in a tropical country like opment and refinement of hatchery techniques. It could be
India, prevailing air and water temperatures range too high
spawned in ponds, pens or aquaria with or without the
and affect spawning. Spawning may sometimes occur at use of hormones. Wire-meshed spawning enclosures
water temperatures above the optimum level but the per (3 x -5 m) are fixed m spawning ponds and wooden kegs
1
centage of fertili/ation and hatching is greatly affected and (1 x 0-25 m sides) or 50 milk cans submerged in 60 cm
1
results in poor yields. The use of short periods of favourable of water to be used as spawning containers (Crawford,
weather conditions for successful breeding suggests that 1958). An equal number of males and females are placed in
air-conditioned breeding and hatching centres may be a the pond at the rate of two pairs for each container. In the
solution to this problem (Alikunhi et al, 1964a). pen method, a male and a smaller female are placed in each
One of the problems encountered in seed production in spawning pen provided with a single spawning container.
India is the high mortality during incubation and hatching, As the female might devour the eggs it is necessary to
due to sudden fluctuations water temperature, presence
in remove it from the enclosure after the eggs are laid. Males
of algal blooms producing oxygen bubbles which buoy up can be used two or three times for spawning.
the eggs to the water surface, deposition of silt and poor The pen method has an edge over the pond method as it
oxygenation inside the *hapa\ and direct destruction of the protects the spawning pair from intruding fish and provides
eggs by common carp and tilapia (Panicker. Ibrahim and opportunities for selection of each pair, delaying or hasten-
Bhowmick, 1969) and weed fishes (Tnpathi and Sharaf. ing spawning, handling of the fish needing hormone injcc
1974) and in the case of common carp by gastropods tions. and immediate removal of spawners after egg laying
129
to enable stocking the pen with another pair (Clemens, afterhatching (Dehadrai, 1972;Banerji, 1974;Thakur,Pal
1968). The pond method can be adopted by an unskilled and Khan, 1974). Rising to the surface for aerial respira-
farmer, but the pen method requires skilled personnel tion involves considerable loss of energy and in deeper
capable of proper sexing and pairing the fish. The latter waters may lead to exhaustion or mortality. Pandian (cited
method also requires better quality brood stock. by Dehadrai and Tnpathi, 1975) found the energy loss due
Sneed and Clemens (1960) have described the tech- to vertical of young Channa punctalus reared in
trips
niques of hypophysation in channel catfish. A single pair is 40 cm deep water to be 6 1 cal/day as compared to 92 cal/
1
kept in a tank with running water and the female injected day for those which were reared in 2-5 cm deep water.
intra-peritoneally with 4-5 mg of acetone-dried whole In India, fmgerlings (30 100mm) of Clarias magur,
ground pituitary per kg of body weight. The eggs are Heteropneustes fossilis, Anabas testudineus, Channa
removed to a mechanical hatching trough provided with marullus, C. striatus and C. punctatus are collected from
running water and a system of moving paddles for agitation flooded fields, swamps and paddy fields by scoopnets.
(Nelson, 1960). dragnets and traps and marketed alive for culture.
The gourami Osphronemus goramy breeds naturally in
2.2.3 Production of the seed of Claris spp., other catfishes both streams and ponds. In India and the Philippines, no
and air breathing fishes. Clarias are indigenous to Paki special preparation is made for spawning the fish except
stan, India, Bangladesh, Burma, Malaysia, Viet Nam, Thai- that aquatic weeds are planted in the ponds for construction
land and the Philippines. C, batrachus is popular in India of nests and egg deposition. In Indonesia, however, the fish
and C. batrachus and C\ macrocephalus in Thailand. is bred both in 'growing' and spawning ponds. The growing
50 million fry annually (Sidthimunka. Sanglert and Pawa- the proportion of 3 females to 2 males. As soon as spawning
pootanon. 1968). begins, a fishy smell emanates from the nest and an oily
Pond breeding methods were developed by Wanichak substance comes to the surface. The eggs hatch out approxi
orn ( 957) and Sidthimunka and Ekuru ( 959) to meet the
1 1
matcly 10 days after the breeders are introduced.
increasing demand for Clarias fry by making holes in pond Spawning ponds for gourami measure 100m and arc
:
banks and providing some weeds therein for attachment of 60 cm deep at the inlet and m at the outlet with muddy
1
eggs,Tongsanga, Sidthimunka and Menasaveta ( 1963) and bed and steep banks. Branching stems of bamboo and fibres
Sidthimunka, Sanglert and Pawapootanon ( 1968) induced of Arenga saccharifera are provided for nest building. Ten
breeding C. macrocephalus in small aquaria for commer- female and five male breeders are stocked in such a pond
cial production of seed. and fed on Colocasia and Carica leaves at 5 kg per day and
Although Clarias was bred in India as early as 1956 by about 2 litres of rice bran twice a week. The females build
using homoplastic pituitary glands (Ramaswami and Sun- nests in about 10 days and spawn in the next 3 days.
deraraj, 1957a). mass production was possible only Hatching takes another 3 days. The hatchlings are fed white
through induced spawning by a massive dose of carp ants at one tea cup per nest. When about cm long, the fry
1
pituitary gland extract. are transferred to the rearing pond. If it is desired to re-use
Several other species of catfish and air-breathing fishes the pond, the nests can be taken out and the eggs hatched
(Heteropneustes fossilis, Pangasius pangasius, P. sulchi, separately in earthenware jars. It is necessary to change the
Channa spp., Anabas testudineus and Osphronemus
gor- water regularly.
any) are cultured in the Indo-Pacific region. Their seed is
generally collected from nature though they arc all amena 2.3 Production of the seed of tllapias
blc to induced spawning. The though native to Africa, are now
tilapias (Tilapia spp.),
The fry of Pangasius sutchi, P. larnaudiand P. microno- widely cultivated the world over. Seed production is not a
mus arc caught in
Kampuchea Mekong river during
in the problem in tilapias; it is their prolific breeding which
the late monsoon months. They live on the bottom but requires control. Two methods, viz, association of tilapias
regularly come to the surface to take in air. They are caught with a predator, and monosex culture, have been tried to
in slow moving water shaded by bushes and trees. Ad- control over-population with varying degrees of success.
vanced fingcrlings and juveniles are caught with dipnets Since monosex culture of tilapias gave good results, the
(Hora and Pillay, 1962). Early spawning of P. sulchi is problem of obtaining all male or all female fry was sought
reported to have been accomplished by hormone injection. to be solved by hybridization. Hickling ( 1960) obtained all
Recent attempts m India to breed the indigenous P. pangas male fry by crossing the males of an African strain (T.
ius by pituitary treatment have met with some success. hornorum zanzibarica) with a Malayan strain of 7'. mos-
Induced spawning of indigenous cultivable air-breathing sambica. Fast growth of the males is an obvious advantage
fishes on a mass scale has been developed and standardized as there is no fear of overstocking through wild breeding
in recent years (Dehadrai, 1975). but they cause great damage to the dikes by building nests
A
low water column is the most essential requirement of even in the absence of females. All-female hybrids would
the breeding environment of air-breathing fishes to enable therefore be better despite their poor growth and lesser
easy aerial respiration. In Anabas, Heteropneustes, Clarias production. One 'Malayan' male (7". mossamblca) when
and Channa spp. aerial respiration starts five to eight days crossed with two 'Malayan' females (T. mossambica) gave
130
97 and 88% females (Malacca, 1963). Crossing male T.
salinityand enters the estuaries and brackish water lakes as
hornorum zanzibarica with females of T. nilotica in fry and fingcrlings where they are taken in impoundments
Uganda in the production of 100% male fry
also resulted along with tidal water and reared in association with other
(Pruginin and Kanyike, 1965). All-male hybrids were also species, including predators and competitors. However, it
obtained, though irregularly, by crossing male T. macro- is possible to identify the different species of mullets and
chlr with female T. nilotica in Ivory Coast by Lessen! segregate them for selective stocking (Sarqjini, 1958).
(1968). Production of grey mullet seed through hypophysation
All hybrids produced so far.however, belong to the has been tried in Taiwan Province of China (Tang, 1964;
microphagous group. Huct ( 1970) observes that produc Liao<?/0/, 1971, 1972), India (Chaudhuri, 1968;Chaud-
lion of herbivorous hybrids would be of great interest huri el a/, m press), Israel(Yashouv, 1966 and 1969;
considering the ease with which they can be fed artificial Abraham et a/, 1967), and Hawaii (Hendrickson, 1969;
food, It is also suggested that fry raising must be separated Shehadeh and Ellis, 1970). While ovulation, fertilization
from production offish as these arc two distinct operations. and hatching were carried out successfully, further rearing
seemed very difficult. In Taiwan Province of China, the
2.4 Production of elvers problem of selecting and securing mature, uninjured mul
The catadromous eels (Auguilla spp,) pass from one to lets from the sea was solved by developing a special raft
three years of their life in the sea depending upon the area fitted with an outboard motor for quick transport. Though
they come from. The European eel (Anguilla anguilla). the the effective dosages were found to be 3-5 mullet pituitary
American ccl (A. rostraia) and the Japanese eel (A.japon- glands combined with 30 RU of Synahorm. it was felt that
ica) arc economically very important. more pituitary glands and less Synahorin in the first injec
Hel culture is practised intensively in Japan where a very tion and less glands and more Synahorin in the second
high rate of production is obtained. Elvers (60- 70 mm/ injection would be better. The time between the two injcc
0- 16-0-2 g) are captured in winter at the mouths of water tions was cut to 12 h but it has not been possible so far to
courses with nets and stocked in ponds for culture until shorten the ovulating time by less than 24 h. A high
autumn whence they attain a size of 150-200 mm and a percentage of hatching (over 70) is possible when a high
weight of 5-~8g. Cannibalism is a highly characteristic dissolved oxygen content is maintained and minimum vari
feature and young eels need to be graded 5 to 6 times before ations arc allowed in water temperature and salinity (Liao
they reach a size of 00- 50 mm. These arc stocked again
1 1 et aL 1972).
but in different ponds according to their sixe. These arc Larval rearing was found to have, at least* two critical
known as seed fish and used for stocking large ponds which periods, the third to fourth day and the 1 1th to 13th day.
been reared recently and found to have high growth and 18th day. by which time the survival rate was less than one
high production potential, It has been found that their per cent. This problem could be partly solved by using
elvers attain marketable si/e (350mm in length and a freshened sea water from the sixth or seventh day onward
weight of 100 g) m running waters in one year (Dorairaj. but the timing and freshening rate require further studies.
1976). An elver resource survey is needed to determine the Both natural and artificial feed for mullet larvae are still a
areas and period of their abundance to help locate centres problem and require further studies. The newly-hatched
for their collection on a large scale. larvae cannot tolerate light of high intensity, at least, up to
the 1 3th day, hence studies arc required to be conducted on
the optimum light intensity tolerance to reduce unnecessary
3 Production of seed of brackish waterand marine fishes mortality.
3.1 Production of grey mullet seed In Hawaii, Kuo, Nash and Shehadeh ( 1974) developed
The grey mullets (Mugil spp.) are raised in fresh and standard practices to breed the grey mullet under controlled
brackishwatcr ponds in China, Hawaii, Hongkong, India conditions. The dosages of hormone to be administered
and China and Hongkong, they arc cultured
Israel. In India, have been established in relation to the stage of maturity of
the female, which could be determined by the si/e of the
along with major carps; in Hawaii with milkfish and in
Israel with common carp and tilapias. The most important intraovarian oocytes. Gravid females, having a mean egg
where pure sea water was being circulated. It is believed the remaining two thirds.
that mullets need waters of high salinity for proper fertiliza Out-of-scason vitellogcnesis of intraovarian oocytes of
tion of their eggs. captive grey mullet has also been induced by the mampula
In China, dipnets are used for catching mullet dry during tion of photopcriodand temperature regimes (Kuo, Nash
low Fixed dipnets, operated from the shore, arc also
tides. and Shehadeh, 1974). Spawning can be induced in such
used. In India, pieces of coarse cloth dragged by two females where the oocytes have progressed to the tertiary
persons constitute the gear in West Bengal; while fine- yolk globule stage but the egg si/e has remained
below
meshed dragnets and castnets are used in Tamil Nadu, and the effective range for injection (600-650 (i) by daily
Chinese dipnets are commonly used in Kerala. injections of pituitary gonadotropins increasing the
Mullet seed is quite tolerant of wide fluctuations in doses from an initial 0-12 to 3-4 fig per g body weight.
131
The manipulation of photoperiod and temperature, alone or lected during high tides from March to May and from
in conjunction with the use of exogenous hormones, helps September to December, when the sea is not rough. Fry
to achieve two primary objectives of aquaculture, v/z, (10-13 mm) of milkfish are available on the Philippines
(/) increasing the individual spawning frequency, and coast from March to August and collected by dipnets in
(//') prolonging the spawning season throughout the year. narrow tidal streams, where they are highly concentrated at
Operational procedures for rearing grey mullet larvae the peak of the season.
from incubation of eggs to the end of the 42 day larval Although the milkfish culture industry in Taiwan Prov-
period have been developed by Nash, Kuo and McConnel ince of China is of recent origin, it is much more productive
(1974). The eggs are incubated up to the gastrula stage at than that of Indonesia and the Philippines. The fry are
high density for 12 h at 22C. They are washed under collected during spring tides on full and new moons
April in
stirred irradiated sea water 32/00 salinity), then given a and May byusing triangular dipnets. A bag seine of varying
one-minute bath in sea water containing the antibiotics length, with an opening at the top of the bag for periodical
potassium penicillin (80 IU/ml)and streptomycin sulphate removal of the fry. is also used effectively in deep waters
(0-05 mg/ml) and distributed into the rearing kreisels (cir- where it is pulled by two men or anchored, where the
cular rearing tanks) at 250 eggs/I. Incubation is then current is strong, with its mouth facing the current (Lin,
plankton and rotifers supplemented with available natural aggravated by water pollution from the discharge of indus
plankton. Anemia nauplii are provided on the seventh day. trial wastes (Blanco, 1972). Considering the difficulty in
Survival has been increased in the early larval stages by collecting mature breeders from the sea and keeping them
increasing the size of the rearing krciscl and increasing alive for induced breeding, it appears necessary to bring
aeration and circulation. Nash, Kuo and McConnel (1974) about maturity in pond-reared fish. Attempts to breed
believe that the survival could possibly be increased further milkfish artificially are under way on a large scale in the
by using even larger units. While light control is desired three major producing countries, and it is reported that
throughout the entire larval rearing period, exposure of the ovulation of pond-grown milkfish has recently been
larvae to direct sunlight during the first five days is lethal achieved in Hawaii.success in induced breeding,
Initial
and artifical lights arc therefore preferred. including the fertilization and hatching of eggs, has recently
Ingestion of empty cysts or shells of Anemia causes been reported from the Philippines.
heavy mortality of larvae up to four weeks of age. The
larvae are also susceptible to attacks from the ectoparasites 3.3 Production of yellow tail seed
and predators introduced with the natural plankton, and The yellowtail (Seriola quinqueradiatu) cultured in Japan
amphipods have been observed attacking even six- week old spawns off southern Kyushu m late April or early May. The
larvae causing their death. larvae (about 5 1 mm
) are brought ashore by the Kuroshio
While considerable progress has been achieved in mullet current where they are caught in floating seaweeds by fine-
breeding, the techniques of rearing breeders to full maturity meshed encircling nets.
in ponds, the proper dosages of pituitary extract to be used The fry arc graded immediately into small, medium and
and methods of hatching and rearing, especially deterrnina large categories, otherwise serious mortality results from
tion of the right kind of food for hatchlings and young fry. cannibalism (Furukawa, 1972). The graded fry arc stocked
need to be studied further before the hypophysation tech in nylon net cages for rearing. In natural conditions, they
nique can be successfully applied for mass production of begin to teed when they are tour days old: 20 30 mm fry
mullet seed. feed on eggs and arthropod larvae found amongst
fish
Different methods arc used in different countries to seed production and distribution, these remain as major
collect the young larvae, but all operations from collection constraints on the expansion offish culture. It has not yet
and transport to its marketing are undertaken by expert been possible to arrange a supply of adequate numbers of
fishermen and traders. The
milkfish fry industry has per- pituitary glands for breeding. It would, therefore, be better
haps the same status in Indonesia and the Philippines as the to find a chemical substitute with a standard potency. Much
carp fry industry in India and China. remains to be known about recognizing the stage of matu
In Indonesia, milkfish fry (15-25 mm) are usually col rity offish, from either external morphology or the size of
132
the egg, to determine the dosages to be injected. Methods of C'tenonharynqodun idellus (C, & V ) and the silvei carp, liypo-
/ihihahnuhthys nwhin\ (C &. V ) by induced bieedmn in ponds
inducing 'natural' spawning through hypophysation in in India Proc Indian A cad, Sa, (B), 63 (2) 80 9^
Chinese carps have yet to be devised. Methods to bring C'HAi'DHi RI H et al. Note on natuiaJ spawning of grass carp and
1967 silvei carp in induced breeding expcnments, Sd Cult 33 (1 1)
about proper gonadal development and early maturity or ,
493 4
alternatively to reduce the fat content should be studied and CHM/DHI.KI, H Bleeding and selection of cultivated waim-watei tishes
in A^a and the Far Fast -a icvicw. FAQ hsh
techniques of raising fish separately for breeding and for 1968 Rep (44) vol, 4, ,
30 66
consumption* as in poultry production, need development. CHAUDMURI, H Experiments on artificial propagation of Muqil
Production of milkfish and prawn seed on a commercial cephalus Linneaus in India J Fish. Biol,, (in pi ess)
scale is likely to remain a problem until these species can be Ci MI NS. H P, A leview of selection and bi ceding in the uiltuie oi
i
1968 warm watei food fishes in Noith Amenta, F4O 7-/s// Rep (44)
grown to sexual maturity under controlled conditions. As it
,
vol 4 67 80
is, collection of milkfish spawners and keeping them alive CLI vn NS, H P & SM 1>, K E, Bioassay and use ol pituitary matenals 1
(61) 30 p
availabihty of efficient and cheap feeds for mullet larvae COOK, II L A method of earing penaeid shump laivae foi expen- i
are other hampering MXr Mu-nt,il studies FAQ Fish Rep (57) Vol, 3 709 15
important problems largo-scale ,
Ai ii v, I) S An cxpenencc of obtaining piogeny from the Ku East cm DOUAIKAJ. K Eel culture Prm Indian Sci Conyi' , 63 (late abstiaets)
1961 plant-eating fishes undei Tuikememan conditions <tpi I 1976
fkhtiol (4) 650 8 (in Russian)
. I Dl'MM. Ci P & Ti'ti, R P Observations on the bleeding of major
AIIKUNHI, K H Practical hints on the bieedine of common carp 1961 caips in Madhya Piadesh ./ Bombay \at Hist .S^,,50(l)
I960 Banackpoie, Ccntial Inland Hshenes Rescaich Institute. II p 81 91
(inimeo) Du*n. G P. Sist,n ARJI N <Sc PANDI. M R, hsh seed pioducnon
Ai IKI SMI. K H OiArmit'Ri. H, & RAMA( IKSDIUN, V A possible
, 1972 fiom di\ bundhs and its economics, In Seminal on pioduction
1951 method foi segicgaUon of species fiom mixed collection of .1 ol quahtv fish seed foi fish cultuie, 2 Noxewbei I96S 1
laboiatoiy, Bull Cent Inland f-tsh Res hist Ban u<k pore, ,
1960
(1) 19 p. Hoisimi ARDIWIS\I\. R C) &
A, E h
,. hsh ciihuic in Bom,
AiiKi'sm, K H Induced spawning of the gre\ mullet Mmiil
ci al, t
1953 Indonesia Special Publ. Indo-Pac Fish Counc 2. 129 pp
1971 tna< 't'oleps is and obseivations on earing hatchlmgs to tingci-
) i HOR<\, S L & Pit AN. 1 V R Handbook ol fish cultuie in the Indo-
i
(Books) Ltd 60 7 1972 \fu<iil (ephalus Linnaeus, In C'oastal aquacultuie in the Indo-
CuAUDHURt, H, Lxpeiimenls yn induced spawning of Indian caips Pacific Region, edited by 1 V R Pillav, London, Fishing
I960 with pituilaiy injections Indian J, Fish 7 (1), 20 48 ,
News (Books) ltd, pp 2IM3
CHAUDHURI, H The use of hormones in induced spawning ol carps LIN. S. Y, Notes on fish fry industry ol China Proc /ndo- Pacific Fish
1975 Pactf Sci. Conar , 13 (1): 14 (abstract) 1949 Council, 65 71 1
CIIAUDIIITRI, H. Ai IKUNHI, K H Observations on the spawning of LIN, S, Y Milkfish farming in Taiwan hsh Cult, Rep. Tan\an Fish
1957 Indian carps by hormone injection Curr ,SV/. 26 (12) 381 2 (
1968 Res. ln\t. t OV 43 8
CIIAUDHURI, H SiNCiH, S B. & SuKUMARAN, K. K Kxpcnmcnts on
,
MAIA<CA Report of the Tropical Fish Cultuie Reseaieh Institute
I960 large-scale production of fish seed of the Chinese glass carp 1963 Rep Ttop Fish Cult Res Inst Malacca (1%1)
133
MAI ACC A, Report ol the Tiopical Hsh Cultuic Research Institute, 1969 G-100. J Chromatoar 44 6248 ,
1967 Rep 'Irop fish Cull Res Inst Malacca, (1967) SINHA, V, R. P, A simple method of fraetionation of fish pituitary
Mi IRA, G. N. Production of quality fish seed of Indian majoi carps in 1974 gonadotropin, J, In/and Fish. Soc. India. 6 150-4
1972 the Mahanadi river system in Orissa. In Seminar on production SNFTD, K K & Ci FMFNS, H P Use offish pituitanes to induce spawn-
of quality fish seed for fish cultuie. 2 November 196N 1 1960 ing in channel catfish Spec. Sci. Rep US Fish Wtldi Sew
Bunutkporc, Cential Inland Fisheries Research Institute, pp (Fish), (329): 12pp,
20 36 SOIN, S G, A production experience ol obtaining mature eggs of the
NASH, C h,Ki'o, M & MfCoNMi
S (' Operational procedure
(' 1959 silver and grass cam with the aid of pituitary injections in
1974 for rearing larvae of the grey mullet (Muuil ccphalus L) China. Rvbn. Klwz (8) 67 73 .
Aauaculture, 3(1). 15-24 TANAKA, J Cultured hn-fish of tempeiate waters in Japan In Coastal
Nil SON, R Spawning of channel catfish by use of hormone, Ptoc. 1972 aquacultuie in the Indo-Pacific legion, edited by T, V, R. Pillay
1960 Southeast. Axsoc Game Comm 14 145-8 . West Byfleet, Surrey, Fishing News (Books) Ltd pp 150 , 1
NOMURA, M, Maturation and spawning of fish allotted by environ- TANCJ, Y A Induced spawning of striped mullet by hormone injection,
1964 mental factors Aquacu/turc, Tokyo, 12(3) 159 96 (in Japanese) 1964 Jap J Ichthyoi 12(1 2) 23-8 t
PANICKLR, G. C, IUKAHIVI, K. H & HIIOWMKK, R M Observations IHAKUR, N K PA i, R N & KHAN, H A Kmbryomc and larval
1969 on large scale destruction of carp eggs in breeding hapas by the 1974 development of Heteropneustes /ossilis (Bloch) J Inland Fi\h.
common carp, Cvpnnu\ carpio (Linnaeus), J, Bombay Nat Soc India, 6, 33 44
Hist Soc..M>(\) '195-8 ToNfiSANCiA, S SIDTHIMIINKA, A & Mt NASAVi TA, D Induced spawn-
,
PRUGININ, Y, & KANYIKL, E. S Monosex cultuie of tilapia thiough 1963 ing ol catfish (C lariat macrocephalus Gunther) by pituitary
1965 hybndi7ation Paper presented to Symposium on Fish Farming, hormone m)ection Proc Indo- Pacific Fish Council, 10 (2V
OAU, Nan obi 205-13
RAMASWAMI, L S. & SUNDI.KAKAJ, B 1 Induced spawning in the 'iKiPATiu, S D Production of carp seed fiom wet and dty bundhs,
1957 Indian catfish lleteropneuslcs with pituitary injections Ada 1974 /wSummci Institute 17 June 31 July 1974. Barrack poie. Central
Ami ,31- S51 62 Inland Fisheries Research Institute, 13 p
RAMASWAMI, L. S & SI'NDI.RARAJ, B 1 Induced spawning in the 1 KIPAIIII, S D Growth, matunty and spawning in grass carp icaied
1957a cattish, Clarias, Naiur\\issenscha/ien, 44 384 on a diet of tenestnal vcut-tation, ./ VAI V (Jawaharlal Nehru
SAKOJINI, K. K On the collection, acclimatization and transport ol Knshi J'/v/ru'a Vidvalva) ftes, J. (in pi ess)
1958 mullet seed in West Bengal (India) ./ Bombay Nat Hi\i. Stx. HI HA HI, S, D, & SHARAI, R K
, 1 I
Piedatoiy loleo! weed lilies vis-u-u.s
55(1) 42 53 1974 aquatic insects, tadpoles and fioglets JtyKVV (Jawahailal
SriuisiiK, II W ish culture in bravktsh water ponds of Java, Spec.
I
Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidvalava) Res, J,, 8 (2). 123- 7
1952 Pub! Indo- Pacific Fish, Council, (2) ViNoiiRAUov, Techniques of rearm u phytophagous fishes FAO Fi\h
SIIUIADLH, Z H. & ELLIS, J N Induced spawnmu of the striped 1968 Rep, (44) Vol ^ 227 32
1970 mullet Muqil cvphnlu\ L, J, /-/s/7, Bwl. 2, 355 60 t
WANK HAMWN, P The cultivation of catfish (C7</r/</s spp Thai hsh )
SlDIHIMLNKA, A,, SANdllKI, J, & PAWAl'OOI ANON, O. The CllltUlO YASiiorv, A Breeding and growth ol grey mullet (Mugil cephalic L )
1968 of catfish (C7w/</s spp,) in Thailand FAO Fi\h Rep, (44) 1966 fianndat'h, 18(1), 3 13
Vol > 1% 204 YASHOUV, A Preliminary leport on induced spawning of M cephalus
SINHA, V R P Chiomatography offish pituitary extracts on Sephadex 1969 (L.) icaied in captivity in frcshwak'i ponds Rawtdqvh. 21 19 24
0-01 mg, starch at 3-44 rng. boron at 1-0 mg and manganese at de Labeo rohita eleve en clangs de 0,04 ha a montrc que le taux do
frai
01 mg/day/fish. In addition to these, yeast at -0 mg, molybdenum at 1 survie excedait celui des temoins dans la proportion de 26.90 7.80 et
05 mg and enterocycline at 01 mg/day/fish were also found useful 17,00%. Des travaux cffectues en 1969-70 et en 1970-71 sur des
Field experiments carried out from 1969 to 1972 with Indian major alevins de Labeo rohita, de Catla catla et de Cirrhmus mri^ala ont
carp fry and fingcrlings confirmed the above findings, In 1970, 1971 and mdique que le taux global de survie apres un traitcment par le chlorure dc
1 972 the effect of cobalt chloride on rohu spawn reared in 04 ha ponds cobalt excedait celui des tcmoms dc 8,40 ct dc 24,0% a Tissue de deux
showed that the percentage of survival over control was 26 90, 7 80 and experiences faites lors de deux annees successives Dans des experiences
17-00 Work in 1969-70 and 1970 71 with fmgcrlmg rohu. catla en milieu nature!, on aegalement montre que I'amidon jouc un role utile.
(Catla catla), and mngal (Cirrhmua mri^ala) showed that the overall
percentage of survival with cobalt chloride treatment was 8-40 and 24-0 Aumento de la produccion de alevines y jaramugos de las principales
over the controls respectively from two experiments in two successive carpas indias utilizando sustancias que favorecen el crecimiento
years In the field experiments, starch was also found to be useful. Extracto
Durante los anos 1968- 69 se realizaron primeramente experimentos en
Stimulation de la production d'alevms de carpe indienne au moycn de laboratono y al airc libre para observar los cfectos en la supcrviviencia y
substances favorablcs a la crolssance crecimiento de jaramugos de rohu (Laheo rohita} de 15 sustancias
Resume Los resultados de esos experimentos
favprecedoras del crecimento.
Des experiences de laboratoire et de terrain ont tout d'abord (1968-69 ) indicaron, con un nivel de fiabilidad del 5%, que cuatro delos tratamien-
eu pour objet d'obscrvcr Ics effets de 15 stimulants differents sur la tos habian mejorado la supervivencia: cloruro dc
si^nificativamente
survie et la croissance d'alevms dc rohu (Labeo rohita). Les resultats de cobalto (0,01 mg por dia/pez), almidon (3,44 mg), boro (LOmg) y
ces experiences ont indiquc quc quatre traitements ont notablement
manganese (0,0 mg). Tambien rcsultaron iitiles la levadura 1,0 mg por
1 (
accru la survie des poissons au taux de confiancc dc 5%: Ic chlorure de dia/pez), el molibdeno (0,05 mg) y la enterociclina (0,01 mg).
cobalt, Tamidon, le bore et le manganese aux concentrations respectives Los experimentos realizados directamente sobre el lerrcno desde
de 0,01 mg. 3.44 mg. 1.0 mg et 0,0 mg par poisson/jour. En outre, la 1 1961 a 1972 con alevines y jaramugos de las principales carpas indias
134
confirmaron csos resultados, En 1970, 1971 y I972,empleandocloruro results compared with the respective controls. The micro
de cobalto para la eria de rohu en estanques de 0,04 ha, se registro un
nutrients that indicated the most promising results in this
indicc de supervivcncia superior al de los testigos en 26,90. 7.80 y
1 7,00%. Los trabajos realizados en 969- 70 y 97(>-7 con jaramugos
1 1 1 preliminary screening were subsequently given further
de rohu. catla (Catla catla) y mrigal (Cirrhinus mrigala) revelaron. en trials. See section 3.1 for results,
los pcccs tratados con cloruro de cobalto, un indice lota) de supervivcn
cia mayor en 8,40 y 24,0% que el de los testigos. Kn los expcnmentos
rcalizados sobre el terreno rcsulto tambien util el almidon,
"I AMI r l
Nutrition plays an especially important role under con- Yeast Squibb brewer's yeast. Sarahhai Chemicals
(P) Ltd.
ditions of dense stocking. When the natural food supply Starch Weikfield's laundry starch powder
declines, the artificial feed provided should be physiologi Selenium A micronutrient. used as selenium dioxide,
Molybdenum A micronutrient, used as sodium molybdate
cally balanced and rich in organic substances (protein, Boron A micronutrient. used as boric acid powder.
carbohydrate, and should also contain minerals and
fat. etc) Cobalt chloride A micronutrient analytical quality, BDH
growth-stimulating substances. Das (1959, 1960, 1967)
Ltd.
hnterocyelinc Chemothcrapeutic agents, ictracyclme.
and Das and Krishnamurthy (1959) have observed that
Dey's Medical Stores (P) Ltd
minute quantities of vitamin B-complex and yeast signifi- Chloromycctm Chlorarnphenicol. Parke Davis (P) Ltd.
Terramycin Chlorarnphenicol, Ha- chest
cantly enhance the survival of post-embryonic Indian carp, Hocstacycline
(P)Ltd.
In the USSR, Kornccva (1963) and Leonov (1963) have A micronutricrit, used as
Manganese manganese
used amino acids, vitamins, cobalt chloride and cobalt sulphate
nitrate for enhancement and stimulation of growth in carp
and salmon. Pickford and At/ (1957) have reported that
the normal body growth in fish can be augmented by The fifteen growth-promoting substances were initially
administration of growth hormone. Sen (1972) also ob- tried during the year 1 968-69 with respect to the following
served that the survival and growth of Indian carp fry can qualities; (/) effect on survival and growth offish, (//') their
be enhanced significantly by treatment with cobalt chloride ease of application, (///') cost, (/r) effect with small dosage,
and to a lesser extent with starch, boron and manganese, (r) side effects, if any. and (r/) their consistency,
The work reported hereundcr deals with the effect of The dosages study were based mainly
tried in the present
growth promoting substances on survival and growth of fry on the potency, economy and case of handling of the
and fingerlings of Indian major carps. substances.
The data on growth and survival of fry recorded for each and reared one of the ponds, the fish were
for 13 days. In
dose of a treatment were pooled and analysed, and the supplied with cobalt chloride at the rate
of 0-01 mg/day/
135
fish along with supplementary feed of finely powdered 3-44mg. 1-Omg and 0*01 mg/day/fish respectively (Table
ground nut oil cake and rice polish. The other pond, where III). In set IV of the experiments the performance of
only supplementary feed was provided, served as a control. manganese was best when supplied at 1-0 mg/day/fish.
The fish were fed once a day. the feed being broadcast on the However, the performance of this substance at -0 mg and 1
surface (Table II). 0*01 mg/day/fish did not vary significantly, hence the
The second and third sets of field trials with rohu fry lower dose was considered (Table III).
were conducted during 1971 and 1972. The experimental The mean values of percentage survival of a particular
procedure remained identical with that in the first trial dose of each substance which proved superior to the control
except that the slocking densities were raised to 3-75 in different sets were subjected to V
test. Starch (3-44 mg),
million/ha and 6*25 million/ha respectively. In both years, boron ( 1-0 mg). cobalt chloride (0-01 mg)and manganese
three ponds received cobalt chloride (at ()()! mg/day/fish) (O'Ol mg) indicated significant difference at the 5% confi-
along with the supplementary feed (Table II), and two dence level over their respective critical difference values
ponds where only feed was provided, were kept as controls. (Table IV).
On the fourteenth day of all trials, the fry from all the
ponds were harvested and survival and their growth re 3.2 Yard experiments
corded. See section 3.3 for results.
The results of the set of experiments conducted with rohu
fry in plastic pools to determine the relative usefuless of the
TABLF II
substances screened from the laboratory experimc*nts arc
H-TDINO SCIII DtlLF OF TRY AND FINGERLINGS IN FIH D1RIAI S IN 0-04 shown in Table V. An analysis of co-variance worked out
HA PONDS. I96Q 71' on the final proportions on survival and growth of these
Thirteenth dav No feed gi\en The results of the plastic pool experiment showed that
I'ourteenth day Harvesting.
treatment with cobalt chloride at 0-01 mg/day/fish was
Finger-lings (rohu. First month 750 g most satisfactory, followed by boron at 1-0 mg/day/fish
cat la. mrigal)
and starch at 3-44 mg/day/fish.
Second, third
and fourth month lOOOp
3 3 Field experiments
cake and nee polish (I'l)
1
136
TABU III
E-XITRIMt-NTS WITH RO1KT FRY USING PUFFRENI (.ROW1H I'ROMOIING SL'KSTANCTS, 1968 69'
TABLF V
YARD (PLASTIC POOL) EXPERIMENT WIIH ROHU FRY USING DIFFERENT GROWTH-PROMOTING SUHSIANCFS. 1968-69
Sum of squares
2
L*v I.v byx byxZxy corrected for
regression
0-000003 000054
0-000098 000008
000066 0-000047
lABlfc VI
FlM-D FXPIRIMENIS WflM ROIUJ SHOWING THE SURVIVAI AND PRODUCTION OF FRY IN 14 DAYS USING COBALT CHI ORIDh
0-04 ha ponds, the survival percentage of fingerlings after the three species of carps.
four months of rearing was fairly high. The aggregate Catla, rohu and mrigal fingerlings when treated with
survival percentages of the three species of carp in the starch exhibited aggregate survival percentage increases of
ponds treated with cobalt chloride were recorded at 8-40 1 1 32 in the first year and 1 7-08 in the second year over the
and 24-00 over the controls, which was significant (Table controls which also significant (Table VII). The treat-
was
VII). The net increments in production over the control ment with starch in the two sets of experiments conducted
were 244-94 kg and 39 1-95 kg respectively in the two in successive years enhanced the net production by 171-69
experiments. In other words, the treatment helped in step- kg and 242-47 kg (/<?, 34-39% and 79 -66% increase) over
ping up production by 49*06 and 128-96% over control. the controls. Cerney (1961) has reported a similar incre-
Tomantik and Batyr (1965) reported that carp finger- ment in the natural growth of carp in a pond fed with starch.
lings fed with cobalt nitrate at a level of 0*08 mg/day/fish The performance of catla, rohu and mrigal with boron
had an enhanced survival rate 16- 1% above that in the and manganese was not as satisfactory as with cobalt and
control and that this was significant and thus helped to starch, although their nutritional significance has already
increase production by 166 kg over control. been established in animal physiology. The treatment with
The experiments reported herein have revealed that co- boron and manganese no doubt helped in the net increase in
balt treatment resulted in the best survival and growth of all production by 105-85 kg and 106-84 kg respectively over
138
TAHlf- VII
FlPLD FXPFRIMEN1S ON THE SURVIVAL AND PRODUCTION OF THIU OH CARP
h SJTC'IhS NNGFRL INGS IN 4 MONTHS \\Hll P I 'SING OROWT H PROMO! ING
SUHSTANCI S
Stocking density 6 000 hsh/ha of ccjuul numbers of catla, rohu and mngul
control. Bancrjea and Banerjee (1967) opined that the chloride showed results more or less identical with those
application of manganese as a trace element helped in the recorded in fry rearing except that the dissolved phos-
production of plankton by about 14% more than the con- phorus and NH^ NO,t
-
N in water phase maintained a
trol. Scekles (1950) has reported that in young mice and higher level the initial and final stages. The available
both in
other higher vertebrates kept on a manganese deficient diet, phosphorus and cobalt in soil which showed an increase in
growth was stunted, ovulalion discontinued and heat sel the final phase offr> rearing, showed a downward trend in
dom occurred. With boron the production was enhanced the ponds where fmgerlings were reared.
21% and with manganese it was 35- 1% which also was 1 Plankton collected from the ponds was found to be
found to be significant but to a lesser extent. negligible in the initial and final samples. Stray zooplank-
ters. namely Brachionits, Filinia, Polyarthra, Diaptomui,
Moina and naupUL were present.
3,4 Effect of the treatments on water quality, soil condition
and plankton
The pond water used in the field experiments had an initial 4 Conclusion
pH range of 7-3 8-4 with high total alkalinity (101- 145 Cobalt chloride at the rate of 0-0 mg/day/fish added to the
1
ppm). Most of the ponds showed higher concentration of feed helped to enhance the survival and growth of rohu fry
dissolved phosphorus and low NH, + NO., N except in and fmgerlings of the Indian major carps: rohu, catla, and
1972 when the condition was the reverse. It is clear from mrigal. also helped to rcali/e a higher production of
It
Table VIII that the water qualities of the ponds receiving fingerlings. the maximum being 128-96% over that in the
feed with cobalt chloride did not show much variation from controls.
the control except that there was a fall in dissolved phos- was also found to be useful at the
In the field trials, starch
phorus at the end of the experiment. rate of 3-44 mg and to a lesser extent boron when provided
The soil condition of the treated ponds showed an at 1-0 mg and manganese at 0-01 mg/day/fish along with
increase in available phosphorus and cobalt, whereas a the feed.
marked fall was noticed in available nitrogen, organic
carbon and to some extent pH, at the end of the experiment.
The increase in available cobalt was more pronounced 5 Acknowledgements
except in 1970 as also was the available phosphorus in the The authors express their thanks to Shri R. D. Chakrabarty
treatments. and Shri N. G. S. Rao for suggesting improvements in the
In fingerling rearing experiments, both the water and the manuscript, and Shri M. Rout for his aid in statistical
soil condition of the ponds receiving feed mixed with cobalt analysis.
139
140
6 References 1963 with artificial fodder 7>. VN11PRK. (Vseross. Naucnno-lsslcd
M & Prudov Ryhn Khoz)
BANLKJI-A, S BANIRJII, S, C
l-ertih/ation offish ponds with
LbONOv,
Inst.
N L
] 3
Antibiotics in live stock raising and veterinary medicine
1967 tiacc elements manganese fbi inci cased pioduction of plankton,
FAO Fuh /?ty> (44) vol 3' 132 52 I%1 Mokva, Sclkhozi/dat
,
G'RNi \, A. Uher die Eutioficrung lines Feiches dutch Abuasscr der I'K'KHWi), Ci & Ai, W
The physiology ol pituitaiy gland of fishes
.1
1961 Kartoflelstake-fabnkation Verh, Ini Vcr, Thtw Ayntf \\ 19^7 New Yotk, Zoological Society, pp S4 93
SIN, P R hflect of giowth piomoting substances on survival and
Limnol., 14(1959); 1086-90
1972 giowth of fry of Indian majoi carp //; Pi Decoding ol the
DAS, H C, & KRISHNAMURIHY. 11 Comparative efleets o! yeast,
1959 luminunt stomach extract on Ihe survival rate ot Indian caip Symposium on Aquaculturc as an Industiy, at Cential Inland
Fisheries Research Institute, Banackpoie, 8 p (Absti.)
dui ing the first thiec weeks of hie, Indian J Fi,\h, 6(\) 211 21
SMKLIS, L, Mode of action and oceunence of trace elements in
t
vol 3, 400-7
Indian minoi carp during the first two weeks of life Proc \utl
hut .Yd India. 25B (6) 300 6 TOMNAIIK, l\ N, &
BAHR, A, K The role ol organic cobalt in the
1965 nutrition of ringerling carp In Biologicheskic icsujsy vodocnun
KOKM.I VA, L A Application of foddei terramycin in feeding thceaip
Moldavii Kartya Moldovenyaske, Kishinci vol 3 64 S
Preliminar\ experiments to determine the most suitable method foi mas favorable consiste en almacenar el esperma sin diluir en atmosfera
storage of spermato/oa indicated that (/) the most fax OUT able method dc aire saturado dc humedad a 4 'C en la oscuridad: (//) cl dioxido de
was to store sperm undiluted in a moisture saturated atmosphere of air at carbono es totalmente inadecuado como medio gaseoso para el almacen
1 C in the dark: (/'/) catbon dioxide is complete!) unsuitable as a gas amiento de semen; y (///') el gas mtrogeno es rnejor que el dioxido de
medium for semen storage, and (///) nitrogen gas is better than catbon carbono. pero considerablctnente menos adecuado que el aire.
dioxide, but still considerably less suitable than air In los eitsayos de congelacion de semen los lesultados obtenidos por
In semen freezing trials, results obtained in terms of post thaw lo quc se refierc a la motilidad despucs dc la descongelacion indican, (/)
motilities indicated that, (/) samples frozen us gave higher las mucslras
pellets
eongeludas en bastoncillos dieron mayor motilidad que las
motility than when frozen m mini straws- (//) was a betterDMSO corigeladas en granulos: (//Ic^dimctilsulfoxidorcsultomcjoraditivoque
additive than glycerol for prevention of cell damage during free/mp and el glicerol para irnpcdir los danos a las cclulas durante la congelacion y la
thawing, and (///) soybean protein was better than bovine serum albumin descongelacion, \ (///) la protcma de soja resulto mejor como fuente dc
or cgn volk as a protein source protcinas quc la albumina dc suero dc bovinos o la yema de huevo,
relationship between certain electrolytes in the suspending + 4C.Motility estimates were determined at daily inter-
medium that is responsible for retention of the ability of vals as described by Holtz, Stoss and Biiyiikhatipoglu (in
spermatozoa to respond with vigorous motility to dilution preparation). The results of the experiment which was
with water (Stoss, Buyiikhatipoglu and Holtz, in prepara- replicated eight times, arc presented in Table II, Apparently
tion), it was decided as a first step to investigate the CO :
is completely unsuitcd as a gas medium for semen
composition of trout seminal plasma. storage. Nitrogen gas was better but still considerably less
suitable than air. Room temperature enhanced the rate of
decline of sperm motility in comparison to refrigerator
2 Methods temperature. Dilution with an extender has a deleterious
Throughout the spawning season, milt was collected sys effecton sperm motility. In a single trial, trout semen kept
tematically from untranquillized two-year-old male rain- for a period of nine days under the condition found to be
bow trout at 2- or 4 week intervals. Semen was centri
1 , most favourable for storage (ie. undiluted in a moisture-
fuged immediately after collection and seminal plasma was saturated atmosphere of air at 4C
in the dark) was used for
aspirated and stored in liquid nitrogen in tightly capped fertilization of freshly collected eggs. It turned out that
vials. Upon thawing, analyses were conducted to determine 94. 74% of all eggs were fertilized, which compared favour-
the concentrations of the following organic substances (the ably with the 94-90% obtained when using freshly collected
source of the technique applied is given in brackets): milt for control.
fructose (Yaphe and Arsenault, 1965); citric acid (Saffran
and Dcnstedt, 1948); glycerylphosphorylcholme (White, TABIF II
MOTILITY R HUNT ION IMh K)R RAINHOW 1ROLII SIM RMA1O/OA AFTtK
I
found to be very pronounced, only overall means are given. As sources of protein, cither bovine serum albumin, egg
On the basis of these results (some of which require yolk or a soybean protein were added. Glycerol or DMSO
confirmation by larger sample numbers), a semen diluent respectively were added at a level of 1 to protect against 2%
containing 592 mg/100 ml NaCl, 172 mg/100 ml KCL cell damage duringfreezing and thawing. The effect of
78-9 mg/100 ml CaCl2 30-9 mg/100 ml MgSO4 was
, lecithin as an additive to the dilution medium was also
developed. In addition, penicillin ( 100 000 units/ 100 ml), investigated. Samples were frozen either in mini-straws
streptomycin (100 mg/100 ml), Tris (2 420 mg/100 ml) (Cassou, 1968) or as pellets (Nagase, 1964) both of which
and enough citric acid to obtain a pH of 7-25 were added. were stored in liquid nitrogen. Results obtained in terms of
post-thaw motilities indicated that pellets were better than
TABLE I straws, DMSO was better than glycerol, lecithin had no
TlIF MhAN CONCENTRATIONS OF SKVFRA1 ORGANIC AND INORGANIC favourable effect, and soybean protein rendered better re
CONSTMUI'NTS IN SPMINA1 PLASMA ROM KAINBOU ROLM f 'I
4 References
BAKKFR, S. B. & SUMMHKSON, W, H Colonmetric deteijnination of
1941 lactic acid in biological material. J, Biol Chem HN 535-54
,
('ADAUD, P G, &
WKOHLLWSKI, F, Colorimutnc measurement of lactic
1
All determinations were done in duplicate or triplicate 1958 dehydrogenasc activity of
body Patlwl., 30'
fluid*. Am J dm
234 6
most CASSOU, R Le miniaturisation dcs paillettes. Proc Conar, Int Reprod,
In order to establish the suitable way of short-term 1968 Amm. Inxem. Artif ,6 163
preservation of trout spermatozoa, freshly collected semen HODGINS, H O. & RIIXJWAY, G J Recovery of viable salmon sperma-
was diluted with the above mentioned extender at semen: 1964 U>7oa after fast-freezing Prog. Fish-Cult,, 26 95
142
NAGASI,, H. Deep hee/ing hull semen in concentrated pellet form Munchen
1964 Fertility Prtn Int. Conur. Rvprod Anim, fnsrm Am/ ^ 503 , Wnm, (i Studies on the estimation ol glyceiol. fructose and lactic
1
On, A, G & HOKION, H. h Fertili7ation of steelhcad trout (Salrno 1959 acid with paiticulai icleience to semen Au\t J h\f> Iltol 37 , ,
1971 yairdnt'n) eggs with cryo-preserved sperm J Fi\h Re*. Board 441 50
fa/I,, 28 1915 8 Woi.i, K Physiological salines lor ffcsh-watei teleosts Pioy, /-/.v//-
SAM KAN, M Q
& Dmsriiirr, H A nipid method lot the determination 1963 CW/,. 25 '135-40
1948 of citric acid. J, Riol. Chem 175. 849 55
, YAPIIL W & AksiNAi'i i, G P Improved Resoicinol reagent for the
STUN, H Spezielle Untersuchunpcnam Hsehspcrma untei besondeiei 1965 determination of fructose, and 3,6-anhydiogalactose in poly-
Berucksichtigung der Spermakonservierung, Diss T.U saccharides. Anal Biochimi 13. 141 H
.
turbot were held in an onshore nursery over their first winter period ol natural. Fn 1971, los trabajos expenmcntales pasaron a ocuparse de
low water temperatures, and grown to a si/e in excess ol 50 g. especics mas valiosas al clisponerse de un pequcno numero de formas
;
Using a nursery unit comprising 20 tanks, each of tn1 volume, juveniles de rodaballo (Scophthalmus ma.\imn*>) cnadas en el mcdio
supplied with continuously pumped sea water, experiments have been natural, Fue necesano modificar las tecmcas basicas dc cna preparadas
conducted mainly with juvenile lurbot of wild origin and, more recently, con la platija, especialrnente en lo relative a la presentacion de los
also ol hatchery origin hxpenmcnts with Iccding involved initial use of a piensos, Para obtener una elevada tasa dc crecimiento en las jaulas, los
natural diet of mysid shrimps, followed by use of a wet fish paste and rodaballos se criaron durante su primeraestacion invernal en un cnadero
finally a moist composite pellet of white fish meal, filleting offal, soybean situado en la orilla. hasta que alcanzaron una talla de mas de 50 g
derivative and a vitamin/binder mixture F levation of the ambient water Se han realizado experimentos en un criadero con 20 tanques de m
'
?
1
temperature to between 12 and 15C has been necessary to achieve dc volumen, con aguadc mar bombcada contmuamente. utihzando sobre
adequate growth and survival, depending upon the grade of the stock todo formas juveniles de rodaballo de origen silvestre y, mas recientc
upon entering the nursery mente. rodaballos procedentes dc vivero, En los experiments de alimen-
The majority of the hatchery produced juveniles were transferred to tacion realizados se utilize micialmcnte una racion natural de camarones
the nursery at too small a si/e and consequently suffered higher mortal misidos, postenormente se empleo pasta humeda de pescado y. final
ity. It is recommended that m future hatchery stock should achieve a mente. alimenlos granulados mas cornplejos a base de hanna de pescado
minimum si/e of 0-5 p. before being moved, Hatchery stock were non bianco, desechos de lilctcado. denvados de soja y una me/cla de
aggressive and demonstrated superior survival and food conversion aftei vitaminas/aglutinantes. Para lograr un crecimiento y'supervivcncia sa-
weaning onto an artificial diet when compared with wild stock. tisfactonos ha sido necesano elevar la temperatura del agua cntre 12 y
U
1^ C, dependiendo de la calidad dc los peces al entrar al cnadero,
La mayoria de la formas juveniles procedenies de vivero se transfirie
Mise au point d'une technique d'alevinagc applicable a I'clevage du ron al criadero cuando eran dernasiado
pequenas. por lo que la mortal i
turbot (Scophthalmus maximus) depuis la metamorphose jusqu'aux dad fue mas elevada Hi el futuro se recomicnda que los ejemplares
tallies juveniles progres realises depuis 1970 par la British White Fish procedentes de vivero deben dc h fiber alcan/ado una talla minima de
Authority 0,5 g antes Oe su traslado Los peces procedentes de mcubadora no se
comportaron agresivarnente v mosiraion mejorcs indices de stipervivcn
Depuis 1965, la British White Fish Authority s'cf force de mettre au cia v conversion de ahmentos dcspues de ser ahmentados artificialmentc
point des methodcs d'elevage de pleuroneelidcs marins Kes premieres si sc comparan con cepas silvestres.
chacun, continuellement remplis d'eau dc mer par pompage, des experi- by the Ministry of Agriculture. Fisheries and Food (Shel-
ences ont cte realisecs notamment sur des luveniles de turbot d'ongine bourne. 1975) and the Authority, early experiments in
sauvage et. plus recemment, obtenus en eclosene. DCS experiences volved the seeding of large water volumes on a natural
d'alimentation ont etc realisees en utihsant d'abord une nournture
naturcllc composee de crevcttes mysidees. on a ensuite employe de la substrate with newly metamorphosed fish (Howard. 1974).
pate de poisson humidc. et enlin des granules hum ides composes de Results quickly indicated that intensive cultivation in float-
far me de poisson maigre, de dechets de filetage, de derives de sojaet d'un
melange iiant vitaminc II a fallu reehautTer 1'eau ambiante, portant sa ing cages (Howard and Kingwell, 1975) using young fish
temperature cntre 2" et 5C. pour permettre la croissance et la survie
1 1 which had been acclimatized to high density ongrowing
d'un nombrc suffisant dc specimens, suivant I'etat du stock a Tarnveeen conditions, was preferable.
station d'alcvmage,
La plupart des juveniles obtenus en ecloscrie ont cte transferes en Experimental work progressed to more highly valued
station d'ale vmage trop jcunes. ce qui a accru la mortalite. On recom
1
species (Jones, 1972; Kerr, 1974) in 1971, when a small
mandedcnc transferer a Tavenir les stocks d'eclosencqu une foisqu'ils number of juvenile wild stock turbot (Scophthalmua maxi-
auront attcmt au minimum 0.5 g Les juveniles d'ecloserie n'ctaient pas
agressils et le taux de survie et de conversion alimcntaire aprcs passage a mus) became available. The basic husbandry techniques
Talimentation artiflcielle etait supeneur a celui du stock sauvage. first used with this group of fish were those developed for
143
plaice. Early experience indicated thai the teed presentation
methods established with plaice had to be changed radically.
It was also found that in order to obtain a high growth rate
in theongrowing stage, juvenile turbot should not be
iransf erred to floating cages during the winter period oflow
water temperatures. Furthermore, a significant enhance-
ment in ongrowing performance was achieved when the
mean weight of the juveniles on transfer to offshore cages
was increased to over 60 g, compared to 30 g, the minimum
si/e consistent with acceptable survival (Hull and Edwards,
1979). The larger fish were able to adapt more readily lo
ongrowing husbandry conditions but. as shown in this
cry origin, intended for ongrowing in floating sea cages, stocked with about 500 juvenile turbot.
were maintained over their first winter in an onshore nur- Water flow was maintained at or above 0-04 mVhour.
sery. The nursery unit comprised a building (18
x 7 m) in the minimum so far demonstrated to be sufficient for good
which 20 asbestos tanks, each about 1m' in volume feeding activity.
(2 x 2 x 0-3 m approximately)* were arranged in a manner
to allow good access. Natural daylight was restricted by 2.5 Feeding
curtaining the windows in the building; artificial lighting The first batch of wild stock turbot held in 1971 did not
was continuously provided by fluorescent tubes. undergo a true nursery phase, being merely weaned onto an
Sea water was continuously pumped through the tanks artificial diet in onshore tanks before transfer to offshore
and run to waste. Since 1974, the water has been obtained cages, as was then current practice with plaice. The on-
from a sub-sand filtration system to obviate the problem of growing feeding method was the provision of a trough filled
weed fouling the pump inlet. The water inflow to the tank, with wet fish paste (Thain and Urch, 1972), with the
from above the free surface, was directed to cause mild juveniles being gradually acclimatized to this feeding pro-
circulation within the tank around the central outflow cedure from their original diet of natural and even live feeds
which, by means of a double standpipe system, drained during the period of onshore nursery residence.
from the tank bottom. Supplementary oxygen was provided Turbot refused, however, to adapt to this feeding proce-
by continuous aeration. Originally, the purposes of the dure. They preferred a slow-sinking, discrete particle of
aeration were to cause water mixing and maintain the stock food, refusing to attack a portion which they were unable to
during pump failure but, since innovation of the sub sand accommodate in one mouthful. A partially successful sys-
tions. The ambient temperature of the water varied season- COMPOSIMON or MOISI roMPOsiih pfi in. WFA6
ally between 6 and 16C
approximately, as illustrated in
Fig. 1. A heating plant of 30 kW
total capacity was in
stalled to raise the water temperature during winter. The
2.3 Stock
The majority of stock used was turbot of wild origin.
144
By 1973,
the development of the nursery feeding regime TARIH II
SUMMARY OF Khsui is IUKHOI 01 wnn ORIGIN YFAK GROUPS 1971.
was sufficiently advanced for the formulation given in 1972 AND 1973
Table to be adopted as standard in subsequent years. In
I
protein consumed; (iii) Conversion efficiency- the per site infected with Vibrio anguillarum. This caused a 66-5%
centage of wet food consumed which is converted into wet mortality during the first four months of nursery residence.
fish flesh, Subsequent growth and food conversion were good and the
fish were transferred to ongrowing cages at a mean weight
2.6 Stock handling of approximately 30 g, The growth of these fish in the
Newly metamorphosed turbot were found to be susceptible floating cages was disappointing in comparison with that of
to myxobacterial infection if damage resulted from careless the previous year-group, the poorer performance being
handling. For this reason, it was found advantageous to attributed to their smaller size at the time of transfer (Hull
delay initial sampling for length and weight until acclimati and hdwards, 1979).
/ation to nursery conditions had been accomplished, after Since 1973, nursery trials have been directed toward
4-6 weeks. identifying the effects of temperature on growth rate and
Stock samples were obtained thereafter by enticing the heating and pumping energy consumption, with the even
a feeding response and collecting them by net from
fish into tual aim of raising juveniles to a size of 50 60 g by early
midwater with the minimum of stress: this method did. summer (May/June) as economically as possible,
however, tend to select larger, more vigorously feeding
individuals. 3.2 Temperature dependence trial 7974 wild slock
To minimi/e damage during stock grading, the process In 1 trial was initiated to investigate more thoroughly
9 74, a
was carried out under water, the original stock being the value of elevated temperatures, whilst maintaining part
introduced to a partially submerged, mesh container. The of the stock at temperatures previously found acceptable. It
mesh size was used to regulate the size grade offish, as the was acknowledged at the commencement of the trial that
smaller fish actively moved through to the outer container. growth of the turbot would be greater at higher tempera
turcs (Purdom. Jones and Lincoln. 1972). but the effect on
food conversion and survival was unknown. Six nursery
3 Results tanks were each stocked with 500 juvenile turbot of wild
3.1 7977 73 origin, one tank containing graded large individuals. Water
n
The results obtained in the nursery are summarized in temperature was maintained at: 18C in two tanks, 14 Cin
Table II for the first three year groups of juvenile turbot two tanks and seawater ambient in two tanks. After 20
captured from the wild. weeks of the 30 week trial, the growth of the fish in the two
Subsequent poor growth of the 1971 stock in the on- tanks at 18C was such that the corresponding increase
growing cages was attributed: (/) to transference from the required in the flow rate caused it to exceed the capacity of
nursery at too early a date, when, at the onset of winter, the heating unit; the temperature had to be reduced to
seawater temperatures were below 8C, and (/'/) to the fish between 14C and 16C until the end of the trial. The
being too small to withstand the stress. results of the trial are summari/ed in Table III,
Therefore, juveniles from the following year group All mortalities in the heated tanks were the result of
(1972) were held onshore over the entire winter period of cannibalistic aggression. The mortalities always occurred
low seawater temperature, the nursery tank temperature within the smaller size groups in each population, many of
being maintained between 12 and 14C (up to 6"C above which were culled when observed to exhibit damage (par
ambient). After an early 93-5% mortality due to water ticularly at the anterior and posterior body margins) caused
pumping problems, growth was good using the moist com- by partial ingestion by larger turbot. No sign of disease was
posite pellet (Table I). A mean weight of 65 g was achieved found and on segregation from the larger healthy stock,
at the end of the nursery period, with a wet weight conver- complete recovery was possible in many instances.
145
TABI F III
TbMI'hRATURE Dhl-'NDFNCE IRIA1 10/10/74 8/5/75
Survival in the ambient tanks was over 80% until March TMJII IV
1974 Tl/RUOl 01 H4ICHFRY ORIGIN
1975, when high mortality was caused by an outbreak of COMPARISON or DM cuts I, II AND III
disease attributed to debilitation through prolonged expo-
sure to low water temperatures (Fig. ). 1
Batch I Batch U natch III
Growth of the fish, as illustrated in Fig. 2, was related to Date of transfer 30/7/74 24/9/74 22/10/74
the temperature regime in each tank, with the original size
of the stock having a significant effect.
The food conversion performance of the fish in heated
water was uniform, with no significant difference either
between 18 and 14C or between large and small grade
stocks, Using the standard feeding regime (see paragraph
2-5), wet weight food conversion varied between 2-00:1
and 2-17:1. *
No daia available amalgamated with wild slock
At ambient temperature, conversion was much poorer,
being 5-34:1 and 4-57:1 on a wet-weight basis. approximately 18C over the winter period.
After starting the above temperature dependence trial, The second batch comprised the largest 550 juveniles
there was a residue of 700 healthy juvenile turbot which
1 within the hatchery, selectively transferred to one tank in
had been collected from the wild in 1974. These were the nursery unit. Again, seaweed growth caused mortality,
graded as for the temperature trial, one stock of large and difficulty was experienced in producing sufficient live
individuals being separated from two stocks of smaller food in the hatchery.
grade fish. All were maintained in the nursery in ambient The was the remainder of the hatchery stocks
third batch
conditions until 14 March 1975, by which time one tank of from which the second transfer batch had been selected.
small fish had experienced 100% mortality, and the other These fish were generally much smaller, with a wide diver
tank of small fish was undergoing rapid depletion of num- gence in si^e; the group also included some unmetamor-
bers due to a disease outbreak, again attributed to low water phosed fish.
temperature, The stock of large fish, however, withstood the In order to maintain the water temperature between
period of low ambient seawater temperatures with a sur- 10-5 and 14C during the winter, as shown to be accept
vival of approximately 90%. This stock responded to a able to the wild stocks, the second and third batches were
subsequent elevation of water temperature in April 1975 by supplied with water heated 5-6C above ambient. From
increasing feeding activity and growth (the mean weight of mid-April 1975, the required flow rate dictated by the stock
these fish increased from 7-Og to 13-9 g in eight weeks). density exceeded the heating capacity and thereafter the
temperature was maintained between 10 and 12C.
3.3 / 9 74 Hatchery stock Survival during weaning varied between 3 and 63%,
In 1974, the first significant numbers of turbot were pro- whilst survival after weaning was between 92 and 100%, all
duced by the Authority's hatchery for evaluation in the mortalities being amongst the smallest fish.
nursery. The husbandry experience gained with turbot of Growth of the fish illustrated in Fig. 3.
is
observation. Generally, fish were transferred from the fishwere mixed with wild stock. The wet food conversion
hatchery to the nursery because of pressure for hatchery performance of Batches II and III were very similar, being
space rather than because they had attained a suitable size 1-65:1 and 1-74:1 respectively over the entire nursery
and life-stage. Thus with few exceptions, the stock was period.
transferred prematurely. The most obvious characteristic of the turbot of hatchery
Three batches of juvenile turbot from the hatchery were originwas the abundance of abnormally pigmcnted spcci
received into the nursery as shown in Table IV. mens, rarely encountered in wild metamorphosed turbot
The first batch to reach metamorphosis was transferred stocks.Although all of the eleven survivors from Batch I
when growth of a filamentous seaweed (Enteromorpha sp. ),
were completely normally pigmented, only 31-7% and
within its hatchery tank caused mortality through occlu- 49-9% of Batches II and III respectively were more than
sion of the fishes' gill cavity. The few fish surviving on 10 95% normally pigmented,
October 1974 were mixed with a stock of turbot of wild The hatchery-reared turbot were observed to be basically
origin, of similar size, maintained at a temperature of more la/y and sluggish than wild stock. Once the
146
transferred in this batch: in subsequent comparison
they
70-
must therefore be regarded as a selected population.
Although the fish in the second and third batches of
hatchery juveniles were larger, they still contained too
60- many individuals insufficiently large to accept the weaning
diets which had proved almost completely
acceptable to the
juveniles of wild origin. This showed up in the pattern of
50- mortalities in these batches. As the majority of the deaths
occurred amongst the smaller fish between five and ten days
after transfer from the hatchery, it was more likely that
starvation was the major cause, rather than the stress of the
40-
transfer. It appeared that fish of less than about 0-5 g in
20- policy would create too many problems within the hatch-
ery. Even if fish of 0-5 g, the minimum desirable size, were
taken as the si/e for transfer from the hatchery, it is possible
that a survival of 70% could be exceeded. At present this is
10-
considered a reasonable target for the 1976 trial
AMBIFNT programme.
Once the hatchery fish accepted the nursery diet, survival
was good, being over 92% for all temperatures tested ( 1 2
OCT NOV D t (. JAN FEB MAR APR MAY tJ
18 C).
2, Temperature dependence trial 1974-75 mean weight One further cause of losses was cannibalism; this was
increase
observed the wild stocks, but not in the hatchery stocks
in
dependent upon the initial si/c of the fish and the tempera- provided nutrition is adequate. This was amply demon-
ture regime of the water in which they were held. Compari strated by the results of the temperature dependence trial
son of the results between wild and hatchery stocks cannot (Fig. 2). where growth rate at 1 8C
was far superior to that
be made directly because the latter were transferred prema- at 14Cand growth at ambient temperatures (6-10C)
turely from the hatchery, was negligible, Whilst it was undoubtedly easier to handle
Only wild stocks were held in ambient water conditions. fish with a larger initial weight, it has yet to be demonstrated
Of the five slocks so held, only the largest grade (mean that they have a greater growth rate potential. From the
weight 7 g) survived well, with 91% remaining alive in the graphs in Figs. 3 and 4. it would appear that this is true, but
spring. The smaller grades (range in mean weight 1-3- the graphs in Fig. 2 suggest that there is little difference.
4-7g) exhibited at best a 6% survival. As older turbot The variation in survival, with higher mortality amongst the
survive well during their second and subsequent winters in smaller fish, masks the differences. In paragraph 4. 1 it was
ambient water (Hull and Kdwards, 1979), it is inferred that explained that the survivors of hatchery Batch I were large
the minimum
weight for overwintering at water tempera fish upon transfer and therefore comparable to those in
tures below 10C is not much less than 10 g. In the trials Batch II, which were selected on the basis of their larger
conducted at 12C and above, the only identified cause of size. Both batches gave similar growth rates (Fig. 3) dis-
mortality was cannibalism, which is discussed later, placed only by the time difference in hatching. This, how
The hatchery-produced fish were transferred to the nurs- ever, infers that a temperature difference of had no 6C
ery when hatchery facilities became overloaded and not at effect upon growth which is patently not true, or that in
rate,
the time when the fish were sufficiently large. The first batch fact the fish in the second batch had a greater growth
were the youngest transferred, weighing on the average only potential. The slower growth rate exhibited by the third
0- 3 g each. Over three quarters of these fish died within 24
1 batch suggests that it had a lower growth potential, which is
hours of transfer, suggesting that the actual movement was consistent with it being the residue of the hatchery pro
the cause of death. Of the few that survived (3-5%) it is duccd fish once the larger fish, forming Batch II. had been
considered that they came from amongst the largest fish removed.
147
Fig. 4 illustrates the
growth of the three hatchery batches
100' in comparison with wild stock fish held within the nursery
over the same time period. It is immediately apparent that a
similarity m growth rate exists between selected stocks of
90. both hatchery and wild origin, and between non-selected
stocks of both origins. The actual growth rates of the
80
selected hatchery fish (0-39 g/day and 0-38 g/day) were
60'
evident despite the apparent enhancement of mean weight
increase in the wild stock through the mortality of the
smaller fish due to cannibalism.
50
148
4.4 Food conversion conversion) once weaning onto an artificial diet had been
Food conversion data for fish maintained in heated water accomplished.
over the entire nursery period are available only for the (v) To produce nursery survivals better than 70%, fur-
1974 year-group. The superiority of conversion by fish of ther developments are required in the hatchery procedures,
hatchery origin ( 1-65:1-1-74:1 ) compared to 2-00:1- to permit the juveniles to be grown to a weight of at least
2-17:1 by fish of wild origin, was attributed to their more 0-5 g before transfer.
docile nature.
5 Conclusions
6 References
(/) In order to produce turbot stock which will grow
vigorously in cages floating in the sea, an onshore nursery HOWARD, K T, United Kingdom inals on ivaimg systems for marine
phase with heated water required to provide the juveniles
is 1974 flatfish cultivation hisli f-arnrincj Int , 3, 22 16
with the correct environment for growth and survival over HOWARD, K T & KINCJWLLL. S J Marine fish farming* development
197^ of holding (with particulai reference to the woik h>
facilities
their first winter period. the White Fish Authority on the Scottish West Coast) Octwi-
(//') To rear juveniles of a mean weight in excess of 50 g at olttLfy Int 1975 1X3 90
,
HIM, S T, A: LPWARUS, R D
Progress in faimma turbot. Scoph-
an age of 12 months, by which time they are ready for 1979 thalmu\ ma\nnus< in floating sea cages In Advances in aqua-
transfer to ongrowing conditions, it is necessary to main- culture, This volume pp 466 72
tain the nursery water temperature between 12 and 15C JOMS, A Marine fish fanning, an examination oi the factois to he
1972 considered in the choice of species, Lah Lea ft, Hsli Lah.
over winter, depending upon the initial stock grade. Hatch Mimst, Auric. Fish hood, G R (24); 16 p ,
ery-produced juveniles grew better in cooler water ( 1 2C ) KIRR, N. M, Development of marine finfish farming in the U K
1974 Papei piesented to the Fish Fanning in hurope Confeicnte,
than their wild counterparts.
3rd Decembei 1974
(ill) In vigorously growing stocks of turbot of wild PLRDOM, C. A, JONLS, A & LIMOIN. R h Cultivation trials with
up to 30%. attributed to cannibalistic
origin, a mortality of 1972 turbot (Siophthalnm ma \imiu L.) Aquaculrw, (2). 213 30 I
1975 cultuie of larval plaice and sole A/A/J, fnvcxt, A/////S/ /!</;/(.
aggression was not present in stocks of hatchery origin. I'ixh Food, GH (2l, 27(9)
(iv) Hatchery reared turbot were better "farm animals' THAIS, B P, & UKCH, M J Reducing waste in farm fish foods ///>/;
more
,
dorcs y cajas dc poliestireno. comparandolos con el transporte en agua, fecundation artificiellc Le document donne les donnces relatives a la
Sc determmo el tiernpo maximo que pueden permaneccr los hucvos de survic des oeuls de Chirobtoma bartvni transportes en milieu humide
pcscado bianco (C estor) en tnedio humedo. Este sistcma resulto mas dans des caisses en polystyrene, en les eumparant avec les resultats
eficiente quc el transporte en agua. obtcnus pur Ic transport dans 1'cau. L'on a determine la periode maximalc
Se describe el crccimiento utili/ando diversos alimentos en 'los prime dc resistance des oeufs dc C, cstor en milieu huirude. Ce procedc s'est
ros estadios. .os alimcntos proporcionados a las crias son adecuados en
I revelc plus cfficaee que le transport dans 1'cau
los pnmcros dias de vida. Los resultados de crecimiento demoslraron La croissancc est decnte en lonction du temps, avec Indication des
quc sc podria obtener un modclo matcmatieo de crccimiento para dixers aliments admimstres aux premicis stadcs du dexcloppemcnt.
Chirostoma spp, Les aliments fourms aux alevms sc sont rcvcles adequats durant les
premiers jours de leur vie. Les resultats obtenus en matiercde croissance
Preliminary aquarium observations on incubation and rearing of ather ont dcmontre que Ton pourrait rnettre au point un rnodele mathcmatiquc
inids (Chirostoma spp.) in Lake Patzcuaro, Michoacan dc la croissancc pour les atherinidcs
Abstract
The purpose of the work was to determine the best physico-chemical
conditions for obtaining athcrmid fry and the feasibility of rearing them
on a commercial basis.
'I he incubation and rearing experiments were conducted in aquaria 1 Introduccion
and carboys. The eggs were obtained by collection and artificial fcrtili?a- Las especies de Aterinidos de las aguas dulces dc Mexico
tion. Data are provided on the survival of charal (Chirostoma barton!}
eggs transported in a moist medium in cases and boxes of polystyrene, as
correspond icntes al gencro Chirostoma. sc conocen co
compared with shipment in water. The maximum time that white fish C. munmente con los nombrcs de charal y pescado bianco
estor eggs can survive in a moist medium was determined 1 his system
(Fig. y 2). Los charales, de los que existen alrededor de 20
1
amplia como la del charal. Las areas dc captura dc csta blando se obtuvieron de ejemplares maduros capturados y
cspecie son principalmente el Lago dc Chapala, Jal. y el fecundados artificialmente. Fl conteo de los huevos se hizo
Lago de Patzcuaro, Mich. Son peces de habitos carnivores con el metodo gravimetrico restando al final el peso
y las crias, despues de haber consumido el saco vitelino, sc humedo de los colectores. La dcterminacion del tiempo
alimentan de protozoarios y rotffcros. Cuando miden unos maximo que pueden permaneccr los huevos en condiciones
5.5 mmse alimentan a base de microcrustaceos (Rosas. de humedad se determine mtroduciendo una cantidad de
1970). Los juveniles y adultos de pcscado bianco se ali- tcrminada dc ellos en el agua cada 24 horas, observando su
mentan de crustaceos mayores y peces (Solorzano, 1Q63). desarrollo y anotando la mortalidad hasta la eclosion.
Tanto pcscado bianco como el charal se reproducen en el
el
Lago de Pat/cuaro durante todo el ano, pcro la epoca de 3. 1Colecta y transporte de huevos
reproduction del charal se acentiia entrc enero y mayo y la Los huevos de charal se encontraron adheridos a las raices
del pescado bianco entre enero y agosto (Solorzano, 963 ). 1 del lirio acuatico en las areas de dcsove (Fig. 3 y 4).
Los aterinidos mexicanos y en especial el pcscado
tante scan especics de importancia economica. Los trabajos
cxistentes se refieren a aspectos biologicos y taxonomicos
del genero Chirostoma o bien a aspectos limnologicos del
2 Objetivos
Los objetivos dc este trabajo fueron: dcterminar las condi- Para los hucvos de pescado bianco se utilizaron como
ciones fisico quimicas adecuadas para la obtencion de crias substrato de fijacion raices de acuatico y colectores
lirio
de aterinidos a partir de la incubacion artificial de los artificiales de fibras plasticas. Para el transporte se emplea
hucvos y contribuir al conocimiento de la factibilidad del ron bastidores de madera de 35 x 29 cm envolviendo los
cultivo comercial de estas especies y en especial de C. estor huevos por debajo y por encima con una tcla suave de
a traves dc las experiencias sobre mantenimiento, alimenta- algodon, humedecida para evitar la deshidratacion. Los 5
cion, crecimicnto, transporte y comportamiento. bastidores se colocaron en una caja de poliestireno de
40 x 40 x 25 cm para mantener la temperatura constante
(Fig. 5 y 6).
3 Desarrollo del trabeyo El numero de huevos en cada bastidor fue de 3 000 lo
El trabajo se desarrollo en el laboratorio del Programa de que equivale a 15 000 en cada caja. El tiempo utilizado
Piscicultura Experimental del Instituto Nacional de Pesca. para el transporte desde el area de colecta hasta el laborato-
Para las experiencias de incubacion y alevinaje se utilizaron rio fue de 7 horas aproximadamente, manteniendose du
acuarios de 98 x 38 x 38 cm con una capacidad de 141,5 1 rante este trayccto una temperatura constante en el interior
150
acuario grande. Los colectorcs fueron puestos indistinta
mente en el fondo o en la supcrficie del agua. En el caso de
los huevos de pescado bianco se agrego una solution de
azul de metileno
al %
para prevenir la invasion de hongos.
1
f^ 3.3 Alevinq/e
El numero dc crias nacidas sc determino por difcrencia con
cl numero dc huevos encontrados muertos adheridos a los
4 Resultados
Con los bastidores y la tela humedecida fueron transporta-
dos 15000 huevos por caja.Esle mcdio de iransportc
permitio obtener del 95% al 98% de supcrvivencia desdc la
3.2 Incubacion
Al llegar al laboratorio los huevos se colocaron en las
peceras; 3 000 en cada acuario pequeno y 10000 en cada I .os peces mantenidos en la obscuridad y bajo las
151
mismas eondiciones dc alimentacion quc aquellos man- nos han demostrado que no importa el estadio en que se
la luz, crecieron dc manera similar.
tcnidos bajo encucntren los huevos, la mortalidad cs siempre la misma
entre 2% y 5%,
Rosas (J970) menciona que el pescado bianco nace a
tempcraturas de 20C en 168 h y a tempcraturas de 23C
en 120h, mientras que nosotros obtuvimos los nacidos
despues de mas de 9 2 h a temperaturas de 2 y 2 2 C Estc
1 1 .
sin saco vitelino pueden pcrmanecer en las mismas condi dias dc 2 mm y a los 7 meses de 86 mm.
1
clones durante 5 h con una mortalidad del 10%. Los alimcntos experimentados con las crias que han
consumido cl saco vitelino. quc aportaron mejores resulta-
dos, fueron levadura durante los tres primeros dias y luego
yema de huevo cocida. Se pudo observar quc los proto-
zoarios cultivados son bicn aceptados pcro el agua sc hace
acida rapidamente. Es posible que controlando el pH opor
tunamentc y variando o mezclando levaduras y protozoa
nos al principio y luego yema de huevo cocida se pudieran
obtener mejores resultados y mejor aun haciendo uso del
cultivo de rotifcros para ahmentar las crias mayores.
El numero de crias quc sobrevivicron (5%) lograron un
crecimiento adecuado, como se puede observar en la
muy
Fig. 9. En primeros meses el crecimiento fuc lento,
los 3
90 H
80
70-
60'
i
5 Discusion a
Los bastidores usados para asegurar la buena oxigenacion 340-
152
6 Conclusiones 7 Referencias
Se considera que el transporte de los huevos en un medio
humcdo es mucho mas eficientc que el transporte en agua, BAKIJOUK. (' D, Redcsuiption and taxonomic status of Chintstonui
Los huevos colocados en camara humeda sobreviven un W4 tompn',\wm, a Mexican athcnmd fish (.'opvia, 1974:277 9
Di IJuiv I Limnobioloyia dc Pat/cuaio An Inst Biol Iniv i\ac
1
tiempo muy prolongado sin notarse problcmas aparcntes en 1^44 4un>n, Mt\\ ,15(1) 261 "M2
el embrion. Los alimentos suministrados como levadura. ROSAS, M M Pcseado bianco (ChnoMuma i^iot), su fomento \ su
(
)7() cultivo en Mexico. Mexico, Scctetaiia dc Industna \ Comercio,
ycma de hucvo cocido y protozoarios cultivados son 1
methods of increasing production of these pn/ed food fishes of great la siguiente proporcion. catla 3: rohu 4: mngal 3, Durantc la
explptacion
commercial value, se Icrtilizaron losestanques con estiercol de vaca. urea, superfpsfatos
hcsc major carps were stocked
I m two previously cleared ponds, one, triples v sulfato amonico.
y se facihtaron a los peces piensos artificiales-
19 ha. the other 0- 1 7 hn usmp ft 000 fingcrlmgs per ha in a species una mezcla de torta oleagmosa de cacahuetc y salvado de arro? del que se
rohu 4. mrigal Management measures involved habia extraido previamcnte el aceite. en igualcs proporciones en peso.
1
ratio of catla 3 3
cow dung urea, triple superphosphate, and ammonium
Icrtili/ation with La produccion bruia de los estanques al cabo de un unu fue de 3 930 v
sulphate, and supplv of artificial feed, a mixture of ground nut oil cake 3017kg, ha por ario: el mejor crecimiento medio, de urios SOOg. sc
and de-oiled rice polish in equal proportions by weight. obtuvo con catla Fue posible dctcrminar el sexo de la mavona de los
The ponds were harvested after a year; gross productions recorded (or peces extraidos mediante examen extcrno. Las hembras. en promedio
the two were 3 930 and 3017 kg/na/yr. the best average growth of resultaron mas pesadas que los machos sobrc todo las carpas mrigal. que
around 800 g being obtained in catla It was possible to determine the sex alcan?an la madurc? sexual antes que las otras dos
of the majority of the harvested fish by external examination. Females on La produccion bruta cntre 3 000-4 000 kglia por ano obtemda en
an average weighed more than the males, this being especially marked in este cxperimcnto indica los clcvados rcndimicntos que pueden obtenersc
mrigal which attain sexual maturity earlier than the other two, del policullivo intcnsivo dc estas carpas indias en estanques dc agua
Gross productions between 3 000-4000 kg/ha/yr as were obtained dulce. Una densidad de siembra de ^ 000 iaramujios''ha en propoicion
in this experiment are indicative of the high yields that can be obtained by catla 4. rohu 3, mrigal 3 permitina obtener al cabo de un ano peces dc
intensive polyculture of these Indian major carps in freshwater ponds m mayor peso medio v por tanto, hana mas atractiva comercialrncnte esta
.
mesurcs d'amcnagement ont comportc la fertilisation des etangs ^au India, particularly West Bengal, have traditions of polycul-
rnoyen de bouse de vuche, d'uree. dc superphosphate triple et de sulfate ture of these food fishes chosen for their excellent culture
d'ammomum. et Tapprovisionnement en aliment artificiel un melange
de tourteaux d'araehide et de ri? poll deshuile en proportions egales par values: rapid growth, attainment of large size, compatibil-
poids ity, keeping quality of the flesh, consumer preference and a
La recolte a etc faite an bout d'un an; les chitTres de production biute
hardiness that makes it easy to handle and transport their
enregistres pour les deux etangs ont etc de 3 930 ct de 3017 kg/ha par
an, le meillcur taux de crotssuncc moyen (environ 800 g) ayant etc seed. The
availability of their seed and suitable water areas
obtenu avec la carpc catla. II a etc possible de determiner le sexe de la for their culture have also played a role in the development
majonte dcs poissons recoltes par examen externe. En moyenne, les of their traditional culture in eastern India. Indigenous to
femelles pesaient plus que les males, cctte difference etant particulicre
ment ace u see ehc? le mngal qui atteint la maturue sexuelle plus tot que the Indian sub continent and Burma, these 'Gangetic carps"
les deux autres especes.
have also been transplanted to peninsular India, where they
La production brute de 3 000 a 4 000 kg/ha/an attemte lots dc ces
have established themselves in most of the major rivers
experiences mdique que Ton pent obtcnir dcs taux de rendement eleves
par la polyculture intensive de ces carpes dans les etangs d'eau douce de (Alikunhi, Chaudhuri and Ramachandran. 1952). and to
1'Indc. Unc densite d'empoissonnement de 5 000 alevins/ha dans les
countries such as Israel, Malaysia, Mauritius, the Philip-
proportions de catla 4 rohu 3 mrigal < pourrait donner en un an des
poissons d'un poids moyen plus eleve; commc lelle. elle se revele plus pines and Sri Lanka*
attrayante du point de vuc commercial.
Cultivo intensivo de las principales carpas indias 2 Traditional fish culture in India
Kxtracto Fish culture as practised in India is generally of the home-
hn 1974 75 se rcalizo en la India un expenmento de policultivo
stead type, and there is not much marketable surplus.
intensivo de las principals carpas indias -catla (Catla catla), rohu
(Laheo rohita) y mngal (Cirrhinus mngulci\- en estanques de agua Commercial fish culture relying mostly on empirical
153
methods is, nevertheless, practised in West Bengal and to intensive culture of the indigenous species alone in small
some extent, in adjoining states. In such traditional fish ponds of a type common in India.
culture, primary reliance is placed on the inherent fertility
of the ponds; and without the application of measures such 4. Stocking densities and species ratios
1
as fertilization and feeding, the production as might be The two freshwater ponds. Pond A with an area of 0- 19 ha
expected is rather low. The average production, for exam- and Pond B of 0- 7 ha, were stocked with catla, rohu and
1
ple, maybe only about 600 kg/ha/year as observed by mrigal the ratio of catla 3: rohu 4: mrigal 3 by number.
in
Banerjea ( 1967) for a number of ponds. In special situa- The stocking density was 6 000 fish per ha. The fish ranged
tions (Saha and Mazumdar, 1970) increased fish produc- from 102 to 262 mm in length and from 32-5 to 159 g in
tion of indigenous carps may be obtained through utiliza average weight. The fingerlings used had been reared from
lion of city sewage as is practised in some areas around seed obtained by hypophysation. The stocking density and
Calcutta. the species ratios selected were based on results obtained by
earlier workers.
3 Scientific fish culture in India
Culture of indigenous major carps stocked in desirable 4.2 Management techniques
proportions in ponds cleared of predators and pests, and The techniques adopted for raising
the carp were similar to
fertili/ed to increase production of natural fish food, and those evolved for polyculture at the Cuttack Substation
with artificial feeding has now been developed through (Chaudhuri and Chakrabarty. 1975), except that no weeds
scientific research,and its increasing application has pro- were provided. Both fertilizers and feeds were selected on
vided higher yields. In experimental studies undertaken by the basis of their effectiveness in previous experiments.
the Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute, at Cuttack The kinds of fertili/ers and their amounts used in the
and elsewhere, varying productions of the indigenous carps ponds arc shown below. They were added in instalments.
have been obtained. Parameswaran et al ( 197 ) obtained 1
Cowdung was added each month in small heaps at the pond
productions ranging from 843 to about 2 000 kg/ha/yr. margins, to allow for gradual dissolution.
Gross productions of 2 535 and 2 193 kg/ha/yr were ob
kg ha/ war
1
4 The present experiment particular corners of the ponds at fixed hours each day.
The experiment was undertaken in two adjacent ponds of Feeding was stopped altogether on a few days when blooms
the Killa Fish Farm of the Central Inland Fisheries Re of the ciinoflagellate Peridinium sp appeared. The total
search Institute at Cuttack in 1974-1975. The ponds were quantities of feed provided for ponds A and B were 8 926
weed-free and rain-fed and had previously been cleared of kp/ha/yr and 9 976 kg/ha/yr respectively. Conversion of
fishusing a pesticide, mahua oilcake (Madhuka latifolia).
the feed to fish flesh was 2-3:1 in Pond A and 3-3: in Pond 1
Their proximity minimized the chances of variation in pond B. The best conversion obtained in ponds where silver,
environment; it was considered that they were replicates. grass and common carps were cultured with indigenous
1
A so-called 'composite fish culture of Indian major carp carps (by Chaudhuri et ai 1975) was 1-6:1, where in
addition to fertili/ers and supplemental feed, weeds were
species together with the Chinese silver carp, grass carp and
common carp has produced high yields of marketable fish provided for the grass carp.
averaging over 8000 kg/ha/yr (Chaudhuri et aL 1975).
This was undoubtedly due to fuller utilization of the pond's 4,3 50/7, water and plankton
Table I shows the physico-chemical conditions of the pond
ecological niches by the species and numbers offish intro
soil and water.
duced. Such mixed cultures, however, are not possible
when seed of and silver carps The texture of the soil in both ponds was sandy loam as
the grass production of
which India
shown below.
in wholly dependent upon hypophysation
is
154
which to some extent might have contributed to the higher 4.4 Harvest, survival and growth
production obtained in the former (see section 4.4 below). Pond B was harvested a year after stocking. Pond A was
The high values for total alkalinity are indicative of produc- harvested five days later, in May. Mahua oil cake was used
tive pond conditions. Banerjea (1967) found ponds with to ensure the complete removal of fish.
water above 90 ppm total alkalinity to be productive. The Table II The total pro-
illustrates the results obtained,
available phosphorus values are also satisfactory. The low duction recorded m
Pond A was 3 930 kg/ha/year (3501
available nitrogen values of the pond soil and the low kg net) and in Pond B it was 3 7 kg/ha/yr ( 2 607 kg net ). 1
organic carbon values do not reflect productive conditions In both ponds the performance of catla was best in survival
while the sandy loam texture of the soil suggests the as well as growth.
possible loss of nutrients added to it. All things considered, During the year, none of the three species was able to
the soil appeared to be on the unproductive side. The obtain an average weight as high as kg as observed in 1
somewhat better values of the nutrients in the water phase is previous polyculturc experiments. Table HI is a compari-
due to the effect of additions of fcrtili/ers and feed in the son of results with respect to stocking density and survival
course of culture. in Pond A
(0-19 ha) (where the best results of the present
The plankton density in Pond A averaged 0-64 cm V45 1
experiment were obtained) with the results obtained by
of strained pond water, and that of Pond B 0- 2 cm V45 1 I. Chaudhuri et al 1975) when the same three species at
(
Among phytoplankters, Microcvsiis, Navicula, Sceneries tained average weights of 1 kg in the course of a year, in
mus and Pediastrum dominated in Pond A, and Navicula, association with exotic carps.
Closterium and Pediastrum in Pond
Prominent among
B. The difference in growth results may be due to the effect
/ooplankters were nauplii of copepods. Mama, rotifers and of population density, but consideration should also be
Cvclops. The higher plankton density reflects the better given to the beneficial interactions among the species in an
nutrient status of Pond A. association of carps. pitrticukirK the contribution of
TXHII I
155
semi-digested and undigested vegetable material by the 4.6 Economics of intensive culture of Indian major carps
grass carp as well as the possible benefit derived from An analysis of the profitability of a fish culture operation
droppings of the algae feeding silver carp, and the release of based upon the results obtained in the experiment in Pond
nutrients effected through the digging action of the com- A is presented in Table V.
mon carp (Yashouv and Halevy, 1972). Items 5, 6 and 7 in Table V are based on estimations
The loss in numbers of rohu and mrigal in Pond B since the work was carried out in departmental experimen-
affccting production is attributable mainly to their mortal- tal ponds where these items of expenditure were either not
ity during blooms of Peridinium. incurred or were difficult to apportion for individual ponds.
The sale price of Rs 5- 50/kg considered is a modest rate; in
4.5 Differential growth of the sexes the open market the price of such whole fish is much more.
Table IV shows the average weights of females and males of around Rs 0/kg. The inputs, except fmgerlings, were dcriv-
1
the three species examined. ed from the open market where prices of these fluctuate.
To examine the correctness of sexual segregation of the The economics appear more favourable compared with
fish in their early stages of maturity made on the basis of those reported for Indian major carps by Pillay (1973) for a
examination of pectoral fin roughness (Chaudhuru 1959),
sludy madc in Wcst Bengal", India. The ratios of profit to
the fish were dissected and the observations confirmed.
operating cost and gross income which he reported were
Chaudhuri et al ( 1975) recorded better growth of females 28-8 and 22-3 as against the higher values of 54-3 and
in mrigal than males. The lower average weight of catla 35. n tne present experiment vindicating the economic
\ j
females in Pond A, a contradiction in an otherwise uniform soundness of intensive culture of indigenous carps,
pattern of heavier females in all cases, may be explained by
the fact that these fish were in the early stages of maturity.
The greater profitability of culture of more females both 5 Discussion
for the table as well as for breeding fish is suggested. Major The intensive culture of Indian major carps alone, employ-
carp roc is also highly relished by fish consumers. ing as high a stocking density as 6 000 fingerlings/ha, may
TAHII- III
COMPAKAMVt GKOWIH AND Sl'KVlVAl Ol INDIAN MAJOR CARPS UNDLR DIFTLIUNI SICK KINO
DFNSITirS IN TWO DIFFIRPNT FXPFRIMINIS
Number Mucked Percentage Average weight
(per ha) ittrvivat (g)
Pond A '
Pond A '
Pond A
TAHII IV
DlFrnRL'NIIAL dltUWIH OH Mil SI XF'S OF INDIAN MAJOK CARPS
"
Figures in parentheses indicate the number of fish examined
TAMLI V
ECONOMICS or INIENSIVF MSN cuiTURr opr RAT IONS IN A ONI MA FOND HASLD UPON
RFStJLTS IN POND A
Operating cost/ha/vear
1.
Stocking material 600
2. Piscicide 600
3. Fcruli7er (organic manure, chemical fertilisers and lime) 300
4. Feed 8 1 10
5. Labour (including watch and ward, farm labour, pond preparation and
harvesting) 3 200
6. Miscellaneous (transport, depreciation ol larm implements, repairs, etc ) 1 000
7. Rental 200
14010
Income from sale of 3 930 kg of fish at I.Rs. 5- 50/kg 21615
Profit, 7605
ratio to operating cost 54 3%
ratio to gross income 35 1%
156
not yield as high a fish crop as that obtained by culture of weight of kg. Perhaps a density of 5 000 fingerlings/ha
1
these species together with exotic carps. Productions re with cat la. rohu and mrigal stocked in the ratio of 4:3:3
corded by Chaudhuri et al (1975) employing a lower would give fish of larger average weight which would be
stocking density of 5 000 fingerlings/ha were higher than more attractive commercially.
those obtained in our experiment. Nevertheless, production In areas where grass, silver and common carp seed is
touching 4 000 kg/ha/year as obtained in Pond A. indi available, culture of these species in association with indig
cates that production of the indigenous major carps alone enous carps is to be advocated for high fish production. Hut.
could be increased by intensive management. when exotic carp seed is not available, water areas can be
The comparatively performance of catla in a
better gainfully utili/ed through intensive culture of Indian major
culture system relying mainly on supply of artificial feed is carps alone. Productions of around 3 000 kg/ha/ycar
worth noting. A production of about 400 kg/ha alone of 1
appear possible.
catla as obtained in Pond A m contrast to 901 kg/ha/year,
the highest obtained for the species in composite fish
culture experiments by Chaudhuri et al (1975) is worth
mentioning. In a mono-culture experiment with catla (Ali
7 References
kunhi and Sukumaran. 964). the production obtained was
1
1
1952 10 transplantation of fishes m
India, with special rcleienee to
cial feed may be less than that for rohu and mrigal but the conditions of existence of carp fiy ,/ Avutn S<n IS(1),^ ^
presence of proteolytic enzymes in the species, as men-
BAM RII A. S, M
Watci quality and soil condition ol fish ponds in some
l%7 states of India in i elation to fish pioduition Indian ,/, Fi\h
Ranade and Kewalramam (1967), suggests phys
,
tioned by 14* MS 44
lological capability of utilizing a high protein diet like , R D
Introduction of exotic caips for aqtiaculluic in
India its aims and then reali/ation Lecture, Summci Institute
groundnut oil cake. The utilization of groundnut oil cake m of Inland Aquaculluie. ('attack organised by Central Inland
feed by catla fry was observed by Chakrabarty et al Hshenes Rcscaich Institute, Banaekpoic (1C AR) S p (mimeo)
(1973). RAHAim, R D, t't al Obseivations on the relative usefulness ol
197? difleienl feed foi carp spawn and fiy, ,/ Inland huh Soi India.
The production of about 500 kg/ha/year of rohu from
,
1 * 182 SS
Pond A is worth comparing with the record production of ('iiAKkM)AKt v, R D ci al On the use of fertili/cis and supplement, ii\
feed for enhancing fish pioduetion in hesh water ponds (in
2 640 kg/ha/ycar of rohu obtained in intensive polyculture
pi ess)
by Chaudhuri ct al (1974), if in both instances the perfor- C'MMDHi Notes on external eharaeieis distinguishing sex ol
RI. 11
mance of the other indigenous species of carps are also 1959 common Indian eaips S< ( '////., 25 (F) 25S 9
bieedeis of the i ( I
ductivity. not uncommon among existing Indian fish ponds. 1962 Pacific legion f-AO Fish Hiol.Tcdi Pap.. (14)' 203 p.
JHiNdKAis, V, G Fish and fisheries of India Delhi, Hindustan Pub-
1974 hbhing Corporation, 954 p
PARAMtswARAV S, cr al Fish yitid from Assam ponds kept under
6 Conclusions 1971 different experimental conditions Indian J. fiish 18 (1, 2) ,
67 83
The practicability of employing intensive polyculture of the PILLAR, 1 V R, The role of aquaeulture in fishery development and
highly desirable major carps of India, the catla. rohu and 197^ management, J, Fish Re*, Bd Canada, 30 12, Part 2) 2202 17
'
mrigal, to raise sizeable fish crops from freshwater ponds, is 1967 in the intestine of Lahco rohita (Mam ), Cmhina ninaalu(\l'dm )
demonstrated by the experiments reported upon here. and d alia catla (Ham,) hAO Fish Rep,, (44) vol. 3: 349 *8
The average sizes obtained indicate that under the man SANA, K ('. & MA/UMDAR, B Ksheiics of West Bengal Alipore, West
1970 Bengal, Government Press, 18 p 1
agement measures used, the stocking density/ha/yr was a YASHOLV, A & HALm,
A. Experimental studies of polycultuie in
little on the high side for attainment of desired marketable 1972 1971. Bamid<ich,24(2)' 11-9
Intensive pond farming of common carp (Crprmu* carpio) is a promts (As controls, ponds neither fertilized nor pro\ided with feed ueie
ing and effective method of fish production with many advantages over stocked with 300 carp/ha) Feeding began at the end of April and lasted
the older system m which the carp were dependent upon natural foods for to the end of September. Rations were provided (using self feeders) as a
their entire nutrition. The bases for this intensive farming are: (/') use of proportion of body weight calculated every fortnight, and were varied
stabili7ed complete feeds. (//') high stock density: and (/'//) improved with water temperature, They were also varied somewhat depending
techniques in farming. upon the appetite of the fish and the water's oxygen content. The ponds
During long-term research at the hxpcnmental Fish Culture Station were fertilized with lime, ammonium mtrate'and superphosphate at
of the Polish Academy of Sciences at Golysz. three important problems intervals.
effectiveness of feeds differing in nutritional values and stability: and (/'//') water stability was shown bv the pellets followed by the wheat and then
economic and biological
setting limits for the complex intensification of the dough Growth offish feed \\ith pellets was higher b\ 606 kg ha than
pond production. fish fed with dough (despite the same protein content), but growth for
ponds, using 2400 pellet fed fish was only 139 kg, ha better than uheat -an insignificant
157
difference. Fish fed with pellets yielded 3 347 kg/ha, those with wheat K
contenant aussi un peuplement de 4 000 2 ^ /ha alimente par des super-
3 199 and those with dough 2 727. granules a donne un rendement de 5412 kg/ha.
Experiments repeated in 1970 with a higher stocking density (3 000 Dans des etangs temoins, sans fertilisation ni alimentation, ou le
K,_,/ha). showed no significant difference between feeding with pellets peuplement etait de 300 Kg 4 /ha, le rendement a varie de 1 80 a 24 1 kg/
or wheat. ha. Le rendement d'etangs fertilises mais sans alimentation (1971-
in 1971 had an even higher stocking density (3 600 1973) et empoissonnes au taux de 900 Kj j s'est situe entre 477 et 5 1 8
Experiments
K 5
1973, experimental ponds stocked at 4 000 K 2 _,/ha and with feeding of d aliment pour 1 kg de carpe.
Le principal obstacle a une nouvelle intensification de la production
super pellets, yielded 4 954 kg/ha. A normal' farm pond of 2 ha also
stocked with 4 000 K,.,/ha and with super-pellet feeding yielded 5412 des carpes est la deterioration de renyironnement des etangs qui accom-
kg/ha. pagne un accroissement de la fertilite. Neanmoms, Ton peut realiser de
The yield (1969-73) in control ponds, unfertilized and without nouveaux progres en stabihsant la teneur en oxygene dissous a 4-6 mg/1
feeding, stocked at 300 2 Vha
K
varied from 1 80 to 24 1 kg/ha. The yield par aeration de 1'etang.
in ponds fertilized but ( 197 1-73) stocked at 900 K, ,/
without feeding
ha varied from 477 to 518 kg/ha.
Experimentos de cria intensiva de carpa comiin en Polonia
In all the experiments (1969-73) survival was high: 93-100%. Extracto
The results show that ponds in good condition can provide 2 000- La cna intensiva de carpa comun (Cyprinus carpio} en estanques
3 000 kg/ha with carbohydrate foods and 3 000-6 000 kg/ha with
constituye un metodo prometedor y eficaz para la produccion de peces,
protein-rich pellets. The use of feed can also be reduced to about 2 kg of con numerosas ventajas respecto al sistema antiguo, en el que la carpa
feed to 1 kg of carp.
dependia para su nutricion de los ahmentos naturales Los elementos
The chief obstacle to further intensification of carp production is the de la cna intensiva son: (/) empleo de piensos completes
basicps
deterioration of the pond environment with increased fertility. Neverthe- estabilizados; (//') elevada densidad de repolacion; (in) mejores tecmcas
less, further intensification is possible by stabilizing the dissolved oxygen de cria.
content at 4-6 mg/1 by pond aeration. Durante las investigaciones a largo plazo realizadas en la Estacion
Experimental de Piscicultura que la Academia Polaca de Ciencias tiene
Quelques experiences d'elevage intensif de la carpe commune en en Gofysz, se resolvieron tres problemas importantes relacionados con la
Pologne cria intensiva de carpas: (/) determinacion de los metodos para el empleo
Resume de piensos artificiales completes; (//') determinacion de la eficacia de
L'elevage intensif en etang de la carpe commune (Cyprinus carpio) est piensos de distinto valor nutricional y estabilidad; (//'/) determinacion de
une methode de production de poisson efficace et nche en possibilites, los limites economicos y biologicos para la intensificacion compleja de la
qui presente de nombreux avantages sur 1'ancicn systeme selon lequel les produccion en estanques.
carpes dependaient d 'aliments naturels pour toute leur nutrition. Les Los experimentos comenzaron en 1969 en 1 500m 2 de estanques,
bases de la pisciculture intensive sont les suivantes: (/) utilisation utilizando 2 400 carpas K2 3 por hectarea, para obtener peces de 1 000 g
d'aliments complets stabilises; (//) forte densite du stock: et (///) tech- de peso. (Como testigos se utihzaron estanques en los que se
sembrarpn
niques perfect! onnees d'elevage. 300 carpas por hectarea, sin fertilizacion ni piensos.) La alimentacion
Lors de recherches a long terme menees a la Station de pisciculture con piensos comenzo a finales de abril y duro hasta finales de septiembre.
expcnmentale de 1' Academic des sciences de Gotysz, Ton a resolu trois Las raciones se distnbuyeron mediante autoahmentadores, en propor
problemes importants en matiere d'elevage intensif des carpes (/) cion del peso corporal, calculado cada quince dias, y se modificaron
determination des methodes cTutilisation des aliments complets artifi-
segun la temperatura del agua. Se modificaron tambien segun el apetito
ciels; (//) determination de I'efficacite d'aliments de valeur nutntionnelle de los peces y el contenido en oxigeno del agua. Los estanques se
et de stabilite differentes; (///) definition de limites economiques et fertihzaron a mtervalos con cal, mtrato amonico y superfosfatos.
biologiques pour 1' intensification globale de la production en etang. Se ensayaron tres tipos de piensos: (/) granules con un 25% de
Des experiences ont commence en 1969 dans des etangs de 1 500 m 2 , mente de ongen vegetal; (//) un producto pastoso de
proteinas. principal
avec 2 400 K, , carpes par hectare, dans le but d'obtenir des poissons la misma composicion; (///') trigo. Los mas estables en el agua resultaron
d'un poids de 1 000 g. (On a empoissonne des etangs temoins que los granules, seguidos por el trigo y finalmente el producto pastoso. El
n 'etaient ni fertilises ni enrichis par des aliments au taujc de 300 carpes crecimiento de los peces alimentados con granulos resulto mayor en 606
par hectare ) L'alimentation a commence fin avril et s'est prolongee kg/ha que el de los peces alimentados con el pienso pastoso (a pesar de
jusqu'a fin septembre. Les rations administrees par distributeur auto- que el contenido de proteinas era identico), mientras respecto a los peces
matique etaient calculees tous les quinze jours en proportion du poids alimentados con tngo la diferencia fue sole de 139 kg/ha, que es
corporel et en fonction de la temperature de 1'eau. Ces rations variaient msignificante. Los peces alimentados con granulos produjeron 3347 kg/
egalement quelque peu selon I'appetit des poissons et la teneur de 1'eau en ha, los alimentados con trigo 3 199 y los alimentados con el preducto
oxygene. Les etangs etaient fertilises periodiquement au moyen de chaux, pastoso 2 727.
de nitrate d 'ammonium et de superphosphate. Los experimentos repetidos en 1970 con una mayor densidad de
Trpis aliments ont
etc essayes: (/) des granules contenant 25% de poblacion (3 000 K2 ^ per ha) no mostraron diferencias importantes
essentiellement d'origine vegetal e; (/7)un aliment pateux de la entre la alimentacion con granulos o tn$o.
prpteines,
meme composition; (///') du ble. La meilleure stabilite dans Teau a etc En los experimentos de 1971 se utilize una densidad de repoblacion
obtenue par les granules, suivie par le ble, puis par la pate. La croissance aim mayor (3 600 K2 ^ por ha ) y un pienso granulado super, con un 40%
des poissons nourris de granules a excede de 606 kg/ha celle des de proteinas, principalmente de origen animal. Los mejores resultados se
poissons nourris de pate (pour une meme teneur proteique), mais la obtuvieron con los granulos super, seguidos de los granulos normales y
croissance des poissons alimentes avec des granules n'a etc supeneure el trigo.
que de 139 kg/ha a celle des poissons nourris de ble un ecart insigni- En 1972 y 19 73 se utilizaron densidades de repoblacion aunmayores.
fiant. Les rendements ont ete respectivement de 3 347
kg/ha pour les Con una densidad (en 1972)de 4 000 K2 3 /ha y alimentando a los peces
poissons nourris de granules, de 3 199 kg/ha pour ceux nourris de ble et con granulos super, el rendirmento fue de 4 909 kg/ha. A 10 000 K, ^/
de 2 727 kg/ha pour ceux nourris de pate. ha, el en kg/ha fue de 4 647 con granulos super, 4 199 con
rendimientp
Les experiences ont etc renouvelees en 1970 avec une densite de granulos ordinaries y 3 182 con trigo. En 1973, algunos estanques
peuplement plus forte (3 000 K2 _j par ha), sans que Ton obtienne des expenmentales sembrados a razon de 4000 K 2 _ 3 alimentados con
.
ecarts notables entre F alimentation sous forme de granules ou de ble. granulos super, dieron un rendimiento de 4 954 kg/ha. Un estanque
En 1971 on a fait de nouvelles experiences avec une densite de normal de 2 ha sembrado tambien a razon de 4 000 K 2 ,/ha y
piscicpla
peuplement encore plus forte (3600 en utilisant des 'super*
K^) con alimentacion de granulos super produjo 5412 kg/ha.
granules' contenant 40% de proteines essentiellement d'origine animale. El rendimiento (1969-1973) en los estanques testigo, sin fertilizar y
Les meilleurs resultats ont ete obtenus par les super-granules suivies par sin piensos, sembrados a razon de 300 K 2 _/ha vario entre 1 80 y 24 1 kg/
les granules standards puis par le ble. ha. El rendimiento en estanques fertilizados pero sin distribucion de
En 1972 et en 1973, on a utilise des densites de peuplement encore piensos (1971-1973), repoblados a razon de 900 K 2 oscilo entre 477
plus elevees. Avec un peuplement (1972) de 4000 KzVha et une y 5 18 kg/ha.
alimentation constitute de super-granules, le rendement a atteint 4 909 En todos los experimentos ( 1969- 1 9 73 ) la super vivencia fue elevada:
kg/ha. Avec un peuplement de 10000 K, j/ha, le rendement a atteint 93-100%.
4 647 kg/ha pour les carpes nourries de super-granules, 4 199 kg/ha Los resultados muestran que utilizando estanques en buenas condi-
pour celles nourries de granules standards et 3 182 kg/ha pour celles ciones pueden obtenerse 2 000-3 000 kg/ha con alimentos a base de
nourries de We. En 1973, des etangs experimentaux contenant un carbohidratos y 3 000-6 000 kg/ha con granulos ricos en proteinas. El
peuplement de 4 000 Kj ^ /ha alimente par des super-granules ont donne uso de piensos puede reducirse a unos 2 kg de piensos por un kg de carpa.
une rendement de 4 954 54 kg/ha. Un etang d'elevage normal de 2 ha El principal obstaculo para intensificar ulteriormente la produccion de
1S8
carpas es el deterioramiento del ambiente al aumentar la fcrtilidad. De noted. Increased intensification of production is followed
todas formas, es posible una mayor intensificacion estabilizando el
contenido de oxigeno disuelto en 4-6mg/l mediante un sistema de
by eutrophication of the ponds but the great density of the
aireacion del estanque. fishpopulation entirely changes the ecological interdepen-
dence in the biotopes of the ponds. This interdependence is
not limited, as was once generally believed, only to a
1 Introduction reduction of natural food and deterioration of living condi-
Conventional carp culture is based on the use of natural tions for the fish. It also stimulates energy flow through the
pond foods and not of complete artificial feeds. These ecosystem, and the dynamics of turnover as well as the
natural foods can be used properly only when there is the productivity of trophic links. Thanks to this the conditions
right proportion in the diet to furnish the aminoacids and of life in ponds with high stock density are not harmed.
vitamins needed by the fish. Thus to attain a high fish Thus high stock density ensures not only economic produc-
production in ponds they must be made very fertile so as to tion but a favourable course of farming.
provide an abundance of natural food. However, increase in The third basic factor supporting intensive fish farming
the natural productivity of the pond causes disturbances in is a complex of farming measures that includes fish feeding
the life conditions of the fish, which limit the possibilities of techniques, pond cultivation and fertilization, improvement
intensification. of environmental conditions, and protection against dis-
Conventional carp farming requires a large area, much ease. Concentration of production on a relatively small area
water, and large investments in building as well as upkeep facilitates the applicationof farming measures and allows a
of the pond system and its facilities, this leading to rising much greater manipulation of environmental processes
costs of production. A
serious drawback to this old system than is possible with conventional fish farming. It is more
is the considerable amount of food necessary for a unit of economical and technically easier. At the same time, how-
fish growth. There is reason, therefore, to substitute more ever, the high level of production demands high standards,
intensive forms of carp farming if they prove practicable. punctuality in all work, top quality fish stocks, feeds and
water, and well-constructed, well-manned ponds.
It has been ascertained that common carp fed on pellets
2 The bases of intensive carp farming change their trophic behaviour. Pellets are taken three times
The bases for intensive carp farming in ponds are: (/) use of quicker than is the same amount of wheat. To eliminate
stabilized and complete feeds, (//) high density of stock, and long periods during which the carp may lack food it is
(///) improved techniques in farming. necessary to introduce automatic or self-feeders. This will
Of these, the most important factor is the use of complete also reduce the losses of ingredients from feed which
feeds which meet the nutritional requirements of the fish. remain for some time in the water. Leaching of feed also
These feeds must be easy to assimilate, possess high leads to a decrease in the effectiveness of feeding owing to
nutrient value, and have high stability in water (LobaSva, reduction in the water's oxygen content.
1959); this is mostly gained by pelleting. To a certain
degree, an intensive fattening of carp, especially three-year-
olds, is also possible by periodical use of carbohydrate 3 Experiments on intensive carp fanning
feeds. During the first stage of long-term research work on com-
The use of expensive complete-food pellets is economi- mon carp (Cyprinus carpio) at the Experimental Fish
calonly with high stock density, above the so-called critical Culture Station of the Polish Academy of Sciences at
point at which the natural pond resources are insufficient to Golysz it was possible to solve the most important prob-
overcome the deficiencies of conventional feeding (Hepher lems. These were: (i) determination of methods for using
and Cherwinski, 1965). Under the farming and climatic complete feeds, (//') determining the effectiveness of using
conditions at Golysz in Poland, this occurs with a stock of feeds of various nutritional value and different stabilities,
approximately 2 500 K 2 or 5 000 K, per ha. and (iii) setting economic and biological limits for complex
1
The role of natural food in intensive farming is rather intensification of pond production.
small; its share is below 10%, and, when artifically fed, fish It was possible to undertake these experiments because
do not waste energy in looking for natural food which is not in previous years we had mastered the technology of pro-
readily accessible. ducing carp feed, taking into account its nutritional quali-
In calculating the density of stock for intensively cul- ties, its action in water, and the trophic behaviour of carp
tured ponds, natural pond productivity is not taken into (Vinogradov and Erozyna, 1962) Complete compounded
.
consideration, but stock density must be adjusted to the foods are agglomerated and stabilized by a wet pelleting
potential possibilities of the pond ecosystem to maintain its method (Polunina, 1962). Through application of the tech-
biological balance. The fish stock must be afforded the nology and equipment of the macaroni industry and using
proper living conditions, above all a dissolved oxygen binding elements, a product of high water stability has been
content above 3-4 mg/1. In the present state of farming obtained. Another advantage of the wet pelleting method is
technique, the optimum stock density in well-designed and the possibility of using cheap protein-rich by-products of
well-constructed ponds is 4 000-5 000 K 2 or 7 000-8 000 the food industry, either fresh or preserved. This is because
K, per ha. the components used in the wet pelleting method are first
The density of stock is a factor which has a very complex made into a dough containing about 35% water (Szumiec,
character. At more than tenfold density, the trophic behav- 1969).
iour of the fish begins to change, and an increased influence The feeding experiments at the station were carried out in
of the fish population on the pond environment can be 1 500 m 2 experimental ponds. During the experiments,
1
K, indicates carp of one summer season's growth, K of two seasons' mostly two-year carp stock (Cyprinus carpio) was used
2
growth etc. with the aim of obtaining a growth of 1 000 g for each fish.
159
All the groups of experiments were repeated four times. In 1969, the ponds were stocked with 2 400 K
2_ 3 carp
which enabled the
Self-feeding pendulum feeders were used per ha. For comparison, a group of ponds neither fertilized
fish to take food at demand. nor provided with feeds, was stocked with 300 carp per ha.
Feeding started at the end of April and continued to the Three kinds of feeds were introduced: (/) pellets contain-
end of September. Daily rations were provided according to ing 25% protein, (//) dough of the same composition, and
the existing biomass of the fish population which was (Hi) wheat, used as a comparable carbohydrate feed.
calculated every fortnight on the basis of test catches. The experiments show that the stability of feed is of
Water temperature was also taken into account. Within outstanding importance (Table I). Pellets with the proper
each temperature range the following food rations specified composition and high water stability proved to be the best.
as percentages of body weight were accepted as maximum: The carbohydrate feed in the natural form of grain, which
15-18C 2%; 18-21C 3%; 21-24C 4%; and has great water stability, proved to be next best. Feed in the
over 24C 5%. Feed rations also varied to a certain form of dough proved to be the least effective because of its
degree according to the appetite of the fish, or to the actual tendency to dissolve in water (Szumiec, 1971).
current weight of the fish if it differed from the one previ- The difference in effectiveness between pellets and dough
ously estimated. is considerable, the latter being less effective by 606 kg/ha
The food ration also depended on the oxygen content of on the average. The insignificant difference between the
the water. In the case of an ascertained or anticipated results achieved from feeding wheat or pellets (on the
decrease, the ration was reduced or feeding was even average 139 kg/ha) and the large quantity of pellets re~
stopped. quired for a unit of growth indicated inadequate quality of
Oxygen balance in intensively farmed ponds at the pres- the pellets.
ent technical level is based principally on oxygen produced The lack of distinct differences in results between the
by phytoplankton. Fertilization was used to promote this complete and carbohydrate feeding further indicated that
process. Agricultural lime was spread on the pond bottom, the stock density used was not high enough to reach the
at a rate of 2 000 kg/ha as well as 400-500 kg/ha of critical point over which the natural supply of pond food
ammonium nitrate and 300-400 kg/ha of superphosphate. becomes insufficient with carbohydrate feeding to furnish
The ponds were seven to ten times from April to
fertilized the protein and vitamins required by the fish.
July at intervals dependent on the intensity of phytoplank- The experiments were repeated in 1970 with a higher
ton development. stocking density, ie, with 3 000 K 2 _, per ha. There was still
During the farming season the flow of water through the no noticeable difference between feeding on pellets or
ponds was not constant; only losses from evaporation and wheat.
soaking were made up. In 1971, experiments were begun on a larger scale. To
The experiments had a wide scientific basis. Periodic achieve more varied effects of feeding, the stock density was
growth of the carp, the chemical composition and calorific increased and feeds with more varied nutritional values
value of their flesh, and the state of their blood and health were introduced. The standard pellets contain 25% protein,
were observed. Care was taken to note the physical and mostly of plant origin, while the new 'super pellets' contain
chemical qualities of the water which have an influence 40% protein, mostly of animal origin. These experiments
upon feeding. The quality of the pellets was assessed ac- were carried out in five combinations, these being succes-
cording to their chemical composition, calorific value and sive degrees of intensity of production (Table I).
stability (Hepher, 1969; Szumiec and Stanny, 1975). The best results were obtained in one of the ponds where
Analyses of bacterio-, phyto-, and zoo-plankton and bot- the fish were fed on super pellets. The yield here was 5 033
tom fauna were also made. kg/ha and the growth 3 739 kg/ha, which is 2 1 times more
TABLE I
MEAN PRODUCTION RESULTS ACHIEVED DURING EXPERIMENTS ON INTENSIVE FARMING OF TABLE CARP
160
compared with the natural growth (Szumiec, 1972). (Lukowicz, 1974 and 1975;Sauberlichand Bauer, 1975).
In 1972 and 1973, with a higher stocking density of This increased oxygen level will meet the demand of the fish
4 000 K 2 _ 3 /ha or 10 000 K, Vha even better results were stock and create the proper conditions for improved bio-
obtained (Table I). In 1973, intensive carp production chemical and biological processes in the pond environment.
methods were also applied in a normal farming pond with
an area of 2 ha (Szumiec, 1974).
It must be stressed that no great differences were notice- 4 References
able within separate groups of ponds, and it is also impor- HEPHER, B. A modification of Hasting's method for the determination
1969 of water stability of fish feed pellets EIFAC Tech Pap., (9):
tant to notice that in all experiments the survival offish was
49-54
very high from 93 to 100%. HEPHER, B. & CHERWINSKI, J. Studies on carp nutrition the influence
The results achieved have also shown that ponds in a 1965 of protein-rich diets on growth. Bamidgeh, \ 1 (2) 3 1 -46
:
The common carp (Cyprinus carpio) has been cultivated for at least They are fed intensively with artificial feed or silkworms. Survival rate is
2 400 years in China and 1 900 years in Japan. Its intensive culture has about 90%; feed efficiency about 60%. The fish grow to average 800 g.
long been practised in Nagano, Gunma and Yamagata Prefectures Harvest is 500-800 g/m 5 .
because they are far from the sea and hence have a poor
supply of
marine Floating net-cage culture for carp (originated in 195 1 and developed
fish, and once had an abundant supply of silkworm pupae for carp feed. in lakes and irrigation ponds in 1964) uses cages, from 25 to 1 20 rrr of
Ricefield carp culture in Japan once produced 140-247 kg/ha with- 2 m depth, made of plastic net on bamboo frames, using drums as floats,
out supplementary feeding and 750- 1 800 kg with supplementary feed- with water depth maintained at about 1 5 m. Fingerlings of 50- 1 20 g
ing. In 1943, the annual production was over 4 400 tons; it fell to 479 are stocked in the net-cages in April at 30 fish/m \ They are fed four to
tons in 1954. At present there is no harvest of common carp from rice five times daily. Survival rate is about 90%; feed efficiency is about 70%.
fields. The mam factors for decline are use of insecticides and herbicides, The carp grow to 800 g and are harvested at a rate of 20-50 kg/m 3 .
and loss of importance of carp to rice with increasing use of inorganic Recirculating tanks are also used but are not yet popular owing to high
fertilizers. cost and necessity of use of specialized technicians. The effluent water
With almost complete cessation of carp culture in rice fields, its circulates through gravel before returning to the tank. On one farm, the
intensive culture has started in irrigation ponds, running water ponds and total volume of water used to cultivate 5 tons of carp is only 286 m3
at
floating net-cages. It is also carried on in small fish ponds. 25-30C. Fingerlings about 5 1 5 g totalling 2-25 tons are stocked in this
Japanese carp production for 1973 totalled 26 344 tons derived as volume for a 57 day culture period. Survival rate is 98-6%; feed
follows: irrigation ponds, 1 1 566 tons (44%); running-water ponds, efficiency 99%. Harvest is 4- 12 tons of 957 g carp.
5 534 tons (21%); small fish ponds, 3 495 tons (13%); floating net- Silkworm production has declined with the development of synthetic
cages, 5 749 tons (22%). fibres. White marine fish meal is scarce. One way to offset the problem of
This carp production is 41% of Japan's total production of cultured obtaining cheap animal protein for fish feeds is to increase the protein
freshwater species (64 000 tons) which is, in turn, 6%of Japan's total conversion rate in fish through genetic improvement. A crossing of
capture and culture fisheries (1973). Carp production increased by 4-3 yamato carp (a widely cultivated Japanese race) with mirror carp has
times from 1963 to 1973 while the total fish harvest of the country increased feed efficiency 6%, and other useful F, hybrids by other crosses
increased only 1-6 times during the same period. with German scaled carp are being developed.
Japan has 280 000 irrigation ponds totalling 1 10 800 ha. In 1973, Intensive feeding in fish culture has resulted in pollution problems. In
3 300 ha used for carp culture yielded 3 5 tons/ha. Intensive culture in some lakes the number of cages and their stocking will have to be
such ponds (using aeration, floating piers for feeding, stocking in April- regulated on the basis of lake water quality.
2
May with one-year-old fingerlings of 40-100 g at a rate of one fish/m
and feeding them four or five times a day with pelleted feed of silkworm
pupae ) produces marketable table carp of 800 g by autumn. Survival rate L'itevage de la carpe commune au Japon
of carp stocked in irrigation ponds is 50-85%; feed efficiency, 50-75%. Resume
2
Carp from 500 to 800 g/m (5-8 tons/ha) have been produced in La carpe commune (Cyprinus carpio) est elevee depuis au moins 2 400
irrigation ponds in Nagano. ans en Chine et 1 900 arts au Japon.
Running-water ponds are usually 20- 100 m and 1 5 m deep. Inflow
2
Son elevage intensif se pratique depuis longtcmps dans les prefectures
rate from streams is 280-420 I/second. Ponds are stocked in April at 3- de Nagano, Gunma et Yamagata, qui se trouvent loin des cotes et sont
2
1 1
kg/m with 150 g fish one to two years old. Fed 15-20 times2 daily, done mal approvisionnees en poisson de mer; de plus, elles disposaient
they reach 800 g in autumn. Net production is 100-200 kg/m .
jadis d'abondantes quantites de cocons de ver a soie pour le nourrissage.
Small fish ponds are 900-3 000 m 2 with standing or slow water. One- Au Japon, le rendcment de la rizi-carpiculture etait autrefois de
161
140-247 kg/ha sans alimentation d' appoint, et de 750-1 800 kg/ha unos 2 400 anos y en el Japon desde hace 1 900.
avec alimentation d'appoint. En 1943, la production annuelle a depasse El cultivo intensive de esta especie se ha practicado durante mucho
4 400 tonnes; en 1954, elle est tombec a 479 tonnes. A 1'heure actuelle, tiempo en las prefecturas de Nagano, Gunma y Yamagata, que, alejadas
la recolte de carpes communes dans les rizieres est pratiquement nulle. del mar y, por tanto, mal abastecidas de pescado marine, disponian en
Ce declin de la production s'explique principalement par le recours aux una ocasion de abundantes ninfas de gusano de seda para alimentar a las
insecticides et aux herbicides et par la perte d 'importance des carpes par carpas.
rapport au riz, par suite du recours accru aux engrais mineraux. Avec la El cultivo de carpas en arrozales producia en el Japon 1 40-247
kg/ha
cessation presque complete de la carpiculture en rizieres, on a entrepris sin alimentacion suplementaria y 750-1 800 kg con piensos suplemen-
1'elevage intensif dans des etangs d'irrigation, des etangs d'eau courante tarios. En 1943 la produccion anual fue superior a 4 400 toneladas, y en
et des cages en filet, de type flottant On eleve egalement la carpe dans de 1954 disminuyo a 479 toneladas. En la actualidad no se cultivan carpas
petits etangs de pisciculture. en los arrozales. Las causas principals son el empleo de insecticidas y
En 1 9 7 3, la production japonaise de carpes a atteint le total de 2 6 344 herbicidas y la rnenor importancia de la carpa para el arroz al aumentar el
tonnes, reparties comme suit: etangs d'irrigation 11566 tonnes empleo de fertilizantes inorganicos.
(44%); etangs d'eau courante 5 534 tonnes (21%); petits etangs de Con el cese casi complete de el cultivo de carpas en los arrozales, ha
pisciculture 3495 tonnes (13%); cages flottantes en filet 5749 dado comienzo su cultivo intensive en estanques de riego, estanques de
tonnes (29%). agua corriente y jaulas flotantes. Tambien se usan pequenos estanques
Cette production de carpe represente 4 1% de la production japonaise piscicolas.
totale de poisson d'elevage en eau douce (64 000 tonnes X laquelle a La produccion de carpas en el Japon fue en 1 973 de 26 344 toneladas.
represente elle-meme en 1973 6% du total de la production halieutique asi distribuidas: estanques de riego, 566 toneladas (44%); estanques
1 1
du Japon (quantites capturees et elevees). Entre 1963 et 1973, la de agua corriente, 5534 toneladas(21%); pequenos estanques
production de carpes a augmente de 4,3 fois, tandis que la recolte totale piscicolas, 3495 toneladas (13%); jaulas flotantes, 5 749 toneladas
de
poisson
du pays n'a augmente que de 1,6 fois au cours de la meme (22%).
periode. represents el 4 1% de la produccion japonesa
La produccion de carpas
Le Japon possede 280 000 etangs d'irrigation, qui ont une superficie de especies cultivadas de agua dulce (64 000 toneladas), que, a su
total
totale de 110 800 ha. En 1973, 3 300 ha d'etangs utilises pour la vez, constituye el 6% del producto total pesquero y piscicola ( 1 973 ). La
carpiculture ont donne un rendement de 3,5 tonnes/ha. La culture produccion de carpas aumento en 4,3 veces desde 1963 a 1973, mientras
intensive dans de tels etangs (avec aeration, pontons permettant le que la produccion pesquera total del pais aumento solo en un 1,6 veces
nourrissage du poisson, empoissonnement en avril-mai a raison de 1 durante el mismo periodo.
2
poisson/m avec des carpillons d'un an pesant 40 a 100 g et nourris- Japon cuenta con 280 000 estanques de riego, con un total de
1 10 800 ha. En 1973, las 3 300 ha utilizadas
sage des sujets 4 ou 5 fois par jour avec des granules ou des cocons de ver para el cultivo de carpas
a soie)produit a Tautomne suivant des carpes de consommation de taille produjeron 3,5 toneladas/ha. El cultivo intensive en esos estanques
marchande, pesant 800 g. Le taux de survie des carpes mises en place (utilizando sistemas de aireacion y muelles flotantes para distribuir los
dans des etangs d'irrigation est de 50 a 85%; le coefficient d'efficacite alimentos, sembrando en abril-mayo jaramugos de un ano (40- 100 g) a
2
alimentaire est de 50 a 75%. Une production de carpes arteignant 500- razon de un pez/m y alimentandolos cuatro o cinco veces al dia con
800 g/m a (5-8 tonnes/ha) a etc obtenue dans des etangs d'irrigation de piensos granulados o ninfas de gusano de seda) produce en el otono
Nagano. carpas para consumo de 800 g. La tasa de supervivencia de las carpas
Les etangs d'eau courante ont ordinairement 20 a 100 m 2 de superfi- sembradas en estanques de riego es del 50 al 85%, y la eficiencia de
cie et 1,5 metres de profondeur. Le debit des courants d'eau admis dans conversion de alimentos de 50-65%. En los estanques de riego de
2
les etangs est de 280-420 litres/seconde. Les etangs sont empoissonncs Nagano se nan producido carpas de 500-800 g/m (5-8 toneladas/ha).
en avril avec des carpillons de un a deux ans pesant 1 50 g et a raison de 3 Los estanques de agua corriente tienen en general de 20 a 100 m 2 y
a 1 1 kg/m 2 Alimentes 15 a 20 fois par jour, ces juveniles atteignent le
. 1,5 m
de profundidad. El caudal de entrada es de 280-420 1/segundo.
poids de 800 g a 1'automne. La production nette est de 100- 200 kg/m
2
. Los estanques se siembran en abril, a densidades de 3-1 1 kg/m 2 con .
Les petits etangs de pisciculture dont 1'eau est stagnante ou a courant peces de 1 50 g y de uno a dos anos de edad. Ahmentandoles de 5 a 20 1
lent, ont une superficie de 900 a 3 000 m veces al dia, alcanzan para el otono pesos de 800 g. La produccion neta
2
.On les empoissonne au mois
d 'avril avec des juveniles de un an, pesant 80 a 120 g, a raison de 0,5- 1 es de 100-200 kg/m 2 .
2
poisson/m Les carpillons sont nourris intensivement avec des aliments
. Los pequenos estanques piscicolas, con agua estancada o de flujo
artificiels ou des vers a soie. Le taux de survie est d 'environ 90% et le lento, tienen superficies de 900 a 3 000 m En abril se siembran
.
2
coefficient d'efficacite alimentaire d'environ 60%. Les poissons atteig- jaramugos de un ano de 80-120g, a razon de 0,5-1 pez/m Se .
nent en moyenne le poids de 800 g. Le rendement est de 500 a 800 g/m . alimentan intensivamcnte con piensos artificiales o gusanos de seda. La
Pour 1'elevage de la carpe dans des cages en filet de type flottant tasa de supervivencia es de aproximadamente 90%, y la eficiencia de
(entreprise en 1 95 1 et developpe dans les lacs et les etangs d'irrigation en aprovechamiento de los alimentos del 60%. Los peces crecen hasta una
1964), on utilise des cages de 25 a 120m de superficie et de 2
2
m de talla media de 800 g. La produccion es de 500-800 g/m
2
.
profondeur, constitues de filets de plastique tendus sur des cadres de Para el cultivo de carpas en jaulas flotantes (comenzado en 1951 y
bambou, et munies de barillets comme flotteurs; la profondeur de 1'eau desarrollado en 1964 en lagos y estanques de riego) se utilizan jaulas de
est maintenue a environ 1,5 m. Des juveniles de 50 a 120 g sont mis en 25 a 1 20 2 y 2 m m
de altura hechas de red de plastico sobre un marco de
place dans ces cages au mois d'avril, a raison de 30 poissons par m On bambu y utilizando bidones como flotadores. La profundidad del agua se
3
.
les nourrit 4 a 5 fois par jour. Le taux de survie est d'environ 90%; le mantiene en torno a 1,5 m. En abril se colocan en las jaulas jaramugos de
coefficient d'efficacite alimentaire est d'environ 70%. Les carpes atteig- 50-120 g, a razon de 30 peces/m 3 Se les alimenta de 4 a 5 veces al dia.
.
faire appel a des techniciens specialises. Les eaux residuaires circulent a Se utilizan tambien tanques con agua recirculada, pero no son aun
travers du gravier avant de retourner au reservoir. Dans un etablissement populares, debidp a lo'elevado de los costos y a la necesidad de utilizar
piscicole, le volume total de 1'eau utilisee pour clever 5 t de carpes n'est tecnicos especial izados. El agua que afluye de los tanques pasa por unos
que de 286 m
3
a la temperature de 25-30C. Des juveniles d environ estratos de gravilla antes de volver a ellos. El volumen total de agua
5 15 g, pesant au total 2,25 tonnes, sont mis en place dans ce volume utilizada en una granja para cultivar 5 toneladas de carpas es de 286
3
m ,
d'eau pour une periode d'elevage de 57 jours. Le taux de survie est de a 25-30C. Se siembran peces de unos 515g, por un total de 2,25
98,6%; le coefficient d'efficacite alimentaire est de 99%. On recolte ainsi toneladas, y se cultivan durante 57 dias. La tasa de supervivencia es del
4,12 tonnes de carpes de 957 g. 98,6% y la eficiencia de conversion de alimentos de 99%. El rendimiento
La production de ver a soie a flechi parallelement a 1 'expansion des es de 4,12 toneladas de carpas de 957 g.
fibres synthetiques. La farine de poissons blancs mar ins est rare. Comme La produccion de gusanos de seda ha disminuido con el desarrollo de
moyen de surmonter le probleme de 1'obtention de proteines animales a las Moras sinteticas. La harina de pescado marine bianco es escasa. Una
bon marche pour 1'alimentation du poisson, on accroit le taux de de las formas de resolver el problema de disponer de alimentos proteicos
conversion proteique du poisson par amelioration genetique. Gr&ce a un baratos para piensos para los peces es aumentar la tasa de conversion de
croisement de carpe yamato (race japonaise dont 1'elevage est tres proteinas de los peces mediante mejora genetica. Un cruce de carpa
repandu)
avec la carpe miroir, on a accru le coefficient d'efficacite yamato (raza japonesa cuyo cultivo esta muy extendido) con carpa
alimentaire de 6%; on met actuellement au point d'autres interessants espejo ha permitido aumentar la eficiencia de conversion de alimentos en
hybrides F, en effectuant d'autres croisements avec la carpe a ecailles un 6% y se estan preparando otros hibridos utiles F, mediante cruces con
allemande. carpa alemana.
Le nourrissage intensif utilise en pisciculture a entrame des problemes La alimentacion intensiva en la piscicultura ha causado problemas de
de pollution. Dans certains lacs, le nombre de cages et leur densite contaminacion. En algunos lagos sera necesario regular el numero de
d'empoissonnement devront etre reglementes en fonction de la qualite de jaulas y el numero de peces de cada una de ellas teniendo en cuenta la
1'eau. calidad de las aguas.
162
Asia, has been under domestication longer than any other
fish in theworld. It has been cultivated for at least 2 400
years in China and for 1 900 years in Japan. In Japan, 10000
intensive culture of the common carp has long been prac-
tised in Nagano, Gunma and Yamagata Prefectures. There
are two
principal reasons for this. Firstly, the three prefec-
tures are located far from the sea and hence have a poor
supply of sea fish. Secondly, due to the abundant availabil-
ity of silkworm pupae as an artificial diet for carp, the
culture of this species became popular.
Until about 1945, carp were cultivated mainly in the rice
fields as an additional source of income for farmers. Ac-
practice of carp culture in rice fields lost its importance. tures was as follows: Nagano, 5 100 tons; Ibaragi, 3 200
Hence, Japanese farmers lost interest in fish cultivation in tons; Gunma, 3000 tons; and Akita 2 400 tons. The high
rice fields. (Further information on carp culture in
Japanese production in Nagano Prefecture can be attributed to the
rice fields can be found in Hickling, 1971). abundance of irrigation ponds and culture in floating net-
With almost complete cessation of common carp culture cages used extensively inLake Suwa.
in rice fields, its culture began in irrigation ponds, running-
water ponds and floating net-cages. The success of carp
30
culture in these water bodies is based on intensive artificial
feeding. In 1973, production of cultured carp in Japan was, 825
O
in total, 26 344 tons. Such increased production is the
result of the use of nutritious artificial pellet diets, auto-
matic feeders and aerators. Furthermore, high production 120
i/>
of carp helped reach consumers in large cities away from
it D
O
the producing districts. With a steep rise in national in-
15
come, people indulged in a diversity of eating habits which
resulted also in increased demand for carp as a different
food.
vested in the autumn. Since 1954, many irrigation ponds which is one to two years of age at the time of stocking is
have been utilized for carp culture by intensive artificial 150 g. The fish are fed intensively 15 to 20 times a day. In
feeding. In 1973, 11 566 tons of carp were harvested from autumn, these fish reach an average weight of about 800 g.
3 300 ha of irrigation ponds a production of about 3-5 The net production of carp in running water is 100-200 kg/
tons/ha. This is about 44%
of the total cultivated carp crop m 2
Some examples of carp culture in running-water ponds
.
equipped with wire netting to prevent the escape offish. The THE RESUITS OF CARP CULTURE IN RUNNING-WATER PONDS 1
majority of the ponds are provided with floating piers for Number of ponds I
feeding and with aeration pumps. In almost all cases, the
2
water in these irrigation ponds is standing, and usually the Area (m ) 47 42 28 89
Stockedfish
quantity and quality of the water decreases during the dry Total weight (kg) 700 413 289 700
season. Average body weight (g) 82-5 82-5 82-5 82-5
Harvested fish
Fingerlings for stocking are produced in small fishponds
Total weight (kg) 10314 4313 3 000 8636
of about 0-5-1-0 ha which have been fertilized with 41-1
Feed efficiency (%) 37-8 38-5 37-5
chicken droppings. The fingerlings are kept in these ponds
1
Data from Chiba (1965)
until spring of the second or following year when they
mentary feeding are over 20 times those in Japanese carp most cases but even if the pond does have a partially fluvial
culture without supplementary feeding. Typical examples condition, the rate of water renewal is very slow. In April,
of the results of carp culture in irrigation ponds are given in one-year-old fingerlings having an average weight of 80-
Table I. The survival rate of carp stocked in irrigation 120 g are stocked in the ponds at a density of 0- 5- 1 -0 fish/
ponds varies from 50 to 85% while feed efficiency varies m 2
Intensive feeding with pelleted artificial feed or silk-
.
from 50 to 75%. worm pupae continued until harvest in autumn. The rate
is
1234
IN g.
PREFECTURE 1
Number of ponds In other words, the culture techniques and harvest rates
in small fishponds are almost the same as those in irrigation
ponds. Running-water carp-culture ponds are generally They are fed intensively four to five times a day. The carp
m
20- 100 2 in area and about 1 5 m
deep. The inflow rate of grow to a weight of about 800 g and are harvested at the
164
rate of 20-50 kg/m 3 Feed efficiency is about 70%, and
.
usingsome races of Japanese common carp, such as the
survival rate is about 90%. Examples of this type of carp widely cultivated yamato carp, the mirror carp, and the
culture are given in Table III. German scaled carp, transplanted from Europe in 1968.
In 1973, the annual production of carp in net-cages in The survival rate, growth rate, feed conversion efficiency
Japan was of the order of 5 749 tons, fc, 21-8% of the total and morphological characteristics of these races were com-
production of the country's carp culture fishery. The pro- pared. The fish were cultivated under three different envi-
duction according to major prefectures was: Ibaragi, 53-1; ronmental conditions: (/) in running-water ponds with
Nagano, 17-6; and Shiga, 7-6%. artificialfeeding; (//) in standing-water ponds with artificial
feeding; and (Hi) in fertilized ponds without artificial feed-
TABLE III
THE RESULTS OF CARP CULTURE IN FLOATING NET-CAGES IN LAKE ing. It was found that mirror carp had a higher growth rate
Area (m ) 2
SUWA
Number of net-cages
1
123
81 81 13-2
as well as a greater feed efficiency than the yamato
carp
under all three environmental conditions. However, the
survival rate in mirror carp was remarkably low as com-
pared to that of yamato carp because it is highly susceptible
Stocked fish
to Gyrodactylus infection
up to age one.
Total weight (kg) 238-5 205 91
Average body weight (g) 48-6 50 121 Our
next experiment was to obtain hybrid progenies
Harvested fish which have economical characters of both parental races.
Total weight (kg) 4077 2546 764
Average body weight (g) 927 740 1031 F, hybrids were artificially produced from 10 combinations
Feed efficiency (%) 72-7 63-6 71-8 between races of Japanese and German carps. One-month-
Survival rate (%) 89-8 84-6 97-7
old fry, weighing 3-5 g, in each hybrid combination were
1
Data from Kunhara (1967) cultivated for 10 months at a controlled water temperature
of 26 (1)C. A hybrid combination between female
3.5 Recirculation systems
yamato carp and male mirror carp showed definite heter-
In the recirculating tank method the water that has been osis, fe, the growth rate of F! hybrids was much higher than
used for fish culture circulates from the fish tank through in eitherof the parents (Fig. 3). Furthermore, their survival
gravel filters and is aerated before being returned to the rate was not only
better than that of mirror carp but also
tank. Fish are fed intensively with artificial feeds. The fish
slightly higher than that of yamato carp. A 10 month
faeces are decomposed by the bacteria which develop on the
rearing of FI hybrids showed a higher rate of feed conver-
gravel surfaces. This method of fish culture has not yet sion efficiency than either of the parent races. The average
become popular in Japan, because of the high cost of the value of feed conversion efficiency of the Ft generation was
equipment and the necessity of using specialized 85-8% against 79-8% in yamato and 82% in mirror carp
technicians. (Table IV). In other words, crossing of yamato carp with
Mr. Motokawa's Fish Farm in Takasaki City, Gunma mirror carp increased the feed efficiency at the average rate
Prefecture, is well known for its excellent results with carp of 6%. If all Japanese farmers were to cultivate such F l
165
TABLE IV
RESULTS OF A 10 MONTH CULTURE OF F, HYBRIDS BETWEEN YAMATO AND GERMAN CARPS AND THEIR PARENTAL RACES
Yamato 9
x Yamato c? 482-0 79-8 80-0
x Mirror c? 855-5 85-8 84-4 457-6
x German scaled cT 738-2 84-3 77-7 + 56-2
Mirror 9
x Mirror $ 603-8 82-0 72-5
German scaled 9
x German scaled c? 463-2 77-2 76-3
be reduced by about 3 000 tons a year. This figure was the rivers. It has recently been claimed that carp culture in
calculated on the basis that the total production of common floating net-cages is responsible for eutrophication in lakes
carp cultured in Japan is 26 000 tons a year and feed Suwa and Kasumigaura. In future, the number of cages and
conversion efficiency 70%. their stocking with fish in these lakes must be regulated on
Similar useful F, hybrids were obtained by crossing the basis of the lake's water quality.
female yamato and male German scaled carp. In the future
it is planned to cultivate F, hybrids of yamato, mirror and 5 References
German scaled carps in several Japanese farms. CHIBA, K. Studies on the carp culture in running water pond. 1. Fish
1965 production and its environmental conditions in a certain fish
Farm in Gunma Prefecture. Bull. Freshwat. Fish. Res. Lab.,
4.2 Pollution by fish culture pond drainage 15(1): 13-33
In fish culture with intensive feeding, pollution problems HICKLING, C. F. Fish culture. 2nd Ed. Revised. London, Faber and
1971 Faber, 31 7 p.
ocfcur from pond drainage. The outflowing water contains JAPAN, MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY. Annual report of
abundant wastes from the fish which raise the biological 1973 catch statistics on fishery and aquaculture Tokyo, Association
of Agriculture and Forestry Statistics
oxygen demand of rivers and lakes. In irrigation ponds, it is KAWAJIRI, M. Fish culture as a sideline. Osaka, Fuminsha
common to observe that the upper water layer has an 1951
abundance of phytoplankton while the lower layer contains KURIHARA, N. Culture of the carp in floating net-cage. Y6gyo-koza.
1967 Carp Tokyo, Midorishpb6, pp. 70-143
1
decomposing organic matter. When the fish are harvested in TOMINAGA, M. Culture of carp in irngation ponds. Y6gyo-koza. 1.
the autumn, the water from such ponds is drained off into 1967 Carp. Tokyo, Midorishob6, pp. 144-65
Elevage de TUapia mossambica males produits par inversion artifictelle hormigon con 30 ug de metiltestosterona por cada gramo de pienso
du sexc durante dos, tres y cuatro semanas. Los peces testigo se sembraron en
Resume estanques de 0, 1 hectareas a razon de 10 000/ha y 20 000/ha, mientras
Des experiences ont etc rcalisees a trois fins: comparer la production et la los peces tratados se echaron en estanques a razon de 10000/ha,
stunted growth. Three methods have been demonstrated to Ponds were fertilized with ammonium phosphate (16-
be effective in producing faster-growing male tilapia and 20-0) on platforms at a rate of 50 kg/ha biweekly. Water
eliminating reproduction. These methods are monosex cul- depth was maintained at 60-70 cm. The experiment was
ture (Hickling, 1968), hybridization (Hickling, 1960) and terminated after 90 culture-days. At the end 100 fish per
sex reversal (Clemens and Inslee, 1968; Guerrero, 1975). pond were randomly selected and individually sexed and
Clemens and Inslee (1968) induced functional sex rever- weighed. The large fish were counted and the number of
sal of XX
females in Tilapia mossambica with treatment of juveniles from reproduction were estimated in each pond.
30 fig methyltestosterone per gramme of feed for 69 days. To determine the cost of sex reversal treatment, the
Guerrero (unpublished data) obtained 100% male T. mos- expenses for feed, solvent and hormone needed to produce
sambica by treating sexually undifferentiated fry with 1 000 treated fry were computed. Other costs such as
30 \ig methyltestosterone per gramme feed for 37 days. labour, water, fertilizer, depreciation of equipment and
Experiments were conducted to (/) compare production
:
electricity were not included.
and reproduction of methyltestosterone treated and un-
treated fish at different stocking rates in fertilized ponds, (//) 3 Results and discussion
to determine the effectiveness of methyltestosterone admin- A summary of the production of control and methyltestos-
istered at varying durations for inducing sex reversal of T. terone-treated T. mossambica is presented in Table I. It is
mossambica fry, and (7) to determine the cost of sex evident that hormone-treated fish yielded higher standing
reversal treatment. crops than the controls at corresponding stocking rates.
Treated fish stocked at 10 000/ha and 20 000/ha attained
marketable size (weight = 50 g) after 90 days of culture
2 Experimental procedure while control fish at similar rates did not. These findings
Approximately 1 5 000 T. mossambica fry, measuring 9- indicate growth superiority and yield advantage of treated
1 1 mmtotal length, were collected from a concrete breed- fish over untreated ones. Recovery rates of treated and
ing pool. Fry were given static prophylactic treatment of control fish stocked at the same time appeared to be
1% NaCl for 30 minutes prior to counting and stocking in comparable.
ten 2501 circular tanks inside a building. In the pond stocked with 20 000/ha of fish treated with
The aerated tanks were each stocked with 1 500 fry. Ten MT-30 for three weeks, 898 T. mossambica and 714 T.
batches of fry were treated as follows: three were given feed zillii were recovered.
Fry of T. zillii were inadvertently
without hormone, four were given feed treated with 30 ng mixed with those of T. mossambica during treatment and at
of methyltestosterone (MT-30) per gramme feed (40% fine stocking. Sex reversal treatment did not seem effective for
rice bran, 30% tilapia flour, 30% brewer's yeast) for four T. zillii, and the only juveniles found were T. zillii.
weeks, two were treated with MT-30 for three weeks, and Data presented in Table II show that the highest percent-
one batch was treated with MT-30 for two weeks. age of males was achieved with methyltestosterone treat-
Fry were fed at rates of 3% of body weight given four ment for four weeks. The percentage of males decreased
times daily six days a week for the first two weeks and 2*5% with shortening of the treatment period. The results indicate
of body weight four times daily for the last two weeks. that a treatment period of four weeks is sufficient to produce
Water in the tanks was replaced every two days. Fry in at least 95% males under the conditions of the experiment.
each tank were sampled weekly to adjust the feeding rate. Guerrero (1975) obtained 97% and 100% males respec-
An indefinite prophylactic treatment using 1% NaCl was tively, through treatment with methyltestosterone and ethy-
carried out every week to control Trichodina sp. nyltestosterone at 30 ^/g feed for 1 8 days in T. aurea.
After two weeks, three weeks and four weeks of MT-30 Effectiveness of the sex reversal treatment is apparently
treatment, fish were stocked in five 0- 1 ha ponds as follows: influenced by potency of the hormone, duration of treat-
one pond with 1 000 fish treated with MT-30 for four ment, treatment conditions and species. The estimated
weeks, one with 1 520 fish treated for four weeks, one with number of T. mossambica juveniles from reproduction was
3 000 fish treated for four weeks, one with 1 000 fish greatest among the controls while lowest and absent in the
treated for two weeks, and one with 2 000 fish treated for groups treated with MT-30 for four and three weeks.
TABLE I
A SUMMARY OF STOCKING, RFCOVERY AND PRODUCTION DATA FOR TREATED AND CONTROL GROUPS OF Tilapia mossambica CULTURED FOR 90 DAYS
167
TABLE II The computed cost for feed, solvent (alcohol) and
PER CENT MALE AND ESTIMATED NUMBER OF JUVFNILES FROM REPRO-
DUCTION OF Tilapia mossambica CULTURED IN SEVEN PONDS methyltestosterone to treat 1 000 fry for four weeks was
US$ 0-84. This suggests the economic feasibility of apply-
ing the sex reversal method on a commercial scale.
4 References
CLEMENS, H. P. & INSLEE, T. The production of unisexual broods of
1968 Tilapia mossambica sex-reversed with methyltestosterone.
Trans. Am. Fish. Soc., 97: 18-21
GUERRERO, R. D. Use of oral androgens for the production of all-male
1975 Tilapia aurea (Steindachner). Trans. Am. Fish. Soc., 104: 342-8
HICKLING, C. F. The Malacca tilapia hybrids. J. Genet. , 57- 1 -10
fl
Four-week treatment 1960
b
Three-week treatment HICKLING, C. F. The farming offish. New York, Pergamon Press, 88 p.
f
Two-week treatment 1968
Abstract dos; 200 por estanque, con piensos granulados; 200 por estanque, con
Tilapia aurea were cultured for 1 14 days in 2-7 x 7-3 x 0-76 (0-002 m piensos no granulados de la misma composition y 1 00 por estanque con
;
ha) concrete ponds. Triplicated treatments included T. aurea stocked at: piensos granulados. Se ahmento a los peces diariamente, durante 6 dias a
400/pond and fed pelleted feed; 200/pond with pelleted feed; 200/pond la semana, en proporciones que variaron del 5 al 2% de su peso corporal.
with non-pelleted feed of the same formulation; and 100/pond with Se tomaron muestras de los peces a intervalos de 4 semanas, para
pelleted feed. Fish were fed daily, six days/week, at rates varying from 5 reajustar las cantidades de alimentos. Se llenaron todos los estanques
con
to 2% of body weight. Fish were sampled at four-week intervals for agua de pozo, aireandolos con un ventilador de 5 hp. Solo se anadio agua
adjustment of feeding allowance. All ponds were filled with well water, para sustituir las perdidas debidas a evaporation y filtraciones.
which was aerated with 5 hp air blower. Additional water was only added El rendimiento medio neto y la conversion de alimentos fueron,
to replace losses due to evaporation and seepage. respectivamente, en los cuatro tratamientos: 17307 kg/ha y 1,56;
Average net yields and feed conversions were equivalent to 17 307 12 151 kg/hay 1,14; 10 561 kg/hay l,27;y 9 998 kg/hay 0,92. Con la
kg/ha and 1-56, 1 2 1 5 1 kg/ha and 1-14, 10581 kg/ha and 1-27, and densidad mas elevada, el rendimiento fue notablemente mayor que en los
9998 kg/ha and 0-92 for the four treatments respectively. Yield with the demas ensayos, pero la conversion de alimentos fue notablemente peor.
higher stocking density was significantly greater than in all other treat- La diferencia de rendimiento neto y conversion de alimentos en los dos
ments, but feed conversion was significantly poorer. Differences between ensayos con piensos granulados y no granulados no fue significativa. El
net yields and feed conversions of the two treatments with pelleted and promedio de formas juveniles obtenidas en los cuatro ensayos fue,
non-pelleted feed were not significant. Average numbers of young respectivamente, 38383,99 146,149 188y 222 942 por ha. El numero
produced in the four treatments were equivalent to 38383, 99146, de formas juveniles conseguido en los dos ensayos de 200 tilapia/
149 188 and 222 942/ha for the four treatments respectively. The estanque no mostro diferencia significativa, pero la media general de los
numbers of young produced in the two treatments stocked with 200 ensayos revelo que el empleo de alimentos no granulados resulta mejor
tilapia/pond were not significantly different, but the overall treatment para la supervivencia y la production de alevines.
means indicated that the non-pelleted form of feed was more conducive
to fry survival and production.
1
1 Introduction
ErTcts de la forte densite et de la forme de I aliment sur la reproduction et
le reiufament de Ttiapia aurea The culture potentials of the tilapias (Cichlidae) have not
Resume been fully realized, mainly because of inadequate systems
On a procede a 1'clevage de Tilapia aurea pendant 1 14 jours dans des of population control (Hickling, 1962). Tilapia aurea
bassins en beton de 2,7x7,3x0,76 m (6,002 ha). Des traitements
triples ont etc appliques aux stocks ci-apres: 400 tilapias par bassm
accepts a variety of feeds, and makes efficient gains in
nourris avec des granules; 200 tilapias par bassin nourris avec des ponds supplemented with agricultural by-products (Bayne,
granules et 200 par bassin dont la nourriture de meme fomulation n 'etait Dunseth and Garcia-Ramirios, 1976; Garcia-Ramirios
pas granulee; 100 tilapias par bassin nourris avec des granules.
efTectuee une fois par jour et six jours par semaine, a
and Bayne, 1974). Limited data are available on growth of
L'alimentatipn etait
des taux variant de 5-2% de poids vif. Le poisson etait echantillonne a 4 T. aurea cages and ponds when fed high quality pelleted
in
semaines d'intervalle aux fins d'ajustement de la ration alimentaire. Tous
les bassins etaient remplis d'eau de pluie, aeree avec un ventilateur d'une
fish feeds (Pagan, 1975). This report describes studies on
puissance de 5 hp. On n'a ajoute d'eau que pour compenser les pertes high density culture of T. aurea in aerated concrete ponds
dues a ("evaporation et a 1' infiltration. and fed a formulated fish feed either in pelleted or non-
Les rendcments nets et les taux de conversion alimentaire ont atteint
pelleted form.
17307kg/haet 1,56; 12 151 kg/ha et 1,14; 10581 kg/ha et 1,27; et
9 998 kg/ha et 0,92 pour les quatre traitements respectivement. Avec la
densite dc peuplement la plus elevee le rendement etait notamment plus
2 Materials and methods
eleve qu'avec tous les autres modes de traitement, mais le taux de
conversion etait nettement inferieur. Les ecarts entre rendements nets et 2. 1 Experimental ponds and treatments
taux de conversion des deux traitements avec ou sans granules etaient Twelve concrete ponds each measuring 2- 74 x 7- 3 1 x 0- 76
insignifiants. Le nombre moyen de juveniles produits avec les quatre
traitements etait de 38 383, 99 146, 149 1 88 et 222 942 par ha pour les
m and containing 15-3 m 3 of water were used in the
quatre modes de traitement respectivement. Le nombre de jeunes produit experiment. Each pond had a surface area of 0-002 ha.
par les deux traitements appliques aux bassins peuples de 200 tilapias ne
Approximately 15% of the surface area of all ponds was
presentait guere de difference, mais la moyenne globale indiquait que la
forme d 'alimentation non-granulee est plus favorable a la survie et a la covered with water hyacinths, Eichhornia crassipes. The
production des alevins. following four treatments with three stocking densities,
each replicated three times, were used:
Efectosdelcr(taluclemW^yformacUalimentoenlareproduccJ6n
y reftdimtefrto de Tiapia mire* Treatment 1 400 tilapia/pelleted feed
Extracto 200
Treatment 2 tilapia/pelleted feed
Se cultivo Tilapia aurea durante 1 14 dias en estanques de hormigon de
2,7 x 7,3 xO,76 m
(0,002 ha). Se utilizaron las siguientes concentra-
Treatment 3 200 tilapia/non-pelleted feed
ciones de T. aurea: 400 por estanque, alimentadas con piensos granula- Treatment 4 100 tilapia/pelleted feed.
168
Treatments 2 and 3 were identical with regard to stock- ment 1 with the
highest stocking density, where dissolved
ing density but in the former the fish were fed pelleted feed oxygen dropped to 0-4 ppm on 10 July. Supplemental
and in the latter a powder form of the formulation. Treat- aeration was provided and a reduction in feeding rates from
ments were applied in blocks without randomization since 5% body weight to 3% body weight was effected. Feeding
the contiguous ponds were uniform and environmental rate in other treatments was reduced accordingly. The
variations were considered negligible. relatively poor conversion, compared to 1-27, 1-14, and
0-92 for the treatments with lower denisities, was probably
2.2 Water supply due to the deterioration' in water quality.
The water used in this experiment came from deep wells. Harvestable-sized fish (greater than 13 cm) comprised
The water level was maintained at approximately 0-76 m, 98*8% of the yield in Treatment 1, compensating in large
and water lost due to evaporation and leakage was replaced part for the inefficient feed conversion. In the other treat-
whenever necessary. ments, harvestable-sized fish were 93-2% (Treatment 2),
91-9% (Treatment 3), and 80-6% (Treatment 4). Decreas-
2.3 Stocking offish ing proportion of harvestable fish was concomitant with
Fingerling Tilapia aurea with an average weight of 1 3- 6 1 g decreasing food quotient (increasing feed conversion effi-
were stocked 10 June 1974 at rates approximating 25- 1 1, ciency). The more efficient feed conversions may be attrib-
3
13-08, and 6-54 fish/m . uted to better water quality, since feeding rates for Treat-
ments 2, 3 and 4 were significantly lower than those for
2.4 Feeding Treatment 1. A further possible explanation is that the
Fish were fed a maintenance diet between the stocking date lowered standing crop offish in the former three treatments
and 17 June 1974, at which time a feeding programme of had more natural food to ingest along with the supplemen-
5% of the body weight fed daily six days per week was tal Auburn 4 (35% protein), thus better balancing their
intervals for adjustment of feed allowance. The feed formu- significant benefit to feed conversion for catfish and carp if
lation in all treatments was Auburn 4, containing 35% the feedstuff is pelleted. Large yields of tilapia have been
protein. Treatments 1, and 4 received sinking pellets and
3 reported from South Africa (Hickling, 1962) when only
Treatment 2 received a powder form of the same mill floor sweepings of finely ground grains were added to
formulation. ponds, but there have been no documented studies on the
value of pelleting feeds for tilapia. Table I shows compara-
2.5 Aeration tive results for Treatment 2 (sinking pellet) and Treatment
All replications were aerated, beginning 1 July 1 9 74, by a 3 (powdered form of the same feed formulation). Mean
Sutobuilt Rotary Positive Blower, Model 3H powered by a yield and feed conversion were about 10% better in Treat-
5 hp Westinghouse electric motor and rated to supply ment 2 than in Treatment 3, but statistically there was no
approximately 0- 35 m per minute. The 1 2 concrete ponds
3
difference (P <0-05) in either parameter.
received approximately 1/3 of the blower output It was not This finding is of practical significance to those who wish
possible to determine the precise rate of air flow per pond to culture T. aurea and who are considering the acquisition
since the same blower supplied air to a number of experi- of a pelleting machine on the supposition that pelleting
mental units. feedstuffs is necessary for efficient utilization of food.
3.3 Reproduction
3 Results and discussion Reproductive success for T. aurea at the three stock popu-
3. 1 Yields and feed conversion lation densities is summarized in Table I. An inverse
Net yields and feed conversions resulting from all experi- was evident between the stock density and the
relationship
mental treatments are presented in Table I. Treatment 1 number of young produced. As the stock increased from
2 2
(400 fish) produced the equivalent of 1 7 307 kg/ha, signifi- approximately 2 pairs/m to 10 pairs/m in the concrete
cantly greater (P < 0-05) than the other three treatments. ponds, the average number of young produced per pair
There were no significant (P < 0-05) differences among the decreased from 9-02 to 0- 39. There were significant differ-
three treatments with lower densities, although the mean ences (P<0-05) among these means according to stock
'
yield of Treatment 2 (200 fish) was 21% greater than density. However, there was no significant difference
Treatment 4 (100 fish). (P <0-05) between Treatment 2 (200 fish, pelleted feed)
Feed conversion efficiency was poorest ( 1 56) in Treat- and Treatment 3 (200 fish, powdered feed). Even so, the
TABLE I
MEAN NET YIELDS, FEED CONVERSION AND REPRODUCTIVE SUCCESS OF Tilapia aurea IN 0-002 HA CONCRETE PONDS AT STOCK DENSITIES OF 100, 200
AND 400 PER POND
169
treatment means indicated that the non-pelleted form of 197 680/ha, at which level growth of the stock proceeds at
feed was more conducive to survival and production of a satisfactory rate.
young.
d'Ars, He de Re (France)
Resume escala semi-intensiva. Para lograr una produccion en gran escala sera
Un essai d'elevage intensif de truites (Salmo gairdneri) en eau de mer a necesario mstalar estaciones de bombeo.
etc tente dans le cadre du developpement de Paquaculture dans Tile de
Re.
Si Ton ne depend pour la circulation de 1'eau que de I'effet de maree, 1 Introduction
seul 1'elevage semi-intensif de truite associee a d'autres especes sera
possible. En vue d'une production plus intensive et a une plus grande
Le Fier d'Ars est une bale tres abritee, communiquant avec
cchelle, le pompage de 1'eau devient indispensable. la mer par un etroit goulet (Fig. 1). Les conditions geo-
Trout culture in iea water in the Fier d'Ars, Island of Re (France) graphiques favorables, ainsi que Pensoleillement import-
Abstract ant, ont favorise 'exploitation de salines qui, a 1'heure
1
Intensive raising of trout (Salmo gairdneri} in sea water on a trial basis actuelle, sont en forte regression, en raison du caractere
was started as part of the programme for development of aquaculture in artisanal de cette activite, concurrencee par les grosses
the He de Re.
If only tidal movements have to be depended upon for water circula- entreprises mecanisees de la Mediterranee. Les marais
tion, only raising of trout along with other species on a semi-intensive salants couvrent une surface d'environ 1 100 ha, dont 1 70
scale will be possible. If more intensive large-scale production is to be
carried out, will be necessary. seulement sont en production. Une partie des marais
pumping
desaffectes a etc reconvertie en paturage ( 1 50 ha). Excepte
Cultivo dc truchas en agua de mar en el Fier d'Ars, He de Re (Francia)
une centaine d 'hectares en vases, pres de 800 ha restent
Extracto
Como parte de los trabajos de desarrollo de la acuicultura se ha realizado done inutilises.
en He de Re un ensayo de cria intensiva de truchas (Salmo gairdneri} en Le circuit hydraulique dans les marais salants se resume
aguas marinas.
Si se tuviese que depender unicamente de la circulation del agua, solo
ainsi: 1'eau retenue, au moment
des grandes marees, dans
seria posible la cria de trucha conjuntamente con otras cspccies en una des reservoirs endigues (vasieres) est ensuite acheminee par
chrttel/IOOOOO
170
un circuit complique, qui permet a 1'eau de se rechaufifer, tent 1'auto-nettoyage;
vers les "oeillets" ou
se produit la cristallisation du sel. Ces (c) Les
manipulations necessaires (tris et prises
oeillets separes par des talus de quelques centimetres de d'echantillons) sont pratiquement impossibles dans un
haut sont groupes par ensembles d'une surface de quelques grand bassin.
hectares. Cette infrastructure hydraulique ne demande, Ces deux couloirs sont divises par des grilles qui delimi-
pour etre adaptee a Faquaculture que des modifications tent six bassins de 60 m. Les bassins sont situes le long d'un
reservoir de 8 500 m qui sert d'exutoire. En effet, le chenal
3
reduites.
Le plan d'amenagement a done etc modele sur le terrain d 'evacuation n 'etant pas refait, le canal d'amenee est utilise
en place, c'est-a-dire: (/) 1'elevage intensif (poissons, crus- a maree descendante pour rejeter 1'eau emmagasinee a
taces, coquillages) dans les marais salants proprement dit; maree haute. Le fond de ce reservoir etant a + 0,70 m ngf
(//) 1'elevage semi-intensif de poissons ou elevages de co- une fosse a ete creusee pour permettre I'assechement des
quillages suspendus dans les reservoirs. bassins si besoin est.
par le jeu de la maree. marees. Le schema (Fig. 2) montre les hauteurs atteintes
pendant une periode de 3 mois, en fonction des coefficients.
2 Amenagements et fonctionnement hydraulique Une coupe schematique des bassins y figure, permettant de
2.1 Installations determiner pour quelles valeurs du coefficient de maree
Elles comprennent: I'alimentation gravitaire sera deficiente. En fait, cette evalu-
(/) Deux reservoirs couvrant une superficie de 2-5 ha ation n'est qu'approximative, car la hauteur de Teau est
( 1 6 000 + 9 000 m 2 ) communiquant par une buse de 30 cm egalement fonction des conditions meteorologiques (vent).
de diametre. L 'entree d'eau dans ces reservoirs se fait par un On notera egalement qu'on ne peut clever le niveau dans les
moine de 0,80 m de large communiquant avec le chenal. Le reservoirs au-dela de la cote + 1,50 m
ngf pour eviter le
fond de ces bassins est situe a la cote variant entre 0,50 et batillement.
0,60 m ngf. En tenant compte des pertes de charge dans les buses (4
(//) Deux
couloirs d'elevage longs de 1 80 m, alimentes a cm en tout pour un debit de 300 mVh), il faut maintenir
partir de la reserve par une buse de 30 cm de diametre. Ces Teau dans les reservoirs a la cote + 1, 10 m ngf pour assurer
bassins, larges de 2 m
a la base et 5 m
au sommet ont ete un debit minimum de 300 rnVha. La baisse de niveau dans
constructs en terre. Les ouvrages d'entree et de sortie en les reservoirs est de 1,2 cm par heure, soit pour la duree
magonnerie permettent de regler le niveau d'eau. d'une maree environ 15 cm. Le flot doit done remplir la
Cette forme allongee a ete choisie pour plusieurs raisons: reserve a la cote 1,25 m ngf, ce qui est realise pour tous les
(a) Un essai anterieur, pratique dans un bassin rectangu- coefficients superieurs a 80. Pour les coefficients inferieurs
laire (40 x 20 m) a montre que, pour une densite d'elevage a 45, Talimentation devra etre assuree par pompage: entre
compatible avec le debit disponible, les truites trop disper- ces valeurs, la solution mixte doit etre retenue, en fonction
sees ne se regroupaient pas lors du nourrissage; des hauteurs d'eau reelles. Selon les donnees obtenues, on
(b) Etant donne la largeur de ce bassin, le courant peut prevoir un fonctionnement de la pompe a mi-temps
s'etablissait au centre; par contre les bassins etroits facili- pendant cette periode.
1
Fig 2. Hauteur de 1'eau aux Stales de pleine mer 'Prise de la clef des moulins' du 29 octobre 1973 Janvier 1974
171
pompant une eau saumatre dans un chenal voisin. La les reservoirs ont montre que des le mois de juin les
pompc utilisec ( 1 30 mVh) rejctait Peau en tete d'un bassin temperatures atteignaient 23C. Les maxima du mois
de 60 m. Le melange avec 1'eau de mer etait obtenu en d'aout se situaient a 26C. II parait done impossible de
ouvrant progressivement le circuit normal d'alimentation. poursuivre Pelevage pendant Pete dans ces bassins.
Le pH est reste constamment compris entre 7,7 et 8,0
durant Pexperience.
3 Elcvagc
3.1 Mise en place de I'essai 3.3 Resultats
Un premierlot (200 kg) constitue d'individus nes pendant (/) Lot No. 1.
ITiiver 1972-73 a etc mis dans de 1'eau a salinite faible Ce lot, truites de deux ans, est tres heterogene:
compose de
(18% ) le 4 decembre. Le passage a Peau de mer (32% )
poids extremes de 60 et 1 90 g pour un poids moyen de
s'est effectue en une semaine. Parallelement, un autre lot 124,5 g.
provenant de la meme population a etc place en eau douce; Lors de la mise a Peau, la salinite etait de 18% Ce .
le passage en eau de mer a etc obtenu par une augmentation chiffre est monte les jours suivants de facon reguliere, pour
progressive du taux de salinite durant 1 5 jours. atteindre 32% le 12 decembre. Les mortalites enregis-
Le lot suivant a etc divise en deux parties; les essais ont trees ont ete relativement elevees (5,8%). Excepte le pre-
debute: (/) le 10 decembre (350 kg); le passage a 1'eau de mier jour ou la mortalite a uniquement affecte de petites
mer a dure une semaine; (//) le 18 decembre (650 kg); le truites, toute la mortalite enregistree a ete le fait de males
passage a 1'eau de mer a dure 2 jours. matures. Par contre, il faut noter que sur les individus de
Le lot a ensuite ete regroupe, puis reparti egalement dans meme origine, adaptes progressivement de Peau douce a
deux bassins. D'autre part, un petit lot a ete mis a part, a Peau de mer lors de Pessai effectue sur la Seudre, aucune
Pentree des bassins, et nourri avec un aliment non mortalite n'a ete observee du 8 novembre au 3 decembre.
1
Les temperatures sont restees comprises entre et 9C allant du rose pale au saumon clair. Le 15 Janvier par
1 3C pendant tout le mois de decembre. Ces conditions ont contre, on peut considerer que Pensemble de la population,
ete favorables a Pelevage. II n'est pas exclu que par temps sauf exception, a acquis une coloration "saumon" nette et
froid la croissance subisse un
Palimentation
retard, uniforme.
s'interrompant a des temperatures de 1'eau inferieures a (//) Lot No. 2
8C. Ce lot est compose de truites de Pannee. La mise a Peau s'est
Le taux d'oxygene a Pentree des bassins est toujours reste effectuee en deux fois: 350 kg le 11 decembre et 650 kg le
voisin de la saturation quelque soit 1'heure de la mesure (9- 18 decembre, les echantillons preleves ont montre des
1 1
ppm suivant la temperature). Pour un debit de 3 50 nvYh, distributions identiques. La population est plus homogene
le taux d'oxygene, mesure a des bassins, variait
la sortie que dans le premier lot et le poids moyen est superieur ( 1 40
entre 7,6 et 7,9 ppm, pour une valeur a Pentree de 9,2 ppm, g). Les poids extremes sont 100 g et 195 g. Sur la premiere
soit une chute de 1,5 ppm environ; la charge lors des partie du lot, on a effectue un passage progressif a Peau de
mesures est evaluee a 1 400 kg. mer. La salinite initiale etait de 26% La salinite de Peau de
.
En admettant un taux d'oxygene minimum de 6 ppm, on mer (33 % ) a ete atteinte regulierement en huit jours sans
peut grossierement evaluer la capacite de ces installations a qu'on ait eu a noter de mortalite notable.
3 000 kg dans les conditions donnees (debit 350 mVh Pour la deuxieme partie du lot, le passage a la salinite
taux d'oxygene initial 9,2 ppm). II est vraisemblable que le maximale n'a dure que deux jours, mais aucune perte n'a ete
rechauffement de Peau au printemps provoquera directe- enregistree.
ment une baisse du taux de saturation et indirectement une Du 18 decembre 1974 au 15 Janvier 1975, chaque lot a
consommation d'oxygfene par algues dans les reservoirs,
les regu 206 kg d'aliments.
ce qui contribuera a diminuer la quantite d'oxygene dispon- Les echantillons preleves le 15 Janvier n'ont pas montre de
ible et obligera par consequent soit a augmenter le debit, ce difference significative de croissance; la distribution est
qui impose une installation de pompage plus importante en identique et le poids moyen tres voisin, soit: (/) 1 73,9 g et
periode de morte eau, soit a diminuer la charge. un coefficient de conversion egal a 1,70 pour la premiere
Ce rechauffement devient par ailleurs critique pendant la partie du lot; (ft") 175,7 g et un coefficient de conversion
saison chaude. Des mesures faites pendant Pete 1974 dans egal a 1,62 pour la deuxieme partie du lot.
On peut rapprocher ces chiffres de celui obtenu sur les alimentees par pompage, la distribution de 1'eau etant
truites agees de deux ans pour lesquelles le coefficient de assures par gravite en aval.
conversion de 1,83. II semble bien que ies poissons du
etait Le passage de 1'eau douce a 1'eau de mer n'a pas presente
premier de moins bons utilisateur.s de Taliment.
lot soient icide probleme pour les truites agees de moins d'un an, que
Bien qu'il ne soit guere possible de tirer de conclusions ce soit a une salinite reduite (23 % ) ou a une salinite
generates sur la vitesse de croissance apres 25 jours normale (33 % ) et pour des poids compris entre 90 et 200
d'experience, les donnees obtenues sur le deuxieme lot g. Par contre, une mortalite de 5,8% portant uniquement sur
peuvent etre utilisees dans un premier temps comme base de les males matures a etc observee sur le lot de poissons ages
calcul, soit un gain de poids de 34,8 g en 25 jours (ou 1% de deux ans, malgre la salinite reduite (23 % ).
par jour) avec un coefficient de conversion voisin de 1,7. Ce II faut cependant etre prudent dans ces conditions car des
chiffre est une moyenne pour des truites d'un poids initial essais de passages directs effectues par ailleurs ont pro-
moyen car la croissance des individus les plus gros est voque des mortalites importantes de poissons de meme
beaucoup plus rapide. taille. II y a done un probleme a approfondin vraisembla-
Quant a la saumonisation, on ne peut que constater une blement sur les plans physiologique et genetique, quant aux
coloration encore legere. Tous les sujets sont cependant phenomenes lies a 1'adaptation de la truite a 1'eau de mer.
pigmentes, alors qu'un echantillon preleve le 29 decembre Enfin, on peut rapporter ici les resultats obtenus sur une
(1 jours d'elevage) presentait des individus de teinte gen-
1 autre station de Charente-Maritime, ou 1'augmentation pro-
eralement blanche. gressive de salinite de a 32 % n'a cause aucune mortalite,
que ce soit chez des poissons ages de deux ans de meme
provenance que sur l'Ile-de-Re, ou chez des truites de poids
4 Conclusions moyen egal a 90 g.
Du point de vue fonctionnement, les installations utilisees La saumonisation des poissons demande, pour etre assu-
sont tres pratiques, tant du point de vue alimentation des ree d'une coloration homogene, 1'apport de saumonisant
truites que manipulation et surveillance des poissons. Deux pendant une duree minimum de 45 jours; les observations
remarques cependant sont a formuler: d'une part, la bri 14 jours montrent des colorations variant
eflfectuees apres
(argile gris bleu, dans laquelle les bassins sont creuses) du blanc au rose pale; apres 25 jours, les poissons sont
forme au contact de Teau une pellicule limoneuse qui est colores mais d'une maniere irreguliere, quelques individus
mise en suspension lors des mouvements des poissons et en presentant une pigmentation acceptable, les autres se si-
particulier lors du nourrissage; 1'eau se trouble tres rapide- tuant a tous les stades intermediaires; aucune coloration de
ment et peut favor iser la perte d'une partie de 1'aliment, ce la chair n'est apparue sur le lot nourri avec un aliment
des elevages extensifs de poissons, soit pour la conchylicul- de turbidite relate precedemment, peut-etre a un defaut de
ture, il n'est guere possible d'envisager une extension de pratique du pisciculteur. II serait egalement interessant de
1'elevage de la truite en intensif sans pompage. La solution rechercher au niveau de la formulation de 1'aliment si les
la plus satisfaisante dans le cas d'un developpement de cette criteres retenus en eau douce sont transposables a 1'eau de
activite sera certainement la creation de reserves collectives mer.
Resume
Les auteurs font le point des travaux entrepns en France, depuis 1969. Fish breeding in sea water: new results obtained in France with respect
sous 1'egide du CNEXO, pour favonser le developpement d'elevage de to research and development
poissons en eau de mer. Abstract
Les poissons strictement manns relevent encore du seul domame de la The authors sum up the work carried out in France since 969 under the
1
recherche. Malgre quelques resultats interessants au plan de la auspices of CNEXO to encourage the development of sea- water fish
croissance, les travaux sur la daurade doree
(Sparus auratus )et le turbot breeding.
(Scophthalmus maximus) sont encore freines par des difficultes mal Culture of fish which are strictly marine still belongs only to the
surmontees dans 1'elevage larvaire Par contre. un succes recent ouvre research sector. In spite of some interesting results from the point of view
d'interessantes perspectives pour la sole (Solea solea ) tandis que le bar of growth, work on gilthead bream (Sparus auratus) and turbot (Sco-
(Dicemrarchus labrax). parait techniquement pret a passer au stade des phthalmus maxtmus) is still hampered by difficulties which are not easily
essais de developpement. overcome in the culture of larvae. On the other hand, recent successes
Les poissons amphibiotiques ont deja donne lieu a des essais de open interesting prospects for sole (Solea solea\ while culture of sea
production commerciale, avec des resultats variables. Si 1'elevage de bass (Dicemrarchus labrax) seems technically ready to pass to the stage
1'anguille n'a. pour Pinstant. pas abouti. plus de 100 tonnes de truites et of development trials.
de saumons ont pu etre commercialises. Le marchc se presente favorable- Commercial production tests have alreadv been made on euryhaline
ment. mais il reste encore un certain nombre de problemes. tant scienti- fish with varying results. While eel (Anguilla anguilla) culture has not
fiques que techniques, a resoudre avant d'esperer atteindre des produc- yet proved successful, it has been possible to place more than 1 00 tons of
tions comparables a eel les de la Norvege ou des Etats-Unis d'Amerique. trout (Salmo gairdneri) and coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) on the
173
market. Market
prospects
are good, but a number of scientific and scientifiques originales, et sur le plan du developpement par
technical problems have to be solved before yields comparable to
still
those of and the United States can be expected. plus de cent tonnes de production. Certains elements de
Norway
reffort entrepris ont ete decrits anterieurement, soit dans
CuJtivo de pecei en agua de mar: nuevos resuhados obtenMos en des revues plus generates que celle-ci (Laubier, 1974;
Francia relaclonadot con el campo de la inveftigacifa y el desarrollo
Extracto
Danioux dans des documents plus speci-
et a/., 1975), soit
Los autorcs presentan una resena de los trabajos realizados en Francia alises (Girin, 1976; Harache et Novotny, 1976). La
desde 1 969, bajo la egida del CN EXO, para promover el cultivo de peces
presente contribution est done plus particulierement consa-
en aguas marinas.
cree a presenter revolution generate des travaux, et les
La cria de peces estrictamente marines pertenece aun al campo de la
investigacion. A pesar de algunos resultados interesantes desde el punto nouveaux resultats obtenus ces deux dernieres annees.
de vista del crecimicnto, los trabajos sobre la dorada (Spams auratus) y
el rodaballo (Scophthalmus maximus) se ven aun frenados por algunas
general exclue au moins au niveau d'une exploitation im- obtenus sont cependant encore tres variables d'une ponte a
portante. Cela impose soit le choix d'animaux pour lesquels Tautre. L'emploi de sperme conserve dans Pazote liquide
des experiences nationales ou etrangeres aient montre de ne semble pas alterer le taux d'eclosion ou la capacite de
longue date la fiabilite des techniques de production en survie des larves (Billard et Dupont, communication
masse de juveniles, soit le developpement d'une recherche personnelle).
originate dans ce domaine.
D'autre part, les 4 000 km de cotes fran^aises, reparties 2. 1.2 Elevage et alimentation. L'elevage larvaire pose des
entre la Manche, 1'Ocean Atlantique, et la Mer Mediterra- problemes. La metamorphose ne s'acheve qu'appres 8 a 10
nee, offrent une importante variete de conditions d'elevage semaines d'elevage, et si quelques 600 juveniles de 2,5 g
possibles. Les temperatures moyennes de surface, en mer (environ 4 mois a 18C) ont pu etre conditionnes a un
ouverte, varient enmoyenne de 8 a 19C en Atlantique, et aliment compose en 1974, lOseulement 1'onteteen 1975.
de 10 a 22C
en Mediterranee, entre ITiiver et Fete. En Le meilleur taux de survie a ce stade (6%) obtenu dans une
estuaires, ou dans les lagunes cotieres, ces limites peuvent experience de 1973, n'ajamais ete reproduit. Les phases les
etre depassees, dans un sens ou dans 1'autre, de 8 a 10C. plus delicates de 1'elevage semblent se situer entre 10 et 15
La variete geographique des cotes offre aussi bien des jours, au moment de 1'introduction de nauplii d'Artemia
possibility d'elevage en cages, dans des bales protegees ou dans le regime, et entre 40 et 60 jours, au moment de
dans des estuaires, qu'en bassins a terre, ou en lagunes 1'abandon des proies vivantes (a 18C).
littorales. L'absence de concentrations de juveniles dans la nature a
Ces divers elements, souci d 'exploiter au mieux les
et le limite ledeveloppement de nouvelles experiences de nutri-
connaissances disponibles, ont conduit depuis 1969 le tion.Cependant, un test portant sur une centaine d'animaux
Centre National pour Exploitation des Oceans (CNEXO) nes en mai 1 9 74 a permis de mettre en evidence des besoins
a pfomouvoir et encourager des travaux sur diverses es- particuliers en acides gras polyinsatures (^uquet et Gate-
peces de poissons susceptibles d'etre eleves en eau saumatre soupe, communication personnelle), tandis que des experi-
ou marine: daurade doree (Spams auratus), turbot (Sco- ences sur de jeunes animaux mettaient en evidence un
phthalmus maximus), sole (Solea soled), bar (Dicentrar- optimum de croissance pour des journees de 12 h environ
chus labrax), anguille (Anguilla anguilla), truite (Salmo (Lahaye et Deniel, 1976). Une experience de grossissement
gairdneri) et saumons (Salmo salar, Oncorhynchus en bassin, realisee sur quelques 400 poissons de la meme
kisutch). generation, avec un aliment compose presente sous forme
Des progres substantiels ont ete realises, qui se tradu- humide, a permis d'obtenir au bout de 20 mois, dans les
isent, sur le plan de la recherche, par plus de 30 publications conditions de temperature naturelles de la Bretagne, un
174
poids moyen de 350g (Metailler, communication 2.2.3 Resultats. Ces resultats presentent la production
personnelle). d'animaux de commerciale (200 a 300 g)en deux etes
taille
En France, les recherches, apres avoir connu une plus (80 cm de profondeur d'eau). Les quantites recoltees n'ont
grande extension, sont maintenant limitees a la Station de pas encore depasse quelques dizaines de milliers d'oeufs par
Biologic Marine de Sete, 1'ecloserie experimentale de Ma- saison. Des tentatives d'induction de la ponte par injection
guelone, et une societe privee, 1'Association des Compag- de gonadotrophine chorionique n'ont pas donne de resul-
nons de Maguelone.
que 1'injection de progestagene a permis le
tats nets, tandis
La ponte naturelle en captivite n'a pas encore ete declenchement d'une ponte en 1974 (Billard, communica-
obtenue, et 1'obtention des oeufs fecondes repose toujours tion personnelle).
sur Tinduction hormonale de la ponte (gonadotrophine L 'elevage larvaire est relativement facile, et des taux de
chorionique). Mais la constitution de stocks de geniteurs en survie de 60 a 80% apres la metamorphose (3 semaines a
1974 a libere des captures pendant la periode de reproduc- 18C) sont courants.
tion (entre novembre et Janvier). Apres induction de la
ponte, le fecondation naturelle, moins traumatisante, tend a 2.3.2 Elevage et alimentation. Jusqu'en 1 9 75, le verrou de
remplacer la fecondation sauf besoin experimen-
artificielle,
1'elevage se situait au niveau du conditionnement des
tal precis. Dans ce dernier cadre, des experiences de conser-
juveniles a un aliment inerte. La jeune sole se nounrit sur le
vation de sperme dans de 1'azote liquide ont permis fond, lentement, et de preference la nuit, caracteres qui
d'obtenir des fecondations et des larves viables (Billard et rendent ie controle de son alimentation tres difficile. En cas
Dupont, communication personnelle). d'emploi d'un aliment mal apprecie, les animaux peuvent se
maintenir en vie plusieurs semaines, sinon plusieurs mois,
2.2.2 Elevage et alimentation. Depuis 1973, 1'elevage avec une croissance plus ou moins nulle, jusqu'a
larvaire n'a progresse ni sur le plan des taux de sur vie, ni sur 1'apparition d'une mortalite souvent massive. Ils semblent
celui des quantites de juveniles produits (moins de 100 en alors avoir atteint un point de non-retour, refusant meme
1974 et 1975). Dans le meme temps, les experiences de d 'accepter de nouveau des proies vivantes. D'ou la reputa-
nutrition, apres avoir abouti a la realisation d'un aliment tion faite a la sole d'etre un poisson a croissance lente, et
industriel, ont ete interrompues. difficilea maintenir en elevage.
Par contre, 1'emploi de juveniles captures dans la nature La mise aupoint d'un schema de passage progressif de la
a permis de realiser sur la cote mediterraneenne des experi- proie vivante a un aliment compose presente sous forme de
ences de grossissement assez prometteuses (Association granule sec a permis de fournir une solution. La methode
des Compagnons de Maguelone); 10000 juveniles en consiste a remplacer, aux environs de 50 mg (30 a 40 jours
1974, et 7 000 en 1975, captures fin mai, aux environs de a 18C) les Anemia vivantes employees par des Anemia
3 g, ont ete eleves dans trois experiences differentes, a des congelees, auxquelles sont progressivement substitutes des
densites de 2 a 4 individus par m en association avec des
2
, aliments composes. Ces aliments contiennent des appetants
crevettes penaeides. Au mois de decembre, les poids moy- naturels (Anemia^ Polychetes, krill) en proportions
ens variaient de 60 a 85 g, pour des animaux nourris avec decroissantes, pour aboutir aux environs de 2 g (90 a 100
un granule industriel, et libres de le completer a leur guise jours a 18C) a un animal se nourrissant convenablement
avec une partie du crabe broye et des moules ofTerts aux d'un aliment compose normal. Le taux de survie a ce'stade
crevettes. peut dcpasser 15% (Metailler et Girin, 1976).
175
Sur le plan de la nutrition, les exigences en proteines (40 et le controle de la qualite des oeufs obtenus. Des tests de
a 50%) eten lipides (10 a 12%) dans la ration semblent congelation et decongelation de sperme ont etc faits, sans
assez voisines de celles des autres especes etudiees. Pour le qu'il soit possible de realiser des essais de fecondation
grossissement, sauf a tres faibie charge, la presence d'un (Billard et Dupont, communication personnelle). La ponte
fond de sable semble indispensable. La suppression du naturelle en captivite a etc avancee d'un mois en 1 975, et de
sable pendant quelques semaines est possible, mais des deux mois en 1976, sur un lot experimental, par decalage
tentatives plus tongues ont toujours entraine jusqu'a pres- progressif de la photoperiode et de la thermoperiode. Les
ent 1'apparition de mortalites liees a des necroses avec pontes naturelles en capitivite font apparaitre une reduction
infections bacteriennes, qui commencent generalement par progressive de la taille moyenne des oeufs pondus par un lot
la queue bordure des nageoires. Dans un tel cas, la
et la de geniteurs donne au fur et a mesure de Pavancement de sa
therapeutique la plus efficace semble etre un retour rapide saison de ponte, et des differences pouvant aller du simple
sur fond de sable. L'emploi de cette technique a permis au double en volume entre les tallies moyennes des oeufs
d'obtcnir un poids moyen de 1 1 g a Page de 6 mois ( 1 ) 8C pondus par differents lots. Ces differences de taille sem-
pour un lot de 400 animaux, pratiquement sans mortalite blent avoir une influence non negligeable sur la survie des
(Metailler, communication personnelle). L 'utilisation de larves: des taux de survie a un mois variant de 10 a 50% ont
granules classiques se traduisait cependant par ete enregistres dans des conditions d'elevage similaires,
d'importantes pertes de nourriture. Un enrobage du granule pour des oeufs de differentes provenances.
avec une proteine vegetale, assurant une bonne stabilite a
Peau, a recemment permis de reduire ces pertes, sans
affecter la croissance (Gatesoupe et Metailler, communica-
tion personnelle). Une photoperiode fixee aux environs de
1 2 h de jour semble favoriser la croissance (Lahaye et
Deniel, 1976). Un test a petite echelle (400 poissons) de
liberation d'animaux de 500 mg encore habitues a une
nourriture vivante, dans un bassin a fond sablo-vaseux de
m
500 2 , a permis d'obtenir au bout de 4 mois une survie de
15%, avec une croissance similaire a celle observee en
laboratoire.
2.3.3 Resultats. De
caracteristiques conduisent a
telles
concevoir le
grossissement de Pespece, soit en conditions
extensive, sans apport de nourriture, dans des lagunes
cotieres amenages, soit en conditions semi-intensives avec
des methodes, et dans des structures semblables a celles qui Fig 1. Bacs d 'experimentation sur 1'elevage larvaire du bar, de la
sont employees pour les crevettes penaeides. Mais aucun sole, et du turbot, au Centre Oceanologique de Bretagne
par semaine, pendant les 4 a 8 semaines de la saison de (un mois a 18C) taux de survie peuvent depasser
et les
ponte (entre Janvier et avril, suivant les lieux). Chaque 35% pour le poisson de 1 g (trois mois environ a 1 8C). De
equipe pratique le methode la mieux adaptee a ses objectifs ces resultats, et des experiences d'elevage larvaire avec de
et aux possibilites locales: injections hormonales (gonado- Paliment compose realisees par Barnabe (1975 et commu-
trephine chorionique) de geniteurs fraichement peches, ou nication personnelie), il est a prevoir une evolution rapide
maintenus en captivite, avec ou sans fecondation artificielle, vers la suppression plus ou moins totale des proies vivantes.
ou ponte et fecondation naturelles en captivite. En nutrition, Petude des besoins alimentaires de poissons
Les travaux sur la ponte s'orientent maintenant vers la de quelques centaines de milligrammes a quelques grammes
conservation des gametes, le decalage de la saison de ponte a montre que des differences tres legeres dans les formules
176
des aliments peuvent jouer de fagon considerable, non conduit a limiter 1'elevage a la periode octobre-juin et a
seulement sur la croissance, mais aussi sur la survie (Bara- produire ainsi de la truite portion (220-250 g).
hona-Fernandes, Girin et Metailler, 1976; Metailler, com- Des truitelles de 30 a 100 g agees de 10 a 1 1 mois sont
munication personnelle). adaptees a 1'eau de mer a partir du mois d'octobre. La
Pourles poissons plus gros, les travaux s'orientent vers salinite, situee aux environs de 10% a 1'origine est pro-
,
la recherche de sources proteiques de remplacement sus- gressivement augmentee jusqu'a 30-3 3% au cours de
ceptibles de reduire les couts de production (levures et Miiver. Les conditions atmospheriques peuvent cependant
proteines vegetales). Plusieurs aliments industriels sont entrainer des variations sensibles au cours de la periode
disponibles sur le marche. d'elevage. La nourriture est constitute d'un aliment mixte
compose de faux poisson, de dechets de sciage de morue
2.4.3 Resultats. Les experiences de grossissement sur le surgelee et de farine de poisson. La chair des truites est
terrain n'en sont encore qu'aux balbutiements. Les experi- coloree par addition a la nourriture d'un pigment caroten-
ences avec des animaux peches dans la nature ont etc oi'de(cantaxanthine) et des essais de finition a 1'aide de krill
abandonnees, faute d'un approvisionnement suffisant, tan- sont en cours. La periode de commercialisation s'etend de
dis que celles avec des animaux nes en ecloserie sont encore decembre a juin.
rares. Des essais lances avec des animaux nes au printemps L'elevage dispose de differentes structures de production
1975 ont cependant permis d'obtenir des poids moyens de comprenant 4 bassins en terre, 3 bassins carres de type
1 5 a 20
g a fin de 1'ete, en Atlantique comme en Mediterra- suedois (100 m 2
) et des cages flottantes en filet situees dans
nee, en bassins a terre et en cages. Mais aucune experience 1'etang.
n'a encore etc menee jusqu'a la production d'animaux En 1971, quelques centaines de kg etaient commerci-
commercialisables. alises a un prix superieur a celui de la truite d'eau douce. La
Compte tenu du blocage a peu pres total de la croissance production passait ensuite de 4,5 tonnes en 1972 a 30
des animaux en dessous de 10C, 1'elevage se congoit plus tonnes en 1975. En 1973, une pollution causee par des
logiquement en Mediterranee qu'en Atlantique, sauf selec- herbicides detruisait la totalite du cheptel (25 tonnes)
tion d'animaux particulierement performants. Mais empechant cette exploitation familiale d'atteindre le seuil de
1'emploi de cages en baies protegees, evitant les fortes rentabilite.
baisses de temperatures hivernales des etangs, pourrait D'autres elevages utilisant des techniques similaires se
permettre Pimplantation d'elevages au moins sur une partie creaient a partir de 1973, sur la cote atlantique et en
des cotes atlantiques. La meilleure chance de developpe- Mediterranee, permettant d'atteindre une production de
ment de cette espece se trouve cependant peut-etre ailleurs pres de 100 tonnes en 1975.
sa bonne tolerance aux fortes charges et aux basses salinites Des essais de grossissement jusqu'a une taille superieure
la designe comme un sujet particulierement bien adapte aux (de 1'ordre de 1,5 a 2 kg), effectues a petite echelle, en cages
elevages intensifs dans des eaux de refroidissement de flottantes, ont donne des resultats de croissance
centrales electriques implantees sur le littoral. Aucun essai satisfaisants (passage de 160g a 1 kg en 6 mois). Les
de ce type n'a encore etc envisage en France, mais une hautes temperatures estivales empecheront probablement
experience est deja en cours en la Republique Federate les eleveurs disposant d 'etangs a maree de prolonger la
d'Allemagne (Tiews, communication personnelle). periode d'elevage jusqu'a cettetaille, mais la production en
177
200000suivirentfin 1972, 400 000 en 1973,etapartirde le financement de 1 'operation. Apres une annee de test des
1974 importations se stabiliserent a 1 million d'oeufs
les cages, un nouveau radeau constitue de cinq cages de
par an. Parallelement, des oeufs de saumon atlantique m
220 3 a etc mis en exploitation a 1'automne 1975. II doit
etaient importes chaquc annee d'Ecosse pour proceder a des permettre de produire environ 20 tonnes de saumon et de
essais de production de smolts. truites, pour evaluer les possibilites economiques de ce type
Deux techniques d'elevage etaient envisagees a la meme d'elevage. Au total, la capacite totale de production de la
epoque: fertilisation des etangs a maree frequents sur les station devrait etre de 30 a 35 tonnes annuellement, sans
cotes bretonnes, et le developpement de productions en modification des structures.
cages flottantes dans des baies ou estuaires abrites. A cet
une societe pilote, la SODAB (Societe pour le
effet,
co-operatives de pecheurs.
j 2. Cages flottantes octogonales de la SODAB dans 1'etang a 2.7.1.2 Passage a 1'eau de mer: Les premiers poissons
maree du Carpont, ayant servi a produire 20 tonnes de saumon furent transferes directement en eau de mer dans 1'etang a
en 1975
maree de la SODAB en decembre 1973 et Janvier 1974, a
Une autre station experimentale, de taille plus reduite, a un poids de 180 a 500 g (smolts de 1 et 2 ans). Les
etc creee en 1 9 74 dans une bale protegee de la rade de Brest. poissons, nourris avec un granule sec du commerce mon-
Un radeau en tubes metalliques soudes comportant 4 cages trerent une croissance de 0,4 a 1, 1% par jour de Janvier a
de 60
3
m
et calcule pour resister a des vagues de 1,50 a m mars, selon les tallies et les differents groupes. La mortalite
etc mis en place en juin 1974. Cette operation est conduite fut negligeable jusqu' a la commercialisation, intervenant
178
parisicn, au prix de F.F. 1 8-20/kg hors taxes, depart de la En 1975, la production totale fut de 25 tonnes environ,
pisciculture, pour des poissons frais et entiers. dont 22 commercialisees par la SODAB. En 1976, les
Des tentatives de transfert direct de smolts en eau de mer nouvelles structures mises en place devraient permettre de
ont etc effectuees de mai a juillet en 1974 et 1975, avec des produire 80 a 1 20 tonnes.
jeunes saumons d'age 0* et r. Dans tous les cas, les Les premiers saumons eleves en France ont atteint la
mortalites au cours de 1'ete ont ete considerables variant de maturite sexuelle en 1973, a 1'age de 2 ans, pour un poids
70 a 100% selon les sites d'elevage. variant de 300 g a 1 kg. Le taux de survie des oeufs a
Les smolts d'age provenant de la ponte 1973 ont ete Peclosion passait de 1% la premiere annee, a 20% en 1974
transferes dans les cages en mer en juillet 1974, a un poids pour des poissons conserves pendant toute leur vie en eau
moyen de 26 g. Dans le meilleur des cas, le taux de survie douce. Les alevins issus de ces oeufs se sont averes tres
fut de 22% a la fin de 1'ete, la moitie des survivants robustes et ont presente une excellente croissance en eau
presentant cependant une excellente croissance, atteignant douce, arrivant au meme poids moyen en octobre (43 g)
un poids moyen de 393 g fin decembre (accroissement que les alevins issus d'oeufs d'importation malgre 6 se-
journalier 1,1%), 735 g debut avril 1975 et 1 373 g en maines de retard au debut de 1'alimentation. Par contre, a
octobre 1975. La deuxieme moitie de la population cut une ITieure actuelle, aucun succes notable n'a ete obtenu avec
croissance faible associee a une regression a 1'etat de parr. les poissons eleves en eau de mer.
Les smolts d'age T de 70 g, apres une mortalite de L'aquaculture du saumon coho semble appelee a se
1'ordre de 70% pour le meilleur lot, ont egalement montre developper rapidement sur les cotes franchises et pouvoir
une croissance remarquable, atteignant les poids moyens de atteindre une production de 1'ordre de 500 tonnes vers
525 g en decembre (accroissement journalier 1,1%) 1980. Une adaptation plus precoce au printemps (mars-
1 050
g en avril 1975 et 1 590 g en octobre 1975. Peu de mai), I'amelioration des aliments utilises et un controle plus
germes pathogenes furent isoles en depit de symptomes efficace des epizootics devraient permettre d'effectuer des
externes inquietants. A eromonas salmonicida fut cependant 1977, deux productions annuelles et de commercialiser des
cultive a partir des smolts d'age T en juillet. produits frais, toute 1'annee. Parallelement, 1'elevage du
saumon atlantique en eau douce a montre en 1975 des
progres interessants et les premiers essais de production en
eau de mer seront effectues des 1976.
3 References
BARAHONA-FERNANDES, M. H. ET GIRIN, M. Preliminary tests on the
1
optimal pellet adaptation age, for sea-bass larvae (Pisces, Dicen-
976
trarchus labrax) Aquaculture 8: 283-90
BARAHONA-FERNANDES, M. H., GIRIN, M. ET METAILLER, R. Experi-
1 977 cnces de conditionnement d'alev ins de bar (Pisces, Dicentrarchus
labrax) & diflerents aliments composes. Aquaculture, 10' 53-63
BARN ABE, G., La genese des activites locomotrices et trophiques chez
1 975 la larve de Loup Dicentrarchus labrax (L.) (Poisson Serranidae).
C.R. Acad. Sci. Paris, (280 D): 1621-4
DANIOUX, C
et aL L'aquaculture marine In Grands dossiers Alpha
1975 de mer, ed. Grange Bateliere pp. 176-8: 301-60
la
hABRE-DoMERGUE ET BIETRIX, E. Developpement de la sole (Solea
1905 vulgaris). Introduction a 1'etude de la pisciculture marine In
Travail du Laboratoire de Zoologie Maritime de Concarncau.
Fig 4.Croissance d'Oncorhynchus kisutch en cages flottantes: de Paris, Vuibert et Nony. 243 p.
70 g a 700 g en 6 mois FLUCHTER, J Versuche zur brutautzucht der seezunge Solea solea in
1965 kleinen aquarien. Helgol. Wiss Meeresunters., 12: 395-403
En 1975, des conditions climatiques exceptionnelles GIRIN, M. La ration alimentaire dans 1'elevage larvaire du Bar (Dtcen-
trarchus labrax (L.)) Proc. Eur. Symp. Mar. Biol ,10(1): 171-88
entrainerent des temperatures de surface de 1'ordre de 20C GIRIN, M., BARAHONA-FERNANDES, M. H. ET L^ Roux, A Larval
et le taux de survie fut encore plus faible. Des Vibrio 1975 rearing of Sea-Bass (Dicentrarchus labrax (L.)) with a high
survival. ICES, Doc. C.M. 1975/G: 14
apparentes a 1'espece Vibrio anguillarum furent isoles a HARACHE, Y. ET NOVOTNY, T. Coho salmon farming in France. Mar.
plusieurs reprises pendant 1'ete. 1976 Fish. /ta> 38(1): 1-8
,
1'eau de mer en octobre et en novembre. Les smolts sont soit 1976 de jeunes turbots et de jeunes soles apres leur metamorphose.
Proc Eur. Symp. Mar Biol., 10 (1): 255 (Abstr)
des poissons de 1'annee ayant un poids minimum de 70 g,
LAUBIER, L. Aquaculture 1974. Rev. Marit.. (297): 419-36
soit des poissons ayant sejournes pres de 2 ans en piscicul- 1974
ture et pesant 150 a 200 g. Les eleveurs utilisent soit un MALARD, W. E. Sur le developpjement et la pisciculture du Turbot.
1899 C.R. Acad. Sci., Paris, (129): 181-3
aliment mixte compose de poisson broye et de farine, soit METAILLER, R. ET GIRIN, M. Croissance de jeunes soles (Solea solea)
un aliment sec du commerce. 1976 nees en laboratoire et conditionn6cs a ralimcnt compose.
Document present* au 2eme Reunion du Groupe de Travail
La commercialisation s'efTectue de Janvier a juin, selon de Mariculture du CIEM. 4-6 mai, 1976, 20p (mimeo)
les lots. En depit d'une croissance inferieure a celle obtenue MORRISSON CASSIE, R. Early development of the snapper, Chrysophrys
1956 auratus Foreter. Trans. R. Soc. N.Z., 83 (4): 705-13
apres adaptation au printemps, ce type de production reste
SHELBOURNE, J. E. The culture of marine fish larvae, with special
du fait du faible taux de mortalite, de 1'ordre
tres interessant 1968 reference to the plaice (Pleuronectes platessa L.) and the sole
dc 5%. (Solea solea L.), Ph.D. Thesis, University of London, 143 p.
179
Preliminary Observations Related to Culture of C. R. Machado and
N. Castagnolti
Rhamdia htlarii, a Brazilian Catfish
Abstract general a las 14 horas de la primera aplicacion de hormonas. Se
The Brazilian catfishes, Rhamdiaquelen and R. hilarii, appear to offer registraron elevados indices de fertilizacion (70-80%), pero solo se
potential as target species for aquaculture in spite of their relatively slow obtuvo un 1 0-20% de avivamientos a las 26-30 horas de la fertilizacion,
growth rates. They are omnivorous feeders readily adapting to artificial con el agua a temperatura de 26C.
feeding; they are hardy and easy to handle; their flesh is tasty and almost Las mejores tasas de crecimiento de los jaramugos se registraron en
boneless; and they have high fecundity. Studies on R- hilarii were estanques fertilizados con estiercol de aves de corral y fertilizantes
undertaken to stimulate semi-intensive culture in the many small dams nitrogen ados y fosforados, que se cpmpararon con otros fertilizados con
existing in Brazil through determination of rational rearing techniques, estiercol y uno de los fertilizantes inorganicos. Se alimento a R- hilarii
and establishing suitable techniques for breeding and distribution of con piensos artificiales granulados con un 20 y un 28% de contenido en
fingerlings at low cost to the farmers. proteinas crudas, lograndpse un importante aumentp de peso con el
Under experimental conditions, sexual maturation of JR. hilarii peaked pienso mas rico en proteinas, pero no se observe ninguna diferencia
between October and February. Linear relationships were found for this significativa de longitud con ninguno de los dos piensos.
species between total body length and weight, fecundity and total length,
and fecundity and body weight. Fecundity varied from <20 000 eggs for
females measuring up to 250 mm
up to almost 1 80 000 eggs for females
measuring 370mm. 1 Introduction
Spawning was induced in both males and females using doses of 0- 5 Brazil's indigenous fish, the catfishes Rhamdia
and 1 -0 lU/g of the synthetic hormone 'Pregnyl'. Fish generally spawned Among
1 4 hours after the first hormone
application. High fertilization (70-80%) quelen and R. hilarii present characteristics that indicate
levels were recorded, but only 10-20% of the hatched out 26-30 their potential as target species for aquaculture.
fry
hours after fertilization at a water temperature of 26C.
The best growth of fingerlings was recorded in ponds fertilized with Although Rhamdia species have relatively slow growth
chicken manure and nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers, compared with them should be encouraged because
rates, efforts to culture
ponds fertilized with manure and an inorganic fertilizer. R. hilarii fed they: (/) are omnivorous feeders and can adapt to artificial
artificial pellet feeds with 20 and 28% crude protein content had a
significant weight increase at the higher protein level, but showed no feeding; (//) are hardy and easy to handle; (///) have tasty
significant difference in length increase for the two feeds. and almost boneless flesh, and may attain a body weight of
nr du poisson-chat bresUkn almost 3 kg; and (/v) have relatively high fecundity.
Observations prtUminaircs I'ttevagc
Rhamdia hUarti Their reproduction generally occurs in flooded areas
Resume
during the rainy season from September to December.
Les poissons-chats bresiliens Rhamdia hilarii et R. quelen semblent
convenir particuliferement bien a 1 'aquaculture en depit de leur taux de Spawning in both species is easily induced through hor-
croissance rclativement faible, du fait qu'ils sont omnivores et s'adaptent mone injection. In Brazil, Von Ihering and Azevedo (1936)
facilement au nourrissage artificiel, qu'ils sont robustes et faciles a
1 have published notes concerning R. quelen. They success-
manipuler; leur chair est savoureuse et n'a pratiquement pas d aretes, et
Us sont tres feconds. DCS etudes ont etc entreprises sur R. hilarii afin de fully used hormone injections with hypophysial extract to
stimuler
1'clevage
semi -intensif dans les nombreux pctits barrage existant induce breeding and described some phases of embryonic
au Bresil en determinant des techniques d'elevage rationnelles et en
etablissant des techniques destinees a faciliter la reproduction et la
and larval development, but the species has not yet been
distribution d'alevins a bas prix aux eleveurs. considered for commercial or domestic fish farming.
En conditions experimentales, la maturation sexuelle de R. hilarii a This paper is concerned with Rhamdia hilarii (Fig. 1),
atteint son point culminant entre octobre et fevrier. On a determine une
which is found from the Prata to Amazon Basins.
relation lineaire,pour cette cspecc, entre longueur totale et poids,
fecondite et longueur totale et fecondite et poids. La fecondite a varie The main reason for these studies was to stimulate semi-
entre <20 000 oeufs pour les femelles mesurant moins de 250 mm
et de
intensive culture of R. hilarii in the many small dams in
pres de 180 000 oeufs pour les femelles de 370 mm.
La reproduction a etc induitc aussi bien chez les males que chez les Brazilian rural areas through determination of rearing tech-
femelles par des doses de 0,5 et de 1,0 Ul/g d 'hormones synthetiques niques, and establishing techniques for breeding and distri-
'PregnyP. Les poissons ont en general pondu 14 heures apres la premiere bution of fingerlings at low cost to farmers.
application d'hormones. On a enregistre des niveaux eleves de fertilisa-
tion (70 a 80%) mais 10 a 20% seulement d'alevins sont eclos entre 26 ct
30 heures apres la fertilisation, dans 1'eau a 26C.
Les meilleures croissances d'alevins ont etc enregistrees dans les
etangs fertilises a la ficnte de ppulet ou avec des engrais azotes et
les resultats etant moins favorables dans les etangs fertilises
phosphores,
a la fiente et avec seulement un des engrais non organique. R. hilarii
nourri de granules contenant 20 et 28% de proteines brutes ont sensible
ment amcliore leur poids a la teneur proteique la plus elevee, leur
longueur etant pratiquement la memc pour Tun et I'autre regime
alimentaire.
sintetica 'Pregnyl'. La suelta de huevos o espermatozoos se produjo en mouths facing upstream. Captured fish were held in ponds
180
(9-0 x 5-0 x 1-2 m
and 2-0 x 1-0 x 8-0 m) of the Fish Cul-
CSX (I)
u . I (75
ture Section of the Faculdade de Medicina Veterinaria e
/ (26
Agronomia de Jaboticabal.
In order to determine their food habits, maturation curve
and fecundity throughout the year (1974-75), fish were
measured, weighed and dissected. Spawning was success-
fully induced with two hormone injections of 'Pregnyl'
(CGH) at a dosage of 0- 5 and 1 -0 lU/g offish. Fish growth
was observed under natural and artificial (pellet) feeding
regimes.
For the first trial, 25 fingerlings were stocked in three
earthen ponds (9-0 x 5-0 x 1-2 m) after fertilization as
follows:
Pond 1Chicken manure (500 kg/ha), nitrogen (50 kg/
ha) form of ammonium sulphate, and phosphorus (20
in the
Kny JUM July Au. B*pt. Oat. Rov. tec. Jw. P*b. Mtr. Apr.
kg/ha) in the form of superphosphate; Fig 2. Maturation curve of Rhamdia hilarii
Pond 2 Chicken manure and nitrogen fertilization at
the same levels as pond 1 ;
(from April/May), and reproduction begins in August and
Pond 3 Chicken manure and phosphorus fertilization goes on to December.
at the same levels as in pond 1. Godinho et al ( 1 974), studying the reproduction behav-
The second experiment was conducted in the same iour of another pimelodid fish, Pimelodus maculatus, ob-
served the annual variation of GSI and the possible interac-
ponds, each stocked with 10 marked fish. Two artificial
tion of abiotic factors, such as water temperature,
pelleted feeds containing 20 and 28% crude protein were
fed twice a day at 5-8% body weight. precipitation and water level fluctuation. Pimelodus reach
Both experiments lasted for three months, and fish sexual maturity in November, the spent stage from Decem-
ber to February, and are in the quiescent stage from March
growth was determined at monthly intervals.
to September, according to Basile-Martins et al (1975).
Fecundity determinations were made using Simpson's
(1951) method. Ovaries were immersed in Gilson's fluid
for 1-2 weeks and strongly shaken until the eggs were 3.2 Estimation offecundity
For this purpose, 30 sexually ripening females of Rhamdia
completely separated. The solution was drained through
fine-mesh nylon and eggs separated with tweezers and dried
hilarii were sacrificed and their fecundity estimated as
between the weight of the gonad and total body weight, and 800
is calculated as follows;
430-
100 x gonadal weight
GSI = 400
Total body weight
J50.
Castagnolli (1974) for common carp (Cyprinus carpio) for body weight and fecundity (r=0-89) of/?, hilarii (Fig.
shows that carp in the same region begin 'ripening' earlier 5). The values of the constants a and b in the regression
181
Of flff s
C10CO)
140
no
too
40-
to.
gram increment in fish body weight. the same sizes as the previous experiment were used, and
each pond was stocked with ten marked fish. Pond 1
3.3 Induced spawning received pellet feed with 20% crude protein (Ration 1 ) and
In November 19 74 and December 19 75, induced spawning fish in the second pond were fed with Ration 2 containing
was tried with 'PregnyP, a CGH synthetic hormone. Doses 28% crude protein (Table II). Fish were fed twice a day at a
applied to males and females were 0- 5 and 1 -0 lU/g offish rate of5% of the body weight. The experiment began on 1
at 6-8 hour intervals. Generally, fish spawned with slight August 1975 and lasted for 90 days.
ventral pressure 14 hours after the first hormone The two crude protein levels in rations were selected
application. based on previous work on catfish feeding. Dupree and
High fertilization levels (70-80%) were recorded but Sneed (1966), working with channel catfish fingerlings fed
only a low percentage of fry (10-20%) hatched out 26-30 with rations containing 12-52% crude protein, observed
hours after fertilization at (Fig. 6). 25C linear response in growth rate up to the 35% level of crude
TABLE I
1
Morulity rte=6%
182
protein in the food. Nail (1965) concluded that rations 4 Conclusions
containing 25-34% crude protein did not provide signifi- (/) Rhamdia good food fish with potential for
hilarii is a
cant differences in catfish growth. Simco and Cross (1966) cultivation. It is omnivorous, can adapt to artificial feeding,
tried rations with 20, 30,40 and 50% crude protein content and has high fecundity.
for catfish feedingand found that a ration containing 20% experiments have not, however, demonstrated
(//) Initial
crude protein gave the worst results, while there was no rapid growth under intensive culture.
significant difference between the other feeds (30-50% (///) Under experimental conditions, sexual maturation
crude protein). Finally, Tiemeier and Deyoe (1973) found occurred from October to March, indicating a long spawn-
that good to excellent results were obtained by feeding ing period.
channel catfish with a variety of rations containing 23-2- (/v) Fry hatch out within 26-30 hours after fertilization
34 -2% protein. at a water temperature of 25C.
TABLE II (v) Fingerlings presented better growth in ponds fertil-
COMPOSITION OF PELLETED FEEDS ized with organic (chicken manure) plus nitrogen (N) and
phosphorus (P) fertilizers than in organic manured ponds
Crude Protein Ration I Ration 2
Ingredients plus only Nor plus only P fertilizers.
( v/) Pelleted feed containing 28% crude protein provided
protein content.
TABLE III
GROWTH OF Rhamdia hilarii IN POND 1
TABLE IV
GROWTH OF Rhamdia hilarii IN POND 2
(PELLET FEED WITH 28% CRUDE PROTEIN CONTENT)
183
GODINHO, M. H. et al. Maturation curve of the ovary Pimelodus 1966 of channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus. Publ Mus. Nat. Hist.
1974 maculatus. Lac. (Siluroidei, Teleostei). Bol. Inst. Pesca Sao Univ. Kansas, 17(4): 191-256
Paulo. 3(1): 1-28 TIEMEIBR, O. W. &
DEYOE, C, W. Producing channel catfish. Bull.
NAIL, M. L. The protein requirement of channel catfish Ictalurus Agric. Exp. Stn. Univ. Kansas, (576): 1-24
1965 punctatus (Ran'nesque). Proc. Annu. Conj. Southeast. Assoc. VON 1 BERING, R. &DE AzEVEDO, P. A desova e a hypophyzac&o dos
Game Fish Comm., 16: 307-16 1936 peixes. Evoluca*o de dois Nematognathas. Arch. Inst. Biol. Sao
SIMCO, B. A. &
CROSS, F. B. Factors affecting growth and production Paulo, (7): 107-18
partir d'oeufs pcndus en captiyite, jusqu'au stade juvenile. Les juveniles pattern of spawning. In this way it was found that P. sexfilis
et les adultes ont pu etre conditionnes a se nourrir de rations artificielles
scenes y compris des granules flottants; les taux de conversion alimen- spawned with a well defined lunar rhythm, always in prox-
taire ont etc satisfaisants. II apparait que Ton peut produire du poisson de imity to the last quarter phase of the moon, and that
taille commerciale (300 g) en 300 jours, a la temperature ambiante des
spawning occurred over a 6 or 7 month period, from April
Hawaii, a partir d'alevins de 9 g. On pourrait accroitre les taux de
croissance en maintenant la temperature et la salinite dans des limites
or May to October (May, Akiyama and Santerre, MS).
optimales. Les possibilites d'elever cette espece aux Hawaii, ou le prix de Furthermore, the fish spawned at roughly the same time
vente est interessant, semblent done prometteuses. Polydactylus sexfilis
each night, between 20.30 and 21.30 hours.
et pem-toe d'autres polynemides, pourraient etre cultives dans d'autres
parties de la region Indo-pacifique. Only a small percentage of the eggs produced by spawn-
ers in the net enclosure was collected by the airlift pump,
Estodios tobre el cultivo del barbudo, Polydactylus sex/His, en Hawai
the vast majority being lost through the meshes of the net. It
Extracto
was found that fish transferred to a large tank (7-5 m ) just
1
En Hawai se nan estudiado durante dos anos las posibilidades del
Polydactylus sexfilis para la acuicultura. En jaulas de red suspendidas los before the predicted time of spawning would spawn at the
peces desovaron espontaneamente, con ritmo lunar, durante una tempo-
rada de desove de seis meses de duracion. Se incubaron los huevos same time as fish left undisturbed in the net enclosure, and
producidos por los peces en cautividad y las laryas se criaron hasta la in this way all eggs produced by the spawners could be
rase juvenil. Se acostumbro a las formas juveniles y a los adultos a
collected.
alimentarse con raciones sccas, incluidos comprimidos flotantes, obte-
niendose tasas favorables de conversion de los alimentos. Midiendo el
crecimiento de los peces en jaulas pequenas se observo que es posible
obtener en 300 dias, a temperature ambientc, peces comercializables de
3 Larval rearing
300 g a partir de alevines de 9 g. Puede aumentarse la tasa de crecimiento
manteniendo la temperature y la salinidad dentro de una escala optima. The spawning habits of P. sexfilis made it possible to collect
Los resultados indican que esta especie pfrece grandes posibilidades para extensive material for studies of embryonic and larval
la acuicultura en Hawai, donde el precio de mercado de estos peces es
elevado. Indican ademas que el cultivo de Polydactylus sexfilis, y quizas development. In a study of the influence of temperature and
de otros polinemidos, podria ser factible en otras partes de la region del salinity on eggs and early larvae, Santerre (in preparation)
Indo-Pacifico. determined that the optimum temperature at these early
stages was 26C and that slightly lowered salinities had no
1 Introduction detrimental effect. Larvae obtained from the May 1974
The family Polynemidae, or threadfins, which is distributed spawning were reared in a 7-5
3
m
tank on a diet of rotifers
worldwide in warm esteemed for their
seas, includes fishes (Brachionus plicatilis) and copepods (Euterpina acuttf-
quality as food. The Hawaii Institute of Marine Biology rons) in the presence of phytoplankton (Chlorella sp. and
began investigating the threadfin or 'moi', Polydactylus an unidentified euglenoid). The larvae were offered a diet of
2
sexfilis as a potential culture organism in 1973 because of
, Anemia nauplii beginning on day 10. Juveniles were
its high market value and the
rapid growth rates which weaned onto chopped squid by day 44, after a short period
previous workers (Lowell, 1971; Kanayama and Morris, on frozen adult Anemia. The mean temperature during the
first 40 days of rearing was 24-9C (range 23-7-26-6C).
Contribution No. 487, Hawaii Institute of Marine Biology.
1
2
Some authors (e.g., Jordan, 191 7-20; Kagwade, 19 70) consider the
A total of 1 360 newly hatched larvae were introduced into
with Polynemus. The author follows the tank, and 40 days after hatching 76 juvenile fish, or
genus Polydactylus synonomous
Myers (1936) and others in considering Polydactylus a distinct genus. 5-6%, were still alive. The change from the larval to the
184
juvenile stage involved a gradual increase in pigmentation time they grew from 77 to 294 g, which is a marketable
between days 30 and 40; there was no abrupt metamorpho- size. These fish received a combination of squid and trout
sis. An estimated 15 to 20% of the initial larvae were alive chow for the first 145 days, and only trout chow for the last
on day 20, the mortality between days 20 and 40 being 66 days. The mean water temperature during the 2 1 1 days
attributed to lack of a suitable food for fish at the end of the was 24-0C (range 22-0-27-0C). Mortality in the two
larval stage. groups of fish was negligible. Data from these two groups
have been combined (Fig. 1 ) to yield a growth curve for fish
from the fry stage to marketable size. It is apparent that a
4 Growout marketable fish can be produced from 9 g fry in approxi-
4.1 Artificial diets mately 300 days at ambient temperatures in Hawaii.
P. sexfilis is by nature a carnivore. It was therefore apparent
at the outset of these experiments that in Hawaii, where no
trash fish are available, economically viable culture of this
species would hinge on the readiness of the fish to consume
artificial diets. Results from the last two years have shown
that P. sexfilis will readily consume dried, artificial diets,
including both sinking and floating feeds. After suitable
conditioning, these fish show an extremely vigorous feeding
response to floating .commercial trout chow, even though
they are primarily bottom feeders by nature. A 21 day
laboratory experiment showed that fish weighing approxi-
mately 100 g converted 1 3 to 1 8% of the trout chow (40%
200-
protein) to body weight tissue on a dry weight basis at an
average temperature of 27- 2C. The 1 8% dry :dry conver-
sion efficiency was equivalent to a dry wet food conversion
:
1
of 1-6, ie, it took 1 6 g of dry food to produce 1 g of live g
fish.
averaged 27-9C with a range of 26-0C to 29-9C. thermal optimum at 27-28C and a salinity optimum at
Records from the cages during the second month allowed approximately 25% , with maximum dry weight conver-
calculation of dry weight conversion efficiencies of 1 7 and sion efficiencies of 18%. Thus growth and food conversion
1 8%,
although the possibility of additional food entering can be improved over the figures quoted above, even with-
the cages (eg, as plankton) cannot be totally excluded. out improved diets, if environmental control can be
Growth measurements were continued on these fish for 1 5 7 exercised.
185
spawning occurs among captive fish, the elaborate ral spawning rhythm. Exposing spawners to altered temper-
procedures required to induce spawning in some species are ature and photoperiod regimes should be investigated as a
unnecessary. The lunar spawning rhythm makes the time of means of extending the spawning season. The
artificially
spawning predictable, and the protracted natural spawning protandry displayed by P. sexfilis opens the intriguing
season assures a supply of eggs over at least half the year. possibility that, through cryopreservation, sperm from in-
Like certain other polynemids (Hida, 1967), P. sexfilis is a dividual fish can be used for self-fertilization and the quick
protandrous hermaphrodite (Morris, 1964; Lowell, 1971); development of inbred lines. In view of the information
this characteristic is
advantageous in culture, in that fish reported here for P.
sexfilis, it would seem
well worth while
willbe harvested as males before significant amounts of toexamine more closely the aquacultural potential of other
energy have been shunted away from growth into egg polynemid species.
production.
The rapid growth rates and efficient food conversion
which have so far been documented for captive fish are
extremely encouraging, especially when one considers that 6 References
the specific nutritional requirements of P. sexfilis are still
CUVIER, G. & VALENCIENNES, A. Histoire naturelle des poissons.
unknown. The fish's acceptance of artificial dry feeds means 1831 Strasbourg, vol. 7
that dietary composition can be manipulated with the goal HIDA, T. S. The distribution and biology of polynemids caught by
1967 bottom trawling in Indian seas by the R/V ANTON BRUUN,
of producing a cost-effective diet which can be com- 1963. J. Mar. BioL Assoc. India, 9 (2): 281-99
pounded locally. Where practicable, control of temperature JORDAN, D. S. The genera of fishes. Stanford, California, Stanford
and/or salinity can be expected to enhance growth and food 1917-20 University Senes, in four parts. 576 p.
KAGWADL, P. V. The polynemid fishes of India. Bull. Cent. Mar. Fish.
conversion. The above set of characteristics make P. sexfilis 1970 Res. Inst. Mandapam Camp, (18): 1-69
a uniquely attractive fish for aquaculture. KANAYAMA, R. &MORRIS, D. E. Life history study of the moi, Poly-
1965 dactylus sexfilis. Job Completion No. F-5-R-13
P. sexfilis truly Indo-Pacific in distribution. Although
is Report, Project
Division of Fish and Game, State of Hawaii, 8 p.
it occurs naturally in Hawaii, the species was originally LONGHURST, A. R. The biology of West African polynemid fishes.
described from Mauritius (Cuvier and Valenciennes, 1831) 1965 J. Cons. CIEM, 30 (1): 58-74
LOWELL, N. E. Some aspects of the life history and spawning of the
and has been recorded from as far west as Zanzibar (Play- 1971 moi ('Polydactylus sexfilis). M.S. Thesis in Oceanography,
fair, 1866). Polynemids support major fisheries in Africa University of Hawaii, 45 p.
MAY, R. C, AKIYAMA, G. S. & SANTERRL, M. T. Lunar spawning
(Longhurst, 1965) and India (Kagwade, 1970) and are
MS rhythm of the threadtin, Polydactylus sexfilis, in Hawaii, 8 p.
highly regarded food fish wherever they occur. Hence MORRIS, D. E. Life history study of the moi, Polydactylus sexfilis. Job
techniques for culturing P. sexfilis in Hawaii may be 1964 Completion Report, Project No. 5-5-R-ll, Division of Fish
and Game, State of Hawaii, 1 5 p.
adapted, not directly applicable, to the same or other
if
MYERS, G. S. A new polynemid fish collected in the Sadong River,
polynemid species in other parts of the world. 1936 Sarawak, by Dr William T. Hornaday, with notes on the
In addition to the obvious need for refinements in larval genera of Polynemidae. J. Wash. Acad. Sci., 26 (9): 376-82
PLAYFAIR, R. L. The fishes of Zanzibar. London, John Van Voorst,
rearing techniques and artificial diets, several subjects for 1866 153 p.
future research with P. sexfilis hold special interest. The RAO, T R. & SANTERRE, M. T. Effects of temperature and salinity on
growth and body composition of juvenile threadfin, Poly-
possibility of maintaining spontaneous spawning in tanks
dactylus sexfilis (in preparation)
for extended periods of time should be studied, along with SANTERRE, M. T. Effects of temperature and salinity on eggs and early
the roles of environmental cues in synchronizing the natu- larvae of the threadfin, Polydactylus sexfilis (in preparation)
geosmine ont indique que les ictalurides peuvent absorber des composes
malodorants autrement que par leur tube digestif. La geosmine a etc 1 Introduction
absorbee en quantites objectivement decelables en 24 heures. II est
A serious and frequent problem in intensive fish culture is
possible de debarrasser les ictalurides de leur mauvais gout en les
maintenant en eau propre pendant 4 a 14 jours. La temperature influe sur the absorption of objectionable flavour compounds by fish
186
from the culture environment. The fact that fish readily Off-flavour has been a common problem in carp ponds in
absorb organic and inorganic compounds through their China, Japan and Europe for many years (Lovell, Smither-
gills and skin, as well as from the digestive tract, makes it man and Shell, 1974) and the traditional solution has been
understandable that some of the compounds synthesized by to hold the fish in clean water for a period until the flavour
organisms that thrive in the highly enriched culture envi- becomes acceptable.
ronment can have an adverse effect upon the flavour offish The compound(s) responsible for the 'earthy-musty'
flesh. The off-flavour that occurs most frequently, often flavour in fish apparently is geosmin, a highly odorous,
rendering fish unmarketable, is described as 'earthy-musty' colourless, neutral oil with a molecular formula of C, 2 22 H O
('musty' or 'muddy'). (Gerber and Lechevalier, 1965), or chemically related
Although environment-related off-flavour was observed metabolites synthesized by aquatic micro-organisms. Ger-
in fish centuries ago in China (Lovell, Smither-
pond-raised ber and Lechevalier (1965), Medsker, Jenkins and Thomas
man and Shell, 1974) and is a universal phenomenon in (1968) and Rosen, Mashni and Safferman (1970) isolated
farm-grown fish, aquacultural researchers have generally from sev-
the 'earthy-musty'-smelling metabolite, geosmin,
found other areas more stimulating than ascertaining eral actinomycetes. Safferman etal (1967) discovered that
causes and controls for 'mustiness' in fish. Since removal of the blue-green alga Symploca muscorum produced geos-
off-flavour from affected fish prior to marketing (in most min, and Medsker, Jenkins and Thomas (1968) showed
societies) is necessary, but inconvenient, management pro- that another alga, Oscillatoria tennis, also produced this
cedures that will minimize the incidence of environment- compound. Other odorous compounds isolated from acti-
related off-flavour would be extremely valuable to fish nomycete cultures or natural waters, which differ slightly
culturists. from geosmin, are mucidone (Dougherty, Campbell and
Morris, 1966) and 2-methylisoborneol (Rosen, Mashni
and Safferman, 1970). Recently, Yurkowski and Tabachek
2 History (1974) isolated geosmin from rainbow trout and identified
Thaysen (1936) first described 'musty' flavour in fish in it as the principal compound
responsible for the muddy
studies of trout taken fromrivers in Scotland. He attributed flavour in farmed fish from lakes in Canada. Source of the
the cause of the off-flavour to Actinomyces which grew in geosmin was not determined.
mud that was high in organic matter along the river bank. Personal observations indicate that off-flavour is a
He demonstrated that trout could absorb compounds from chronic problem in recirculating raceway systems. Al-
water which were produced by an odoriferous Actinomyces. though causative organisms have not been identified, acti-
Aschner, Laventer and Chorin-Kirsch (1969) reported that nomycetes growing on organic sludge below the biofilter
a blue-green alga, Oscillatoria tennis, was responsible for a are a probable source.
1
was postponed until the flavour improved. Heavy concen- evaluation scale was established and judges were condi-
trations of odour-producing actinomycetes or blue-green tioned and selected on the basis of their ability to perceive
algae have been identified from ponds with 'earthy-musty' the geosmin-type odour in prepared solutions and in fish. In
flavoured catfish, and are suspected of being the organisms the survey, and in all subsequent sensory evaluations offish
responsible for the off-flavour (Lovell, 1972). Conversely, for 'earthy-musty' flavour, the fish were cleaned and
on many occasions off-flavoured fish have been found in dressed, wrapped in aluminium, and cooked without sea-
ponds which contained actinomycetes and algae not unlike soning for 15 minutes at 250C. Initially, the evaluators
the aquatic flora in ponds where fish had normal flavour. compared the suspect off-flavour fish against control fish
Off-flavour-producing algae and actinomycetes have been with no off-flavour in triangle difference tests prior to
found to produce noxious odours or flavours under one set assigning a numerical rating to fish with established off-
of conditions but not under other conditions (Leventer and flavour.As the evaluators gained experience, it was found
Eren, 1969; Lovell, 1971). This contributes to the com- that the initial difference test was not necessary. The evalua-
plexity of defining the etiology of the off-flavour problem in tors assigned each sample a score of 1 to 10 according to
fish. the following scoring system: =
10 no off-flavour;
and Shaykewich (1973) reported that commer-
Iredale 8 = slight; 6 = distinct; 4 = intense; and 2= extreme. In ad-
cial rearing of rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) in prairie dition to sensory evaluations, other information obtained
lakes in central Canada has been impeded by the occur- included date, location of pond, water temperature and total
rence of 'muddy' flavour in fish from some lakes. They hardness (as 3 ),
CaCO
condition of plankton bloom, pre-
found that certain smoking and canning processes can dominant and presence of odorous actinomycetes.
algae,
effectively reduce the intensity of 'muddiness' in the fish. Samples of water, mud and residue from the fish's stomachs
187
were cultured on actinomycete-specific agar plates and To measure the rate of off-flavour development in the tanks,
colonies grown on the plates were tested sensorily for four fish were collected from each of two tanks of S.
odorous volatiles. muscorum and four from each of the two tanks of O. tenuis
Forty-two alleged off-flavour ponds were surveyed. at 1, 2, 4, 6, 10 and 14 days after stocking. After each
Most contained fish with slight to extreme off-flavour that collection the fish were quick -frozen and stored in hermeti-
was highly characteristic of the geosmin-type odour. The cally sealed pouches at 23C
for subsequent sensory
organisms associated with off-flavour in the fish, but the tanks of S. muscorum for 4 days, then removed and placed
1
following generalizations were made regarding incidence of in charcoal-filtered, flowing water. The fish were removed
'earthy-musty' flavour in pond-culture channel catfish: (/) from the flowing water after 0, 3, 6, 10 and 15 days and
Off-flavour was found during all periods of the growing quick -frozen for subsequent analysis.
season. (') Off-flavour was found in ponds in hilly areas To determine the ability of fish to absorb the flavour
with low-productivity, sandy soils and low water hardness compounds from the water without having an opportunity
and in ponds in fertile loam and clay soils with higher water to ingest the algae,two 'algae-free' tanks were stocked with
hardness. (///) Off-flavour was not related to intensity of fish.Water passed from two 5. muscorum culture tanks into
plankton bloom or occurrence of a plankton die-off, (/v) the algae-free tanks by gravity through a glass wool filter,
Off-flavour was not consistently related to a specific alga or and was exchanged between the tanks twice daily. The algae
to an odour-producing actinomycete. Generally, algae in tanks and the algae-free tanks were both enriched with
the off-flavourponds were similar to those found in ponds nutrient solution; consequently, exchange of water between
where did not have off-flavour. Odour-producing acti-
fish the two tanks did not dilute the nutrient concentration in the
nomycetes were found frequently in off-flavour ponds but algae tanks. Fish were removed from the algae-free tanks
were found as often in ponds with fish having no off-flavour, according to the same schedule as was followed with the
(v) Off-flavour in ponds in hilly, acid soils with soft water fish taken from the algae tanks.
usually occurred early or late during the growing season Afterall samples had been collected, the frozen fish were
when the water temperature was around 20C or slightly thawed, dressed and cooked for sensory evaluation for
lower, whereas ponds in the more fertile clay and loam soils 'earthy-musty* or algae-related flavour by a taste panel
with higher water hardness had off-flavour fish during all composed of four trained, experienced evaluators.
periods of the growing season. Within one day, the fish from the S. muscorum tanks had
In 1973, channel catfish from 40 ponds on the Auburn developed a distinct 'earthy-musty' flavour, similar to the
University Fishery Research Station were removed at odour of the algae, which became stronger at two days and
various times during the year and evaluated for off-flavour. reached maximum intensity at ten days (Table 1). Algae-
In the early spring, fish in three ponds had a distinct 'earthy- related flavour was only slight, but significant (P < 0-05 ), in
musty' flavour. Each of these ponds had heavy blooms fish from the O. tenuis tanks at two days and reached a
which were almost exclusively the blue-green alga Ana- maximum at 14 days, but never equalled the intensity of
baena circinalis. Fish from a pond without off-flavour were that in the fish from the 5. muscorum tanks. Stomach
placed in a floating cage in one of the ponds with the A. contents of the fish revealed that moderate amounts of both
circinalis bloom and allowed to stay for 1, 2, 4 t 7 and 14 algae were eaten during the first day they were in the culture
days. After one day the fish had a distinct flavour as tanks.
determined by a panel of four experienced evaluators, and
TABLE I
at seven days the off-flavour was intense. No off-flavour was AVERAGE SENSORY PANEL SCORES FOR CHANNEL CATFISH HELD FOR
detected in fish from any ponds during the summer or early VARIOUS PERIODS OF TIME IN EITHER TANKS CONTAINING CULTURES OF
autumn. In late autumn off-flavour fish were found in one 5. muscorum OR O. tenuis ALGAE, OR TANKS CONTAINING ALGAE-FREE
WATFR 1
University (Lovell, 1972) to determine the capability of indicated that the fish were able to absorb the dissolved
geosmin-producing blue-green algae to impart the 'earthy- geosmin-like compounds from the water, primarily across
musty' flavour in the flesh of channel catfish. Cultures of the membrane, into the blood. Absorption of the off-
gill
geosmin-producing blue-green algae Symploca muscorum flavour compounds was appreciably slower by fish held in
and Oscillatoria tenuis, obtained from the Federal Water the algae-free filtrate than by those held in the algae culture
Quality Control Laboratory in Cincinnati, Ohio, and 50 g tanks (Table I). Evidently, acquisition of algae-related off-
channel catfish were held in 1 50 litre stainless steel tanks flavour by channel catfish is greatly facilitiated when the
containing luxuriantly growing dense masses of these algae. fish ingest the algae.
188
This study presents evidence that channel catfish ab- TABLE III
AVERAGE SENSORY PANEL SCORES FOR CHANNEL CATFISH HELD IN
sorbed compounds synthesized by two species of geosmin-
TANKS CONTAINING S. mttSCOrum FOR 14 DAYS AND SUBSEQUENTLY
producing blue-green algae which imparted an 'earthy- HELD IN FLOWING, CHARCOAL-FILTERED WATER FOR VARIOUS PERIODS
musty' type of flavour in the fish, and supports the conten- OF TIME, AND FOR CONTROL FISH IN FLOWING WATER ONLY 1
had lost most of the off-flavour between 6 and 10 days but trients (for actinomycetes) and inorganic nutrients (for
the time the flavour was reduced to a tolerable level. remove unused nutrients and minimize the growth potential
1
These results indicate that pond-absorbed 'earthy -musty for off-flavour-causing micro-organisms. It will also reduce
flavour can be purged from the fish in 5 to 15 days, the concentration of micro-organisms and off-flavour com-
depending upon water temperature and intensity of off- pounds in the water.
flavour in the fish. However, concomitant with off-flavour Chemical control of blue-green algae in catfish
(Hi)
removal will be a weight loss ranging from 9 to 7%. 1
ponds is being practised by some farmers in the United
States although there are no established guidelines. Peri-
4.2 Removal of geosmin from aquarium-cultured fish odic application of 0-67 kg/ha of copper sulphate crystals
The channel catfish held in the tank containing the controlled the growth of Microcystis in fish ponds at
geosmin-produced alga 5. muscorum for 14 days, as dis- Auburn, Alabama (Crance, 1963); however, this fate was
cussed previously, were subsequently transferred to a tank not effective in catfish culture ponds in Mississippi, where
containing flowing, charcoal -filtered water at 25C. After the water hardness was greater. Variations in wa'ter chemis-
3,6, 10 and 1 5 days the fish were removed and evaluated try, density and species of algae, and
management practices
for flavour by four experienced judges. As shown in Table make general recommendations for chemical controls diffi-
three days in clean water the flavour had improved
III, after cult. Permanent elimination of phytoplankton blooms in
is undesirable. However, keeping the bloom
significantly (P < 0-05 ). After ten days, the flavour was not pond culture
significantly (P <0-05) different from that of control fish. thinned reduce the incidence of off-flavour, or killing
may
4
These results indicate that fish with intense earthy-musty' off the algae a few days prior to harvest may be helpful
flavour caused by geosmin can be ^cleaned' within a ten-day when off-flavour is present. Until safe recommendations are
period at 25 C by separating the fish from the souice of the established, chemical control of algae should only be prac-
compound. Apparently, and fortunately for fish culturists, tised where compensatory measures can be taken in the
this lipid-soluble, odorous compound is rapidly mobilized event of an oxygen depletion resulting from an overkill of
from its storage sites in the fish's body. phytoplankton.
TABLE II
AVERAGE FLAVOUR SCORES AND WEIGHT CHANGES FOR OFF-FLAVOUR CHANNEL CATFISH HELD IN FLOWING, FILTERED WATER'
1
Score description: as in Table I.
189
muddiness of pond water
(/v) Increasing turbidity or addition of vegetable oil before canning eliminated the
through mechanical agitation or with bottom-feeding fish 'earthy-musty' flavour.
will reduce phytoplankton growth. The suggestion has also 5 References
been made that suspended clay particles may act as adsor- ASCHNER, M., LA VENTER, C. & CHORiN-KiRSCH, I. Off-flavour in carp
bants for the off-flavour compounds. 1969 from fish ponds in the coastal plain and the Gelid. Bamidgeh,
19(1): 23-5
Removal of off-flavour from fish can be undertaken as GRANGE, J.H. The effects of copper sulfate on Mycrocystis and zoo-
follows: 1963 plankton in ponds. Progr. Fish-Cult., 25: 198-202
(ill) Meade (1975) found that adding salt to water in a LOVELL, R. T., SMITHERMAN, R. O. &SHELL, E. W. Progress and
closed system raceway, to achieve a salinity of 10 ppt 1974 prospects in fish farming. In New protein foods, edited by
A. A. Altschul, New York, Academic Press
several days before harvesting the fish solved the off-flavour
MEADE, T. L. Fish culture in closed system raceways. In Proceedings
problem that usually associated with this culture method.
is 1975 of Midwest Fish Disease Workshop, June 12-13 1975, Carbon-
The salinity destroyed the micro-organisms, probably acti- dale, 111., U.S.A.
MEDSKER, L. L., JENKINS, D. &
THOMAS, J. F. Odorous compounds in
nomycetes, growing in the sludge below the filter. 1968 natural waters: an earth-smelling compound associated with
Processing off-flavour fish through the following tech- blue-green algae and actinomycetes. Environ Sci. Technol 2 ,
461-4
niques also improves the final product:
ROSEN, A A., MASHNI, C. I. & SAFFERMAN, R. S. Recent developments
(/) Iredale and Shaykewich (1973) and Lovell (1972) 1 970 in the chemistry of odour in water the cause of earthy-musty
found that smoking for 5 to 6-5 h with simultaneous odour. Water Treat. Examination, 19: 106-19
SAFFBRMAN, R. S. et al, Earthy-smelling substance from a blue-green
cooking partially masked the 'earthy-musty' flavour of 1967 algae. Environ. Sci. Technol., 1 429-30
:
rainbow trout and channel catfish respectively so as to THAYSEN, A. C. The origin of an earthy or muddy taint in fish. Ann.
make them acceptable to consumers. 1936 AppLBiol., 23:99-109
YURKOWSKI, M & TABACHEK, J. L. Identification, analysis and re-
(//) Iredale and Shaykewich (1973) reported that steam moval of geosmin in muddy-flavoured trout. ,/. Fish. Ret
precooking of fillet strips of rainbow trout and subsequent Board Can ,31 (12)' 1851-8
toxic algae, as well as the various techniques for controlling diseases devenue de plus en plus intensive, les maladies en constituent desormais
which include immunization, prevention, increase of 'natural' or genetic Tun des prmcipaux problemes. Elles n'entrainent pas seulement des
resistance, manipulation of environment, prophylactic use of chemicals, pertes, sur le plan economique, du fait de taux eleves de mortal ite, ma is
and therapy after onset of disease. elles agisscnt egalement sur d'autres facteurs: la croissance et 1'etat de
It is concluded from this review that: sante; la resistance a la fatigue; la fecondite; la vulnerability aux preda-
(/) Great advances have been made in thechemotherapy of pathogenic teurs; la sensibilite aux defauts de I'environnement; et les modifications
parasites. However, the lag in qualified manpower, laboratory facilities hematologiques.
and bureaucratic restrictions may serve as limiting factors in certain On trouvera dans cette etude une description des principals maladies
countries. dues a des parasites (ectoparasites et endoparasites, bacteries, virus et
(//) Advances in histology, identification of disease-promoting agents algues toxiques) en meme temps que des problemes aui s'y rattachent,
and use of medicated feeds assist in the control of many diseases of ainsi que aes differentes techniques utilisees pour lutter centre ces
bacterial origin. There are still some problematic bacterial diseases maladies: immunisation, prevention, accroissement de la resistance
which require further investigation related to their identification, life genetique ou 'naturelle', manipulation de Penvironnement, utilisation
cycles, and methods of control. prophylactique de produits chimiques et soins lorsque la maladie s'est
(///) Although many fish diseases of viral origin have been described in manifestee.
the past few there have been no real advances in their control. Cette etude aboutit aux conclusions suivantes:
years,
(/v) Many fish diseases are the result of, or are enhanced by, poor (/') De grands progres ont etc accomplis dans la chimiotherapie des
environmental conditions and improper pond or hatchery management. parasites pathogenes. Neanmoins. dans certains pays, le manque de
This indicates that prophylaxis, proper care of the fish stock, and correct main-d'oeuvre qualifiee, d' installations de laboratoire ainsi que les
190
difficultes occasionnees par la bureaucratic s'opposent au succes de ces water on small areas of land. Under such conditions of
methodes.
La lutte contre de nombreuses maladies d'origine bacterienne a
unnatural crowding, it is inevitable that inimical condi-
(it)
des tions, enhancing the development of disease, will be en-
egalement profile proves accomplis dans Phistologie, de
Pidentification des agentsde diffusion des maladies et de 1'utilisation de countered. The resulting loss of stock in such small areas
medicaments melanges aux aliments. II existe encore un certain n ombre
de maladies bacteriennes mal connues dont Pidentification, les cycles de (ponds, raceways, cages, pens, etc) may present a grave
vie et la therapeutique exigeront de nouvelles recherches. economic problem and constant effort is required to pre-
(Hi) Bien que ces dernieres annees on ait decrit de nombreuses vent such losses.
maladies des poissons d'origine virale, leur therapeutique n'a pas fait de
veritables progres. In order that infectious diseases manifest themselves, a
(iv) De nombreuses maladies des poissons sont, soit provoquees, soit potential pathogen must exist, a suitable host be present and
aggravees par de mauvaises conditions mesologiques ou un entretien
msuffisant des etangs ou des stations Ce qui montre bien que proper environmental conditions occur which either bring
d'alevinage.
des mesures prophylactiques, les soins apportes au stock de poissons et about increased virulence of the pathogen or increased
Pentretien correct du milieu sont des facteurs decisifs dans la prevention
susceptibility of the host. Artificial stress conditions such
des di verses maladies. II s'agit-la d'un point particulierement important
as overcrowding, unbalanced nutrition, reduced oxygen
pour Intensification future de Paquaculture.
(v)l\ serait extremement important de prendre. aux plans national et content of water, an increase in organic material as well as
international, des mesures pour eviter la contagion des maladies, que
changes in pH and temperature are factors which enhance
peut provoquer la transplantation des poissons ou des oeufs de poisson.
the probability of diseases occurring among propagated
Enfermedades de los peces en la acuicultura y lucha contra ellas
fish.
Extracto
Durante el ultimo decenio, la investigation, los progresos en los metodos During the last decade, research, advancement in meth-
de eradication de organismos patogenos y la mejora del medio ambiente ods of eradication of pathogenic organisms, and improve-
ban permitido crear mejores condiciones para la piscicultura comercial
en estanques. Sin embargo, dada la creciente tendencia a cultivar orga- ment of environmental conditions, have assisted in protect-
nismos acuaticos con mayor intensidad, las enfermedades siguen siendo ing fish stocks in commercial ponds. As compared to 10-
uno de los principales problemas. Ademas de ser causa de perdidas 20 years ago, we are not only better able to identify the
economicas por las graves mortandades que producen, influyen tambien
en el crecimiento y el factor de condition de los peces, su resistencia a la harmful organisms, but we also know the measures to be
fatiga (estamina), fecundidad, vulnerabilidad a los depredadores y sus- taken to control many of them.
ceptibilidad a factores ambientales suboptimos, y determinan ademas
alteraciones de la sangre.
Nevertheless, due to intensified aquaculture, the prob-
Se describen las principales enfermedades parasitos (ecto-y endo-
lems have not lessened. Damage caused by disease is not
parasitos), bacterias, virus y algas toxicas y los problemas afines que only reflected in economic losses due to heavy mortalities
plantean en piscicultura asi como las diver sas tecnicas de control de but also affects the following: growth and condition coeffi-
enfermedades entre las que se incluyen inmunizacion, prevention, au~
mento de la resistencia "natural
1
o genetica, manipulation del medio cient (K-factor); resistance to fatigue (stamina); fecundity;
ambiente, empleo profilactico de productos quimicos, y terapia una vez
vulnerability to predation; susceptibility to sub-optimal
miciada la enfermedad.
De este examen de la situation se concluye que: environmental factors; and blood changes (Hoffman,
(/) Se han realizado grandes progresos en la quimioterapia de parasi- 1974).
tos patogenos. Sin embargo, la falta de mano de obra calificada y de
The diseases prevalent under conditions of intensified
laboratories y las restrictions burocraticas pueden frenar el desarrollo
de este sector en algunos paises. aquaculture can be divided into five general groups: (/)
(//') Los avances histologicos, la identification de los agentes promo- ectoparasitic and fungal; (//) endoparasitic; (///) bacterial;
tores de enfermedades y el empleo de piensos medicados ayudan a
(/v) viral; and (v) those due to organisms producing water
controlar las numerosas enfermedades de origen bacteriano. Existen aun
algunas enfermedades bacterianas problematicas, cuya individuacion, soluble toxins or competing for dissolved oxygen (Sarig,
ciclo vital y metodos de control exigen mas investigaciones. 1971).
(IK) Aunque en los uitimos anos se han descrito muchas enfermedades
Since the beginning of the 1960s, efficient and simple
de los peces de origen viral, no se han hechos verdaderos progresos en el
control de esas enfermedades. chemotherapeutic methods have been developed in many
(iv) El mal estado del medio ambiente y el inadecuado manejo de countries where commercial fish culture has become firmly
estanques o viveros son causa de muchas enfermedades de los peces o
established. In many cases chemotherapy is almost
contribuyen a agravarlas. Asi pues, la profilaxis, el buen cuidado de las
poblaciones de peces y el empleo de buenps metodos de manejo son unavoidable.
factores decisivos para impedir la propagation de varias enfermedades.
In general, chemotherapeutics can be subdivided into: (i)
Esta cuestion tiene especial importancia en vista de la intensification
futura de la acuicultura. pesticides applied directly to the pond for the control of
(v) Es urgenternente necesario controlar a nivel nacional e interna- external parasites and fungi; and (//) medicated feeds to
las enfermedades de los peces debida a transfe-
tional la
propagation de arrest bacteria and endoparasites.
rencia e introduction de peces vivos y huevos de peces.
Increased use of pesticides in agriculture has also pro-
vided the fish farmer with chemicals distinguished by their
1 Introduction selectivity toward various parasites. At the concentrations
The supply offish and other organisms from marine waters used, they are not harmful to the fish and cause little
is rapidly reaching its limits. Inland waters such as rivers, damage to aquatic food animals. This permits the introduc-
lakes and reservoirs are becoming increasingly prone to tion of new and simple methods for pest control by spraying
pollution and their value asa source of supply of animal the entirepond area with suitable compounds. Thus, the
protein is decreasing. On the other hand, the world popula- can be treated without being transferred from the pond.
fish
tion, even in developing countries, is undergoing a rapid The quantities of pesticides required are usually relatively
change toward urbanization, and man is becoming more small, and the entire procedure is inexpensive and readily
and more dependent on a commercial supply of food carried out. In commercial aquaculture, the value of the fish
through organized markets. Aquaculture with its great and crop rises sharply so that losses in fish growth and mortali-
as yet unexploited potential is therefore playing an ever- ties are prohibitively more expensive than control and
increasing role in the total food supply. prophylactic measures.
In order to exploit land and water economically for the When selecting new pesticides, the following factors
production of animal protein, large numbers of finfish and have to be considered: the ratio between the lethal dose of
shellfish must be cultivated in relatively small volumes of the substance for the pest organism and that for the fish
191
must be sufficiently large, ie, at least 1:5; the substance ble Fish Diseases inEurope and their Control, Amsterdam,
must be simple to use, readily undergo complete dissocia- 1972, considered the matter at length (Dill, 1973). As a
tion in water, and be safe for handling; it should not be follow-up of this Symposium, a Government Consultation
harmful to crops growing in the vicinity of the treated on an International Convention for the Control of the
ponds; it should not significantly inhibit the productivity of Spread of Major Communicable Fish Diseases was con-
the pond; the half-life of the pesticide should be extremely vened in 1 974 by FAO. As a result, a draft convention was
short in order to minimize unavoidable deleterious effects prepared and sent to Member Governments for comment
on the fish's food organisms; the cost of the pesticide must (FAO, 1974).
not be prohibitive; and the pesticide or other disease con-
trolling agent should not become concentrated or stored in
the fish flesh and must not be harmful to consumers of the 2 Parasites and fungal diseases
treated fish,(Sarig, 1971). Research on the occurrence, identification and life history
The control of communicable diseases, bacterial or viral, of freshwater parasites has been carried out almost the
can be achieved in several ways: (/) immunization; (ii) world over. Hoffman (1967) refers to some 1 200 papers
prevention; (///) increase of 'natural' or genetic resistance; on the parasites of North American freshwater fishes, and
(/v) manipulation of environment; (v) prophylactic use of Kabata (1970), who deals only with crustacean parasites,
chemicals; and (v/) therapy after onset of disease. refers to 200 related publications.
An up-to-date appraisal reveals that: prevention, pro- However, when methods of controlling harmful para-
phylaxis and chemotherapy have advanced considerably; sites are reviewed, the sources of information are limited.
immunization has not yet achieved satisfactory results The works of Plehn (1924), Schaperclaus (1941),
classic
since the immune response offish is temperature-dependent Davis ( 1 933) and Hofer ( 1 904), which appeared in the first
and very slow; promising work has been started in genetic half of this century, gave basic information on measures of
resistance but only in very few cases and on a limited scale parasite eradication, but in most instances this is
(Herman, 1970). inapplicable to modern, intensive, commercial aquaculture,
Nevertheless, many shortcomings still limit the use of the very existence of which may become precarious due to
therapeutics, and misuse of medication may sometimes lead parasitic outbreaks. Only in the last 10-15 years have
to negative results. In many countries, the use of chemicals several helpful and updated books been published which
in animal husbandry, fish included, is strongly restricted, take into account the circumstances and demands of mod-
and the release of quite efficient therapeutics is sometimes ern aquaculture and apply modern therapeutic methods
tedious, complicated and time consuming. Some com- used animal husbandry (Amlacher, 1961; Dogiel, Pe-
in
pounds used for long periods of time may tend to accumu- trushevski and Pavlovski, 1961; Bauer, 1962; Reichen-
late in the body of the fish and adversely affect its develop- bach-Klinke and Elkan, 1965; Hoffman, 1967; Duijn,
ment, or the fish consumer. If such a chemical has a long- 1967;Ghittino, 19 70; Snieszko, 1970; Sang, 1971;Maw-
term half-life in water, it may seriously retard the natural deseley-Thomas, 1972; Roberts and Shepherd, 1974; and
productivity of the water. The frequent use of medicated Hoffman and Meyer, 1974).
feed, especially antibiotics, may sometimes bring about Parasites, and mainly ectoparasites, form the largest
complications. Under normal conditions, fish are under group of pathogenic organisms, especially in warmwater
heavy stress during transportation and the change of envi- fishponds and in temperate climates. Long-term exposure
ronmental conditions. If fish are treated with antibiotics and to suitable temperatures and high levels of organic mate-
then immediately transferred, they are weakened and their rials in pond water due to intensive fertilization and feeding
lowered resistance renders them prone to new infections. enhance shortened life cycles and extensive infection by
The market is flooded with advertisements of new chemi- many pathogenic parasites, causing heavy mortalities. The
cals; the use of chemotherapeutics without the consultation increased density of fish populations in commercial ponds
of a fish pathologist may lead to adverse results (Snieszko, increases the possibility of epidemic outbreaks (Sarig,
1964; Mann, 1975). 1971).
One of the routes of introduction of new diseases is via The impact of parasite attack on fish stocks depends
exotic fishes introduced for aquacultural purposes, for greatly on environmental conditions. An equilibrium natu-
planting in natural waters or as aquarium stock. For exam- rally maintained between host and parasite may be dis-
ple, the introduction of Chinese carp from the Far East to turbed by the occasional introduction qf a new host or
European countries has caused the spread of new epizootics parasitic strain even of the same species. What are consid-
such as swim bladder diseases, new bacterial gill diseases ered 'secondary' parasites may become dangerous and even
and damage due to new species of parasites (Mann, 1975). fatal under different conditions. Therefore, no standard
Another excellent example of the above was the introduc- definition of host-parasite reactions can be taken for
tion of Far Eastern fish species into the USSR, Czechoslo- granted under changing conditions. Examples of such cases
vakia, German Democratic Republic, Romania, Poland are very abundant in literature, and aquaculturists should
and Hungary. Ten to fifteen years later, 28 species of give considerable importance to the aquatic parasitic fauna
parasites of Far Eastern origin were discovered in these in the region.
countries. Nine of the species were found to be disease- Even fish stocks in natural waters or large bodies of
producing and potentially pathogenic (Musselius and Strel- water are vulnerable to parasitic infestations. The bream
kov, 1968). (Abramis brama) in the Tsimliansk Reservoir (USSR)
This matter has been reviewed by Thompson, Dill and serves as an example of such potential danger. This species
Moore (1973) with emphasis on the international measures was heavily infested with Diagrama interrupta resulting in
required for the control of fish diseases transplanted be- a decrease of 25-30% in body weight and a reduction of
tween countries. A Symposium on the Major Communica- 38% in fat content during its first year of life. The infested
192
fish did not spawn since gonadal development ceased survive for as long as 10-15 years. The parasite must spend
(Bauer, 1962). up to six months in mud becoming 'conditioned' before it is
Ergasilus, a crustacean parasite, was present on fish in able to parasitize rainbow trout and affect the head carti-
natural waters in Israel (Paperna, 1 964a) but did not cause lage. It can only parasitize young fish, te, before ossification
serious damage to the fish population. This parasite was of the skeleton, which occurs when the fish attain a length of
similarly found in most African waters (Fryer, 1965) and 6-8 cm. The disease can be prevented by keeping the fry in
there too no damage was recorded. In 1967, fishponds in concrete or fibreglass tanks provided with spore-free water,
Israel,with dense populations of carp, tilapia and grey instead of in earthen ponds, until the fry reach a size of 6-
mullets (Mugil\ were infested with this parasite. After a 7 cm (Christensen, 1973). Hoffman ( 1 964) has found that
short time, the mullets became extremely emaciated and spores in infested fish can be destroyed by ultraviolet light.
suffered mortalities of up to 50%. The gills of these fish Consequently, modern farming techniques can minimize
were covered with hundreds of parasites, but other fish the danger of this disease which, until recently, was consid-
species in the same pond were not affected (Sarig, 1971). ered one of the most severe diseases of salmonid culture.
Monogenetic trematodes are very abundant in some Ceratomyxa shasta, another mixosporidian parasite
parts of the world and constitute a considerable potential causing mortalities of young salmonids in western US
danger to intensive fish farming. In Israel, 29 species have salmonid farms, has also proved to be highly sensitive to
already been described (Paperna, 1964) and in Africa, 71 ultraviolet light; if treated accordingly, it is possible to
species (Paperna and Thurston, 1969). One species of this practically clear contaminated hatchery waters (Hoffman,
group, Dactylogyrus vastator, is known to be highly dan- 1974).
gerous for warm-water fish hatchlings a few days after The introduction of herbivorous fish from the Far East
hatching and up to the weight of about 3 g. Many heavy into western Europe was followed by an invasion of new
mortalities in spawning and nursing ponds have been de- parasites. Of these, Bothriocephalus gowkongensis* which
scribed; millions of fry have been killed within 5-10 days. infests grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella\ is an example
Such mortalities may sometimes cause the loss of the total in that it is now found infesting the common carp (Cyprinus
annual production of a commercial farm if no replacement carpio) of the Federal Republic of Germany, causing mor-
stocks are available (Sarig, 1971). talities of 25-30% in carp fingerling populations.
Protozoan parasites infesting fish have also been the Khawia sinensis is another parasite imported from the Far
object of intensive research in recent years. Schubert East. It sometimes reaches a length of 7-8 cm and can be
(1968) found Costia necatrix to be seriously affecting fish found in numbers exceeding 100 in the intestines of infested
populations due to its ingestion of large numbers of epider- fish, sometimes blocking food intake and causing death due
mal cells. Other parasites of this group, such as Chilodo- to starvation. The only effective control measure known is
nella, Trichodina and Glossatella, are also potentially dan- to dry the pond and lime it (with CaClj ), measures which
gerous, depending on the density of the fish stock and the cause waste of time in commercial aquaculture (Mann,
massiveness of infestation. This group of parasites, as well 1975; Musselius and Strelkov, 1968).
as digenetic trematodes and parasitic Crustacea whose out-
breaks are temperature-dependent, are common to native
fishes ofAsia and Africa and there is already evidence of 3 Bacterial diseases
serious epizootics attributed to these parasites. Recently, Bacteria pathogenic to fish are divided into 'obligate' and
increase in fish introductions as well as an increase in 'facultative' pathogens. In examining bacterial infections of
transfers within these continents has accelerated the patho- to establish whether the isolated organism
fish, it is essential
genic infestation offish (Paperna and Thurston, 1969). is a true pathogen of the fish or a secondary invader. Many
Chemotherapeutic treatment has been recently devel- common saprophytic water bacteria can produce diseases
oped which enables the prevention or successful control of when the fish are under stress due to specific but as yet
losses due to most ectoparasites. The possibility of carrying poorly understood environmental conditions which affect
out such a measure against parasites attached to the fish by the susceptibility of the fish and pathogenicity of the
spraying chemicals directly onto the pond water without bacteria. Obviously, host susceptibility, pathogen virulence
harming the fish, their growth, or the eventual consumers and environmental conditions must all be favourable to
renders this method very suitable for use in commercial bacteria for epizootics to occur in fish populations. Some
aquaculture and as a prophylactic measure during fish factors affecting bacterial epizootics include: immunologi-
transport or import (Kabata, 1970; Sarig, 1971; Hoffman cal resistance, genetic resistance, temperature stress, pollu-
and Meyer, 1974). tion, unfavourable water chemistry, and other unfavourable
Microscopic identification of parasites requires skilled environmental conditions (Snieszko, 1964).
and experienced workers, and the lack of manpower, In hatcheries, the practical control of bacterial disease is
laboratories and well organized extension services can problematic. One method to prevent it is through use of
aggravate the problem even when suitable control measures medicated feed. Roberts and Shepherd (1974) recommend
are known. Furanace (Nifurpinal) and Hyamine 3 500 (a quarternary
Changes in fishcultural procedures may sometimes influ- ammonium compound) as being of particular value in
ence the severity of certain diseases. Whirling disease, treating bacterial diseases; these chemicals are readily
produced by the sporozoan Myxosoma cerebralis, is one sprayed on infected ponds. Deufel (1974) advocates treat-
example of such a development. The disease which infects ment with Mefarol (identical to Roccal) in hatcheries for
salmonids, mainly rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri\ is salmonids and pikes (Esox) for the control and prophylaxis
spread throughout the world (Bogdanova, 1973). Heavy of bacterial disease.
infestation may bring about high mortalities of small fish. Bacterial diseases are more acute in cold-water aquacul-
Survivors become carriers, and spores in salmonids may ture than in warm-water culture. Of the most important
193
pathogens, the following groups should be mentioned: (/) under experimental conditions immunization and chemo-
Aeromonas and Pseudomonas, (if) Corynebacteria, (Hi) therapy with sulphamerazine and antibiotics gives promis-
Enterobacteria, (/v) Hemophilus, (v) Mycobacteria and ing results, there is practically no cure (Bullock, Conroy
Nocardia, (v/) Myxobacteria, ( vn) Streptomyces, and (viii) and Snieszko, 1971).
Vibrio. Ulcer disease caused by Haemophilus piscium affects
Although some authors have considered that Aeromonas and Canada. The
trout in the northeastern United States
punctata and other bacteria were the primary causative main problem lies in the fact that the organism, transmitted
agents of infectious dropsy of carp (IDC), most authors by faecal material, can be carried by adult survivors.
have discounted this view and pointed toward viral origin Although oxytetracycline keeps the epizootic under limited
(see Tomasec, 1973, and the findings of an expert panel on control, the main measures are prevention by adherence to
the subject as reported by Dill, 1972). It is evident, how- strict sanitation (Bullock, Conroy and Snieszko, 1971).
ever, that replication of these bacteria (which are often Mycobacterium tuberculosis often causes great damage
found in fish with IDC) may influence the course of the to salmonids fed salmon or trout viscera, but does not
disease. Fijan(1972) has recently shed new light on this present a problem to modern farms which feed their fish
diseaseby distinguishing it into two different epizootics, with pelleted diets (Roberts and Shepherd, 1974). Accord-
one caused by a virus spring viremia of carp (SVC) and ing to Bullock, Conroy and Snieszko ( 1 97 1 ), the disease is
the other of bacterial origin carp erythrodermatitis (CE). encountered throughout the world and more than 120
Although individual antibiotic injections have reduced the species are susceptible to infection by this bacterial species.
mortality rate in the case of the bacterial disease, the entire Treatment usually not feasible, and control is effected by
is
problem which is still unsolved continues to endanger changing the method of feeding.
cyprinids in intensive aquaculture (Popoff and Kinkelin, Reichenbach-Klinke (1972) subdivides pathogenic my-
1968; Lobountzov and Roudikov, 1968). The CE form cobacteria into two categories: (i) those infecting warm and
responds to chemical treatment, for example, Furazolidane temperate-water fish such as Myxidium fortuitum and M.
in a bath or oxytetracycline in the feed. These findings are of marinum; and (it) those infecting cold-water fish such as M.
great importance as individual injections of antibiotics are salmoniphilum. It is practically impossible to eradicate
not practical. such infections, but their occurrence can be reduced by
Aoki and Egusa (1971) and Aoki et al (1971 and adequate nutrition, husbandry, and environmental
197 la) examined the resistance of Aeromonas liquefaciens conditions.
and found that 39 out of 72 drug-resistant strains carried Myxobacteria are the source of many diseases, especially
transferable drug-resistance factors, mainly to sulphanil- those of salmonids, producing: fin rot, tail rot, Columnaris
amide and tetracycline. They believe that the high inci- disease, coldwater disease, peduncle disease and bacterial
dence of resistance factors in cultured fish is attributable to gill disease. The diseases may be aggravated by
the high selective pressure exerted by the chemotherapeu- unfavourable conditions such as crowding, improper
tics used in fish culture. According to Hoffman (1971), temperature and malnutrition. Necrosis caused by fin or tail
epizootics of A. liquefaciens also caused mortalities of rot serves as entry for virulent pathogens. The intro-
more
Salmo salar and the white sucker (Catostomus commer- duction of oxytetracycline into the water is quite successful
soni) in natural waters. Environmental stress (pollution and but not practical in large ponds. Therefore, the most recom-
high temperatures) enhanced conditions for an epizootic. mended measures are improvement of environmental con-
Furunculosis, which is caused by Aeromonas salmoni- management (Bullock, Conroy and Snieszko,
ditions and
cida, characteristically breaks out when water temperatures 1971; Roberts and Shepherd, 1974).
are at their peak, and is common mainly in salmon and Columnaris causes special problems for aquaculturists
brown trout (Salmo trutta\ but less so in rainbow trout (S. USA, Japan and the United Kingdom because of its
in the
gairdnerf). It is transmitted by water from diseased or ability to persist for long periods at high temperatures and
carrier fish, by contact by eggs and by equipment. It is in the presence of increased water hardness and organic
treated by medicated feed to which chiefly sulphanamides, content. Thus, pathogenicity increases with intensification
antibiotics or nitrofurons are added (Herman, 1973). Dis- of industry (Fijan, 1968). Amend (1970) differentiates
infection of ova, facilities, as well as other sanitary meas- between highly virulent strains which may cause death
ures are of great importance. within 24-48 hours and low virulence strains which bring
Research required on chemotherapy through the
is still about death after several days. In systematic infections,
addition of drugs to water and immunization. sulfonamide antibiotics or nitrofurans in the diet may be
Bacterial kidney disease (BKD), another disease causing helpful.
losses, is probably confined to salmonids. Mortality in- Coldwater disease and peduncle disease are caused by
creases with increased temperature. Diagnosis of the Cytophaga sp. Therapy of coldwater disease is limited to
disease is quite complicated and transmission has not been feeding of medicated feeds. The best results have been
unequivocally established. There is some evidence that obtained with sulfisoxazole and sulphamethazine in starter
transmission takes place through fertilized eggs (Bullock, feed for fish fry and oxytetracycline in feeds for larger fish.
Conroy and Snieszko, 1971). The causative agent seems to When the disease appears in yolk-sac fry, medicated feed
be a Corynebacterium. No effective control or treatment is cannot be applied (Amend, 1970). Peduncle disease is
known. Roberts and Shepherd (1974) claim that care limited to salmonids, but is less common in trout. Preven-
should be taken to ensure that salmon eggs or parr come tion can be brought about by reducing stocking density,
from an uninfested source. rearing young salmonids in troughs, and treatment with
'Redmouth' is another disease of rainbow trout found in sulfa drugs until the temperature rises (Bullock, Conroy
the western US and caused by a still unnamed enterobacter- and Snieszko, 1971).
ium. The disease is known to be communicable. Although Bacterial gill disease is produced by a variety of myxo-
194
bacteria, especially when fish are under stress. Roberts and ease, is transmitted by contact and via infected water
Shepherd (1974) recommend the addition of Hyamine passing through the gills. Various stress factors influence
3 500 to the water. Prophylactic measures such as im- the course of the disease. It is confined to Europe. It does
provement of environmental conditions are most helpful. not survive on fish eggs and carrier fish do not present a
Christensen (1972) also considers the avoidance of dusty problem, thus facilitating prevention. Rainbow trout are
feed to be important. very susceptible, and brown trout (Salmo trutta) appear to
In eel farming, the following are the most pathogenic be resistant to this virus. The disease affects fish exceeding a
bacterial diseases: cotton wool disease and red fin disease, length of 5 cm and is most common at low temperatures.
caused by Aeromonas parasitica closely associated with As with other viral diseases, no treatment is known and if an
the fungus Saprolegnia parasitica in Japan (Egusa, 1968). outbreak occurs it is best to destroy the entire farm stock,
Both organisms are known to cause heavy damage in warm- leave the ponds fallow, and disinfect for three months
water aquaculture. Many problems concerning these epi- before restocking. Research is required in vaccines for
zootics are still unsolved and no easy nor reliable preven- immunization and in development of resistant strains. Sero-
tion or curative measures are known. logical identification has been recently developed
Vibriosis anguillarum is known to cause considerable (Jorgensen, 1968; Ghittino, 1973; Christensen, 1972).
damage to populations of all fish species cultured in salt Ulcerative dermal necrosis (UDN) is a disease whose
water. Prompt treatment with antibiotics (nitrofurans) will etiology is still uncertain, although work undertaken sug-
usually save those fish still capable of taking food (Roberts gests that it is infectious and filterable. It affects adult
and Shepherd, 1974). Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) and sea trout (anadromous
Swim bladder inflammation (SBI) was first encountered form of brown trout). So far, the disease has been described
in the USSR but has already spread over almost all of in Ireland, Great Britain and France. The fungus Saproleg-
Europe. The disease appears mainly in densely populated nia occurs as a secondary infection in the lesions of infected
and artificially-fed carp ponds but is also found in wild fish and causes heavy mortalities. In view of its probable
stocks. A virus is suspected as the causative agent but the infectious nature, it is advisable to take hygienic precau-
etiology is uncertain. Although chemotherapy has been tions against this virus (Murphy, 1973; Roberts and Shep-
effective, the chief measure of control seems to be careful herd, 1974).
supervision of transported stock, quarantine and sanitary Spring viremia of carp (SVC) has been recently sepa-
measures. (See especially Arshaniza and Bauer (1973), rated from what is known as infectious dropsy of carp
Liebmann (1973) and Antychowicz (1973).) (IDC). SVC is caused by Rhabdovirus carpio. Epizootics
occur in all of Europe during the spring season at tempera-
tures of 13-22C. The mode of transmission is not known
4 Viral diseases and chemotherapy is nonexistent. The mortality among
Wolf (1972) indicates that in the last ten years, a number of carp during epizootics may vary from very low to 90%
severe fish diseases have been caused by viruses, and (Fijan et a/, 1971; Fijan, 1972; Tomasec, 1973).
distinguishes eight particularly important viral diseases. The following diseases are also likely to be of viral
Viral diseases cannot be cured and it is essential that they be origin, and can cause considerable damage to cultured fish
the eggs by iodophores prevents transfer of the disease, but disease but it already effects heavy losses in Ictalurus
there is no cure for diseased fish. Practical control by lacustris. Ithas been definitely established that the vector is
incubation at an elevated temperature, 1 8-20C for 4-6 a virus (Fijan, 1968a; Wolf and Darlington, 1971);
days following the first 24 hours of infection or continued (///) Wolf, ( 1 972) in his review offish virology, enumer-
growth at 15C aid in prevention (Amend et a/, 1973). ates 1 5 known fish diseases caused by viruses, in addition to
Infectious pancreatic necrosis (IPN) is a very contagious the above-mentioned acute viremias and non-acute viral
disease of salmonids, especially young fry, endemic in most diseases (lymphocystis, walleye sarcoma, walleye epider-
parts of North America, Europe and Japan. It is transmitted mal hyperplasia, papillomas and cauliflower disease). Al-
via eggs, milt or faeces. Adult fish may carry the virus though it is unlikely that the non-acute viral diseases cause
within their internal organs, particularly the gonads, with- extensive mortalities, there is a possibility that there are
out any manifestations of disease. The disease may cause a early acute phases which could kill before the typical
loss of 20% of the stock and the surviving fish remain discernible symptoms develop; the debilitating effects of
carriers for re-infestation. No remedy is known. In certain any disease may contribute to factors promoting fish death.
experiments, some chemotherapeutics effected a 50% re-
duction in mortality. The principal means of control is to 5 Toxic algae
provide infection-free stock (Christensen, 1972; Scherrer, Extensive information exists in literature on algal species
1973). which produce toxins that may kill fish. Smirnov and
Viral haemorrhagic septicemia (VHS), or Egtved dis- Fcdokistova (1963) have reported the toxicity of the blue-
195
green alga Coelosphaerium dubium in British Columbia.
1973 prophylaxis of swim-bladder inflammation of cvprmids (SBI).
In Symposium on the Major Communicable Fish Diseases in
Blooms of Prymnesium parvum, a flagellate, and certain
Europe and their Control. Panel reviews and relevant papers,
blue-green algae, especially Microcystis, Anabaena, Spiru- edited by W. A. Dill, pp. 140-4
lina, and Oscillatoria have killed pond fish (Shilo, 1965, BAUER, O. N. Parasites of freshwater fish and the biological basis for
1962 their control. Jerusalem, Israel Programme for Scientific
1971; Ulitzur, 1966; Sarig, 1968). Pathological changes Translations, IPST Cat. No, 622: 237 p.
due to toxins of Cyanophyta and records of fish killed by BOODANOVA, E. A. A summary of worldwide investigations on whirling
1973 disease of salmonids. In Symposium on the Major Communi-
Glenodinium in a reservoir have also been reported.
cable Fish Diseases in Europe and their Control. Panel reviews
As emphasized by Snieszko ( 1 964) in regard to bacteria, and relevant papers, edited by W. A. Dill, pp. 231-9
environmental conditions are even more important in their BULLOCK, G. L., CONROY, D. A. & SNIESZKO, S. F. Bacterial diseases
1971 of fish. In Diseases of fish, edited by S F. Snieszko and H R.
effect on fish kills due to algal blooms. Changes in pH, CO 2 Axelrod Jersey City, N.J., TFH. Publications, Book 2A, 151 p
content and mainly oxygen depletion caused by excessive CHRISTENSEN, N. O. Some diseases of trout in Denmark. In Diseases
1972 of Fish, edited by L. E. Mawdesley-Thomas, pp. 83-8
algal growth in ponds can effect massive fish mortality
CHRISTENSEN, N. O. Panel 8 review. Whirling disease (myxosomiasis)
(Sarig, 1971; Swingle, 1968). While the control of the 1973 in salmonids. In Symposium on the Major Communicable Fish
toxin-producing alga, Prymnesium parvum, can in most Diseases in Europe and their Control. Panel reviews and
relevant papers, edited by W. A. Dill, 218-33
cases be easily controlled, no satisfactory economical pp.
DAVIS, H. S. Culture and diseases of game fishes. Berkeley, University
measures are yet known for the control of excessive algal 1933 of California Press, 332 p.
blooms. DEUFEL, J. Profilaktische Massnahmen gegen bakterielle Erkrankungen
1974 der Salmonidenbrut. Oesterr. Fisch., 27 (1): 1-5
DILL, W. A. (Ed ). Report of the Symposium on the Major Communi-
1972 cable Fish Diseases in Europe and their Control organized by
6 Conclusions FAO/EIFAC with the support of OIE, Amsterdam, 20-22
April 1972 EIFAC Tech. Pap., (17)' 43 p.
Several important conclusions can be reached from this DILL, W. A. (Ed ) Symposium on the Major Communicable Fish
review: 1973 Diseases in Europe and their Control. Panel reviews and
relevant papers. EIFAC Tech. Pap., (17) Suppl. 2, 255 p
(0 Great advances have been made in the chemotherapy DOOIEL, V. A., PETRUSHEVSKI, G. K &
PAVLOVSKI, Yu I. Parasitology
of pathogenic parasites. However, the lag in qualified man- 1961 of fishes. London, Oliver and Boyd, 384 p.
DUUN, C. VAN, JR Diseases of fishes. London, IhrTe Books Ltd., 309 p.
power, laboratory facilities and bureaucratic restrictions 1967
may serve as limiting factors in certain countries. EGUSA, S., Changes of epizootics in pond eels in Japan. Bull. Off. Int.
(//) Advances in histology, identification of disease- 1968 Epizoot., 69 (7-8): 1035-44
FAO. Control of the spread of major communicable fish diseases.
promoting agents and use of medicated feeds assist in the 1974 Report of the Government Consultation on an International
control of many diseases of bacterial origin. There are still Convention for the Control of the Spread of Major Communi-
some problematic bacterial diseases which require further cable Fish Diseases. Aviemore, Scotland, 30 April- 1 May 1974.
FAO Fish. Rep., (149): 17 p.
investigation related to their identification, life cycles and FIJAN, N. N. The survival of Chondrococcus columnaris in waters of
methods of control. 1968 different quality. Bull. Off. Int. Epizoot., 69 (7-8): 1159-66
FUAN, N. N. Progress report on acute mortality of channel catfish
(i/O Although many fish diseases of viral origin have
1968a fingerlings caused by a virus. Bull. Off. Int. Epizoot., 69 (7-8):
been described in the past few years, there have been no real 1167-70
advances in their control. FIJAN, N. N. Infectious dropsy in carp A disease complex. In Diseases
1972 of Fish, edited by L. E Mawdesley-Thomas, pp. 39-52
(/v) Many fish diseases are the result of, or are enhanced FIJAN, N N et al, Isolation of the viral agent from the acute form of
by, poor environmental conditions and improper pond or 1971 infectious dropsy of carp. Vet. Arch. Zagreb, 41 (5-6): 135-38
hatchery management. This indicates that prophylaxis, FRYER, G. Crustacean parasites of African freshwater fishes, mostly
1965 collected during the expedition to Lake Tanganyika and to
proper care of the fish stock and correct management are Lakes Kivu, Eduard and Labert by the Institut Royal des
decisive factors in preventing the development of various Sciences Naturelles de Belgique. Bull. Inst. Sci. Nat. Belg ,
196
KANAJEV, A, I. Etat present et perspectives de 1'etude de P" Inflammation 1974 diseases. West Byfleet, Surrey, Fishing News (Books) Ltd., 168 p.
1968 de la vessie natatoire" chez les carpes. Bull. Off. Int. Epizoot. 69 SARIG, S. A review of diseases and parasites of fishes in warmwater
(9-10): 1523-38 1968 ponds in the Near East and Africa. FAO Fish. Rep. (44) vol. 5 , :
PAPERNA, I Parasitic Crustacea (Copepoda and Branchiura) from TOMASEC, I. Infectious dropsy ol carp (ILK!). In Symposium on the
1964a inland water fishes of Israel. /.ST. ,/. Zool 13 5X-68 ,
. 1 973 M
ajor Communicable Fish Diseases in Europe and their Control .
PAPERNA, I. & THURSTON, J. P. Monogenetic trematodes collected from Panel reviews and relevant papers, edited by A. Dill, pp. W
including the description of five new 107-12
1
PLEHN, M. Praktikum der Fischkrankheiten. Binnenfisch. Mitteleur., 1973 of Europe and N orth America. A review of national
fish diseases
1924 1:1301-479 and international measures for their control. EIFAC Tech. Pap.,
POPOFF, M. & KINKELIN, P. DE, Mise en evidence d'un agentpathogenie (17)Suppl. 1:48 p.
1968 non determine responsable d'un syndrome "Septicemie hemorr- ULITZUR, S. The
of cofactors on the ichthyotoxicity of Prymne-
effects
hagique des cypnnides Bull. Off. Int, Epizoot, 69 (7-8). 1966 slum parvum.
Protozool. 11 (Suppl.): 43
J. t
been recorded in Japan. vibriose, infection du myocarde, et infection par les trematodes.
Asinternational trade in live fish and fish eggs increases, the oppor- Parmi les maladies 'internatipnales' des poissons, NPI, NHI, furoncu-
tunities for introduction of exotic diseases are increased. The main items lose, necrose des oules, maladie ulcerante et infection par les cestodes
of Japanese live fish exports are goldfish, coloured and oyster seed. sont presentes au Japon. Par contre. Ton n'a jamais enregistre dans ce
carp
Eels, various marine fishes, shrimp, etc, are imported alive from many pays les affections suivantes: maladie du tournis, SHV, SV et inflamma-
countries. At present, health certifications are not required to import live tion de la vessie natatiore des cyprinides.
fishand fish eggs into Japan. But the Fisheries Agency has implemented A
mesure que s'intensifie le commerce international des poissons
a programme to establish a fish disease control system and at the same vivants et des oeufs de ppisson. les possibilites d' introduction des
time a national act is in preparation to regulate the transportation and maladies exotiques s'accrpissent. Les exportations de poissons et de
importation of all forms of aquatic life from foreign countries. mollusques vivants japonais portent essentiellement sur le cyprin dore. la
197
carpe coloree ct le naissain d'huitre. Le Japon importe des anguilles, the last decade. The production of yellowtail (Seriola
divers poissons mar ins. des crevettes. etc. a I'etat vif en provenance de
quinqueradiata), for example, exceeded 80000 tons in
npmbreux pays. A I'heure actuellc, Pon peut importer des poissons
vivants et des ocufs de poisson au Japon sans produire un certificat 1973; this is a production 16 times greater than that in
sanitairc. Toutefois, POfnce des peches a mis en oeuvre un programme 1963. Although the amount of production is still small, the
destine a lutter contre les maladies des poissons; par aillcurs. une loi est
en preparation aux fins de reglementer le transport et P importation de
harvests of red sea-bream (Pagrus major) and penaeid
toutes les formes de vie aquatique en provenance de pays etrangers. shrimp (Penaeus japonicus) have increased remarkably
since 1970. Cultivation of aquarium fishes, such as col-
Enfarmedades epkttmicas de lot peces y w control en el Japon oured carp and goldfish (Carassius auratus) is common in
Extracto
freshwater areas; the numbers of these produced in 1973
En el Japon esta muy extendido el cultivo de peces en aguas dulces y
zonas costeras. Las principals especies cultivadas en aguas dulces son were 131 884 000 and 229 993 000 respectively (Japan,
salmonidos, ciprinidos, anguilas y ayu. Entre los peces marines cultiva- Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, Bureau of Statistics
dos figuran el pez limon, el besugo y los camarones peneidos. El control
de las enfermedades de los peces, tanto endemicas como procedentes de (1975)).
otros paises a traves de la importacion de peces vivos y huevos de peces, TABLE I
son de importancia para esta industria. PRODUCTION OF CULTIVATED FISH IN JAPAN
El problema para el control de epidemias es mas scrip de ano en ano.
Se calcula que en 1 9 73 las enfermedades de los peces hicieron perder a la 1970 1971 1972 1973
industria piscicola japonesa de aguas dulces unas 5 800 toneladas, ante
una produccion de 64 000; las perdidas en la piscicultura en aguas
marinas, con una produccion de 84 000 toneladas, fueron del orden de
3 500 toneladas.
Las principals enfermedades epidemicas son las siguientes: (i) en los
salmonidos: vibriosis, micosis, necrosis pancreatica infectiva, necrosis
hematopoyetica infectiva, hexamitiasis y forunculosis, (//) en los ciprini-
dos: ulceras, infeccion de Chondrococcus columnaris, e infeccion bacter-
iana del mucus (Pseudomonas fluorescens}\ (Hi) en la anguila: branqui-
onefritis, infeccion de Chondrococcus columnar is, peste roja (Aero-
monas hydrophila) y peste macular roja (Pseudomonas anguilllceptica};
(iv) en el ayu: vibriosis y Glugea\ y (v) en el pez limon: tuberculosis
bacteriana, vibriosis, nocardiasis y infestaciones de trematodos.
De las 'enfermedades Internationales de los peces', existen en el
Japon: necrosis pancreatica infectiva, necrosis hematopoyetica infectiva,
forunculosis, necrosis branquial, ulceras, e infeccion de cestodos. Nunca This figure includes 7 1 5 tons of harvest of native land-locked trout
se ban registrado en cambio, en el Japon, casos de enfermedad del Source: Japan, Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, Bureau of Statistics
vertigo, septicemia hemorragica viral, viremia primaveril e inflamacion (1972, 1973, 1974 and 1975)
de la vejiga natatoria de los ciprinidos.
A medida que aumenta el comercio international de peces vivos y 3 Important epidemic fish diseases in Japan
huevos de peces, aumentan las posibilidades de introduction de enferme-
dades exoticas. Las principals partidas de las exportaciones japonesas In the development of fish culture, considerable effort has
de peces vivos son carpa dorada, carpa de color y semilla de ostras. Se been paid to the techniques of cultivation, improvement of
importan vivos de muchos paises anguilas, varies peces marines, cama- diet and control of disease. As production has been ex-
rones, etc. En la actualidad no son necesarios certiijcados sanitarios para
importer peces vivos y huevos de peces en el Japon, pero la Oficina de tended, the problem of controlling epidemics, especially
Pesca ha implementado un programa para establecer un sistema de under conditions of high density stocking and rearing, has
control de las enfermedades de los peces y, al mismo tiempo, esta en
received more and more attention.
preparation una ley nacional para regular el transporte e importacion de
todas las formas de seres vivos acuaticos procedentes de paises Salmonids: With progress in knowledge offish nutri-
(i)
extranjeros. tion and improvements in the formulation and manufacture
of artificial diets, dietary diseases of salmonids have almost
1 Introduction disappeared. Nevertheless, loss of fish due to communic-
As aquaculture expands throughout the world, there is able diseases has tended to increase. Infectious pancreatic
greater traffic in and transfer of live fish and fish eggs from necrosis (IPN) and infectious haematopoietic necrosis
country to country. With such transfers, the opportunities (IHN) have caused serious damages in fry stages, and
for introduction of fish diseases and parasites is increased, losses due to hexamitiasis (octomitiasis) are found in some
and protection from infection by exotic diseases has be- localities. Vibriosis (Vibrio) is serious in stages from finger-
come an urgent problem for aquaculturists. ling to adult. Recently, fungus disease has occurred in
This paper presents the status of fish diseases and the mature fish and the supply of eyed eggs has occasionally
programme for their control in Japan. Emphasis is placed been infected. Furunculosis (caused by the bacterium Aero-
upon those diseases which are important economically and monas salmonicida) is one of the most serious diseases of
upon their prevention rather than treatment the native land-locked Japanese salmonids (Oncorhvnchus
masou, O. rhodurus and Salvelinus pluvius).
(//) Cyprinids: Ulcer disease, columnaris disease and
2 Production of cultivated fish in Japan bacterial slime disease (caused by a non-motile variant of
Fish cultivation is widely carried on in the freshwater and Pseudomonas fluorescens) are the principal epidemics in
coastal areas of Japan (Table I). The principal fishes under Japanese cyprinid cultivation. Since 1970, ulcer disease
cultivation in fresh water include salmonids (eg, rainbow has occurred in various freshwater fishes, causing the heavi-
trout, Salmo gairdneri), cyprinids (especially common estdamages in carp and goldfish cultivation. The etiology
carp.Cyprinuscarpio),tt\ (Anguilla)andayu (Plecoxlossus of ulcer disease has not yet been established and the
altivelis). Harvests of these fish amounted to 97% of the relationship between this disease and the so-called carp
64000 tons of freshwater fish harvested in 1973. The crythrodermatitis (CE) of Europe, remains uninvestigated.
production of salmonids, carp and ayu is increasing. In (in) Eel: Branchionephritis, columnaris disease, red dis-
contrast, the production of eels has remained at a lower ease (due to Aeromonas hydrophila) and red spot disease
level due to a shortage of elvers (used as seedlings) in recent (caused by Pseudomonas anguilliceptica) are the principal
years. Marine fish cultivation has developed rapidly during epizootics in eel cultivation. Branchionephritis began to
198
occur in Japan in 1970, .and continued to cause heavy amount of damage caused by fish diseases. Questionnaires
damages every winter. Recently, two kinds of pathogenic were distributed to 16 349 of Japan's 19 121 fish farms.
viruses were isolated from diseased eels (Sano and Nichi- Responses were obtained from 6 003 farms, 31% of the
mura, 1974; Sano et a/, 1974). total number of fish farms. Based on the results of this
(iv) Ayu: Vibriosis is the most serious disease in ayu investigation, the total loss caused by fish disease in 1973
cultivation, and infection from the microsporidian Glugea was estimated as about 9 300 tons (Table II and Table III).
is also serious in some localities.
TABLE III
MAJOR FISH DISEASES RESPONSIBLE FOR LOSS OF PRODUCTION IN JAPAN, 1973
Carp Ayu
Ulcer disease 40-9 Vibriosis 92-6
Columnaris disease 34-9 Red mouth disease" 0-7
Bacterial slime disease 4-0 Mycotic granulomatosis* 0-7
Glugea infection 0-6
Coloured carp
Ulcer disease 76-0 Yellowtail
Epistylis infection 1- \ Bacterial tuberculosis 28-1
White spot disease 4-2 Nocardial infection 9-5
Columnaris disease 2-6 Vibriosis 9-4
Ectoparasitic trematode
infection 3-7
1 * e *
Epistylis longtcorpora. Mttraspora cyprintl. Chondrococcus cotumnaris. Saprolegnta sp.
199
From this, it may be assumed that IHN virus occurred in TABLE VI
INTERNATIONAL TRAFFIC IN LIVE FISH AND FISH EGOS IN JAPAN (KG PER
the migrating salmonids.
ANNUM)
The first Japanese outbreak of IHN in rainbow trout was
Item 1973 1974
found in two prefectures, Nagano and Shizuoka, in the
autumn of 1972. By 1973, this disease had spread over six
TABLE IV
OCCURRENCE OF INTERNATIONAL FISH DISEASES IN JAPAN
"
Mostly coloured carp
b
Mostly marine fishes imported from the Republic of Korea
Source: Japanese customs clearance statistics
TABLE V
NUMBER OF PREFECTURES INSPECTED AND NUMBER OF OCCURRENCES OF IPN AND IHN IN RAINBOW TROUT, 1963-74
IPN IHN
Many fishery workers believe that it is almost impossible workers have directly accepted the task of diagnostic and
to eradicate contagious agents, such as those of IHN and consultative service to commercial hatcheries and fish
IPN, once they are present. Thus, public opinion in Japan farms. Information on serious fish diseases in each adminis-
isinclined to forbid the importation of live fish and fish eggs trative district is accumulated at a designated prefectural
from areas where VHS or whirling disease are found. station or national institute, and the measures or regula-
export are coloured carp, goldfish and oyster seed. The this act, especially stringent provisions will be added to the
imported aquarium fish are mainly tropical. The eyed eggs international regulations for certain epizootics, such as
are mostly salmonid. Elvers are imported from Europe, VHS, whirling disease and channel catfish viral disease
south Asia, and other areas. Importation of live eels and (CCVD).
marine fish has been gradually increasing. For exportation of live and frozen salmonids to the
United States, 33 officers have obtained approval as certify-
ing officers by the USA Department of the Interior. These
7 Control of fish diseases officers are also under obligation to inspect all salmonids
In Japan, control of fish disease is not the concern of which are exported. An inspection system for cyprinid
veterinarians but that of fishery workers. Prefectural fishery fishes is being studied in the Fisheries Agency.
200
9 Research and training Convention for the Control of the Spread of Major Communi-
on cable Fish Diseases, Aviemore, Scotland, 30 April- 1 May 1974.
In Japan, research on fish diseases is carried in the
FAO Fish. Rep.,(\49): 17 p.
universities, in national institutes under the Fisheries JAPAN, MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY, BUREAU OF
1972 STATISTICS. Statistical yearbook of fisheries and aquaculture for
Agency and in prefectural fishery stations. At present, there the year 1970. Tokyo, Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry.
are not enough fish pathologists and diagnosticians to meet
JAPAN, MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY, BUREAU OF
the increasing demands for fish disease control. 1973 STATISTICS. Statistical yearbook of fisheries and aquaculture for
the year 1971. Tokyo, Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry
Since 1973, the Fisheries Agency has implemented a
JAPAN, MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY, BUREAU OF
programme to establish a fish disease control system. A 1974 STATISTICS. Statistical yearbook of fisheries and aquaculture for
number of specialists from universities and governmental the year 1972. Tokyo, Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry
JAPAN, MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY, BUREAU OF
and private institutes are engaged in this work. The pro- 1975 STATISTICS. Statistical yearbook of fisheries and aquaculture for
gramme includes three components: compilation of fish the year 1973. Tokyo, Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry
disease statistics; training of inspectors; and publication of KJMURA, T. &AWAKURA, T. Studies on fish diseases. 15. Oral presenta-
1972 tion at 1972 spring session of annual meeting of Japanese Society
a clinical guide book to fish diseases. The training pro- of Scientific Fisheries
gramme aimed at establishing
is about 1 20
officers in all SANO, T. Studies on viral diseases of Japanese fish. 1. Infectious
and two volumes of the clinical guide book have 1971 pancreatic necrosis of rainbow trout: first isolation from
prefectures
epizootics in Japan. Bull. Jap. Soc. Sci. Fish., 37 (6) 495-8
been published. SANO, T. & NISHIMURA, S. Studies on viral diseases of Japanese fish. 7.
1974 Oral presentation at the 1974 spring session of annual meeting
of Japanese Society of Scientific Fisheries
SANO, T. el at. Studies on viral diseases of Japanese fish 8 Oral
10 References 1974 presentation at the 1974 spring session of annual meeting of
Japanese Society of Scientific Fisheries. Studies on viral diseases
FAO, Control of the spread of major communicable fish diseases, of Japanese fish. 9. Oral presentation of the 1974 autumn session
1974 Report of the Government Consultation on an International of annual meeting of Japanese Society of Scientific Fisheries
Control in Colombia
Abstract Informe provisional sobre las enfermedades de los peces en Colombia y
The diseases identified in coldwater and warm water fishes, including su control
ornamental species, in Colombia were primarily of bacterial, fungal and Extracto
parasitic origins, and fish diseases were partially responsible for high fish Las enfermedades encontradas en Colombia en los peces de aguas frias y
mortalities in the economically important ornamental fish trade industry calientes incluidas las especies ornamentales, eran ante todo de tipo
of the country. The absence of infectious pancreatic necrosis (IPN), bacteriano, micotico o parasitario y a el las se debia en parte el elevado
infectious haematopoietic necrosis (IHN), viral haemorrhagic septicae- indice de mortahdad de los peces que afectaba a la indu stria de peces
mia (VHS), furunculosis (Aeromonas salmonicida) and whirling disease ornamentales del pais, de gran importancia economica. Se ha demps-
(Myxosoma cerebralis) in Colombia has also been established. trado la ausencia total en Colombia de necrosis pancreatica infectiva
The Fish Pathology Service of Colombia is responsible for formulat- (NPI), necrosis hematopoyetica infectiva (NHI), septicemia hcmorra-
ing recommendations and procedures for the control offish diseases, and gica viral (SHV), forunculosis (Aeromonas salmonicida) y enfermedad
their basic policy in relation to fish disease control is to permit the use of del torneo (Myxosoma cerebralis).
only those products which have been tested and proved effective against El Servicio Ictiopatologico de Colombia se ocupa de formular reco-
diseases and for fish species under the environmental conditions existing mendaciones y procedimientos para combatir las enfermedades de los
in Colombia. In this respect, approved disease control products, such as el control de las
peces. El principle fundamental por que se guia
Furanace and Parasan are being used effectively to reduce fish mortali- enfermedaaes icticas es permitir solamente el empleo de aquellos pro-
ties in the ornamental fish trade industry. The Service is also controlling ductos que se han ensayado y han resultado eficaces para las enferme-
the use of certain antibiotics and sulphonamides, and products of dades y especies en Question en aguas colombianas. Algunos productos
doubtful efficacy. aprobados, como Furanace y Parasan, se estan utilizando con exito para
reducir la mortalidad de los peces en la industria de peces ornamentales.
El Servicio controla ademas el empleo de algunos antibioticos y sulfona-
Rapport preliminaire sur les maladies dcs poissoos et leur controle en
midas y de varios productos de eficacia dudosa.
Colombk
Resume
Les maladies identifies chez les poissons vivant dans les eaux froides et
les eaux a temperature elevee de la Colombia, y compris les especes 1 Introduction
ornementales, spnt d'origmes essentiellement bacterienne, cryptoga-
mique et parasitaire et elles sont en partie responsables des fortes
One of the principal objectives of the FAO/UNDP Inland
mortalites enregistrees dans le commerce des poissons ornamentaux que Water Fisheries Development Project in Colombia is to
revet une importance economique pour la pays. On a egalement etabli
evaluate the future potential for aquaculture in the country.
que la Colombie est exempte de necrose pancreatique infectieuse (NPI),
necrose infectieuse (NHI), septiccmie hemorragique The rational exploitation and export of live ornamental fish
hematopoietique
virale (SHV), furonculose (Aeromonas salmonicida) et maladie du also represents a commercial activity of considerable im-
tournis (Myxosoma cerebralis}.
Le Service d'ichtyopathplogie de la Colombie est charge de formuler portance, and Colombia is currently the nuyor country in
des recommandations et d'etablir des procedures pour la lutte centre les Latin America in the ornamental fish export trade.
maladies des poissons; sa politique fondamentale en matiere
For these reasons, and taking into account the possible
d'enrayement des maladies des poissons est d'autoriser uniquement
r utilisation de produits qui ont etc experimcntes et se sont reveles importance of fish diseases as a restraint to the successful
efficaces vis-a-visde maladies et d 'especes de poissons se developpant development of aquaculture, the FAO/UNDP Project has
dans conditions d'enyironnement appli cables a la Colombie. Sous ce
les
commenced a programme of research on the major diseases
rapport, certains produits agrees pour la lutte contre les maladies des
poissons, tels que le Furanace et le Parasan, sont efficacement utilises of coldwater and warmwater fishes, including ornamental
pour reduire les taux de mortal ite dans le commerce des especes orne- species, in Colombia. The data obtained will be utilized as a
mentales. Le Service 1'utilisation de certains antibio-
cpntrdle egalement basis for suitable measures for controlling
tiques et sulphonamides, ainsi que celle des produits d'efficacite recommending
douteuse. these diseases.
201
Thepresent document is a preliminary report on the Sternopygus macrurus and Trachycorystes
t
insignis. An
main findings to date with respect to fish diseases in interesting observation made in the field is that both imma-
Colombia. ture and mature male Pseudoplatystomafasciatum from the
River Cauca showed heavier nematode infestations than
females of the same species. Leeches have been found
2 Coldwater species occurring as ectoparasites on Chaetostomafischeri, and the
The main species of interest among the coldwater fish is the branchiuran crustacean Argulus sp. is a known parasite of
rainbow trout (Salmogairdneri\ originally introduced into Brycon mooreL Small numbers of Prochilodus magdalenae
the country in 1939 and now widely distributed in Andean showing clinical signs of a tumour-like growth affecting the
lakes and other water bodies in Colombia. Detailed studies analfin have been collected, and the etiology of this condi-
have been made on the diseases affecting populations of tion is being studied in greater detail.
rainbow trout (Conroy, 1975), and on the basis of these
investigations it has been shown that infectious pancreatic
necrosis (IPN), infectious haematopoietic necrosis (IHN), 4 Ornamental species
viralhaemorrhagic septicaema (VHS), furunculosis (Aero- The principal disease problems observed in ornamental fish
monas salmonicida), and whirling disease (Myxosoma cer- are those associated with poor handling and maintenance
ebralis) are absent. The diseases which have been encoun- techniques. Cases of bacterial haemorrhagic septicaemia,
tered in this species include
bacterial haemorrhagic columnaris disease, fin rot, tuberculosis, saprolegniasis,
septicaemia (Aeromonas sp.), columnaris disease (Flexi- ichthyophthiriasis, chilodoniasis, oodiniasis, plistopho-
bacter \Cytophaga] columnaris}. fin rot (mixed aetiology, rosis, infestationsby monogenetic and digenetic trema-
but associated with the presence of myxobacteria), sapro- todes, nematodoses, and ectoparasitic crustaceans are com-
nella sp.) in the natural environment. It is of interest to different regions of the country. Fish diseases, therefore,
record that rainbow trout in contact with G. bogotensis or constitute an important factor in the valuable ornamental
E. mutisii, which were affected by ichthyophthiriasis or fish trade in Colombia.
chilodoniasis showed no evidence of cross-infection with
these protozoans. The presence of small numbers of nema-
todes and cestodes (? Proteocephalus sp.) in the gastro- 5 Fish disease control
intestinal tract of . mutisii in the Lake Tota region has also The formulation of recommendations and procedures for
been recorded. the control of diseases of warmwater, coldwater and orna-
mental fish in Colombia is the exclusive responsibility of
the Fish Pathology Service, set up and established within
3 Wannwater species the framework of the FAO/UNDP Inland Water Fisheries
Several cases of disease and parasitism have bfcen detected Development Project.
in native species of warm water fish in Colombia (Conroy The basic policy of the Service, in relation to fish disease
and Vasquez, 1975). Ichthyophthiriasis has been diag- control, to permit the use of only those products which
is
nosed from the catfish species Pimelodus grosskopfii and P. have been tested and proved effective for diseases and fish
clarias, as well as from Prochilodus magdalenae and from a species under the environmental conditions applicable to
number of small characins. Isolated cases of a 'boil disease' Colombia. In this respect, much useful work has been
associated with the presence of the myxosporidian Henne- undertaken on the control of diseases of trout, warmwater
guya sp. have also been observed in P. grosskopfii and P. species suitable for aquaculture, and ornamental species of
clarias. Saprolegniasis constitutes a significant disease importance to the export trade.
problem during the transportation of adult P. clarias from On the basis of laboratory studies and field trials carried
the natural environment to fish culture stations situated out by the Fish Pathology Service in close collaboration
elsewhere in the country. with INDERENA biologists throughout the country, the
The main problems warmwater fishes up to
identified in following commercial products have been approved and
the present time are those associated with metazoan para- authorized for use: (/) Furanace 10% granules (Dianippon
sites. Monogenetic trematodes (Dactylogyrus sp.) have Pharmaceutical Co. Ltd., Osaka, Japan); (//) Parasan,
been observed affecting the gills of captive specimens of Myxosan, Povisan, Bactosan, Clorostat, Ficostat (Pisci-
Pimelodus grosskopfii. Cases of 'black spot disease', due to san Hispanica Ltda, Barcelona. Spain); (Hi) Masoten (Far-
digenetic trematode metacercariae in the skin, have been benfabriken Bayer GmbH. Leverkusen, Federal Republic
recorded for Astyanax fasciatus, A.filtferus, Creagrutus of Germany).
magdalenae, and Prochilodus magdalenae in the natural Twoexamples will be given to illustrate the type of
environment. Occurrence of nematodes in the gastro-intes- results which have been achieved by the Fish Pathology
tinal tract and liver of fish is widespread in the natural Service. Application of bathing in Furanace 10% granules,
environment, and they have been observed in specimens of at a concentration of 0-05-0- 1 ppm of nifurpirinol (as
Brycon moorei, Cyrtocharax magdalenae, Hoplias mala- active ingredient), has led to a reduction in mortality of
baricus, Leporinus muyscorum, Mugil spp., Plagioscion ornamental fish in Bogata from 60 to 20%; it has been
surinamensis Pseudoplatystomafasciatum, Sorubim lima,
f
estimated that routine application of this control measure
202
would result in a saving to the Colombian ornamental fish ics, sulphonamides, etc, which are known to give rise to
export industry of at least US $ 25 8 300 per annum. The problems of resistance in bacterial fish pathogens and, in
application of Parasan baths has similarly resulted in highly addition, to impose strict control on the use of products of
significant reductions in mortalities of a wide variety of doubtful efficacy for the control of diseases of ornamental
warmwater fish species suitable for aquaculture, through fish, among others.
control of diseases due to fungi and ectoparasitic proto-
zoans and metazoans.
The results have demonstrated conclusively that the 6 References
application of disease control procedures recommended by CONROY, D. A Informe sobre les enfermedades de la trucha arco iris
the Fish Pathology Service for Colombian species and for 1975 (Salmo gairdneri) en Colombia. Rome, FAO, FI DP/COL/71/
:
552/1: 37 p.
Colombian environmental conditions would be of consid- &
CONROY, D. A. VAsgucz, D. Informe sobre el trabajo del Proyecto
erable practical value and utility in combating and control- 1975 (COL/552) en campo de la ictiopatologia durante
el el afto de
In fish-cum-duck culture, efficient use is made of total biological perm ite obtener beneficios en am bos campos, que, en el caso de los peces,
production in a pond, and total protein production per unit area of water se deben ante todo a la adicion de fertilizantes organicos (excrementos)a
can be doubled. It is estimated that 4-6% of the duck manure added to a los estanques.
pond is converted into fish flesh, and 3-4% of the required digestible La combinacion de la cria de patos con la piscicultura per mite
protein content of duck food can be obtained through foraging Produc- aprovechar eficazmente la production biologica total de un estanque y
tion of one-day-old ducklings and their care during the early stages (up to hace posible duplicar la produccion total de proteinas por unidad de
age 10-20 days) requires specialized knowledge and facilities. It is
superficie de agua. Se calcula que del 4 al 6% de los excrementos de patos
recommended that, for rapid expansion of fish-cum-duck culture pro- que se arrojan a un estanque son transformados por los peces en carne
grammes, duck breeding and distribution centres should be established. propia y que los patos pueden obtener del 3 al 4% de la proteinas
Rearing of geese in combination with fish offers some economic digeribles necesarias para su alimentacipn forrajeando directamente en el
benefits, but its further development is limited by low egg production of estanque. Para producir patitos de un dia y criarlos durante las primeras
geese and their high mortahtv in the juvenile stage. fases (hasta la edad de 10-20 dias) son necesarios conocimientos e
Repeated application of fresh pig and chicken manure to a pond instalaciones especiales. Para lograr una rapida expansion de los progra
(carbon manuring) maintains a high rate of pnmarv productivity with mas de cria de patos con peces se recomienda el establecimiento de
approximately 3-5% of the manure applied being converted into fish centros de reproduction y distribution de
patos.
flesh when used with carp monoculture. This conversion ratio could be La cria de gansos cpmbinada con la piscicultura permite obtener
higher in ponds stocked with plankton-feeding fish.
algunos beneficios economicos. pero su desarrollo se ve limitado por la
escasa produccion de huevos de los gansos y su elevada mortal idad en la
Possibilite de combiner la production animate, en parti culler 1'elevage fase juvenil.
des canards et des pores, avec la pisciculture La aplicacipn repetida de excrementos frescos de cerdos y polios en un
Resume estanque (fertilization organica) permite mantener un elevado indice de
Les avantages qu'il v a a combiner 1'elevage des canards, des oies. des produccion primaria; en el caso del monpcultivo de carpa, del 3 al 5%
poulets et des pores avec la pisciculture sont examines, ainsi que les aproximadamente de los excrementos aplicados son transformados por
a utiliser a cet effet. Cette combmaison presente des avan- los peces en carne. En estanques con peces que se alimentan de plancton
techniques
tages reciproques, les avantages pour la pisciculture resultant surtout de pueden obtenerse indices de conversion aiin mas favoraWes.
Tapport d'engrais organ que (fumier).
i
203
2 Fish-cum-duck culture escape a duck so the problem is minimized (Balogh, Kozma
2.1 History and Mosonyi, 1975).
Ducks have been kept on fish ponds for centuries in Central The major beneficial effect of the joint culture offish and
Europe and China, although not on a commercial scale and ducks derives from the fertilizing effect of the duck's
without really considering the beneficial effect of the ducks droppings which raises the pond's biological production
on fish production. and thus increases fish food production. The realization of
Probst (1934) made the first scientific trials of keeping this effect depends on many factors, among them the basic
ducks on carp (Cyprinus carpio) ponds in Wielenbach, in productivity of the pond, stock density, and food habits of
the Federal Republic of Germany. He stressed the excellent the stocked fish. Increases in fish crop are, therefore, quite
effect of duck droppings on the natural fish food production variable. It has been calculated that one duck produces 6 kg
of the pond. He found that every duck kept on a pond of droppings during 30-40 days on a pond. It has been
resulted in an increase in fish production of 0-9-1-7 kg. estimated that 100 kg of duck manure distributed continu-
(This is rather high due to the poor productivity of the ously in pond water may result in an increase of 4-6 kg of
Wielenbach ponds.) experiments have shown that carp produc-
fish flesh. Field
After the second world war food shortages especially tion increased by 100 kg on average by keeping 300 ducks
that of animal protein and the trend toward intensive on ponds in the second year of experiments in a farm in the
commercial fish culture initiated commercial -scale fish- German Democratic Republic (Blume, 1960). Under sub-
cum-duck culture in Central European countries such as tropical conditions the effect of duck droppings is even
Czechoslovakia, the German Democratic Republic, Hun- higher.
gary and Poland. In these countries, practical fish cultur- The average annual production offish in a fish-cum-duck
ists through exchange of experiences solved the tech- farm in Taiwan Province of China, where advanced tech-
niques of maintaining a brood stock of ducks and rearing niques in fish and duck culture are applied, is about 3 500
one-day-old ducklings, as well as rearing (nursing) 14-2 1- kg/ha (Ling, 1971). Polyculture, repeated stocking, re-
day-old (advanced) ducklings. These are both pre-requi- peated selective harvesting and high density duck stocking
sites for fish-cum-duck culture on a commercial scale. (500-1 500/ha) are practised here. The duck droppings on
Today millions of market ducks are produced yearly on fish such a farm are not only sufficient to produce a rich growth
ponds in these European countries, and the amount of duck of natural fish food organisms, but part of the droppings is
meat produced significantly surpasses the production of directly eaten by some of the fish. Some of the left-over
fish. (Renner and Sarodnik, 1973; Balogh. Kozma and duck feed when washed into the pond (especially if the
Mosonyi, 1975.) feeding places are located in the pond) is also readily eaten
Large-scale, profitable fish-cum-duck culture also exists by the fish. Ling (1971) states that the use of fertilizer and/
in Taiwan Province of China (Ling, 1971), and FAO has or supplemental fish feed is therefore not necessary here,
assisted the introduction of fish-cum-duck culture in Nepal thus greatly reducing the costs of production.
(FAO/UN, 1974). With respect to the benefits to the ducks, a fish pond
provides a clean and healthy environment for them, and
2.2 Biological and economic benefits of and prerequisites pond-reared ducks are generally free from parasites and
for fish-cum-duck culture diseases. The natural pond foods eaten by the ducks are
A fish pond is a semi-closed biological unit from the mostly protein-rich. The artificial feeds provided them can
biological production point of view. The pond provides not therefore be of lower quality, with about 1 3-14% digestible
only space for fish but also their natural foods, oxygen for protein content. Ducks raised in crowded pens or yards
their and other requirements. Many other
respiration, need a feed of 16-18% (up to 20%) digestible protein
plants and animals also dwell in the pond. Some are content. Through rearing ducks on a fish pond, 200-300 g
harmful, some are innocuous, but many of them are by no of digestible protein per duck can be saved (ie, equivalent to
means necessary for the process of fish flesh production. 2-3% of its food). It should be noted that if pelleted feeds
Monoculture of a fish species can never utilize all of the are used the feed coefficient will be better if the ducks are
pond's biological resources. Such wastage means less fish kept in pens (dry keeping). In this latter type of culture,
production and a loss of profit. Conversely, the adoption of about 2-9-3-2 kg of feed provides 1 kg of duck meat. Such
polyculture (the combined culture of two or more fish a feed conversion rate cannot yet be achieved in fish ponds
species) enables a more effective utilization of the resources because ducks move freely there using more feed for
of differing food niches in the pond. The addition of ducks maintenance. In ponds, it requires about 3 3-3 5 kg of feed
to a fish pond now means that the space above the water to produce 1 kg of live- weight duck.
column can also be used. The complexity of pond interactions and the effects of
Thus, joint culture of ducks and fish on a commercial man's interventions make it very difficult to measure with
scale increases production of animal protein from the same great accuracy the mutually beneficial effects of ducks and
unit area. Ducks searching for food in the shallow parts of fish. Nevertheless, practical trials support the practice, and
the pond consume such organisms as frogs, tadpoles, mos- experience of the last 1 5 years (Balogh, Kozma and Mo-
quito and dragonfly larvae, molluscs, and aquatic weeds sonyi, 1975) has shown that by combining fish and duck
generally not eaten by commonly stocked pond fish. This culture the production of both animals increases and their
decreases waste of natural food, and also eliminates a good costs of production decrease. The quality of the pond-
many organisms which are harmful to cultivated fish. reared duck is superior to that of the pen-reared one. Due to
It is true, of course, that ducks may eat some of the the higher protein-rich natural food the fish are healthier,
stocked fish. Generally speaking they must be kept off their flesh is not as fat, and their feed conversion rate is
spawning and nursery ponds where the fish are smaller than better (only 1 8-2-2 kg value feed is necessary to produce
4 g. However, a healthy ftngerling above 5-10 g can readily 1
kg of carp in Hungary). The pond-reared ducks also
204
produce excellent clean feathers, which are worth 13-15% because it then starts to moult; this is undesirable for
of the value of their meat. processing and its growth practically stops. It is easy to
The capital investment in a duck pen-rearing system is train a Peking duck to remain in a given pond, rest over-
higher than in the case of pond-rearing. Pen-rearing has night in the same place, and come for feed at the same time
many problems with elimination of faecal wastes, which of day. A duckling which survives its early age (14-20 days
usually pollute the recipient river and create offensive in Europe and 10-14 days in the tropics and sub-tropics) is
odours. a very hardy animal. Under poor conditions, however, its
Pond-reared duck farming also requires less capital in- production (growth, utilization of feed, egg production,
vestment than intensive chicken farming, and due to the number of fertilized eggs, hatching ratio, etc) suffers.
short growing (production) time of 48-52 days, or under
less intensive conditions 55-65 days, the return on the 2.3.2 Production of one-day-old ducklings. The produc-
costs of investment and production is rapid. tion of ducklings of course, dependent upon the mainte-
is,
Joint culture of fish and ducks permits more efficient nance of an adequate brood stock of a selected strain (one
utilization of man power, transport equipment and storage male to 4-6 females). During one laying season under good
facilities. For example, the same pelleting and feed prepara- conditions, a Peking duck will lay 120-160 eggs (the
tion machines can be used for processing fish and duck record iseggs). During peak production, two eggs are
250
feeds. laid every three days. One female duck will produce 70-80
The prerequisites for development and extension of fish- one-day-old ducklings during a laying period of 8 months
cum-duck culture are as follows: (/') Subsidy of capital under suitable conditions of brood keeping and hatching.
investments (70% subsidy was necessary in Hungary). (//') During the laying season the females require a protein-rich
Profitable market prices. (Hi) Extended marketing possibili- feed (16-18% digestible protein, calcium carbonate and
ties,such as development of a processing industry which other minerals) and a round-the-clock adequate supply of
kills, cleans, packs and stores the duck meat, utilizes the clean drinking water, a decisive factor for successful egg
feathers and Highly productive, well adapted
offal, etc. (iv) laying. In order to produce one egg, 0-42-0- 5 2 kg of feed is
duck strains or hybrids, (v) Presence of an animal feed needed (this includes the feed for the males as well) during
industry or facilities and ingredients to produce mixed the 8 month long season. One brood duck consumes 40-
pellet feeds, (v/) Adequate equipment (eg* incubators), and 45 kg of feed from its first day after hatching up to the time
technical facilities, (vii) Trained personnel for all levels of when egg laying Egg laying suffers under crowded
starts.
manual on the subject (Balogh, Kozma and Mosonyi, and regulated through artificial illumination. Two watts of
1975) is available only in Hungarian. light (preferably yellow) are required for 1
2
of area. m
2.3. 1 Characteristics of the Peking duck. Both meat- and 2.3.3 Nursing very young ducklings
egg-producing ducks can be reared on ponds. In Central 2.3.3.1 Nursing one-week-old ducklings. During its
Europe, a fast growing meat duck (Peking duck and hy- first week of life, a duckling is a very sensitive animal, more
brids of that strain) is cultured. Some characteristics of the sensitive than a chick of the same age. To avoid heavy
4 kg. They are stocked in a ratio of 1 male to 4-6 females. 7 days a temperature of 26-23C. Artificial heating is
The age of the brood is 1-4 years. The brood stock is necessary even in sub-tropical areas. The pen must be well
usually sorted out after the first egg-laying season. Sexual ventilated: a change of 0-05-0-06 m 3
of air per minute per
maturation is achieved at 5 months, and egg-laying com- duckling.
mences at 6-7 months. The number of eggs produced (H) Space: About 1 m 2
of pen area is required for 25-28
annually per duck 120-130. A normal egg weighs 80-
is early ducklings. After they are three days old they can be
90 g and is 8 cm long and 5 cm wide. A brood duck can kept in the open when it is warm enough.
incubate 12-15 eggs. A brood hen can hatch 10-15 duck (Hi) Light: If the pen is illuminated, the duckling eats
eggs. The incubation time is 28 days. Hatching starts on the round the clock and consequently grows faster.
25th or 26th day. In Hungary, the number of market ducks (iv) Food: A special feed is used, preferably 3 mm pellets
raised from one brood (female + male) is over 60 per year. of 18-19% digestible protein, minerals and vitamins,
Market ducks. The growing period is 48-52 days. It offered in simple self-feeders.
takes 7-8 weeks after hatching to reach the marketable size (v) Drinking water: Clean running water is a necessity,
of 2-3-2-5 kg live weight. Each duck produces 150 g of but one must prevent the ducklings from splashing in it.
marketable (usable) feathers. The quantity of droppings per ( v/) Splashing place: From 4-5 days of age the duckling
duck is 6 kg. In general 3-2-3-5 kg of feed mixture is has to be gradually habituated to water. Clean, warm,
converted to 1 kg live
weight. The average loss of weight shallow water has to be provided; dirty water (thickened
when the duck is killed is 15-17% (blood, 3-4%, feathers from feed residues) hinders the duckling's progress.
4-5%, gut, 5-8%, evaporation 1%). (vff) Cleanliness: The duckling suffers if its resting place
The meat type of Peking duck is a voracious fast growing is wet or dirty from droppings. In a modern nursery,
animal. It is not advisable to keep it more than 7-8 weeks ducklings are kept in a heated pen on a metal screen ( 1 5 cm
205
mesh) about 1 m
above a floor where the droppings fall. TABLE III
from below. About 50- COMPOSITION OF 1 000
g MINERAL PREMIX
Heating (warm air circulation) is
55 one-day-old ducklings can be kept here up to the 5-7
day-age.
lings; (//) a rearing feed; (in) a fattening feed, used the last
10 days before marketing; and (iv) a layer's feed, used
before and during the egg-laying period.
The following percentages of digestible protein are re-
quired in these feeds: 17-18% up to three weeks of age;
14-15% at 6 weeks; 10-5-12% at 7-8 weeks.
The composition of these feed mixtures is shown in
Tables MIL For amount of feed required, see Table IV.
TABLE I
THE COMPOSITION OF FEEDS USED TO PRODUCE MARKET DUCKS The growth of Peking duck from one-day-old duckling
Starter Rearing Fattening Layer's
to an 8 week market duck is shown in Table V above.
Components
The conversion rate of an adequate feed mixture differs
for each growing stage as shown on Table VI. It becomes
less efficient as the duck grows older.
TABLE VI
FOOD CONVERSION IN MARKET DUCKS
TABLE II
COMPOSITION OF 1 000 g VITAMIN PREMIX
2.4Economic questions
The capital investment for fish-cum-duck culture differs
from place to place, and is rather high especially if produc-
preparation of feeds, transport and overseeing costs are was not used by farmers and was a pollutant at commercial
1
partly shared with the cost of fish culture. Finally the piggeries), a 'carbon-manuring technique was worked out
market price for the ducks is a decisive factor in deciding in Hungary in 1952-53 (Woynarovich, 1956, 1956a,
upon extension of this type of culture. 1956b). The basis of this technique is that when soft fresh
Just as it ismeasure accurately the exact
difficult to manure is mixed with pond water and repeatedly spread
ducks on the fish crop (section 2.2) it is
beneficial effects of over the entire surface of the pond, carbon compounds are
also a complex task to measure the profitability of fish-cum- released which lead to a continuous high primary
duck culture in all instances. Examples from Central production.
Europe and the Far East show that this system of increasing When ducks distribute their droppings in a pond they are
animal protein production can be profitable and a consider- living 'carbon-manuring machines'. Poultry droppings or
able contribution in filling the protein gap.
pig manure has to be distributed continually at very short
intervals preferably in a fresh condition because its carbon
content is highest at this stage (some farms in Hungary
3 Fish-cum-goose culture distribute the manure five times a week). Using the carbon-
Fish-cum-goose culture was initiated in Central Europe manuring technique, very large quantities of manure can be
following the experience of successful fish-cum-duck cul- spread in a pond (30-60 tons/ha/ 100 days). This also
ture. Its extent is rather limited. In 1972 56-7 tons were avoids environmental pollution. The pond water receives
produced in the German Democratic Republic, and 55-0 well distributed manure without any trace of odour and
tons produced in Hungary. converts it, through the natural food chain, into fish flesh.
shore and graze around the pond. The beneficial effect of urine) per year on the average. This means that the fresh
manure of 15-25 pigs can be used in a 1 ha pond.
goose raising on a pond is far lower than that of ducks.
Extension of fish-cum-goose culture is hindered by low
4.3 Use of the carbon-manuring techniques
egg production (30-60 eggs per year) and high juvenile
In order to save transport costs it is advisable to position
mortality. There is a need for more experimental work on
this type of culture, including selection of more suitable poultry pens or pig sties near the ponds where the manure
will be used. If dry, the manure must be softened and the
strains and improvement of those in use.
soft manure is dispensed from a manuring boat. If the boat
is driven by an outboard motor, the manure is shovelled
4 Poultry and pig production into a basket made of iron rods (2-2-5 cm apart) suspended
from the boat so that sinks to a depth of about 10-20 cm.
Raising poultry (chickens) and fattening pigs in combina-
it
tion with aquaculture demonstrates another aspect of joint As the boat moves forward, the turbulent currents wash
culture in which manure is also used to increase fish out, dilute, and dispense the manure over the pond.
Another method (one originally used in 1952-56) is to
production.
use a pump bottom. The manure is
built into the boat
4. 1
Biological basis of manure utilization shovelled into a hopper where it is diluted with pumped
Using animal manure (eg, pig, sheep or poultry) in fish water and sprayed out into the pond through a hose
ponds is an age-old practice in Europe. Originally two equipped with an end plate which fans out the mixture.
heaps or 0-7-0-8 tons of manure per ha was placed in a In small ponds, where the use of machines is not practic-
pond when it was filled, or manure was spread over the dry able, the manure can be diluted and distributed by hand
pond bottom at the rate of 1-2 tons/ha. The manure from the shore or from a small boat.
decomposed and consumed oxygen, while methane, hydro- As both poultry and pigs are raised in separate closed
1 systems, there is no danger of introducing parasites into the
Itshould be noted that during the last ten years the duck growing time
in Central Europe has been decreased from 70-75 to only 48 days. ponds.
207
4.4 Economic considerations 5 References
The technology of poultry farming and pig fattening is BALOGH,L., KOZMA, L. & MOSONYI, G. Halastavi peosenyekacsa
1975 (Fish-cum-duck culture). Budapest, Mez6gazdasagi Kiad6,
already well developed. The capital investment and produc- 21 Op. (in Hungarian)
tion costs are well known or can be calculated from basic BLUME, H. Entenmant in Verbindung mit Karpfenzucht (Fattening
data. The major advantages of joint culture offish and pigs 1960 duck in connection with carp culture). Dtsch. Fischereiztng., 7:
196-204 (in German)
or poultry lie in finding a solution to the problem of manure B5GRE, J. A Kacsa-. lud-. pulyka- es gyongytyuk-tenyesztes Kezikonyve
disposal coupled with gaining an increase in fish produc- 1968 (Manual of the rearing of duck, goose, turkey, and guinea-fowl).
tion. In addition, operational efficiency of the farm is gained Budapest, Mezogazdasagi Kiado, 339 p. (in Hungarian)
FAO/UN, Report of the Government of Nepal on inland fishery
through better use of man-power, and joint use of feed 1974 biology. Based on the work of E. Woynarovich, FAO Inland
Fisheries Biologist. Rep. FAO/UNDP(TA), (3287): 24 p.
storing, processing and transport facilities when fish culture
and pig or poultry farming are combined. LING, S. W
Travel report. Visit to Taiwan and Hong Kong. Rome,
1971 FAO, FID/7 1/R7: lip.
Experience has shown that in the case of common carp NEHRING, K. &
KNABE, H. Die Verdaulichkeit Verschiedener Futter-
1961 stoffe bei Enten (Digestibility of different feed stuffs by the
(Cyprinus carpio) monoculture, 3-5 kg of carp can be
ducks.) Arch. GeflUgdk., 25. 263-75 (in German)
produced by using 100 kg of pig manure. In ponds where PROBST, E. Teichwirtschaft und Gefliigelzucht in ihren Wechselbezie-
plankton-feeding fish, such as silver carp (Hypophthalmi- 1934 hungen (Carp culture and duck raising in their interactions).
Handb. Binnenfisch. Mitterleur. 4: 408-82
chthys molitrix) and bighead (Aristichthys nobilis\ are RENNER, E. & SARODNIK, W. Jahresbencht 1972 uber die Production
stocked, the utilization of manure is far higher, and the 1973 des Wirteschaftzweiges Binnenfischerei der Deutschen Demo-
'water-bloom' of blue-green algae can be avoided. In apply- kratischen Reublik (Report on the production in 1972 of the
inland fishery in the German Democratic Republic) Bmnen-
ing the carbon-manuring technique in Hungary, where the fisch. D.D.R. 20- 134-53 (in German)
production period is only 150 days, a natural yield was WOYNAROVICH, E. Das Carbondiingungs Verfahren (Techniques of the
1956 carbon-manuring). Dtsch Fischereiztg., 3: 48-52
achieved of 500-800 kg/ha.
WOYNAROVICH, E. A halastavak szervestragyazasanakjelentosege(The
As use of ducks or geese to fertilize fish ponds,
in the 1956a importance of the manuring of the fishponds with organic
exact analysis of the beneficial effects on the fish crop is manures) Magy Tudom. Akad. Agrdr. Osztaly Kozl 10. ,
Resume Since rice remains the mam crop, fish culture has to be adapted to its
La rizipisciculture une utilisation plus rationnelle d'un milieu aqua-
est requirements. Firstly, it is essential to have complete control over the
tique existant, c'est la mise en valeur complementaire de la riziere water and to provide drainage outlets in the paddies. Secondly, one or
irriguee. En general, la hauteur de 1'eau dans une riziere est assez faible more refuges must be made for the fish when the water level is lowered.
(5-25 cm) et le fond de la riziere est tres fertile, ce qui entraine le The species offish to be used must be able to survive in shallow water,
developpement de zoo et phytoplankton. Cette richesse peut etre pleine- and to endure high water temperatures and low dissolved oxygen
ment utilisee grace au poisson qui transforme en chair comestible ce que content. Fish species should also be sedentary, have rapid growth and be
le riz n'utilise pas. Le riz etant Pobjectif principal il faut adapter 1'elevage able to withstand turbid water. The species most commonly cultured
du poisson aux exigences culturales du riz. Avant tout il est indispensa- throughout the world in combination with rice are: Cvprinus carpio,
ble d 'avoir la maitrise de Feau et d'amenager dans les rizieres un drain et Tilapia mossambica, Trichogaster pectoralis, Ophiocephalus striatus,
un ou plusieurs trous-refuges ou le poisson se refugie quand 1'eau baisse. and Clarias batrachus. Other species, in particular the malacophagous
Les especes de poissons utilisees doivent pouvoir vivre en eau peu species, which may have the required characteristics, have yet to be
profonde, supporter des temperatures elevees et de faibles teneurs en tested systematically in rice paddies. In fact, rice paddies consist of
oxygene disspus, avoir une croissance rapide, resister a la turbidite de several different ecological environments, and by raising species with
1'eau et etre sedentaires. Les especes les plus utilisees dans le monde sont: difTerent diets in association with one another, this environment can be
Cyprinus carpio, Tilapia mossambica, Trichogasterpectoralis, Ophioce- exploited to the fullest. It is also possible to raise shellfish along with
phalus striatus et Clarias batrachus. D'autres especes, notamment des finfish.
malacophages, peuvent presenter toutcs les qualites requises, mais n'ont Modern rice-growing techniques call for the use of chemical fertil-
pas encore etc testees systematiquement en riziere. La riziere constitue izers, plant protection products and insecticides, and their toxic effects
un ensemble de plusieurs niches ecologiques difterentes. En associant on fish maypresent serious obstacles to fish culture in paddies. In
des especes & regime alimentaire different on exploite plus efficacement paddies where full control is exercised over water and which are cor-
ce milieu. Des crustaces peuvent aussi etre associes aux poissons. rectly managed and stocked little harm. In fact
for fish culture, fish cause
Les pratiques culturales modernes du riz impliquent 1'emploi fishcan be highly beneficial in eliminating weeds, molluscs and mosqui-
d'engrais chimiques, de prpduits phytosanitaires et d'insecticides dont toes if a wise choice is made of herbivorous, malacophagous or larvwo-
les effets toxiques sur le poisson constituent de serieux obstacles. Dans rous species.
les rizieres amenagees et cultivees correctement et ou il y a complete This world review of rice-cum-fish culture reveals current trends. Not
maitrise de 1'eau les degats causes par les poissons sont negligeables. Au only can the practice offish culture in rice paddies be considered a source
les poissons peuvent beaucoup aider a la lutte centre les of income, but it is especially a means of supplying animal proteins in
cpntraire,
les mollusques et les moustiques grace a un choix areas suffering from protein shortages.
yegetaux adventices,
judicieux d'especes herbivores, malacophages ou larvivores.
La revue de la rizipisciculture dans le monde permct d'en degager les Acuicultura en arrozales: situacion y funcion ftitura
tendances actuelles. La pratique de la rizipisciculture ne doit pas etre Extracto
consideree seulemcnt comme source de revenus mais surtout La piscicultura en arrozales representa una forma de utilizar mas
cpmme un racionalmente un medio acuatico ya existente, aprovechandolo para
moycn d' assurer la fourniture de proteines animales dans des regions ou
ellcs font defaut. otros fines. En general, la altura del agua en los arrozales es poca (5-23
cm) y el fondo muy fertil, lo que determine la formacion de zooplancton
Rice paddy aquacutare: its situation and ftiture role
y fitoplancton. Esa riqueza puede aprovecharse plenamente gracias a los
Abstract peces, que transforman en alimento comestible lo que el arroz no utiliza.
Fish culture in rice paddies is one of the best ways of using available Dado que la produccion de arroz es el pbjetivo principal, la piscicultura
aquatic resources in that additional protein production is obtained from ha de adecuarse a las exigencias de cultivo de ese producto. Ante todo, es
lowland (irrigated) rice areas. As a rule, the water in rice paddies reaches indispensable poder regular las aguas y contar con un sistema de drenaje
a level of 5-25 cm. As the paddy bottom is highly fertile, the production y uno o varies refugios donde los peces puedan retirarse cuando el nivel
of zoo- and phytoplankton is high. These resources can be fully utilized delagua desciende.
by fish, thus converting into edible food what rice plants do not utilize. Las especies de peces que se utilizan deben poder vivir en agua poco
208
profunda, tolerar temperaturas elevadas y un bajo contenido en oxigeno lesquels il est possible d'elever du poisson. Dans pratique-
disuelto, crecer rapidaraente, resistir a la turbidez del agua y ser sedenta-
ment tous les continents ou paysans ont
elles existent, les
rias. Las especies mas utilizadas en combinacion con arroz en el mundo
son: Cyprinus carpio, Tilapia mossambica, Trichogaster pectoralis, essaye d'augmenter leurs revenus en elevant des poissons en
Ophiocephalus striatus y Clarias batrachus. Tambien otras especies, rizieres.
sobre todo malacofagas, pueden reunir todos los requisites necesarios,
La une des meilleures utilisations des
rizipisciculture est
pero todavia no se ha ensayado sistematicamente su cultivo en arrozales.
Los arrozales son un conjunto de varies nichos ecologicos distintos, por terres (Coche, 1967). Le poisson eleve en rizieres amena-
lo que cnando en ellos especies de regimen alimentario diferente se
gees, ou il y a la maitrise de 1'eau, n'est absolument pas un
pueden explotar mas eficazmente. Es posible tambien asociar la cria de
crustaceos a la de peces.
concurrent pour le riz, bien au contraire. Pendant une partie
Los sistemas modernos de cultivo del arroz entranan empleo de de 1'annee, les rizieres offrent aux poissons un milieu riche,
abonos quimicos, productos fitosamtarios e insecticidas, cuyos efectos aussi bien durant le cycle de croissance du riz qu'apres la
toxicos en los peces podrian constituir obstaculos series para la piscicul-
tura. En los arrozales estructurados y cultivados adecuadamente y donde recolte du paddy, si toutefois la parcelle reste inondee.
el agua esta plenamente regulada, los danos a los peces son insignifi-
L'elevage de poisson en rizieres peut done etre pour le
cantes. Mas aun, los peces pueden ser muy utiles para combatir las
paysan: un supplement appreciable de son revenu mone-
(/)
plantas adventicias, moluscos y mosquitos, si es que se ehgen adecuada
mente especies herbivpras, malacofagas o insectivoras. taire. Danscertains pays, notamment a Madagascar, le
Este examen de la situacion actual de la piscicultura en arrozales en
produit de la vente du poisson paie tous les travaux de
todo el mundo revela las tendencias actuales. La piscicultura en arrozales
culture du riz (labour, repiquage, sarclage et moisson). (//)
no debe considerarse solamente como una fuente de ingresos, sino, sobre
todo, como un medio de asegurar el abastecimiento de proteinas ani- une source non negligeable de proteines animales: les ri-
mates en regiones que sufren de escasez de proteinas. zieres, par la richesse de leur faune (insectes, larves, tetards,
zooplancton) et de leur flore (algues et phytoplancton),
1 Introduction
constituent un excellent milieu d'elevage pour les poissons,
Utiliser 1'eau des rizieres irriguees pour y clever des ani- surtout si le paysan applique une bonne fumure. (///) une
maux aquatiques est un moyen d'augmenter la production amelioration des conditions de culture du riz par une
de proteines animales dans le monde. La pisciculture en
diminution des insectes nuisibles et par reduction des tra-
rizieres est la plus developpee dans la region Indo-Pacifique
vaux d'entretien, notamment quand on utilise des especes
et elle existait en Inde il y a plus de mille cinq cents ans. De
phytophages. (/v) une amelioration des conditions sani-
Tlnde, cette technique d'utilisation des rizieres a ete intro- taires dans les rizieres: les poissons contribuent au controle
duite dans le Sud-Est asiatique, depuis plus d'un siecle. Vers
des mollusques et des moustiques, vecteurs de la bilhar-
1 900, elle a ete mise en pratique a Madagascar. A la fin du
ziose et de la malaria.
19eme siecle, la rizipisciculture s'est developpee en Italic et
Meme dans quelques cas
si elle presente certains incon-
elle a debute aux Etats-Unis.
venients, la rizipisciculture n'est en somme que 1'utilisation
Au cours des annees, divers auteurs ont fait le point du
plus rationnelle d'un milieu aquatique existant. C'est une
developpement de ces techniques dans les differentes par- mise en valeur complementaire de la riziere irriguee.
ties du monde. En 1957, sur la base des publications
disponibles, la Division des Peches de la FAO avait rassem- 2.2 Conditions ecologiques des rizieres
ble des renseignements concernant la rizipisciculture dans
Par rapport a 1 'etang de pisciculture, la riziere irriguee est
25 pays du monde (FAO, 1958). En 1966, a 1'occasion du un milieu aquatique special caracterise par: (a) la profon-
Symposium Mondial organise par la FAO sur la piscicul- deur assez faible (en general 5 a 25 cm) du plan d'eau que
ture en etang a temperature elevee, un certain nombre
constitue la riziere irriguee, du moins la ou il y a la maitrise
d'auteurs ont donne des informations interessantes a ce
de Teau. (b) la fertilite elevee des rizieres. Leur sol, du
sujet. Coche ( 1 967) a presente une excellente synthese de la moins dans les bas-fonds, est generalement constitue de
rizipisciculture telle qu'elle se pratiquait, a 1'epoque, dans terres marecageuses assez fertiles. Elles ont naturellement
29 pays du globe. Huet ( 1970) a egalement fait le point du un pH acide, mais la majorite des paysans applique une
developpement de la pisciculture en riziere dans les diverses fumure qui corrige ces carences. On peut dire que, bien
parties du monde. Enfin, la situation actuelle de la rizipisci- souvent, le fond des rizieres, du fait des soins culturaux
culture en Afrique a ete decrite par Vincke (1976). Le but
(labour, assec annuel, engrais et fumier), est plus fertile que
de la presente note est de faire le point de la situation de bon nombre d'etangs de pisciculture ou les travaux
1'aquaculture en rizieres dans le monde, passer en revue les d'entretien et d'amelioration indispensables ne sont pas
realisations dans ce domaine et decrire les techniques utili-
toujours effectuees. L'eau des rizieres est done generale-
sees jusqu'a present. ment mieux pourvue en elements mineraux que 1'eau de
Dans beaucoup de pays existent des possibilites, parfois nombreux etangs de un developpement,
pisciculture, (c)
considerables, de developper la riziculture irriguee et la
plus important qu'en etangs, de la faune et de la flore des
rizipisciculture avec des chances de succes. II y a lieu de rizieres, du fait du taux relativement eleve de certains
rappeler ici que, selon le rapport (1967) sur le probleme elements mineraux resultant de la fertilisation. On constate
alimentaire du 'President's Science Advisory Committee'
que dans les rizieres fumees convenablement (fumier de
des Etats-Unis cite par Pillay (1973), il a ete estime que si ferme et engrais mineraux), certains elements du zooplanc-
Ton utilisait seulement 30% des 35,6 millions d'hectares de ton se developpent mieux qu'en etangs (par exemple Clado-
pour y faire de la rizipiscicul-
rizieres irriguees existantes
ceres et Copepodes). (d) le phytoplancton semble egale-
ture, Ton
pourrait, meme
avec des rendements assez bas,
ment plus riche en riziere qu'en etang. On rencontre
obtenir approximativement 2,2 millions de tonnes de couramment de nombreuses especes de Chlorophycees
poissons. (Desmidiees et Chlorococcales), des Cyanophycees (Mi-
crocystis et Anabaend) et des Bacillariophycees.
2 Les methodes de production de poissons en rizieres II y a egalement de se souvenir, comme le rappelle
lieu
2. 1 Interet de la rizipisciculture Lemasson 9 5 5 ) qu'en region tropicale, on trouve dans les
( 1
Les rizieres irriguees ont des plans d'eau peu profonds dans rizieres des quantites considerables de larves de dipteres et
209
specialement de chironomes. Ces larves occupent le niveau La mise a sec annuelle de la riziere a pour but, d'une part
superficiel du sol de la riziere et on en compte souvent plus d'aerer le sol de la riziere et de provoquer la mineralisation
de 10 au cm 2 . Elles se nourrissent de matieres vegetales et de la vase et, d'autre part, de permettre, avant le repiquage
jouent un role important dans la disintegration rapide de la de la saison suivante, les differents travaux culturaux (refec-
paille de paddy enfouie dans la riziere. Les matieres azotees tion des diguettes, application des engrais et labour). Etant
de ces larves sont perdues pour la consommation humaine donne qu'un assec d'un mois est largement suffisant, on
et pour le cycle nutritif de la riziere si elles se transforment peut done envisager Putilisation de la riziere, restee sous
en insectes parfaits. Or, les carpes en font une grande eau, durant la periode qui va de la recolte du riz jusqu'a la
consommation, les transformant ainsi en aliments utilisa- mise a sec annuelle. Get elevage complementaire de pois-
bles par I'homme. sons permet 1'utilisation rationnelle de la riziere, apres la
Lemasson (1955) signale egalement le developpement recolte du paddy.
des algues qui absorbent beaucoup d 'elements nutritifs et Si dans la memeon pratique deux cultures de riz
riziere
forment une couche qui fait ecran a la lumiere. Or les successives, il de faire, soit un elevage
est possible alors
Tilapia (T. mossambica et T. rendalli) et le sepat siam durant la premiere culture (sur environ 100 jours), suivi
(Trichogaster pectoralis) mangent ces algues. Dans les 24 d'un second elevage, soit de faire un elevage continu durant
heures qui suivent leur introduction, une partie des ele- les deux cultures de riz, en utilisant les memes poissons.
ments nutritifs qu'elles contenaient est remise a la disposi- Dans ce faut disposer d'un etang de stockage pour y
cas, il
tiondu riz, les excrements des poissons etant rapidement entreposer poissons a partir de la moisson de la premiere
les
recycles par Faction des enzymes et bacteries. culture jusqu'a la remise en charge, apres le semis ou le
L'un des principaux inconvenients de la riziere pour le repiquage de la deuxieme culture de riz.
poisson est la faible profondeur du plan d'eau et le fait qu'il Quand on pratique le semis direct, il faut attendre envi-
n'y ait pas toujours de 1'eau courante. ron un mois avant de deverser des poissons en riziere. En
On peut done admettre que la riziere irriguee est un cas de repiquage, une semaine environ suffit les plants etant
milieu au sein duquel se developpe une chaine alimentaire alors enracines. Si Ton empoissonne immediatement apres
que ne peut valoriser completement. Le poisson,
le riz seul le repiquage, les poissons (surtout la carpe), en fouillant le
surtout en polyculture, constitue dans ce cas un comple- sol a la recherche d'animaux du fond, risquent de faire
ment positif. basculer les plants. Les premiers jours apres le repiquage, la
lame d'eau dans la riziere ne depasse generalement pas 5
2.3 Modalites d' adaptation des methodes de rizipiscicui cm.
ture en fonction du riz irrigue En rizipisciculture et en tenant compte de la variete de riz
En rizipisciculture, le riz doit rester 1'objectif principal, utilisee, on obtient les meilleurs rendements en maintenant,
le poisson n 'etant qu'un complement utile. II est done durant la culture, une lame d'eau presque stagnante de 10 a
necessaire de definir les modifications indispensables pour 20 cm. Pour certaines especes de poissons. cela peut pre-
adapter 1'elevage des poissons aux conditions des rizieres et senter des inconvenients. L'eau dans les rizieres est main-
aux exigences culturales du riz. II est done indispensable tenue a un certain niveau au moyen de diguettes, dont la
d'envisager quels sont, du fait de la culture et des exigences hauteur ne depasse generalement pas 40 cm. En cas de
du riz, les imperatifs auxquels seront soumises les tech- hausse du niveau de 1'eau, le poisson peut s'echapper.
niques d'elevage du poisson. II faudra egalement voir quels Pour efTectuer certaines operations culturales, il peut etre
sont les amenagements piscicoles qui s'imposent si Ton necessaire de pratiquer un assec de la riziere notamment
desire obtenir la production la plus elevee possible. lors des applications des produits phytosanitaires ou
complet resulte generalement du fait qu'il n'y a pas maitrise submersion des diguettes avec fuite du poisson, ou danger
totale de 1'eau ou parce que 1'eau d 'irrigation manque. d'assechement premature des rizieres et asphyxie des
210
poissons. La maitrise de 1'eau presente moins d' importance 2.4 Types de rizipisciculture
dans regions ou se pratique la rizipisciculture extensive
les Les productions aquicoles en rizieres ne resultent pas de la
(Inde, Malaisie, Mali, Liberia) et ou Ton cultive parfois des mise en oeuvre d'une seule et unique technique
varietes de riz flottant. d'exploitation.Au contraire, ces techniques different con-
L'eau d'irrigation des rizieres peut etre de 1'eau de pluie, siderablement d'une region a 1'autre. Selon Schuster, Kes-
du moins dans les regions ou il y a des pluies regulieres. En teven et Collins (1954), les principaux facteurs qui jouent
general, cependant, les rizieres sont alimentees par irriga- sont: les conditions locales, climatiques et autres; les es-
tion. Dans certains pays (Inde, Indonesie), on utilise des peces de poissons disponibles; les varietes de riz cultivees;
eaux saumatres. Les quantites d'eau necessaires a les methodes de culture du riz, y compris la fertilisation; les
1'irrigation des rizieres dependent de facteurs tels que le methodes d'elevage des poissons, avec ou sans alimentation
climat, la pluviometrie, les caracteristiques des sols et des supplemental.
digues. Coche (1967) signale qu'en Indonesie Ton utilise en Par rapport a la culture et a la recolte du riz,
moyenne 1-2 litres d'eau/sec/ha. 1'aquaculture en rizieres peut donner: (/) une seule produc-
Avant d'envisager de faire de la rizipisciculture il faut tion simultanee de riz et de poisson par an (//) plusieurs
etre certain qu'ily aura un debit d'eau suffisant pendant la productions simultanees successives de riz et de poisson,
duree de 1'elevage. En cas de fortes pluies, des inondations avec ou sans assec de la riziere apres chaque recolte du riz
sont a craindre avec perte de poissons. On tente generale- (//'/) un elevage de poisson en rotation apres la recolte du
ment de remedier a ces inondations en creusant des fosses paddy. II est possible d'obtenir ainsi, en un an, deux recoltes
de protection. Bien souvent il suffit de renforcer et de de riz et une recolte de poisson.
surelever les diguettes. Selon les especes de poissons disponibles, leur taille a la
Le dispositif d'alimentation en eau le plus simple a mise en charge et les possibilites d'irrigation, on peut
mettre en oeuvre est buse de bambou enterree dans la
la utiliser les rizieres pour y clever des poissons de 1'eclosion
diguette, eventuellement munie d'un grillage pour em- jusqu'a la taille d'alevins, des alevins pour en faire des
pecher 1'entree de poissons etrangers et la fuite de ceux poissons de consommation et meme employer la riziere
deverses dans la riziere. On peut egalement utiliser le comme un etang de ponte (par exemple, pour la reproduc-
4
systeme dit de digue percee' (goulotte munie de rainures et tion de la carpe commune (Cyprinus carpio) et de Glorias
de grilles). Ce dispositif convient aussi bien pour 1'entree lazera).
d'eau qu'en tant que trop-plein et systeme de vidange de la II y a ainsi differentes types d'exploitation piscicole en
riziere lors de la mise a sec (recolte du riz et du poisson). rizieres. Coche (1967) a propose de regrouper les types
Quelques petites planchettes permettent de regler le niveau d'exploitation en deux categories:
d'eau. Des grilles ou claies en bambou tresse empechent le
poisson de quitter la riziere. 2.4. 1 La rizipisciculture extensive. Dans les methodes de
capture, il
n'y a pas de mise en charge rationnelle de la
riziere. Le peuplement piscicole est constitue de poissons
2.3.2.2 Drains peripheriques et trous-refuges. Drains et d'especes sauvages qui se sont introduits dans les casiers
trous-refuges sont indispensables pour obtenir des resultats rizicoles lors de leur inondation et qui existent naturelle-
cTelcvage interessants. A Madagascar les essais ont de ment dans les eaux permanentes d'irrigation. La rizipisci-
montre 1'augmentation du taux de survie des alevins dans culture extensive se pratique surtout en Asie, dans des
les rizieres munies d'un drain peripherique et d'un trou- rizieres de superficie relativement vastes, situees dans de
refuge par rapport a celles qui n'en avaient pas. Les drains et grandes plaines alluviales. Elle existe aussi a Madagascar et
trous-refuges permettent aux poissons de s'abriter et de s'y au Mali, mais a petite echelle.
refugier lors des mises a sec et des vidanges. Us facilitent Dans les rizieres exploitees de cette maniere, il y a
grandement leur capture. generalement plusieurs fosses ou viviers de 49 a 50
2
et m
Enrizipisciculture extensive, on prevoit generalement d'environ 2 m de profondeur. Les poissons s'y concentrent
des fosses, trous ou viviers qui s'amenagent dans les parties lors des mises a sec des rizieres. Les rendements en poisson
les plus basses des rizieres. Les poissons peuvent s'y ras- varient entre 10 et 200 kg/ha/an, suivant la duree de
sembler lors des baisses d'eau. Ce sont en meme temps des 1'elevage, les especes, la nature et la fertilite des sols (Coche,
endroits de stockage pour geniteurs et les alevins de 1967).
repeuplement.
Les dimensions des drains et du trou-refuge varient d'une 2.4.2 La rizipisciculture intensive. La rizipisiculture inten-
contree a Tautre, en rapport avec les dimensions des ri- sive est une culture de combinee a un elevage de
riz irrigue
zieres. Selon Coche ( 1 967), la largeur des drains varie entre poisson. Elle se pratique generalement en rizieres de
50 et 1 80 cm et la profondeur de 30 a 90 cm. Ces drains se superficie moyenne, amenagees et empoissonnees
trouvent soit d'un seul cote, soft tout autour, soit en travers rationnellement.
de la riziere. Parfois, plusieurs drains se rejoignent dans un En rizipisciculture, du fait des poissons, le rendement
trou. en paddy augmente dans des proportions atteignant par-
On entend par drain peripherique un fosse large de 20 a fois jusqu'a 15% (Hora et Pillay, 1962). Cependant
30 cm et profond de 30 a 40 cm, situe sur tout le pourtour Tamenagement de drains et de trous-refuges diminue de 5 a
de la riziere, au pied des diguettes. Le trou-refuge situe dans 7% la superficie plantee en riz. Meme dans ces conditions,
la partie la plus basse de la riziere est en communication le revenu du poisson compense largement la perte de paddy
avec le drain peripherique. II mesure generalement de 0,50 provenant d'une reduction des surfaces plantees. En rizipis-
a 0,80 m
de diametre et 0,80 m
de profondeur. Pour de ciculture intensive, les rendements en poisson dependent
grandes rizieres, il faut prevoir soit plusieurs trous-refuges largement des especes utilisees, de la duree de 1'elevage, de
soit des trous plus importants. la fertilite des rizieres et d'apports eventuels de nourriture
211
supplementaire. Les productions moyennes se situent entre facilement les alevins necessaires, dans les eaux naturelles.
10 et 400 kg/ha/an. Dans certains pays Ton eleve aussi des crustaces (crevettes
en Inde; ecrevisses a Madagascar) et Ton capture egalement
des grenouilles (Madagascar).
3 Technique de la rizipisciculture De nombreuses especes de poissons ont ete utilisees en
L'elevage du poisson en riziere peut debater environ 8 jours rizipisciculture (Tableau I). Les especes les plus utilisees
apres le repiquage du riz ou un mois apres
semis direct.
le dans le monde sont: Cyprinus carpio, Tilapia mossambica,
Au prealable, les diguettes de la riziere sont rehaussees et Trichogaster pectoralis, Ophiocephalus striatus et Clarias
consolidees, le drain peripherique et le trou-refuge sont batrachus. II y a egalement des especes qui semblent avoir
amenages et les dispositifs d 'en tree, de sortie et du trop- toutes les qualites requises pour 1
elevage en rizieres, no-
plein d'eau sont mis en place. Les travaux culturaux (la- tamment des malacophages. Ces especes devraient etre
bour, her sage, planage, epandage des engrais, repiquage) testeessystematiquement en rizieres afin de preciser quel
sont effectues. Entre 3 et 5 cm d'eau sont admis sur la plate- pourrait y etre leur role.
forme repiquee. Le drain peripherique et le trou-refuge etant
ainsi remplis d'eau. Le riz est enracine convenablement. 3.2 Mise en charge et densite d'empoissonnement des
L'on precede alors a 1'empoissonnement de la riziere. En rizieres
cours d'elevage, il y aura encore certains travaux a faire: Nous n'envisageons ici que la rizipisciculture intensive, la
sarclages, eventuelles applications d'engrais et de produits seule ou il y a une mise en charge controlee. Les densites a
phytosanitaires. la mise en charge varient fortement d'une region a Tautre,
en fonction des especes, de la richesse de 1'eau des rizieres et
3.1 Choix des especes pour felevage en rizieres du but poursuivi (grossissement d'alevins, production de
Coche ( 1967) a resume conditions auxquelles devraient
les poissons de consommation, etc). Le Tableau II groupe
repondre les especes dont on envisage 1'elevage en rizieres. les donnees bibliographiques concernant les densites
Ces especes doivent: (/) supporter d'evoluer dans des eaux d'empoissonnement des rizieres pour les diverses especes et
peu profondes; (//) etre adaptees a des temperatures d'eau difTerents pays.
elevees et a des teneurs basses en oxygene dissous; (///)
avoir une croissance rapide afin d'atteindre, tres vite, la 3.3 Alimentation supplementaire des poissons en rizieres
taille marchande; (iv) resister a une forte turbidite de 1'eau; Des essais ont prouve qu'en riziere (comme en etangs
(v) ne pas manifester de tendance trop forte a s'echapper du d'ailleurs), on double pratiquement les rendements en dis-
milieu d'elevage. tribuant regulierement une nourriture artificielle aux alev-
Si le choix se porte sur des especes non cultivees en ins. Pour que cette operation soit rentable, il est necessaire
etangs, il faut que Ton puisse, au moment voulu, capturer de disposer, sur place, de dechets ou de sous-produits de
TABLEAU I
ESPFCFS DF POISSONS ITTLIsfs FN RT/TPISCICtTlTURF DANS IF MONDE (CTTFFS PAR ORDRF AI PHABFTIQUF)
Anabas testudineus
Carassius auratus
Cat la catla
Chanos chanos
Cirrhina mrigala
Clarias batrachus
C. lazera
Cyprinus carpio
Eleotris legendrei
Haplochromis mellandi
Helostoma temmincki
Heterotis niloticus
Ictalurus punctatus
Ictiobus cyprinellus
Labeo rohita
Lates calcartfer
Lepomis macrochirus
Micropterus salmoides
Mugif corsula
M. parsia
M. lade
Mystus guiio
Odontesthes bonariensis
Ophiocephalus striatus
Osteocheilus hasseltii
Paratilapia polleni
Puntius javanicus
Tilapia macrochir
T. mossambica
T. nilotica
T. rendalli
7. zillii
Tinea tinea
Trichogaster pectoralis
T. trichopterus
212
TABLFAU II
Chine (Province de Taiwan) Tilapia mossambica 70-80 Hickling (1962), Coche (1967)
Cote-d'Ivoire Heterotis niloticus 20-60 Vincke(1976)
Tilapia macrochir 20-80 Vmcke(1976)
T. nilotica 30-80 Vincke(1976)
Indonesie T. mossambica 10-100 1-3 Coche (1967)
Cyprinus carpio var.flavipinnis 600-1 000 1
Hickling (1962), Coche (1967)
C. carpio var. flavipinnis 40 2-3 Coche (1967)
C. carpio var. flavipinnis 10-20 8-12 Coche (1967)
a
Japon Cvprinus carpio 2 5-7,5 HoraetPillay (1962)
C. carpio 125* 5-7,5 Horaet Pillay (1962)
C. carpio 12-16" Horaet Pillay (1962)
C. carpio 40" Hora et Pillay (1962)
C. carpio 30-200 Hickling (1962)
Liberia Tilapia macrochir 50 Vincke(1976)
Madagascar Cyprinus carpio 10 5-6 Coche (1967)
C. carpio 25 4-5 Vincke(1976)
Tilapia macrochir 25 4-5 Vincke(1976)
T. mossambica 25-50 8-10 Vincke(1976)
T. nilotica 25 4-5 Vincke(1976)
T. roufa/// 25-50 3-5 Vincke(1976)
T. zillii 25-50 3-8 Vincke(1976)
Rhodesie T. mossambica 220-320 Coche (1967)
Viet Nam Cyprinus carpio 200 Coche (1967)
C. car/wo 12 Hora et Pillay (1962)
a
Sans alimentation supplementaire des poissons
*
Avec alimentation supplementaire des poissons
culture cTun prix abordable et d'une certaine valeur alimen- 3.5 Conduite de I'elevage en rizieres
taire. Le paysan dispose souvent de son de riz, de manioc 3.5.1 L'eau dans les rizieres. Au fur et a mesure de la
frais ou de cossettes, de ma'is, etc dont peuvent beneficier les croissance du paysan augmente la hauteur d'eau dans
riz, le
213
d'un assec de quelques heures. Cette operation culturale ne eau pour y poursuivre 1'elevage de poissons. Get eievage
presente aucun danger pour les poissons des rizieres dans complementaire se fait done avec les memes poissons, tout
lesquelles existent drains et trou-refuge. De meme lors de en ^justant cette seconde mise en charge aux environs de 2-
1'epandage de sulfate d'ammoniaque a la surface de 1'eau, 3 kg/are. II est bon, avant la seconde mise en charge, de
sans assec, il n'y a que de tres rares mortalites (Vincke, remettre du fumier en tas dans la riziere, a raison de 1 5-20
1976). kg/are. L'on favorise ainsi la croissance de plancton qui
Au Liberia, quand Ton applique
cela s'avere necessaire. s'ajoute aux detritus vegetaux laisses dans la riziere apres la
vers le SOeme jour apres le repiquage, une dose de 50 kg/ha recolte. II est souhaitable de maintenir 1'eau a un niveau
d'uree a 45% de N. Durant cette operation, la riziere reste a assez eleve (30-40 cm) et de garder en bon etat les
sec une demie journee (Vincke, 1976). diguettes, les drains et les trous-refuges.
La duree de cet eievage complementaire est variable. Elle
3.5.4 Utilisation de produits phytosanitaires. Depuis une depend du but poursuivi et des quantites d'eau disponibles
dizaine d'annees 1'utilisation d'une multitude de produits pour rirrigation. Les rendements que Ton peut esperer
chimiques a etc preconisee pour lutter contre les insectes et durant 1'elevage complementaire sont variables et depen-
les maladies des plants de riz. L'emploi massif de ces dent de nombreux facteurs (saison et temperature de 1'eau,
produits phytosanitaires a permis d'atteindre des rende- profondeur de la riziere, quantite de nourriture naturelle
ments de plus en plus eleves. Beaucoup de ces produits sont disponible, application ou non d'une alimentation artifi-
tres toxiques, non seulement pour les poissons mais egale- cielle, duree
de Le pourcentage
1'elevage, etc).
ment pour d'autres animaux et leurs effets nefastes sont d'accroissement en poids durant 1'elevage complementaire
maintenant assez bien connus. C'est en grande partie a va de 25 a 100%, selon les conditions. Signalons qu'en
cause de 1'emploi massif de tels produits que la rizipiscicul- nourrissant les carpes pendant un eievage complementaire
ture a connu depuis quelques annees un declin au Japon, en de deux mois environ, on peut faire doubler leur poids
Chine (Province de Taiwan) et en Italic. (Vincke, 1976).
Les essais menes au Japon par Matida, Kimura et Tama-
kawa (1958) ont demontre la toxicite du Dieldrin et de 3.6 Productions piscicoles en rizieres
PEndrin vis-a-vis de la carpe commune elevee en rizieres, La production piscicole en rizieres varie fortement d'un
alors que des insecticides tels que Diazinon, Dipterex, pays a 1'autre, en fonction du mode d'exploitation (rizipisci-
DDVP et Folidol, aux doses habituelles, n'avaient pas culture intensive ou extensive), de 1'espece elevee, de la
d'effets nefastes apparents. Les essais sur Faction du Lin- profondeur de la riziere, de la fertilite du sol et de 1'eau, des
dane a Plnstitut International pour la Recherche sur le Riz soins et de 1'interet apportes par le fermier a la culture du riz
ont demontre que la carpe commune est moins sensible que et a la production de poisson (Huet, 1970).
les differentes especes de Tilapia (IRRI, 1964). En les rendements variant
rizipisciculture extensive,
Les essais effectues a Madagascar depuis 1967-68 sur la entre 1,5 et 3,0 kg/ha/an en Indonesie et 40 kg/ha/an en
toxicitedu Lindane sur les poissons en rizieres, permettent Malaisie (Huet, 1970). Coche (1967), citant divers au-
d'affirmerque le Lindane (granules a 6%) a une dose de 0,5 teurs, mentionne des productions allant de 1 35 kg/ha en 6-
kg/are ne cause pratiquement aucun degat aux poissons, a 10 mois (Malaisie) a 100-200 kg/ha/an (Inde).
condition de n'epandre le produit que sur la plate-forme En rizipisciculture intensive, les productions sont nette-
repiquee, lors d'une mise a sec. Lors d'un epandage en ment plus elevees et varient entre 100 et 200 kg/ha/an avec
pleine eau on constate chez la carpe une mortalite atteig- une moyenne de 120-150 kg/ha/an. Comme le signale
nant parfois 7-8% (Vincke, 1976). Huet (1970) cette valeur moyenne est d'ailleurs tres rela-
tive. Si on la calcule par mois, la production est souvent
3.5.5 Recolte du riz et du poisson. Si le riz rniirit generale- voisine de 100 kg/ha/mois, mais les periodes de production
ment bien en sous eau, on pratique parfois un assec
riziere etant, au cours d'une annee, limitees a quelques semaines, la
durant une semaine avant la moisson afin de rendre la production annuelle est alors serieusement reduite. En
maturation plus homogene. II est preferable de ne pas faire alimentant les poissons eleves en rizieres, la production
cette operation dans des rizieres empoissonnees. Sinon il augmente fortement. Au Japon, en nourrissant des carpes
importe de surveiller le comportement des poissons afin de communes on a obtenue des rendements
elevees en rizieres,
les transferor dans un petit etang de stockage, si cela atteignant 100-1 800 kg/ha/an (Coche, 1967).
1
s'averait indispensable. On pourrait evidemment, a ce mo- Le Tableau III regroupe les donnees concernant les
ment, proceder a la peche des poissons et considerer productions obtenues en rizipisciculture dans le monde. Ce
1'elevage comme termine. En general, on draine la riziere un tableau est base sur les renseignments publics par Coche
ou deux jours avant la moisson. La mise a sec doit etre lente (1967), complete par quelques resultats de recherches
pour permettre aux poissons de se grouper dans les drains et publics ces dernieres annees.
le trou-refuge. Si le poisson recolte est destine a la vente ou
a la consommation immediates, il n'y a pas de precautions 3.7 Degdts causes au riz irrigue par les poissons
speciales a prendre apres la recolte. Par contre, si Ton Dans certains pays, les riziculteurs se mefient de la rizipis-
decide d'en continuer 1'elevage (eievage complementaire en ciculture, car ils craignent que les poissons 'mangent le riz'.
riziere ou pour suite de 1'elevage en etang), il est indispensa- Neanmoins, tres souvent, a la moisson du riz, ces paysans
ble d'avoir a proximite un etang de stockage d'une superfi- capturent avec empressement les poissons 'sauvages' qui se
cie adequate pour y deverser les poissons provenant de la sont introduits dans leurs rizieres. Ils ne calculent pas la
riziere. valeur de ces poissons qui, dans bien des cas, depasse 25%
de la valeur du paddy recolte dans la riziere. Cela compense
3.5.6 Eievage complementaire. Dans bien des cas il est largement les degats causes eventuellement au riz par ces
possible, apres la recolte du riz, de remettre la riziere sous poissons.
214
TABLEAU III
PRODUCTIONS PISCICOLES EN RIZIERES
les mollusques en rizieres irriguees est d'utiliser des pois- de plus gros alevins a 1'hectare, la production moyenne est
sons malacophages tels que Haplochromis mellandi de 220 kg de poisson par hectare en 7 mois avec fumure
(Coche, 1960) et Astatoreochromis alluaudi. II y a certes organique et alimentation consistant en un melange de son
encore d'autres especes dont 1'elevage en rizieres pourrait de riz et de farine de soja.
etre tente. En 1956, il y avait dans la Province de Taiwan, 7 328 ha
Certains poissons consomment les larves de moustiques. de rizipisciculture. En 196 1, il n'y en avait plus que 927 ha.
Comme pour la lutte contre les mollusques, il importe II restait 123 ha en 1966 et seulement 26 ha en 1972
d'eliminer les vegetaux et la encore les poissons phyto- (Hwang, 1972). Cette diminution constante resulte surtout
phages peuvent rendre service. Coche (1967) signale a ce du fait que de plus en plus, les riziculteurs utilisent de
propos les resultats interessants obtenus en Indonesie et en nouvelles varietes de riz a tiges courtes ne supportant que
Malaisie avec Tilapia mossambica et au Zaire avec Tilapia 5-6 cm d'eau. II y aurait egalement en cause une hausse du
rendalli. A
Madagascar, Ton a introduit Gambusia hoi- cout de la main-d'oeuvre et 1'utilisation intensive de pro-
brooki en 1949-50 dans le but de lutter contre les duits phytosanitaires qui rendent actuellement la rizipisci-
moustiques. culture aleatoire.
pratique. A notre connaissance, la rizipisciculture y con- 4.1.5 Inde. On pratique une rizipisciculture extensive en
cerne 14 pays: Bangladesh, Birmanie, Chine (y compris eaux saumatres dans les regions deltaiques du Bengale
Taiwan), Hong Kong, Inde, Indonesie, Japon, Kalimantan, occidental et de la province de Madras. Comme le signale
Kampuchea, Malaisie, Philippines, Sri Lanka, ThaTlande et Coche (1967), les pratiques sont tres similaires a celles en
Viet Nam. usage en Malaisie (voir 4. 1.10). Les poissons captures sont
generalement des especes d'estuaires et des crevettes. Pillay
4.1.1 Bangladesh. Schuster (1952) affirmait que la rizipis- et Bose (1957) mentionnent Mugil parsia, M. tade, M.
ciculture etait practicable dans les 8 173 ha de riziculture corsula, Lates calcar\fer et Mystus gulio ainsi que les
en Bangladesh (a 1'epoque PEst du Pakistan). II signale que crevettesPalaemon carcinus, P. semisulcatus, Penaeus
Cyprinus carpio et Trichogaster pectoralis sont generale- carcinus Metapenaeus monoceros et M. brevicornis. Les
f
ment utilises dans certaines de ces rizifcres. Le meme auteur captures se situent entre 100 et 200 kg/ha/an. Depuis
preconisait des essais avec Tilapia mossambica. quelques annees, le Departement des Peches recommande
1'utilisation en rizipisciculture des carpes indiennes Catla
4.1.2 Birmanie. Selon Horaet Pillay (1962), la riziculture catla, Cirrhina mrigala et Labeo rohita.
irriguee en Birmanie occupait 510000 ha en 1962. II y Hora et Pillay (1962) estimaient qu'il y avait en Inde
aurait eu des essais de rizipisciculture dans ce pays, mais 1 619 ha de rizieres irriguees ou se pratiquait 1'elevage de
216
poissons. En 1973, il y avait 227000 ha de rizieres differents types d'elevages pratiques en rizieres en Indone-
irriguees ou il existe des possibilites de faire de la rizipisci- sie. Coche (1967) les a resume comme suit: (/) Riz et
culture (Pillay, 1973). poisson en rotations successives: (a) annuellement une
Raman (1968) fait etat des resultats encourageants culture de chacun (methode palawidja). Avec des alevins de
d'essais d'elevages de crevettes en association avec Tilapia 2-3 cm (densite 4 000 alevins/ha) il est possible de faire
mossambica en rizieres e'eaux saumatres dans le Kerala. plusieurs recoltes apres un elevage de 1 a 3 mois. Pour
Les crevettes sont entrees librement dans les rizieres tandis 000 carpillons/ha
obtenir de plus grosses carpes, 1 000 a 2
que des alevins de 36-80 mm
de T. mossambica y ont etc de 8-12 cm sejournent 2 a 3 mois en rizieres. La duree
deverses a une densite approximative de 4 800 alevins/ha. totale d'elevage est de 4 a 6 mois. La production totale
L'essai a dure 3 mois alors que la periode de capture des durant cette periode se situe entre 75 et 1 50 kg/ha; (b) trois
crevettes en rizieres cotieres dure generalement 6 mois cultures de poissons en 2 ans et parfois 5 en un cycle de 3
(novembre-avril). En 3 mois, T. mossambica a atteint une ans (methode penjelang): ceci n'est applicable que s'il y a
taille moyenne de 1 6,2 cm. La production de poissons etait des possibilites d'irriguer les rizieres toute 1'annee. Dans
de 1 00 kg/ha/an dans la riziere experimentale contre 68 kg/ chaque cycle de 2 ans, le riz est cultive 3 fois durant 5 mois,
ha/an dans les enclos temoins, sans crevettes, avec des taux soit 1 5 mois au total. Entre ces periodes, les rizieres restent
de survie respectifs de 1 8,7% et de 1 3,75%. La production sous eau et il est possible d'y clever des carpes durant
des crevettes etait de 200 kg/ha et composee des especes environ 2 mois. Trois recoltes de poissons peuvent ainsi
suivantes: Metapenaeus dobsoni, M. monoceros et Penaeus etre obtenues durant chaque cycle de 2 annees.
indicus (Raman, 1968). L'auteur signale les possibilites (//') Production simultanee de riz et de poisson: (a) du
d 'clever T. mossambica comme poisson d'accompagne- repiquage du riz jusqu'au second sarclage (7 a 9 semaines):
ment, avec les crevettes, en rizieres. II preconise la mise en 60 000 alevins de 1 cm/ha, qui mesurent 3-5 cm a la
charge avec des alevins de 5-6 cm et une duree d'elevage de recolte; (b)du repiquage jusqu'a la floraison du riz ( 2- 1 6 1
cide(Rogor) mais ne mentionnent pas s'ils ont constate des pratique de la rizipisciculture est plus ancienne. La carpe
mortal ites apres ce traitement. commune est le poisson de base. La rizipisciculture a etc
prospere au Japon, surtout pendant la seconde guerre mon-
4.1.6 Indonesie. Les premiers essais d'elevage de poisson diale, mais de 1944 a 1949 la production de poisson est
en rizieres a Java datentde 1860(Ardiwinata, 1958). Selon tombee de 4 436 tonnes a 937 tonnes. En 1958 elle n 'etait
le meme auteur, en 1955, il y avait en Indonesie 90 492 ha plus que de 462 (Hickling, 1962). Maintenant la rizipisci-
de rizipisciculture produisant 9 1 60 tonnes de poisson de culture au Japon est en nette regression et il n'y a plus que
consommation. Pillay ( 1973) signale qu'il y a en Indonesie 0,3 a 0,5% des rizieres irriguees qui sont encore empoisson-
un potential de 3 millions d'hectares de rizieres irriguees ou nees (Coche, 1967). Les causes principales de la regression
Ton pourrait clever du poisson. Les techniques de rizipisci- de la rizipisciculture au Japon sont liees a 1'intensifi cation
culture en vogue en Indonesie ont ete decrites en detail par de Tagriculture (Huet, 1970). Au Japon, comme a Taiwan,
Ardiwinata (1958), Hickling (1962), Coche (1967) et le paysan donne priorite aux rendements rizicoles les plus
Huet (1970). hauts possibles. Pour cela, il utilise de plus en plus d'engrais
Selon Ardiwinata (1958) il existe une rizipisciculture mineraux et d'insecticides puissants. De telles pratiques ne
extensive dans environ 4 millions d'hectares de rizieres sont plus compatibles avec la rizipisciculture.
produisant en moyenne environ 1,5 kg/ha. La rizipiscicul- Hickling (1962) a decrit les methodes de rizipisciculture
ture intensive est surtout importante dans la province occi- japonaises en se basant notamment sur les travaux de
dentale de Java ou se trouvent environ les trois quarts des Kyokai (1957) et de Koronuma (1954). Selon Huet
rizieresempoissonnees. L'espece principale est la carpe (1970), les principales caracteristiques de la rizipiscicul-
(Cyprinus carpio var. flavipinnis) qui represente environ ture au Japon sont: une culture intensive avec usage de
85% de la production totale provenant des rizieres. On fumure et de nourrissage des poissons permettant d'obtenir
eleve egalement Tilapia mossambica, Chanos chanos, He- des productions de poissons d'assez forte taille: 1 00-250 g
lostoma temmincki, Osteochilus hasseltiietPuntiusjavani- en deux annees d'elevage, 350-750 g apres trois annees en
cus. A
part T. mossambica, les autres especes sont surtout rizieres. Etant donne le climat tempere du Japon, la carpe
elevees en rizieres en vue de la production d'alevins pour la
vente aux proprietaires d'etangs de pisciculture (Coche, 1
217
commune ne se reproduit qu'une fois Tan, au printemps de determiner: (a) la production de poisson et de paddy des
(avril-mai). De gros reproducteurs (generalement une rizieres irriguees et leur importance relative; (b) les types
femelle et trois males) sont places en petits etangs de ponte d'insecticides et Tetendue de leur utilisation en rizieres ainsi
(3* a 16
2
m
), avec des herbes comme supports pour les que les effets de ces produits chimiques sur le peuplement
oeufs. Souvent cet etang de ponte est amenage dans une des piscicole. Le rapport de ce comite presente un grand interet
rizieres. Apres la ponte, les herbes sont transferees dans une et contient des informations tres precises sur la produc-
il
petite riziere pour eclosion et premier grossissement. Le tion de poisson et de paddy, la commercialisation,
repiquage a lieu en juin et les carpillons sont deverses en I'utilisation de divers insecticides et leur toxicite, le revenu
rizieres fertilisers 10 jours apres le repiquage. Le recolte se des rizipisciculteurs, Les principales conclusions peu-
etc.
fait en septembre-octobre et les carpes sont transferees en vent se resumer comme(Tan et aL 1973):
suit
etangs dliivernage. Au printemps suivant, elles seront re- (/) L'enquete a porte sur 1 230 ha ou il y a double recolte
placees en rizieres pour atteindre la taille marchande. de paddy par an et ou se trouvaient 1 007 pay sans ainsi que
Les densites a la mise en charge varient: alevins de 3 a 5 sur un autre bloc de rizieres ou se trouvaient 534 rizicul-
cm: 2 000 a 4 000/ha sans alimentation supplementaire; teurs mais ne faisant qu'une seule recolte de riz par an.
10000 a 15 000/ha avec alimentation. Carpes d'un an Quatre-vingt-et-un pour cent des surfaces empoissonnees
(12-18 cm): 1 200 a 1 600/ha avec seulement nourriture ont etc pechees.
naturelle; 4 000/ha avec alimentation supplementaire. A de (/O La production moyenne de poisson en rizieres etait
telles densites et avec nourrissage, Ton obtient entre 700 et de 132 kg/ha.
1 800 kg de poisson par hectare (Hickling, 1962; Coche, (iii) Les captures etaient composees de 72% de Tricho-
1967). gaster pectoralis, 20% de Clarias macrocephalus. 6%
d'Ophiocephalus striatus et 2% d'Anabas testudineus.
4.1.8 Kalimantan (Borneo). Selon Hora et Pillay (1962), (/v) La production moyenne des rizieres avec double
il
y avait a 1'epoque 17 500 ha de rizieres irriguees. 11 est recolte de paddy etait de 95,7 kg/ha centre 203,5 kg/ha
vraisembable qu'il y a dans ces rizieres une production dans les rizieres avec une seule recolte de paddy par an.
piscicole mais, a notre connaissance, aucune donnee, a ce (v) La production de 1971 n'atteignait que 40% de celle
1
sujet n a etc publiee. de 1969. Selon les paysans, cette forte diminution a etc
cause par I'utilisation d'insecticides et des assecs frequent.
4. 9 Kampuchea. Hora et Pillay ( 1962) signalent qu'il y
1. (v/) La production de paddy variait de2270a2966 kg/
avait au Kampuchea I 400 000 ha de rizieres irriguees, ha.
mais il n'y a aucune precision au sujet des pratiques de ( v/0 Le revenu annuel net par ferme (superficie moyenne
Tilapia mossambica, mais ces essais n'ont pas donne de tuelles, ne sont pas toxiques pour les poissons eleves en
resultats a cause de la forte predation exercee sur T. mos- rizieres (Sevin et Malathion par exemple).
sambica par O. striatus et C. batrachus. (11) Ne plus appliquer les insecticides par routine et par
La production moyenne de poisson atteint 1 35kg/ha, en mesure prophylactique (ce qui est antieconomique), mais
6 a 10 mois d 'elevage. Les productions varient de 10 kg a seulement au moment ou il y a de serieuses presomptions
plus de 400 kg/ha, en fonction de la nature et de la fertilite que le riz sera attaque par les borers ou par des insectes
des sols (Coche, 1967). Bien que cette production supple- phytophages. II n'est d'ailleurs pas certain qu'il est plus
mentaire soit economiquement fort avantageuse, Ton a economique de lutter centre les insectes, plutot que d'elever
constate depuis 1969 une nette regression des surfaces du poisson en rizieres et perdre un certain pourcentage de
exploitces en rizipisciculture a la suite de 1'introduction paddy.
d\me nouvelle variete de riz permettant d'obtenir deux (i/O Maintenir dans la riziere un niveau d'eau entre 45 et
recoltes de paddy par an, de I'utilisation intensive 60 cm, meme si cela n'est pas entierement compatible avec
d'insecticides et de la pratique d'assecs frequents (Tan et les varietes a croissance rapide. Dans ce cas, la
de riz
218
(fv) Augmenter les dimensions des drains et des 4.2 Afrique
trous-refuges pour remedier aux inconvenients des assecs La situation de la rizipisciculture en Afrique a etc decrite
indispensables aux productions elevees de paddy. La pro- recemment par Vincke (1976). Dans dix pays africains il
duction de poisson compensera sans doute la perte de 1
n y a eu que des essais de rizipisciculture, notamment au
paddy. Cameroun, en Cote d'lvoire, en Egypte, au Gabon, au
(r) Verifier quelle est, du point de vue de la sante Kenya, au Liberia, en Empire centrafricain, en Rhodesie, en
publique. Pinfluence de Tapplication des produits phyto- Zambie et au Zaire. Malgre ces essais et le fait que plusieurs
sanitaires sur les populations de riziculteurs particuliere-
pays africains ont manifeste leur intention de developper la
ment exposees aux effets polluants de ces insecticides. rizipisciculture comme un moyen d'ameliorer la ration
alimentaire des habitants de certaines regions, la rizipisci-
4. 1. 1 1
Philippines. La FAO (1958) signale des recoltes de culture ne s'est pratiquement pas developpee en Afrique, a
poissons en rizieres aux Philippines sans autres precisions. I'exception de Madagascar. Quatre cas sont examines ci-
Dans la litterature consultee, nous n'avons pas trouve de apres.
renseignements a ce sujet.
4.2. 1 Cote d'lvoire. Les essais entrepris en 1963-65 a
4.1.12 Sri Lanka. Tilapia mossambica y serait eleve en Stiemer, expert FAO, aflecte a la SODERIZ,
Korogo par
rizieres (FAO, 1958). Selon Hora et Pillay (1962), il y etaient consideres comme un moyen pratique pour promou-
avait a Tepoque dans ce pays 350000 ha de rizieres voir une meilleure maitrise de 1 eau dans les rizieres (di-
irriguees. Aucun
auteur ne precise quelles sont les superfi- guettes plus larges et plus hautes, planage plus correct,
cies consacrees a la rizipisciculture et quelles sont les
etc). En general, et selon les renseignements obtenus sur
especes de poisson utilisees. place, les rizieres empoissonnees etaient plus soignees et les
amenagements etaient meilleurs. Les resultats ont cepen-
4.1.13 Thai'lande. La superficie totale des rizieres irriguees dant ete tres heterogenes et seuls ies resultats des essais de
s'elevait 1971 a 31 000 km 2 (Aubray et Isarankura,
en 1965 sont disponibles.
1974). Des essais de rizipisciculture sont entrepris A des densites comprises entre 20 et 80 alevins/are en
a la station de recherches de Khon Kaen. Les prin- monoculture, et pour une duree d'elevage approximative de
cipales especes utilisees en rizipisciculture sont: Ophlo- 100 a 120 jours, les rendements en poisson etaient les
cephalus striatus, Clarias batrachus, Cyprinus carpio, suivants (Vincke, 1976): (/) Heterotis niloticus: 139 kg/
Anabas testudineus, Tilapia mossambica et Trichogaster ha/an avec des poids moyens allant de 62 a 233 g (//)
pectoralis. Tilapia nilotica: 44,5 kg/ha/an. Poids moyens a la recolte
Selon Swingle et Shell (1972) les paysans tha'ilandais se entre 19 et 105 g (///) T. macrochir; 37,7 kg/ha/an. Poids
mefient de la pratique d'elevage de poissons en rizieres. Les moyens a la recolte entre 1 3 et 30 g.
raisons de cette mefiance sont notamment le danger de
perdre le poisson lors des inondations ou de la secheresse, 4.2.2 Gabon. Six essais de rizipisciculture ont ete conduits
les pertes par predation par vol et
et le surplus de travail au Centre Piscicole National d'Oyem en 1971-72, mais
qu'exige le creusement des drains et le renforcement des seulement un essai est a prendre en consideration, les autres
diguettes. Selon ces auteurs, c'est Tilapia nilotica qui a la ayant ete soit negliges, soit arretes brutalement par des
preference des paysans et des essais de rizipisciculture ont inondations, suivies de la perte totale des poissons. En
2
donne les resultats suivants avec des densites a la mise en polyculture Tilapia nilotica (1 alevin/m ) + geniteurs T.
charge des rizieres de 18 a 30 alevins/are (optimum: 20 rendalli ( \ couple a Tare) + Feterotis niloticus (0,9 alevin
rendement moyen sans nourriture: 210 kg
alevins/are): (/) pour 10
2
m
), on a obtenu apres 6 mois d'elevage en riziere,
de poisson/ha; (//) rendement moyen avec nourriture: 250 un rendement de 680 kg de poisson a 'hectare/an, avec des 1
kg de poisson/ha; (///") rendement de riz en rizipisciculture: Tilapia marchands de 56 g. II n'y a pas de renseignements
1 200 a 1 500 kg de paddy/ha; (/v) en rizieres fertilisees precis sur les Heterotis et il se confirme que T. rendalli est
avec alimentation supplementaire (son de riz, riz concasse un bon sarcleur, du moins lorsque le niveau de 1'eau est
et Hydrilla) la production avec la carpe commune atteint suffisant pour permettre aux poissons de circuler entre les
418 kg/ha. plants.
4. 1. 14 Viet Nam. Coche (1967) signale que Ton pratique 4.2.3 Liberia. A partir de 1971 quelques essais de rizipis-
la rizipisciculture avec la carpe commune dans les regions ciculture ont ete entrepris a la Station Centrale
montagneuses du pays Thai. Les rizieres sont mises en d 'Experimentation Agricole de Suakoko, par la Division
charge en avril, a la densite de 20 000 alevins/ha. Une des Peches, conjointement avec le projet FAO/PNUD
premiere recolte, apres 3 mois, donne 80 a 100 kg/ha de Developpement de la Riziculture au Liberia (Vincke,
poisson de 40-50 g. Si on recolte apres 6 ou 7 mois 1972a).
(octobre) la production est de 100 a 150 kg/ha pour des Quatre parcelles fertilisees, sans drain ni trou-refuge ont
carpes de 60 a 150 g. ete mises en charge avec Tilapia macrochir, 56 jours apres
Dans les regions deltaiques et basses du Viet Nam, le le repiquage, a la densite de 4 952 alevins/ha. Le poids
climat tropical permet de faire une culture sur 5 mois moyen des alevins variait entre 1 et 26 g. Durant Tessais, il
(janvier-mai) ou deux recoltes par an. On utilise surtout la n'y a pas eu duplication de produits phytosanitaires et il
carpe commune et parfois Tilapia mossambica (Cao- n'y a eu qu'un seul sarclage manuel. Les poissons n'ont regu
Thien-Buu, 1958). Se trouvent egalement en rizieres: Clar- aucune alimentation supplementaire. Les traitements appli-
ias batrachus, Ophiocephalus striatus et Trichogaster pec- ques etaient les suivants: 2 rizieres avec poissons, une avec
toralis. Ces especes sont capturees en rizipisciculture du riz mais sans poissons, une avec poissons mais sans riz.
extensive. Durant 'essai il y a eu vol de poissons, et Ton a constate que
1
219
des poissons etaient passes dime parcelle a 1'autre par des de poisson a 1'hectare de F.MG. 75 et
rizieres, valant entre
trous dans les diguettes. Le riz a etc recolte 1 66 jours apres 20000 (F.MG. 250=US$ en 1971-1972).
1
la repiquage, sans assec des rizieres, et les poissons n'ont Si Ton amenageait convenablement les 175 000 ha de
pas etc recoltes. On a repique du riz une seconde fois dans rizieres a adduction d'eau controlee, ou la rizipisciculture
les memes parcelles. Ainsi les poissons ont sejourne 238 est possible,Ton pourrait obtenir 35 000 tonnes de poisson
jours en riziere. durant cycle cultural du riz irrigue.
le
Les resultats de cet essai etaient les suivants (Vincke, Jusqu'au debut des annees 1960, le developpement de la
1972a): parcelles avec riz 4- poissons: 234 kg et 282,7
(/) rizipisciculture a Madagascar a etc tres lent. En 1960, la
kg de poisson/ha/an + 6 1 et 7 1 kg/ha de paddy. (11) parcelle production piscicole des rizieres etait evaluee a 1 5 tonnes
avec riz seul: 56,79 kg de paddy/ha/an. (Hi) parcelle avec (Vincke, 1972). L'obstacle majeur a 1'extension de cet
poissons seul: 102,8 kg de poisson/ha/an. elevage reste toujours la penurie d'alevins, notamment des
Malgre les circonstances qui ont quelque peu fausse cet carpillons de souches selectionnees. Les dernieres annees,
obtenus sont interessants. A noter que fin
essai, les resultats les superficies consacrees a la rizipisciculture n'ont cepen-
1972 on estimait que la superficie totale des rizieres irri- dant fait qu'augmenter a un taux annuel de 1 2 a 1 5% du fait
guees au Liberia atteignait 626 ha ou la rizipisciculture d'un meilleur encadrement des cultivateurs et parce que Ton
pourrait etre pratiquee. a pu mettre a leur disposition les alevins de carpe royale
necessaires.
4.2.4Madagascar. La rizipisciculture extensive existe a En 1971, Ton estimait qu'il y avait 411 ha consacres
Madagascar depuis le debut des annees 1900, mais elle n'a a la rizipisciculture, donnant 82 tonnes de poisson
reellement connu un certain succes qu'a partir de 1920, valant F.MG. 8 220000 (Vincke, 1972b). II est evident
surtout sur les Hauts-Plateaux. A partir de 1925-26, la qu'il y a encore d'enormes possibilites d'extension de la
carpe miroir (Cyprinus carpio var. specularis) s'est repan- rizipisciculture a Madagascar. Cette extension suppose un
due et, petit a petit, a remplace les especes ut ill sees encadrement des paysans et 1'augmentation des capacites
precedemment en rizieres (Carassius auratus et Eleotris de production des stations d'alevinage de Tile (Vincke,
legendrei). 1976).
L 'elevage
de poissons en rizieres n'a pratiquement pas
connu d'extension jusqu'en 1962. C'etait reste un elevage 4.3 Ameriques
extensif, a 1'exception de la region de Betafo (Antsirabe) ou, En Amerique du Nord une certaine forme de rizipiscicul-
en 1953, il y avait 16 ha de rizieres dans lesquelles ou ture est pratiquee aux Etats-Unis. II y a eu egalement
elevait des carpes miroir. De 1962 a 1973, la Division de quelques essais en Haiti, au Bresil, en Guyane et en Argen-
Recherches Piscicoles du Centre Technique Forestier tine (Coche, 1967).
Tropical a execute un programme de recherches tendant a
mettre au point les techniques d'elevage de poissons en 4.3. 1 Etats-Unis d'Amerique. La pisciculture en rizieres y
rizieres (Vincke, 1973). a debute vers 1950 et beaucoup de problemes restent a
Durant ces essais Ton a teste les especes suivantes: carpe resoudre. Cette pisciculture en rizieres semble relever bien
commune var. royale Tilapia zillii, T. nilotica, T. mossam- plus de techniques de mise en valeur et de defrichement de
bica, T. macrochir, T. rendalli, Paratilapia polleni, Caras- terres incultes et d'operations de jachere que de rizipiscicul-
sius auratus, Micropterus salmoides et Heterotis niloticus. ture. Comme le signale Coche
(196 7) Ton utilise Teau dans
Ces essais ont porte sur la densite a la mise en charge en deux cas precis: defrichement par inondation de terrains
monoculture et en polyculture, 1'influence des amenage- boises incultes, et mise en jachere de rizieres irriguees pour
ments piscicoles preconises en rizieres (drain peripherique leur rendre une certaine fertilite, eviter 1'erosion et eliminer
et trou-refuge), 1'application d'engrais et de produits phyto- des plantes adventices qui concurrencent le riz.
sanitaires (Lindane) durant 1'elevage, 1 'alimentation sup- D'apres Johnson et Davison (1958), la riziculture
plementaire des poissons et les elevages complementaires, aux Etats-Unis d'Amerique est fortement mecanisee et
apres la recolte du riz. quelques hommes suffisent a cultiver plusieurs centaines
Rabelahatra (1972) a dresse le bilan des recherches sur d'hectares. Des rizieres d'une trentaine d'hectares ne
la rizipisciculture effectuees a Madagascar et ses conclu- sont pas rares.
sions peu vent se resumer comme suit: Les rizieres produisent moins de paddy au fur et a
(i) La reussite de la rizipisciculture depend mesure qu'elles sont envahies par les plantes adventices
essentiellement de la maitrise de 1'eau, de Fetal des aquatiques telles que Echinochloa et Panicum, car il y a
diguettes, des amenagements piscicoles de la riziere concurrence avec le riz pour les elements nutritifs du sol,
(drain peripherique, trou-refuge, entrees et sorties d'eau, 1'espace et la lumiere (Johnson et Davison, 1958). Ailleurs
etc), de la fumure, du choix des especes a clever en dans le monde, ou la riziculture n'est pas une entreprise
rizieres, de la disponibilite et de 1'approvisionnement mecanique gigantesque, ces problemes ont etc resolus par le
regulier en alevins. sarclage manuel ou par 1'emploi d 'herbicides selectifs. Aux
(ii) La mise en charge des rizieres peut se faire a partir de Etats-Unis d'Amerique Ton applique une jachere pour
la deuxieme semaine apres le repiquage. Les densites obtenir les memes resultats. Jadis les rizieres en jachere
d'empoissonnement preconisees sont les suivantes: (a) etaient transformees en paturages ou en champs de soja.
carpe commune var. royale seule: 25 alevins/are; (b) Tila- Maintenant elles restent sous eau et on y fait de la piscicul-
pia seul (T. nilotica, T. macrochir, etc): 1 5-30 alevins/are; ture. Les especes utilisees sont Ictiobus cyprinellus, Ictalu-
(c) Polyculture = carpes
25/are + poissons d'accompagne- rus punctatus, Cyprinus carpio et Micropterus salmoides
ment: 25/are. (Huet, 1 9 70). Generalement les poissons restent en rizieres
(Hi) dans de bonnes conditions et apres un elevage en durant toute la duree de la jachere. La production moyenne
rizieres en 120-140 jours, Ton obtient entre 150 et 200 kg est de 119 kg/ha/an (Coche, 1967).
220
4.3.2 Amerique Centrale et du Sud. La pisciculture en en rizieres a le plus de chances de se developper dans un
rizieres y est peu developpee. En Haiti il y a eu quelques proche avenir si les projets d'amenagement de vastes
essais avec la carpe commune et divers Tilapia. Au Bresil, mis a execution. Jusqu'a present, les
rizieres irriguees sont
dans la vallee du Paraiba, Ton a teste Cyprinus carpio et services interesses n'avaient pas realise pleinement les
Tilapia rendalli en monoculture et en polyculture. Le but possibilites d'accroissement piscicole qu'offre la rizi-
de ces essais etait de verifier Faction des poissons sur le riz pisciculture.
et les plantes adventices. En moyenne on a recolte entre 66 1
degat aux plants de riz (Coche, 1967). 5 Perspectives et avenir de 1'aquaculture en rizieres dans le
pour grossissement dans les etangs de fermes situees a de riz que d'avoir une recolte supplemental
ainsi la recolte
proximite des rizieres. En 1'absence de poissons marins, les de poisson avec une plus faible recolte de paddy (Hickling,
poissons d'eau douce, notamment les carpes, atteignent un 1 962). La situation
parait etre la meme en Chine (Province
bon prix, le poisson etant considere comme un produit de Taiwan) et en Malaisie.
alimentaire important. La carpe semble contribuer au main- Dans certaines regions d'Afrique oii se pratique deja la
tien de bonnes conditions dans les rizieres. riziculture irriguee et ou existent des possibilites
d'introduire la rizipisciculture intensive avec des chances
4.4.3 Italic. La rizipisciculture intensive a ete introduite de succes, il
parait indispensable de mettre en oeuvre des
dans nord de 1'Italie (plaine de Lombardie et vallee du
le programmes de recherches appliquees basees sur les don-
P6) a la fin du 19eme siecle, d'apres Tonolli (1955). Tres nees obtenues a Madagascar (Vincke, 1976). La culture du
rapidement et surtout a partir de la guerre 1940-45, les riz etantnouvelle sur le continent africain, 1'introduction
riziculteurs ont pratiquement abandonne ce type d'elevage simultanee de cette double technique de riziculture et de
du fait de certaines difficultes techniques (rehaussement des pisciculture en rizieres semble difficilement assimilable par
digues, augmentation des quantites d'eau d'irrigation, etc) les paysans. La riziculture prend de plus en plus d'extension
et economiques (Hickling, 1962; Coche, 1967). L'espece en Afrique; lorsqu'elle sera bien ancree dans les moeurs, on
principale est Cyprinus carpio, tres souvent associee a peut esperer y associer Pelevage du poisson. Coche (1967)
Carassius auratus et a Tinea tinea. Actuellement, il reste estime qu'il ne faut pas pousser les paysans africains a faire
quelques fermiers qui, en rizieres, produisent des fingerlings de la rizipisciculture intensive avant qu'ils aient acquis une
qu'ils revendent ensuite a des proprietaires d'etangs et a des certaine experience des pratiques culturales du riz et de la
societes de peche. conduite de I'irrigation.
IIparait assez vraisemblable que 1'aquaculture en rizieres
4.5 Bilan et conclusions ne se developpera plus en Europe pour les raisons citees
Dans pays a riziculture tres evoluee, 1'aquaculture en
les plus haut. II est difficile de statuer a ce sujet. Par contre, an
rizieres esten regression, notamment en Asie et en Europe. Amerique du Nord et plus particulierement aux Etats-Unis,
Cette situation est due a 1'introduction de varietes de riz a les methodes de culture et d'elevage seront ameliorees et la
rendement eleve et generalement a tige courte exigeant une pisciculture en rizieres se developpera sans doute dans
mince lame d'eau, a 1'emploi de produits phytosanitaires et certains etats. En Amerique Latine les donnees disponibles
d 'herbicides toxiques pour les animaux aquatiques et enfin a sont trop rares pour se faire une idee claire de la situation.
le possibilite de faire deux cultures par an. Dans ces pays ou le besoin urgent existe d'augmenter la
II apparait que 1'Afrique est le continent oii 1'aquaculture ration de proteines animales, la rizipisciculture parait etre
221
une dcs sources d'approvisionnement permettant de mieux succes des programmes de rizipisciculture, un service de
nourrir les populations locales etant donne qu'on enregistre vulgarisation et d'encadrement competent est indispens-
un certain developpement de la pisciculture en etangs. able. Des stations d'alevinage bien equipees doivent etre a
Le developpement de
la rizipisciculture dans le monde meme de ravitailler les rizipisciculteurs en alevins des
est subordonne a la connaissance pour chaque pays des especes preconisees.
elements de base suivants (Vincke, 1976): (/) inventaire
detaille des surfaces de riziculture irriguees; (//) situation
1
des techniques culturales rizicoles actuellement mises en 6 References
oeuvre: amenagement des rizieres irriguees, hauteur des
ARDIWINATA, R. O. Fish culture on paddy fields in Indonesia. Proc.
diguettes, maitrise et alimentation en eau, sarclages (fre- 1958 JPFC, 7(2/3): 119-62
AUBRAY, R. & ISARANKURA, A. P. The fisheries of Thailand, including a
quences et methodes appliquees), recolte du riz, etc\ (Hi) 1974 review of the economics of the country Bangkok, Department
compte-rendu detaille des essais d'aquaculture en rizieres of Fisheries
deja realises; (iv) description des techniques piscicoles CAO-THIEN-BUU Quelques essais de rizipisciculture au Sud Viet-Nam
1958 Proc. IPFC, 1 (2/3) 207-1 3 .
1955
des differentes methodes d'aquaculture en rizieres, en ten- MAAR, A. Fish culture in rice paddies. In Proceedings of the First
ant compte de tous les facteurs, afin de demontrer sa 1959 Day in Southern Rhodesia. Salisbury, Ministry of
Fisheries
Agriculture, p. 74
rentabilite financiere; (") influence sur les poissons eleves
MACDONAGH, E J. Piscicultura del pejcrrey en el arrozal de la Facultad
en rizieres et sur les humains de 1'utilisation des produits 1946 de Agronomia de la Plata. Rev. Fac. Agron La Plata, 26 33-50
222
RAMAN, K. On an experiment in prawn-cum-tilapia culture in paddy TAN, C. E. et al. A report on paddy and paddy-field fish
production in
1968 Indian J. Fish., 15 (1/2): 175-9
field. 1973 Krian, Perak. Bull. Ministr. Agnc. Fish Malaysia, (128)
SCHUSTER, W. H. Report on the possibilities for fish culture in East TONOLLI, V. Carp culture in ricefields. Proc Tech. Pap. GFCM, (3):
1952 Pakistan. Rome, FAO, 24 p. (mimeo) 1955 151-9
SCHUSTER, W. H. Fish culture in conjunction with nee cultivation. VINCKE, M. La rizipisciculture a Madagascar. Tananarive, CTFT
1955 World Crops, 7: 1 1-14, 67-70 1972 (mimeo)
SCHUSTER, W. H., KESTEVEN, G. L & COLLINS, G. E. La pisciculture et VINCKE, M. Liberia. Inland fisheries and fish culture development. A
1954 1'exploitation rationnelle des pecheries inteneures dans 1'econo- 1972a report (WS/D4369) prepared for the Development of Rice
mie rurale. FAO Fish. Stud. (Fr.) (3): 75 p. t Cultivation Project. Rome, FAO, 31 p.
SOONG, M. K. Fish culture in paddy-fields in the Federation of Malaya. VINCKE, M. Essai d'estimation de la production piscicole des eaux
1954 Paper presented at the FAO
International Rice Commission, 1972b continentales malgaches. Tananarive, CTFT (mimeo)
4th Session, Tokyo (mimeo) 5 p. VINCKE, M. Bilan de dix annees de recherche* piscicoles a Madagascar
SWINGLE, H. S. &
SHELL, E. W. Inland fisheries progress in Thailand, 1973 (1960-1970). Notes Docu. Peche Piscic., CTFT
1972 1971. Auburn, Alabama, International Center for Aquaculture VINCKE, M. La rizipisciculture et les elevages associes en Afnque.
TAMURA, T. Carp cultivation in Japan. In Fish as food, edited by G. 1976 CIFA Tech Pap (4) Suppl. 1 659-707
, :
inbred resistance to insects and insect-transmitted diseases. tolerable for fish and fish food organisms, and paddy dikes
This decreases the need for insecticide protection of grow- need to be stronger and higher than normal to contain fish
ing rice. At the Freshwater Aquaculture Center in Munoz, and water. Usually some of the rice production area is made
Philippines, experiments are being conducted to evaluate into a trench where fish can find refuge when they are not
methods of combining fish culture with farming of these foraging among the rice plants. These trenches also serve as
newest rice varieties. capture channels in which the fish collect when water is
223
lowered. These many factors must be considered in evaluat- stocked fish averaged 71%, and there was no increase in
ing the economics of modern rice-fish culture. production in ponds with the larger trench system. Larger
standing crops and greater net production results from the
higher stocking rate. Stocked fish at harvest averaged 40 g
2 Experimental results at the lower stocking density and 34 g at the higher stock-
Four new rice
yield trials with rice-fish culture using the ing density.
variety IR26 have been completed. Government-recom- TABLE I
mended procedures for rice farming were used except that STANDING CROPS OF MALE T. mossambica HARVESTED AFTER 84 DAYS
no insecticide applications were made and there was a
FROM RICE-FISH PLOTS WITH TWO TRENCH SYSTEMS
trench in each plot. Yields of IR26 grown in these insecti- Production (kg/ha)
cide-free exceeded production of other varieties
trials
Stocking rate Area of trench system
grown in surrounding areas and a typical yield of unmilled Mean
rice was approximately 3 000 kg/ha. No clear relationship 10% 23%
between rice and fish yields was apparent.
25 kg/ha 42-1 46-2 44-2
The first trial was conducted from January to June 1 974 50 kg/ha 114-7 73-5 94-1
in five 800 m 2
plots created in dried pond bottoms. Tilapia
Mean 78-4 59-9 69-2
sp., commoncarp (Cyprinus carpio) and catfish (Clarias
macrocephalus) fingerlings were stocked in the plots to
determine yields of each species. The total stocking weight Trial four compared production of Cyprinus carpio and
was approximately 30 kg/ha. Standing crops at harvest male Tilapia mossambica, each stocked at 30 kg/ha in
separate 800 m plots from February to June 1975. C.
2
averaged 130 kg/ha for fish. Tilapia yielded the greatest
weight but this was because of reproduction resulting in carpio grew from an average of47gto 237g with 85%
many small fish. Cyprinus carpio had an average standing recovery and the standing crop at harvest was 208 kg/ha.
crop at harvest of 42 kg/ha with only 53% of the fish being Male T. mossambica grew from 35 g to 80 g with 100%
recovered. Clarias macrocephalus did not grow wdl and recovery and had a standing crop at harvest of 89 kg/ha.
only 29% were recovered. These results have been so encouraging that the experi-
The second trial was in 80 m 2 plots with fish stocked in
1 mental area of the Freshwater Aquaculture Center has been
April and harvested in July 1974. Nine plots were stocked expanded to more than 40 operational plots covering more
with fish believed to be Tilapia mossambica. but subse- than one hectare. Co-operative demonstrations are being
quent identification determined that T. zillii, a new species conducted with the National Irrigation Administration to
in the Philippines, were also mixed in the stock. Stocking determine the economics of fish production on a commer-
rates averaged 30 kg/ha. Standing crops offish at harvest cial scale. Current experiments are designed to compare
averaged 186 kg/ha. Small tilapia less than 15 g each, yields of several species of fish at various stocking rates,
and other rice varieties are being evaluated. The effects of
resulting from reproduction, accounted for 65% of the
harvest weight. different fertilizers, water regimes and supplemental feed-
The third trial compared production of monosex male T. ing are also scheduled for testing.
mossambica at two stocking densities and with two trench
designs. Twelve 200 m plots were used with three repli-
2
cates for each treatment. Fish were sexed by visual exami- 3 References
nation of the genital papillae and stocked at approximately ARDINAWATA, R. O. Fish culture on paddy fields in Indonesia. Proc.
25 and 50 kg/ha. One trench system was a single ditch 1958 IPFC, 7(2-3): 119-218
across the centre of the plot comprising 10% of the produc- COCHE, A. G. Fish culture in rice fields, a world-wide synthesis.
1967 Hydrobiologia, 30 1-44
tion area. The other trench system was a peripheral ditch HOKA, S. L. &
PILLAY, T. V. R. Handbook on fish culture in the
1962 Indo-Pacific region FAO Fish. Biol. Tech. Pap., (14): 204 p.
comprising 23% of the production area. Fish were stocked
INTERNATIONAL RICF RtstARCH INSTITUTH Improved rice varieties
in September and harvested in early December 1974. Fish 1975 needed for world's deep water regions 1RRI Reporter, 75 (3):
harvest results are summarized in Table I. Recovery of 1 -4
224
Aspects economlques dc diverse! techniques d'amenagement propres & el mercadeo y los intereses, por lo que ha de concederse alta prioridad a
en etang
la pisciculture las investigaciones tendientes a reducir estos costos.
Resume La rentabilidad economica de la acuicultura puede mejorarse no solo
Au plan mondial, Felevage des poissons en etang represente en poids incrementando la productividad y
reduciendp los costos de produccion
quelque 75% de la production de Paquaculture et utilise environ 9096 de smo tarnbien mejorando los precios percibidos por los piscicultores.
la superficie qui lui est consacree. On estime que cette activite est a Esto ultimo puede lograrse comenzando a mejorar la call dad del pescado
1'origine d'un investissement de capital atteignant quelque US$ 3 500 y con mejoras en la estrategia y canales de mercadeo.
millions. Le potentiel d'accroissement de la production aquicole est eleve
grace a 1'expansion de 1'elevage des poissons en etang.
L 'analyse economique de 1'elevage des poissons en etang vise les
objectifs suivants: (/) mettre au point des methodes de mise en valeur 1 Introduction
ameliorees qui rendront Industrie plus profitable; et (//') guider
1'elaboration de et de programmes qui affectent le
Pond culture for finfish, utilizing either freshwater, brackish-
pplitiques developpe-
ment de 1'industrie aquicole. water, or marine situations, is the most widely practised
Ci-apres les especes sur lesquelles porte cette etude: chanides, carpe
commune, carpes chinoises, principals carpes indiennes, poissons chats type of operation in aquaculture.
(ictalure, Clarias, pangasides), tilapia, mulet gris, anguille et truite arc
It is estimated that 3-7 million tons or 75% of the world
en-ciel
production through aquaculture, covering 2-3 million ha or
Le document etudie la rentabilite de la monoculture par comparaison
avec la polyculture, et ['utilisation des techniques extensives a 1'encontre
90% of the total area used for aquaculture, is derived from
des techniques intensives pour un certain n ombre d 'especes. this type of system. It is also estimated that pond culture for
De nombreux facteurs influent sur la rentabilite de Pelevage en etang. finfish has stimulated an investment for capital expenses
Le rendement des investissements varie inevitablement en fonction des
conditions locales. D'apres les experiences menees par maints pays avec equivalent to USS 3 500 million. Furthermore, the poten-
di verses especes, it semble qu'en general les operations intensives ac- tial for increased production from this sector is very high
croissent la productivite et reduisent le cout de production par unite; par
ailleurs, la polyculture permet dc reahser plus de benefices que la (Ling, 1973). It is estimated, for example, that in southeast
monoculture. Asia alone there are about 22 million ha suitable for
Les pnncipaux postes des operations d'elevage en etang sont les
les engrais, les aliments, la main-d'oeuvre, la commerci-
development of ponds for finfish culture.
reproducteurs,
alisation et le loyer de Pargent, et il est imperieux d'efTectuer des Theobject of this paper is to analyse the economics of
recherches sur les
moyens de reduire ces couts. this well established and economically viable form of cul-
II est possible d'ameliorer la rentabilite
economique de Paquaculture ture. It is hoped that this analysis will aid in: (/) finding
non seulement en accrpissant la productivite et en reduisant les couts de
production, mais aussi en rehaussant le niveau des pnx dont beneficient methods of improved management that will make the indus-
les exploitants des etangs. L'on peut y parvenir en apportant des
try more profitable; and (//) guiding the formulation of
ameliorations a la qualite du et en perfectionnant la strategic et
les reseaux de commercialisation.
ppisson policies and programmes which affect its development.
Data for this type of study are extremely limited and
often difficult to obtain. The economics of only those
Aspecos economicos de distintas tecnicas para el manejo del cultivo de
peces en estanques species of finfish for which data are readily available to the
Extracto
authors are treated in this paper.
Del cultivo de peces en estanque precede cerca el 75% de la produccion
mundial de la acuicultura en peso, y a el se dedica cerca del 90% de la The species of finfish discussed here are listed on the
superficie explotada para la acuicultura. Se calcula que este cultivo ha bottom of this page.
estimulado inversiones de capital del orden de USS 3 500 millones. Las
The species first listed, milkfish, is raised commercially
posibilidades de aumentar la produccion acuicola mcrementando el
cultivo de peces en estanques son elevadas. in Indonesia, the Philippines, and Taiwan Province of
Se analizan los aspectos economicos del cultivo de peces en estanques China. Common carp culture is widely practised in Europe,
a fin de: (/) establecer mejores sistemas de manejos practices, que
permitan obtener mayor rentabilidad de esta industria; y (//') dar orienta-
Israel, Japan and mainland China as monoculture. The use
cipnes para
la formulacion de politicas y programas para el desarrollo de of the herbivorous/omnivorous Chinese carps with com-
la industria acuicola.
Las especies que se ban tenido en cuenta en este estudio son: sabalote,
mon carp in polyculture is practised in some European
carpa comun, carpas chinas, principals carpas indias, bagres (de canal,
countries as well as in southeast Asia. Polyculture using the
Clarias, Pangasius\ tilapia, mugil, anguila y trucha arco-iris. Indian major carps is common in India and neighbouring
Se examina, en relacion con varias de estas especies, la rentabilidad del
countries where these species are indigenous. The ictalurid
mpnocultivo y del policultivo asi como del empleo de tecnicas extensivas
o intensivas. channel catfish an important commercially-cultured fish
is
Son muchos los factores que influyen en la rentabilidad del cultivo en in the United States. Clariid and pangasid catfishes are
estanques. El porcentaje de beneficios sobre las inversiones no puede por
lo menos depender de la local. La experiencia lograda en
raised intensively in Thailand and their culture is spreading
situation
muchos paises con diversas especies indica que, en general, con el cultivo in southeast Asia.
intensive se aumenta la productividad y se reducen los costos de Other widely cultivated warmwater fish are the tilapias
produccion por unidad y que el policultivo resulta mas rentable que el cultivated not only in their native areas, Africa and the
monocultivo. Los principles conceptos de gasto en la piscicultura en
estanques son las semillas, los fertilizantes, los piensos, la mano de obra, Middle East, but also in the Asiatic part of the USSR, parts
225
of Europe and the United States, and in many Latin Ameri- 2.1.1 The Philippines
can countries. The ubiquitous grey mullets found in tropi- Two types of
2.1.1.1 Intensive versus extensive culture.
cal and semi-tropical waters around the world are also techniques are used in the Philippines for milkfish culture:
widely cultivated. Eels, which are high-valued species, are intensive and extensive. Monoculture or polyculture may
cultivated intensively in the Far East, and generally less be practised for each of these techniques.
intensively in Europe. Another highly valued species is the (a) Monoculture. In the intensive monoculture opera-
rainbow trout, the species most widely cultured commer- tion, fertilizer and feed, interest, and marketing are the
cially of the trouts. major cost items, accounting for about 39, 19 and 15%
In addition to listing the fishes mentioned in this paper, a respectively of the total operating cost. In the extensive
number of definitions are required as preliminary to the monoculture operation, interest and land lease are the
economic analysis that follows: major cost items, accounting for about 47 and 24% respec-
(a) Monoculture cultivation of a single species within tively of the total operating cost.
a pond. (Animals high on the food chain and often sup-
TABLF I
ported by direct feeding, such as trout, are usually mono- COSTS OF AND RFTURNS FROM MILKFISH CUI TURF/HA IN IMF
cultured, but any species can be so cultivated.) PHIl IPPINFS ( 1975)
the simultaneous rearing of a number INTENSIVF MONOCULTURE
(b) Polyculture
of different species (or age-groups, in some instances) to
make more efficient use of the entire pond environment.
(The culture of the Chinese carps is a classic example of
polyculture designed to fill most of the available feeding
niches.)
(c) Intensive culture one which uses improved tech-
niques (including scientific
pond design, fertilization, sup-
plemental feeding, stock manipulation, and pest control )
ate measures for animal protein production in those devel- allowing the high stocking rate and hence high yield in the
oping countries in which such culture is possible. intensive operation. The annual yield averages about 3 000
The major producers of milkfish are Indonesia, the kg/ha in the intensive operation, compared with about 500
Philippines,and Taiwan Province of China. Their annual kg/ha in the extensive operation. The total cost of produc-
production ranges from 250 to over 3 000 kg/ha due to tion is higher with more fertilizer than with less, but since
differences in culture techniques. Reliable cost-return data the level of production is also higher, the cost of production
for commercial-scale milkfish farming under different tech- per unit of milkfish is relatively low. The cost of production
niques are difficult to obtain. The results of field surveys in per kg of milkfish is estimated as about P.Ps. 3-11 in the
the Philippines and Indonesia are summarized in Tables I- intensive operation, compared with about P.Ps. 8- 1 7 in the
VII. These figures should be considered as indicative of extensive operation. It is profitable to use more fertilizer as
relative trends in costs related to various culture techniques long as the cost per unit of fertilizer does not exceed the
in the areas where surveys were conducted, rather than value of the milkfish product.
absolute quantitative figures, because the time spent and The rate of return on investment in the intensive opera-
localities covered in the surveys were limited. It is evident tion is about 24% per annum; it takes about five years to
from the data that costs and returns of milkfish farming pay off the original investment. In the case of an extensive
vary according to culture techniques and management 1
US$ 1-00= Philippine pesos (P.Ps.) 7-50
systems.
226
TABLE II TABLE IV
COSTS OF AND RETURNS FROM MILKFISH CULTURE/HA IN THE COSTS OF AND RETURNS FROM MILKFISH CULTURE/HA IN THE
PHILIPPINES (1975) PHILIPPINES (1975)
EXTENSIVE MONOCULTURE EXTENSIVE POLYCULTURE
a
Computed at 11%
of total revenue
*
Computed at 12%
of construction cost per year
Source Field interview in Iloilo City area (1975) "
Computed at 11%
of total revenue
*
Computed at 12%
of construction cost per year
Source: Field interview in lloilo City area (1975)
TABLF III
COSTS OF AND RETURNS FROM MILKFISH CUITURE/HA IN THE
PHILIPPINES (1975) operation due to fertilization and more frequent stocking
INTENSIVE POLYCULTURE and harvesting. It is estimated that intensive operation
requires about 0-23 full-time man-years of labour/ha, com-
Value
Items Quantity pared with about 0-08 in an extensive culture operation.
(P.Ps)
The relative efficiency of labour in the two types of opera-
A. Construction costs 16000 tion can be evaluated by comparing their annualproduc-
B. Operating costs tion. A full-time farmer using intensive operation
Fry and fingerlings
produces
milkfish 3 500 about 14000kg of milkfish, compared with about
shrimp 3000 6 300 kg derived by the extensive operator.
Fertilizer and feed
chicken manure (b) Poly culture. In the Philippines, the giant tiger shrimp
urea (Penaeus monodon) has been a popular species to stock
with milkfish in a polyculture operation. Fertilizer, market-
Labour ing and interest, the major cost items in the intensive
Equipment and supplies polyculture operation, account for about 28, 20 and 21%
Pesticide
Lease respectively of the total operating cost. In extensive poly-
Marketing
culture operation, interest and land lease are the most
Maintenance and depreciation important cost items, accounting for about 40 and 21%
Interest*
Taxes respectively of the total operating cost. The total stocking
rate of intensive operation averages about 6 500 fry and
Total 9025 fingerlings/ha compared with about 1 6 30/ha for extensive
C. Production (kg/ha/year)
operation. The first type of operation uses about 1 2 times
more fertilizer and about 3-3 times more of labour than that
of the second. Intensive operation produces about 2 750
kg/ha of milkfish and shrimps compared with about 000 1
operation, there is a loss. However, most of the operators return on investment is about 20%: it takes about six years
interviewed own their land and pay no interest on the initial to pay off the initial investment.
investment. They are, therefore, on break -even level after
the costs of lease and interest are excluded. 2.1.1.2 Monoculture versus polyculture.
Intensive operation requires more labour than extensive (a) Intensive monoculture versus intensive polyculture.
227
Fertilizer and feed, interest, and marketing are the major TABIE V
cost items with respect to both intensive monoculture and COSTS OF AND RETURNS FROM MILKFISH CULTURE/HA IN INDONESIA
(1975)
intensive polyculture. However, the first type uses more EXTENSIVE MONOCUI TURE
and feed than the second. Fertilizer and feed costs
fertilizer
about P.Ps. 4 000/ha, accounting for about 39% of the total
operating cost in intensive monoculture, compared with
about P.Ps. 2 535/ha, accounting for about 28% of the
total operating cost in intensive polyculture. The stocking
rates are about the same in both cases. The total costs of
production as well as the costs of production/kg of milkfish
are also very close. However, the profit is much higher in
the case of intensive polyculture (P.Ps. 7 725/ha) com-
pared to that of intensive monoculture (P.Ps. 3 886/ha),
mainly because of the high price of shrimp.
(b) Extensive monoculture versus extensive polyculture.
and land lease are the major cost items
Interest, marketing,
inboth cases. The stocking rate is higher in extensive
polyculture than that in extensive monoculture. The total
cost of production in the former is about 29% higher, but
since the annual production is about 100% higher, the cost
of production/kg of milkfish is much lower than that of Source- Field interview m Central Java (1975)
extensive monoculture.
TABLE VI
COSTS OF AND RFTURNS FROM M'L KFISH CULTURE/HA IN INDONESIA
2.1.2 Indonesia. The results of the field survey summa-
(1975)
rized in Tables V-VII indicate that: INTENSIVE MONOCULTURE
(/) the stocking rate is on the order of 4 000/ha, 6 OOO/
Value
ha, and 16 000/ha for extensive monoculture, intensive Items Quantity
monoculture, and intensive polyculture respectively The
1
.
about Rp. 650 for extensive monoculture, Rp. 260 for Lease 50000 19-2
--
2 Marketing (paid by buyers)
intensive ihonoculture, and Rp. 369 for polyculture ;
Interest 72000 27-6
(in) the rates of return on investment and on operating Taxes 17500 6-7
20000 7-7
capital polyculture (42 and 70% respectively) are
for Depreciation
higher than those of intensive monoculture (15 and 34% Total 260 600
3
respectively) and extensive monoculture (negative) ; C. Production (kg/ha/year) 1 000 350000
D. Profit 89 400
(zv) labour, interest, land lease, and fry are the major cost
E. Cost/kg 260
items of milkfish production; and F. Rate of return on investment 15-0
G. Rate of return on operating costs 34-0
(v) polyculture requires more labour than monoculture,
and intensive monoculture more labour than extensive Source: Field interview in Central Java (1975)
monoculture.
The above analysis indicates that the application of
large size farms respectively. The larger the size of a
1
2. 1.3 Economics of scale of operations. The size of a farm 2. 1.4 Inter-country comparison. The annual yield per ha in
isanother factor affecting the cost of production. recent A Taiwan Province of China averages about 2 000 kg, com-
study in the Philippines (Carandang and Darrah, 1973) pared with about 600kg in the Philippines and about
shows that the cost of production of milkfish is about P.Ps. 350kg in Indonesia. The high yield in Taiwan is mainly
3-89, P.Ps 2-3 1 and P.Ps. 2-09/kg for small, medium and due to the relatively high stocking rate which averages
about 10 000 fry and fingerlings per ha, compared with
The stocking rate for polyculture consists of 6
1
000 milkfish and about 6 000 in the Philippines and about 2 000 in Indone-
10 000 shrimp/ha
2
USI 1.00=Rp. 415 sia. Fertilization, supplementary feeding, stock manipula-
3
Extensive monoculture (negative) denotes actual loss in terms of net tion, and control of predators are the m^jor factors which
income. However, it should be considered that the family may own the
In this study the arbitrary classification used for farm sizes is: small,
1
land, the operator may use his own family for labour, and many derive
material benefits in terms of food fish for the family less than 10 ha; medium, 10-39 ha; and large, 40 ha and above
228
TABLF VII agricultural crops for fertilizer. The price of fertilizer in the
COSTS OF AND RFTURNS FROM Mil KFISH CULTURF/HA FN INDONESIA
400% since 1970 and
(1975) Philippines has increased about
iNTENSIVt - POt YCUI TURF many fishpond operators continue using traditional tech-
niques because of the high cost of fertilizer.
Value
Items Quantitv All milkfish fry are collected from coastal waters and
(Rp-)
their availability fluctuates widely in time and space.
A. Construction costs 600 000 some years
Shortage of fry in limits full-scale intensive
B. Operating costs
Fry operation and expansion of the industry. The ultimate
milkfish 6 000 30 000 8-5 solution to this problem appears to be the breeding of
-shrimp 10000 50 000 14-1
milkfish in captivity.
Fertilizer (kg) 300 36000 10-1
Pesticide
--Brestan 60 (kg) 0-5 4000 1-1 2.2 Carps
Derris root (kg) 5 2500 0-7 The totalworld production of carps is estimated at over two
Labour 50 000 14-1
Maintenance and repair 10000 2-8 million tons. Several species of carps are cultured inten-
Lease 50000 14-1 sively. The common carp and Chinese carps have a long
Marketing (paid by buyers)
Interest 72000 20-3 history of cultivation and their use is widespread, but the
Taxes 30 200 8-5 Indian major carps have not yet become as popular for
Depreciation 20000 5-6 culture outside their native area.
Source Field interview in Central Java (1975) per ton of carp is about 40% lower.
Table IX shows the yield of common carp in various
countries under different culture methods. Intensive culture
permit the high stocking rate and hence high yield in with feeding or fertilization increases the production many
Taiwan Province (Shang, 1976). times over that of extensive culture. Additional fertilization
It is estimated that about two thirds of the milkfish farms and supplementary feeding should be undertaken, however,
in the Philippines and the majority of those in Indonesia are only if the resulting increase will more than offset their
extensive operations. Their productivity could be increased costs.
many times through adaptive modernization and intensifi-
cation utilizing the Taiwan Province experience. Since the 2.2.2 Polyculture. The practice of polyculture with carps
construction costs of fishponds are very high and since results in a significantly higher yield than that of
there are shortages of capital in these two countries, the first monoculture.
priority for milkfish pond development would, in the short- In Chinese fishponds, a significant increase in produc-
term programme, appear to be an increase in productivity tion has long been obtained through polyculture. In Israel,
of existing fishponds. This would serve to increase the farm polyculture using common carp and tilapia has increased
operator's income as well as the supply of protein for the total yields by 13-35% over that of monoculture. Polycul-
expanding population. ture without feeding of grass carp, silver carp, bighead and
The milkfish industry in Indonesia, the Philippines, and common carp in ponds formerly used for the monoculture
Taiwan Province faces two major problems: high cost of of common carp, has resulted in production increases of
fertilizer, and shortage of fish fry. Fish compete with other 400-600 kg/ha in central USSR and 600-1 000 kg/ha in
TABLE VIII
COSTS PER HA AND PER TON FOR COMMON CARP CULTURE IN ISRAEL WITH AND WITHOUT FEEDING
229
TABLE IX TABLE XII
YIELDS FROM COMMON CARP CULTURE IN VARIOUS AREAS COSTS OF AND RETURNS FROM GREY MULLET AND CHINESE CARP
POLYCULTURE IN A 1 HA FARM IN HONG KONG (1972)
TABIL X
COSTS OF AND RETURNS FROM COMMON CARP CUITURF IN A 555 HA
STATE FARM IN POLAND (1969)
TABLE XIII
COSTS OF AND RETURNS FROM COMMON CARP AND CHINESE CARP
CULTURP IN A 0-61 -HA POND IN MALAYSIA (1970)
TABLF XIV
COSTS OF AND RETURNS FROM COMMON CARP CULTURE IN A 3 HA POND
TABLE XI IN JAPAN (1970)
Value
Items
A. Capital investment
Value of land 40 000
Construction of ponds 49 000
Equipment (nets) 1 022
Total 90 022
B. Operating costs
Stocking material 20 000 44 2
Feeds 144 0-3
Fertilizers 2500 5-5
Labour 14900 32-9
Pesticides 1 2
Maintenance and repairs 140 0-3
Other costs 7626 16-8
(Handling and marketing of fish) (476) ( 1 -0)
Total 45 322 100-0 the south. With feeding andintensive pond fertilization,
C. Income 58 400 increases of 3 000-4 000 kg/ha have been achieved.
D. Profit 13078
E. Rate of return on investment 15-0 The cost-return data in Tables X-XIV show that profit
F. Rate of return on operating costs 29*0 rates of carp culture in Poland, India, Hong Kong, Malay-
sia and Japan are favourable under proper management.
USS 1'00-LRi. 8-20
Source: Pillty (1973) Feed and/or fertilizer, fry, and labour constitute the major
230
cost items. The cost of feed and fertilizer can be reduced However, the number of catfish ponds has increased so
through the following measures: (/) use of sewage-enriched rapidly since 1967 that by 1969 the supply of catfish
water; (//) use of feed formulae with local materials (eg, in exceeded the demand. The price fell sharply and many pond
China, use is made of grain bran, duckweed, fly pupa operators were forced out of business. From 197(>-73,
powder, silkworm pupa powder, and snail shell powder); however, the price of catfish recovered and increased at an
and (Hi) fish-cum-animal farming. average of about 22% per year. A detailed market potential
study seems necessary to guide future production.
2.2.3 Fish-cum-animal farming. Joint culture of ducks. Feed, the most important cost item, accounts for about
poultry and pigs in combination with aquaculture on a 75% of the total annual operating cost (Table XV). Trash
commercial scale reduces the cost of fertilizer and feed and fish, which has been the most important feed used, ac-
increases the production of animal protein per unit area. In counts for about 57% of the total operating cost. The price
addition, the environmental pollution often resulting from of trash fish has almost doubled from 1970 to 1975. There
warm-blooded animal husbandry can be avoided and the is some evidence that the supply of trash fish may decline in
wastes utilized for an increase in the fish crop. the future due to increasing exploitation as well as man-
Experiments in the German Democratic Republic have made habitat modification. In addition, the main competing
shown that an average of 100 kg of extra carp meat can be use for trash fish, making fish meal, is causing an upward
obtained by keeping 300 ducks on a 1 ha fishpond. The trend in trash fish prices since world prices for fish meal
average annual production of carps in afish-cum-duck farm have been rising dramatically. If the price of trash fish rises
in Taiwan Province is about 3 500 kg/ha. The daily supply and no further
faster than the price of catfish, if there is
of duck droppings is sufficient to fertilize the pond to
improvement culture technique to offset the increased
in
promote and maintain a rich growth of natural fish food cost of production from this source, the profit will be
organisms. At the same time, part of the droppings is eaten reduced. This could be a limiting factor to the expansion of
by fish directly. Therefore, application of fertilizer and/or the industry.
supplemented fish feed is not necessary, thus greatly reduc-
ing the cost of production. 2.3.2 USA. Channel
catfish farming is a growing industry
2.3
in theUnited States. The major incentive for this growth
Catfish
has been the excellent return on investment achieved by
Thailand, the United States, and a number of Latin Ameri-
can countries are the major catfish-producing countries.
some producers sometimes as high as 55%.
Cost-return on catfish farming
The cost-return data in Table XVI shows that manage-
is only available from the
first two countries.
rial skill is the major factor affecting the cost and profit. The
cost of production US$ 0-73/kg with average manage-
is
2.3.1 Thailand. Clariid catfish are a popular and highly ment, compared with only USS 0-53/kg with superior
desirable freshwater fish in Thailand. The demand for management. With expansion of the industry and improve-
catfish is expected to expand as the urban population is ments in culture techniques, the American catfish could
growing rapidly and as per capita income is also increasing. become a food staple.
TABLE XV
COST AM) RETl RNS OP CATFISH CHI TURF IN THAU AND (1975)
7. Total direct costs 183790 96-4 200 863 96-4 19464 90-2 54271 97-3 95-1
231
The US
catfish industry is, however, facing strong com- ural supply of fry. Mullets are often reared in polyculture
petitionfrom lower-priced imported catfish, especially with milkfish.
from Brazil, the major exporting country to the United Experiments to breed grey mullets under controlled
States. conditions have been conducted in many areas. Artificial
spawning has been successful in Taiwan Province, Israel
2.4 Tilapia and Hawaii and there are indications that commercial
many species) is a widely cultured
Tilapia (there are production of fry may be possible shortly.
pond both alone and in combination with other fishes.
fish
Inclusion of a predator is one form of polyculture, a TABLE XVII
COSTS OF AND RETURNS FROM TILAPIA CULTURE IN NORTHEAST BRAZIL
practice which becoming more popular in raising tilapia.
is
(1974)
In many cases, when tilapia is added to the existing pond
culture total without reducing Value
community, production rises Items
production of the other fish species cultured. Tilapia is also
often stocked in ponds to help control growth of weeds, A. Fixed cost
Administrative surcharge Ill
which may interfere with fish culture.
Pond and gear maintenance 350
Evaluation of tilapia culture in experimental farms in Amortization, real estate 1 514
northeast Brazil indicated that the annual net profit/ha can Amortization, equipment 112
reach B.Cr. 4 668 with an annual rate of return of 33% to Total 2087
the total cost of production before tax (Greenfield, Lira and B. Variable cost
1
Jensen, 1974) Feed and fertilizer, the most important cost
.
Feed 6417
Fertilizer 2340
items, account for about 46 and 17% respectively of the Water 632
total operating cost (Table XVII). The annual production Fingerlings 540
Interest on working capital 1 044
reaches 4 870 kg/ha. Experiments with tilapia culture in
Operator's labour 312
Alabama, Central African Empire, and Israel have also Hired harvesting labour 42
shown a production of 4 000-6 000 kg/ha. Hired pond-bottom maintenance labour 35
Hauling and marketing expense 157
Research into tilapia nutrition is greatly needed to deter- Miscellaneous and contingencies 240
mine which feeds are the best, cheap, and easily available
and what feeding rates are most effective especially in Total 11 759
C. Total income (4 872 kg at B.Cr. 3-80/kg) 18514
countries where little money is available to purchase feeds. D. Profit 4668
a
US$ 1-00-B.Cr. 6 4
2.5 Mullet Source: Greenfield, Lira and Jensen (1974)
The grey mullet (Mugil cephalus) is predominantly a plant
feeder and, therefore, a desirable species for
pond culture. It Cost-return data of mullet culture in Hong Kong shows
is found and sub-tropical waters around the
in tropical
that labour and feed are the major cost items accounting for
world. The biggest problem for the expansion of the indus-
25 and 22% respectively of the total operating cost (Table
try is the uncertainty of the supply of naturally produced XVIII). Since the fixed cost is very high, the rate of return
fry. As practised today, commercial mullet culture, is a on fixed capital is only 4-5%.
low-intensity operation dependent on an unpredictable nat-
2.6 Eels
'USS l-00 = B.Cr. 6-4 Eels have been cultured commercially in Japan, Taiwan
TABLE XVI
COSTS OF AND RFTURNS FROM CHANNEI CATFISH I'l TURF/HA ( IN IMF UNITED STATES ( 1969)
USS USS
Growing expense Growing expense
Fingerlings (1 200 at US S 0-4) 48 Fingerlings (1 200 at USS 0-2) 24
Chemicals 25 Chemicals 30
Feed (180 days, 22-5 kg/ha, USS 95/ton) 214 Feed (150 days, 33 kg/ha, USS 85/ton) 191
Labour 40 Labour (self-feeders) 50
Water pumping 8 Water pumping 8
Fuel and miscellaneous supplies 4 Fuel and miscellaneous supplies 4
30 Harvesting (USS 2-2/kg) 14
Harvesting (USS 4-6/kg)
Maintenance and taxes 25 Maintenance and taxes 25
Depreciation 13 Depreciation (self-feeders) 15
Interest on working capital 14 Interest on working capital 12
Income (93% survival, 0-56 kg average weight, USS Income (93% survival, 0-68 kg average weight, USS
0-84/kg) 530 0-84/kg) 636
Profit (before tax) 109 Profit (before tax) 263
Return on investment (before tax) 23% Return on investment (before tax) 55%
Cost of production Cost of production
Not including interest on investment 0-66/kg Not including interest on investment 0-48/kg
Including interest on investment 0-73/kg Including interest on investment 0-53/kg
Including interest on investment and 20% tax on Including interest on investment and 20% tax on
profit 0-75/kg profit 0-73/kg
232
TABLE XVIII the price can increase from US$ 0-03 to US$ 0-55 each.
COSTS OF AND RETURNS FROM GREY MULLET CULTURE IN A 8 HA POND The shortage of elvers has been a limiting factor to the
IN HONG KONG
expansion of the eel industry not only in Taiwan Province
but also in Japan.
Eel farming is a very profitable business, but it is also a
risky venture. The mortality can be as high as 100% if
price of elvers fluctuate annually and, in years of scarcity, US$ 1-00-f.Ir. 0-45
Source: FAO/EIFAC files
TABLE XIX
COSTS OF AND RETURNS FROM A 4 HA EEL FARM IN TAIWAN PROVINCE
Increased economic yield in the trout farming industry
OF CHINA (1972)
can be obtained through better application of existing feed
manufacturing techniques and closer control on feeding.
233
disciplines, including biology, genetics, nutrition, ichthyo- prepared with locally available by-products are sometimes
pathology, engineering and economics contribute to the cheap. Philippine milkfish operators have also found that
attainment of this profitability. application of small amounts of fertilizer at more frequent
intervals increases the efficiency of fertilization and reduces
3.1 Increase in yield the cost. Sewage recycling for fish culture and the joint
The major factors used in estimating productivity per unit culture of ducks, poultry and pigs in combination with fish
of fishponds Qare stocking rate N, survival rate R, and culture also reduces the cost of feed and fertilizer.
average weight of the individual fish at the time of harvest-
ing W. 3.2.2 Reduction in cost offry. Milkfish and to some extent
systems are dependent on the collection of
catfish culture
Q = (NR)W fry from natural sources. The availability of fry fluctuates in
Therefore, increase in stocking rate, survival rate and time and space. In years of scarcity, the price of fry is high.
growth rate are the major elements to increase production. A high price for fry means a high cost for fish, which either
is transferred to consumers by charging a high price for fish,
3.1.1 Increase in stocking rate or reduces the producer's profit. The price of fry is expected
(a) Fertilization and supplementary feeding. The stock- to increase in the future due to increases in demand. The
ing rates used and growth rates obtained are generally much ultimate solution to the shortage of fry appears to be the
higher with fertilization and supplementary feeding than breeding of these species in captivity. Meanwhile, short-
without. The total costs of production are also higher with range efforts should be made to increase the supply of fry
fertilization and feeding than without, but, since the level of by conducting surveys to locate new spawning grounds and
production is also higher, the cost/ton of fish production by improvements in the efficiency of capture, distribution
may be lower, thus enabling the operators to benefit Inten- and fry survival.
sive milkfish farming is a good example of this.
A 3.2.3 Reduction in labour and facility cost. Milkfish farm-
(b) Polyculture. significant increase in carp production
isoften obtained through polyculture in which the rearing ing in the Philippines demonstrates the economies of scale
of several species together makes more efficient use of the for different sizes of culture operations. The larger the farm
growing space and the total pond environment. Milkfish size, the less the cost of labour and facility cost. Mechaniza-
polyculture in Indonesia and the Philippines increases the tion also reduces labour costs, but not be preferable
it may
in many developing countries where there is a good supply
profit of operations due to the stocking of high-value
species together with milkfish. of available cheap labour and shortage of capital.
(c) Multiple-size stocking. Chinese milkfish culturists
have also increased the stocking rate by multiple-size stock- 3.2.4 Reduction in marketing cost. As in agriculture, there
ing, ie, stocking the same species but in different size groups
isoften a feeling that the producers of raw materials are not
to make more efficient use of water space. The carrying adequately rewarded for their labour, while wholesalers and
capacity of a pond for different size groups is considerably brokers receive more than their share of the profit. For
greater than its capacity for any one size group alone. example, milkfish operators in the Philippines pay as much
as 1 1% of the gross income for marketing cost (commis-
3.1.2 Increase in survival and growth rate sion, transportation, ice, containers, etc). Co-operative
is likely to reduce the cost and is worth further
(a) Good pond management. The survival and growth marketing
rates aredependent mainly on adequate pond management study.
and the control of parasitism and diseases. Catfish farming
in the United States furnishes good examples of the eco- 3.2.5. Reduction in interest cost. Fish culture, like other
nomic benefits of these practices. businesses, faces some risks. Initial construction costs are
(b) Genetic improvement. The survival and growth rate high and, in some cases, capital is less available for
the
can also be increased by genetic improvements, such as production of relatively low-priced fish used for domestic
selective breeding and hybridization. consumption. Interest rate on loans for such purposes range
from 12 to 30% per annum. Government-sponsored long-
3.2 Reduction in cost of production and marketing term and low-interest loans with simplified borrowing pro-
The cost of production data collected in this study indicate cedure would reduce the cost of production and stimulate
that feed and fertilizer, fry, labour, marketing and interest expansion of the fish farming industry.
are the major cost items.
3.3 Increasing the price received for farmed fish
3.2. 1 Reduction offeed and fertilizer. Fish culture
in cost In a competitive market, the price level is mainly deter-
competes with other agricultural activities for feed and mined by supply and demand for fish in a particular market.
fertilizer. The recent rapid increase in the price of feed and However, price levels received by fish operators can be
fertilizer has imposed a serious problem on the fish farming increased in the following ways:
industry. As mentioned previously, the stocking rate can be
increased through supplementary feeding and fertilization. 3.3.1 Improvement in quality. High-quality fish com-
also noted that additional fertilization will be profitable
It is mands a higher price. Most of the production from fish-
as long as the cost per unit of fertilizer does not exceed the ponds in Asian countries is sold in the fresh form. The
value of the product. The high prices of fertilizer and feed quality of such fish can be improved through proper icing
may discourage fish operators from adopting these im- during transport and storage.
proved farming techniques and a search for suitable feeds
and fertilizers at reasonable costs has high priority. Feeds 3.3.2 Seasonally. The price of fish usually fluctuates
234
seasonally. Phased stocking so that harvesting occurs at 4 References
desirable times with respect to demand and price offish can
J. E., RVTHER, J. H. & MCLARNEY, W. O.
increase the average price received (Creencia, Valiente and BARDACH, Aquaculture. New
1972 York, Wiley-interscicnce, 868 p
Carandang, 1973). CARANDANG, F. L. & DARRAH, L. B. Bangos production costs. National
1973 Food and Agriculture Council, Department of Agriculture and
Natural Resources, Philippines, 18 p.
3.3.3 Co-operative marketing. Individual fish operators CREENCIA, J. R., VALIENTE, A M. JR & CARANDANG, F L. Bangos
are usually in a weak bargaining
position and often receive 1973 marketing. National Food and Agriculture Council, Department
of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Philippines, 28 p.
very low prices. This situation may be improved through
GREENFIELD, J. E., LIRA, E. R & JENSEN, J. W. Economic evaluation of
collective bargaining by fishpond operators' associations or 1974 tilapia hybrid culture in northeast Brazil. Paper presented to the
co-operatives. FAO/CARPAS Symposium on Aquaculture in Latin America,
12p
IPFC, Report of the Second Meeting of the IPFC Working Party on
3.3.4 Sale in different forms and markets. Fish can be 1970 economics of fish culture. Bangkok, Thailand, 14 p.
marketed fresh, frozen, cured, smoked, salted, canned, etc. KLOKL, C. W & POTAROS, M. The technology and economics of catfish
975 farming in Thailand. FAO Regional Office, Bangkok, Thailand,
The (price and income) of demand
1
market is also different. Allocation of fish to different PILLAY, T. V. R. The role of aquaculture in fishery development and
1973 management. J. Fish. Res. Board Can 30 (12) Part 2. 2202-17
market channels (Creencia, Valiente and Carandang, ,
as 320% Maximum profit was for ponds followed by cages and mdica ademas como pueden reducirse los costos de produccion y, por
raceways. tanto, aumentarse los beneficios netos approvechando las diversas
necesidades termicas de las dos especies, que hacen posible cultivar
Les couts de la production de poisson scion divers systemes et les
bagre de canal y truchas en un mismo sistema de produccion en epocas
av ant ages economiques <f une double recolte
distmtas del ario. Con esta tecmca de doble cultivo es posible aprovechar
Resume casi al 100% una masa de agua a lo largo del ano, dividiendo los gastos
Ces dermeres annees, les pisciculteurs ont du faire face a une augmenta-
fijos entre los dos cultivos, lo que permite producir cada una de estas
tion rapide des couts de production alors que le prix du poisson cosechas a precios mas baratos oue cuando sc produce una sola cosecha.
rfaugmentait que lentement. De ce fait, Tinteret s'est porte sur la En el caso del bagre del canal solamente los beneficios netos resulta-
possibilite
de produire du poisson par les methodes les plus ron maximos con el cultivo en estanques y minimos con el cultivo en
economiques. canales. En las jaulas se obtuvieron rendimientos netos casi tan elevados
Le present document compare les couts de production de 1'ictalure como en los estanques.
tachete (Ictalurus punctatus} et de latruite arc-en ciel (Salmo gairdneri)
Por lo que se refiere al cultivo de trucha arco ins unicamente, los
selon trois systemes differents' en etangs, en raceways et en cages. II
mejores rendimientos netos se obtuvieron con la cria en canales, seguida
indique egalement comment on peut faire baisser les couts de production
por la cria en jaulas y la cria en estanques.
et, de ce fait, accroitre les recettes de la gestion (benefice net) en tirant
Con la tecnica del doble cultivo los beneficios netos aumentaron en un
parti des thermiques differents de deux especes: 1'ictalure tachete
bespins 320%. Los may ores beneficios se lograron con la cria en estanques,
et de la truite arc-en-ciel, dont 1'elevage peut se faire dans le meme
seguida por la cria en jaulas y en canales.
systeme de production a differents moments de Fannee. Cette technique
de double recolte permet d'utiliser une a 00%
nappe d'eau pratiquement
1
pendant toute 1'annee, chaque stock cultive prenant sa part des frais fixes.
11 en resulte
que Ton peut clever chaque espece a plus bas prix que lorsque 1 Introduction
Ton n'en produit qu'une seule.
On a constate que, lorsque Ton elevait uniquement 1'ictalure tachete. In recent years, fish culturists have experienced rapidly
235
rising production costs and slowly rising fish prices. As a water throughout the year and each crop offish contributes
result, interest has centred on producing fish by the most toward fixed costs. As a result, each crop of fish can be
economical method(s). produced more cheaply than when only one crop utilizes
In the United States, the two m^jor species of fish the facility for only part of the year and bears all of the fixed
cultured are: channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus\ a warm- costs.
water fish; and rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri), a cold- This double-cropping method has been researched
water fish. Three different production systems are used for successfully for three years by the author and his co-
culturing either species of fish. The most common method workers at an experimental research station in South
of producing channel catfish is open-pond culture, while Georgia using raceways and cages in ponds. Double-crop-
raceways with continuous supplies of cold water are used ping has been adopted by nearby fish culturists and is now
for trout in many sections of the country. Limited quan- being used in ponds and raceways.
tities of each species are grown in cages. In recent years, in The common denominator used in the paper is the
the southeast United States, where the climate is suitable, number offish stocked in each production system. The size
the practice of double-cropping fish has been introduced: of each of the three systems was such that 40 000 channel
catfish are grown during the seven months of April through catfish and 60 000 trout could be grown to harvestable size
October and trout from 1 5 November through March. in normal growing seasons. The examples used do not
This paper compares the production costs of both spe- imply that these are the recommended sizes of production
cies of fish for each of the three production methods when units for full-timeemployment. Labour requirements for
grown alone. In addition, it shows how production costs any one of the three systems require two or three hours
can be lowered by taking advantage of the difference in daily.
thermal requirements of the two species which allows both
channel catfish and trout to be raised in the same produc-
tion system during different times of the year. This tech- 2 Single crop channel catfish
nique permits almost complete utilization of a body of Initial cost or investment cost for two 4-05 ha ponds was
TABLE I
BuDGFThD COST AND RETURNS FOR TWO 4-05 HA PONDS PRODUCING FITHER CHANNH CAIFISH OR RAINBOW TROUT. USA (I975)
fl
'
equipment Straight-line depreciation used
These items pertain to channel catfish only
*
Thete items pertain to rainbow trout only
236
USS 50 500 (Table I). The largest cost item was for pond With a 454 g average harvest weight/fish, 1 7 234 kg would
construction, followed by land cost. It was assumed that the be harvested from the pond system, 17234kg in the
ponds would be in an area having a high water table, such as raceway system and 16364kg from the cage system
is found in the Mississippi Delta area. (Tables I, II and III). Initial stocking weight would be
By comparison, the initial cost of two 10 segment 545 kg of fingerlings/system.
raceway systems was USS 27 700 (Table II). The most It should be noted that the price of feed fed to channel
expensive item was the individual raceway segments. The catfish in raceways and cages (Tables II and III) is of higher
two raceway systems of 10 segments each would be a value per ton than feed fed to channel catfish in ponds
closed system with water being recycled through the race- (Table I). This is because in intensive stocking and rearing
ways from a spring-fed pond. Each segment would be facilities the fish are unable to obtain the natural foods
30-5 long, 3 m m
wide at the bottom of the segment, with found in less intensive methods such as ponds (Simco). It
2:1 side slopes and an average depth of l-2m. Each should also be noted that a standard feed conversion of
segment will produce the equivalent of 0-4 surface ha of 1-7:1 was used for channel catfish in ponds, raceways and
pond production. Water is pumped from the storage pond cages. Hill, Chesness and Brown (1974) using raceways
to the initial segment of the raceway system. From there it had feed conversions for channel catfish as low as 1-3:1,
flows by gravity through the raceway back to the pond. and Hill ( 1975) and Schmittou (1970) had conversions of
Approximately 1 850
1
m
of water is required per raceway 1 3 to 1-7:1 in channel catfish cage research. However, the
TABLE II
ACTUAL COST AND RETURNS FOR TWO IU-SEGMFNI RACEWAY SYSTEMS FRODUCFNG EITHER CHANNEL CATFISH OR RAINBOW TROUT. USA ( 1975)
Initial costs
Construction of pond (2-4 ha, 37 km^) 7500 7500
Land (pond and raceway segments, 4- 86 ha at
USS 112) 1 5400 5400
Construction cost* (USS 700/segment x 20
segments) 14000 14000
Service building 600 600
Handling equipment 200 200
Based on actual data acquired at the experimental fish production facility in Tifton. Georgia
*
Includes, pump, pipe, valves, head-walls, and earth moving
c
Includes 3 1 8 kg of medicated feed
4
Depreciation schedule of 40 years for pond; 25 years for construction cost of segments and service buildings; 5 years for handling equipment. Straight-line
depreciation used
'
These items pertain to channel catfish only
f These items
pertain to rainbow trout only
237
The annual cost was lowest for the cage system (USS estimated by commercial producers. Hill, Chesness and
12 108). The annual cost for the pond system was USS Brown (1973) had average feed conversions of 1-3:1 in
14 980 and the annual cost for the raceway system was pilot raceway and cage production facilities. The range over
USS 16392. several years was from 1-1:1 to 1-5:1. It was therefore
The cost of producing channel catfish was lowest for considered that a rate of 1-5:1 for commercial facilities
cages, USS 0-82/kg, and highest for the raceway system, would be practical and attainable.
US $ 0- 95. The production cost/kg for ponds was USS 0- 8 7 The annual costs including interest on investment, inter-
(Tables I, II and III). est on working capital and total yearly depreciation for
The return to management (or net profit) for producing each of the three systems are shown in Tables I, II and III.
one annual crop (210 days) was USS 4 085 for cages, USS The average cost of production/kg offish sold was lowest in
4 012 for ponds and USS 2 600 for raceways (Tables I, II the cage system, USS 1-53, followed by the raceway
and III). system, USS 1-56. The pond system had the highest pro-
duction cost/kg, US $ 1-61.
Returns to management (net profit) were USS 3 755 for
3 Single crop rainbow trout the cage system, USS 3 787 for the raceway system and
(investment) are the same for each of the three
Initial costs USS 2 720 for the pond system.
cultural systems when raising trout instead of catfish
(Tables I, II and III).
In raising only one crop of rainbow trout/year in the 4 Results of using a double-cropping system
approximate grow-out period of 44 months, each system The economic advantages of double cropping are that fixed
was stocked with 60 000 15 cm fingerlings. The assumed costs are allocated over two crops of fish and more total
mortality was 5%. The harvest weight of the 57 000 survi- weight of annual production is realized. For the illustration
vors was 18 144kg for an average harvest weight of 3 1 8 g/ used in this paper, these fixed costs (interest on investment,
fish.Stocking weight of 60 000 fingerlings in each system depreciation and taxes) were USS 4684 for the pond
was 2 722 kg or 45-4 g each. system, USS 2 498 for the raceway system and USS 1 200
For rainbow trout production a standard feed conversion for the cage system. These joint costs were used only once
ratio of 1-5:1 was used. For pond culture this ratio was in a double-cropping system and returns to management
TABLE III
ACTUAL COST AND RETURNS FOR AN 80 CAGE (1 M EACH) SYSTEM PRODUCING
3
EITHFR CHANNEL CAIHSH OR RAINBOW TROUT, USA (1975)
Initial costs
Cages (80 at USS 50 each) 4 000 4 000
Service building 600 600
4 000
2
m
land at USS 450 450 450
Boat and motor 1 000 1 000
Handling equipment 50 50
Annual costs
Fingerlings (40 000 at USS 0-06 each for
f
12 cm fishy* 2400 12000 (60000 at USS 0-20 each for 15 cm fish)
Feed (29-93* tons at USS 209-48/ton)d 6 270 9817 (23-13 tons at USS 424-29/ton)*
Gasoline and oil (7 months Y 35 25 (4j months)*
Labour daily (3 h at USS 1-85/h for 7 "
1
Cost of producing 1
kg of fish after paying
10% rent 0-824 1-53
Feed conversion 1-7:1 1-5:1
Returns to management
(10% of 16 364 kg of fish produced, paid as (10% of 18 149kg of fish produced, paid as
water rent)* water rent)'
14 694 kg of fish sold at USS 1- 102/kg" 16 193 28 804 (16 329kg sold at USS 1-764/kgX
Less cost of production 12 108 25 049
sized cages are commonly used m the USA rather than larger
m
1
Based on actual data acquired at the experimental fish production Georgia. The 1
facility at Tifton,
cages
*
Includes 318 kg of medicated feed
r
Depreciation schedule of 25 years on service building; 10 years for boat and motor; and 5 years for cages and handling equipment. Straight-line depreciation used
4
These items pertain to channel catfish only
*
These items pertain to rainbow trout only
238
were US$ 1 1 416 for the pond system, US$ 9 040 for the zation of facilities is a sound management tool and, where
cage system, and US $ 8 885 for the raceway system (Table conditions are favourable, this practice should be
IV). expanded.
TABLE IV
COMPARISON OF RETURNS TO MANAGEMENT FOR SINGLE-CROPPING OR 5 References
DOUBLE-CROPPING USING DIFFERENT CULTURAL METHODS, USA
HILL, T. K. Comparisons of albino and normal channel catfish grown
(1975) 1975 in cages in a pond. Proc Annu. Conf. Southeast. Assoc. Fish
(in US$) Game Comm., 28 (1974): 231-5
Returns to management (net profit) HILL, T. K., CHESNESS, J. L. &
BROWN, E. E. Utilization of rainbow
973 trout, Salmo gairdnerii Richardson, in a
double-crop fish culture
1
Item
Ponds system in South Georgia, Proc. Annu. Conf. Southeast. Assoc
Raceways Cages Fish Game Comm 26 (1972). 368 76
,
ples. The 'internal rate of interest' and 'present value are the two most
precise methods for evaluating investment projects.
1 Introduction
Thecollection and analysis of data on costs and earnings in
Propositions relatives a des enquetes cconomiques sur les stations
operations may serve several purposes: (/) it
fish culture
piscicoles (comptabilite, analyse financiere, etc.)
Resume may help the managers of farms in systematically and
Les enquetes economiques sur le fonctionnement des stations piscicoles
realistically studying their own operations; (H) it may
s'imposent pour evaluer la rentabilite des operations et servir de base aux
decisions au de Pentreprise. II est suggere que ces enquetes soient
facilitatecomparisons between farms, and form the basis
niyeau
realisees en trois etapes: (/) etude d'ensemble de I'mdustrie; (//)examen for entrepreneurial decisions on matters such as improve-
detaille d'echanti lions de stations piscicoles; et (///) etude de stations
ments in the efficiency of the enterprise; (///) it may form the
les industries piscicoles adoptent un systeme comptable
Si
pilptes.
basis for policy decisions relating to fish farming, and
unique, comparaison des donnees en sera grandement facihte. La
la
methode comptable de la marge brute semble etre la plus simple et la facilitate co-operative action with regard to marketing,
mieux adaptee a la pisciculture. Dans le cadre de ce systeme, il faudrait
determiner des indicateurs-cles pour la rentabilite, les hquidites, la supply of feed, and stocking material, etc.
solvabilite, etc. Yang ( 1 965) lists the following aims for such studies: (/)
L'auteur presente un modele comptable detaille convenant a la pisci- determination of the relative profitability of various farm
culture. II illustre par des exemples divers calculs: production, budget
des operations, recettes et depenses, actif, passif et capital social. Les enterprises; (//') assessment of causes or reasons for varia-
valeurs-cles dont le calcul s 'impose sont le taux de marge brute, le seuil tions in the unit costs of production; (///) establishment of
de rentabilite et la marge de securite. L'auteur indique les principes de
efficiency and management standards; (/v) description of
1
'analyse financiere et decrit un modele economique de station piscicole,
the most efficient practices and techniques of farm opera-
etaye d'exemples. Le 'taux de rentabihte interne' et la 'valeur reelle'
constituent les deux methodes les plus precises pour revaluation des tions; and (v) determination of the optimum input require-
projets d'investissement. ments of each farm enterprise.
Propuestas para el estudio economico de explotaciones piscicolas:
Few detailed studies on cost and earnings in fish farming
teneduria de llbros y anal is is financiero have been made. It is, therefore, of importance to clarify the
Extracto
Es realizar estudios economicos de las actwidades de las purposes and methods of such studies and the definition of
necesarip
granjas piscicolas para evaluar la eficiencia de las operaciones y disponer concepts.
de una base para las decisiones empresariales. Se sugiere que dichos
estudios se realicen a tres niveles: (/') estudio general de la industria; (/i)
Yang (1965) points out that cost accounting begins
where book-keeping and financial accounting ends, and that
estudio detallado de algunas granjas piscicolas
tpmadas como mucstra; y
(///) estudio de granjas piloto. Si en la industria piscicola se utiliza un records and books properly designed and kept should
239
provide all the basic information required for cost determi- casts and accounts of actual achievements must lend them-
nation.Taking into account these points, a system of fish selves to comparison. Therefore, estimates, budgets and
farm investigations is proposed in this paper. In addition, a accounts must be made on the same pattern; only then can
system of book-keeping, cost accounting and financial they be used for planning and analysis.
analysis is described. The contribution method is an attempt to simplify eco-
nomic calculations. Traditional accounting systems like the
self-cost method are often characterized by some complex-
2 Fish farm investigations ity,thus making it difficult for the manager to interpret the
It is suggested that fish farm investigations should be derived data. Linear programming is a relatively accurate
carried out in three successive steps as follows: method for solving specific economic problems, but this
method requires more knowledge of mathematics. The
2.1 Overall survey of the fish farm industry planning of book-keeping for an aquaculture business by an
The step is to get a total overall survey of the
first fish farm accounting firm may be mainly divided into two types, viz.:
industry. The main data collected could be: (/) number of (i) short-range planning; and (//") long-range planning.
enterprises; (//) location of enterprises; (in) type of produc- Traditional accounting systems are unsuited for short-
tion; (iv) total quantity produced and sales; (v) employ- range planning as costs which are fixed over a relatively
ment; (v/) investment. long period of time are included in the production costs
This type of investigation does not require an expert on used for short-range decisions. The contribution method
fish farming as it is not a detailed analysis of the farms. distinguishes fixed costs from direct variable costs and
National bureaux of statistics with their systems for data maintains this separation throughout the whole of the
collection and statistical analyses can easily carry it out. accounting system in reports and analysis. The common
This general investigation may assist in selecting enter- terms used in book-keeping are the following:
prises for further, more detailed investigations. (/) Operating income: The value produced, ie, sales
gation could yield: (/) income and detailed cost analysis; (iii) Contribution: Operating income minus variable
(ii) key values for rentability, production, investment, etc\ costs, and indicates what remains for fixed costs and net
(iii) analysis of sales and markets; (iv) analysis of biologi- profit.
cal and technological relationships such as fish densities, (iv) Fixed costs: Do not vary at all with the volume of
feeding coefficients, growth rates, fencing and construction production. Examples are amortization, maintenance and
material, types of machinery used, etc. interest.
in close touch with the fish farmer in order to assist him and contribution is sufficiently large to cover the fixed costs.
control the operation and the data recording. In addition to This point indicates the balance between profit and loss. At
factors mentioned under sections 2. 1 and 2.2 above, exam- this point there willbe no profit and no loss.
ples of topics to be investigated are: (/) work efficiency and (///) Security margin: The security margin gives the
effect of mechanization to establish management standards percentage that sales or income can decrease before the
or norms; (ii) production functions under practical fish enterprise runs at a loss.
farm conditions; (iii) production combinations and new These key values are calculated in the following manner:
production techniques.
(0Degree of contribution:
3 Book-keeping and financial analysis Income
The book-keeping should serve two main purposes: (/) , .^ ,
. Fixed cost x 100
Break-even --
(ii) point: 7
provide the fish farmer with data for controlling and analys- Degree of contribution
ing his operation; and (ii) provide information and statistics (in) Security margin:
on aquaculture business.
- break-even point) x 100
A common book-keeping system for the fish farming
(Income
industry will greatly increase the comparability and relia- Income
bility of the data to the benefit of both the fish farmers and
fish farm investigators.
A profitability analysis carried out to compare various
3. Book-keeping system
1
enterprises can only be realistic if their
accounting systems
It is important in any enterprise to have a system for are uniform. suggested that the contribution principle
It is
collection and analysis of economic data. Budgets, fore- should form the basis of the accounting system and that
240
some key indicators be worked out for rentability , liquidity, In accordance with the above, a detailed chart
solvency, etc. of accounts has been worked out. This chart has been
The primary information to be collected for obtaining an adapted to the special need of fish farming and to the
overview of the economics of an aquaculture farm are listed contribution method of calculating (see Annex I, Chart
below: of Accounts).
(/) Income cost
Operating income 3.3 Calculation of production
Increased (+) or decreased ( ) stock of finished The basis for a budget or a plan is the calculation of the
goods cost and income expected. Examples of this may be the
Cash and credit sales of goods and services calculation for 100 kg of fingerlings or 100 kg of con-
Variable production cost sumption fish. It is important to calculate in the same
Variable labour cost manner the result of a production operation. An example
Variable production cost
(corrected for de- of a calculation sheet is shown in Annex II (Contribution
creased (+) or increased stock of () raw Calculation).
material)
Contribution 3.4 Budgeting of operations
Fixed cost When calculations of the various products have been
Salaries made, the extent of the products has to be decided.
Indirect cost In this connexion, the most important factors to be
Intereston loans evaluated are: water resources, production equipment,
Depreciation on fixed assets market conditions, available labour, etc (see Annex III,
Net profit Rentability Budget).
(//) Assets liabilities
Total assets 3.5 Survey of operations
Fixed assets The next step is to prepare the survey of operation (see
Stocks Annex IV) which is divided into four parts:
Current assets (/) Income and cost: This is a summary of the
Total liabilities and equity profit and loss account containing both the results
Long-term liabilities of last year's operation and the budget for the
Short-term liabilities current year.
Equity (it) Assets liabilities equity This is the summary of
:
(///') Production, employees, capacity the balance at the beginning and the end of the
Quantities produced period. In addition, the two last columns show a
Volume of water in m 3
, surface of ponds in m 2
cash-flow analysis, eg, one can see that the stocks
Man-hours per year have increased by, say N.Kr. 385 000, and short-
Maximum production capacity term liabilities have decreased by N.Kr. 170 000.
(iv) Key values (m) Production, employees and capacity: This com-
Return on investment prises technical data needed for calculating the key
Ability to pay wages per man-hour yearly values.
Investment per man-hour yearly (iv) For a more detailed explanation of key values see
Investment per kg produced Annex V, Definition of Key Values.
Production in kg per man-hour yearly
Production in kg per volume of water in m'
Utilization of capacity 4 Evaluation of investment projects
(v) Other key values In section 3 an overview of book-keeping and financial
Rentability analysis given, along with an economic model of a fish
is
241
Before taxes: 320:260=0-6 year
After taxes: 320:149= 1-8 year.
This criterion comprises part of the time of the
project and a part of the total investment and it is
thought to be better than alternatives (/) to (/v). All
criteria are easy to calculate but are associated with
some obvious disadvantages. To an increasing de-
gree the next two rentability criteria have been
adopted for project evaluation,
(v/) Present value of the project: The present value of a
project is the sum of all annual cash flow discounted
to the present, less the sum of all investment dis-
counted to the present.
This criterion takes into account the whole time of
the project, the size of investment, depreciations,
and cash flow. The choice of rate of discount may
be difficult.
1-043 1-335-1
Before taxes: 360:320-71-1%
6 4 '
~ = 5-8
After taxes: 99:320-30-9% 0-043 x 1-043 0-043 x 1-335
This criterion is better as it takes into account the
initialinvestment. However, how long the capital is
Present value of the project (P)
tied up in the project is not considered,
P-5-8 [(1-0-53) 2 500-0-0.53) 2240
(/v) Yearly return on average investment:
Before taxes: 260: 160= 162-5% + 0-53x501-320
After taxes: 99:160=61-9% P=5-8 [(1 175-1053-f 27)-320]
(With linear depreciation the average investment is
P= 864- 320- 544
320:2=160).
This criterion takes into account depreciation of
investment but the duration of the project is not N.Kr. 1-00 invested in this project will, according to the
considered, prognosis, recover 544/320=1-70 in present value after
(v) Pay-back time: Equals initial investment divided by having paid the initial investment, cost and taxes.
yearly cash flow Internal rate of interest is the discount which makes
242
=
present value 0. By trial, the internal rate of interest is PROFIT AND LOSS ACCOUNT
found to be:
64 Operating Income
320 (l+/) =544 Sales in cash and on credit
(I//)
6 4
'
Equity
Operational Profit
Share capital
Funds Other Income
Net profit/deficit
Contribution Calculation
Product Rainbow trout, 3 years, 2-5 kg/fish
Unit 100 kg live weight
Income
Variable Cost
Contribution 587
Conditions:
(0 period of growth 3 years
(ii) labour 11-5 hours
3
(iii) volume of water 13 kg/m
(iv) cost N.Kr. 25/hour
Annex III
450000 x 100
Break-even point: 1573000
28-8
Security margin:
(2800000- 1573000) x 100
2800000
244
Annex IV
Survey of Operation (in N.Kr. '000)
Annex V
Key values Investment per kg produced:
Return on investment:
/2000 +1610\ i
(210 +
(2000 +
100)100
/
17.2 /0 v~ ) 16000
N.Kr. 11.28/kg.
1610)/2
Production per yearly man-hours:
160000
= ,
13700
Utilization of capacity:
/2000 + 1610\2000B
= N.Kr. 138000
V '26000
Yearly man-hours per employee = 2 000 hours
245
Definition of key values By of capacity is meant the calculated maxi-
utilization
The most important indicator for measuring the profitabil- mum production (in kg) in relation to the production
ity is the return on investment. This indicator relates the achieved (in kg) for the year under consideration. Other key
profit in the enterprise to the capital used and is defined as values are financial measures regarding rentability, liquid-
'return on investment before taxes': ity and solvency. The most common are:
Total capital
Net + wages and
profit before taxes salaries
Total number of man-hours (v) Profit margin
The total number of man-hours should also include all Net profit before taxes 4- interest on debts, gross
unpaid labour, eg, the family of the owner. This measure Cash and credit sales of goods and services
can easily be compared with that of other alternative
(vi) Return on capital (already explained)
occupations in a region, eg, fishing, agriculture or industry.
The following key values explain in more detail the two (vii) Return on equity
values just mentioned.
__
Net profit after taxes
Production per yearly man-hour is a measure of the
Equity
efficiency of the production. Production in kg per volume
or surface area of water is a measure of the utilization of the (viii) Working capital as percentage of total capital
ponds. Whether the volume of water or area of water
Current assets short-term liabilities
surface should be chosen will depend on the kind of fish
culture practised. Production in kg is defined as: Total capital
246
Chapter III Culture of Crustaceans
In conclusion, progress achieved recently, especially in generalizing du cycle biologique de la crevette, de quelque espece que ce
culture possibilities, should lead to a new phase of development, particu-
larly in tropical countries.
soit, dans les conditions du laboratoire; il Test deja moins
de le faire sur le terrain a des dimensions significatives; il
Progresot en las tecnicas de crfa de camarones y production de formas Test encore moins d'ordonner et d'optimiser a ce niveau les
juveniles
Extracto diflerents facteurs pour en faire, non plus un objet de
En el estudio se senalan los progrcsos de las tecnicas de cria de recherche, mais une activite economique susceptible de
247
developpement. C'est pourquoi nous n'omettrons pas En definitive, dans la suite de ce travail, il s'agira essen-
d'indiquer soigneusement dans la suite de ce document les tiellement de mettre en evidence les progres des techniques
dimensions et Yenvironnement des resultats obtenus en se rapportant d'une part a la culture des penaeides, en ce qui
essayant de les classer en trois grandes categories corres- concerne les crevettes de mer, d'autre part a celle des
pondant elles-memes a trois types d'installations assez Macrobrachium pour les crevettes d'eau douce. Le fait que
aisement differenciables: recherche en laboratoire, experi- Ton ait choisi de presenter les problemes correspondants
mentations de terrain dans des installations pilotes, enfin d'apres leur nature (reproduction, grossissement, patholo-
fermes commerciales
1
.
gic, etc. ) conduira du meme coup a mettre en evidence sous
chaque rubrique les similitudes et les differences.
1.2 Especes prises en consideration
Historiquement 1'elevage des crevettes de mer s'est devel- 1.3 Bases et limites du document
oppe dans la zone indo-pacifique ou il est pratique depuis de En ce qui concerne la connaissance des faits et des tech-
nombreuses annees (Bardach, Ryther et McLarney, 1972) niques, comme celle des recherches et experimentations en
selon des modalites simples; il a ete entrepris au Japon avec cours dans le monde entier, nous sommes redevables a tous
un support scientifique et technique de grande qualite ceux qui ont bien voulu repondre a notre appel et actualiser
permettant d'atteindre un haut degre de controle et des considerablement documentation dont nous disposions.
la
rendements prometteurs (Fujinaga, 1969; Shigueno, Qu'ils soient vivement remercies, meme si la neces-
ici tres
1972). Dans les deux cas, les especes cultivees, dominantes site de faire 'bref nous conduit dans le corps du texte a
dans le milieu nature!, ont ete des crevettes penaeides: reduire les references au strict indispensable. D'un autre
Penaeus monodon aux Philippines, P. japonicus au Japon cote 1'experience concrete des problemes et des difficultes
essentiellement. tenu des caracteristiques tres fa-
Compte de chaque jour, et si je puis dire, la philosophic de 1'elevage
vorables des penaeides pour 1'elevage (croissance rapide, en resultant, synthetise au sein du CNEXO
huit annees de
haute fecondite, bonne resistance generate aux variations de travail. Elle vient directement du suivi methodique de
1'environnement, enfin tres bon accueil du marche), 1'effort recherches et experimentations de terrain effectuees tant en
principal d'aquaculture de la crevette est actuellement axe France qu'en zone tropicale sur une dizaine d'especes de
sur ce groupe. Outre P. monodon et P. japonicus deja cites penaeides et sur deux caridees: Palaemon serratus en
les penaeides faisant 1'objet des principales recherches ou France, Macrobrachium rosenbergii a Tahiti. Sous cet
experimentations sont surtout P. aztecus, P. setiferus, P. eclairage, la presente synthese est celle d'une equipe bien
duorarum et P. vanameii dans le Golfe du Mexique, P. inseree dans un tissu de cooperation Internationale et d'aide
brasiliensis au en Coree, P. merguien-
Bresil, P. orientalis mutuelle qui valorise heureusement les travaux accomplis.
sis P. semisulcatus dans la zone Pacifique, P. kerathurus en
t
chaudes. Dans le but de disposer d 'especes pouvant etre (//) la production de post-larves a partir de femelles gra-
elevees a 1'exterieur en eaux froides ou temperees, certains vides prises dans le milieu naturel; (///) la production de
travaux ont ete conduits, en Angleterre, en France et au post-larves a partir de geniteurs d'elevage.
Japon, sur plusieurs caridees d'eau de mer en particulier
Palaemon serratus, Pandalus platyceros et Pandalus bo- 2.1 Approvisionnement en juveniles de penaeides
realis. Nous n*y ferons reference qu'a titre secondaire, un 2. Capture dans le milieu naturel. C'est la methode la
1. 1
certain nombre d'obstacles rendant les perspectives plus simple. Elle est utilisee depuis fort longtemps dans la
d'elevage de ces especes assez peu favorables, au moins zone indo-pacifique. On peut meme souvent a peine parler
dans Pavenir immediat. Par contre elles ont servi de mate- de capture puisque les jeunes crevettes entrent naturelle-
riel de travail pour mettre au point certaines techniques en ment dans les estuaires, les etangs cotiers, les mangroves a
particulier en matiere de synchronisme des pontes et certaines periodes de Tannee, et dans des conditions de
d'elevage larvaire. maree et de lunaison bien determinees. II suffit done de
Un interet considerable est porte depuis quelques annees favoriser cette entree dans les bassins d'elevage chaque fois
en zone tropicale aux crevettes d'eau douce, Macrobrach- que leur situation et leur agencement le permettent. Dans
ium, tres appreciees par les populations d'Oceanie et les autres cas, on peche les juveniles a 1'aide de filets
ment en ce qui concerne la reproduction, si bien qu'il etre utilisee lorsqueTon desire faire une experimentation
apparait actuellement tres prometteur au moins dans un prealable de grossissement avec des especes locales, avant
certain cadre que nous essayerons de preciser. d'edifier une ecloserie. Mais ses limites sont vite atteintes,
car elle ne peut repondre aux exigences d'un elevage indus-
1
Le fait que dans la plupart des cas on suive cette sequence dans cet triel. D'une part, en effet, les quantites capturees restent
ordre montre a I'evidence que nous ne sommes qu'au tout debut de aleatoires (a titre d'exemple une experience repetee deux
ITitstoire de 'elevage des crevettes. Le principe suivant lequel c'est au
!
quarante (Fujinaga, 1942). specialement aux Etats-Unis, pour d'une part intensifier le
Ramenee a 1'essentiel, la methode est la suivante: les controle de la nourriture algale et d'autre part, augmenter la
femelles gravides sont obtenues de la peche commerciale, si densite des elevages larvaires.
possible a partir de chalutages courts. Apres tri et verifica- L'essentiel de la methode actuelle a ete mis au point par
tion du degre de maturite, elles sont introduites dans des 1'equipe de Galveston (Mock et Neal, 1974). Les algues
bassins de 60-200 m 3 ou la ponte s'opere naturellement sont cultivees separement de fapon monospecifique dans de
dans 1'une des deux nuits qui suivent. Chaque femelle pond 1'eau de mer artificiellede composition constante. Le couple
plusieurs centaines de milliers d'oeufs. Les correspondances algal le plus souvent prepare et distribue est Skeletonema
entre le nombre de femelles, le volume des bassins et la costatum Tetraselmis, mais d'autres sont envisageables
quantite d'oeufs a traiter ont ete optimisees experimentale- (a Tahiti, le COP utilise Phaeodactylum Tetraselmis).
ment, en comptant statistiquement sur la ponte d'une Bien entendu, la culture des algues est conduite en continu
femelle sur deux. Apres la deuxieme nuit, les meres sont de facjon telle que le volume total de la production couvre
retirees. L'eclosion a lieu une quinzaine d'heures apres la les besoins de la periode d'elevage larvaire avec mise en
ponte. Alors commence Televage larvaire. L'eau estde Teau reserve des algues produites en dehors de cette periode.
de mer naturelle, pompee et filtree, maintenue par chauffage Pour cela les algues non immediatement utilisees sont
a une temperature comprise entre et 25C
avec une 30C concentrees et refrigerees sirivant une technique qui s'est
salinitfe proche de 30% La densite initiale des larves au
.
generalisee dans tous les laboratoires et ecloseries.
stade 'nauplius' est au plus de 100/1. La quantite d'eau est Qu'elles soient d'origine fraiche, ou congelees, les algues
augmentee ensuite regulierement de telle fagon que le ne sont introduites dans les bacs d'elevage qu'en fonction
fc
suivies. La premiere est de depasser a la fois le 'bloom' ou la essantes, ou pour des especes non representees dans ces
culture selective d'algues unicellulaires pour disposer d'une stocks. Enfin, et peut-etre surtout, 1'approche genetique est
alimentation artificielle adaptee. L'utilisation au Japon de impossible bloquant ainsi Tune des voies les plus promet-
poudre de soja (soybean cake) (Hirata et al, 1974) et les teuses
pour
Amelioration de quelque elevage que ce soit.
cycle d'eclairement et done les ecarts de longitude parais- d'autre part 1'etude des facteurs de maturation telle qu'elle a
sant plus ressentis que les ecarts de latitude). Par centre le ete menee en France. On essayera d'en tirer ensuite
transport de post-larves entre P5 et P20 ne presente pas de quelques conclusions avant d'aborder le probleme
difficultes particulieres. C'est ainsi que des transports de genetique.
post-larves de P.japonicus (de 1'ordre du million de post-
larves) sont regulierement efTectues depuis cinq ans entre le 2. 1.3. Observations et resultats en Polynesie. En Polyne-
1
deja un certain nombre d'annees en Grande-Bretagne a voisin de 8,2, la duree d'insolation est de 1 1 heures en
Conwy recemment au Mexique a TUniversite de
et plus periode hivernale, et 15 heures en periode estivale; 200 a
Puerto Penasco a Sonora ainsi qu'en Argentine a Mar del 300 crevettes sont maintenues dans chaque bassin avec un
Plata, au Bresil a Natal, aux Philippines, etc. sex-ratio 1:1 bien qu'il semble qu'un pourcentage de 25%
Signalons enfin dans les travaux frangais, et bien qu'il ne de males soit suffisant pour obtenir une fecondation
capturees dans le milieu nature!, acceptable pour des animaux. Les premiers bassins etaient reconverts d'une
250
toile ombree, reduisant de 60% 1'eclairement. Patlan, 1 la maturation de Penaeus californiensis en
9 74) et
Les crevettes se tenaient tout le jour dans les parties les captivite (Moore, Sherry et Montanez, 1974). D'ores et
plus obscures au pied des parois. Une couverture a 90% a deja Ton peut dire que ce probleme difficile de 1'obtention
donne des maturations plus nombreuses. Une experience de post-larves a partir de geniteurs captifs, considere
avec des bassins maintenus completement a 'ombre pour 1 comme 1'une des clefs de 1'extension des elevages de crev-
moitie et a 60% pour 1'autre moitie a montre que les ettes, est en voie de resolution.
animaux se tenaient toute la journee dans la partie ombra- Outre la possibilite effective d'obtenir des maturations
gee et que le taux de maturation etait eleve. controlees, suivies de pontes viables, on a mis en evidence
Les maturations ont ete obtenues avec plusieurs types les influences, au moins qualitativement appreciees, mais
d 'aliments: (/) granules fabriques localement a base de chair encore non interpretees du point de vue physiologique de la
de mollusque (troca) et de farine de poisson; (it) granules photoperiode et de 1'intensite lumineuse, de 1'age et du poids
1
japonais "Shigueno ; (//'/) alimentation mixte: granules selon les especes, de la temperature et en particulier de la
dechets de bonite. rapidite de la remontee thermique, d'un antagonisme croiss-
Le nombre d'oeufs pondus est tres variable, il croit avec ance-reproduction, et de 'evolution differente des geniteurs
1
repartis en nombre egal dans 4 bassins circulaires de 5 m de sinon que les travaux de genetique autres que fonda-
sujet,
diametre sous une serre en plastique. Le but etait de tester mentaux ne pourront prendre leur essor que lorsque Ja
Tinfluence relative de deux remontees photoperiodiques de question de la maturation des geniteurs en captivite sera
8 heures a 16 heures, Tune naturelle sur 6 mois, 1'autre completement resolue. Cependant on signalera d'une part
acceleree sur 3 mois en correspondance avec deux remon- les recherches effectuees en Angleterre a Lowestoft sur les
tees thermiques de 15 a 24C, Tune sur 6 mois et 1'autre poissons (Purdom, 1972) dont la methodologie pourra
acceleree sur 3 mois, tous les autres facteurs restant con- utilement servir le jour venu, et d'autre part la fertilisation
stants. L'analyse de la vitellogenese a ete realisee de fagon in vitro d'oeufs de Penaeus aztecus obtenue par les labora-
continue par 4 voies complementaires dont 1'analyse mi- toires de Galveston et Houston (Clark et ah 1973). La
croscopique des gonades et 1'analyse des lipoproteines de reussite de cette derniere experimentation permet en parti-
1'hemolymphe. culier d'envisager ulterieurement 1'hybridation des crev-
Des maturations ont ete obtenues sur les deux pro- ettes penaeides.
grammes testes avec avance de 2 a 3 mois dans le cas de
remontees photoperiodique et thermoperiodique associees. 2.2 Approvisionnement en juveniles de crevettes cTeau
Un certain nombre de pontes ont suivi, les unes naturelles, douce
les autres provoquees par un choc de pression. A 1'heure actuelle, tous les elevages de crevettes d'eau douce
L 'extension de ces experiences a 1'hiver et au printemps concernent pratiquement la crevette d'eau douce originaire
1975 au Centre Oceanologique de Bretagne par A. Laubier de Malaisie, Macrobrachium rosenbergii, laquelle a fait
a permis d'obtenir selon une sequence entierement con- 1'objet d'etudes tres completes depuis de nombreuses an-
trolee du point de vue temperature, photoperiode, envi- nees en particulier par Ling (1969) et Fujimura (1967-
ronnement et alimentation, des maturations, pontes natu- 74), et presente des caracteristiques biologiques interes-
relles et production de post-larves de P.japonicus (Laubier santes pour 1'aquaculture.
et Laubier, 1979). La maturation, la fecondation et la ponte de M. rosenber-
251
On sait precisement que dans la nature M. rosenbergii larves/1) jusqu'au stade VI et de continuer ensuite en bassin
pond dans que les larves vivent en eaux
les estuaires et en beton de 7 3
m
a densite plus faible jusqu'a la metamor-
saumatres, en passant par onze stades successifs avant de phose. Cependant, en 1975, un blocage de la metamor-
donner des post-larves. phose ainsi que des mortalites importantes sont survenues,
Afin de permettre des cultures de masse, 1'attention s'est surtout entre le 9eme et le 1 Seme jour, sans qu'on ait pu en
done concentree sur la methodologie des elevages larvaires. determiner veritablement la cause. Ces incidents retardent
Fujimura (1966) ainsi que Minamizawa et Morizane la normalisation des elevages larvaires.
( 1 970) en avaient defini les principales exigences. En parti-
culierils etablirent que dans leurs conditions operatoires les 2.2.4 Discussion. Les quelques exemples ci-dessus mon-
meilleurs taux de survie etaient obtenus avec des salinites de trent que techniques de reproduction et d'elevage lar-
les
6a 1 2%o et une temperature de 30C. L'eau devait avoir un vaires de M. rosenbergii sont a peu pres satisfaisantes a
pH de 8,1 etune forte concentration d'algues vertes. ITieure actuelle a 1'echelle du laboratoire ou des installa-
tions-pilotes. A
notre connaissance il n'existe pas de pro-
2.2.1 Observations faites a Conwy, Grande Bretagne. duction de masse de 1'ordre de 1 a 2 millions de post-larves
Forster et Wickins (1972) ont maintenu dans des condi- tous les 45 jours, a part peut-etre 1'ecloserie de Fujimura a
tions de laboratoire un stock de deux males et onze femelles Hawa'i. Aussi les calculs de coiit developpes par Yung
desquels 500000 larves viables ont etc obtenues en 10 Cheng Sang (1974) pour une ecloserie produisant an-
mois, avec un pourcentage final de survie, de 1'oeuf au nuellement 1 6 millions de juveniles restent-ils encore assez
juvenile, de 14%. Ils signalent le caractere encore aleatoire theoriques.
de 1'elevage larvaire. En deux problemes majeurs ne sont pas resolus. Le
fait,
2.2.2 Observations faites au Skidaway Institute a Savan- longue qui existe, en fait, dans une production de masse
nah, E-U. L'objectif de Sick et Beaty (1974)etait d'etablir entre Papparition des premieres post-larves et la metamor-
les exigences speeifiques de la culture des larves de M. phose de la majorite des larves; le second concerne le
rosenbergii avec 1'investissement minimum, ainsi que de caractere encore imprevisible de certains aleas, qu'on ne
mettre au point une formule de nourriture larvaire donnant saurait rapporter a un probleme de pathologic.
le maximum de survie. Apres etude, le choix s'est porte sur De problemes demandent un effort de recherche
tels
des bacs d'elevage coniques de 60 1. La salinite doit varier certain. Si la crevette d'eau douce rencontre un accueil en
selon les stades larvaires (10-16% ). Les meilleurs resul- general favorable sur le marche, la duree de son grossisse-
tats sont obtenus a des densites de 20-40 animaux/1 et les ment impose que la fourniture de post-larves puisse etre
$
nauplii Anemia doivent depasser 0,7 mm
pour obtenir les assuree a un cout tres bas, afin d'aboutir a un prix de revient
meilleurs taux de grossissement. Enfin parmi les differentes total competitif.
formules d'aliments composes testes, seul un regime
ttArtemia seches et congeles convient a tous les stades
larvaires. Les larves atteignent la metamorphose en 18 3 Les problemes de grossissement
jours avec un taux de survie de 57%. Ces experimentations 3.1 Generalites
restent a 1'echelle du laboratoire. Si 1'approvisionnement en juveniles dans des conditions de
fiabilite et d'economie satisfaisantes conditionne la possibi-
2.2.3 Observations faitesau Centre Oceanologique du Pa- lite d'un elevage, c'est la capacite de conduire ces juveniles
au point une methode de production de post-larves en concerne les crevettes, nous aliens examiner cette question
grandes quantites, d'abord en bacs a fond conique de 500 1, centrale en distinguant comme ci-dessus les problemes des
puis en bacs de 2,5
3
m
a fond conique pour obtenir plus de crevettes de mer de ceux des crevettes d'eau douce. Pour
60 000 post-larves tous les 45 jours. chacune des deux categories nous choisissons de prendre en
Les premiers resultats sont les suivants: maturations,(/) consideration trois types d'elevages que nous appelons en
fecondations, pontes et eclosions, s'observent toute 1'annee premiere analyse elevage extensif, elevage semi-intensif et
dans les conditions de Tahiti; (it) les techniques de maintien elevage intensif pour traduire a la fois le controle croissant
et de manipulation des reproducteurs ainsi que la technolo- exerce sur les facteurs du grossissement ainsi que
gic generate de 1'elevage larvaire ne presentent pas en elles- 1'augmentation des charges et rendements correspondants.
memes de grandes difficultes. Des la premiere annee,
500 000 larves ont etc produites et une premiere generation 3.2 Grossissement des crevettes penaeides
d'elevage obtenue, un million de larves ont etc produites au 3.2.1 Elevage extensif. On considerera comme elevage
premier trimestre 1975; (Hi) un aliment particulier a etc extensif une forme d'elevage dans laquelle le controle de
developpe pour obtenir de bonnes maturations; (iv) il est rhomme est reduit au minimum et n'intervient en particu-
possible en modifiant les temperatures de synchroniser les lier ni sur {'alimentation, ni sur le renouvellement et la
pontes de fa$on a proceder a des elevages homogenes. qualite de 1'eau; meilleur exemple en est donne par les
le
Par rapport a la technique de Fujimura, aucune eau verte elevages traditionnels de crevettes (Penaeus monodon aux
ou culture d'algue monospecifique n'est utilises. Par ail- Philippines, et Metapenaeus en Malaisie) dans des bassins
leurs il semble preferable de pratiquer des cultures pris sur la mangrove et fagonnes de maniere artisanale. Les
A'Anemia separees afin de calibrer les tallies suivant les juveniles entrent avec le flot ou sont peches dans les es-
stades d'elevage. Enfin on a utilise une methode mixte tuaires. Aucune nourriture n'est distribute. Dans certains
consistant a pratiquer 1'elevage en tres forte densite (80 cas, un fertilisant organique est ajoute. Blanco (1972)
252
donne pour de tels elevages aux Philippines un rendement d'animaux marins ont place les clams en tete avec ensuite
soil de 1'ordre de 400 kg/ha sans fertilisation et de 900- dans 1'ordre la chair dTiuitre, les nereides, le poulpe, la chair
1 000 kg/ha avec fertilisation. de crevette, le gobie et le maquereau. De nombreuses autres
Sous certains aspects au moins on peut rapprocher de ces experimentations ont etc fakes en d'autres pays, a diffe-
elevages 1'essai tente aux Etats-Unis entre 1 970 et 1 973 par rentes dimensions. En France a Maguelone le grossisse-
Marifarms Inc., dans une partie de West Bay a Panama City ment d'environ une tonne annuelle de P. japonicus est
sur une superficie de 10 000 ha enclose par un filet de 5 km. effectue depuis 1972 avec du crabe vert broye dans de
Les resultats furent decevants (Kittaka, inedit), bien qu'une bonnes conditions de croissance, avec un taux de conver-
nourriture supplementaire ait ete distribute. Le rendement sion eleve, de 1'ordre de 15.
global le meilleur ne depasse pas 20 kg/ha/an. Si un certain En fait la crevette s'accommode d'un regime alimentaire
nombre de crevettes s'echapperent en franchissant le filet, il eclectique; elle est aussi capable de chasserle zooplancton
semble bien que 1'impossibilite de supprimer efficacement que de depecer un cadavre, de brouter une algue ou
les predateurs ait ete une cause non negligeable de 1'echec. d'ingerer la pellicule superficielle d'un sediment sablo-
Et ceci reste vrai pour tous les elevages extensifs. vaseux comme d'assimiler la chair de n'importe quel animal
Plusieurs auteurs (Latapie, Broom et Neal, 1972; Kit- marin. Le probleme de 1'aliment naturel est done essen-
taka et Murray, 1 975) ont d'ailleurs mis en evidence que la tiellement, en ce qui concerne les mollusques, les crustaces,
presence de predateurs ou de competiteurs reduisait non ou le poisson, un probleme de disponibilite, de cout
seulement le taux de survie, mais aussi le taux de croissance. d 'acquisition, et de cout de preparation d'une telle nourri-
Finalement, 1'elevage extensif n'apparait viable a 1'heure ture en fonction de son rendement.
actuelle qu'au voisinage immediat de populations naturelles Les recherches sur les besoms et le regime alimentaires
de crevettes, a la condition de se contenter de faibles des penaeides ont fait de gros progres dans les dernieres
rendements eux-memes tres variables d'une annee a 1'autre. annees, dans le cadre d'etudes generates sur les mecanismes
et les exigences nutritionnelles des crustaces. II n'est pas
3.2.2 Elevage semi-intensif. L 'elevage semi-intensif corre- possible dans le cadre de cette synthese de mentionner tous
spond aux elevages japonais actuels. Realise generalement ces travaux. Citons en particulier les equipes japonaises
en bassins de terre de dimensions comprises entre 1 et (Faculte des peches de 1'Universite de Kagoshima),
10 ha, il suppose un controle deja pousse des facteurs franchises (laboratoire Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes;
nutritionnels et des facteurs d'environnement. II aboutit a Station Marine d'Endoume, Marseille), anglaise (Fisheries
des rendements par cycle de 1'ordre de 2-3 tonnes/ha. Experiment Station, Conwy), et americaine (National Ma-
Curieusement d'ailleurs, cetype d'elevage n'existe en- rine Fisheries Service Biological Laboratory, Galveston),
core qu'au Japon. II reste sensiblement au meme niveau de appliquees a ces problemes.
developpement, malgre la croissance du marche, sa proxim- L'on a ainsi mis en evidence le niveau et la qualite des
ite et les prix eleves pratiques pour la crevette vivante. proteines necessaires, le metabolisme des lipides, 1'equilibre
Partout ailleurs, on ne peut encore parler que d'installations en acides amines, 1'equilibre vitaminique, 1'importance des
quelques grands projets americains, soit directe-
pilotes, les mineraux sur les enzymes digestives, et 1'importance des
ment aux Etats-Unis, soit en Amerique Centrale, n'ayant sterols.
pas apporte la preuve de leur rentabilite. A partir des resultats obtenus, des aliments composes ont
pu etre mis au point et font maintenant 1'objet de ventes
(i ) Les facteurs nutritionnels. commerciales. Citons en particulier 1'aliment developpe
Comme
dans la plupart des cas en aquaculture, d'apres les travaux et experimentations de Shigueno au
1'alimentation des crevettes d'elevage a d'abord fait 1'objet Japon, et celui commercialise par la Societe Ralston Purina
d'observations et d'experimentations pratiques a partir des aux Etats-Unis. Bien qu'en particulier le taux de proteines
aliments naturels disponibles dans 1'environnement cotier de ces deux aliments soit sensiblement different, et que les
(poissons, mollusques, crustaces), puis de recherches de especes faisant 1'objet des tests soient elles-memes difie-
base sur les besoins alimentaires des animaux a differents rentes (P. japonicus au Japon et P. vannamei aux Etats-
stades de leur existence, celles-ci aboutissant a la mise au Unis), les resultats experimentaux sont assez voisins quant
point d'aliments composes et a la definition de regimes aux quantites journalieres optima (2-4% du poids de
alimentaires. 1'animal par jour chez Shigueno et 3% pour Ralston Pur-
L' aliment naturel
utilise au Japon de fagon courante ina), ainsi qu'aux taux de conversion (entre L6 et 2,5 selon
depuis que Fujinaga a montre son effi cache dans 1'elevage les autres conditions d'environnement) (Shigueno. 1975;
des crevettes consiste en chair de mollusque, clam et moule, Mountain, Persyn et Lawrence, non-publie).
dont on broie les coquilles. Dans les exploitations qui font L'importance de la disponibilite d'un aliment compose
du pre-grossissement, generalement pendant une duree prend toute sa valeur lorsque 1'elevage est tente dans une
d'une cinquantaine de jours apres P20, la meme nourriture zone geographique ou la nourriture naturelle provenant de
est utilisee mais sans coquille et la chair est finement la mer fait defaut. En Polynesie, par exemple, ou la produc-
broyee, ce qui necessite un important travail tion de mollusques ou de crustaces aptes a servir d'aliments
supplementaire. est pratiquement nulle, Pequipe du Centre Oceanologique
Le taux de conversion global constate pendant la duree du Pacifique doit pour le moment fabriquer elle-meme ses
d'un elevage, c'est-a-dire en premiere approximation le aliments composes a partir des ressources locales. Les
rapport entre poids de nourriture distribue et le grossisse-
le proteines necessaires proviennent soit de farine de poisson,
ment correspondant des crevettes, se situe avec ce type de soit de feuilles d'acacia (Leucaena leucocephala). D'autres
nourriture autour de 10, avec d'assez larges ecarts. sources de proteines sont en voie d'experimentation: ali-
Des experimentations
entreprises au Japon pour deter- ments pour poulets, escargots (Achatinafulicd), levures de
miner la preference des crevettes entre plusieurs especes petrole, etc.
253
Les crevettes acceptent finalement des aliments bien plastiques.
doses quelle que soit leur origine, a condition que leur Une remarque concerne precisement le role exact de la
conditionnement soit bien adapte. La forme la plus generate productivite naturelle dans les bassins d'elevage semi-inten-
est celle de granules a allure de vermicelle dont la stabilite sif ou 1'essentiel de l'alimentation provient d'une nourriture
dans 1'eau doit etre bonne et le caractere attirant se main- distribute.II semble que ce point meriterait des eclaircisse-
tenir tout au long de 1'elevage. L'un des problemes est done ments qui ne peuvent encore etre donnes. De la reponse
celui du 'liant' pour la determination duquel un certain depend en particulier le choix d'un type de bassins permet-
nombre d 'experimentations permettent desormais de faire tant une fertilisation efficace.
un choix (Forster, 1972; Neal, 1973).
(iii) Resultats
(ii) Lesfacteurs d'environnement Une combinaison satisfaisante des differents facteurs exam-
Si pour la commodite de 1'analyse, on a separe les facteurs ines conduit en elevage semi-intensif a des rendements qui
nutritionnels des facteurs d'environnement, il est clair qu'il ne depassent guere pour un cycle de production 300 g/m 2
y a interaction des uns et des autres et qu'il est impossible de d'eau. Des experiences menees tant au Japon qu' en France,
les isoler dans leurs effets. il resulte d'ailleurs
qu'il ne sert de rien d'augmenter la
Les qualites du milieu d'elevage necessaires ou favor- charge initiale c'est-a-dire le densite des post-larves. II est
ables sont actuellement assez bien connues pour 1'essentiel. maintenant generalement recommande de proceder a un
La temperature et la salinite dependent bien sur du choix du pregrossissement. La compagnie Ralston Purina aux Etats-
sont optimales pour une temperature de 25-30C, et
site, et Unis par exemple place les post-larves a P2-P3 dans des
une salinite voisine de 32-35% Le pH est un facteur
. enceintes de pregrossissement a des densites allant jusqu'a
important en particulier dans les zones conquises sur la 250 au m 2 Elles y restent deux mois et atteignent le poids
.
mangrove ou il est generalement bas. Des valeurs autour de moyen de 2 g. Par contre dans la technologic actuelle on ne
2
8 semblent les plus convenables. La hauteur d'eau est jugee saurait depasser une charge initiale de 20-25 crevettes/m
satisfaisante entre1 m et 1,50 m. si Ton veut que chacune d'entre elles atteigne la taille
Les crevettes consomment relativement peu d'oxygene, commerciale au bout de 4 mois d'elevage.
mais la quantite d'oxygene dissous doit cependant etre Cette limitation des rendements, jointe au cout eleve de
constamment surveillee par suite des consommations dues la nourriture explique, compte tenu en particulier de la
aux autres animaux existant dans les bassins, aux dechets de rarete et de la cherte des terrains disponibles, le pietinement
nourriture, aux dejections, aux algues et au sediment lui- du developpement des elevages au Japon et les echecs dans
meme. Des valeurs relatives de ces consommations ont ete les autres pays. D'ou la necessite de depasser Petape ac-
donnees par Shigueno, montrant dans un cas precis que le tuelle, soit en effectuant annuellement deux ou trois cycles
sediment absorbait une quantite d'oxygene double de celle d'elevage comme 1'envisagent certains projets en Amerique
des crevettes en elevage (Shigueno, 1975). Maguelone, A Centrale (Webber, 1970), et plus generalement dans la
en France, des mesures systematiques ont montre qu'en zone tropicale, soit en modifiant partiellement ou totale-
cours d'elevage revolution de 1'oxygene dissous etait moins ment la technologic pour obtenir des rendements a 'unite 1
254
3.2.4 Perspectives doit lui conferer vite un caractere de grande fiabilite.
Pour un certain temps encore 1'elevage semi-intensif dans
des enceintes amenagees ne depassant pas quelques hec-
tares est celui dont le developpement est le plus probable, 4 Les problemes pathologiques
mais a condition qu'une nourriture composee puisse etre Les maladies sont 1'un des plus importants facteurs suscep-
fournie a un prix abordable. Une meilleure connaissance tibles de contrecarrer le developpement d'un elevage. Sans
des conditions d'environnement permettra sans doute doute exercent-elles leurs effets dans le milieu naturel, mais
d'augmenter legerement les rendements tandis que la mai- ceux-ci sont cependant tres aggraves en elevage par suite
trise de la maturation et de la ponte conduira a organiser des hautes densites et du confinement des animaux. De
deux cycles de grossissement par an chaque fois que les grands progres ont ete faits ces dernieres annees pour
conditions climatologiques le permettront. Mais dans un identifier les maladies des crevettes et mettre au point les
avenir plus ou moins proche, et dans les pays developpes, il mesures preventives ou curatives les plus appropriees. Ci-
est certainque s'imposeront progressivement des elevages tons d'abord 1'effort de classification entrepris par Johnson
entierement controles a tres haut rendement. (1975) pour ce qui concerne trois especes de penaeides.
3.3 Grossissement des crevettes d'eau douce Macro- 4. Pathologic des elevages larvaires
1
Shrimp, Inc. a Porto Rico oii 36 bassins d'un demi-hectare raffaiblissement general des animaux. L'etude bacteriolo-
commenceraient leur production. gique a abouti a 1'isolement de plusieurs especes de bacter-
Par contre, des essais d'elevage intenstf, sous controle ies non pathogenes vis-a-vis de 1'animal sain. Ceci sous-
des productions allant jusqu'a 70 tonnes/ha/an
total, visant tend une observation plus generale selon laquelle nombre
sont entrepris par des chercheurs ayant leur propre societe de maladies ne sont en fait que des manifestations secon-
(Grajcer a Menlo Park pres de San Francisco; Serfling en daires d'effets d'une mauvaise alimentation ou de la mau-
Californie). vaise conduite des bassins.
Un developpement de 1'elevage de la crevette d'eau douce Les parasites des crevettes penaeides ont fait 1'objet
estcependant a prevoir. II sera limite par la disponibilite d'etudes particulieres (Overstreet, 1973) sans qu'un lien
d'une eau de qualite a des temperatures suffisantes, et par la direct ait pu etre etabli jusqu'ici avec un affaiblissement
duree del'elevage, mais se technologic relativement simple grave des sujets.
255
En cc qui concerne lesd'environnement
facteurs general elevee. La capacite de disposer d'un aliment naturel
de voir contractor la
1'attention est attiree sur la possibilite en grandes quantites, a proximite immediate, est un autre
4 9
gas bubble disease par les juveniles de penaeides a la suite facteur de choix.
d'une sursaturation resultant d'un chauffage de 1'eau avec
augmentation de pression (Lightner, Salser et Wheeler, (ii) Crevettes d'eau douce
1974). La temperature, la qualite et le debit d'eau douce disponible
conditionnent 1'elevage. Le choix s'opere ensuite suivant les
4.3 Perspectives facilites de construction et de maintenance des bassins, la
A 1'heure actuelle, les problemes pathologiques principaux proximite d'une ecloserie (situee sur la rive) et des sources
concernent les elevages larvaires, pour lesquels des mortal- d'aliments.
ites massives sont encore constatees sans possibilites pra- Dans les deux on ne saurait oublier, bien sur, la
cas,
tiques d'intervention. Aussi un effort accru doit-il etre distance au point de commercialisation, la nature et le cout
applique a la comprehension des phenomenes et a la defini- des moyens de transport et de conditionnement.
tion des mesures preventives indispensables. Le travail est a
peine commence en ce qui concerne M. rosenbergii. 5.2 Differents types d* enceintes
Jusqu'a plus ample informe, les maladies au cours du (i)Crevettes de mer
grossissement, en elevage semi-intensif, sont la plupart du Les enceintes les plus utilisees sont les bassins a fond de
temps des phenomenes secondaires, susceptibles d'ailleurs terre ou de sable non draine, avec digues en terre. Alimentes
dans certains cas d'etre efficacement traitees. par le jeu des marees ou par pompage, le renouvellement de
II n'en sera pas de meme avec les elevages intensifs du 1'eau reste assez faible de 1'ordre de 1/5 erne du volume total
proche futur ou les atteintes epidemiologiques risquent par jour. Le pompage, plus couteux, permet un bien meil-
d'etrebeaucoup plus dangereuses. Aussi est-il souhaitable leur controle des periodes de renouvellement d'eau, et
que ce sujet retienne 1'attention des specialistes et qu'une surtout de 1'entree des predateurs. Les meilleurs bassins
cooperation etroite permette a tous de disposer de sont ceux qui se vident entierement, permettant ainsi, outre
rensemble des observations et resultats d'experimentations une peche facile, le nettoyage et 1'entretien periodiques de
disponibles. sediment et la fertilisation. Ces types de bassins sont ceux
des fermes japonaises actuelles en exploitation commer-
ciale. Les rendements qui y sont obtenus sont de 1'ordre de
5 Les problimes technologiques 2 a 3 tonnes/ha/an.
La plupart des problemes technologiques ont deja ete Pour augmenter les rendements, il faut conjointement
evoques, sinon traites, dans les sections precedentes car ils augmenter le renouvellement d'eau (done proceder par
sont dans une large mesure inseparables des problemes pompage ou bassin reservoir), et utiliser des fonds
biologiques. II n'en reste pas moins que dans bien des cas draines. Les systemes utilises en France a titre experimental
des solutions alternatives peuvent etre prises en considera- ont des drainages inverses c'est-a-dire que 1'eau circule de
tion et qu'il est du plus grand interet de les examiner avec le bas en haut a travers le sediment ce qui presente 1'avantage
plus grand soin car de leur choix depend non seulement la de garder un sediment meuble et toujours bien oxygene.
reussite physique de 1'elevage mais aussi le poids relatif et Mais il ne s'agit encore que d'installations pilotes de
global des couts d'investissement et de fonctionnement. On quelques ares.
ne leur donnera cependant, ci-dessous, qu'un developpe- L'utilisation d'enclos en filets, au lieu de digues, pose
ment limite, compte tenu du fait qu'ils n'ont pas sensible- deux problemes: le controle des predateurs dont les alevins
ment evolue depuis plusieurs annees. peuvent penetrer a traverse les mailles, et la salissure du
filet. S'il n'y a pas de remede au premier, on peut regler le
5.1 Choix d'un site second de fagon satisfaisante par des dispositifs permettant
(i) Crevettes de mer de changer les filets (double rangee de supports de filets
Si Ton dehors du cas de 1'elevage intensif ou, a la
se place en par exemple).
limite, toutes les conditions necessaires peuvent etre creees L'elevage en cages qui se pratique avec un si grand
artificiellement, il est clair que les deux facteurs necessaires, succes pour les poissons, et presente d'incontestables avan-
mais non suffisants, pour apprecier la capacite d'une region tages puisqu'il ne necessite pas de pompage et permet une
cotiere a soutenir des elevages de penaeides sont la tempe- evacuation naturelle des dechets, est une voie d'avenir
rature et la salinite de 1'eau de mer. Si la temperature ne se interessante. Elle est actuellement testee au Japon sur P.
maintient pas au-dessus de 25C
pendant au moins quatre japonicus avec au fond de la cage un fond artificiel rem-
mois consecutifs, si ladescend disablement en
salinite plagantsediment. Cette technique, qui rendrait de nom-
le
dessous de 30%o, il est impensable d'envisager un elevage. breux propices a 1'elevage, conviendrait mieux aux
sites
Mais si ces conditions primordiales sont reunies, encore en especes qui s'enfouissent peu comme P. merguiensis.
faut-il un certain nombre d'autres. Enfin rappelons les essais d'elevage intensif en silos de
Tout d'abord 1'experience des dernieres annees a montre Shigueno, en raceways de 1'equipe de Galveston avec
et
que nous n'etions pas prets a mettre en culture des portions utilisation ou non de
circuits fermes, qui visent a atteindre
importantcs de milieu naturel quel que soit le type d'enclos de tres hauts rendements dans des conditions de controle
utilise. L'etat de la technologic actuelle ne permet guere accrues.
d'envisager en semi-intensif que des bassins de superficie
inferieure a 10 ha et probablement meme a 5 ha. L 'elevage (ii) Crevettes d'eau douce
se faisant sous faible hauteur d'eau et necessitant un sedi- A notre connaissance les enceintes utilisees pour 1'elevage
ment de bonne qualite, ceci privilegie les cotes alluviales et de M
rosenbergii sont jusqu'ici des bassins en terre ame-
.
lagunaires dont au surplus la productivity naturelle est en nages en derivation le long d'un cours d'eau. Le nombre
256
d'elevages est encore insuffisant pour que des diversifica- climatiques et geographiques sont en premiere evaluation,
tions de quelque interet aient pu etre testees. La forme moins largement reparties.
rectangulaire est generalement adoptee.
36(7): 23-6
pacifique, des elevages commerciaux a rendement moyen CLARK, W. H. et ai In vitro fertilization with non-motile spermatozoa
1973 of the brown shrimp Penaeus aztecus. Mar. BioL, 22: 353-4
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6CC/WP47:4p.
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257
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4: 247-59 (non public)
MOORE, D. W., SHERRY, R. W. & MONTA^EZ, F. Maturation of Penaeus SICK, L. V. &BBATY, H. Culture techniques and nutrition studies for
1974 californiensis in captivity. Proc. Annu. Workshop World Mari- 1974 larval stages of the giant prawn Macrobrachium rosenbergii.
cult. Soc., 5:445-49 Tech. Rep. Georgia Mar. Sci. Cent., (non public)
MOUNTAIN, J., PERSYN, H. O. &LAWRENCE, A. L. The nutritional TUMA, D. G. A description of the development of primary and secon-
response of juvenile shrimp (Penaeus vannamei) to different 1967 dary sexual characters in the banana prawn, Penaeus merguiensis
feeding rates of a prepared dry food (non public) de Man (Crustacea: Decapoda: Penaeidae). Aust. J. Mar.
NEAL, R. A. Progress toward farming shrimp in the United States. Freshwat. Res., 18: 73-88
1973 Mar. Fish. Rev., 35 (3-4) 67-70
:
UMPHLETT, C. J. & McCRAY, E. M. A brief review of the involvements
OVERSTREET, R. M. Parasites of some penaeid shrimp with emphasis on 1975 of Lagedimum, an aquatic fungus parasite, with arthropods
1973 reared hosts. Aquaculture, 2: 105-40 Mar. Fish. Rev., 37 (5-6). 61-4
PURDOM, C. E. Genetics and fish farming. Lab. Leafl. MAFF, U.K., WEBBER, H. H The development of a maricultural technology for the
1972 (25): 17 p. 1970 penaeid shrimps of the Gulf and Caribbean Region. Helgo.
SHIGUENO, K. Problems on prawn culture in Japan. Tokyo, Overseas Wiss. Meeresunters., 20:
455^3
1972 Technical Cooperation Agency, 37 p. YUNG CHENG SANG, Economic feasibility of freshwater prawn fanning
SHIGUENO K. Shrimp culture in Japan, Tokyo. Association for Inter- 1974 in Hawaii. Sea Grant Advis. Rep., (04^3-158-29): 49 p.
1975 national Technical Promotion, 153 p. ZEIN-ELDIN, Z. P. &
GRIFFITH, G. W. An appraisal of the effects of
SANDIFER, P. A. &
SMITH, T. I. J. Development of Macrobrachium 1969 salinity and temperature on growth and survival of post-larval
1975 aquaculture in South Carolina. Charleston, Manne Resources penaeids. FAO Fish. Rep (57) vol. 3. 1015-26
,
management of light intensity, aeration, and concentration about 10 days, and from metamorphosis to the attainment
of nutrients ('community culture'), (/v) the substitution of of seedling-size is about 20 days under standard conditions.
Chaetoceros sp. for Skeletonema sp. as a food, and (v) A longer period may be required under unfavourable condi-
chemical sterilization of tank water. tions such as low temperature, overcrowding or food short-
Mass production of seedlings in Japan now amounts to age. The standard size of a kuruma shrimp seedling (post-
almost 200 million individuals and industrial production of larva) is about 10 mm in body length or 0-0
1
g wet weight.
marketable shrimp amounts to 600 tons. Furthermore, The benthic habit appears in the postlarvae after 3-4
techniques for artificial production of shrimp seedlings moults and attainment of 6-7 mm in body length. They
have been developed not only for the kuruma shrimp, but then begin to cling to the walls and bottom of the tank. In
also for other penaeid shrimps throughout the world. nature, however, the postlarvae are believed to acquire
In968 a new concept was developed which aimed at the
1 benthic existence toward the end of stage 2.
practical improvement of shrimp yields through stocking
large numbers of hatchery-reared fry in the shallow seas; 2.6 Food and feeding
section 4 will be devoted to this challenging approach. The nauplius grows on its own yolk but, after attaining the
259
capacity. In order to yield this density at least one spawning rearing water seems to be primarily responsible. This situa-
female, or two ripe females when the rate of spawning tion has forced re-examination of the community culture
success is taken into consideration, will be required for principleand the development of a new method.
every 4 m 3
of tank capacity. Promising results have been obtained by scientists at the
The survival rate from the newly hatched nauplius to Kagoshima Fisheries Research Station. The rearing water
metamorphosis averages 60-70%. During the postlarval has been prepared by filtering sea water through sand
stages the survival rate is distinctly density-dependant and layers, sterilizing it with sodium hypochlorite (150ppm)
commonly lies between 30 and 60%. Thus the average and neutralizing it 1 2 hours later with sodium thiosulphate
3
overall survival rate from newly hatched nauplius to post- (45 g/m ). The protozoea and mysids have been fed a pure
larva of seedling size is 20-30%. culture of Chaetoceras sp. instead of mixed plankton.
Several kinds of compounded feed have also been devel-
2.8 Harvesting, counting and shipping oped by Deshimaru and Shigueno (1972) for the
When harvested, the seedlings are concentrated by draining postlarvae.
the tank to one-half or one-third its depth. They are then It has been demonstrated that by use of this method, the
attracted by light and scooped out with a hand net at night, rearing water can be maintained in good quality throughout
or are flushed through the outlet with the rearing water to be the growing period without any trouble from disease at
netted. least, to date.
The number of usually calculated by divid-
seedlings is
Total 1485
1
Modified from Shigueno (1975)
260
3.2 Significance of the nursery pond shelled by hand, the clam meat which is obtained amounts
During the early stages of culture practice, seedling shrimp to almost 20% of gross weight; when crushed with a
fry (P20 ) were released directly over the whole area of the hammer -mill, as is usually practised by shrimp culturists,
growing pond. However, it soon became apparent that eggs the yield only about
is 1 1%. In the Seto Inland Sea the cost
and larvae of various predatory fish entered the pond of clam with shell was US$ 0-02/kg in 1963, but the price
through the screen in the water gate. They grew rapidly, rose rapidly, and by 1975 was USS 0-09/kg. In addition, in
snatching the food given to the shrimp and, in about three recent years the supply has been insufficient to satisfy
months, were big enough to prey upon the shrimp. As a demand.
consequence of such competition and predation, feed was Another problem, inherent in the use of clam meat, is the
wasted and a high proportion of the shrimp were lost. In unfavourable effect of shells left on the bottom, converting
addition, overwhelming swarming and subsequent decom- the bed into a hard and rough surface which prevents
position of the green algae, Viva, frequently occurred, burrowing by the shrimp.
resulting in pollution of the pond water and consequent The results of growing shrimp in the three ponds at
suspension of shrimp growth. It was realised that for better Himeshima (see Figs. 1 and 2) are summarized at the
shrimp growth, the pond operation period should be as bottom of this page.
short as possible. Pond No.
3 gave poor results in respect to growth, sur-
To overcome such difficulties the culture operation is vivaland feeding quotient (kg of food used to produce 1 kg of
now divided into two successive processes: nursing and shrimp) compared to that in the other two ponds. The reason
growing. One of the shrimp ponds may be used as a nursery was attributed to its filthy bottom soil and limited water cir-
where the fry are kept for about 50 days, until they attain an culation. The feeding quotient varied considerably, ranging
average body weight of about 1 5 g. They are then captured from 5- 7 to 19-7. The conversion ratio depends on the de-
at night by a pound net and their number calculated by gree of success in feeding management, quality of food given,
weighing them. They are then transferred to a well prepared and amount of natural food available in the growing pond.
growing pond to be cultured to marketable size. The nurs- Generally speaking, the conversion of food into shrimp meat
ery pond, when it has completed its function, is also used to is less efficient in older than in younger shrimp (Fig. 3).
grow another batch of early adolescent shrimp. The whole
process of shrimp culture as practised at Himeshima is 12
illustrated in Fig. 2.
10
Experience has shown that the fresh meat of short-necked stocking of small fry (0-05 g each) usually results in
clams and blue mussels are excellent feeds for growing survival rates of 65-70%, or as low as 3 1% in a six-month
shrimp in ponds. These feeds cannot be substituted with period. Strictly speaking, survival does not depend solely
frozen fish or shellfish, especially during summer. How- on the size of fry but also on proper management of the
ever, there are several problems to be considered. When culture, including predator eradication, maintenance of a
261
balanced ecosystem and adequate quantitative and qualita- residual product of copper refinery plants) at a density of
2
tive feeding. l-l-8kg/m .
at Aio, Shigueno (1975) estimated that the shrimp took movement of the shrimp, they are commonly harvested at
only 8' 6% of the total consumption of 105 x 10 ml oxygen
6
night with a pound net. As the water temperature decreases,
during 12 h at night, as shown below. the pound net becomes ineffective because of the shrimp's
Oxygen consumer Amount of Q consumed (ml) Percentage inactivity. They are then harvested during the day, using a
Kuruma shrimp 9072000 8-6
dragnet attached to an iron frame with an electric shocker,
Other shrimp 592 200 0-5
or with water jet nozzles to stir them out from the bottom.
Fish 7 106 400 6-7
Bottom sand 15540000 14-8
Water 69-4 3.6 Treatment of product
By was consumed by the pond water
far the greater fraction Harvested shrimp are immediately transferred to a chilling
containing micro-organisms and suspended organics. tank. The water temperature in the tank is lowered gradu-
ally over a period of at least eight hours to a level at which
3.4.3 Bottom soil In the course of time the pond bottom the shrimp become inactive but which still allows move-
becomes polluted by chemical reduction, due to the accu- ment of their walking legs and swimmerets. The shrimp are
mulation and decomposition of organic matter, including then sorted by size, their excess moisture removed, and they
unconsumed food materials, metabolites and dead organ- are weighed and packed in cartons with dry cool sawdust.
isms, leading to a serious retardation in shrimp growth.
The interstitial waters of bottom sands are almost com- 3.7 Shipping and distribution
pletely deprived of dissolved oxygen and may instead Shrimp are air-shipped to remote markets, and transported
contain 5-7 ppm of hydrogen sulphide which, if it comes by rail or truck to nearby markets. These shrimp are
into contact with shrimp, is enough to cause instant death. collected by a receiving agent and sold to middlemen by
Under such conditions the shrimp tend to stay on the auction. Restauranteufs and retailers purchase the shrimp
bottom even in daytime, but in the evening they swim on the from the middlemen and sell them to consumers. There are
surface and frequently jump out of the water. thus at least three agents intervening between producer and
To alleviate this situation and in particular to break consumer, each taking a commission of 5% or more.
down the water stratification, stirring by means of a wheel The Tokyo Fish Market received a total of 44 7 8 tons of
or screw-type agitator driven by an electric motor is com- live kuruma shrimp in 1974, of which 229-6 tons (5 1 3%)
monly used with satisfactory results. The hydrogen sul- were supplied by pond culture, 157-6 tons (35-2%) by
phide, contaminating the interstitial waters of the bottom domestic fisheries and 60-3 tons (13-5%) from abroad.
layer, may be eliminated by the application of iron-oxide (a Supply from domestic sea fisheries is usually concentrated
262
to the period from May to September and that from other there aretwo practices: one with pre-stocking rearing and
sources to the rest of the year. the other without.
Any techniques aiming at the control of biological pro-
3.8 Production costs and selling price duction must be fitted to the physiological and ecological
The basic production cost per kg of live kuruma shrimp characteristics of the particular species being cultured. The
(excluding depreciation of equipment and installations) has methods described below are, therefore, intended primarily
been estimated by Shigueno (1975) to be Yen 2 828, of for this species. Application of these methods to any other
which 42% is spent on feeds, 18% for wages and 17% for species of shrimp will require modifications.
marketing.
The market price of live kuruma shrimp depends on size 4.1 Fitness offry for stocking
and fluctuates daily as well as seasonally. In 1974, the The fitness of shrimp fry for stocking purposes varies
monthly average of wholesale prices at the Tokyo Central according to their size or developmental stage. Kuruma
Fish market was generally higher in March-May, when it shrimp is a typical burrowing species and once benthic, it
attained a maximum of Yen 5 400/kg; and lower in Sep- tends to burrow into the substrate and become more or less
tember-November, hovering in the neighbourhood of Yen sedentary within a well defined area, except for a gradual
3 300-3 700/kg. offshore movement associated with growth. This behav-
iour, which is very important for the recognition of hatch-
3.9 Problems and prospects ery recruits released in the sea, is acquired by the hatchery-
The establishment of the first shrimp farms in 1963 reared juveniles when they attain an average body length of
prompted many enterprises to follow suit. By 1974 almost about 10mm, while the corresponding size in natural
50 enterprises were involved with shrimp culture activities stocks is 7-9 mm.
in the districts of Amakusa, Seto Inland Sea and elsewhere If the fry are very young they disperse or move so far
in Japan, with a total pond area of 245 ha, producing from the release they can hardly be traced, even on
site that
almost 600 tons of live kuruma shrimp. the following day. On the other hand, if they are reared in
With rapid expansion of shrimp culture, several the hatchery tank for a longer period, the walking legs and
problems have come to light. The annual production was swimmerets of a large number of individuals become
limited to about 2 tons (ca. Yen 8 million) per manpower abraded due to friction against the concrete walls or against
and 250 g (ca. Yen 000 )/m 2 of pond surface. These
1 each other. Disease and loss of locomotion and burrowing
values are very low compared to those in other domestic capabilities can follow. In addition, when transported, they
industries. Fresh short-necked clam and blue mussel are require much space per individual and are still apt to lose
too expensive to feed shrimp. Their supply has been viability.
limited in recent years, and severe limitations are The habitat of a particular age group is quite restricted.
anticipated in the future. For example, immediately following adoption of a benthic
To cope with these situations, efforts are being concen- existence at 7-9 mm body length, the natural habitat is
trated to develop: (/) a suitable compounded feed, and (//) a close to shore on intertidal flats. During any other stage in
new culture method in which the environmental conditions the life history their habitat is more extended. This situation
are effectively controlled. The formula
feed has already makes it difficult to control their environment except at
been accepted many shrimp
in farms and its demand is high cost.
rapidly increasing. A consumption of almost 600 tons is
anticipated in 1976. The nutritional requirements of ku- 4.2 Stocking
ruma shrimp are in need of further studies to improve the 4.2.1 Selection of stocking site. Theoretically, the most
formula feed, in particular with regard to its feeding effi- suitable place for stocking exactly the location where the
is
ciency during the summer months. maximum concentration of natural recruits is to be found.
To improve the productivity of shrimp culture, an inten- As mentioned earlier, the greatest concentration of early
sive method has been developed in Kagoshima Fisheries benthic juvenile kuruma shrimp is usually found on the
Research Station (Shigueno, 1975). The basic principle is sand flats between Mean Low Water Neap Tide (MLWNT)
to maintain clean water and aerobic conditions on the and Mean Sea Level (MSL), where the substrate is exposed
bottom, combined with the use of formula feed. Results at low tide leaving many shallow pools, and covered by
from preliminary experiments are promising. The possibil- only a few metres of water or less at high tides.
ity of producing two crops annually, each of 2-1-2-6 Hatchery-bred shrimp fry are usually planted at low tide
2
kg/m is contemplated provided that a highly efficient
,
into such pools which may or may not be surrounded by a
formula feed and warm water are guaranteed. net fence. When planted inside a net fence or a man-made
lagoon, they are later liberated by simply removing the
fence or knocking down the dikes.
4 Fanning the sea
Success in the mass production of kuruma shrimp fry has 4.2.2 Initial mortality. Upon liberation, hatchery-bred
led to stocking the sea to supplement local shrimp yields. shrimp fry almost always suffer a more or less severe initial
Considerable scientific efforts have been devoted during the mortality. Such mortality has never been observed among
last decade, with financial support by both the central and natural recruits which are well adapted to the conditions
the prefectural governments, to the development of proper prevailing on intertidal flats.
methods of release whereby the survival rates of hatchery- Preliminary experiments have shown that the initial loss
reared shrimp fry can be maintained at reasonably high occurs within 24 h after liberation. Among the survivors
levels. Several methods have been developed; their effec- which have passed the period of initial mortality, the rate of
tiveness and limitations are discussed below. Generally, loss becomes less severe and fairly constant and is almost
263
comparable to that of natural recruits. It is justifiable, al (1972) and Nozu et al (1975) have carried out field
therefore, to distinguish the fry mortality which occurs surveys to estimate the amount of predation and found that
within 24 h after liberation from that during the remaining as much as 60% of the total initial mortality could be
period of their life at sea, and to concentrate efforts on the attributed to goby predation within a few hours after fry
determination of causes for the initial loss so that a method liberation.
to minimize this loss can be developed.
4.4 Pre-stocking rearing
4.3 Factors effecting initial mortality Predation can, of course, be eliminated by preventing
4.3.1 Physical and chemical factors. Any one factor or contact between predator and prey. A fenced enclosure and
combination of factors which generally limits the geo- man-made lagoon were constructed for this purpose and the
graphic distribution of kuruma shrimp in nature may well shrimp fry reared within it with feeding continuing for a few
be responsible for the initial mortality. Unfavourable tem- days or weeks before liberation into open waters. Predator
perature, salinity, or dissolved oxygen content, or turbu- fish within the enclosure can be killed by treating the water
lence, etc,may kill substantial numbers of the released fry. with piscicides (see section 3.4.1) at low tide.
Experiments and field observations have shown, however, It soon became apparent, however, that the fenced enclo-
that any single factor or combination of factors so far sure was subjected to frequent damage due to wind, wave
encountered on the intertidal flats of the Seto Inland Sea and tidal current. In addition, as the shrimp fry were
2
seldom exceeds the tolerance limit for shrimp fry. In fact, confined at an extremely high density (1 000/m or more)
the serious initial mortality occurs in many cases without and their dispersion was limited, they were killed by ad-
any detectable detrimental changes in the physical and verse conditions such as heavy rain, hot weather, or
chemical environment. typhoons.
Even with considerable labour and maximum possible
4.3.2 Competitors. Competition with other shrimp species care it is difficult to obtain a constant success in pre-
does not seem to play an important role in the variation of stocking rearing with these methods. The survival rates so
the initial mortality, as each species has its particular far reported at theend of such rearing are highly variable,
preference for substrate and elevation relative to the tidal ranging from almost to as much as 70%. Few data are
rise and fall and occupies more or less different sites within available on the survival rates of fry after liberation, but
the general area between tidal marks. mortalities of 55-65% have been reported by Okay-
initial
the main invertebrate predators of juvenile shrimp (Hira- tion not to leave the in nature without
shrimp juveniles
matsu, Tako and Ishida, 1972). These animals are abun- exposing them to predatory attacks of fish. The higher the
dant on the intertidal flats where their habitat coincides survival rates during the rearing the more exaggerated is the
closely with that of kuruma shrimp juveniles in the Seto crowded condition and the greater the invitation to intensi-
Inland Sea. Hermit crabs are hunters of small moving To overcome this inherent difficulty other
fied predation.
animals without apparent selection. They are active during methods without confinements of shrimp fry are required.
the daytime and able to forage as far as 1-5 km/day.
Predation on the released shrimp fry may be disastrous 4.5 Artificial tideland as a stocking site
enough, and may emerge and prey on shrimp fry released stocking zone is again ready to receive another recruitment
there. A comparatively hard bottom with only a few of mm of shrimp fry.
loose sediment on the surface, is much more favourable for
the stocking of shrimp fry. 4.6 Identification of hatchery output
(/v) Maintaining water and its quality. On natural sand Identification of the hatchery output in field surveys is of
flats, exchange of water in an exposed pool is effected by a prime importance to obtain any reliable evidence of the
gradual flow of water from flats at a higher elevation. In effectiveness of the stocking practice, as the commercial
man-made pools at a level of MHWNT, however, sufficient catch is usually composed of many age groups appearing in
supply of water from the upper flats cannot be expected, and succession. Owing to their more or less sedentary mode of
the water and its quality should be maintained by continu- life, the age group of kuruma shrimp juveniles living on the
ous pumping of fresh sea water during every exposure. intertidal areas may be distinguished by analysing size
(v) Current and waves. Shrimp fry may be displaced by a frequency distributions from samples taken at bimonthly
current greater than 0-3 m/sec (likura, 1975). Current intervals until they attain lengths of 6-8 cm, when certain
velocity and wave strength at the stocking place should be fractions of them are captured, tagged and released for
controlled within the above limit through construction of further identification.
breakwaters, which also serve to protect the artificial tide- Age groups or the hatchery recruits represented in the
land from erosion. commercial gillnet catch may be distinguished by examin-
ing the data on (i) the time and amount of stocking and of
:
4.5.3 Carrying capacity. In 1973-74, an artificial tideland wild recruits on the nearby nursery areas; (//') the growth
of commercial scale was constructed at Aio, Yamaguchi rate of shrimp by season and by their own size; (in) the size
(Fig. 5). This tideland is composed of two sectors: a compositions of the commercial catch at frequent intervals,
stocking zone and a transfer zone. The stocking zone is 1 ha and (/v) the extent in time and space of dispersion/move-
(50 x 200 m) at MHWNT
level. It is inclined seaward at a ment of the tagged individuals (see Fig. 6).
slope of 1/200, and is divided into 32 rectangular blocks Identification of age group or hatchery output from
(each 12-5x25-0m)by concrete septa buried in the sub- particular inshore water represented in the offshore trawl
strate leaving the upper cm above sand. The transfer zone
5 catch is by no means easy, as the trawl catch is always
is 1 -4 ha (70 x 200 m) at MSL, and links the stocking zone composed of a number of recruits from many nursery
to the natural sand flats fronting the tideland. The whole grounds and from different inshore waters. Only the mark-
area is covered at low tide by less than 5 cm of water recapture method gave a rough estimate.
supplied by pumping during every exposure. Duration of
one exposure varies with tides: it is 15-16 h a day during 4.7 Practical value of stocking
spring tides, and 1 8-20 h a day during neap tides (Hagino, 4.7. 1 Recovery rate. Although it is comparatively easy to
TABLE II
VARIATION IN THE SURVIVAL OF HATCHERY-REARED KURUMA SHRIMP FRY IN RELATION TO THE ELEVATION OF THE PLACE
OF RELEASE ON AN EXPERIMENTAL TIDELAND (KURATA ET AL, 1973 AND KURATA, 1974)
1
MHWNT Mean High Water Level of Neap Tide. MSL Mean Sea Level
265
-lOO
PUMP.
TIDAL LEVELS
(TP,CM)
50 m
A
J ~~
'
~^jm CflNAL^ MHW
266
15 There is a general agreement among' certain segments of
CATCH
LIBERATION the public as well as among the shrimp fishermen in Japan
is that the liberation of sedentary fry of kuruma shrimp is not
only capable of increasing substantially the local shrimp
production but also of supporting a considerable fishery, if
10 adequate quantities of fry are liberated according to an
organized plan. It is, therefore, not the effectiveness of the
technique itself but improvement in the economic feasibil-
ity and cost-benefit ratio that the stocking practice of
kuruma shrimp fry has to face.
1964
1905
1966
1907
dii
1968
1909
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
The artificial tideland appears so far to be the most pro-
mising as a site for release of hatchery-reared kuruma shrimp
fry. The technical problems which need further study
are: (/) how to promote development of food organisms on
Fig 7. Fry liberation and catch data from Ohmi Bay (from Hiyama
and Hara, 1975) the tideland so that the growth of the released fry can be
accelerated; (//) how to prevent accumulation and subse-
4.7.2 Cost-benefit analysis. Evaluation of the stocking quent decomposition of large sea-weeds, such as Ulva*
on a cost-benefit basis appears to be premature. which cause serious deterioration of the sand bed, and (//'/)
practice
to displace the larger sedentary juveniles, which are able
However, certain aspects of stocking may be analysed from
to live in deeper water, so that the stocking zone becomes
this pointof view. Shrimp fry are considered as effective
available again for the next batch of hatchery output.
when they survive beyond the period of the initial mortality.
The cost of effective fry thus varies greatly with survival
Anew problem now arising concerns the organizations
rates at liberation.
which are farming shrimp. It is a thought-provoking ques-
tion whether or not those which have released shrimp fry at
Hasegawa et al
(1973) calculated for the hatchery out-
their own expense will be granted an exclusive privilege to
put at Saijo, in 1971 (see Table III) that the net profit
catch the resultant resources and, if granted, to what extent.
produced per individual (in this case Yen 1 -9 each) is about
Yen 5 when only the recovery by gillnetters is considered.
On the other hand, it was estimated to be about Yen 20
5 References
when the recovery by offshore trawlers was also taken into
account. DESHIMARU, O. & SHIGUENO, K. Introduction to the artificial diet for
1972 prawn Penaeus japomcus. Aquaculture, 1: 115-33
H AGING, S. Tide analysis and duration of exposure. Annu Rep
4.8 Problems and future outlook 1975 Shallow Sea Farming Proj., Bingo Nada, 1974 (5). 39-43 (in
The recent enthusiasm for stocking offish and shellfish fry Japanese)
HASEGAWA, A. et al. Practical value of kuruma shrimp fry liberated at
in Japan may be regarded in principle as a revival of 1973 Saijo Annu. Rep. Shallow Sea Farming Proj., Bingo Nada, 1972
8-33
hatchery liberation once common in many parts of the (2) (in Japanese)
:
TABLF III
RrCOV^RY Ol KURUMA SHRIMP. (DATA FROM GILLNETTbRS AND TRAWLERS ARF COMBINl D. TlIEIR SHARl DIM RS BY LOCALITY AND
I
BY whAiHfR CONDITIONS)
267
HUDINAGA, M. Reproduction, development and rearing of Penaeus 1973 experimental tideland. Annu. Rep. Shallow Sea Farming Proj.,
1942 japonicus Bate. Jap. J. Zool.. 10 (2) 305-93
Binap Nada, 1972 (3): 97-104 (in Japanese)
:
IIKURA, T. Shrimp behaviour as affected by the dynamic physical MIYAZAKI PREFECTURE. Annual report of the Scto Inland Sea pilot farm
1975 environmental factors. Annu. Rep. Shallow Sea Farming Prof., 1971 project for 1970 (Mimeograph): 29 p.
Bingo Nada, 1974 (5): 32-7 (in Japanese) NAKAMURA, M. &
UEKITA, M. Structure and function of the artificial
ISHIOKA, K. &GUEMA, G. Effects of the fry liberation on the commercial 1975 tideland a measure of controlling environment for the kuruma
1975 shrimp catch in the offshore grounds of Suho Nada. Annu. Rep. shrimp fry stocking. Annu. Rep. Shallow Sea Farming Proj.,
Shallow Sea Farming Prof.. Bingo Nada, 1974 (5): 36-45 (in Bingo Nada, 1974 (5): 9-17 (in Japanese)
Japanese) Nozu, J. et al. Mortality of kuruma shrimp fry liberated on the Banjo
ISHIOKA, K., GUEMA, G. &HASEGAWA, A. Migration of kuruma 1975 River mouth flats and predation by gobies. Annu. Rep. Shallow
1974 shrimp in the Suho Nada, Seto Inland Sea. Annu. Rep. Shallow Sea Farming Proj., Bingo Nada, 1974 (5): 186-208 (in Japanese)
Sea Farming Proj., Bingo Nada, 1973 (4): 36-45 (in Japanese) OKAYAMA PREFECTURt. Annual report of the Seto Inland Sea pilot
KURATA, H. Certain pnnciples pertaining to the pcnaeid shrimp seed- 1970 farm
project
for j969, 24 p. (in Japanese, mimeo)
1972 ling and seeding for the farming in the sea. Bull. Nansei Reg. SHIOUENO, K. Shrimp culture in Japan. Tokyo, Association for Inter-
Fish. Res. Lab., 5: 33-75 (in Japanese) 1975 national Technical Promotion, 1 53 p.
KURATA, H. Larvae and early postlarvac of a shrimp, Metapenaeus TASHIBY, H., Nozu, J. &
ITABASHI, T. Effects of fry liberation on the
1974 burkenroadi, reared in the laboratory. Bull. Nansei Reg. Fish. commercial shrimp catch in Saeki Bay. Annu Rep. Shallow
Res.Lab.,l:69-S4 Sea Farming Proj., Bingo Nada, 1974 (5): 217-32 (in Japanese)
KURATA, H. et al. Studies on the releasing method of hatchery-reared UMEZAWA, S. et al. Mortality of kuruma shrimp fry liberated on the
1972 fry of kuruma shrimp. Annu. Rep. Shallow Sea Farming Proj., 1975 artificial tideland. Annu. Rep. Shallow Sea Farming Proj.,
Bingo Nada, 1971(2): 16-25 (in Japanese) Bingo Nada, 1974 (5): 21-9 (in Japanese)
KURATA, H. Mortality of the kuruma shrimp fry liberated on the
TIEMPO INSUMIDO EN EL DESARROLLO LARVAL Y EN EL CRECIMIENTO DE POSTLARVAS Y JUVENILES DE LAS DOS ESPECIES DE PENEIDOS CULTIVADOS
Nota: Las tempertturas may ores corresponden al menor numero de dias del desarrollo larval. Los resuitados de crecimiento de los juveniles corresponden a
observaciones efectuadas con lotes de aproximadamente 25 individuos
269
cubiertas y al aire libre, los trabajos en mayor escala, con el a lograr la procreation en cautividad de ambas especies de
fin de incrementar la produccion de ambas especies (Bos peneidos, provenientes de cultivos experimentales. Otras
chi, 1974). investigaciones que continuan son las orientadas a perfec-
En la crianza en estanques de cultivos, con temperatura cionar el alimento artificial, para lograr una dieta adecuada
superior a la del medio natural y con una alimentation a bajo costo.
adecuada, es posible lograr un significativo aumento de la
tasa de crecimiento en un plazo mas breve y con una 5 Referencias
biomasa de animales mas alta por superficie. BOSCHI, E. E. Cultivo de camarones comercialcs (peneidos). Inf. Com.
El proyecto recomienda la ubicacion de la futura Esta- 1974 Invest. Cient., (6) 20 p.
:
penaeid shrimp required by shrimp culturists are reviewed. Four general de los proyectos de investigation en laboratono figuran: experimentos
areas of research in penaeid biology and culture are described: matura para mejorar el metodo dc fertilizacion in vitro de camarones cautivos;
tion and spawning; nutrition and feeds; disease diagnosis and control; nuevos ensayos con raciones alimenticias para evaluar algunos compo-
and intensive culture in controlled environments. Significant pubhca nentes, como los acidos grasos; preparacion de medio para contrplar las
tions and progress resulting from this research are noted and the enfermedades de camarones y prevemrlas; y aphcacion a las tecnicas del
information in these publications is summarized. Present activities and cultivo de camarones de sistemas de control del medio ambiente desa
planned areas of emphasis in the Laboratory's research projects include: rrollados por el Laboratorio de Galveston.
experimentation to refine the method of in vitro fertilization of captive
shrimp, further tests with diets to evaluate components, such as fatty
acids, determining means of controlling and preventing shrimp diseases,
and applying environment control systems developed at Galveston 1 Introduction
Laboratory to shrimp culture techniques. Research on the biology and culture of penaeid shrimp has
Recherche sur la culture des crevettes peneides aii Laboratoire du been conducted at the Galveston Laboratory of the Na-
National Marine Fisheries Service * Galveston tional Marine Fisheries Service Gulf Coastal Fisheries
Resume Center for a number of years. That portion of the activity
On examine les recentes activites de recherche menees au Laboratoire du
National Marine Fisheries Service du Gulf Coastal Fisheries Center a oriented toward the culture of penaeid shrimp has been
Galveston, USA, en vue d'claborer les informations biologiques de base reviewed by Lindner and Cook (1971), Neal (1973), Neal
sur la crevette peneide necessaires aux eleveurs de crevettes. Quatre
domaines generaux de recherche sur la biologic et la culture des peneides (1974) and Neal (1975). Recent research activities and
sont deer its: maturation et frai; nutrition et aliments; diagnostic et lutte progress at the laboratory will be discussed including the
centre les maladies; culture intensive en milieu controle. Les publica- solution of basic problems in four general areas of penaeid
tions importantes et les progres decoulant de ces recherches sont indi
quees, et les renseignements figurant dans ces publications sont resumes. shrimp biology and culture.
Les activites presentes et les orientations futures des travaux de re-
cherche du laboratoire sont les suivantes: experimentation pour perfec-
tionner la methode de fertilisation in vitro des crevettes captives; pour-
suite des essais sur I'alimentation pour en evaluer les elements tels que les 2 Maturation and spawning
acides gras, determination des moyens de prevenir les maladies des Earlier research concerning inducement of penaeid matura-
crevettes et de lutter contre elles. et d'appliquer aux techniques de culture
tion and spawning in captivity was directed along two lines:
des crevettes les systemes de controle de 1'environnement mis au point au
Laboratoire de Galveston. experimental manipulation of environmental conditions
and the formulation of suitable diets for maturing penaeids.
ig s sobre cultivo de camarones peneidos en el Laboratorio
de Gaivettod del Servicio Nacional de Pesca Mantima Neither of these approaches resulted in a definitive solution.
Extracto Partial ovarian development in some experimental animals
En estc trabajo se examinan las investigaciones realizadas recientemente
en el Laboratorio de Galveston (Centre para las Pesquerias Costeras del
led to the assumption that the factors: light intensity, light
270
the need for a simple technique for maturing females in standard diet was established for use in experimental stud-
captivity, a new approach to the problem was initiated. This ies.This diet (5-5/7OB) will produce good growth of
approach consisted of a thorough description of the normal Penaeus aztecus and P. setjferus under experimental condi-
reproductive processes at the light and electron microscopy tions and designed to permit substitution of individual
is
levels, and experimental manipulation of the endocrine ingredients without gross modification of its nutritional
system of shrimp evaluated by comparison with the normal characteristics (Zein-Eldin and Meyers, 1973). This diet
situation. has been used successfully in a number of high-density
Much of the descriptive work on normal penaeid repro- rearing experiments in closed raceway systems (Mock,
ductive development has been done in co-operation with Ross and Salser, 1975).
scientists from the University of Houston. The male repro- Experimentation over several years has led to the conclu-
ductive system has been described by Lu and C lark (1975). sion that the diets used at the Galveston Laboratory gener-
Ovarian development is discussed by Duronslet et al ally have a suitable amino-acid balance and that the 35-
(1975), and the cortical reaction is described by Clark, 40% protein level is satisfactory within the constraints of
Lynn and Persyn (1975) and by Clark, Persyn and Yudin the diet series tested (Fenucci and Zein-Eldin, 1978, and
(1974). Zein-Eldin and Corliss, 1978). At this point other dietary
This understanding of the normal reproductive process factors seem to limit shrimp growth. Future experimenta-
at the cellular and tine structural levels provides a basis for tion with these diets is planned, therefore, to evaluate other
the comparison of normal and experimental animals. Using dietary components, such as fatty acids.
experimental manipulation of the endocrine sys-
this tool,
tems has been initiated in conjunction with a thorough
description of the effects of each technique tested. 4 Disease diagnosis and control
The effects of the manipulation techniques, such as The objective of the shrimp disease research programme of
eyestalk ablation, apparently vary depending upon both the the National Marine Fisheries Service in Galveston is to
species and the environmental conditions. Our understand- conduct studies necessary to identify, treat and prevent
is incomplete. The results of work
ing of these interactions diseases in penaeids under culture conditions. The research
in Galveston with brown shrimp, Penaeus aztecus, have activities have fallen into three broad categories: (/) de-
been described by Duronslet et al ( 1 9 75 ). Ovarian develop- scription of normal tissues and normal responses to injury
ment can be induced routinely by eyestalk ablation, and or foreign materials; (//) description of shrimp pathogens
spawning has been induced in a few ablated shrimp; spawn- and studies of their effects on shrimp; and (Hi) studies of
ing of these shrimp is still, however, apparently a major methods of preventing and treating diseases.
problem. Diener, Yudin and Clark (1975) have identified The normal tissues of several organs of shrimp as well as
the ecdysial gland of the blue crab, Callinectes sapidus. normal post-mortem changes are described by Lightner
Transplants of this gland and its extracts have pronounced (1974). Wound repair processes of shrimp and crayfish
effects on shrimp moulting, but the effect on gonadal (Procambarus) are discussed by Fontaine (1971), Fon-
development is not clear. The effects of injections of various taine and Dyjak (1973), Fontaine and Lightner (1973),
insect and mammalian hormones are also poorly under- and Fontaine (1975). The responses of penaeids to the
stood even though experimentation with these hormones is introduction of foreign material is documented by Fontaine
under way. and Lightner (1974), Fontaine et al (1975), Sparks and
A tool which will have many applications in breeding Fontaine (1973), and by Fontaine and Lightner (1975).
studies, as well as in the spawning of captive shrimp on Specific diseases which have been described are: a gas-
demand, is in vitro fertilization. A method for in vitro bubble disease in Peneaus aztecus (Lightner, Salser and
fertilization is described by Clark et al ( 1973) and experi- Wheeler, 1974); a mycosis of the American lobster, Homa-
ments to refine the method are in progress. rus americanus (Lightner and Fontaine, 1975); and a
fungal disease of Penaeus setiferus larvae (Lightner and
Fontaine, 1973). In addition, a discussion of gill diseases in
3 Nutrition and feeds penaeids has been prepared by Lightner, Fontaine and
The development of diets for penaeid shrimp has followed Hanks (1975), and a review of published shrimp disease
two separate paths: (/') the formulation of diets for rearing information on US species has been prepared by Lightner
shrimp in semi-natural ponds where natural food is avail- (1975).
able; and (//) the formulation of diets for use in tanks where Experimentation on means of preventing and controlling
little or no natural food is available. The objective of shrimp diseases has just begun. Diseases of captive shrimp
research on nutrition and feeds at the Galveston Laboratory frequently occur in association with a known environmen-
is to
develop suitable diets for use in tanks where water is talcondition that causes stress. The experience at Galves-
being circulated. Research workers established that a ton Laboratory has been that in such situations the removal
worm-shaped extruded pellet is an acceptable form for of the stress-inducing factor usually stops the spread of the
juvenile and adult penaeid shrimp (Meyers and Zein-Eldin, disease. As a preliminary step to the treatment of diseases
1972) and that a drum-dried flake is a suitable form for with antibiotics, the effects of oral doses of two antibiotics,
postlarval penaeids (Meyers and Brand, 1975; Mock, Neal oxytetracycline and furozolidone, on normal shrimp were
and Salser, 1973). The most satisfactory binder found for studied (Corliss, Lightner and Zein-Eldin, 19 75; Corliss
experimental diets used in nutritional studies is an alginate and Zein-Eldin, 1975).
(Meyers and Zein-Eldin, 1972). In addition, the attractant
chosen for experimental research was fish solubles (Zein-
Eldin and Meyers, 1973). 5 Intensive culture in controlled environments
As the result of a long series of diet comparisons, a The goals of this research have been to develop dependable
271
methods for rearing shrimp at high densities, under con- less intensive systems for larger shrimp and other marine
trolled conditions, on a year-round basis. As winter temper- organisms. The recycling of aquacultural wastes is a topic
atures in Texas ponds are lethal to penaeid shrimp, consid- deserving considerable attention and research.
erable research on temperature control has been conducted
to find economical means of providing optimum tempera-
tures for continuous growth. This temperature control o References
work has led to recycling of water and consequently to the
CLARK, W. H. JR., LYNN, J. W. &
PERSYN, H. The cortical reaction in
development of systems for water treatment and re-use. 1 975 the egg of the penaeid shrimp. Invertebrate reproduction. Paper
The first phase of this research, that of improving hatch- presented to the International Symposium on Reproductive
Physiology of Invertebrates, Calicut University, 10-12 Sep-
ery techniques, had been completed. The methods devel- tember 1975 (Abstract)
oped permit the routine production of uniformly healthy, CLARK, W. H. JR., PERSYN, H. & A
YUDIN, A. I. microscopic analysis of
1974 the cortical specializations and their activation in the egg of the
vigorous postlarvae in about 10 days from hatching with
prawn, Penaeus spp. Am. Zopl., 14 (4) 25 (Abstract)
survival rates exceeding 80% from hatching. These meth-
:
closed systems for rearing postlarval and juvenile penaeids January 1975 (MS)
CORLISS, J. & ZEIN-ELDIN, Z P. The effect of oxytetracycline and furo-
to an intermediate size (30-60 mm) for subsequent re- 1975 zolidonc on growth, survival and disease in two species of
penaeids. Paper presented at the First Workshop on Pathology
stocking in larger pond or raceway systems. Research on and Toxicology of Penaeids, Galveston, Texas, 8-10 April
these techniques is also nearing completion. Methods de- 1975 (MS)
scribed by Mock, Neal and Salser (1973) and by Mock, DIENER, R. A., YUDIN, A. I. & CLARK, W. H. JR. The ecdysial gland of
1975 the blue crab, Callinectes sapidus Rathbun. Am. Zool, 15(3):
Ross and Salser (1975) have proved to be efficient and 786 (Abstract)
dependable for rearing small shrimp at high densities with DURONSLET, M. J. et al. Light and fine structural studies of natural and
1975 artificially induced egg growth of penaeid shrimp. Proc Annu.
good survival. During these experiments, postlarvae have
2 2 Meeting World Maricult. Soc., 6: 105-11
been reared at densities of 2 300/m (22 mm), 12 500/m &ZEIN-ELDIN, Z. P. Evaluation of squid mantle meal as
FENUCCI, J L.
2
(12mm) and 26 100/m (16mm) with survival rates of 1979 a protein source in penaeid nutntion. In Advances in aqua-
90-95%. Juveniles have been reared at densities of 100/m 2 aquaculture This volume, pp 601 5
2 FONTAINE, C. T. Exoskeletal intrusions: a wound repan process in
(88 mm) to 1 600/m (3 1 mm) with survival rates ranging 1971 penaeid shrimp. J. Invert. Pathol., 18 (2) 301-3
from 80 to 97%. FONTAINE, C. T. Observations on the wound repair processes in the
1975 freshwater crayfish, Procambarus sp. J. Invert. Pathol., 25 (3)
During the second as well as the third phase in the 391-3
production of marketable-size shrimp in closed raceway FONTAINE, C. T. &
DYJAK, R. C. The development of scar tissue in the
1973 brown shrimp, Penaeus aztecus, after wounding with a Petersen
systems, the limiting factor has been the accumulation of
disk tag. J. Invert. Pathol., 22 (3): 476-7
wastes in the systems. In efforts to increase production per &
FONTAINE, C. T. LIGHTNER, D. V. Observations on the process of
unit area in these systems a variety of water treatment 1973 wound repair in penaeid J invert. Pathol 22 (1): 23 33
shrimp. ,
methods has been tested. Treatment techniques tested were FONTAINE, C. T. &
LIGHTNER, D. V. Observations on the phagocytosis
1974 and elimination of carmine particles injected into the abdominal
those which permitted easy recovery of solid wastes or musculature of the white shrimp, Penaeus setiferus. J. Invert.
biological growths, required relatively small capital outlay Pathol., 24(2): 141-8
and low operating expenses, and could bp automated read- FONTAINE, C. T &LIGHTNER, D. V. Cellular response to injury in
1975 penaeid shrimp. Mar. Fish. Rev., 37 (5-6): 4-10
ily. Techniques which have been or are being tested are FONTAINE, C. T. et al. Histopathological response to turpentine in the
discussed by Mock, Neal and Salser (1973), Mock, Ross 1 975 white shrimp, Penaeus setiferus. J. Invert. Pathol. 25 ( 3) 32 -30
,
1
walls constructed with fibreglass panels lined with styro- Soc. 6: 347-65
foam and supported by aluminium braces has been con- LIGHTNER, D. V., SALSER, B. R. & WHEELER, R. S. Gas-bubble disease
1974 in the brown shrimp (Penaeus aztecus). Aquaculture, 4: 81-4
structed. The system is lined with polyethylene and covered LINDNER, M. J. & COOK, H. L. Progress in shrimp mariculturc in the
with a low-profile plastic cover. A floating centre wall is 1971 United States. FAO Fish. Rep., (71) vol. 2 157-^2 :
272
MOCK, C. R. & NEAL, R. A. Penaeid shrimp hatchery systems. Paper NEAL, R. A. Shrimp culture in the United States. First Australian
1974 (CARPAS/6/74/SE29) presented to the FAO/CARPAS Sym- 1975 National Prawn Seminar, Maroochydore, Queensland, Aus-
posium on Aquaculture in Latin America, Montevideo, tralia, 22-27 November 1973, pp. 140-143
Uruguay 1974, 9 p. NEAL, R. A. &
MOCK, C. R. A model closed system for aquaculture
MOCK, C R. & MEAL,
R. A. Engineering aspects of a closed system for 1979 incorporating the recycling of wastes. In Advances in aqua-
1975 aquaculture. Paper presented at the Tenth European Sym- culture. This volume, pp 521-3
posium on Marine Biology, Ostend, Belgium, 17-23 September SALSBR, B. R. &
MOCK, C. R. Equipment used for the culture of larval
1975. 1974 penaeid shrimp at the National Marine Fisheries Service
MOCK, C. R., NEAL, R. A. &
SALSER, B. R. A
closed system raceway Galveston Laboratory. In Proceedings V Congreso Nacional de
1973 for the culture of shrimp. Proc. Annu. Workshop World Maricult Oceanografia, Guaymas, Mexico, 22-25 October 1974
Soc ,4-247-59 SPARKS, A. K. &
FONTAINE, C. T. Host response in the white shrimp,
MOCK, C. R., Ross, L. A. &
SALSER, B. R. Design and evaluation of 1973 Penaeus setiferus, to infection by the larval trypanorhynchid
1975 waste removal systems for shrimp culture in closed raceways. cestode, Prochristianella penaeL J. Invert. Pathol. 22 (2): 213-9
Paper presented at the Sixth Annual Meeting of the World ZEIN-ELDIN, Z. P. &
CORLISS, J. Effect of protein levels and sources on
Mariculture Society, Seattle, Washington, January 1975 1979 growth of Penaeus aztecus. In Advances in aquaculture. This
NEAL, R. A. Progress toward farming shrimp. Mar. Fish. Rev. 35 (3-4): volume, pp 592-6
1973 67-70 ZEIN-ELDIN, Z. P. & MEYERS, S P. General consideration of problems
NFAL, R. A. Raceway systems for the culture of shrimp. Fish Farming 1973 in shrimp nutrition. Proc. Annu. Workshop World Maricult.
1974 Int. 3: 6-11 Soc., 4: 299-317
by another deposition of spawn with 159 000 eggs in two consecutive Les animaux mis en experience sont issus de post-larves
nights. The ecological conditions yielding the best results were those of a
tropical 'climate': temperature at 24C and daily illumination lasting for importees du Japon a la fin du mois de mai. Us appartien-
14 h 45 min. nent a deux classes, les uns ages de 23 mois, les autres de 1 1
controlada del camaron Penaeus japonicus mois, au debut de Texperience le ler avril 1975 (dates de
Reproduccidn
Extracto naissance ramenees au debut du mois de mai de chaque
El control ecologico de los fenomenos de reproduction del camaron
annee). La croissance des animaux avant la mise en experi-
Penaeus japonicus criado en cautividad desde las primeras fases larvales
no se ha conseguido aim, aunque se ban realizado algunas observaciones ence dans des bassins a Texterieur, et une
s'est effectuee
parciales sobre el desove en cautividad. En una serie de experimentos con partie des individus ages a etemaintenue pendant 10 mois a
control riguroso de la temperatura y del fotopenodo se ha logrado hacer une temperature de 17 a 18C. Le ler avril 1975, 149
llegar en tres meses a la madurez total a unas 60 hembras de uno y dos
anos (abril-junio). Durante los cuatro meses siguientes (10 10 crevettes ont ete reparties dans les trois bacs d'experience
Julio-
noviembre) se recogieron 87 puestas con un total de 1 322 800 larvas. selon le schema suivant:
Al mismo tiempo, la tccnica de desove inducido aplicada a hembras
aisladas ha permitido obtener una primera puesta de 455 000 huevos,
con un indice de eclosion superior al 98%, y posteriormente otra puesta Sac 1 Bac 2 Bac 3
de 159 000 huevos. en dos noches consecutivas. Las condiciones
ecologicas que han dado mejores resultados son las correspondientes a
un 'clima' tropical: temperatura de 24C y 14 horas 45 minutos de luz al
dia.
1 Introduction Total 49 49 51
pour etudes histologiques. La composition des populations au depart. Les variations de temperature et de photoperiode
au 10 novembre est la suivante: realisees dans les trois bacs sont reportees sur la Fig. 1. On
a cherche a creer un bac chaud a duree d'eclairement longue
(bac 1, 26C et 16 h d'eclairement quotidien au 21 juin),
un bac froid a duree d'eclairement courte (bac 3, 20C et
13|h d'eclairement quotidien au 21 juin), enfin un bac
moyen (bac 2, 24 C et 14 h d'eclairement quotidien au 2 1
juin).En ce qui concerne la temperature, on note sur la Fig.
un certain nombre de defaillances, heureusement de faible
1
aires. Les autres facteurs physico-chimiques (salinite, taux survenue au cours de la nuit du 9 au 10 juillet. Dans les
d'Qz dissous, pH, sels nutritifs, etc.) n'ont pas ete controles, deux autres bacs, la premiere ponte a eu lieu quelques jours
mais se sont reveles tres stables au cours des experiences: plus tard. Les dispositifs de collecte ont ete mis en place des
pH de 8,1 a 8,3, taux d'Q dissous tres voisin de la Pobservation de la premiere ponte. Dans le cadre de ces
4
saturation. experiences, le terme ponte', qui recouvre peut-etre
Des Pobservation des premieres pontes dans les bacs, 1 'emission simultanee d'oeufs de plusieurs femelles, corre-
{'evacuation a ete modifiee pour une recuperation aisee des spond simplement a Pensemble des oeufs ou des stades
larves: un trop-plein superficiel se deverse dans un collec- larvaires qui, d'apres les vitesses de developpement, ont ete
teur adapte d'un incubateur pour oeufs de poissons equipe emis durant un intervalle de temps de plusieurs heures. En
d'une poche a maille de 180 microns (Girin, 1976). tout etat de cause, le nombre de pontes indique constitue un
274
28
12
12 19 26 2 9 16 23 30 7 14 21 28 4 II 18 25 I 8 15 22 29 6 13 20 27 3
JUIN JUIL. AOUT SEPT OCT NOV
TEMPS (en stmainw)
Fig 1. Variation de la duree d'eclairement journalier et de la temperature dans les trois bacs
total minimal. La collecte d\me ponte determinee peut 3.3 Pontes provoquees
s'etaler sur plusieurs jours, comme le montrent les examples Selon la technique utilisee dans les ecloseries commerciales
ci-dessous:
japonaises pour obtenir la ponte des femelles sauvages,
(/) Ponte No. 14 du bac 2 le 6 aout 1975. 6 aout a deux pontes supplementaires ont ete obtenues a la mi-
09.00 h 3 000 oeufs; 6 aout a 16.00 h neant; 7 aout a septembre en isolant des femelles mures de la classe 1973.
09.00 h 14 000 nauplii III; 7 aout a 1 6.00 h 850 nau- La premiere ponte provient d'une femelle du bac 2 pesant
plii IV; 8 aout a 09.00 h 2500 nauplii V; 8 aout a 92 g. Placee dans un bac de 8001 porte a 29C et a
1 6.00 h 150 nauplii VI; 9 aout a 09.00 h 350 zoes I, pondu au cours de la premiere
1'obscurite, cette femelle a
soit un total de 20 850. nuit suivant 455 000 oeufs dont le taux
risolement
(//) Ponte No. 19 du bac 2 le 4 septembre 1975. 4 d'eclosion a ete superieur a 98%. Une vingtaine de jours
septembre a 09.00 h 5500 oeufs; 5 septembre a plus tard, une femelle de 90 g provenant du bac 1 a ete
09.00 h 40000 nauplii III; 6 septembre a 09.00 h isolee dans les memes conditions. Elle a fourni au cours des
7 000 nauplii V; 7 septembre a 09.00 h 200 zoes I, soit troisieme et quatrieme nuits suivant I'isolement (nuits du
un total de 52 700. 1 2 au 1 3 et du 1 3 au 14
octobre) 80 000 puis 79 000 oeufs,
Apres recuperation des larves dans le collecteur et soit un total de 159 000 oeufs.
ajustement de prelevement a un volume de Tordre de 200 a La meme methode appliquee a quelques femelles de la
500ml, le comptage a ete effectue sur un echantillon classe 1974 n'a pas permis d'obtenir de pontes.
preleve a la pipette apres agitation (l/100eme a l/50eme
du volume total).
Au cours de la periode du 10 juillet au 3 novembre (pres 4 Conclusion
de quatre mois), 4 1 pontes ont ete observees dans le bac 2, La ponte dans les conditions naturelles est inconnue chez
28 dans le bac 1, et 18 dans le bac 3 (9 de ces pontes sont Penaeusjaponicus. Dans nos conditions d'elevage, la ponte
posterieures a la remontee de la photoperiode et de la est nettement sequentielle: dans le bac 2, 22 femelles
temperature dans ce bac). Les pontes se poursuivaient (chifTre maximal puisque correspondant a la date du 10
encore 10 novembre. Le nombre moyen d'oeufs ou de
le juillet)ont fourni 42 pontes (y compris la ponte provoquee
larves par ponte pour chaque bac a ete de 17 925 pour le du 1 9 septembre), et si Ton en juge par 1'ctat des femelles, ce
bac 1 1 8 1 49 pour le bac 2, et 4 800 pour le bac 3 (Tableau
, chiffre est loin d'etre definitif. En ce qui concerne le nombre
I). Les oeufs obtenus ont toujours eclos a 100%, et les d'oeufs par ponte, les conditions ecologiques imposees aux
pontes mises en elevage pour la constitution de futurs lots bacs 1 et 2 sont nettement superieures a eel les du bac 3; le
de geniteurs se sont egalement bien developpees. Ainsi, la bac 2 montre d'autre part une certaine precocite dans le
premiere ponte du 10 juillet a fourni, dans des conditions pontes obtenues sont
total d'oeufs obtenus. Enfin, toutes les
d'improvisation assez eloignees des conditions optimales excellentes, alors que la technique japonaise pratiquee sur
d'elevage larvaire, plus de 1 000 post larves avec un taux de des femelles sauvages donne des taux d'eclosion de 40 a
survie de 18%; ces animaux pesaient entre 5,5 et 7,5 g de 60% seuiement d 'apres Shigueno (1975), pourcentage
poids individuel 120 jours apres Peclosion. biologiquement anormal.
275
TABLEAU I
N OMBRE D'CEUFS ou DE LARVES RECUEILL1S PAR PONTE POUR CHAQUE BAG
Le nombre total de larves obtcnues (1936 800 pour 60 encore 10 novembre, en particulier dans les bacs 1 et 2.
le
femelles, soit 32 280 larves par femelle) est tres faible par Tout se passe comme si le maintien en conditions clima-
rapport aux donnees provenant de pontes provoquees tiques tropicales au-dela de la saison d'ete conduisait a
(100 000 larves viables environ). Mais dans ce dernier cas, 1'acquisition d'un comportement sexuel nouveau, avec re-
il s'agit de femelles de deux ans, le poids de 90 g etant production toute Tannee sans pic marque. L'obtention de
considere comme une limite inferieure (Shigueno, 1975). futurs reproducteurs nes en captivite a differentes periodes
L 'aspect le plus important concerne la possibilite de 1'ete 1975 et la poursuite de Inexperience actuellement en
d'intervenir sur la periode de ponte. Les animaux utilises cours doivent permettre de mieux comprendre 1'importance
pour cette experience se seraient reproduits a un an dans les relative de Fhorloge interne et des facteurs ecologiques
conditions naturelles japonaises, soit au mois de mai, et au externes sur la reproduction de P. japonicus.
plus tard en juin-juillet Or, les pontes se poursuivaient S'ils sont confirmes, ces resultats paraissent susceptibles
276
d'interessantes applications aux elevages expcrimentaux 1975 Penaew> merguiensis dc Man, P. japomcw* Bate, P. aztecus Ives
and Metapenaeus ensis (de Haan). Proc. Annu. Workshop World
actuellement poursuivis: en effet, et plus peut-etre que dans
Maricult.Soc.,5
d'autres zones, la reussite des elevages de P.japonicus en GIRIN, M. La ration alimentaire dans 1'elevage larvaire du bar (Dicen-
France passe par la disponibilite de post larves des le debut 1976 trarchus labrax (L.)) Proc. Eur. Symp. Mar. Biol., 10(1): 171-88
L/HERROUX, M. Extension de la technique des bassms & double fond
du rechauffement des eaux (avril-mai selon les regions).
1974 aux grandes surfaces d'elevage. Pttbl. CNEXO (Ser Actes
Colloq ), 1 . 79-86
SHIGUENO, K. Shnmp culture in Japan. Tokyo, Association for
1975 international technical promotion, 153 p.
5 References
AQUACOP. Maturation and spawning in captivity of penaeid prawns
million nauplii (June-July 1974 and September-October 1974). The 2 Materiel et methodes
post-larvae from this cycle were fattened during the summer of 1974 up
to a weight of 1 2 g on 30 September 1 974. It has been possible to follow
Le 10 juin 1973, 125 000 post-larves de P.japonicus en
the sexual cycle of the females thanks to the in vivo analysis of the provenance du Japon ont ete mises en elevage a Maguelone
broodstock, evolution of the ratio of gonad size to body size, the macro-
(Herault) sur les bords de la Mediterranee. Le bassin
and microscopic changes in the gonads, the variations of the electro
phoregrams of the haemolymph and finally to the induced and natural d'elevage de 5 000 m
de surface et de 1,30 m de profon-
2
spawning of the animals. deur est place en bordure de mer et alimente par celle-ci.
Nourries a Taide de Carcinus mediterraneensis broyes, les
Estudios sobre la maduracion y desove de Penaeus japonicus en
cautividad penaeides avaient un poids moyen de 1 3 g quatre mois et
Extracto demi plus tard.
La ausencia de una poblacion natural de progenitores y la necesidad de
Le 15 decembre 1973, 320 animaux ont ete mis en
pbtener la reproduccion precoz de formas postlarvales nos movio a
intentar primero conseguir y luego controlar la reproduccion de Penaeus experimentation dans 4 bassins circulates, proteges des
japonicus. Para ello se constituyeron en diciembre de 1973 cuatro
intemperies par une serre plastique. Les caracteristiques des
grupos de 80 progenitores (60 hem bras y 20 machos) de 15 g de peso
medio, provenientes de nuestro criadero de formas postlarvales de P.
bassins sont les suivantes: diametre 5m; hauteur
japonicus importadas del Japon en mayo de 1973. Se sometio a esos 1,20 m; capacite m
22 3 La Fig. 1 en montre la structure.
.
277
d'aquarium. La photoregulation est assuree d'une part par
la lumiere naturelle, d'autrc part par un groupe de 4 tubes
au neon COOLWHITE 65 W
par bac, programme par une
horloge a contact et eclairant avec une intensite de 4 000
lux la surface du bassin.
Fig 1. Structure des bacs de maturation Fig 2. Analyse par contre-jour d'un geniteur pe/iaeide femelle au
1 1.03. Les gonades, R G S 8, apparaissent ncttement par
contre-jour en une bande sombre
Durant toute 1'experience, ralimentation a etc constitute
d'un melange de C. mediterraneensis broyes et de moules
(Hi) Etude microscopique des gonades par MM. Bour-
Mytilus galloprovincialis ouvertes. Cette nourriture etait
guet et Exbrayat, laboratoire du professeur Vernet, Faculte
distribute a satiete chaque jour a 1 7 h. Le lendemain a 8 h,
des Sciences de Montpellier.
les reliefs etaient preleves et le taux de nutrition evalue. Le
(iv) Etude de 1'evolution des electrophoregrammes de
taux de ration humide est ici le quotient du poids humide de
1'hemolymphe des geniteurs realisee par M. Acier, labora-
nourriture ingeree par le poids total des animaux echantil- toire du professeur Trille, Faculte des Sciences de Montpel-
lons chaque semaine. lier. Us ont ete pratiques a partir de ITiemolymphe prelevee
Le schema de 1'experience combine en quatre bassins in vivo sur un gel de polycrylamide a 6,5% de monomeres
(Tableau I) d'une part deux remontees photoperiodiques de totaux apres coloration a 1'amidoschwarz 10B. En premiere
8 lux a 16 lux (1'une naturelle sur 6 mois; 1'autre acceleree
analyse tous les electrophoregrammes quel que soit le stade
sur 3 mois) et d'autre part deux remontees thermiques de 1 5 de maturite, presentent deux facies caracteristiques. Ceci
a 24C (1'une normale sur 6 mois; Tautre acceleree sur 3
permet de les classer en deux groupes: groupe I electro-
mois). Les autres facteurs du milieu ont ete maintenus
phoregramme en bande nette et individualisee, groupe II
identiques dans les quatre bassins. Les parametres suivis
electrophoregramme comportant dans la partie centrale
ont etc: temperature, salinite, taux d'oxygene dissous, pH,
une migration en forme de cone. Durant le cycle sexuel,
taux de nutrition et taux de mortalite. Chaque quinzaine, 2
seuls les electrophoregrammes du groupe I presentent des
femelles par bassin ont ete prelevees afin de suivre modifications significatives. Nous avons done etudie essen-
1'evolution des gonades.
tiellement ceux du groupe I.
Enfin lorsque la maturite a paru suffisante, les pontes
TABLEAU
provoquees ou naturelles constituent un critere indiscu-
I
SCHEMA D'EXPERIMENTATION
table.Nous avons tente de provoquer la ponte a 1'aide de
chocs thermiques, de chocs de pression, ainsi que par leur
association.
3 Resultats
Les parametres physico-chimiques du milieu d'elevage ont
ete maintenus pendant toute la duree de 1'experience dans
les limites suivantes: pH 7,5-8,5; salinite 30,5-36% C^ ;
L 'etude de la vitellogenese a ete realisee de fagon con- photoperiodes prevues ont ete respectees avec une variabi-
comitante par quatre voies se completant mutellement:
lite de 2C
pour la temperature (Fig. 3), 5 mn pour la
photoperiode. Le taux de nutrition a ete evalue dans les
(/) Etude macroscopique in vivo par vision a contrejour.
diflerents bacs: il varie de 10 a 70%. Enfin, la mortalite
La transparence des animaux permet a certains stades de
durant les 4 mois d'experience n'a pas excede 5%, essen-
voir les gonades des femelles se detacher en sombre sur le
tiellement groupee dans les 8 jours suivant la mise en
reste des organes (Fig. 2). On peut ainsi apprecier la
bassin.
turgescence des ovaires et leur couleur.
Le 14 Janvier 1974 (J-f 30), les ovaires n'etaient pas
Etude macroscopique apres dissection des ovaires,
(//)
visibles en contre-jour sur 1'animal. A ce stade, 1'analyse
appreciation de la couleur, de la texture et du rapport
microscopique des ovaires disseques ne montrait aucune
gonado-somatique comme suit:
difference entre les 4 bassins; le RGS s'etageant de 0,5 a
0,1. Les ovaires etaient Wanes, translucides, filiformes (Fig.
poids des gonades x 100 4). L'analyse microscopique a montre des ovocytes de
RGS
poids total de 1'animal petite taille, diamfetre 20-40 ^i (Fig. 5). Les electro-
278
+ ++1 <16L
(14 L
*-' 25'
0)
O
O 0>
o
o
a
o
S
110L
o
J3
8L
JT
Fig 3. Evolution des photopenodes et de thermoperiodes auxquelles sont soumis les lots Bl, B2, B3, B4 durant 1'experimentation
ce stade les geniteurs femelles sont impregnes (presence des aucune variation significative n'a etc enregistree, les RGS
spermateques sur le thelycum de la femelle). A la dissec- etant respectivement de 1,3; 1,2 et 1,9. L'electro-
tion, les ovaires apparaissaient maintenant bien developpes; phoregramme des femelles du lot B 1 a montre la disparition
ils etaient devenus opaques et leur coloration de la lipoproteine precedemment mise en evidence, ce qui
generate etait
orange. Le RGS etait d'environ 4 (Fig. 7); aucune variation peut etre interprete comme la fin de la maturation, la
notable n'etait enregistree dans les autres bacs. ce stade A lipoproteine etant a ce stade stockee dans Tovaire (Fig. 6,
Fetude microscopique a montre que Paccroissement du tube 4). Ce fait est en accord avec les resultats obtenus sur:
RGS est essentiellement du a 1'augmentation du pourcen- Penaeus kerathurus (Ceccaldi, 1970, 1971); Palaemon
tage d'ovocytes matures diametre 2 10-230 \i. Pour ce qui adspersus (Arcier, 1973).
Lot n* 1
\
Lot n* 2
Lot n 3
J
Lot n 4
CO
D J F M A M J
Fig 7. Evolution du rapport gonado-somatique chez les lots cxperimentaux Bl, B2, B3, B4
280
et 4). Aussi les geniteurs femelles de B3 etaient-ils im-
pregnes a cette date.
Le 4 juin 1 974 (J 4- 1 84), on a constate une large disper-
sion des stades de maturite dans B 1, B2 et B4 tandis que B3
arrivait a maturite (RGS 7 et 8). A partir du 9 juin 1974
(J + 189) une de tentatives de ponte fut entreprise a
serie
1'aide de chocs de pression associes a des chocs thermiques.
Du 6 au 10 juin 1974, une descente thermique de 2C
par rapport aux moyennes maintenues a cette epoque dans
les bacs a ete appliquee aux 4 lots.
Le 10 juin 1 974 a 23 h, 4 geniteurs femelles de B4 furent
places sous atmosphere d'oxygene pur, dans un caisson
2
pressurise a 2,5 kg/cm en choc thermique negatif
,
sensible dans B2 et B4; les crevettes femelles de ces bacs tivement. Les taux d'eclosions viables evalues par le taux de
avaient des ovaires nettement visibles par transparence a survie a 24 h ont ete respectivement de 10, 40, 0, 90, 90%.
Toeil nu. Apres dissection Tovaire apparaissait colore en Parallelement, des la premiere ponte provoquee on con-
jaune legerement orange. Les RGS etaient entre 3 a 4 (3,2 a statait des pontes spontanees dans Tensemble des bacs. En
3,8). A
ce stade les geniteurs femelles sont impregnes.
Le 20avril 1974 (J+ 124), le stade devolution gona-
281
ce qui concerne leur importance et leur frequence on donne les RGS suivants: B 1 5,3 et 3,5; B2 6,3 et 2,5; B3 7
pouvait relever a chaque fois des differences significatives au et 4; B4 3,5 et 1,5.
niveau des 4 bacs que Ton pouvait classer en 2 groupes: les Le 25 septembre 1974 (J-f 287), les prelevements ont
bacs & fortes pontcs B 1 et B4 ( 1-5 nauplii par litre), les bacs a confirme la situation precedente, RGS: Bl 7,2 et 0,8; B2
faibles pontes B2 et B3 ( 1-5 nauplii par 10 litres). Les car- 3,2 et 0,5; B3 7,5 et 3,5; B4 5,2 et 3.
acteristiques des diverses pontes sont rapportees dans le Le 3 octobre 1974 (J + 294), une nouvelle ponte de
Tableau 1 00 000 oeufs a etc obtenue
II. par pressurisation d'une femelle
Le 24 juin 1974 (J + 200), 1'ensemble des lots presentait de 58 g du lot B4. Depuis cette date, nos installations ne
des animaux matures, ce qui confirme les pontes obtenues a nous permettant pas de maintenir la temperature de 24C
cette periode. Les prelevements ont donne les RGS sui- desiree dans les bassins, Inexperience fut arretee.
vants:Bl 6,2 et 1,8;B2 5 et 7,1; B3 8,1 et l,5;B49et6. Pour confirmer ces resultats, une nouvelle experi-
Le 10 juillet 1974 (J + 215), la dispersion des stades de mentation fut entreprise dans les memes bassins au debut
maturite etait evidente dans tous les bassins. Les preleve- decembre 1974. Elle permit d'obtenir sur ces memes geni-
ments ont donne les RGS suivants: B 1 5,3 et 1,5; B2 6 et 3; teurs la maturite des la mi-mars 1975, confirmee par
B3 6,1 et 0,5; B4 6,1 et 4. plusieurs pontes au dibut avril 1975, toutes non viables.
Le 25 juillet 1974 (J + 225), la situation etait restee D'autres pontes, viables celles-ci, furent obtenues en juin
stable dans les quatre lots, qui contenaient toujours des 1975. Cette nouvelle experimentation connut plusieurs
animaux aux ovaires tres developpes: RGS: B1 6,5 et 3; B2 incidents materiels independants de notre volonte.
9 et 1,2; B3 5,3 et 4,1; B4 3,3 et 6.
Le 15 aout 1974 (J + 236), les prelevements ont con-
firme la situation precedente, RGS: Bl 4,2 et 3,3; B2 5 et 4 Discussion
0,6; B3 8,5 et 4, B4 2,3 et 1,2. 4. 1 Materiel technique
Le 5 septembre 1974 (J + 267), 2 nouvelles pontes On peut penser que la faible mortalite enregistree, la bonne
provoquees par choc de pression ont etc obtenues, sur 2 croissance obtenue, ainsi que revolution vers la maturite
geniteurs femelles provenant des lots B3 et B 1. Ces pontes sexuelle des geniteurs ont etc favorisee par: le bon controle
nous ont permis de recolter 300000 oeufs ayant un taux des caracteristiques physico-chimiques d'elevage (notam-
d'eclosion de 90% (Tableau II). Les prelevements ont ment, stabilite du pH, de POj dissous), un volume unitaire
282
de travail important (220001) et une alimentation qui a orange vif. A la dissection les lobes anterieurs de 1'ovaire
semble adequate. recouvrent ttiepatopancreas. La lipoproteine caracteris-
tique est maintenant mise en evidence par 1'electrophorese.
4.2 Conclusions Le RGS
se situe entre 2,5 et 6. A
1'analyse microscopique,
Durant revolution vers la maturation, on peut constater 1'ovaire est en vitellogenese. Des
le debut de cette phase
qu'une assez bonne correlation s'etablit entre les 4 pre- quelques ovocytes de taille mature diametre 210-230 11,
mieres voies choisies pour analyser la maturite, c'est-a dire: noyau 60-80 jx, sont visibles dans 1'ovaire; plus le RGS
etude macroscopique in vivo des gonades, etude macrosco- croit, plus le pourcentage des ovocytes matures croit. En
pique des gonades apres dissection, evaluation du rapport fait les autres ovocytes ont dans leur grande majorite une
gonado-somatique (RGS), etude microscopique des entre 80 et 120 n, noyau 30-50 \i. Le tres
taille se situant
une etude des lipoproteines de rhemolymphe. Le
ovaires, et faiblenombre d'ovocytes de taille intermediate diametre
Seme critere, la ponte, semble n'etre que partiellement 1 20-200 \i constate a ce stade dans 1'ovaire
temoigne de la
concordant avec les autres comme le prouvent les resultats fugacite de cette etape de la maturation ovocytaire; ceci,
obtenus. Dans cette evolution, nous pouvons mettre en dans nos conditions experimentales. Cette evolution asyn-
evidence cinq phases caracteristiques (Fig, 11): chrone des ovocytes vers la maturite, explique assez bien
Au stade /, 1'ovaire, invisible in vivo, a un aspect fili- que des pontes partielles puissent etre obtenues des ce stade.
forme a la dissection, sa couleur est blanc translucide. La Le stade IV correspond a la maturite groupee du stock.
lipoproteine caracteristique n'est
pas decelable a L'ovaire visible in vivo (Fig. 2) appairait vert sombre, tres
Le RGS autour de 1. A 1'analyse
Telectrophorese. se situe turgescent il a completement envahi le cephalothorax et
microscopique, 1'ovaire est en previtellogenese, ovocytes, presente plusieurs renflements lateraux symetriques, dans
diametre 18-40 ^i, noyaux des ovocytes 10-20 |i (Fig. 5). la partie antero-abdominale. A
la dissection 1'ovaire appar-
La duree de cette phase est variable suivant les experiences ait granuleux et vert sombre (Fig. 8). La proteine caracter-
(1 mois a 3,5 mois) (Fig. 1 1). istique n'est plus decelable a 1'electrophorese. Le RGS est
Au stade //, 1'ovaire toujours invisible in vivo apparait superieur a L'analyse microscopique montre un fort
7.
plus epais que precedemment a la dissection, sa couleur est pourcentage d'ovocytes de taille mature: diametre 210-
blanc opaque tachete orange. La lipoproteine caracteris- 230 n noyau 60-80 \i (Fig. 9). Cette phase dure 1-1,5
tique n'est toujours pas decelable a 1'electrophorese, le RGS mois, suivant les experiences.
se situe entre 1 et 2,5. A1'analyse microscopique Fovaire Enfin, le stade V, est caracterisee par une dispersion des
ovocytes diametre 40-80 |i, noy-
reste en previtellogenese, stades de maturite chez les difierents animaux. Le RGS
aux des ovocytes 20-30 \a. La duree de cette phase est varie de 8 a 1. L'ovaire souvent visible in vivo apparait de
sensiblement 1-1,5 mois dans les differentes experiences brun sombre a beige clair et parfois vert bronze apres
precedentes. dissection. La
lipoproteine caracteristique est de nouveau
Le stade ///, est caracterise par sa brievete (8-15 jours). souvent decelable a 1'electrophorese (Fig. 6, tube 5 ), et dans
L'ovaire visible in vivo a contre-jour apparait jaune orange certains prelevements de nombreux ovocytes sont en
Pontes Ponte
sti st m I
JT,
Fig 11. Liaisons entre les differentes voies choisie pour 1'etude de la maturite: visibilite des gonades par transparence in vivo; coloration des
ovaires apres dissection; presence ou absence de la bande caracteristique dans Pelectrophoregramme de I'hemolymphe; etat des ovocytes a
1'analyse microscopique; evolution du rapport gonado-somatique (R G S); pontes
283
degenerescence diametre 50 ja. II existe toujours unc cer- temperees chaudes (mer du Japon, mer de Chine) (Yatsuy-
taine proportion (10 a 30%) d'animaux matures. anagi et Maekawa, 1955). Durant le deuxieme temps les
Dans cette experience, revolution de la coloration des geniteurs femelles en experience etalent leur stade de matur-
ovaires s'accorde avec les resultats obtenus sur d'autres ite a 1'instar des geniteurs sauvages des zones tropicales
Phemolymphe, on peut penser que la lipoproteine mise en periode stables a niveau eleve, les lots de geniteurs de P.
evidence dans cette experience est tres liee aux lipovitellines japonicus auraient done acquis un comportement sexuel
dont elle serait une forme vehiculable par ITiemolymphe. nouveau: maturation et ponte desaisonalisees. Ces resultats
Ces resultats sont similaires a ceux obtenus sur d'autres semblent interessants a deux titres, d'une part ils permettent
especes de crustaces par les auteurs precedemment cites. d'envisager un controle de la peri ode de ponte chez P.
D'autre part, Fanalyse de 1'evolution du RGS dont nous japonicus', d'autre part 1'obtention des reproductions en
venons de montrer la signification (Fig. 1 1 ), amene a deux captivite ouvre la voie a 'amelioration de cette espece par le
1
36 (7): 23-6
1'analyse microscopique. Ainsi durant ce deuxieme temps, a CECCALDI, H. J Proteme de Phemolymphe de Penaeus kerathurus
tout moment une partie des geniteurs semble mature, le 1970 C R Seances Soc. BioL, Paris, 164 (1 1): 2319-23
reste s'echelonneaux divers stades de 1'evolution ovarienne. CECCALDI, H. J. Evolution des protemes de Phemolymphe de Penaeus
1971 kerathurus. C.R Seances Soc. BioL, 164 (12) 2572-5
Cette maturite sexuelle apparente d'une partie des animaux FUJINAGA [HUDINEGA], M. Kuruma shrimp (Penaeus japonicus) culti-
est confirmee par plusieurs pontes viables, tant naturelles 1969 vation in Japan FAO Fish. Rep., (57) vol. 3: 811 32
HUDINAGA, M. Reproduction, development and rearing of Penaeus
que provoquees, qui s'etagent dans les quatre bacs du 1 1 1942 japonicus (Bate). Jap J Zool 10 305-93
,
juin au 3 octobre. KUBO, I. A review of the biology and systematic of shrimps and prawns
On peut done penser, que durant le premier temps les 1956 of Japan. Proc. IPFC, 6 (3) 387-98
.
284
P. duorarum notialis.
grafica. Estan presentes en las Antillas Mayores, en la
A la medida que los estadios larvales se suceden el rango de tplcrancia plataforma continental del Golfo de Honduras, a lo largo de
aumenta. Se estudio la influencia que puedcn ejercer la salinidad y la
las costas del Mar Caribe y la costa Atlantica de Brasil o sea
temperatura del agua sobre el tiempo de desarrollo de los huevos y
estadios de nauplius de P. schmitti siendo este considerable en las hasta 2115'S P. duorarum notialis y hasta 2829'S P.
salinidades extremas. En temperaturas del agua de 28,5 C el desarrollo
schmitti (Perez Farfante, 1969).
tiene lugar mucho mas rapidamente que en las temperaturas de 25,5C.
Son pocos los trabajos experimentales de cultivo en
Experimental rearing of larval stages of the white shrimp Penaeus laboratorio que aporten datos para poder valorar su factibi-
schmitti and the pink shrimp Penaeus duorarum notialis in the
lidad para un cultivo artificial. Toledo Perez y Fabre
laboratory
Abstract (1972) hicieron estudios sobre estadios larvales y Perez
Criteria were determined for the selection of mature females and tech- Perez y Ros (1974) sobre estadios postlarvales de la
niques developed for transferring them to the laboratory, with a survival
rate of over 85%. All the selected females of Penaeus schmitti and 75%of especie P. schmitti. Tabb et al (1972) lograron el cultivo
the P. duorarum notialis produced viable spawn. experimental de estadios larvales de P. duorarum
The fecundity of each species on the basis of size was determined, with duorarum.
P. duorarum notialis averaging 128 000 eggs and P. schmitti 169 000.
Regression equations were derived for fecundity as a function of the
weight of individuals.
The conditions under which spawning occurred were studied, and the 2 Materiales y metodos
daily period in which it took place was determined. No difference was
observed in regard to seasons of the year or to the influence of light or Las hembras de ambas especies fueron capturadas en la
ambient temperature on time of spawning. Bahia de Cienfuegos (costa sur de Cuba) a 320 km de
A study was also made of tolerance to extreme levels of salinity distancia del laboratorio.
arrived at abruptly and gradually. The range of tolerance to salinity was
determined for eggs and the nauplius, protozoaea I, protozoaea III and La salinidad fue determinada por el metodo del sulfo-
mysis III stages, and found to be greater at low salinities for P. schmitti cianuro de Levy y temperatura medida en C cada 6
la
and at high salinities for P. duorarum notialis. The range of tolerance
horas. Las salinidades supranormales se obtuvieron a partir
rises with each succeeding larval stage.
A study was made of the possible influence of water salinity and de agua de mar mediante la evaporation por ebullition y las
temperature on the growing time of the egg and nauplius stages of P. subnormales mediante adicion de agua destilada. Para las
schmitti; this influence was found to be considerable at extreme salinities.
Growth is much faster at a water temperature of 28- 5C
than at 25- 5C. experiencias con huevos y larvas, el agua de bajas salini-
dades fue tambien previamente esterilizada por ebullition.
Elevage experimental en laboratoire de la crcvcttc blanche Penaeus Los resultados presentados para huevos y larvas, corres-
schmitti et de la crevette rose Penaeus duorarum notialis aux stades
larvaires ponden a 3 series de pruebas consistentes de original y
Resume replica para cada una de ellos. Los ejemplares de cada serie
On a determine des cnteres de selection de femelles matures amsi que les
se obtuvieron de hembras distintas.
techniques permettant leur transplantation en laboratoire avec un taux de
survie excedant 85%. Cent pour cent des femelles de Penaeus schmitti et El fitoplancton utilizado para la alimentation se obtuvo
75% des femelles de P. duorarum notialis selectionnees ont produit des mediante el cultivo. Debido al pequeno volumen de liquido
ceufs viables.
L/examen des deux especes a permis d'en determiner la fecondite utilizado fue necesario, para las experiencias a distintas
moyenne, a savoir 28000 oeufs pour P. duorarum notialis et 169 000
1 salinidades, con protozoea, proceder a centrifugar los culti-
pour P. schmitti. On a calcule les equations de regression apphcables a la vos a los efectos de no alterar la salinidad al introducir el
correlation entre la fecondite et le poids des specimens.
L 'etude des conditions dans lesquelles s'effectuait la ponte a permis alimento. La concentration de fitoplancton para protozoeas
d'etabhr le moment
y mysis se mantuvo entre (80 20) x 10 celulas por I" A
elle se produisait dans le cours de la journee. 6 1
.
pii
L 'observation n'a revele aucun ecart entre differentes epoques de 1'annee,
los mysis, ademas se les suministro como alimento nauplios
et m la lumiere ni la temperature ambiante n'exergaient une influence sur
les heures de
ponte.
de Anemia salina recien eclosionados en una concentra-
Ona etudie la tolerance des crevettes a des niveaux extremes de tion de 4 por ml.
salinite moyenne modifies par alterations soudaines ou par ajustements
progresses. Des determinations de la gamme de tolerance a la salinite ont
porte sur les oeufs et les divers stades larvaires: nauplius, zoe 1, zoe III et
my sis III; cette gamme de tolerance etait plus considerable aux faibles 3 Obtencion de hembras maduras
concentrations de salinite pour P. schmitti et aux fortes concentrations
3.1 Captura
pour P. duorarum notialis.
A mesure que se succedaient stades larvaires la gamme de tole-
les Con un bar co camaronero tipo sondero se arrastro entre
rance augmentait. On a etudie 1'influence que peuvent exercer ia salinite
20 y 60 minutos. La duration de arrastre dependio de la
et latemperature de 1'eau sur la periode de developpement des oeufs et des
stades nauplius de P. schmitti, cette influence etant considerable aux abundancia de la captura puesto que cantidades grandes
salinites extremes. Lorsque la temperature de 1'eau atteint 28,5 C, le acumuladas en el copo, danan a los animales capturados.
developpement est beaucoup plus rapide que lorsque cette temperature
est de 25,5C.
3.2 Seleccion
Una vez depositada la captura sobre la cubierta, fue neces-
1 Introduction sario proceder a escoger los ejemplares en un tiempo no
En los ultimos 40 anos se ban realizado distintas investiga- mayor de 10 minutos. No
resulto dificil reconocer las
ciones tendientes a hacer posible el cultivo de camarones hembras maduras ya que presentaron una coloration carac-
marines, siendo el genero Penaeus uno de los mas estudia- teristica debido al oscurecimiento de las gonadas que ocu-
dos. Se logro la production masiva de algunos de ellos pan buena parte de la cavidad cefalotoracica y la parte
como por ejemplo el P.japonicus (Hudinaga, 1942; Hudi- media dorsal del abdomen. Esta selection se hizo algo
naga y Kittaka, 1967). complicada en P. schmitti ya que debia verificarse ademas
De las 9 especies de peneidos que pueden tener impor- el espermatoforo. Todo parece indicar que el mismo se
tancia comercial, presentes en aguas cubanas, solo P. duor- desprende facilmente puesto que en plena epoca de
arum y P. schmitti se encuentran en cantidades apreciables reproduction solo aproximadamente 2 de cada 10 hembras
formando la mayor parte de las capturas (Nikolic y Ruiz de maduras lo tenian.
Quevedo, 1971). Durante el estudio realizado, el 8 1 ,4% de las hembras de
Ambas especies tienen una amplia distribution geo- P. duorarum notialis seleccionadas desovaron y 93,7% de
285
estos desovcs fueron viables. En P. schmitti el 100% de las los resultados obtenidos.
hembras escogidas desovaron, siendo viables todos los
desoves. Sin embargo, el mimero de hembras de P. schmitti
que se pudo recoger en los arrastres fue siempre mucho 5 Experiencias con huevos y estadios larvales
menor. 5.1 Salinidad
5. Acondicionamiento. Antes de determinar el rango de
1. 1
foro desovaron la primera noche. El 80% de estas desovo intervalos de 5 partes por mil con los huevos y estadios de
entre las 23-00 y las 03-00 horas, y en algunos casos desde nauplio y protozoea I para ambas especies asi como de
las 22-00 hasta las 05-00 horas. El 76% de las hembras de protozoea III y mysis III para P. schmitti solamente. Todos
P. duorarum desovo la primera noche, y el 23% la segunda, los ejemplares fueron acondicionados previamente a distin-
habiendose registrado 2 casos donde los animales desova- tos niveles de salinidad. Para determinar la supervivencia se
ron apenas la tercera noche. El 72% de los desoves tuvo contaron los ejemplares que pasaron al siguiente estadio de
lugar entre las 22-30 y las 01-00 horas. Varios autores desarrollo. Los resultados obtenidos (Fig. 2) evidencian
piensan que diferentes factores influyen en la hora de que rango de tolerancia al cambio de la salinidad se hace
el
desove. Durante estas experiencias, no se han observado mayor a medida que los estadios larvales se suceden.
diferencias entre distintas epocas del ario ni tampoco du-
rante cambios de iluminacion o la temperatura del
ambiente. 6 Influencia de la salinidad y de la temperatura sobre el
tiempo de desarrollo
4.2 Mortalidad de Hembras Despues del Desove Para determinar la influencia de la salinidad y la tempera-
Las observaciones realizadas con 100 hembras de cada tura del agua sobre el tiempo en desarrollo de los estadios,
especie dieron los siguientes resultados: P. duorarum 4% y se realizaron experiencias con huevos y nauplios de P.
de P. schmitti el 3 3% de individuos muertos. La mortalidad schmitti, con salinidades entre 15 y 50 partes por mil a las
incremento entre las hembras de mayor tamano, muriendo temperaturas entre 25,5 y 28,5C. En los Cuadros II y III
todos los ejemplares que pasaron los 75 g. se observan salinidades que podrian considerarse optimas
286
HUEVO NAUPLIO PROTOZOEA I PROTOZOEA HI
a 40
CD
19 tO 29 90 88 40 49 90 19 19 80 8B 40 48 90 tO IB 80 88 40 48 90 tO t9 80 89 40 49 80
16 19 8%o
Fig 1. Valor de supervivencia de diferentes estadios larvales de Penaeus schmitti a cambios bruscos de salinidad ( ) y con acondicionamientc
-
paulatino (- -)
19 90
too
Huevo
Nauplio
100
Nouplio
Protozoea
I
8?
100
Protozoea
I
o
2 Protozoea
UJ
> II
100-
Protoaoea
III
Ifysie I
100
Postlarva
K 19 10 ftB BO BB 40 49 90 S%o
Supervivencia de los estadios larvales de Penaeus schmitti y P. duorarum
2. - a distintas salinidades
Fig ( ) (- -)
elcaso de los estadios nauplios, el primer paso a protozoea hacer algunas consideraciones sobre aspectos observados
se observe en el agua con temperatura de 28,5C a las 46 en el proceso de cria de los ejemplares empleados en los
horas mientras que en 25,5C, el mismo tuvo lugar a las 86 experimentos. Durante las experiencias con la fase proto-
horas. zoea utilizamos Dunaliella tertiolecta en una concentra-
cion de (80 20) x 10" celulas por litro, con muy buenos
resultados. En otras pruebas realizadas, no discutidas en
7 Alimentacion Platymonas sp. y Tetraselmis sp.
este trabajo, se usaron
Aunque no se realizaron pruebas que determinarian los tambien con buenos resultados, no habiendo sido satisfac-
valores nutricionales de diferentes algas se cree importante torios con Chlamydomonas coccoides y Nannochloris sp.
287
CUADRO II
EL DESARROLLO Y LA SUPERVIVENCIA DEL HUEVO HASTA LA ECLOSION PARA AMBAS ESPECIES EN DISTINTAS TEMPERATURAS Y SALINIDADES
15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
CUADRO III
EL DESARROLLO Y LA SUPERVIVENCIA DE LOS ESTADIOS NAUPLIOS HASTA PASAR A ESTADIO PROTOZOEA PARA PenOCUS SChmitti
15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
288
L*6conomic de I'tlevage des crevettes Kunima-ebi (Penaeus Japonicus) 1 Introduction
Resume In Japan, practical aquaculture of the shrimp Penaeus
L'elevage de la crevette Kuruma-ebi (Penaeus japonicus} a commence il
y a dix ans dans la region de Seto, dans la mer interieure, et s'est depuis
japonicus called locally 'Kuruma-ebi' started ten years ago,
lors diffuse vers Amakusa et Kagoshima, deux zones Httorales du sud- using abandoned salt fields in the Seto Inland Sea area. The
ouest du Japon. La production s'est accrue passant d'un montant estime
de 200 tonnes en 1965 a quelque 1 300 tonnes en 1974, alors que le
production of shrimp by aquaculture has increased yearly,
rendement des pccheries de capture se situait entre 1 263 et 2 900 tonnes but has not yet reached the high level which many expected.
pendant la meme periode. L'industrie crevettiere japonaise s'est develop- Although, generally speaking, Japanese shrimp culture
pee pour les raisons suivantes: (/) le prix de la crevette d'elevage est eleve
et (//) ce prix eleve permet, aux aquaculteurs de pratiquer des techniques
uses more intensive methods than those used in other
de culture intensive. countries, many people believe that the present types of
La crevette d'elevage Kuruma-ebi fait Fobjet d'une forte demand* au
shrimp culture are still relatively extensive in comparison
Japon, et Ton pense que cette demande continuera a augmenter. Malgre
Taccroissement des frais de fonctipnnement, le prix de vente moyen des with other types of aquaculture in Japan. Firstly, the
crevettes de culture n'a pas change durant les 5 dernieres annees du fait production of Kuruma-ebi per unit area and per man is
des progres reguhers de la production aquicoie. Cependant, le prix de la
below that of other aquacultures such as those for trout, eel
crevette de culture produite en difTerentes regions varie considerable-
ment selon les possibilites d'approvisionnement du marche en crevettes and yellowtail. Secondly, shrimp culturists have used natu-
pendant la saison morte. ral raw
feed, especially shortnecked clams, and preferred
Le document evalue la viabilite economique des fermes aquicoles dans
les trois regions de production. Les extensive large ponds for raising their seedlings. With raw feed, there
exploitations d'aquaculture
et semi-intensive etablies dans les regions de Seto et d'Amakusa, dans la isalways a danger of spoiling water quality and pond
mer interieure, ont un taux de production relativement eleve par per- bottom environment. It was not possible, therefore, to stock
sonne et par an, un taux de production faible par unite de surface, et se
revelent generalement viables du point de vue economique. Par contre. shrimp seedlings or juveniles at high densities. On the other
les
exploitations d'aquaculture
intensive etablies dans la region de hand, the growth rate of Kuruma-ebi is highest when
Kagoshima ne semblent pas constituer des operations rentables au stade shortnecked clams are used, and for this reason, the intro-
actuel, et Ton suggere qu'une amelioration des taux de conversion
alimentaire serait le moyen le plus efficace de rendre ces entreprises duction of artificial feed has been slow. Shortnecked clam
economiquement viables. Le document examine les facteurs econo- resources are, however, limited and are decreasing due to
miques d'une ferme aquicoie fonctionnant actuellement dans des condi- reclamation of their fishing grounds. At the same time,
tions fructueuses, en soulignant qu'il importe de recourir aux aliments
artificiels au lieu d'utihser des ressources naturelles qui se rarefient. there has been increased demand for shortnecked clams for
Sur la base de Inexperience acquise au Japon, Ton recommande de tenir human consumption. As a result, their price has risen
compte des facteurs ci-apres en mstallant des fermes crevetticoles en
d'autres regions: (/) un approvisionnement en frai peu couteux et auquel significantly and this trend has recently become more rapid.
on puisse se fier; (i7) le maintien d'une bonne qualite de 1'eau dans les There are many aquaculture industries in Japan in which
installations de production; (///') la possibilite de se procurer des aliments the use of artificial feed has a fairly long history, but an
pour poisson; (iv) Texistence d'especes qui se preterit a Televage dans la
region et (v) 1'importance des prospections sur le terrain avant la mise en
artificial feed for shrimps was not developed until three
oeuvre des projets de crevetticulture. years ago at Kagoshima Fisheries Laboratory. Thanks to
this work, Japanese shrimp culture has the possibility
of achieving stability of management and is now at the
threshold of its second expansion.
The aims of this paper are to: summarize the experience
Aspectos economicos del cultivo de camaron Kuruma-ebi (Penaeus
japonicus) gained in Kuruma-ebi culture in Japan from the economic
Extracto and technical points of view; evaluate each type of culture
El cultivo delcamaron Kuruma-ebi (Penaeus japonicus} comenzo en el
Japon hace 10 anos en el mar interior de Seto y desde entonces se ha
management; and forecast the direction of this industry.
extendido a Amakusa y Kagoshima, dos areas costeras en el sudoeste del The techniques and varied styles of management of this
pais. La produccion mediante cultivo ha aumentado de aproximada-
industry have become increasingly complex, delicate and
mente 200 toneladas en 1965 a 1 300 en 1974. El rendimiento de la
explotacion pesauera de ese camaron durante el mismo periodo ha sophisticated, and have had a great influence on other
variado entre 263 y 2 900 toneladas. El desarrollo del cultivo del
1
aquacultures. A
review of experience gained in Japanese
camaron en el Japon se debe a que: (/) el precio del camaron cultivado es
Kuruma-ebi culture may be useful for other countries not
elevado, y (//) los altos precios permiten a los cultivadores adoptar
tecnicas intensivas de cultivo. only because it includes many different types of manage-
La demanda de Kuruma-ebi cultivado en Japon es alta, y se espera
el ment but because of its fairly long history of practical
que siga aumentando. A pesar del incremento de los costos de explota- operation.
cion, el precio de venta de los camarones cultivados no ha variado en los
ultimos cinco anos, debido al continue aumento de la produccion. For
otro lado, el precio de los camarones cultivados producidos en las
diversas regiones varia considerablemente, segun las posibilidades de
2 Economic basis of Kuruma-ebi culture in Japan
ofrecer camarones comercializables fuera de temporada.
Se hace una evaluation de la viabilidad economica de las explota 2. Kuruma-ebi production by fishing and by culture
1
ciones en las tres regiones productoras. Las explotaciones extensivas y The production of Kuruma-ebi both by fishing and through
semi-extensivas del mar interior de Seto y Amakusa tienen una produc-
cion relativamente alta por ano/hombre, baja produccion por unidad de
culture is concentrated in the coastal waters of southwest-
superficie y, en general, resultan ecpnomicamente viables. Las explota- ern Japan (Fig. 1 ). Kuruma-ebi live in the sandy bottom of
ciones intensivas existentes en la region de Kagoshima, en cambio, no se the sea and cannot survive at temperatures under 4 or 5C.
consideran rentables por el momentp y se sugiere que la mejor manera de
convertirlas en empresas economicamente viables seria mejorar los In the centraland northern parts of Japan the water temper-
indices de conversion de los alimentos. Se examinan los
aspectps ature rather cold and sandy bottom areas are rather
is
economicos de una explotacion que funciona satisfactoriamente, insis-
limited; there is little production of Kuruma-ebi in these
tiendo en la importance que tiene el empleo de piensos artificiales para
sustituir a los alimentos naturales, cada vez mas escasos. areas.
Basandose en la experiencia en el Japon, se recomienda que. al crear Fig. 2 depicts the amount of Kuruma-ebi production by
granjas de cultivo de camaron en otras zonas, se tengan en cuenta los both fishing and culture from 1965 to 1974. In 1965, the
siguientes factores: (/) asegurar un suministro con fi able de semillas a
bajo costo; (//') mantener buena calidad del agua en las instalaciones de yield of Kuruma-ebi by fishing was about 2 900 tons. It
produccion; (///) disponibilidad de piensos; (iv} especies existentes en la went down gradually to only 1 263 tons in 1970, and then
zona y posibihdad de cultivo de las mismas; y ( v) importancia de realizar
recovered rapidly to attain its approximate 1965 position
ensayos sobre el terreno antes de iniciar proyectos de cultivo
de camaron. by 1974. It is difficult to provide an explanation for this
289
rruyor production centres. According to our calculations,
production of cultivated Kuruma-ebi was about 200 tons in
1965 and 1 300 tons in 1974. The reason that the 1965
The
price of Kuruma-ebi is quite different depending on
whether it is alive or not (Fig. 3). A considerable propor-
tion of the production from fishing consists of dead shrimps
because they often die during fishing operations and trans-
port. Although the prices fluctuate each year, the price of
Fig 1. Map of Kuruma-ebi production areas in Japan live cultured shrimp is usually double that of dead shrimp.
60-
Price of dead
ID-
hrimp(fihing)
S'
x 100
0-
3500 4000!
From culture (live)
250 "
g 2000
flSOO-
1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974
1000-
Fig 3. Changes in the price of Kurima-ebi from 1966 to 1974
500
lately because of serious competition from imported frozen
shrimps and because the harvest from fishing has increased.
1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 Most Japanese shrimp culturists and biologists are con-
Fig 2. Yearly production of Kuruma-ebi cerned because the price of cultured Kuruma-ebi has re-
mained same level despite increased production
at the
recovery, but it is almost certain that the coastal water is costs. On
the other hand, it is remarkable that the price has
cleaner than that of the sixties and it may be partly due to remained stable for five years notwithstanding the three-
shallow water restocking with post-larval Kuruma-ebi. fold increase in the production of cultured Kuruma-ebi
The production of
cultured Kuruma-ebi has been in- from 300 tons in 1968 to 900 tons in 1972. What is more,
creasing gradually from 305 tons in 1965 to 740 tons in since 1974 the price has started to go up again and this
1974 according to the official statistics of the Ministry of during a period of severe economic recession.
Agriculture and Forestry. These statistics usually underes- demand for high-class aquaproducts in
In general, the
timate production, however, especially in aquaculture. We Japan very high, the same as for meat, and it is expected
is
have, therefore, amended the official statistics using the that the demand for cultured products, especially Kuruma-
total pond area under cultivation annually and the annual ebi, will continue to rise. The following functional formulae
research and, based on this, we can make estimates of the log Q=3-142 + 1-119 log Y-0-682 log P 0-947 1955-63 (2)
total production of cultured Kuruma-ebi at each of the three log Q=5-469 + 1-493 log Y- 1-611 log P 0-990 1963-72 (3)
290
Where Q=the amount of consumption per caput per Kuruma-ebi as they have not yet reached suitable market
annum size.
Y = income per caput per annum The spawning and hatching of Kuruma-ebi usually be-
P = price of cultured products gins at the end of March or the beginning of April. Seed-
R = coefficient of correlation lings are about 10-15 mm
long and weigh about 0-01-
0-02 g. Nursery ponds are stocked with seedlings during
Income elasticity of demand and price elasticity in the April or May and the juveniles transferred to rearing ponds
case of cultured products are extremely high compared to during June or July. The commercial size for Kuruma-ebi is
other foods; this shows the strength of demand for cultured usually over 1 8 g and most of the cultured shrimps will
products. Although a high rate of growth cannot be ex- reach this size by October. Fig. 4 shows that shipment of
pected in the Japanese economy over the next ten years cultured shrimp from the Seto Inland Sea area starts at the
(owing to the oil 'crisis'), some degree of growth can be end of August. The reason for shipment at this time is not
anticipated, and income per caput may continue to increase primarily to make sales but to thin out the populations in
steadily at the rate of 3-4% yearly. the ponds. (Heavy mortalities usually do not occur after
above formulae, income elasticity and price elas-
In the September, hence the advisability of thinning out at this
ticityduring the period of 1963-72 are both somewhat time.) Most of the shrimp cultured in the Seto Inland Sea
higher than during the period of 1955-63. This shows that area are shipped to market during November-January and
the demand for cultured products has been increasing in are all gone by the end of February. Penaeusjaponicus will
recent years. hibernate in the sand when the water temperature falls to
Hirasawa has also calculated the elasticity of demand for about 1 2C. In the Seto Inland Sea area, the water tempera-
cultured Kuruma-ebi from 1 965 to 1 974. According to this ture of the ponds sometimes falls below during the 0C
calculation, the demand for cultured Kuruma-ebi is surpris- winter, and cultured Kuruma-ebi cannot live over the win-
ingly high in comparison to the demand for other cultured ter. In order to get these shrimp to market alive, they must
products; the income elasticity of Kuruma-ebi was found to be taken out of the ponds before the end of the year or
be 2-18. From this figure it can be ascertained that if per shortly thereafter.
capita income in Japan rises by 10% the demand for
Fran culturt (live)
Kuruma-ebi will increase at the rate of 22%. In developed
countries itvery rare for foods to have an income
is
gone up at a surprising rate and the economic condition of SEPT. OCT. NOV. DEC. JAN. FEB. MAR. APE. MAY JUN. Jtfl. AUG.
artificial feed was developed as an integral part of a double- Cultured Kuruma-ebi can overwinter here, hibernating in
bottom circular tank culture system called the 'Kagoshima the sandy bottom without feeding. During this hibernation
method'. which ends with the advent of spring, Kuruma-ebi become
very weak. Their price is very high in April and May
because the amount shipped to market (including wild
3 Management of Kuruma-ebi farms shrimp) is very small. The Amakusa culturists would, of
3.1 Location offarms and type of culture course, be glad to ship their shrimps during these profitable
There were 83 Kuruma-ebi farms in Japan in 1 974. Each spring months, but if they did, a considerable part of the
of the three major production centres (Fig. 1 ) has its own shipment would arrive dead because of their weakened
characteristics with respect to: period of shipment of har- condition.As a result, shipment from the Amakusa area has
vest and culture methods and techniques. to be completed in March.
Fishing for Kuruma-ebi begins in April and may end in In the Kagoshima area, in the most southern part of
November; the busiest season is from June to September. Japan and somewhat warmer than Amakusa, Kuruma-ebi
The amount of shrimp caught by fishing is larger than that can be easily kept over winter. Therefore, they can be
which is cultured, and the producers of cultured Kuruma- shipped in April and May and the highest prices obtained.
ebi do not ship their products during this period when wild As is shown in Fig. 4, the price is fairly low when the
Kurami-ebi are caught and shipped at a relatively low price. production of Kuruma-ebi from the capture fishery is
Moreover, this is not a good time for shipping cultured being shipped. Then, as soon as the shipment of fishing
291
production slackens in September, the shipment of cultured lower than Type B. We believe that this is largely due to
Kuruma-ebi begins: first, from the Seto Inland Sea area; lack of experience on the part of the Amakusa culturists
then from the Amakusa area; finally from the Kagoshima who changed only four years ago from their original busi-
area, mainly by air. The Kagoshima area has the advantage ness of just holding rather than rearing Kuruma-ebi. It
of being able to get a higher price for shrimp than the other isexpected that their techniques will improve in the near
areas, but this is not always enough to ensure profitable future and production increase. Therefore, we regard Type
operation. C as a 'semi-intensive' type even though its present level of
Depending on their location, Kuruma-ebi farms use production is low. The disadvantage of Type C compared
differentmethods of culture and management. Table I with A or B is that a greater amount of feed is needed. The
shows the characteristics of several types of Kuruma-ebi good water exchange prevents a build-up of phytoplankton
farms. and other organisms and natural food in the ponds is much
In the Seto Inland Sea area, the cradle of this industry in lessthan in the Seto Inland Sea types.
Japan, the culture method is based on the use of abandoned Lastly, there are Types D
and E in the Kagoshima area.
salt fields. The ponds here are usually large, situated on land The characteristic feature of these is their use of small
and connected with the sea by sluices. In order to supple- circular water tanks with a higher rate of water exchange
ment dissolved oxygen and encourage the growth of desir- than in the other systems (A-C). Type D
is rather old; the
able diatoms and dinoflagellates in the ponds, the culturists tanks used do not have double bottoms. Water exchange is
in this area have to work hard to maintain suitable condi- about twice daily. Type E is the newest and most advanced
tions by regulating the flow of water through sluice gates. system of Japanese aquaculture from a technical and
in all
Most of the Seto Inland Sea area farms are characterized by management point of view. As its tanks have double bot-
a rather 'extensive' type of culture, which we shall term toms, the water can pass continuously through a layer of
Type A. The shrimp production per m is rather low
2
sand which forms the first bottom. In this way, it is possible
compared with that of the other types (see Table I). The to supply enough water and oxygen for the shrimps and to
Seto Inland Sea area also has another type of culture which get rid of the remains of feed and faeces through a central
we have termed Type B. Its ponds are smaller than those of outlet. The maximum rate of water exchange is about four
Type A, are equipped with many gates to permit good water times daily; a higher rate will cause the sandy bottom to
exchange, and have other facilities such as aeration appara- harden and the shrimp will not be able to burrow into it.
tus and motor-driven propellers to provide supplementary The merit of the Kagoshima intensive culture method is
dissolved oxygen. This makes it possible to rear a larger the high production both per unit area and per worker. The
number of shrimps per unit area. Type B can be regarded as originators of this intensive system believed, at the begin-
a 'semi-intensive' type together with the Amakusa area ning of their experiments, that the extensive methods of the
farms, termed Type C (see Table I). Seto Inland Sea type would have to be abandoned in the
The merit of the Seto Inland Sea farms is that they can future due to the high cost of land and feed, shortage of
benefit to some extent from natural food. Four or five manpower, low productivity, and water pollution. The
individual shrimp per m
can be kept in the ponds of the A
2
disadvantage of this intensive method is the impossibility of
and B types without any feeding, because there are plenty of utilizing latent natural productivity owing to the high rate
naturally produced organisms in the brown water found in of water exchange. Moreover, because of the very high
these ponds. As a result, the conversion ratio from feed to density of Kuruma-ebi on the small bottom area, the growth
shrimp the highest among the various types of shrimp
is of shrimps is hindered by overcrowding. Under these con-
culture, and the cost of production is rather low. ditions,maintenance of the growth rate depends entirely on
In the Amakusa area the ponds (Type C) are formed by the use of more effective artificial feed. If raw feed were
low stone or concrete dikes with a high netting on top used, as in the other areas, the water quality and bottom
extended out from the shore to enclose an area of shallow environment would soon deteriorate.
sea. The use of netting means that the dikes themselves can Generally speaking, the growth rate of cultured shrimp
be so low that they are below water level except at low tide or other crustaceans or finfish is highest when the amino-
and the exchange of water is, therefore, much better than in acid composition of their feed is the same as that of their
TABLE I
Types D mud E use dry feed exclusively; for purposes of this table, the actual conversion ratio for dry feed was multiplied by a
'
factor of 6 to give the raw feed equivalent
292
composition of Kuruma-ebi protein is most similar to that planned annual production if their shrimps do not die in
of molluscs such as shortnecked clams and, to a lesser large numbers, but they often fail to get the crop they
degree, to that of squid and some small shrimps. In the first expected due to some mishap during the rearing period.
artificial feed, squid meal was an important ingredient but at Therefore, we have had to make some adjustments to the
that time squid was relatively cheap. data received from private companies in these cases of
Unfortunately, squid has become very expensive due to abnormal production.
short supply and an increase in its processing for human As described above, the selling price of Kuruma-ebi
consumption. When private companies first started culture becomes higher in the order of Type A, B, C , due to . . .
based on its use, the price of artificial feed for Kuruma-ebi differences in timing of their shipments. Production costs
was in the range of Yen 500-600/kg. In 1974 the price of per kg for each type are also very different. Types and B A
this artificial feed was over Yen 1 000/kg. With such a high in the Seto Inland Sea area have the lowest costs, and
feed cost, no Kuruma-ebi culture farm could have contin- therefore produce some profit. Type C in the Amakusa area
ued to exist for long. Early in 1975, the composition of the also makes some profit, because although its costs are
artificial feed had to be changed with cheaper ingredients higher than those in the Seto Inland Sea area, the selling
substituted for squid. There was no alternative even if this price of the shrimps is also higher. Types D
and E in the
meant that the efficiency of the feed was diminished. The Kagoshima area cannot make any profit at present because,
best conversion ratio achieved with the first formula was although their selling price is very high, their costs are even
about 2-2-5 1 with the new one, it is down to the level of
:
; higher.
3-3 5 : 1 . It is conjectured that the new feed contains a little Each item of cost is examined in Table II. Firstly,
soybean meal, but the details concerning its contents have shipment cost, which includes transport, packing materials,
not yet been revealed. sales commission, etc, is cheap in the Seto Inland Sea area
With some sacrifice in efficiency of conversion, the new (Types A and B) because of relatively short distances to
feed has become quite cheap, Yen 700/kg. This means that market. Secondly, feed costs which depend largely upon the
the price of the new artificial feed is approximately the same effectiveness of the feed used, are very different for each
as for an equivalent weight of raw feed consisting of small area. The conversion ratio of feed is good in the Seto Inland
shrimps, mussels and imported frozen oysters or short- Sea area, therefore the cost of feed is cheaper. Thirdly, the
necked clams from Korea. These raw materials are rela- depreciation costs of Types A and B are lower than the
tively cheap, but handling raw feeds involves extra costs, others due to their small investment in fixed assets, eg, pond
eg, transport, refrigeration, and manpower. If these extra construction and water pumps. Depreciation costs of land
costs are added to the original cost of the raw materials, the have been omitted from these calculations because it is very
price of raw feed is about the same as that of artificial feed. difficult to evaluate land costs and to decide what rate of
Generally speaking, the equivalent conversion ratio of raw depreciation (or appreciation) to apply. At present most of
feed is six times that of artificial feed. As shown in Table I, the disused salt fields have already been taken over by other
the production of shrimp per is very high with them 2
industries or converted to other uses. Owing to the high
intensive method. On the other hand, its feed conversion cost of land, we cannot expect any expansion of the exten-
ratiois poor compared with that of the more extensive sive type of farm.
methods, because the intensive method relies completely on Type D and E farms in the Kagoshima area have a
a man-made environment, and cannot make use of the basic history of only three or four years, during which period
productivity of more natural waters. both types of farms have suffered considerable losses. As a
result, these farms have had to borrow money from the
3.2 The of five types of Kuruma-ebi farms
profitability bank, and this is the reason their interest cost is so high. If
It isusually very economic data from private
difficult to get the interest for long-term capital investment only were to be
aquaculture farms. The figures in Table II are derived from included, the interest cost would be reduced by 33%. In
the authors' field research, and reflect averaged data for addition to the above-mentioned costs, electricity and other
each type of farm. The economic situation of individual costs are rather high in the intensive method, especially for
private farms changes from year to year according to Type E.
fluctuations in production. The culturists can achieve their Table III gives the entire picture of the economic situa-
TABLE II
PRODUCTION COST (PER KG) OF KURUMA-EBI BY TYPE OF CULTURE IN 1974 (YFN)
293
tion for each type of private farm. Type A has the merit of ing water tanks, the production per man is of course high,
high production per man, but the disadvantage of low but not as high as in either A or B in the Seto Inland Sea
production per unit area. It is a suitable system of manage- area. The reasons are twofold: (/) the Type D water tanks
ment to use in an area where land is plentiful and cheap. On do not have a double-bottom system, and (//) water ex-
the other hand, in the case of Type B, even though this farm change, which relies to a great extent on tidal ebb and flow,
is also in the Seto Inland Sea area, the culturist could not get occurs only about twice a day. Under these circumstances,
as large an area as that used in Type A. Therefore, the the remains of feed and faeces accumulate rapidly on the
culture method is of the 'semi-intensive' type: Type B has a bottom and the environmental conditions for shrimp deteri-
lower production per man than Type A, but a higher orate soon after the start of culture. Laborious sweeping is
production per unit area. This B-type is very suitable in necessary to clean the bottom and prevent mass mortality
areas where land is and its cost rather high,
rather scarce of the shrimp, and this requires employment of a relatively
but manpower is
easily available. large number of people. So, in spite of its aim at being an
With respect to the actual situation in Japan, especially intensive method of culture, D-type has not been able to
in the Seto Inland Sea area, there can be little expansion of achieve its purpose.
the extensive type farms such as Type A
in the future due to
the lack of unused salt fields. Although Type B is not as
good from the point of view of production per man, this 4 Economic viability of Kuruma-ebi culture
type has a higher production per unit area. In Japan, at 4.1 Assessment of different culture techniques
present, obtaining manpower is easy in comparison with It is usually not possible to obtain detailed economic data
procurement of suitable large land areas. from aquaculturists. A convenient way, therefore, to judge
With Type C, production is rather low both per unit area the economic state of any aquaculture farm is to use
and per man. This may be due to the lack of real shrimp
Hasegawa's formula to learn about the economic state of
culture experience in the Amakusa area and the easy-going the farm concerned. If we can calculate the following
ways of the culturists. The Amakusa area has a history of relationship for any farm, it is easy to judge whether the pre-
about seventy years of stocking its ponds with Kuruma-ebi requisite conditions for successful management of culture
caught by fishing in expectation of getting a high price. exist and whether the farm can make a profit.
Culturists in the Amakusa area are said to be accustomed to
only simple techniques of stocking their ponds, and have 4*-
B~b
not been very keen to improve them. But, during our field
research, we received the information that some culturists
where A Selling price of commercial-size product per
have already reached a high level of production per m 2
kg
(about 450-500 g/m 2 ). It is possible to predict that in a few
B= Price per kg of feed
years the Amakusa culturists will be able to reach as high a
a = Conversion ratio from feed to product
level of production as Type B, due to the favourable natural
b = Ratio of feed cost to total cost.
rearing conditions of the area. Moreover, much unused
coastline suitable for shrimp culture is still available. Data from Tables I and II have been used below to
In the case of Type D
Kagoshima culture, using circulat- examine the economic viability of the approximate
TABLE III
COMPARISON OF THE EFFICIENCY OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF KURUMA-EBI FARMS IN 1974
Profit (before tax) (WO Yen) 55000 19000 9000 9 100 13000
294
status of the different types of culture operation as they they started. In order to compare them with the other types
were in 1974: of farm, an attempt has been made to calculate the equiva-
lent conversion ratios if raw feed were used. The conversion
ratio using the new artificial feed, which does not contain as
much high-priced squid meal, was found to be about 3-1:1
Value (Yen! kg of Production) at Type E farm and 3-5:1 at Type D
under the best
Factor Types of Farms conditions in 1975. A
conversion ratio of 3-1:1 with
A B C D E C2* artificial feed is equivalent to 18-5:1 with raw feed and
,4 -Selling price (Table II) 4100 4700 5200 6000 6000 5200
3-5:1 is equivalent to 2 1 1 since the conversion ratio of raw
:
Cost of feed (Table II) 1000 1030 1400 2440 2200 1215
Other costs 1900 2470 3200 4460 4200 3200 feed is taken to be six times that of artificial feed.
Total costs of Production The data for the Kagoshima area Types D
and E are not
(Table II) 2900 3500 4600 6900 6400 4415
strictly comparable to the data for the other areas. The
a-C on version ratio reason for this is not only that the price and conversion
(Table I) 12.5 12.0 13.5 3.5 3.1 13.5 ratio of artificial feed are different from those of raw feed
&-Cost of feed/Production
cost 0.34 0.29 0.30 0.35 0.34 0.28 but also that the price of feed in the Seto Inland Sea and
^-Average price per kg of Amakusa areas includes only the cost of the feed itself; it
feed 80 86 104 697 710 90 does not include the costs of transportation, refrigeration
Type A/B a/b
and labour for handling and preparation which also have to
^x.00 be included so that data for farms using raw feed is compa-
A 4100
= = 1. O TO'
Raw feed 80
51.3 f-;-: 36.8
"71
71.7 % rable to data for farms using artificial feed. However, if
allowances are made for these factors in the previous
B 4700
54.7 75.7
example, very similar results are obtained on the economic
:
/0
Raw feed 86
viability of the culture types.
C 5200 135
50 !
90.0% The economic condition of intensive types D and E in
Raw feed 0.30
the Kagoshima area is not stable in spite of their high selling
D 6000 3.5
116.7% prices. In order for these types to achieve economic viabil-
Artificial feed
ft/
700
ity, the culturists will have to make greater efforts to cut
E 6000
- 8.57 1064% down their costs and to improve feed efficiency. In other
Artificial feed 700
words, something must be done to increase the value of A
C2 5200 and b, or to lower the value of B and a in the Hasegawa
578 83.4 /n
Raw feed at 90
formula.
Yen90/kg
Usually the selling price (A) is decided at the markets of
a
C2 Price of raw feed taken as Yen 104/kg
Yen 90/kg instead of large cities, and it can be assumed that the selling price is a
In 974 Type D used both raw and artificial feed. However, in order
b
1
given value outside the control of the culturist. The other
to simplify the example, an adjustment has been made; it is shown as
having used only artificial feed. Moreover, it is much better for this type way to increase the value of A/B is to reduce the price of
to use artificial feed in order to maintain good water quality.
artificial feed. On the other hand, to reduce the value of a/b,
295
90
Kuruma-ebi during the short period of April and May Sailing priea
10
results from a shortage of supply at that time from both
100
20-
used for stocking the ponds has not changed much over
g f coit
TABLE IV
DETAILS OF PRODUCTION AT THE UBE KURUMA-EBI FARM (TYPE B)
*
Mortality caused by shortage of oxygen
*
Mortality caused by red water
r
Mortality caused by growth of toxic algae
296
threefold in nine years (Fig. 6). On the other hand, the to improve artificial feed so that it imparts a natural tint to
amount of feed used has only increased by a factor of about the cultured Kuruma-ebi. Alternatively, another way to
2-5. As a result, the conversion ratio of this farm has gone produce the red coloration in Kurima-ebi is to feed them
down from 15:1 in 1966 to 10:1 in 1974. with natural raw feed just before shipment.
In improving culture techniques, some serious problems There are many advantages in using artificial feed: (i) it
about feed arose. One of these was the shortage of raw or helps keep the ponds in good condition, especially in the
was its high cost and the tendency for
natural feed. Another critical period during summer; (w) it is easy to buy and
its more rapid rate year by year, this
price to increase at a store; (Hi) the growth rate of Kuruma-ebi with artificial feed
becoming especially pronounced after 1972. Among the is the same as with raw feed; (/v) its price at present is
raw feed materials, the price increases for shortnecked almost the same as that of raw feed, and is expected to be
clams and small shrimps were very rapid (Table V). stable in the future; and ( v) unlike raw feed, its supply is not
Table VI shows the changes in the composition of raw limited.
feed at Ube Kuruma-ebi farm. The proportion of short- The last two points are especially important. One of the
necked clams used was not so high either in quantity or reasons that Kuruma-ebi culture farms were originally
value in the seventies, but it is believed that the growth of established in the Seto Inland Sea area was the availability
Kuruma-ebi seriously affected if some proportion of
is of abundant natural feeds. At that time, there was little
clams is not used. During 1974, the price of shortnecked demand for low-class marine products for human consump-
clams shot up rapidly, and the culturists stopped buying tion, their price was practically nil, and the culturists could
them. In 1975, the price of this clam rose even more freely use such materials as feed. But since then the number
rapidly, and most farms stopped using them altogether. of shrimp farms has increased. The price of natural feeds
It was very fortunate, therefore, that when the prices of may be cheap at times when the resources are greater than
raw feed started increasing, artificial feed was introduced in the demand for them. However, when the demand for feed
the Kuruma-ebi culture industry. Owing to competition, reaches the limit of supply of natural feeds, their price rises
the price of artificial feed has shown a tendency to decrease. rapidly. Unfortunately, the supply of shortnecked clams
Besides this economic competition, there has also been has been reduced by reclamation of coastal areas. More-
progress in the manufacturing technology for the new type over, the demand for natural feeds has increased rapidly due
of feed. If the price of one of the ingredients goes up, the to the expansion of Amakusa Kuruma-ebi culture as well as
manufacturers can replace it with another cheaper material the increase in human consumption.
without losing feed efficiency. At the Ube Kuruma-ebi Culturists in the Seto Inland Sea and Amakusa areas will
farm, artificial feed is already important in terms of total certainly find it very difficult to continue shrimp culture in
feed used. It is said that a serious drawback of artificial feed the future without the use of artificial feeds. Although
is the difficulty of producing a fine red colour in the originally developed primarily for an intensive type of
Kuruma-ebi. However, it should not be too great a problem culture (in order to prevent deterioration of water quality
TABLE V
CHANGES IN FEED COST (PER KG) OF KURUMA-EBI (UNIT YFN)'
1
Data from Ube Kuruma-ebi Yoshokujo. Excludes the costs of transportation and storage.
2
Clam meat only, excluding shell.
3
Mainly mussels or imported lower-quality oysters
TABLE VI
CHANGES IN THE COMPOSITION OF FEED AT THE UBE KURUMA-EBI FARM (TYPE B)
297
and to promote the growth of the shrimps reared at high (in) A third consideration is feeds. High production can
densities) the new artificial feeds are starting to be adopted be obtained using feed, but the cost is high, especially if
for extensive and semi-intensive types of culture. Farms in commercial feed is used. The first problem to be considered
areas seriously affected by the shortage and high price of is how to make best use of natural productivity. The
raw feeds have been given the means of recovery. presence of natural food in the ponds is an important factor
even in the more intensive types of culture. When using
commercial feed, the production per man and per unit area
5 General conclusions concerning shrimp culture increases to a high level, but expenditures are also in-
The shrimp culture industry in Japan has developed as the creased. In view of this high cost, cultured products usually
result of special economic and technical conditions. cannot compete with natural products caught by fishing
(/) The
price of live cultured shrimps is abnormally high where they both have the same price level. Therefore,
because they are considered to be of exceptionally high shrimp farms using commercial feed can be economically
quality compared with dead wild shrimp from capture viable only in special circumstances, eg, when there is a
fisheries. lack of production by fishing, or when special market
(i7) This high price enables culturists to adopt intensive conditions exist.
culture methods which involve a heavy capital investment (/v) A final consideration is the selection of suitable
and high production costs per kg of market-size shrimp. kinds of shrimp for culture, for although many varieties are
Owing to the high cost of land, the area of individual ponds suitable for culture, only a few species are usually available
is probably relatively smaller than it might be in most other in a particular area.
countries. Therefore, in order to maximize their profit, In conclusion, the importance of practical field surveys
Japanese aquaculturists try to rear shrimps at the highest prior to initiating a shrimp culture project is emphasized.
possible densities. As a result, high mortalities commonly The technical and economic situation in each area should
occur in their ponds. Good profits can be made, however, if be determined as a basis for further development.
high mortalities can be avoided during the critical periods.
The same element of speculation or gambling can be found
in all Japanese aquaculture. In such a situation, the most 6 Appendix
important technique is how to prevent high mortalities. Hasegawa's Formula
1
Some general comments can be made about shrimp In order to manage their business successfully, culture
culture in other areas based on this Japanese experience. farms must be able to conform to the following simple
(/) The first important consideration is securing enough relationship:
D
and E farms did
seed at a low cost. In our research, Type
not have to buy their seed as they produced them in their
own hatcheries. Seed stock which was surplus to their own
'4
where A - Selling price of commercial-size fish per kg
requirements was sold to other farms. The Type A-C farms
buy their seed from local governmental and private hatcher-
N= Total cost
ies. In this case, the cost of seedlings is very low. W = Total cost of feed used.
In tropical or subtropical areas, especially in Asia, there
are many fish farms, but few of these have specialized in No.
From (1) ^r
shrimp culture due to the difficulty of getting enough W.a
seedlings. In the case of ponds used for the culture of
milkfish (Chanos chanos\ shrimp seedlings enter the ponds where a = Conversion ratio from feed to fish
with the influx of sea water; and even in culture ponds
good water quality; scientific aquaculture can be said to formula (3), we take - as b.
298
The Culture of Freshwater Prawns: A Review 5. w. Ling and T. /.
covering both the species that spend their entire life cycle in most effective. Nearly laboratories, experimental sta-
all
fresh water, as well as those that spend part of their life tions, and hatcheries involved in prawn research are able to
cycle in fresh water and part in saline water. produce some prawn juveniles from eggs, and a few are able
A list of those species currently utilized in the research toproduce juveniles in commercial quantities. Apart from
and development of prawn farming is given on page 301 .
government experimental stations, several private prawn
As shown in the list, all the prawns that are utilized in hatcheries are already in active operation in Thailand,
one way or another for prawn culture development belong Taiwan Province of China, and Malaysia. The system of
to the family, Palaemonidae; a few belong to the genera operation used is moderately advanced, but leaves consid-
Leander and Palaemon, but the majority belong to the erable room for improvement.
genus Macrobrachium. All species of Leander and Palae-
mon experimented are small in size, have a slow growth rate 2.2.1 Facilities
and are not considered economical for commercial farming. For holding breeding stock of various sizes, outdoor
(/)
Among the dozen or so species of the genus Macro earthen ponds and cement and fibreglass tanks housed in
brachium experimented on, most of the large and medium roofed sheds are used.
size species M. acanthurus, M. americanum, M. carci- (//) For incubation and hatching of eggs, medium-size
nus, M. lar, M. malcolmsonii, M. ohione and M. rosenber- aquarium tanks are mostly used.
giY-show potential for prawn farming development. For rearing larvae, large aquarium tanks, earthen-
(iii)
The Indian species M. malcolmsonii, is quite similar in ware jars, cement tanks or troughs, plastic tanks, and
size and habit to the American species, M.carcinus. M. lar fibreglass tanks of various sizes have been used by different
is an active climber and traveller, requires a high content of laboratories for experimental purposes. For large-scale op-
dissolved oxygen, is rather cannibalistic and is difficult to erations, large cement tanks are popularly used. These are
conditions, has high tolerance to wide ranges of water and circulation and filtration devices.
aerators, agitators,
temperature, oxygen content, and organic pollution, is not (/v) For rearing juveniles, large rectangular cement tanks
carnivorous, is non-cannibalistic, and is regarded as having housed in roofed sheds are most frequently used. Juveniles
a good potential for farming (Johnson, 1969), especially in are held in these tanks until they reach 1-2 g in size before
Asia where medium size shrimps and prawns are appreci- being placed in outdoor growout ponds. The size at which
ated,and bring a fairly high market price. juveniles are placed in grow-out ponds varies a great deal.
To date, however, the best known and most popular
M. rosenbergii, not only because most of the 2.2.2 Water supply. Difficulties in obtaining unpolluted
species used is
culture work was done on this species, sea water have been experienced by practically all the
pioneering prawn
but because of its comparatively tame and less cannibalistic prawn laboratories and hatcheries in Asia. The problem of
behaviour, fast growth rate, shorter larval period and higher supplying good clean sea water has become a major con-
tolerance to a wider range of temperature and salinity. straint in the development of commercial-scale production
The spread of M. rosenbergii for research and culturing of juveniles. At present, large tanks are used to store sea
is worldwide. Japan and Singapore obtained their original water and filtration and sterilization units are installed to
stock from Malaysia. Taiwan Province of China imported treat sea water before use.
its stock from Thailand, while Bangladesh, Burma, India,
Indonesia, Kampuchea, Malaysia, Philippines, Sri Lanka 2.2.3 Breeding stock and berried females. Most of the
Thailand and Viet Nam
have their own native stock.
all laboratories and hatcheries maintain breeding stock, from
Australia and England obtained some stock from Malaysia. which they obtain their supply of berried females. By
300
Countries or areas used for Extent of
*
Species experiments or culture development
Leander fluminicola India A, B well advanced
L. styltferus India A, B well advanced
Palaemon lamarrei India B advanced
P. serratus North Wales (UK) B well advanced
C, D experimental
France B completed
C, D -experimental
Macrobrachium acanthurus USA B well advanced
Mexico C, D experimental
M. amazonicum Brazil B, C experimental
M. americanum Central and South America A, B advanced
C experimental
M. carcinus USA A, B well advanced
C, D experimental
Puerto Rico A advanced
C, D experimental
Barbados B well advanced
C, D experimental
M. tenellum Colombia D experimental
M. formosense Okinawa (Japan) B well advanced
M. lancetfrons Philippines A, B advanced
M. lanchesteri Malaysia A advanced
M. lar Malaysia A in progress
Taiwan, Province of China A, B in progress
Hawaii (USA) A, B advanced
C in progress
Tahiti A advanced
M. malcolmsonii India A, B well advanced
C, D -experimental
Bangladesh C, D experimental
Pakistan C, D experimental
M. modes tus Japan A, B well advanced
M. nipponense Japan A, B well advanced
M. ohione USA A, B well advanced
C, D experimental
M. rosenbergii Australia C successful
D pilot scale
Bangladesh B started
C, D experimental
Burma B started
C experimental
Kampuchea C experimental
India A, B completed
C, D experimental
Indonesia C, D experimental
Japan B successful
C, D experimental
Taiwan, Province of China C large scale
D moderate
Malaysia C large scale
D moderate
Philippines B~~completed
C started
Singapore C moderate
D- pilot
Sn Lanka B completed
C started
Thailand C large scale
D experimental
Viet Nam C experimental
Polynesia C large scale
D pilot scale
Palau C, D experimental
Tahiti C large scale
D pilot scale
Mauritius C moderate
D experimental
Seychelles C small scale
D experimental
Malawi C small scale
D experimental
Hawaii (USA) C large scale
D successful
commercial farms
USA C large scale
D moderate
Mexico C experimental
D experimental
Puerto Rico C large scale
D large commercial farm
Honduras C large scale
D large commercial farms
Colombia C experimental
D experimental
M. rude Thailand A in progress
*
Symbols of extent of development: A = Field biology studies; B = Laboratory life-history studies; C = Production of juveniles; D^Growout operation
301
keeping a stock of about 400 mature females and 100-1 50 can be easily separated from the ovary when the roe is
males, an average of about 40 berried females will be thawed in water). Small entomostracans, Acetes, and small
available each week for most of the year. In Asia berried shrimps are often kept in a freezer for use during the off
females are only occasionally obtained from their natural season. Steamed egg custard and soy bean curd are readily
habitats. Old, weak or iiyured specimens are removed from ingested by the larvae, and because of their high protein
time to time and replaced by healthy, large specimens content, easy availability and cheap price, are gaining in
obtained from the grow-out ponds. popularity as larval feed.
Breeding stock is reared in either fresh or slightly brack- (iv) Prevention and control of larval mortality: High
ish water (salinity range 2-8 ppt). These are fed mussels, mortality of larvae has been experienced in most laborato-
cockles, fresh trash-fish or compounded fish feed, which- ries and hatcheries. The principal methods for preventing
ever is readily available cheaply. mortality are: (/) maintenance of suitable water quality and
environmental conditions; (//) provision of food quality
2.2.4 Incubation and hatching of eggs. For incubation and and sufficient quantity of food and adequate frequency of
hatching, berried females are held in ordinary aquarium feeding; (///') removal of polluting material; (iv) disinfection
tanks or any suitable small receptacles, or even directly in of tanks and equipment and sterilization of water; and (v)
the larval rearing tank. Berried females carrying eggs which screening of water to prevent entry of predators.
were all spawned within a 5 day period are selected and kept Occurrence of disease and parasites have also been
in thesame tank so that the eggs will all hatch within 4-5 encountered, but no effective control measures for these
days of each other. This minimizes size differences and have been developed.
possible predation or cannibalism.
Eggs can be incubated in fresh or brackish water; com- 2.2.6 Rearing of juveniles. Newly metamorphosed juve-
mon practice is to use water with a salinity of 6-12 ppt. allowed to remain in the larval tanks for 1-
niles are usually
When incubation and hatching is carried out directly in 2 weeks before being transferred to juvenile (nursery)
larval rearing tanks, the salinity of the water is the same or tanks. Water in these juvenile tanks is maintained at very
slightly lower than that intended for rearing larvae. low or no salinity, is well aerated and maintained at depths
of 0-3-0. 5m.
2.2.5 Rearing larvae Material suitable for feeding juveniles include: small
(/) Maintenance of water conditions: Favourable water pieces of fish, shrimps, Acetes, chironomid larvae, squid,
conditions are maintained by regulated water aeration, mussel, cockle, worms, grains, beans and high-protein
agitation and filtration. Salinity in the rearing facilities is compounded pellets.
maintained within a range of 12-16 ppt, pH about 7-5-8, In Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia, juveniles and
temperature 26-30C and depth 0-5 m. young prawns are sometimes collected from their natural
To minimize water pollution, uneaten food materials and habitats for growing in ponds. In Thailand there is an
larval wastes which accumulate at the bottom are removed extensive industry collecting young juveniles below dams
daily by siphoning. To avoid loss of larvae through siphon- for stocking and growout above the dams.
each stage of development so with no modification in the The basic techniques used are mainly the existing fish
volume of water in the larval rearing tank, densities may culture methods practised extensively in Asia for many
typically reach 20-60/1 toward the end of the larval rearing years. In general, the system used is one of open ponds,
period. Sick and Beaty (1974), in a series of well designed extensive in area, fairly labour intensive, moderately mech-
experiments, found stocking densities of 40 animals/1 best, anized, and involving little modern technology.
considering growth and survival rates. Ponds: most of the ponds used for prawn culture are
(//')
(Hi) Food and feeding: Macrobrachium larvae have been converted from existing fish ponds, with some alteration
successfully reared on a wide variety of foods. The present and improvement; often even new ponds are constructed
trend in Asia is to minimize the use of brine shrimp similar to the traditional type of Asian fish ponds. These are
(Anemia) nauplii because their eggs are all imported and all earthen ponds, mostly rectangular in shape, 1 000-
have become increasingly expensive and difficult to obtain. 5 000 2
m
in area, 1-2 m
in depth and provided with effi-
Brine shrimp nauplii are now being used primarily during cient water supplies, drainage systems and water sluice
the first week of larval rearing, after which a variety of gates. Water aerators and water agitators are sometimes
specially prepared foods available locally at low cost are installed in the ponds.
substituted. Foods found to be useful are: rotifers, cyclops, (///) Water supply fresh water
: is mainly used for farming
(v) Stocking: to ensure good survival, juveniles 2-4 2.3.2 Marketing, handling and processing. The popularity
weeks old (from time of metamorphosis) are used for of the prawn among consumers homes, restaurants,
stocking. hotels, airlines, ocean liners, etc continues to increase,
Prawns are ordinarily cultured alone, but the practice of causing a steady increase in market demand. The wild stock
culturing prawns together with non-predatory fish such as which is still the principal source of supply is decreasing
the grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella), silver carp (Hy- steadily, while the production from the young prawn farm-
pophthalmichthys molitrix), bighead carp (Aristichthys no- ing industry is very small, representing only a small frac-
bilis\ and grey mullet (Mugil cephalus) has been success- tion of the quantity needed to satisfy the domestic market in
fully demonstrated and is gaining popularity among Asian Asia, let alone the international market.
fish farmers. The domestic demand for fresh prawns is so great that
The Asia depends on: (a) whether the
rate of stocking in prawns harvested from ponds are quickly absorbed by local
prawns are to be cultured alone or in combination with markets. Ordinarily, prawns are harvested, sent to the
suitable species offish; (b) if they are cultured with fish, the market early in the morning, and sold within a few hours.
kinds and number offish to be stocked; (c) water quality Most of them are kept fresh under ice flakes; some are kept
and pond soil fertility; (d)kinds and quantity of fertilizers alive in tanks or cisterns with running water, or in shallow
to be used, and and quantity of available feeds.
(e) quality bamboo baskets covered with fine aquatic plants and kept
For culturing in combination with fish, a stocking rate of moist and cool by frequent sprinkling with ice-cold water.
5 000-15 000/ha is generally used; when cultured alone, Prawn heads are well liked by southeast Asian people so
about 15 000-30 000/ha. This stocking rate in Asia is prawns are always sold heads-on in domestic markets in
considerably less than the stocking rates used at recently Asia.
developed grow-out facilities in Hawaii, Puerto Rico, Hon- Up to the present, all prawns exported from Asia were
duras and Panama, but commensurate with the practice in wild stock caught from open waters, or from trapping-
Asia to supply minimal amounts of supplemental food. growing enclosures. They are headed, de-veined and frozen
( vi) Feed and feeding: prawns depend a great deal on the like processed penaeid shrimp.
food material produced in the pond. Supplemental feeds are
given only in moderate quantity. When cultured in combi- 2.3.3 Economics ofprawnfarming. Little reliable informa-
nation with high densities offish, prawn often make use of tion available on the economics of prawn farming in Asia
is
the fish feeds and so little or no supplemental feed is given to and the Far East. In general, in most of the developing
the prawns. Material used as prawn feeds are: trash fish or countries, where large areas of inexpensive land are avail-
any non-oily inexpensive fish, small shrimp, mussels, squid, able, labour comparatively cheap, but financial resources
is
corn, peanut cake and soybean cake. are poor. The tendency
is to adopt a less sophisticated and
(v//) Pond management: to minimize the danger of oxy- consequently less expensive system of operation. Though
gen depletion, a gentle flow of water is maintained, es- the yield per unit area may be comparatively small, the cost
pecially at night; whenever possible, ponds are provided of production is low enough to be economically profitable.
with good aerators or water agitators. A
few grass carp and
silvercarp are often stocked (when prawns are cultured 2.4 Freshwater prawn culture in the Americas
alone) to help control excessive growth of aquatic plants Development of prawn culture in the Americas began in
and phytoplankton. Water inlets are screened to prevent Hawaii in 1965 with the importation of 36 giant freshwater
predatory fish and their eggs and young from entering the prawns, Macrobrachium rosenbergiifrom Malaysia. Under
ponds and also to prevent escape of the prawns. the leadership of Takuji Fujimura, a prawn culture industry
(v7) Prevention and control of predators, competitors, has developed in the Hawaiian islands. Fujimura and his
diseases and parasites: methods for the prevention and associates have also provided the principal expertise which
control of predators, competitors, disease and parasites are has led to the development of prawn culture facilities
mainly the existing practices popularly used in fish farming elsewhere in the Americas. There are at least 19 facilities in
operations. Draining, drying and liming of a pond prior to the Americas farming Macrobrachium or developing tech-
stocking is effective in killing the spores, eggs and young niques designed to improve systems for prawn culture. The
stages of many predators, and disease-causing organisms, larger grow-out facilities are located in Panama, Honduras.
parasites and competitors. Some diseases and parasites Puerto Rico, Texas, Florida and Hawaii. Some of these
have been observed, but due to the lack of trained personnel facilities are presently producing substantial quantities of
in this field, there has been little research on their diagnosis, prawns, which are being test marketed in the United States.
prevention and control. In addition to the production of pond-reared prawns in
(ix) Harvesting: two principal harvesting systems are Panama, Honduras, Puerto Rico and Hawaii, several com-
followed, partial and complete. Partial harvesting consists panies are attempting to develop closed system processes to
of a system for removing the larger prawns from a pond at rear commercial quantities of prawns in an entirely syn-
regular, often monthly, intervals. This is accomplished with thetic environment. To date none of these has produced any
a specially designed seine net which will capture the larger substantial quantities of prawns for the market, and infor-
prawns and allow the smaller ones to escape. In some areas, mation on most of their progress and development is
a seine with smaller mesh may capture most of the prawns proprietary. It is considered that it will require several years
303
to prove or probably disprove the economic feasibility of brachiwn lanchesteri (de Man)). FAO Fish. Rep., (57) vol.
closed systems to rear prawns for market. Few culturists
KESTEVEN, G. L. & JOB, T. J. Shrimp culture in Asia and the Far East.
doubt the present capability to rear prawns in closed 1957 A preliminary review. Proc. GulfCaribb. Fish. Inst., 10: 49-68
systems, but considering cost factors it is difficult to foresee KWON, C. S. & UNO, Y. The larval development of Palacmon modestus
1 968 (Heller), in the laboratory. Bull. Soc. Franco-Jap. Oceanogr. 6 (4)
how this can be a profitable system in the near future.
KWON, C. S. & UNO, Y. The larval development of Macrobrachium
,
&
DUOAN, C. C. FRAKES, T. A. Culture of brackish-freshwater shrimp, 13:330-7
1972 Macrobrachium acanthurus, M. carcinus and M
ohione Proc. PANIKKAR, N. K Osmoregulation in some palaemonid prawns. J
Annu. Workshop World Maricult Soc., 3. 185-91 1941 Mar. Biol. Assoc. U.K., 25 317-59 :
FIELDER, D. R. The larval development of Macrobrachium australiense PANIKKAR, N. K. Osmotic behavior of shrimps and prawns in relation
1970 Holthuis, reared in the laboratory. Crustaceana, 18 (1): 60-74 1968 to their biology and culture. FAO Fish. Rep., (57) vol. 3 527-38 :
FORSTER, J. R. M. Studies on the development of compounded diets for RAO, R M. Breeding behaviour in Macrobrachium rosenbergii Fish
1976 prawns (in press) 1965 Technol. Ernakulum, 2 (1): 19-25
FUJIMURA, T. Notes on the development of a practical mass culture RAO, R M Studies on the biology of Macrobrachium rosenbergii on
1966 technique of the giant prawn, Macrobrachium rosenbergii. 1967 the Hooghly estuary with notes on its fishery Proc. Natl. Inst.
Paper presented to the Indo-Pacific Fisheries Council, 12th Sci. India, 33B
session, IPFC/C66/WP47 4 p. :
RASALAN, S. B., DELMENDO, M. N. & REYES, T G. Some observations
FUJIMURA, T. Development of a prawn industry, development of a 1969 on the biology of the freshwater shrimp, Macrobrachium
1967- rearing technique for the giant long-legged prawn Macro- lanceifrons (Dana), with notes on the fishery. FAO Fish. Rep.,
74 brachiwn rosenbergii. In Quarterly Progress Reports under the vol. 3: 923- 34
Commercial Fisheries Development Act, National Marine RODRIGUEZ DF LA CRUZ, M. C Contribuci6n al concimiento de los
Fisheries Service, March 1967, January 1968, February 1969, 1968 palem6mdos de Mexico: 3. Palemonidos del Golfo de Cali-
June 1974 fornia, con notas sobre la biologia de Macrobrachium amen-
FUJIMURA, T. & OKAMOTO, H. Notes on progress made in developing a canum Bate. FAO Fish. Rep., (57) vol. 2: 373-80
1972 mass culturing technique for Macrobrachium rosenbergii in SANDIFER, P. A. &
SMITH, T. I. J. Effects of population density on
Hawaii. In Coastal aquaculture in the I ndo- Pacific region, 1975 growth and survival of Macrobrachium rosenbergii reared in
edited by T. V. R. Pillay. West Byfleet, Surrey, Fishing News recirculating water. Proc. Annu. Meeting World Maricult. Soc.,
(Books) Ltd. pp. 3 13-27 6.43-53
GIANNINI, V, L. A bibliography of selected references on brackish- SEGAL, E. & ROE, A. Growth and behaviour of post juvenile Macro-
1975 freshwater prawns, Macrobrachium Personal contribution 1974 brachium rosenbergii (de Man) in close confinement. Proc. Annu.
(mimeo) Meeting World Maricult. Soc,, 6: 67-88
GOODWIN, H. L. & HANSON, J A. Aquaculture of the fresh water prawn SHANG, Y. C. Economic feasibility of fresh-water prawn farming in
1975 (Macrobrachium spp.). In Proceedings of the Workshop on the 1972 Hawaii. Rep. Econ. Res. Cent. Univ. Hawaii, June 1972
culture of fresh water prawns, November 1974, St. Petersburg, SHOKITA, S. Studies on the multiplication of the freshwater prawn
Fla. 1970 Macrobrachium formosense Bate. 1. The larval development
GOPINATH, K. Prawn culture in the rice fields of Travancore, Cochin, reared in the laboratory. Biol. Mag. Okinawa, 6 (8): 1-12
1955 India. Proc. 1PFC, 6 419-25
: SICK, L V. & BFATY, H Culture technique and nutrition studies for
HOBBS, H. H. JR. & MASSMAN, W. H. The river shrimp, Macrobrachium 1974 larval stages of the giant prawn, Macrobrachium rosenbergii.
1952 ohione (Smith) in Virginia. Va. J. Sci. (New Ser.), 3 (3) 206-70
: Tech. Rep. Ser. Ga. Mar. Sci. Cent. Univ. Ga.. (74-5)
HOLTHIUS, L. B. A general revision of the Palaemonidae of the Ameri- SICK, L. V. & HARRIS, J. A comparative study in formula food tech-
1952 cas. 2. Subfam. Palaemonidae. Occas. Pubi Allan Hancock 1974 nology and application for penaeid and Macrobrachium larval
Found, 12: 1-396 and juvenile shrimp. Paper presented to the 5th World Man-
IBRAHIM, K. H. Observation on the fishery and biology of the freshwater culture Society Meeting, Charleston, S.C., Jan. 1974
1962 prawn Macrobrachium malcolmsoni M. Ed of river Godavari. SINDERMANN, C. J. Diagnosis and control of mariculture disease in the
Indian J. Fish., 9A (2): 433-67 1974 United States. Tech. Ser. Middle Atl Coast. Fish. Cent. NMFSI
INGLE, R. M. & ELDRED, B. Notes on the artificial cultivation of fresh NOAA, (2)
1960 water shrimp. West Indies Fish. Bull., (4): 1-5 SMITH, T. I. J. & SANDIFER, P. A. Increased production of tank-reared
JOHN, M. C. Bionomica and life-history of Macrobrachium rosenbergii. 1975 Macrobrachium rosenbergii through use of artificial substrates.
1957 Bull. Cent. Res. Inst. Univ. Trivandrum, (O, 5 (1): 93-102 Proc. Annu. Meeting World Maricult. Soc., 6: 55-66
JOHNSON, D. S. Biology of potentially valuable fresh-water prawns with SMITH, T. I. J., SANDIFER, P. A. &
TRIMBLE, W. C. Progress in develop-
1968 special reference to the rice-field prawn Cryphiops (Macro- 1974 ing a recirculating synthetic seawater hatchery for rearing
304
larvae of Macrobrachium rosenbergu. In Proceedings of the 4th brachium rosenbergti (de Man). Fish Invest. Mimst. Agnc. Fish.
Food-Drugs From the Sea Conference, Nov. 1974. Marine Food U.K. (2), 27 (5)
Technology Society WICKINS, J. F. &
FORSTER, J. R. M. Prawn culture in the United King-
SMITHERMAN, R. O., Moss, D. D. & DIAZ, E. L. Observations on the 1972 dom, its status and potential. Lab. Leafl. Minis t. Agric. Fish.
1974 biology of Macrobrachium americanwn from a pond environ- FoodU.K.,(21)
ment in Panama. Proc. Annu. Meeting World Maricult. Soc , WILLIAMSON, D. I. The type of development of prawns as a factor
5:24-40 1969 determining suitability for farming. FAO Fish. Rep., (57) vol.
UNO, Y. & KWON, C. S. Larval development of Macrobrachium rosen- 3:643-56
1969 bergii (de Man), reared in the laboratory. ,/. Tokyo Univ. Fish., ZIBUNSKI, P. B., CASTRO, W. E. & SANDIFER, P.
A. The evaluation and
55 (2): 179-90 1974 optimization of Macrobrachium shrimp larvae tank designs
WICKINS, J. F. Experiments on the culture of the spot prawn Panaalus and support systems. Proc. Annu. Meeting World Maricult. Soc.,
platyceros Brandt and the giant freshwater prawn Macro- 5:41-50
L.A.Guerrero and
Culture of Freshwater Shrimps in Fertilized Ponds R.D.Guerrero III
Abstract Although smaller than the giant freshwater prawn,
Few studies on the culture of shrimps capable of reproducing in fresh-
Macrobrachium rosenbergii, M. lanchesteri shows promise
water ponds are reported. Preliminary experiments to evaluate Macro-
brachium lanchesteri and M
lanceifrons montalbanense stocked with
.
as an important animal protein resource for the rural
and without fish in fertilized ponds were conducted. Stocking ovigerous masses of southeast Asia. M. lanchesteri breeds under pond
female and juvenile shrimps in four 0- 1 ha earthen ponds with Tilapia
mossambica and T. nilotica resulted in net shrimp production of 37 to conditions, is an algal feeder, and is not cannibalistic
179 kg/ha after 90 days, indicating heavy reproduction of the shrimps. (Johnson, 1968). Because of these advantages, this mini-
Shrimp standing crops of 384 and 391 kg/ha were obtained after 120 shrimp can be produced at a much lower cost than that for
days in ponds stocked with adult male and female shrimps at rates of 10
the giant prawn.
and 9 kg/ha respectively. Pond production of freshwater shrimps has
considerable potential and further studies are recommended on the With meagre information on the pond culture of M.
biology, ecology and cultural management of M. lanchesteri and M. lanchesteri and M. lanceifrons montalbanense, which oc-
lanceifrons montalbanense.
cur naturally in the irrigation canal of the Freshwater
Elevage de crevcttes d'eau douce dans des etangs fertilises
Aquaculture Center at Munoz and in some lakes of the
Resume
Peu d 'etudes sur 1'elevage des crevettes susceptibles de se reproduire Philippines, experiments were conducted from April to
dans des etangs d'eau douce ont etc publiees. Des experiences prelimi- July 1 975 to determine the feasibility of stocking ovigerous
naires visant a evaluer Macrobrachium lanchesteri et M. lanceifrons female and juvenile shrimps in fertilized ponds with Tilapia
montalbanense des etangs fertilises, en presence ou non de
places dans mosambica and T. nilotica, and to determine the production
poissons, ont ete realisees. La mise en charge de quatre etangs en terre de
0,1 ha, par des femelles ovigeres et des jeunes crevettes en presence de potential of the shrimps in ponds not stocked with fish.
Tilapia mossambica et T. nilotica a entraine une production nette de
crevettes de 37 a 1 79 kg/ha en 1'espace de 90 jours, ce qui indique une
reproduction massive des crevettes. Des biomasses de crevettes de 384 et
39 1 kg/ha ont ete pbtenues dans des etangs peuples de crevettes adultes
males et femelles, a raison de 10 et 9 kg/ha respectivement, au bout de 2 Materials and methods
1 20
jours. La production de crevettes d'eau douce dans des etangs ofFre Six 0- 1 ha earthen
ponds were completely drained and re-
de grandes possibihtes et Ton recommande que des etudes plus poussees
filled with water from a deep well. To prevent possible
soient effectives sur la biologic, Ideologic et les pratiques culturales de
M. lanchesteri et M. lanceifrons montalbanense. shrimp and fish contamination, their inlet pipes were dou-
Cultivo de camarones de agua dulce en estanques fertilizados
mm stretched mesh nylon netting. The
bly screened with 2
Extracto ponds were poisoned with 25 ppb of Gusathion A seven
Son pocos los estudios conocidos sobre el cultivo de camarones capaces days before stocking.
de reproducirse en estanques de agua dulce. Se ban reahzado algunos
experimentos prelim inares para evaluar d rendimiento de Macrobrach-
The shrimps used in stocking were collected from a
ium lanchesteri y M. lanceifrons montalbanense en estanques fertiliza- breeding pond at the station. Two ponds were stocked with
dos con peces y sin peces. Echando hem bras ovigeras y formas juveniles 0-40 kg and 0-31 kg of ovigerous female shrimps (0-4 g
de camarones en cuatro estanques de tierra de 0,1 ha con Tilapia
mossambica y T. nilotica se obtuvo una produccion neta de camarones mean weight), respectively; two ponds were each stocked
de 37 a 1 79 kg/ha a los 90 dias, lo que indica una intensa reproduction with 1-0 kg of juvenile shrimps (0-2 g mean weight) and
de los camarones. En estanques sembrados con camarones adultos,
two ponds with 1-0 kg and 0-90 kg of adult male and
machos y hembras, a razon de 10 y 9 kg/ha, respectivamente, se
al cabo de 120 dias rendimientos de 384 y 391 kg/ha. La female shrimps (l*2g mean weight), respectively.
obtuvierpn
produccion de camarones de agua dulce en estanques ofrece considera- Tilapia mossambica (0- 1 g mean weight) were stocked
bles posibilidades y se recomienda que se realicen nuevos estudios sobre
at 10 000 and 15 200/ha in the two ponds with 0-40 kg
la biologia y ecologia de M. lanchesteri y M. lanceifrons montalbanense
y su explotacion mediante cultivo. ovigerous female shrimps and 1-0 kg juvenile shrimps,
respectively. The two other ponds with 0-3 1 kg ovigerous
female shrimps and 1-0 kg juvenile shrimps were stocked
1 Introduction with T. nilotica (6 g mean weight) at 10 000 and 10 800/
Little is known about the culture of small freshwater ha, respectively. No fish were stocked in the two ponds with
shrimps inponds. The presence of Macrobrachium lan- adult shrimps.
chesteri in ricelands and ability to
reproduce in stagnant
its Ten shrimp shelters made of bundles of Tamarindus
fresh water were reported by Johnson (1968). Guerrero, indicus brush were placed in each pond stocked with fish.
Guerrero and Grover (1975) found substantial yields of M. These were approximately 1 m long and 30 cm in
shelters
lanchesteri and A/, lanceifrons montalbanense in fertilized diameter. All ponds were fertilized with 16-20-0 (N-P-
freshwater ponds with milkfish, Chanos chanos. Heavy K) applied on platforms at 50 kg/ha every two weeks.
predation of the shrimps by Tilapia species was noted. Water depth in the ponds was maintained at 60-70 cm.
305
The four ponds stocked with fish and shrimps were TABLE II
drained after 90 days of culture. The other two ponds, STOCKING WEIGHT AND STANDING CROP OF FRESHWATER SHRIMPS
AFTER 120 CULTURE DAYS
stocked with adult shrimps only, were drained after 120
days. Fish and shrimp were harvested with scoop nets. The
recovery rates of the fish and the standing crops of both fish
and shrimps were measured.
4 References
Stocking of adult shrimps only in ponds produced high GUERRERO, R. D., GUERRERO, L. A. &
GROVER, J H
Notes on the
1975 culture of freshwater shrimps in Central Luzon. Paper presented
yields after 120 days (Table II). One of the ponds was at International Conference on Prawn Farming, Vung Tau,
contaminated with 456 Tilapia zillii which presumably Vietnam, 7 p. (mimeo)
entered during the experiment. JOHNSON, D. Biology of potentially valuable fresh- water prawns with
S.
1968 special reference to the nceland prawn Cryhiops (Macro-
Findings of the experiments suggest that there is consid- brachium) lanchesteri (de Man). FAO
Fish. Rep., (57) vol. 2
erable potential for culturing freshwater shrimps as a pri- 233-^1
Center. This paper is the result of research sponsored by NO AA Office the model included the agonistic nature of M. rosenbergii; predation of
of Sea Grant, Department of Commerce, under Grants 04-5- 158-5 and larvae by a hydrozoan (Moerisia lyonsi) which became established in the
04-6-158-44009, the Coastal Plains Regional Commission under con- hatchery system; and bacterial diseases. Priorities for future research
tracts 10340049 and 10440040, and the State of South Carolina. include the design of efficient nursery systems, genetic manipulation to
Reference to trade names in this paper does not imply endorsement by improve growth characteristics of the prawn and increase its tolerance to
NOAA Office of Sea Grant, the Coastal Plains Regional Commission, low temperatures, development of cost-effective rations, and identifica-
the State of South Carolina or FAO. tion or development of suitable markets.
306
L'aqnacutaire expfrfanentale de la crevette malaise, Macrobrachtiun pare a plan of research to develop, test and modify the
rosenbergii en Caroline du Sod, E-U model and to identify and evaluate alternative models; and
Resume
L 'elaboration et 1'experimentation preliminaire d'un systeme modele assemble an interdisciplinary research team to conduct the
sont presentees pour 1'elevage de Macrobrachium rosenbergii en Caro- broad spectrum of needed research and pilot-scale studies.
line du Sud. Le modele se compose de quatre elements de base: (/)
In this paper the development and preliminary testing of
conservation sous abri de stocks de geniteurs, en vue de la production de
larves (mi-octobre a mai); (ii) production de post-larves en utilisant un a Macrobrachium aquaculture model for South Carolina
systeme de recyclage d'eau de mer synthetique dans des ecloseries (mi- are discussed. The research and development plan has been
Janvier a mai); (in) utilisation de reservoirs en circuit ferme pour described elsewhere (Sandifer, 1975), and the interdiscipli-
1'elevage des post-larves jusqu'aux stades juveniles en vue de la mise en
charge des etangs (mi-fevrier a mai); et (/v) elevage intensif de juveniles nary research team presently consists of biologists, engin-
en etangs jusqu'a ce qu'ils atteignent une taille commerciale (fin avril/ eers, economists, nutritionists, a biochemist and an algolo-
mai jusqu'a la mi-octobre).
Des essais preliminaires ont demontre les possibilites techniques du gist. Various aspects of the research programme are
modele. Des crevettes destinees a la reproduction ont etc maintenues conducted at Clemson University, the Medical University
pendant ITiiver dans des reservoirs en circuit ferme. La production des of South Carolina, the University of South Carolina, and
a etc en moyenne de 25/1 de capacite du reservoir, dans une
post-larves
ecloserie-laboratoire reliee a un systeme de recyclage de 1'eau de mer the Southeast Utilization Research Center of the National
synthetique; les post-larves de crevettes ont etc amenees jusqu'aux stades Marine Fisheries Service, with the main effort being at the
juveniles dans des reservoirs assez peuples; le taux de survie a etc
Marine Resources Research Institute.
satisfaisant; on prevoit des rendements de de 1 000 a 2 000 kg/ha
Pprdre
d'etang quand on les aura peuples de juveniles de >0-25 g environ. Les
principaux problemes rencontres lors des essais ont etc provoques par la
nature agressive de M. rosenbergii, la predation des larves par un
2 Model for M. rosenbergii aquaculture in South Carolina
hydrosoaire, Moerisia lyonsi, qui s'est installe dans Pecloserie, et des
maladies bacteriennes. Les priorites fixees pour la recherche future 2.1 Background
comprennent: la conception de systemes d 'ecloseries efficaces, la Forster and Wickins (1972) described three basic types of
manipulation genetique destinee a ameliorer les caracteristiques de
croissance des crevettes et augmenter leur tolerance aux basses aquaculture: 'extensive (low stocking densities) or free
(/)
temperatures, la mise au point de rations presentant un bon rapport cput- range culture in very large outdoor ponds or enclosed sea
efficacite, et 'identification ou le developpement de marches appropries.
areas'; (ii) 'intensive (high stocking densities) outdoor
1
La acuicultura experimental del camaron malasio, Macrobrachium culture in smaller, more controllable ponds, tanks or race-
rosenbergii en Carolina del Sur, EE UU ways'; and 'very intensive (high stocking densities with
(iii)
Extracto
El texto presenta el desarrollo v primeros ensayos de un sistema modelo frequent cropping) indoor culture in completely controlled
para el cultivo de Macrobrachium rosenbergii en Carolina del Sur. El environment tank systems'. The first type was considered
modelo comprende cuatro fases fundamentales: (/) cria bajo techo de for the thousands of acres of former rice fields in coastal
reproductores para la produccion de larvas (mediados de pctubre a
South Carolina. However, after careful consideration of the
mayo); (//) produccion de formas postlarvales utilizando un sistema de
incubation con recirculacion de agua de mar obtenida sinteticamente problems of managing and harvesting such impoundments,
(mediados de enero a mayo); (///') utilization de tanques de cria en it appeared that a combination of the two intensive ap-
sistema cerrado para criar las formas postlarvales hasta su paso a
juveniles que se siembran en estanques (mediados de febrero a mayo); y proaches offered greater likelihood of success.
(/v) cultivo intensive en estanque de las formas juveniles hasta que The climate of South Carolina permits outdoor cultiva-
alcanzan tamario comercializable (finales de abril/mayo a mediados de
tion of M. rosenbergii from spring to autumn each year, a
octubre).
Los ensayos prelim mares han demostrado la viabilidad tecnica del period of about 5 to 6 months. Even with this relatively
modelo. Se ha man ten do a los camarones reproductores durante el
i
short growing season, intensive culture of prawns in out-
invierno en tanques en sistema cerrado; en la produccion de formas
door ponds appears to offer a more immediate potential for
postlarvales en una incubadora de laboratono conectada a un sistema de
recirculacion de agua de mar sintetica se ha obtenido un promedio de 25 profit than does very intensive tank culture, since tank
unidades por litro de capacidad del tan que; se han criado las formas culture technology is not yet well developed.
postlarvales en tanques hasta la fase juvenil a densidades relativamente
altas (hasta 500/nr), con buen indice de supervivencia; y se proyecta Full utilization of the available outdoor growing season
obtener rendimientos del orden de 1 000-2 000 kg/ha de estanque can be achieved only if post-larval prawns are produced
sembrando formas juveniles de >0-25 g. Entre los problemas principals
during late winter and early spring. This requires an indoor,
que se han encontrado en el ensayo del modelo figuran la naturaleza
cpmbativa
de A/, rosenbergii; la depredation de las larvas por un controlled-temperature hatchery. A
recirculating system
hidrozoo (Moerisia lyonsi) que se establece en el sistema de incubation;
employing synthetic seawater was chosen for the hatchery
las enfermedades bacterianas. Las prioridades para la investigation
y over other types of systems. This selection was based on
futura son: preparacion de sistemas eficaces de cria, manipulation
genetica para mejorar las caracteristicas de crecimiento del camaron y several factors. First, water temperatures required for rear-
aumentar su tolerancia a las temperaturas bajas, obtencion de raciones
eficaces bajo el aspecto costo, y localization o fomento de mercados
ing Af. rosenbergii larvae are relatively high (28-30C)
adecuados. and a recirculating system might substantially reduce heat-
ing costs. Second, use of a recirculating system could
reduce or eliminate the need for a continuous supply of high
1 Introduction quality water, thereby increasing the number of potential
The Malaysian prawn, Macrobrachium rosenbergii, has hatchery sites. Third, hatcheries utilizing synthetic sea-
proved to be an excellent organism for warm water aquacul- water in a recirculating system could be located on compar-
ture (Ling, 1962, 1969, 1969a; Fujimura, 1966, 1974; atively inexpensive interior lands adjacent to the freshwater
Fujimura and Okamoto, 1970; Shang, 1972;Provenzano, grow-out facilities. Thus, a coastal site would be unneces-
1973), and interest in its cultivation has become wide- sary, and the numerous advantages of having hatchery and
spread. Following a year of preliminary laboratory studies pond facilities at the same location could be realized.
with native species, the Marine Resources Research Insti- Intensive production of marketable prawns in tank sys-
tute of the South Carolina Wildlife and Marine Resources tems is not yet commercially feasible, but recent studies
Department began, in mid- 1973, to examine the possibility indicate that such systems may have immediate potential
of farming M. rosenbergii in South Carolina. For this for rearing post-larvae to larger sizes for stocking in ponds
study it was necessary to develop a model of
feasibility (Mock, Neal and Salser, 1973; Mock, Ross and Salser,
Macrobrachium aquaculture suitable for this region; pre- 1975; Sandifer and Smith, 1 9 7 5 ). C losed tank systems also
307
appear satisfactory for holding broodstock indoors over concentration of approximately 5-10/ml of water. The
winter. larvae are provided similar amounts ofArtemia twice daily
for the first 20 days of rearing, after which the concentra-
2.2 Description of the model tion is gradually decreased. Beginning about the seventh
The model of M. rosenbergii aquaculture developed for day, the diet is supplemented with grey mullet (Mugil spp.)
South Carolina consists of four basic components: (/) eggs, which are fed at least 4 times daily for the remainder
indoor maintenance of brood stock for production of larvae of the larval period. These fish eggs have proved more
(mid-October to May); (//) production of post-larvae using satisfactory than other diet supplements, such as sieved fish
a recirculating synthetic seawater hatchery system (mid- flesh and prepared flake products, tested in our laboratory.
January to May); (///) operation of closed system nursery Little water is exchanged between the tank and reservoir-
tanks to rear post-larvae to larger juveniles for stocking in filter during the first day of larval culture, but, beginning on
ponds (mid-February to May); and (i'v) intensive pond the second and continuing until the 25th day, the water
cultivation of juveniles to marketable size (late April/May recirculation rate is increased by about two tank volumes/
to mid-October). This model may also be suitable for other tank/day. After day 25 the turnover rate is held at approxi-
areas with similar climates. mately fifty tank volumes/tank/day for the remainder of the
culture period.
3 Operation of model and preliminary results 3.2.2 Production of post-larvae. When the hatchery is
3.1 Maintenance of broodstock in the laboratory operated as outlined above some post-larvae are generally
Adult prawns are held in 40 to 5 000 laboratory tanks.
1 observed by days 20-24 and nearly all the larvae metamor-
Each tank is equipped with a separate gravel filter or phose by days 35-40. Thus far, initial stocking densities
connected to a large laboratory recirculating system similar have ranged from 67-249 larvae/1 of tank capacity and
to that used for larval culture (see section 3.2.1). Salinity production of post-larvae from 6 6-40- 6/1 (2515-
and temperature usually range from 2 to 4% and from 25 15412/tank). Production averaged 32 post-larvae/1 in
to 29C, respectively, in broodstock tanks. Prawns are early rearing trials involving single tanks (Smith, Sandifer
frequently housed in isolation in small tanks, while in the and Trimble, 1976a) and 25/1 for two production runs in
larger ones mixed populations of males and females are which all tanks were stocked and operated concurrently.
maintained. The isolation method is useful for selective These production levels are appreciably higher than those
breeding studies and observations on mating behaviour, but achieved in most other laboratory and hatchery systems
the larger 'communal breeding tanks' are more efficient for (Ling, 1969a; Fujimura and Okamoto, 1970; Wickins,
holding large numbers of adult animals and producing 1972;Fujimura, 1974; Singholka, 1975; Koike and Pota-
ovigerous females. ros, 1975). Yet, mean survival has been relatively low,
No major difficulties have been encountered in holding 31-9% in rearing trials involving single tanks (Smith,
broodstock for several months in laboratory recirculating Sandifer and Trimble, 1976) and 17-2% for production
sytems, although mortalities due to agonistic behaviour of trials. More than 150 000 post-larvae have been reared in
the prawns are common. In addition, the viability of larvae our laboratory-scale hatchery to date using the recirculat-
produced by a given female frequently decreases after ing synthetic seawater system, and present production
repeated spawning in the laboratory. This loss of viability capacity for the system appears to be about 60 000 post-
may be related to deficiencies in the material diet (adults are larvae in 40 days.
fed only a prepared ration in the laboratory) or perhaps to A major problem encountered in operating the hatchery
some physiological factors associated with repeated ovar- system has been associated with occasional blooms of
ian development and spawning. inadvertently introduced jellyfishes, Moerisia lyonsi, which
cause high mortalities among the prawn larvae (Sandifer,
3.2 Recirculating synthetic seawater hatchery system Smith and Calder, 1974). The small hydrozoan feeds on
3.2. 1 Description and operating procedures. The hatchery Anemia nauplii and can successfully reproduce within the
consists of six 380 1 larval culture cones (cylindrical fibre- recirculating seawater system where it may establish high
glass tanks with conical bottoms) connected to a 3 700 1
population levels within a few weeks. Medusae also ingest
capacity water reservoir containing a gravel biological prawn larvae on occasion, but more often the larvae are
filter. Synthetic sea water, prepared by dissolving Instant immobilized by nematocysts and sink to the bottom of the
Ocean brand sea salts (Aquarium Systems, Inc., Eastlake, tank where they eventually die. A 1-1-5 hour dip treatment
Ohio, USA) in warm tap water, is continually recirculated with 250 ppm formalin will kill the medusae but not neces-
through the tanks and filter. Salinity and temperature are sarily the hydroid stage. Short-term eradication has been
maintained at 12-13% and 28-30C, respectively. A effected by treating the entire seawater system with for-
more detailed description of this hatchery system has been malin or chlorine, but reinfection has usually followed
provided by Smith, Sandifer and Trimble (1976a). within about 8- 1 2 weeks after treatment. The hydrozoan
Ovigerous females with ripe eggs are regularly removed produces a highly resistant cyst stage which may be respon-
from the various broodstock tanks and transferred into a sible for reinfestation of the system. Further research on
400 1 communal hatching tank in the hatchery room. Water methods to control outbreaks and to prevent reinfection is
in the hatching tank is held at 7-8% salinity and 28-30C under way.
and continuously recirculated through a built-in gravel
filter. Up to 20 females can be accommodated simultane- 3.3 Rearing juveniles for later stocking in ponds
ously in this tank until their eggs hatch. Newly hatched The aggressive and cannibalistic nature of M. rosenbergii
larvae are transferred to the larval rearing cones where they under crowded conditions has been the major problem
are provided with nauplii of Anemia salina at an initial encountered in attempts to rear post-larvae in tanks at high
308
population densities. Addition of various materials to in- drained, and there is a small sump near the drain where the
crease surface and shelter area in tanks reduces the problem animals should collect as the water level is lowered. At the
(Smith and Sandifer, 1975) but does not eliminate it. In onset of cool weather, the ponds are drained and the prawns
densely populated tanks, even with added shelters, many of removed from the harvest basins with a small seine. The
the juvenile prawns suffer injuries to their appendages and drain-harvest technique appears practical for single crop
exoskeletons and subsequently develop 'black spot' disease areas such as South Carolina where the restricted growing
(Goodwin and Hanson, 1976) or are cannibalized. season prohibits periodic selective harvesting and partial
Survival rates exceeding 90% have been obtained in the restocking (Fujimura, 1974).
Marine Resources Research Institute Laboratory after 6 Preliminary pond rearing trials were initiated in the Styx
2
weeks for post-larvae stocked at 10G-200/m of tank floor and Bonneau ponds during spring and summer of 1974 and
in 1 8 m diameter tanks without added shelters (Sandifer the most encouraging results were obtained from two of the
and Smith, 1975). Similar survival has been obtained at Styx ponds. In one, juveniles 0-04 g in initial mean weight
densities of about 500 prawns/m 2 of tank floor in tanks with reached an average size of 10-2 g in 4 months with 59-3%
substrates added (Smith and Sandifer, 19 75) and
artificial survival, yielding the equivalent of 764 kg/ha. In another
2
at 400/m in small (2-4 x 1-2 x 0-6 m
deep) closed race- pond, larger juveniles (2- 7 g in initial mean weight) grew to
ways based on the design of Mock, Neal and Salser (1973) a mean size of 30- 2 g in 5 months with 68-3% survival and
(Sandifer and Smith, 1975). In contrast, stocking post- yielded the equivalent of about 1 660 kg/ha.
larvae at much higher population densities has resulted in A second series of pond studies was begun in spring of
poor survival and growth. For example, only 18% of 1975. In early May the Styx ponds were stocked with
54 000 post-larval M. rosenbergii stocked into laboratory juvenile prawns 0- in mean weight at densities approxi-
24 g
tanks at 2 700-6 900/m 2 of tank floor during February mating 6, 1
2
and
7/m of surface area. During June, three
1
1975 survived after 10 weeks of rearing, despite attempts to Bonneau ponds were stocked at 3 to 8 prawns/m 2 with
lower mortality rates by adding shelter units and later newly metamorphosed postlarvae (0-006-0-007 g in mean
reducing the densities. weight), and the brackishwater pond at Bears Bluff was
2
Disease may also be a serious problem in intensive stocked with 0-07 g prawns at a density of about 7/m .
culture systems. No outbreaks of disease were observed Gross production ranged from an equivalent of 572 to
1 499 kg/ha (mean 904
among juveniles until the very intensive rearing attempt of kg/ha) surface area during the 131-
February 1975, when bacterial infections became wide- to 160 day grow-out studies, and feed conversions of 2-62
spread on the gills, pleopods and uropods of the animals. Of to 4-92 (mean 3-59) were obtained (Smith, Sandifer and
four species of bacteria observed on the prawns, the most Trimble, 1976).
prevalent was a filamentous, Leucothrix-like organism (D.
V. Lightner and J. A. Plumb, personal communications). A
morphologically similar bacterium has been reported asso- 4 Discussion
ciated with high mortalities of penaeid shrimp in intensive 4. 1 Hatchery production
culture tanks (Lightner, Fontaine and Hanks, 1975). Al- Recirculating water management systems permit year-
though the disease infected most of the juvenile M. rosen- round production of post-larvae independent of natural
bergii in our tanks, it was not determined whether it seawater supplies. Additional research is needed to increase
contributed directly to the high mortality rates observed. hatchery efficiency and production levels and to establish
Several treatments were tested in attempts to control the the economic viability of such hatchery systems. In South
disease. Oxytetracycline (Terramycin) at concentrations of Carolina there is also an urgent need to develop a pilot-scale
5, 10, 1 5, 20 and 30 ppm was used in 1 hour dip treatments hatchery capable of providing sufficient post-larvae for
with inconsistent results. Furpyrinol (Furanace) at 1 ppm pond rearing experiments and for supply to interested
for 1 hour was Potassium permanganate at
ineffective. entrepreneurs throughout the state. This hatchery could
concentrations of and 10 ppm for 1 hour and 1 ppm for
2, 5 also provide detailed cost data needed for economic
30 hours was effective but caused high mortalities among analyses.
the prawns (average 9 day post-treatment mortalities were
75-0, 62-5, 75-0 and 81-2% for the 1, 2, 5 and lOppm 4.2 Pond production
treatments, respectively, compared to 43-7% for the un- From preliminary grow-out data available for South Caro-
treated control. Best results were obtained by reducing the lina, appears that yields in the order of 1 000-2 000 kg/
it
population densities and more careful cleaning of tanks. ha can be produced in one growing season (5-6 months) if
large juveniles (>0-25 g) are stocked. Yields are projected
3.4 Pond cultivation studies to decrease substantially as prawn size at stocking de-
In South Carolina, pond grow-out studies with M. rosen- creases. Thus, an efficient, high density prawn nursery
bergii are being conducted in three small freshwater ponds system is needed to rear post-larvae to larger juveniles for
(0-02-0-04 ha) at the Styx Fish Hatchery in West Colum- stocking in grow-out ponds. Improvements in prawn feeds
bia, several larger (0- 25 ha) freshwater ponds at the Dennis and pond design and management should also result in
Wildlife Center in Bonneau and one small (0-07 ha) brack - greater production of marketable prawns.
ishwater pond at the Bears Bluff Laboratory of the US
Environmental Protection Agency. These three locations 4.3 Genetic manipulation
represent the midland, near coastal and coastal regions of Currently, the possibility of increasing growth rates and
the state, respectively. The Styx and Bonneau ponds have temperature tolerance of M. rosenbergii through genetic
sloped bottoms that can be completely drained and are selection is being evaluated. Data collected in this labora-
equipped with concrete harvesting basins in the deep ends. tory suggest that the wide variations in growth rates re-
The brackishwater pond at Bears Bluff can be completely ported by several investigators (Forster and Wickins,
309
1972; Wickins, 1972; Fujimura, 1974; Segal and Roe, 6 Acknowledgements
1975; Sandifer and Smith, 1975) may be an expression of The authors thank their associates in the South Carolina
genetic as well as environmental factors. If so, selective Sea Grant Program, particularly Dr. P. B. Zielinksi, for
breeding may improve the growth characteristics of A/. their contributions to the development of ideas, their col-
rosenbergii for intensive culture and produce prawns capa- leagues (Drs. V. G. Burrell, Jr., D. R. Calder, E. B. Joseph
ble of growing at lower water temperatures. The possibility and J. J. Manzi) for reviewing the manuscript, and biolo-
of hybridizing M. rosenbergii with native species (M. acan- gists (W. C. Trimble, J. S. Hopkins and M. H. Smith) and
thurus and M. ohione) is also being examined. Such hybrids technicians (V. M. Hargis, E. G. Kennedy, H. W. Lathan
might combine desirable characteristics of both parental and F. S. Taylor) for their assistance in field and laboratory
species (eg, the rapid growth and large adult size of M. work. Mr. C. Campbell and Mr. J. Bayless of the Division
rosenbergii and the greater tolerance to low temperature of of Game and Freshwater Fisheries, South Carolina Wild-
the native species). Further, hybrid organisms frequently life and Marine Resources Department, and Dr. W. Davis
exhibit heterosis, or hybrid vigour, in which desirable and Mr. P. Lempesis of the Bears Bluff Laboratory, US
culture characteristics of the hybrid surpass those of both Environmental Protection Agency, generously provided
parent stocks. pond facilities and other assistance at the Styx, Bonneau,
and Bears Bluff locations, respectively.
4.4 Prawn nutrition
Although some private pond culture operations, notably 7 References
those in Hawaii, are approaching commercial success using
CASTRO, W. E., ZIELINSKI, P. B. &
SANDIFER, P. A. Performance
presently available feeds, more nutritious, cost-effective 1975 characteristics of air lift pumps of short length and small
rations are needed. Such feeds might enhance yields from diameter. Proc. Annu. Meeting World Maricult. Soc., 6: 451-61
FORSTER, J. R. M. &
WICKINS, J. F. Prawn culture in the United
pond culture and are necessary for highly intensive culture 1972 Kingdom: its status and potential. Lab. Leafl. Minist. Agric.
in controlled systems where natural foods are not available Fish. Food, Lond., (27): 1-32
to supplement the prepared rations. Current and planned FUJIMURA, T. Notes on the development of a practical mass culture
1966 technique of the giant prawn Macrobrachium rosenbergii. Paper
research concerning major dietary requirements of the presented to the Indo-Pacific Fisheries Council, 12th Session,
prawn ultimately should lead to production of improved IPFC/C66/WP47:3p.
rations. FUJIMURA, T. Development of a prawn culture industry in Hawaii. Job
prawn 1974 completion report to U.S Dept. Commerce. NOAA, NMFS,
for sub-project H-14-D, 1 July 1969 to 30 June 1972: 21 p + 6
4.5 Engineering and design studies figures (mimeo)
FUJIMURA, T. & OKAMOTO, H. Notes on progress made in developing
Engineering studies presently under way on tank design, 1970 a mass culturing technique for Macrobrachium rosenbergii in
water circulation and waste treatment should improve Hawaii. Paper presented to the Indo-Pacific Fisheries Council,
14th Session, IPFC/C70/SYM53: 15 p.
aquaculture technology and accelerate the development of GOODWIN. H L & HANSON, J. A. The aquaculture of freshwater
commercial prawn culture. Significant advances have al- 1975 prawns (Macrobrachium species). Waimanalo, Hawaii, Oceanic
ready been made in determining the operating characteris- Institute, 95p
local and export markets for the prawns are needed. SANDIFER, P. A. Macrobrachium aquaculture in the continental United
1975 States: a research and development plan. Marine Resources
Institute, South Carolina Wildlife and Marine Resources
Department. 63 p. (Unpubl. Rep.)
5 Conclusions SANDIFER, P. A. &SMITH, T. I. J. Effects of population density on
1975 growth and survival of Macrobrachium rosenbergii reared in
The model of M. rosenbergii aquaculture proposed here, recirculating water management systems. Proc. Annu. Meeting
World Maricult. Soc., 6 43-53
namely intensive indoor rearing of larvae and juveniles
:
310
SMITH, T. I. J. & SANDIFBR, P. A. Increased production of tank-reared Proceedings 1974, Washington, D.C. Marine Technology
1975 Macrobrachium rosenbergii through use of artificial substrates. Society. Edited by H. H. Webber and G. D. Ruggieri, pp. 167-31
Proc. Annu. Meeting World Maricult. Soc. 6: 55-66
t WICKINS, J. F. Experiments on the culture of the spot prawn Pandalus
SMITH, T. I. J., SANDIFBR, P. A. &TRIMBLE, W. C. Pond culture of the 1972 platyceros (Brandt) and the giant freshwater prawn Macro-
1976 Malaysian prawn, Macrobrachium rosenbergii (de Man), in brachium rosenbergii (de Man). Fish. Invest. Minist. Agric. Fish.
South Carolina, 1974-1975. Proc. Annu. Meeting World Food,Lond.(2),27(5):23p.
Maricult. Soc., 6: 625-45 ZIELINSKI, P. B., CASTRO, &
W. E. SANDIFER, P. A. The evaluation and
SMITH, T. I. J., SANDTFFR, P. A. & TRIMRT F. W. C. Progress in develop- 1 974 optimization of Macrobrachium shrimp larvae tank designs and
1976a ing a recirculating synthetic seawater hatchery for rearing larvae support systems. Proc. Annu. Meeting World Maricult. Soc.,
of Macrobrachium rosenbergii In Food-Drugs from the Sea. 5:41 50
en El Salvador
Extracto desarrollar este tipo de cultivo se debe a la alta calidad de su
Entre el mes de mayo y septiembre de 1974 se realizaron ensayos en la
carne para la alimentacion humana y al elevado precio que
Estacion Piscicola de Santa Cruz Porrillo, El Salvador, con el objeto de
conocer el desarrpllo de larvas del camaron de rio Macrobrachium esta alcanza en casi todos los mercados mundiales. A todo
tenellum en acuarios, utilizando los metodos para cultivar especies de esto en nuestro caso se suma tambien el interes en el
camarones del mismo genero. Se efectuaron experimentos unicamente en
acuarios con agua salobre (salinidad 1 6 por mil) con capacidad de 80 y 1
conocimiento de la biologia de estas especies y su preserva-
sistemas de filtration y recirculacion. tion como recursos naturales. Sin embargo muchos han
Se usaron hembras colectadas en los rips y mantenidas junto a los no es sencillo, sobre todo en
machos en estanques de arcilla. Cuando estas se encontraban sexual -
comprobado que su cultivo
mente maduras se pasaban a los acuarios de observation. Solo unas cuanto desarrollo larval y a los costos de production se
al
5 000 larvas lograron sobrevivir hasta 30 dias y de estas solo 10 vivieron refiere y salvo en muy raros casos estos ultimos siguen
52 dias, pasando por varias fases en su desarrollo. No se observe la
transformation de dichas larvas en juveniles. La alimentation consistio
siendo muy altos.
basicamente en nauplii de Anemia. La primera especie cultivada con exito fue el M. rosen-
A pesar de que la tecnica mejoro con respecto a los resultados de anos bergii (Fujimura, 1966; Ling, 1967). Estos autores hicie-
anteriores, la calidad del agua y la alimentation siguen siendo factores
ron los primeros estudios sobre la biologia de dicha espe-
fundamentals necesarios aser perfeccionados para poder emprender los
experimentos de production en mayor escala. cie y desarrollaron las tecnicas necesanas para su cultivo en
y con un peso promedio de 2 g. agua salobre (16 partes por mil) se fabrico artificialmente
usando sales para acuarios marinos ('Instant Ocean' de
2.3 Alimentation Aquarium Sytems Inc.) para eliminar la posibilidad de
Se suministro alimento en forma de pildoras (Porrillo
les tener el agua marina en malas condiciones.
II)y pescado picado fresco crudo alternandolas cada dia, a (in) Se prepare un acuario de 76 x 3 1 x 30 cm con agua
razon de un 5% del peso total corporal diario. Sesenta dias totalmente dulce, con filtro externo y lampara ultravioleta
despues los camarones median como promedio 9,1 cm y pero sin arena y sin filtro interno.
pesaban 9,7 g. (/v) En un acuario de 100 x 28 x 25 cm se colocaron 3
externos: (a) con carbon animal, (b) con arena de
filtros
2.4 Obtencion de hembras ovigeras concha molida y (c) con lana de vidrio pero sin arena y sin
Durante el mes de agosto los camarones de rio se encontra- A uno de los filtros pasaba el agua a traves de
filtro interno.
ban sexualmente maduros. Al trasladar las hembras madu- una lampara de luz ultravioleta como en el caso anterior y
ras algunas desovaron en los estanques, muchas otras lo se agrego dos piedras aireadoras para mantener el oxigeno y
hicieron en los acuarios del laboratorio. la agitation del agua al maximo. La salinidad se mantuvo
desde un principio en 1 6 partes por mil con agua de mar
2.5 Medicion de pardmetros natural y todos los parametros fisico-quimicos en la forma
Las lecturas de salinidad se hicieron con lin medidor de antes mencionada.
conductividad (HACH, Modelo 2511) y el pH se deter- (v) Se repitio este tipo de ensayo pero sin la lampara
mine con un potenciometro (Photovolt, Modelo 126A) y ultravioleta.
con un equipo Helligue para pH. El oxigeno disuelto y
temperatura se determinaron con un medidor de oxigeno 2.7 Alimentation de larvas
(YSI) electronic. Las larvas nacidas fueron alimentadas desde el primer dia,
con nauplii de Anemia, a razon de una cucharadita diaria
2.6 Tecnicas de incubation
dividida en dos porciones (manana y tarde). Ademas se
Los acuarios utilizados eran todos de vidrio, con 76 1 de
trato de complementar esta dieta durante los dos primeros
capacidad y dimensiones diferentes segun el caso. dias, con algas liofilizadas, preparadas para camarones
Los filtros utilizados en todos los acuarios eran Dynaflo, Penaeus, pero no se observe que las larvas tomaran este
Modelo 425, externos y en una ocasion se uso la combina- alimento.
cion con un filtro biologico Halvin, Modelo 2 79- A. Se
Se probo tambien alimentar las larvas con zooplancton y
emplearon ademas lamparas de luz ultravioleta (Hydroster alimentos preparados (Tetra Brine Shrimp, molido) pasa-
I) para ester ilizar y termostatos para regular la temperatura dos en forma seca por un tamiz ('Saran'). Este alimento era
del agua.
aceptado por con edad de ocho dias pero no se
las larvas
La temperatura del agua se mantuvo en todos los casos
utilizo mas tarde durante
el experiment porque ensuciaba
entre 28 y 29C, el pH entre 8,1 y 8,4, la salinidad
el fondo y descomponia el agua debido a que no era
alrededor de 16 por mil salvo en el caso donde se uso agua
completamente aprovechado por las larvas. Los alimentos
dulce como prueba.
eran suministrados mediante un gotero (Fujimura, 1966;
Las hembras se extrajeron del estanque y se selecciona-
Ling, 1967).
ron las que poseian huevos adheridos a los pleopodos y
otras que estaban mas proximas al desove por el grade de
desarrollo del embridn (Sanchez, 1972). Estas se coloca- 2.8 Limpieza de los acuarios
ban en acuarios con salinidad del agua de 1 2 panes por mil Diariamente se limpiaban los filtros y los fondos de los
incrementando lentamente la salinidad a 16 partes por mil acuarios a traves de un sifon, pero este siempre succiono
312
muchas larvas que despues murieron alii. Una vez cada diez artemias. Una hora despues, cuando todas las larvas habian
dias se limpiaba totalmente el acuario pasando la total idad comido, se reanudaba la actividad de los filtros.
de las larvas a otro acuario situado en un nivel mas bajo a Al nacer las larvas median 2 mm. Diez dias despues su
traves de un sifon de 6 mm de diametro interior (de Tygon). tamaiio fue 2,8 mm, muriendo un 50% de ellas. Siete dias
Una vez lavado elacuario se devolvian las larvas mas tarde 10000 larvas vivian en buenas condiciones y
cuidadosamente al acuario anterior que con ten ia la misma median entre 3,2 y 3,3 mm. A los treinta dias habia unas
agua. Cada 5 dias se renovaba un 25% del agua en cada 3 000 larvas las cuales median como promedio 4 mm. A
acuario y diariamente se hacian los ajustes necesarios de partir de esta fecha la tasa de mortalidad increment sensi-
salinidad y temperatura. En estas labores de limpieza, se bilemente reduciendose notablemente su numero de dia en
producian siempre considerables mortalidades de las larvas dia. A los 45 dias sobrevivieron unas 50 larvas las cuales
en todos los sifones. Este inconveniente se redujo algo median entre 5 y 6 mm
de longitud promedio. Solamente
aumentando el numero de sifones en cada filtro de modo diez larvas sobrevivieron 52 dias.
que la presion del agua sobre la tela protectora fuera menor. Durante este lapso de tiempo las larvas pasaron por unos
7 a 8 estadios larvales y en la ultima etapa larvaria eran muy
semejantes a los juveniles, aunque nunca adquirieron habi-
3 Resultados y discusion tos benticos, como corresponde a la fase juvenil del
Los resultados obtenidos en curso de este experimento se
el camaron.
pueden resumir en la siguiente forma. Los resultados inadecuados obtenidos con la tecnica (v)
Con la tecnica (/) las larvas no sobrevivieron mas de 4 (sin lampara pueden
ultravioleta) mas bien al
atribuirse
dias y no observo desarrollo alguno durante este tiempo.
se pobre desove de las hembras que a la falta de accion
Aparentemente la altura del acuario fue un factor critico bactericida de la luz ultravioleta, pues solo el 10% de las
para la supervivencia de las larvas. Esta no debe sobrepasar larvas eclosionaron y estas sobrevivieron solo 6 dias.
los 29 cm como lo demostraron los experimentos con la
tecnica (/v) donde el desarrollo fue normal con un nivel de
agua de 27 cm como altura maxima. Otro factor negative 4 Conclusioncs
en esta tecnica fue la position del filtro (bajo la arena). De todas las tecnicas probadas en el curso del experi-
Aunque este tipo de filtro biologico resulta excelente para mento la que mejores resultados dio fue la tecnica (/v)
peces, en el caso de las larvas de camaron dificulta mucho la section 2.6. De estos resultados se deduce que las condi-
limpieza del fondo. Los residues se descomponen alterando ciones logradas por filtration y alimentacion se aproxi-
la calidad del agua rapidamente, sobre todo si la accion de man a las condiciones ambientales para el desarrollo
las bacterias nitrificantes no es suficientemente energica larval de M. tenellum.
para contrarrestar este cambio. Las conclusiones se pueden resumir en la siguiente
El resultado de la tecnica (//) fue igual al anterior. Esto forma:
nos demuestra que la calidad del agua de mar usada en la (a) Bajo la salinidad del agua cercana a unas 16 partes
tecnica (/') no fue un factor determinante y por consiguiente por mil se obtuvo aceptables rangos de incubacion y super-
quedo descartada la necesidad de usar agua marina sintetica vivencia larval.
de tan alto costo. (b) La alimentacion, consistente basicamente en nauplii
En donde el agua era totalmente dulce, las
la tecnica (iii) de Anemia, es altamente eficiente sobre todo durante los
larvas vivieron entre 4 y 5 dias solamente a pesar de haber primeros 30 dias de su vida.
eliminado otros factores problematicos como el filtro de (c) El oxigeno, pH, temperatura y demas parametros
arena y la excesiva altura del nivel de agua. Esta corta fisico-quimicos han sido mantenidos dentro de los limites
supervivencia de las larvas nos demuestra que la salinidad de tolerancia de las larvas.
cercana a 16 partes por mil es el factor limitante en el (d) La profundidad del agua es un factor critico en la
desarrollo y la supervivencia de las larvas de tenellum. M .
supervivencia de las larvas y esta no debe exceder los 30 cm
La tecnica (/v) produjo los mejores resultados. Las dos de altura.
hembras mantenidas en las condiciones de este sistema (e) El exito de trabajo en el desarrollo larval depende
desovaron simultaneamente. Los desoves resultaron en un basicamente en el cuidadoso manejo de las hembras madu-
100 por ciento de supervivencia de las larvas. Se calculo ras. De este manejo dependera buena incubacion y desove
que en el acuario eclosionaron unas 20 000 larvas y aunque mas o menos completo con la consiguiente elevada tasa de
sabiamos que esta poblacion era muy elevada para sobre- supervivencia de las larvas.
vivir en un espacio tan reducido, nos interesaba principal - (/) Sin haber logrado la transformation de larvas hasta
mente conocer si el metodo empleado era efectivo con el el estadio juvenil, deducimos que el desarrollo larval de M.
transcurso del tiempo y cual seria el porcentaje de sobre- tenellum es mas largo y con mas estadios que el de M.
vivientes en el caso de que las condiciones fueran buenas. rosenbergii.
El alimento constaba unicamente de recien eclosionados
nauplii de Anemia a razon de una cucharadita de huevos
por dia. Esta dosis se mantuvo, con muy poca variation, 5 Recomendaciones
durante todo el proceso. La tecnica de alimentacion se baso Segun las experiencias antes descritas se deduce que es
en la fototaxis tanto de las artemias como de las larvas de factible el desarrollo artificial de larvas de M. tenellum.
camaron, las que normalmente se reunieron en un pequeno Aunque, actualmente, no se ha logrado completar su ciclo
sector del acuario. Las artemias se introducian en el acuario biologico en laboratorio, estamos seguros que en el curso
por un gotero y mientras se efectuaba la operation de de las futuras investigaciones se lograran estos objetivos. Es
alimentacion, todos los filtros se paraban para mantener el recomendable por lo tanto seguir trabajando sobre las bases
agua tranquila y facilitar a las larvas la captura de las ya establecidas y descritas en este trabajo pero tambien
313
efectuar cambios que se pueden resumir en la siguiente 1972 Macrobrachium acanthurus and M. ohione. Proc. Annu. Work-
forma: shop World Maricult. Soc., 3: 185-91
FUJIMURA, T. Notes on the development of a practical mass culturing
(/) Sustituir Anemia por otros tipos de alimentos de 1966 technique of the giant prawn Macrobrachium rosenbergii. Paper
menor costo. presented to the 12th Session of the I ndo- Pacific Fisheries
Estudiar otros sistemas de filtracion de agua mas Council, IPFC/C66/WP47: 4 p.
FUJIMURA, T. & OKAMOTO, H. Notes on progress made in developing
(//)
eficientes que ocasionen menos danos a las larvas. 1972 a mass culturing technique for Macrobrachium rosenbergii in
forma de como aislar eficientcmente las Hawaii. In Coastal aquaculture in the Indo-Pacific region,
(Hi) Encontrar la
edited by T. V. R. Pillay. West Byfleet, Surrey, Fishing News
larvas durante la limpieza del acuario, para que estas no
(Books) Ltd., pp. 313-28
scan succionadas por los sifones de limpieza. HOLTHUIS, L. B. Observaciones sobre los crustaceos decapodos de la
1954 Republica de El Salvador. Comun. Inst. Trop. Invest. Cient. San
(/v) Trabajar con menor numero de larvas por unidad de
Salvador, 3 (4): 159-66
volumen para mejorar la tasa de superviviencia. LING, S. W. Methods of rearing and culturing Macrobrachium rosen-
( v) Estudiar tecnicas semej antes a las empleadas para M.
1967 bergii (De Man). FAO Fish Rep. (57) vol. 3: 607-19
tenellum tambien para la especie M. americanum con alto MEYERS, S. P., BUTLER, D. P. &
HASTINGS, W. H. Alginates as binders
1972 for crustacean rations. Prog. Fish-Cult., 34 (1)
valor comercial. RASALAN, S. B., DELMENDO, M. N. &
REYES, T. G. Some observations
1967 on the biology of freshwater prawn Macrobrachium lanceifrons
(DANA) with notes on the fishery. FAO Fish. Rep., (56) vol. 3:
923-33
o Rcfcrencias SANCHEZ, C. Embriologia del camardn de rio Macrobrachium tenellum
1972 (Smith). San Salvador, El Salvador, Scrvicio Piscicola,
BARDACH, J. E., RYTHBR, T. H. &
MCLARNEY, W. O. Aquaculturc the D.G.R.N.R., Ministerio de Agriculture y Ganaderia
1972 farming and husbandry of freshwater and marine organisms SANCHEZ, C. Algunos ensayos tendientesal desove, cultivo y desarrollo
New York, Wiley Interscience, pp. 619-32 1973 de camarones del genero Macrobrachium en la Estacion
COSTBLLO, T. J. Freshwater prawn culture techniques developed. Nacional de Pisciculture para 1973. San Salvador, E. Salvador,
1971 Am. Fish Farmer, 5 (2) 8-10, 27 : Servicio Piscicola, D.G.R.N.R., Ministerio de Agriculture y
DUGAN, C. C. & FRAKES, T. A. Culture of brackish-freshwater shrimp, Ganaderia
(var.) homari, is the most serious infection which affects the lobster, La demande de proteines se situe a un taux d 'environ 40 a 60% de
periodically causing severe mortalities. Very few cells of a virulent strain matiere seche dans la nourriture. Le cholesterol est necessaire ainsi que
of the pathogen are required to initiate an infection and normal lobsters les acides gras linoleniques. Les recherches sur les homards au stade
possess no resistance to gafikemia. Transmission takes place when juvenile ont prouve que des mineraux et des vitamines D et E sont
wounds or breaks in the integument occur in the' presence of the necessaires, mais que les vitamines A et K ne sont probablement pas
pathogen. The cause of death is attributed to the early wasting nature of essentielles. On a stimule la croissance chez les juveniles en combinant
the disease which results in a massively impaired hepatopancreas. The un bon regime alimentaire avec 1'ablation du pedoncule de 1'ocil a 20C.
disease course is completely temperature dependent Some success in L 'augmentation de poids re suite de I'augmentation de la synthese tissu-
treatment has been achieved with antibiotics, notably vancomycin, if laire et non simplement de la retention d'eau.
administered early in the course of the disease. Induction of resistance as Un nouveau systeme d'eleyage des larves susceptible d'etre applique
a prophylactic measure shows promise. industriellement a ete elabore et exploite avec succes.
Protein requirements in feeds fall within the 40-60% range of the dry
weight of the diet. Cholesterol is required and there appears to be a Aspectos del cultivo del bogavante Americano Homarus americanus
requirement for the linolenic family fatty acids. Work with juvenile Extracto
lobsters indicates that minerals and vitamins D
and E are required, but En la costa septentrional de America del Norte existe desde hace muchos
vitamins A
and K
are probably not essential. Growth enhancement in anos una importante pesqueria de bogavante Homarus americanus, en
juvenile lobsters was achieved by combining a good diet with eyestalk general rentable. La creciente escasez del bogavante, con el consiguiente
ablation at 20C. The increases in weight were a result of increased aumento de los precios, ha hecho surgir el interes por la cria comercial de
tissue synthesis and not merely increased water retention. este bogavante. Los problemas claves para el cultivo del bogavante son la
A new larval rearing system,which has potential for commercial proteccion contra las enfermedades, las necesidades nutricionales, la
application, was designed and used successfully. aceleracion del crecimiento, el comportamiento agresivo de estos
crustaceos y la preparacion de instalaciones de poco costo que exijan
Different* aspect! de 1'efcvife du homard Amerteain (Homarus para su funcionamiento una mano de obra minima.
americanus) La enfermedad gafTkemia, causada por la bacteria Aerococcus viri-
Resume dans (var.) Homari, es la infeccion mas grave de las que afectan al
Une pecherie importance et generalement rentable exploite le homard bogavante, causando periodicamente graves mortal idades. Bastan poqui-
Homarus americanus & Test de 1'Amerique du nord depuis de nom- simas celulas de una cepa virulenta de este agente patdgeno para dar
breuses annees. Du fait de la penurie croissante de homards et des prix comienzo a una infeccion de gafikemia, contra la que el bogavante
eleves qui en resultent, on s'interesse a
Teleyage
commercial de ce normal no tiene ninguna resistencia. La infeccion ticne lugar cuando se
crustace. Les principaux problemes que
pose I'eleyage du homard sont: produoen heridas o roturas del integumento en presencia del agente
la protection contre les maladies, les besoins nutritionnels, 1'acceleration patdgeno. La causa de la muerte se atribuye a los rapidos efcctos
de la croissance, la lutte contre ragressivite du comportemcnt, et la devastadores consuntivos de la enfermedad, que resultan en una Iesi6n
creation d'installations peu cotiteuscs necessitant un minimum de main- aguda del hepatopancreas. El curso de la enfermedad depende totalmente
d'oeuvre. de la temperature Se nan logrado algunos exitos con el tratamiento con
La 'gafikemia', maladie causee par la bacterie Aerococcus viridans antibioticos, sobre todo vancomicina, en las primeras fases de la enfer-
(var.) homari est la plus grave des infections qui attaquent les homards et medad. La resistencia inducida parece ser una medida profilactica
provoquc periodiquement de lourdes pertes. II suffit de quelques cellules prometedonu
d*une souche virulente de 1'agent pathogene pour declencher 1 infection Las necesidades de proteinas en los piensos oscilan entre el 40
et normalement les homards n'offrent aucune resistance a la 'gaffkemia'. y el 60% del peso en seco de la racion alimenticia. Es necesario
314
suministrarles colesterol, y tambien parecen ser neccsarios acidos grasos heat are used. It has long been known that bilateral eyestalk
linolenicos. Los trabajos realizados con formas juveniles ban indicado
ablation results in accelerated moulting and growth rates in
que son necesarios mineral es y vitaminas D
y E, mientras probablemente
las vitaminas Ay Kno son esenciales. Se ha conseguido acelerar el decapod crustaceans (Passano, 1960) and it is, therefore,
crecimiento de las formas juveniles debogavante combinando una buena
possible that a combination of elevated temperatures, ade-
racion alimenticia con la ablacion de los pedunculos oculares a 20 C. 1
aumento de peso se debe a un aumento de la sintesis tisular y no quate diets and eyestalk ablation will go far toward making
meramente a una mayor retcncion de agua. lobster culture commercially feasible.
Se ha disenado y uuhzado con exito un nuevp sistema de cria de Afinal area of concern that has been largely overlooked
larvas, que ofrece buenas posibilidades de aplicacion comercial.
is that of well designed holding facilities. Though relatively
husbandry. There is no substitute for good management in trade in the United States, Canada and Europe, probably
preventing diseases of this kind. There are, however, dis- since inception. The disease was first recognized as a
its
eases over and above these that are highly specific and can specific bacterial infection by Snieszko and Taylor (1947).
cause epizootics which virtually eliminate specific groups They isolated the causative agent from lobsters in Maine,
of animals within a very short period. Unfortunately, the showing it to be the bacterium which Hitchner and
genus Homarus susceptible to a specific disease of this
is Snieszko (1947) named Gaffkya homari, and which more
kind, namely gaffkemia, caused by the bacterium Aerococ- recently was changed to Aerococcus viridans (var.) homari
cus viridans (var.) homari (formerly named Goffkya horn- (see Kelly and Evans, 1974; Stewart and Arie, 1974). This
ari). High mortalities among captive lobsters have been bacterium is a gram positive, catalase negative, beta-hae-
recorded in periodic epizootics of gafifkemia. molytic, tetrad-forming coccus which appears to possess no
Each animal has its unique nutritional needs which must exoenzymes (Snieszko and Taylor, 1947; Hitchner and
be met adequately if maximum production and survival are Snieszko, 1947; Hucker, 1957; Stewart, Foley and Ack-
to be achieved. The nutritional requirement of the lobster man, 1969). This lack of exoenzymes and consequent lack
is a subject which has been virtually untouched. Informa- of invasive powers results in the bacterium being transmit-
tion on this subject is required not only as part of the data ted only through breaks or ruptures in the integument of the
desirable for proper management of the lobster fishery but host which permit entry to the haemolymph. The exposure
also for culture operations. Unless the interaction of the to A. viridans (var.) homari must come simultaneously
lobster with the components of its ecological niche is fully with or soon after integumental rupture for the pathogen to
understood, it is difficult to determine whether its needs circumvent the lobster's rapid and effective wound-sealing
(including nutritional requirements) are being satisfied and, mechanism. Transmission does not occur when the lobster
thus, difficult to make valid decisions on management of ingests infected material since the acidity of its gastric fluid
wild or cultured stocks. This particularly true in circum-
is (pH 5-0) is lethal to A. viridans (var.) homari. Despite the
stances where environmental conditions normally fluctuate pathogen's lack of invasive powers, the development of
because of natural events or man-made causes. In culture epizooticsis aided by the aggressive behaviour of lobsters,
operations, food is usually the most expensive item; conse- which provides wounds for entry, and by the fact that
quently, imperative that the diet used produces a high-
it is normal lobsters have no apparent resistance to the pathogen
quality product in the shortest possible time at the least after entry. Small numbers (10 or less per kg of lobster
cost. weight) of a virulent strain of A. viridans (var.) homari,
The slow growth rate of the lobster in nature is a major injected into the haemolymph are sufficient to ensure a fatal
8
factor impeding its culture in North America. In the wild it infection. Injection, however, of large numbers (6 x 10 /
takes 5-7 years for this species to reach market size of kg) does not accelerate the infection sufficiently to produce
approximately 450 g (Wilder, 1953). Hughes, Sullivan and a significant decrease in time from infection to death.
Shleser (1972) were able to shorten this to two years by The huge numbers of pathogens present in weakened or
9
rearing lobsters at 22C. The cost of fuel is rising, however, dead animals (1 x 10 /ml of haemolymph) are released to
and it may not be economically sound to heat sea water to the water during cannibalism and are available for infecting
increase lobster growth rate unless large sources of waste other lobsters in the immediate vicinity. Thus, one infected
315
animal introduced to a unit is sufficient for the initiation of (//)Animals intended for introduction to a culture opera-
an epidemic resulting in the death of most of the other tion should be examined for the presence of disease prior to
animals (Stewart and Rabin, 1970). Sufficient numbers of shipment, and upon arrival should be held in suitable
lobsters have been examined bacteriologically externally to isolated quarantine facilities for a definite time period and
discount completely the suggestion that the bacterial patho- proved to be free of specific diseases and parasites. (///)
gen, A. viridans (var.) homari, is a part of the normal Dead animals or those showing any signs of disease should
microflora of the lobster's external surfaces. There are no be removed from general operating areas immediately and
external signs of the disease with the exception that, as the the cause of death or infection determined, (iv) Carcasses of
infection proceeds, the lobsters become lethargic and pro- animals removed because of death or disease must be
gressively weaker until they die. sterilized before being used for food for the remaining
As the disease develops, the lobster suffers a massive animals. ( v) Animal units should be kept small and stocked
decrease of circulating haemocytes, resulting in impairment at as low a density as may be consistent with production
of the clotting mechanism by removal of the clot-initiating techniques, (v/) A single or common water supply should
factor contained in the haemocytes. The fibrinogen levels not be used in closed or recycling systems. ( vii) Crossovers
and other haemolymph proteins are not affected signifi- between units of animals, nets, etc, should be kept to the
cantly. As a result of the loss of haemolymph clotting absolute minimum, (viii) Methods and means for sterilizing
power, the risk of a fatal haemorrhage is introduced in the individual units must be readily available, (ix) Temporary
event of wounding. environmental changes (in this example, lower water tem-
Variations in temperature and salinity have been shown perature) can be used to afford a certain measure of protec-
to have a marked effect on the disease. Since development tion or reduce the intensity of the epizootic to assist the
of gaffkemia infections in lobsters is strictly temperature culturist in coping with the emergency.
unsuccessful competition on the part of the lobsters for (1971), and Zandee (1967) on the sterol requirements of
their own readily available energy reserves (Stewart et aL related species led to further work with cholesterol (Castell,
\ 969). The development of the pathogen in vivo takes place Mason and Covey, 1975). This investigation was followed
at the expense of haemolymph glucose and amino acids. by an evaluation of the effects of the level and type of
Since the lobster will not feed after the second day of the dietary lipid required (Castell and Covey, in preparation).
infection at 15C it is unable to replenish those nutrients The initial experiments on dietary protein and lipid were
used by the pathogen except at the expense of its own tissue, conducted with adult (300-600 g) lobsters with which it is
mainly the glycogen reserves (Stewart et ai 1972). Thus, possible to monitor serum chemistry as well as carry out a
the general decline in glycogen in the skeletal muscle, the detailed analysis of the effects of diets on size and composi-
heart, and hepatopancreas is paralleled by a reduction of tion of vital organs. The much faster growth rate and early
adenosine triphosphate, especially in the hepatopancreas onset of nutritional deficiency signs in juvenile lobsters,
where it isvirtually eliminated (Stewart and Arie, 1973). however, led to increased use of juvenile lobsters (0-2-5 g)
The resulting massive inpairment of the hepatopancreas, for most studies. In all experiments the animals were held in
the major organ for biosynthesis and detoxification, is separate compartments to prevent cannibalism and were
considered the direct cause of death. supplied with continuously flowing, 20C, filtered sea
It was stated earlier that normal lobsters invariably water (physical conditions have been described previously
succumb to infections with a virulent strain of the pathogen, in Castell and Budson, 1974).
thus exhibiting no natural resistance to gafTkemia. It has The optimum protein dietary level for adult lobsters (fed
been possible, however, to combat the infection by reducing 0, 20,40 or 60% casein) was in the 40-60% range. This
holding temperatures by early (but not late) intervention conclusion was based on routine observation of condition
with the antibiotic vancomycin (Stewart and Arie, 1974), indices including frequency of moulting, chemical serum
and by induction of a form of resistance through injection analyses, weight change, percentage of edible meat in ani-
of vaccines (Stewart and Z wicker, 1974). Work on induc- mals at termination, and composition of several vital organs
tion of resistance with vaccines is in its early stages and and tissues.
although not perfected shows promise of being effective. In experiments with juveniles, it was shown that there
The various aspects of the disease described suggest a was a requirement for cholesterol in lobster diets. This
number of guidelines for avoiding many of the problems finding agreement with the results obtained by Kana-
is in
stemming from this and other diseases (described previ- zawa (1970, 1971, 197 la) in their determinations of
et al
ously by Stewart, 1974): (/) Transfer of animals from one the dietary sterol requirements of the kuruma prawn, Pen-
operation to another should be avoided as much as possible. aeus japonicus. The actual concentration of cholesterol
316
required by juvenile lobsters appears to be approximately crustaceans has been reviewed by Passano (1960). The
0-5% of the diet. initialreports on attempts to accelerate the growth rates of
The protein and cholesterol data were then used in lobsters by eyestalk ablation were, however, not very en-
formulating diets for another study using adult lobsters to couraging. Flint (1972) reported that removal of both
determine dietary lipid requirements (Castell and Covey, eyestalks from American lobsters seemed to lengthen
unpublished data). It was found that cod liver oil (CLO) rather than shorten the moult cycle. Additionally, although
resulted in significantly greater weight gains than either Sochasky, Aiken and McLeese (1973) using immature
corn oil (CO) or hydrogenated coconut oil (HCO) when female and small mature male lobsters, and Rao, Finger-
each of these were fed as 10% of the dry weight of the diet. man and Fingerman (1973) working with juveniles, were
The CLO diet also resulted in a higher yield of edible meat, able to accelerate the moulting rates by eyestalk ablation,
higher serum protein values, greater numbers of haemo- the survival of ablated animals after moulting was very poor
type of linolenic family fatty acids. The eighth stage were ablated and 1 3 unoperated controls were
l
by lobsters for j 3
CO is high in 06 or linoleic acid and very low in )3 fatty held and fed under identical conditions (Mauviot and Cas-
acids. Though the results with adults are less dramatic than tell, in preparation). Regression curves for weight plotted
those with juveniles, the data suggest that mature lobsters against time were determined for both the eyestalk-ablated
also have a dietary requirement for a sterol such as and control lobsters, based on growth data for 200 davs
cholesterol. after the operation. The correlation coefficients for these
Further work with juvenile lobsters (unpublished) has curves were 0- 9 75 for the ablated and 0- 889 for the control
shown that a dietary supplement of mineral salts is essential lobsters. At 200 days the calculated average weight was
for good growth and shell formation, and that for shell 49- 8 g for ablated lobsters and 10-6g for the control
pigmentation /2-carotene will not serve as a substitute for animals. The regression analysis curves predict that one
natural pigments such as astaxanthine. year after ablation the blinded lobsters would average about
Preliminary work with fat soluble vitamins has shown 1 600 g compared with about 1 50 g for the control animals.
that vitamins D
and E are essential and that A and K may The increased growth rate of the eyestalk-ablated
not be required. Vitamin D
deficiency, in addition to slow lobsters was the result of both a shortened moult cycle and
growth and low survival, also results in soft and deformed an increased weight gain after moulting. The average time
shells. Work near future will include the analysis of
in the between the first and second moult of ablated lobsters was
the qualitative and quantitative requirements of juvenile 1 3 51-4 (standard error ) days compared with
lobsters for fat soluble vitamins and essential amino acid 22- 7 3*4 for the controls. The average percentage weight
requirements. gain for the ablated lobsters was 93-1 15-4 versus
7 1-0 9- 8 for the controls.
The accelerated growth as measured by weight gains
4 Growth enhancement was, in fact, a result of increased tissue synthesis, since
The long time required for lobsters to reach market size in there was no significant difference between ablated and
their natural environment is one of the major constraints to control lobsters in the percentage moisture or protein in the
development of a lobster culture industry. Several investi- muscle, or the percentage moisture in the whole animal.
gations have been undertaken on techniques to reduce this The faster growth rate of the ablated lobsters, however, did
long growth period and various alternatives and combina- result in a lower deposition of lipid, especially in the
tions of these show some promise. Hughes, Sullivan and hepatopancreas.
Shleser (1972) reduced the normal growth period of 5-7 Although much research is still needed on this technique
years to about 2 years by rearing lobsters at approximately the positive results so far are very encouraging. It does seem
22C. The use of heated sea water will only be practical, possible that eyestalk ablation and increased temperatures
however, when the heat source is inexpensive. Thus, it may could be used to accelerate growth in commercial lobster
be possible to establish a lobster culture industry in con- culture using either juveniles or intermediate sized lobsters
junction with the heated effluent from thermal power plants. captured in the wild and reared to market size in captivity.
Another technique which may be effective in reducing
the growth period is bilateral eyestalk ablation. It was
shown as early as 1905 (Zeleny, 1905) that removal of 5 Culture systems
both eyestalks from some crustaceans resulted in preco- Lobster culture will require several distinctly different
cious moulting and accelerated growth. The subject of systems for different stages in the lobster's development.
moult control and the related involvement of eyestalks in One system which is used extensively in lobster culture
operations is the larval pot developed in the Massachusetts
1
Refers to the position of the first double bond counting from the methyl State Hatchery on Martha's Vineyard, Massachusetts
end of a fatty acid. (Hughes, Shleser and Tchobanoglous, 1974). With the
317
Hughes' larval pots, it is possible to rear 50-80% of the individual compartments with burrowing cover, such as
very large number of larvae produced from an average scallop shells or drainage tiles. It may also be possible to
female to the fourth or fifth or juvenile stages. The greatest find means to reduce the aggressive behaviour of lobsters
number of survivors reared in the Hughes' pots were kept in close quarters.
obtained when larvae were fed live adult brine shrimp (it) Minimum labour. The designs for physical facilities
(Anemia salind). should incorporate as much automatic cleaning and feeding
A
simpler system has been devised at the Halifax Labo- as possible and facilitate easy observation and monitoring
ratory for rearing larvae immediately after hatching with of stocks.
equivalent survival rates. Larvae are held in a static system, (Hi) Inexpensive and easily controlled heat source. One
consisting of rectangular, fibreglass aquaria equipped with of the more attractive sources is obviously waste heat from
air stones and supplied with 50-100 1 of sea water. The thermal power stations or similar units if the drawbacks
water is changed every 2 or 3 days. The larvae are supplied inherent with this heat loss can be overcome. Another is the
with an excess of newly-hatched brine shrimp nauplii. As recycling of heated water. The second alternative entails
long as an excess of these nauplii is available, cannibalism is initial capital costs but lower operating costs, and requires
almost nil. The rectangular tanks are much simpler and the development of effective high capacity filters, especially
more readily available than Hughes' pots. Less labour is biological filters.
required since a single daily feeding is adequate. The brine (zv) Protection against introduction and spread of dis-
shrimp remain alive and are available in the tank until eaten. ease.Quarantine facilities must be available. Connexions in
When the eggs of each female hatch, larvae are placed in water services between major units should not be permitted,
separate tanks and thus it is easier to keep different age or kept to an absolute minimum to reduce the hazards of
groups and families separate. Thus, larval rearing is not an spreading diseases throughout the entire operation in the
obstacle, and the real problems in developing culture sys- event of their accidental introduction.
tems arise in providing adequate facilities for the culture of Research on commercial lobster culture systems is being
lobsters beyond the larval stage. conducted at several centres in North America. Interesting
In the nutrition work at the Halifax Laboratory, juve- work on physical facilities for culture is being carried out at
niles are reared in individual compartments to prevent the San Diego State University, San Diego, California, at
cannibalism. There are, however, a number of aspects of the the Bodega Bay Laboratory of the University of California,
juvenile rearing system that might have some application to Davis, California and at St. Andrews Biological Station,
a commercial culture system. The bottoms of the tanks Fisheries and Marine Service of Canada, St. Andrews, New
slope downward to the centre of the tank where a bottom Brunswick. In addition, an interesting concept for a poten-
drain permits continual removal of waste food and faecal tialcommercial polyculture system which includes rearing
material thereby reducing the labour required to keep the of lobsters has been proposed by the staff at Woods Hole,
tanks clean (Fig. 1 ). An external drain pipe with flushing Massachusetts.
siphon assists in the removal of waste products. An over- The real test of all the research on lobster culture will be
flow drain on the side of the tank would permit floating in actual pilot-scale operations with careful cost evaluation.
debris to be removed. A plastic, or plastic-coated, wire- The high market value and increasing scarcity of lobsters in
mesh false bottom prevents the lobsters from being flushed nature,combined with all the research efforts in the area,
down the drain. Such a system could be enlarged for suggest that lobster culture may be feasible in the near
commercial-scale production. future.
1229-33
HITCHNER, E. R. & SNIESZKO, S. F. A study of a micro-organism
1947 causing a bacterial disease of lobsters. J. Bact., 54 48 (Abstract)
:
318
PASSANO, L. M, Moulting and its control. In The physiology of STEWART, J. E. &
RABIN, H. Gaffkemia, a bacterial disease of lobsters
1960 Crustacea, edited by T. H. Waterman, New York, Academic 1970 (genus Homarus). Spec. Pulb. Am. Fish. Soc., (5). 431-9
Press, pp. 473-536 STEWART, J. E. &
ZWICKER, B. M. Comparison of various vaccines for
RAO, K. R., FINOERMAN, S. W. & FINOERMAN, M. Effects of exogenous 1974 inducing resistance in the lobster Homarus americanus to the
1973 ecdysones on the molt cycle of 4th and 5th stage American bacterial infection, gaffkemia. J. Fish. Res. Board Can., 31:
lobsters, Homarus amencanus. Comp. Biochem. Physwl., 44A: 1887-92
1105-20 STEWART, J. E., FOLEY, D. M. &ACKMAN, R. G. Characteristics of
SHUDO, K. et al. Studies on formularion feed for Kuruma prawn 5. 1969 Gaffkya homari, the causative agent of the lobster disease
1971 On the growth-promoting effects of both squid liver oil and gaffkemia. J. Fish. Res. Board Can.. 26: 1385-9
cholesterol. Bull Tokai Reg. Fish. Res. Lab., Tokvo, 65: 129-38 STEWART, J. E et al. Gaffkemia, a bacterial disease of the lobster,
SMITH, R. I. Studies on the effects ot eyestalk removal upon young 1969 Homarus americanus: Effects of the pathogen, Gaffkya homari,
1940 crayfish Cambarus clarkii (Girard). Biol. Bull Mar Bio/ Lab., on the physiology of the host. Can. J. Microbiol., 15: 925-32
Woods Hole, 89: 145-52 STEWART, J. E. et al. Food and starvation as factors affecting the time
SNIESZKO, S F. & TAYLOR, C. C A bacterial disease of the lobster 1972 to death of the lobster Homarus americanus infected with
1947 (Homarus amencanus). Science, Wash., D.C., 105: 500 Gaffkya homari J Fish Res. Board Can., 29. 461-4
SOCHASKY, J. B., AIKEN, D. E. &
McLEESE, D W. Does eyestalk TESHIMA, S. & KANAZAWA, A. Utilization and biosynthesis of sterols
1973 ablation accelerate molting in the lobster Homarus amencanus? 1971 in Anemia salina. Bull. Jap. Soc. Sci. Fish., 37: 720-3
J. Fish. Res. Board Can., 30- 1600-3 WILDER, D. G. The growth rate of the American lobster Homarus
STEWART, J. E. Potential for culture of invertebrates. Bull. Fish. Res 1953 americanus. J. Fish. Res. Board Can., 10: 371-412
1974 Board Can, (188): 37-52 Z AN DEE, D. I. Absence of cholesterol synthesis as contrasted with the
STEWART, J. E. & ARIF, B Depletion of glycogen and adenosine 1967 presence of fatty acid synthesis in some arthropods. Comp.
1973 tnphosphate as major factors in the death of lobsters (Homarus Biochem. Physiol, 20- 811-22
amencanus) infected with Gaffkya homari. Can. J. Microbioi, ZELENY, C. Compensatory regulation. J. Exp. Zool ,2' 1-102
19: 1103-10 1905
STEWART, J. E. & ARIE, B. Effectiveness of vancomycin against
1974 gaffkemia, the bacterial disease of lobsters (genus Homarus).
J. Fish. Res. Board Can., 31 1873-9
:
Egg-bearing female king crab were held in chambers where the larvae isme et ('utilisation d'aliments madequats ont etc les facteurs hmitatifs de
hatched. The larvae were reared in chambers ( 1 -8 x 0-9 x -0 m) hold-
1 la survie les plus importants (le meilleur regime alimentaire a etc celui
ing 1-6 tons of water. Half of the water was renewed daily. It was kept administre au quatrieme stade zoe).
well aerated and held under 10C. The zoeae were fed naupln of Anemia Le jeune crabe a etc eleve du premier au cinquieme stade par les
salina. During their fourth stage, the zoeae were reared in Saran net cages memes methodes que celles ayant servie au stade glaucothoe. A partir du
(0-9 x 0-9 x 0-4 m) set in running water. Their diet of Anemia nauphi sixieme stade, les crabes ont etc places dans des bacs d'elevage
was augmented by shrimp juice, clam and Laminaria. The rate of (1,8 xO,9 xO,7 m) sur fond de sable. L 'alimentation etait analogue a
survival of zoeae raised at a density of 400 000/chamber was over 80%. celle administree au stade glaucothoe. L'eau etait maintenue a une
Post-larvae were held on two types of bottom sand and in the same
:
temperature de 10C en 1971. A partir de 1973, en 1'absence de
Saran net cages used for fourth stage zoeae. The net cage was much more controle, la temperature s'est elevee a 20C, mais le taux de survie n'a
satisfactory in that good water quality (ie, free from residual food and pas varie par rapport au chiffre atteint en 1971.
other particles) was maintained. Initial survival of the glaucothoe start- Le document conclut que Pelevage de masse du crabe royal au stade
ing with 1 000-50 000 was good, but mortality increased suddenly and, zoe n'est pas difficile, mais que Pelevage des post-larves n'a pas etc
at the first stage of the young crab, the final number of glaucothoe was couronne de succes.
only 2 1 Q-500. Cannibalism and unsuitable foods were believed to be the
most important factors limiting survival. (The best food was that given to Cria de formal larvales y postlarvales de centolla (Paralithodes
the fourth zoeal stage.) camtschatica)
The first stage young crab were cultured up to their fifth stage using Extracto
the same methods as for the glaucothoe stage. From the sixth stage on, Desde 1970 se nan reahzado en Hokkaido, Japon, experimentos de
they were held in a rearing chamber (1-8 x 0-9 x 0-7 m) with a sand cultivo de formas larvales y postlarvales de centolla (Paralithodes
bottom. The food was similar to that of the glaucothoe stage. Water camtschatica).
temperature was held at 10C in 1971. From 1973 on, without control Se colocaron hembras ovadas en camaras, hasta la salida de las larvas.
of temperature, it rose to 20C but survival was unchanged from that in Las larvas se criaron en camaras ( 1 ,8 x 0,9 x 1 ,0 m ) con 1 ,6 toneladas de
1971. agua, renovando diariamente la mi tad del agua. Las camaras se mantu-
It was concluded that mass culture of king crab zoeae was not difficult vieron bien aireadas v a menos de 10C. Se alimento a las zoeae con
but success in rearing post larvae was not attained. nauplii de Anemia salina. Durante su cuarta fase. las zoeae se criaron en
laulas de red Saran (0.9 x 0,9 x 0.4 m) colocadas en agua en movi
Elevage de larves et de post-larves de crabe royal (Paralithodes miento. Se complete la racion alimenticia con nauplii de Anemia con
camtschatica) lugo de camaron, almejas y Laminaria. El indice de supervivencia de las
Resume zoeae criadas en densidades de 400 000/camara fue superior al 80%.
Depuis 1 9 70, on precede a des experiences d'elevage de larves et de post- Para las postlarvas se utilizaron dos tipos de fondos: de arena y las
larves de crabe royal (Paralithodes camtschatica) a Hokkaido (Japon). mismas jaulas de red Saran utilizadas para la cuarta fase zoea. La jaula de
On a place des femelles fecondees de crabe royal dans des bacs ou s'est red resulto mucho mas satisfactory, ya que permitio mantener una buena
produite 1'eclosion des larves. Les larves ont etc elevees dans ces bacs calidad del agua (es decir, exenta de residues de ahmentos y otras
(1,8 xO,9 x 1,0m), qui contenaient 1,6 tonnes d'eau, renouvelee pour particulas). La supervivencia inicial de las glaucothoe, comenzando con
moitie chaque jour, bien aeree, et tenue a une
temperature
de 10C. Les 1 000-50 000, resulto buena,
pero la m or tali dad aumento de repente y
zoes ont etc nourries a 1'aide de nauplies ^Anemia salina. Pendant leur en la primera fase de centolla el numerp final de glaucothoe fue solo de
quatrieme stade, les zoes ont etc elevees dans des cages en filet du type 210-500: se cree que los factores mas importances que limitaron la
Saran (0,9 x 0,9 x 0,4 m) disposees dans une eau courante. Le regime supervivencia fueron el canibalismo y la inadecuacidn de los alimentos.
alimentaire constitue de nauplies $Anemia a etc complete par (1 mejor alimento resulto ser el suministrado a la cuarta fase zoea.)
1'adjonction de jus de crevettes, de clam et de Laminaria. Le taux du Las centollas se cultivaron desde la primera hasta la quinta fase
survie des zoes elevees a une densite de 400 000 par reservoir a excede utilizando los mismos metodos que en la fase de glaucothoe. A partir de
80%. la sexta fase se colocaron en camaras de cria (1,8 x 0,9 x 0,7 m) con
Les post-larves ont etc conservees sur deux types de fond: sable et filet fondo de arena, utilizando alimentos analogos a los de la fase de
des cages du type Saran utilisees pour les zoes du quatrieme stade. La glaucothoe. La temperatura del agua se mantuvo a 10C en 1971. A
cage en filet a donne des resultats bien plus satisfaisants en preservant la partir de 1 9 70, sin control de temperatura, esta aumento a 20C, pero la
qualite de 1'eau (qui etait en effet exempte de residus alimentaires et supervivencia permanecio invariada respecto a la de 1971.
319
Se llegp a la conclusion de que el cultivo en masa de zoeae de centolla Larvae that hatched out during or just after transport did
no es dificil, aunque la cria de formas postlarvales no se logro.
not survive up to the second stage. Larvae that hatched out
three days after the spawning did not survive.
first
The consumption by the eggs was almost
rate of oxygen
1 Introduction constant at oxygen saturations higher than 70% and de-
The king crab (Paralithodes) fishery of the North Pacific is creased at oxygen saturations lower than 60%. The rate was
one of its high value fisheries. The world catch for king crab almost constant at water temperatures of 3, 6 and 8C,
in 1966 was 149-6 thousand tons; by 1973 it had declined and decreased at temperatures higher than 8C. From these
to 59*8 thousand tons. Meanwhile, the Japanese catch had facts,it appears that the eggs maintain themselves best at
declined from 3 1-0 tons in 1966 to 6- 2 tons in 1973(FAO, water temperatures lower than 3C
and at oxygen satura-
1974). Such a decline, coupled with increased demand for tions higher than 70%.
this much desired crustacean, has made attempts to culti-
vate it artificially important. 2.2 Rearing the zoeal stage
There are many studies on rearing larvae of the king The number of zoeae reared in one rearing chamber ranged
crab, Paralithodes camtschatica. Kaai (1940) studied the from 50 000 to 400 000. Half of the water in the chamber
rearing of king crab larvae from the zoeal to the post-larval was changed daily and the water was always kept well
stage in rearing chambers in the field. He reported that the aerated. Residual food and moulted carapaces were re-
larvae had four zoeal stages and one glaucothoe stage. Sato moved once a day.
and Tanaka (1949) reared the larvae in a laboratory. Anemia salina nauplii were used as food during the
Kurata (1959 and 1961) reared the larvae from the first zoeal stage. The average number of nauplii consumed by a
zoeal stage to the ninth post-larval stage in a laboratory. His zoea throughout its entire stage was about 760 (Kurata,
study outlined a method for culturing both larval and post- 1960). As the zoeal stage occupies a period of about 30
larval king crab. at 8C, an average zoea consumes about 25 nauplii
days
Meanwhile, the kuruma prawn (Penaeus japonicus) and per day.
the Japanese blue swimming crab (Neptunus pacificus) are The optimum number of zoeae to be reared in a chamber
both cultured on a large scale in western Japan. Such large- with a water volume of 1-6 tons appears to be about
scale rearings demonstrate the possibility of similar large- 30 000-50 000. In the first experiments, it was found that
scale rearing of king crab larvae. the zoeae gathered at one place in the chamber, where they
In 1970, the experiments on crab aquaculture began at much of the proffered
attacked each other and would not eat
the Akkeshi Marine Biological Station of Hokkaido Uni- foods. Lights were placed at each corner of the rearing
versity,Hokkaido Regional Fisheries Research Labora- chamber and turned on one by one every 7-5 minutes, The
tory, Hokkaido Kushiro Fisheries Experimental Station, zoeae moved phototactically from one lighted spot to the
Hokkaido Marine Cultivation Center and the Nemuro next one. (The nauplii of Anemia salina are also phototac-
Fishermen's Co-operative Association in Hokkaido, north- tic.) By use of this method, all of the space in the rearing
ern Japan. One of the major projects is large-scale rearing of chamber was used by the zoeae and they consumed a good
king crab larvae. Rearing of the larvae, which started in deal of food. however, the number of zoeae in a rearing
If,
1970, continues in Nemuro in eastern Hokkaido. The chamber was under 50,000, they could be reared in good
physiology and ecology of king crab larvae and post-larvae condition without use of these lights.
are also being studied in a laboratory. A summary of the Kurata (1960a) and Omi and Mizushima (1972) stud-
studies on the king crab follows. ied the influence of temperature upon the survival and
Eggs survived over 240 hours in air of 100% humidity at the zoeae reared at a density of 400 000 per chamber was
3 and 1 C, while adult crabs survived in the air for about also over 80%.
7 hours at 5C
(Nakanishi, 1974). Egg-bearing females It was concluded that mass culture of zoeae was not very
could be carried for about 7 hours exposed to air, and were difficult.
carried for over 7 hours in sea water. Almost all of the egg-
bearing females that were carried in air spawned. But when 2.3 Rearing post-larvae
the temperature during transport was above 10C or under Two types of bottom were used for the rearing chambers for
-2C, their spawning rate was very low. Some egg bearers post-larval king crab. One was of sand (5-10 mm
in diame-
that were reared over the winter did not spawn. ter); theother was the Saran net cage used for the fourth-
The greater part of the larvae hatched out in one week. stage zoeae. In nature, the post-larvae live on a sand bottom
320
but this substrate did not appear to be very good for their The water temperature in the rearing chamber was held
mass culture in a laboratory. Residual foods, moulted under 10C in 1971. From 1973, this stage was reared
carapaces and other small particles which settled on the without control of the water temperature. The highest
sand were so small that they could not be removed com- temperature was about 20C, but the rate of survival was
pletely. The particles decomposed and the water deterio- no different from that in 1971 (see Table I).
rated in quality. Net-cage rearing did not have these prob-
lems. Running water was used and the cages were cleaned TABLE I
SURVIVAL RATE OF THE KING CRAB FROM FIRST ZOEAL TO ADULT STAGES
once a day. IN EXPERIMENTS CONDUCTED 1970-74
It was easy to count the post-larvae. The number of
Number of Survival rate (%)
glaucothoe reared in one cage was 1 000-50 000 at first, Year first-
but the mortality increased suddenly at this stage and the stage zoeae Z 3
Z4 A2
final number of glaucothoe at the time of development into
1970 20000 0-4 0-2
the first stage of the young crab was 2 10-500 in most cases. 1971 270000 92 92 90-0 5-7 2-2 1-0
One reason for this increased mortality was cannibalism. 1972 20000 92 85-0 0-4
a
Glaucothoe sometimes swam, but usually they remained on 1973 178000 85-0 34-0 1-1 0-45
1974 1 800 000 92 90-0 90-0 0-5 0-1
the bottom or held on to the net. Polypropylene films or
Saran nets were used to increase their clinging areas. fl
Not counted
glaucothoe stage. The foods provided for the fourth zoeal the food of the zoea. Bull Hokkaido Reg. Fish Res Lab., 20-
stage seemed to be the best of those tried, but they were still 76-83
far from perfect. This stage of the king crab is very different KURATA, H. Studies on the larva and post-larva of Paralithodes
1960 Camtschatica. 2. Feeding habits of the zoea Bull Hokkaido
morphologically, ecologically and physiologically from the Reg Fish Res Lab., 21 1-8
zoeal stage, and increase in mortality may have been KURATA, H. Studies on the larva and post-larva of Paralithodes
1960a camtschatica. 3 The influence of temperature and salinity on
dependent on many factors still unknown at this time. Mass
the survival and growth of the larva Bull Hokkaido Reg. Fish
culture methods for the glaucothoe stage have not yet been Res. Lab., 21: 9-14
studied. KURATA, H. Studies on the larva and post-larva of Paralithodes
1961 camtschatica. 4 Growth of the post-larva J Hokkaido Fish
The glaucothoe moult and develop into the first stage of
Exp. Sm., 18. 1-9
the young crab. The young crabs were cultured up to their NAKANISHI, T. Effect of exposure to the air on the heart rate in Para-
fifth stage using the same method as for the glaucothoe 1974 lithodes camtschatica. Bull. Hokkaido Reg Fish. Res. Lab., 40.
38-47
stage. From their sixth stage on (now with a carapace length OMI, A. & MIZUSHIMA, T. The influence of temperature on the growth
of about 3mm), they were kept in a rearing chamber 1972 and survival of the larva of Paralithodes camtschatica In
Report of the experiment of aquaculture of crabs, 2 33-43
1
in Mariculture?
Abstract indicate that freshly hatched Anemia nauplii should be offered to the
For many years the freshly hatched nauplii of the brine shrimp (Anemia predator as soon as possible after hatching.
salina} have been the most common live food used in mariculture of (v) High density culturing techniques for Anemia larvae have been
finfish and Crustacea. The cysts from which A. salina nauplii hatch are developed that are fully automatic and economically feasible. By using
harvested from unmanaged wild populations by primitive techniques and air-water lift operated raceways, densities of 3 000 shrimps litre can
per
at only a few places in the world. As a result, good quality cysts are be cultured from the first nauplius to the adult stage within 2 weeks on a
available only in limited quantities. With expansion of mariculture, diet of commercially available dried algae.
demand for these is exceeding the supply, which may lead to a (v/) The use of juvenile brine shrimp larvae of appropriate sizes
cysts
serious bottle-neck in many instead of freshly hatched nauplii offers several nutritional and economi-
aquaculture developments.
A review of the studies on brine shrimp shows that the present critical cal advantages in terms of utilization by fish and crustacean predators.
situation can only be alleviated by revising the commercial exploitation
of the cysts, as well as the practical use made of the latter in mariculture La crevette dc marais talant, Anemia so/ton: un probleme pour la
farms. In this respect it is suggested that: maricutaire
(/) The quality of commercially available cysts can be improved and Resume
their quantity increased by the application of new harvesting techniques. Depuis de nombreuses annees, on a utilise le plus souvent, en mariculture
(//) As salt lakes with Anemia are found all over the world (the pour fpurnir une nourriture vivante aux poissons et aux crustaces, des
collection at the State University of Ghent totals more than 60 different nauplii nouvellement eclos de la crevette de marais salant (Anemia
strains), comparative studies on the ecological characteristics and the salina). Les oeufs qui sont utilises pour 1'elevage de VA. salina sont
nutritional value of different geographical races will lead to the selection recoltes au moyen de techniques rudimentaires dans des populations a
of those that are best suited for aquacultural purposes. 1'etat sauvage qui ne se trouvent que dans quelques rares endroits du
(///) Hatching of the larvae, followed by their separation from the monde. On ne trouve done d'oeufs de bonne qualite qu'en quantites
hatching debris can be optimized by the application of new and standard- limitees. Etant donne 1'extension de la mariculture, la demande
ized techniques. This can lead to increased survival of larvae by at least & Anemia salina est superieure aux possibilites d'approvisionnement ce
5096 and a reduction of 90% in the and labour involved. qui risque de faire serieusemcnt obstacle & son developpement.
equipment
O'v) Biochemical analyses to determine nutrient value of the larvae Lorsque Ton reprend les travaux theoriques et pratiques qui ont etc
321
consacrcs a la crevette de marais salant on constate que la situation shrimp, which accumulate along the shores of salt lakes, are
difficileou Ton se trouvc a l*heure actuelle ne pourrait etre modificc que a practical food source. When kept vacuum-dry, the cysts
par un changement dans 1'cxploitation commerciale des ceufs ainsi que
dans 1'utilisation que Ton en fait en mariculture. On propose done a cet remain viable for years; they can easily be exported all over
egard mesures suivantes:
les the world and, on immersion in sea water, produce nauplii
(/) La
qualite des ceufs disponibles dans le commerce pourrait etre
amelioree et leur quantite accrue par P application de nouvelles tech-
within approximately 24 hours.
niques de recolte. During the last decade, the research effort as well as the
(//) Etant donne que Ton trouve dans le monde entier des lacs sales commercial fish and crusta-
practical implementation of
peuples &
Anemia (les collections de 1'Universite de 1'Etat de Gand en
reunissent plus de 60 difierentes souches), des etudes comparatives sur cean farming have increased considerably. As a conse-
les caracteristiques ecologiques et la valeur nutritionnelle des races
quence, the demand for brine shrimp cysts, which are
originates de difierentes regions permettraient de choisir celles qui harvested for commercial purposes from only a few salt
apparaitraient les plus propres aux besoins de I'aquaculture.
(///) En utilisant de nouvelles techniques normalisees il serait possible
lakes in North America, has increased markedly and now
d'ameliorer 1'eclosion des larves et leur separation des debris d'eclosion. exceeds the supply. Not only is the price for cysts rising
Ce qui permettrait d'augmenter au moins de 50% la quantite de larves
survivan tcs et de reduire de 90% le materiel et la main -d 'ecu vre continuously, but the acute dependence of mariculture
necessaires. farms on provision of good quality Anemia cysts places a
(/v) Les analyses biochimiques efiectuees en yue de determiner la considerable burden on further expansion of maricultural
valeur nutritive des larves montrent que les nauplii &
Anemia nouvelle-
activities.
ment eclos doivent etre fournis aux predateurs aussitot que possible
apres leur eclosion. In view of this situation, a thorough analysis of the
(v) Des techniques totalement automatisees, et satisfaisantes du point Anemia problem should be given high priority in order to
de vue economique, ont etc mises au point pour la culture a haute densite
&
des larves Anemia. En utilisant des raceways actionnes a 1'eau et a Fair, prevent shortage of brine shrimp cysts becoming a bottle-
on peut clever jusqu'a 3 000 crevettes par litre, depuis le stade du neck in mariculture development.
nauplius jusqu'a r&ge adultc, en les soumettant pendant deux semaines a
un regime a base d'algues sechees qui sont en vente dans le commerce.
(v/) II est a bien des egards avantageux des points de vue nutritionnel
et economique d'utiliser pour nourrir des poissons et des crustaces
2 Commercial exploitation of brine shrimp cysts
predateurs de jeunes larves de crevettes de marais salants, parvenues a
une taille suffisante, plutot que des nauplii nouvellement eclos. As controlled production of brine shrimp for the harvesting
of cysts has not been accomplished on a commercial basis,
Probfemu que planted para la maricultura la limitada disponlbilkUd de the only source of Anemia eggs is still from cyst-deposition
eamaroa de agua salobre, Anemia salina
Extracto by unmanaged wild populations that are subject to major
Durante muchos anos, los nauplii recien eclosionados del camaron de environmental perturbations. In fact, production of brine
agua salobre (Anemia salina) ban sido el aiimento vivo mas comun-
mcnte utilizado en el cultivo de peces y crustaceos marines. Los quisles shrimp has been primarily a by-product of salt-production
de los que salen los nauplii de A. salina proceden de poblaciones plants.Water management for salt production is often
silvestres, y se recogen, con tecnicas primitivas, solo en pocos lugares del unfavourable for the development of Anemia and the high
mundo. Debido a ello, las disponibilidades de quistes de buena calidad
son limitadas. Al extenderse la maricultura, la demanda empieza a ser production of brine shrimp and their eggs occurs unpredict-
superior a la oferta, lo que podria causar un grave inconveniente para ably when the environmental conditions are accidentally
muchas actividades acuicolas.
suited for these halophilic organisms.
Examinando los estudios fundamentales y aplicados que se ban hecho
sobre el camaron de agua salobre, es evidente que la actual situation The techniques for harvesting the cysts are quite primi-
critica solo puede aliviarse
reyisando
el sistema de explotacion comercial tive: driven by wind and currents, the floating cysts accu-
de los quistes y su empleo practice en maricultura. A este proposito, se
mulate along the shores of salt lakes, where they are ladled
sugiere que:
(/) Podria aumentarse la calidad y cantidad de quistes disponibles out into bags. The time lapse, however, between washing
comercialmente aplicando nuevas tecnicas de reception. ashore till harvesting is not constant and is often spread
(//) Dado que se encuentran en todo el mundo lagos de agua salada con
Anemia (la coleccipn de la Universidad estatal de Gante comprende mas over several weeks. At each rainfall during this period,
de 60 variedades diferentes), podrian hacerse estudios comparatives de cysts can undergo a hydration and dehydration cycle,
las caracteristicas ecologicas y el valor nutritional de las diversas razas
which results in a temporary activation of cyst metabolism.
geograficas para seleccionar las mas adecuadas para la acuicultura.
(7/7) La salida de las larvas del quiste y su separation de los restos de
Fundamental studies related to this subject have shown that
este, puede perfeccionarse aplicando tecnicas nuevas y uniformes. Po- the energy content of cysts which have been subjected to
dria obtenerse asi un aumento de la de las larvas de al
supervivencia
menos el 50%, y una reduction del 90% del equipo y la mano de obra repeated hydration-dehydration cycles, decreases and that
necesarios. the size of the nauplii hatching from these cysts is reduced
(/v) Los analisis bioquimicos hechos para determinar el valor de las
significantly (Sorgeloos, 1975). In the extreme case of
larvas desde el punto de vista nutritional indican que los nauplii de
Anemia deben ponerse a disposition de los depredadores lo antes multiple exposure to hydration-dehydration cycles, the
posible despues de eclosionados. energy content of the cysts drops below a critical level and
(v) Se nan preparado tecnicas de cultivo de larvas de Anemia en
subsequent hatching becomes impossible.
grandes densidades, que son plenamente automaticas y economicamente
viables. En canales con un sistema de elevation de agua y aireacion Complaints of mariculture operators on the significant
pueden criarse en dos semanas hasta 3 000 camaroncs por 1, desde la differences in hatchability from one batch of cysts to
primera fase de hasta la fase adulta, con una dicta de algas secas
nauplius another can be at least partly explained by the repeated
que pueden adquirirsc comercialmente.
(v/) El empleo de juveniles de camaron de tamano adecuado en vez de activation-inactivation of metabolism during the period the
nauplii recien eclosionados ofrece varias ventajas nutricionales y eco- cysts are on shore prior to their harvest. Cyst quality could
nomicas por lo que se refiere a su utilizacion por los peces y crustaceos
be optimized and kept constant by either more frequent
depredadores .
322
USA; salt pans in the San Francisco Bay area, California, activity. The critical triggering period differs from one
USA; and salt lakes in Saskatchewan, Canada. strain to another (eg, 10 minutes at 2 000 lux for cysts from
In the State University of Ghent laboratory, a collection Great Salt Lake and only 5 minutes for cysts from San
of over 60 different strains from all continents has been Francisco Bay).
made. A comparative study of these strains has revealed (/v) Maximum cyst densities for optimal hatching effi-
differences in important characteristics, such as the hatch- ciency are approximately 12-15 g/1. At higher cyst densi-
ing rate, size of nauplii, viability, optimal temperature, and ties, the vigorous aeration needed to keep the water satu-
salinity ranges for larval growth and survival, etc. (Sorge- rated with oxygen affects the larvae mechanically and leads
loos et ah 1975). to mortality.
Further studies on the determination of the ecological The following standard procedure is proposed for hatch-
characteristics as well as the nutritional value of these ing cysts. Densities of about 10 g cysts/1 are hatched out in
strains should lead to the selection of those best suited for natural sea water in transparent cylindrical tubes with a
aquacultural purposes. This can lead to transplantation funnel-shaped bottom. Continuous aeration from the bot-
experiments with inoculation of particular strains into bio- tom of the cylinder keeps all the cysts in suspension and a
topes where, for example, the autochthonous Anemia races few drops of a non-toxic antifoam additive should be used.
have poor characteristics with respect to their use in The is illuminated by a fluorescent light tube for 1
cylinder
mariculture. hour immersion of the cysts and water temperature is
after
The application of both the selection studies and better kept constant at 28C. This technique has been applied for
harvesting techniques can alleviate the present critical de- many years in the laboratory giving hatching percentages of
mand Artemia cysts. Not only could the yearly yield of
for 70% with Great Salt Lake cysts, and as high as 90% with
commercial exploitation in North America be greatly in- San Francisco Bay cysts, which means a harvest of approxi-
6
creased but the harvesting could also be extended to many mately 2-5 x 10 nauplii/1 of water.
other sites on other continents. As compared to results from literature, the proposed
technique gives much better hatching efficiences with con-
siderably higher cyst densities in inexpensive and simple
3 Optimization of the use of brine shrimp cysts hatching cylinders. This results not only in more economic
Despite the present limited supply of Anemia cysts, their use of brine shrimp cysts but also, as the hatching density
use is far from optimal. In most cases, survival from can be increased by a factor of 10 compared to other
hatching is poor. One factor which contributes to this poor techniques, in an important saving of manpower and equip-
survival is inefficient separation of nauplii from the hatch- ment (pumps, heaters, water etc).
ing debris. Feeding of nauplii to predators is not always
at the appropriate larval stage, and efficient tech-
3.2 Harvesting hatched nauplii
As empty cyst shells and non-hatched cysts can
niques for high-density culturing of Anemia larvae are not
available.
be harmful when ingested by young fish or crustacean
It is considered that important benefits can be obtained larvae, free-swimming Artemia nauplii are most often
by the application of several recent findings and new separated from the remaining debris immediately after
techniques. hatching.
To date, the technique utilized in most mariculture farms
3.1 to separate cysts from larvae is quite primitive: after hatch-
Hatching cysts
Various hatching devices are commonly used: eg, rectangu- ing, the aeration is turned off in order to separate the
lar boxes; water baths, and plastic vats with flat or funnel- sinking cyst shells from the swimming nauplii. After a
certain period of time (which can be up to 75 minutes), and
shaped bottoms. It originally appeared from studies on
Anemia that the cysts can be hatched out within a wide sometimes after concentrating the phototactic larvae
range of temperature, salinity and oxygen concentration
around a light source, the suspension containing the swim-
was consid- ming is drained off.
(Sorgeloos and Persoone, 1975). Therefore, it nauplii
ered that the hatching of cysts at high densities did not Immediately hatching peak, the associated bac-
after the
hatching efficiency obtained with the various devices in oxygen depletion with subsequent mortality of the most
common use is low and does not exceed an output of 50% sensitive larvae, the medium is always renewed prior to
from cyst to larvae in most cases. The principal rules which separation by filtering off the whole suspension on a plank-
ton gauze, rinsing it a couple of times, and resuspending it
guarantee hatching efficiency have now been
maximum
summarized by Sorgeloos (1975) and Sorgeloos and Per- in fresh sea water.
soone (1975) as follows: The separation efficiency (qualitative and quantitative)
(/) Hatching rate is dependent on temperature and salin-
can be greatly increased by using a cylindrical separator
ity, and hydrated cysts must be kept under strictly con-
box as described by Sorgeloos and Persoone (1975).
trolled conditions in order to obtain a maximum number of It was discovered recently that the outer layer of the cyst
nauplii within a well defined immersion period. shell, which contains haematin, can be removed by an
O'O Cysts must be kept in suspension in oxygen-satu- oxidation technique. This may eliminate the need for sepa-
rated sea water. Cysts accumulating on the bottom of ration of cyst shells from larvae, as the remaining hatch-
hatching apparati will often be exposed to anaerobic condi- ing debris would only consist of very thin transparent
tions and do not hatch under these conditions. membranes which might be harmless to the predators of
(in) Hydrated cysts must be illuminated for specific time Anemia nauplii. This possible application is now being
periods after immersion in order to trigger cyst metabolic investigated.
323
4 Feeding brine shrimp to fish and crustacean larvae contamination of the nauplii by a pollutant, it is clear that
Freshly hatched brine shrimp nauplii are presently one of the relative concentration of the toxicant decreases as the
the best live food sources for fish and crustacean larvae. organism grows. Consequently, the quantity of toxicant
Fundamental research on the moulting rate and the energy ingested by the predators decreases if they are fed later
content of the non-fed nauplii revealed that the nauplii have stages of Anemia.
to be fed to the predator as soon as possible after hatching.
In fact, holding the nauplii without feeding results in a
considerable decrease in their energy value; within 24 5 References
hours after hatching at 28C, the larvae moult into the
second and third larval stages which is associated with a BENIJTS, F., &
VAN VOORDEN, E. SORGELOOS, P. Changes in biochemical
decrease in individual weight and caloric content of 24 and
1975 composition between the first larval stages of the. brine shrimp
Artemia salina. Paper presented at 10th European Symposium
28% respectively (Remiche-Van der Wielen and Sorgeloos on Marine Biology, Ostend, Belgium, 17-23 September 1975
(in press);Bengts, Van Voorden and Sorgeloos, 1975). BOOKHOUT, C. G. &
COSTLOW, J. D. JR. Nutritional effects of Artemia
1970 from different locations on larval development of crabs.
In most mariculture farms, only hatched brine shrimp
Helgol. Wiss. Meeresunters, 20: 435-42
nauplii are fed to larvae of fish and crustaceans. However, COGNIE, D. Production $ Artemia salina en grands volumes recycles.
1975 Paper presented at 10th European Symposium on Marine
in many cases, adult Anemia and older and larger larvae
Biology, Ostend, Belgium, 17-23 September 1975
that have been fed on an algal diet could be a more GREAT BRITAIN, MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE, FISHERIES AND FOOD.
1967 Annual report of the Director of Fishery Research, 1966. Annu
appropriate and highly nutritive food for fish and crusta-
Rep. Dir. Fish. Res. MAFF, G.B., (1966). 122 p.
cean larvae. Since it has been demonstrated by Sorgeloos LITTLE, G. The larval development of the shrimp Palaemon macro-
(1973), Cognie (1975) and Person-le Ruyet (1976) that 1969 daciylus Rath bun reared in the laboratory and the effect of
Anemia can be cultured on different types of inert foods, eyestalk extirpation on development. Crustaceana ,17: 69-87
PERSON-LE RUYET, J. Elevage larvaire d' Anemia salina (Branchiopode)
controlled mass culturing of their larvae is now economi- 1976 sur nourriture inerte: Spirulina maxima (Cyanophycee). Aqua-
culture, 8: 157-67
cally feasible.
PROVASOLI, L. Laboratory methods in cultivation In Marine biology
Recently an automatic culturing technique has been 1969 Proceedings of the interdisciplinary conference on marine
developed with air-lift operated raceways in which densities biology, edited by J D Costlow, Jr. New York, Gordon &
Breach, pp. 223-398
up to 3 000 larvae/1 can be cultured up to the adult stage REMICHE-VAN DER WIELEN, C. &SORGELOOS, P. The use and misuse of
within two weeks (Sorgeloos, Bossuyt and Baeza-Mesa, Artemia salina nauplii for toxicity tests. J. Fish. Res. Board Can
MS). The only manual work involved is replenishment of (in press)
the food container twice a week. ROLLEFSEN, G. Artificial rearing of fry of seawater fish. Preliminary
1939 communications. Rapp. P.-V Reun C1EM, (109) 133
The use of older larvae cultured to the appropriate size as SEALE, A. Brine shrimp (Artemia) as a satisfactory life food for fishes.
1933 Trans. Am. Fish. Soc., 63. 129-30
prey organisms instead of freshly-hatched nauplii has sev-
SORGELOOS, P. The influence of algal food preparation on its nutntional
eral advantages: (/) The quantity of cysts needed will be 1973 efficiency for Artemia salina L. larvae. Proc. Conference on
significantly reduced as the predator will need fewer of the Marine Invertebrate Larvae, Rovinj (Yugoslavia) 20-27 Sept-
The food ember 1973
larger larvae as food. (//) quality (eg, protein P. De invloed van abiotische en biotische faktoren
SORGELOOS, op de
content) of the older larvae higher than that of the first
is 1975 levenscyclus van het pekelkreeftje, Artemia salina L. Ph.D
instars. (lit) The predator spends much less energy in Thesis, University of Ghent, 235 p.
SORGELOOS, P. & PERSOONE, G. Technological improvements for the
ingesting a specific biomass of older larvae or adults as 1975 cultivation of invertebrates as food for fishes and crustaceans. 2.
compared to ingestion of an identical biomass of nauplii, Hatching and cultunng of the brine shrimp Artemia salina L
(/v) Strains of Anemia whose first nauplii*stages appear to Aquaculture, 6: 303-17
SORGELOOS, P., BOSSUYT, E. & BAEZA-MESA, M. An air-lift operated
be unsuitable for mariculture purposes, eg, because of
raceway-technique for the automatic and high density cultunng
contamination by pollutants (Great Britain, 1967; Little, of larvae of the brine shrimp Anemia salina (MS)
SoRGhLoos, P. el a/, Current research on the cultunng of the brine
1969; Bookhout and Costlow, 1970; Wickins, 1972) or 1975 shrimp Anemia salina L. at the State University of Ghent, Bel-
because they are too large to be swallowed by their preda- gium. Paper presented at 10th European Symposium on
tors (Provasoli, 1 969), can become an appropriate food for Marine Biology, Ostend, Belgium, 17-23 September 1975
WICKINS, J. F. The food value of brine shrimp Artemia salina L. to
large cultured species by spreading the feeding of nauplii 1972 larvae of the prawn, Palaemon serratus rennant. J. Exp. Mar.
over a number of days (Wickins, 1972). In the case of Biol. Ecoi, 10: 151-70
324
Chapter IV Culture of Molluscs
expanded oyster production. Methods of oyster culture are similar to actuel lement utilisees en certaines parties du monde. Parmi les princi-
those used in Japan, with raft culture being ideally suited for the paux facteurs affectant le mamtien et le developpement de la production
protected waters along the coast. huitriere Ton peut citer 1'existence d'endroits et de conditions environne-
1
Oysters are grown 'on-bottom in France as production is primarily mentales adequates; des sources convenables de produits
for the 'half-sheir trade. Extensive mortalities have occurred recently in d'ensemencement, la selection d'especes adaptees et I'amelioration
France with the traditional species, Ostrea edulis and Crassostrea genetique des stocks; 1'approvisionnement en aliments pour les systemes
angulata, but this problem has been substantially circumvented through de culture artificiels ou intensifs: le controle des maladies des predateurs
importation of Crassostrea gigas from Japan, Canada and the USA. et des organismes de fouling: et de type de methode de recolte.
The Netherlands is the second largest producer of flat oysters (O.
edulis ) after France. A recent change in the traditional culture technique Ostricultura: retrospcccion mundial
in the Netherlands is to use empty shells instead of tiles as spat collectors. Extracto
Rock oysters (Crassostrea commercialis ) are cultured with the stick Se ha estimado. sobre la base de algunas proyecciones, que la demanda
and tray method in Australia. Because of the concern about the extensive mundial de ostras aumentara para el anp 2000 de las actuales 770 000
area needed for this two-dimensional culture system, experiments have toneladas a mas de 2 millones. Los principales paises productores de
recently begun to test the applicability of the Japanese long-line method. ostras en 1 9 72 fueron Estados Unidos (41,7%), Japon (29,1%), Repub-
Smaller quantities of oysters are produced by various methods in lica de Corea (9,3%), Francia (8,9%) y Mexico (5,6%).
other countries, including Mexico, Taiwan Province of China, Canada. En los Estados Unidos, el 40% de la production total de ostras
New Zealand, Great Britain and Germany. precede ante todo del cultivo sobre el fondo, utilizando semi lias de
From a technical standpoint, worldwide oyster production could be fuentes locales o importadas del Japon. Son tambien
ppsibles
otras
increased greatly by applying methods which are currently used in some tecnicas de cultivo. como el cultivo en balsas y la cria artificial en medios
parts of the world. Among the major factors affecting the maintenance controlados, pero no se utilizan por razones economicas.
and development of oyster production are: availability of suitable space La mayoria de las ostras destinadas al consume humano en el Japon se
and environmental conditions (water of good quality, natural food producen con distmtas variaciones del metodo de cultivo en suspen-
supplies, etc)\ suitable seed supply; selection of suitable species and sion cultivo en balsas, palangres o bastidores , mientras el metodo de
genetic improvement of stocks; provision of feeds for artificial or siembra por dispersion y el cultivo en varas tienen menor importancia.
intensive culture systems; control of diseases, predators and fouling La mas importante de estas tecnicas es la de cultivo en bastidores, que se
organisms; and type of harvesting method. utiliza en el 64% de la superficie total dedicada a la ostricultura. Seespera
que el cultivo en palangres sirva de base para la expansion de la
Ostreiculture: revue mondiale produccion, ya que puede utilizarse en aguas limpias de mar abicrto.
Resume Aunque el cultivo de ostras en la Republica de Corea comenzo solo en
On demande mondiale d'huitres augmentera. la produc-
prevoit que la 1958, para 1972 la produccion anual superaba ya las 70 000 toneladas.
tion passant du chiffre actuel de 770 000 tonnes a plus de 2 millions Dado que su medio ambiente costero es excelente, Corea tiene aun
tonnes en Pan 2000. En 1972, les principaux producteurs etaient les grandes posibilidades para incrementar su produccion de ostras. Los
Etats-Unis (4 1,7%), le Japon (29, 1%), la Republiquede Coree (9,3%), la metodos de ostricultura son ana logos a los utilizados en el Japon. y el
France (8,9%) et le Mexique (5,6%). cultivo en balsas resulta ideal en las aguas protegidas a lo largo de la
Aux Etats-Unis, 40% de la production totale d'huitres provient en costa.
premier lieu de 1'elevage 'sur le fond' qui utilise du naissain d'origine En Francia, las ostras se crian sobre el fondo, ya que la produccion se
domestique ou importe du Japon. D'autres techniques tellcs que la destina sobre todo a la venta 'de una concha'. Recientemente se ban
culture sur radeau et 1'elevage
artificial
dans un environnement controle registrado grandes mortandades de las especies tradicionales, Ostrea
sont possibles, mais ne sont pas utilisees pour des raisons cconomiques. edulis y Crassostrea angulata, pero se ha conseguido evadir sustancial-
Au Japon, la production ostreicole repose generalement sur 1'une des mcnte este problema importando Crassostrea gigas del Japon, Canada y
variantes de la methode par suspension, c'est-a-dire sur radeau. sur los Estados Unidos.
palangre ou sur claie. tandis que les methodes d'ensemencement et Los Paises Bajos son el segundo productor de ostras planas (O. edulis}
d'elevagc sur pieux ont moms d 'importance. La culture sur radeau, la dcspues de Francia. Recientemente se ha introducido un cambio en la
plus importante des techniques utilisees, pccupe 64% des superficies tecnica tradicional de cultivo de los Paises
Bajos, utilizando como
totales de r ostreiculture. La technique d'clevage sur palangre devrait colectores para las larvas conchas vacias de mejillon en vez de tejas.
former la base de 1'expansion de la production japonaise, car elle peut En Australia se cultivan ostras de roca (Crassostrea commerciatts)
etre employee dans les eaux propres du large. con el metodo de varas y bandejas. Dada la preocupacion por las vastas
Si P ostreiculture ne s'est dcveloppee que depuis 1958 en Republique superficies que son necesarias para este sistema de cultivo bidimensional,
de Coree, la production annuelle a excede 70 000 tonnes en 1972, et se han iniciado recientcmente
aljpnos experimentos para ensayar la
grace a son environnement littoral excellent, la Coree dispose encore posibilidad de utilizar el metodo japones de palangres.
d'un potentiel considerable pour 1'expansion de cette production. Les Tambien se producen ostras, en cantidades menores, en Mexico,
methodes d* ostreiculture sont analogues a eel les utilisees au Japon, la Taiwan (provincia de China), Nueva Zelandia, Gran Bretana y
culture sur radeau convenant parfaitement aux eaux protegees qui Alemania.
longent les cotes coreennes. Desde un punto de vista tecnico la produccion mundial de ostras
325
podria ser aumentada grandemente mediante la aplicacion dc metodos the public oyster fishery to achieve maximum sustainable
que actuaimente estan siendo empleados en algunas partcs del mundo. yields following the same procedures used for management
Entre los factores mas importantes que afectan el mantenimiento y
desarrollo de la produccion ostricola estan: disponibilidad de lugares y of finfish stocks. Other states supplement natural produc-
condiciones ambientales adecuadas (agua de buena calidad, fuente tion by placing shells or other materials in the water to
natural de alimentos, etc.); una fuente adecuada de semilla; la seleccion
collect spat, and transplant seed oysters to public growing
de especies apropiadas y la mejora genetica de cepas; provision de
alimentos para los sistemas de cultivos artificiales e intcnsivos; control grounds for subsequent harvest by licensed fishermen.
de enfennedades, depredadores y organismos incrustantes; y el tipo de About 40% of the United States oyster production
metodologia a usarse en la recogida de la cosecha. comes from privately owned or leased inter-tidal or sub-
tidal oyster beds. Nearly all of the United States production
TABLE I
WORLD OYSTER LANDINGS, INTERNATIONAL TRADE AND CONSUMPTION, 1972
(round weight metric tons)
1
International trade statistics in some instances do not identify the origin and destination of products
Source: FAO (1973)
326
in an experimental hatchery and placed them in the Bay to 2.2 Japan
test their disease resistance. After rearing a number of Oyster culture for food and for pearls has a long history in
generations, these scientists have demonstrated several Japan and many of the methods used for oyster culture in
lines of oysters with significant genetic resistance to Min- other countries were developed or perfected in Japan. This
chinia. The results of these studies have indicated the paper considers only production of food oysters which is
practicability of genetic improvement of strains of oysters centred in Miyagi, Hiroshima, and Kumamoto prefectures.
to increase disease resistance. A 'spin-off benefit has been Five different methods of oyster culture are used in
the development of a line of oysters with a deeper cupped Japan (Furukawa, 1971): raft, long-line, rack, stick and
shell which results in greater meat yield for oysters of a sowing methods. Most of the food oysters produced in
given size. In the future, significant changes can be made in Japan are grown by the 'hanging method', ie, suspended
the characteristics of oysters to improve their adaptability from rafts, long-lines or racks.
to oyster culture as well as their market acceptance. The raft method is used in protected areas where the
Perhaps the most imaginative scheme for raising oysters water is more than 5 m
deep. In 1968, the raft system was
in the United States an experimental closed cycle shellfish
is used in 64% of the area used for oyster production in Japan.
factory being tested by Dr. Kent S. Price, Jr. and his The best oyster-producing area in Japan for raft culture is
associates at the University of Delaware. This project was the Seto Inland Sea where rafts are protected from storms.
developed as an alternative to oyster production in Dela- Here there are wide areas which enable growers to use large
ware Bay which had decreased from 4 086 tons of oyster size rafts, 20 m
x 10 m.
meat in 1950 to less than 454 tons by 1970 because of The long-line system consists of horizontal lines at or
several factors. As and residential development
industrial near the surface from which strings of seed oysters are
increased, the Bay's watershed was deforested and more suspended. The horizontal lines are attached to a series of
water ran off the land into the Bay, bringing with it greater wooden barrels or metal drums to provide flotation, and the
loads of silt. In addition, the introduction of pesticides, ends of each line are anchored by two anchors. The long-
especially those to control salt marsh mosquitoes, and line system is practised in offshore grounds, principally
increasing oil pollution contributed to the drastic decline of along the northern parts of Japan, since this method can
the oyster population. The final blow was an epidemic withstand rough seas which might destroy rafts. This
disease caused by Minchinia nelsoni which caused a cata- method makes it possible to extend oyster culture into
strophic collapse of the Bay's oyster industry in the late deeper waters or unprotected areas. In 1968, the long-line
fifties and the early sixties.
system was used in 11-6% of the oyster culture area in
The University of Delaware project, based in one large Japan, and the trend is toward increasing use of this
building, maintains oysters and clams in a rigidly con- method.
trolled environment from the time of egg release to market The rack method of oyster culture is generally used in
size. The larvae and juveniles are fed diets of algae which shallow waters where part or all of the oysters are exposed
are reared in a large food production facility. The shellfish at low tide. The rack structure consists of vertical poles or
produced in this controlled environment are uniform in posts driven into the bottom which support rows of hori-
shape and reach market size more rapidly than do those in zontal poles. Strings of seed oysters are suspended from the
Delaware Bay. At the present time, the facility is being horizontal poles. The length of the strings is so arranged
expanded from the initial capacity of four bushels (141 1) that the lowermost oysters do not touch bottom, which
of experimental animals to 50 bushels (1 762 1). At the excludes crawling predators, such as oyster drills. Until
conclusion this stage of testing, it is anticipated that several years ago, the rack method was widely used because
a prototype factory with a capacity of 2000 bushels there were extensive shallow water areas in Japan suitable
(704801) will be built and tested. It should then be for this type of culture. Now, with the development of
possible to determine the economics of this intensive industry in the coastal zone and degradation of water
culture system.
quality, the area suitable for rack culture is decreasing. At
In summary, United States oyster production has fol- the present time this method is used principally for the
lowed traditional on-bottom culture methods because of collection and hardening of seed oysters in the Seto Inland
economic considerations. Although the demand has re- Sea and in Matsushima Bay. In 1 968, rack culture was used
mained stable, an increasing share of the market has been in 8 6% of the area used for oyster culture in Japan, but the
taken by imported oysters and United States growers have trend is downward.
reduced production to meet demand levels. The price of The sowing method, in which oysters are placed directly
oysters has not increased to the extent that other fisheries on the bottom, is an old system with low productivity and is
products have at a time when production costs generally used only for the suminoegaki (Crassostrea rivularis) in
have increased. This has resulted in aless satisfactory profit the Ariake Sea. This method is used in 6-9% of the area
picture for many growers. In addition, the increasing de- under oyster cultivation in Japan.
mands of other users for space in the coastal zone together The fifth method, stick culture, is an older method which
with a reduction in suitable areas because of degradation of has many of the disadvantages of the sowing method since
water quality has discouraged expansion of oyster culture. the growing oysters are not protected from crawling preda-
Nevertheless, the large and stable demand for oysters in the tors. In this method seed oysters are attached to wooden
United States, together with projected increases for the sticks driven into the bottom in the inter-tidal zone. Like
future, indicate the need for expansion of oyster production rack culture, this method is decreasing in popularity be-
during the rest of this century. With control of production cause of the lack of suitable areas in shallow water. In 1 968,
costs, improved product form, better distribution and mar- this method was used in 8- 6% of the growing area in Japan,
keting systems, oyster production in the United States primarily in the East China Sea.
could be increased to meet projected demands. By far the most progressive methods of oyster culture
327
used in Japan are the raft and the long-line systems. Both The Republic of Korea began exporting canned oysters
maximize production per unit of area and minimize losses to the United States in 1963 (15 tons, meat weight).
from predation. The economics of oyster culture in Japan Exports had more than doubled by the late sixties and then
permit the use of these methods even though they are increased dramatically to 635 tons in 1971, 2 500 tons in
labour-intensive. 1972, and 4 195 tons in 1973. At the same time, Japanese
In Japan, adequate quantities of seed oysters can be exports of canned oysters to the United States decreased
collected to supply the domestic industry and to export to from a high of 6 335 tons in 1967 to 2 956 tons in 1973.
the United States, France and some other countries. The Small quantities of frozen oysters were exported from
centre of seed production is Matsushima Bay in Miyagi the Republic of Korea to the United States beginning in
prefecture with smaller quantities from Fukushima, Hiro- 1963, but reached only 88 tons meat weight by 1973.
shima and Kumamoto prefectures. Because of the availabil- Exports of live seed oysters or fresh shucked oysters to the
ity of seed oysters from natural reproduction, seed oyster United States have not been permitted because of the
hatcheries are not used in Japan even though methods for discovery of a haplosporidan parasite of the genus Minchi-
propagation were developed by Japanese scientists
artificial nia in Korean oysters. Since Minchinia nelsoniandMinchi-
many years ago. This situation has also resulted in a nia costalis have been found to be the cause of extensive
continuation of traditional culture methods based upon mortalities of the eastern oyster (Crassostrea virginica) in
spat attached to oyster shells, scallop shells or to man-made Delaware, Maryland and Virginia, there is apprehension
collectors, as seed of this type is most satisfactory for raft, that the Minchinia found in Korean oysters might cause
long-line or rack culture. extensive mortalities among Crassostrea gigas which is
Seed attached to shells is less satisfactory for export than raised on the Pacific coast of the United States. Decisions
unattached or 'cultchless' seed because the weight of the regarding the export of their live or fresh shucked oysters to
'mother' shell increases shipping costs. To overcome this the United States will be withheld until present investiga-
disadvantage, attached spat have been physically removed tions are concluded.
from 'mother' shells before shipment, but this involves Methods of oyster culture used in Korea are similar to
extensive labour costs. Another alternative is a collection of those in Japan. Raft culture is ideal for their protected
spat on lightweight, man-made cultch materials. waters, and the labour-intensive nature of this operation is
The lack of oyster hatcheries in Japan makes it impracti- offsetby low labour costs. It appears likely that oyster
cal toimprove stocks genetically to increase growth rates, production in the Republic of Korea will expand greatly
improve market characteristics, or to achieve disease resist- during the next decade unless major mortalities occur.
ance. Unexplained mass mortalities of oysters have oc-
curred in Japan as they have in nearly every country where 2.4 France
oysters are raised and it may become necessary to breed Oyster production in France varied from 103,583 tons in
selectively resistant parents to improve disease resistance in 1947 to a low of 3 810 tons in 1955, then rose to nearly
the progeny. 8R 000 tons in 1959 to 1961, and 69 000 tons in 1972. In
Oyster productionin Japan increased from less than France, oysters are grown on-bottom because this is the
14000 round weight during the mid-forties to
tons best way to produce regular-shaped shells preferred by
265 881 tons in 1968 (Furukawa, 1971). This was fol- consumers of raw half-shell oysters (Bardach, Ryther and
lowed by a decreasing trend during the early seventies, McLarney, 1972). Some oysters are now grown by the
largely as a result of increased water pollution in the Seto rack-culture method at Arcachon and by the raft-culture
Inland Sea and because of unexplained mass mortalities. method near Thau on the Mediterranean coast (Doumenge,
Expansion of oyster production will probably require 1974 and personal communication, 1976). Although pro-
increased use of the long-line methods which will permit the ductivity could be increased by off-bottom culture and sale
extension of oyster culture into clean offshore areas, es- of shucked oysters, the established demand for half-shell
pecially in northern Japan, even though growth rates will be oysters guarantees continuation of on-bottom culture.
less than in the warm southern inshore waters. Export of The two major species of oysters traditionally grown in
seed oysters from Japan will undoubtedly continue, but France are the flat oyster (Ostrea edulis) and the Portu-
increased production from commercial hatcheries in the guese oyster (Crassostrea angulata). During recent years,
United States and successful local reproduction of the extensive mortalities of oysters have occurred in France
Pacific oyster (Crassostrea gigas) in France, may reduce and seed oysters have become scarce. In response to this
the quantities required. The alternative of using lightweight situation, the industry has imported seed of Crassostrea
seed produced in Japan would be more economical than gigas from Japan, Canada and the United States, and much
that produced in the United States, France or other coun- of the industry is currently based on this species. Adult
tries. In this case, seed oyster production in Japan might Pacific oysters have also been imported, resulting in the
round weight during the early sixties, about 42 000 tons lar, will continue to consume large quantities of oysters,
during the late sixties and by 1972, 73 000 tons. With perhaps more than can be produced locally.
extensive shallow bays protected from storms by surround-
ing hills, low labour costs and a government commitment to 2.5 The Netherlands
develop oyster culture, Korea has potential for greatly P. Korringa (personal communication, 1975) reports that
expanded oyster production. the Netherlands continue to be the second largest producer
328
of the flat oyster (Ostrea edulis) after France, producing not been identified. Other parasites of unknown importance
about 15 million oysters weighing 1 200 to 1 500 tons in in oyster culture in Australia include a haplosporidan of the
the shell. After a major mortality caused by the cold winter genus Marteilia, the cestode Tylocephalum and an uniden-
of 1962-63, three-year old oysters were transplanted from tified ovarian parasite.
may spawn two to four times a year, market-sized oysters factors which prevent, limit or delay expansion of oyster
must be cleaned of small oysters which involves additional production. The following discussion will concern princi-
labour costs. pally the problems of expanding oyster production in the
Several parasite and disease problems inhibit oyster United States, but many of the limiting factors will apply
culture in Australia (personal communication, P. Wolf, wherever oysters are farmed.
1975). One of the main reasons why oysters cannot be
grown permanently submerged is the presence of the anne- 3.1 Site selection
lid mudworm (Polydora). A
so-called 'winter mortality
1
3.1.1 Space for private oyster culture in suitable environ-
continues to cause heavy losses of three-year old oysters ments. Expansion of oyster culture in the United States is
during to September, especially during years of low
May limited because of the difficulty of obtaining control of
rainfall resulting high salinity. Mortalities can be re-
and adequate space in bays or estuaries for private oyster
duced by raising the elevation of the trays by up to 30 cm farming. In some parts of the United States, such as New
during the crucial winter months but growth is also re- England, public ownership and public use of waters and
duced. However, the causative organism or condition has tidelands are traditional and it is difficult for individuals or
329
firms to obtain adequate space for aquaculture. In other seed for domestic use and for export. Twelve production
parts of the United States, such as the Pacific Northwest, hatcheries were in operation in 1975; about half producing
the importance of aquaculture was recognized many years Crassostrea virginica and about half producing C. gigas.
ago and systems were developed for allocating space to Although most of these hatcheries can produce unattached
individuals or firms for growing oysters, clams and other or 'cultchless' seed, demand especially on the Pacific Coast
organisms. is largely for spat attached to conventional collector mate-
The growing demand for space in the coastal zone for rials such as oyster This seed is adaptable to tradi-
shell.
industries, residential or recreational purposes, and the tional oyster culture methods, but it is too heavy to permit
increasing control of activities in the coastal zone under economical transportation except for short distances. Unat-
federal state laws, will make it difficult to obtain
and tached or 'cultchless' seed has the advantage of light weight
adequate areas for aquaculture. which permits economical air shipment; however, use of
With the increasing need for food production by aqua- this seed requires specialized culture techniques. Some
culture as wild stocks reach or exceed maximum sustain- oyster farmers, especially on the Atlantic Coast, are now
able yield levels, a national policy
is needed to recognize the changing their procedures to permit use of unattached seed
importance of allocating space in the coastal zone for and it is likely that this practice will expand.
farming of fish and shellfish. The importance of food
production in the near-shore environment has been recog- 3.3 Genetic improvement of stocks
nized in Japan, the Republic of Korea and many other The increased use of hatcheries to produce seed supplies
countries, and space has been allocated for aquaculture. makes it possible to apply selective breeding techniques
such as those used in animal husbandry, to develop im-
3.1.2 Water Oyster farming requires high water
quality. proved strains of oysters. The Virginia Institute of Marine
quality because of the danger of transmitting diseases in Science has already developed several strains of oysters
products which are likely to be eaten without cooking. In with increased disease resistance. Preliminary experiments
the United States and in many other countries, areas once have indicated a possibility of increasing growth rate and
suitable for oyster culture have become unusable because of developing improved shell shape by genetic selection. With
domestic or industrial pollution. Pollution control is continuation of genetics research in university, state and
needed at the local and national level to protect clean areas federal laboratories, and application of selective breeding
which are important for food production, and reduce con- procedures in commercial hatcheries, there is a great poten-
tamination in other areas so that oyster farming can be re- tial for genetic improvement of oyster stocks.
established.
3.4 Species selection
3.1.3 Natural food supplies Over 100 species of oysters have been described from
One of the problems in site selection, especially in areas various environments ranging from brackish water to
that have not previously been used for oyster farming, is to oceanic salinity, and from tropical to near arctic tempera-
find locations with adequate natural food supplies to ensure tures. From these species one can select oysters which will
rapid growth and adequate fattening. Many areas, es- survive in nearly any estuarine or marine environment.
pecially in the tropics, lack adequate nutrients to support However, adequate growth, fattening and successful repro-
growth of those species of algae which are utilized by duction may occur only in certain areas.
oysters. Although food levels can be estimated from exami- As a general principle, native species should be used
nation of plankton, test plantings of oysters are usually whenever possible to avoid the transfer of predators, para-
necessary to determine the adequacy of natural food sites and diseases or the introduction of species which will
suspension of the collectors below rafts may achieve better oysters which have been produced in hatcheries to mini-
utilization of natural seed supplies. Another method known mize the possibility of introducing predators, parasites or
as 'seed banking' has been tried in the Pacific Northwest diseases.Where this is not possible, seed for transplanting
where setting of the introduced Pacific oyster (Crassostrea should be carefully inspected by qualified scientists to
gigas) occurs only during warmer years. In this method, reduce the likelihood of introducing unwanted species or
seed collecting during a year of successful setting is pur- diseases.
posely stunted by placing it high in the inter-tidal zone. The
seed is then available for planting on growing grounds in 3.5 Feeding
succeeding years. Feeding of oysters is generally not a problem since they are
erally on methods developed by the National Marine Fish- culture in which natural food supplies are adequate.
eries Service (formerly the Bureau of Commercial Fisher- Intensive oyster culture systems, such as that being
ies) laboratory at Milford, Connecticut, are now in use in developed at the University of Delaware, require produc-
the United States and are producing increasing quantities of tion of suitable species of algae for feeding larvae and
330
juveniles. Methods for algal culture are fairly well known, (Siganus spp.) (personal communication from J. McVey,
but the problem of producing large quantities of algae at 1974).
economical costs has not been resolved. An alternative is
the development of an artificial food in pellet form such as 3.8 Harvesting methods
that used for trout, catfish or salmon, but manufactured to Methods for removing oysters from growing areas range
meet the 2-10 micron size required for oysters. Although from picking by hand at low tide to the use of mechanized
artificial foods meeting these physical specifications have hydraulic harvesters. Special methods for harvesting raft-
been developed, none so far has equalled live algae in cultured oysters have been developed in Japan. Harvesting
nutritive value to the oyster. methods must be carefully selected since this operation
Another alternative is to include oysters in polyculture represents an important expense in oyster farming.
systems where nutrients from the culture of other species
could be used to stimulate the growth of algae. 3.9 Economics
On a worldwide basis, oyster farming yields a valuable food
3.6 Environmental management product with increasing demand. In the United States
Satisfactory water quality is a primary requirement for production has decreased during the last quarter century
oyster culture. Administrative and enforcement activities even though population has expanded; increased needs are
are needed at the local and national level to prevent degra- being met by imports. Expanded imports of oysters pro-
dation of water quality in areas needed for culture of oysters duced at lower prices in foreign countries have held down
and other shellfish. An associated problem is the control of the price of oysters and reduced the profit incentive for
effluents produced in the aquaculture of oysters and other oyster culture.
species. United States environmental agencies consider demand for oysters in the United
It is estimated that the
aquaculture systems which discharge waters into the natu- States will increase moderately during the next decade or
ral environment as a potential source of pollution. Waste two. Domestic production could be increased by a factor of
water from such systems must be treated to reduce sus- two to ten if prospects for return on investment were
pended solids and biochemical oxygen demand to accept- adequate, easily supplying enough oysters for the projected
able levels. Culture of oysters and other shellfish on-bottom demand. Traditional on-bottom culture using natural seed
or suspended below rafts in bays and estuaries have not yet will continue to predominate since oysters can be produced
been required to meet effluent control standards. at a lower cost using this method rather than more labour-
intensive off-bottom systems. Limiting factors will be the
3.7 Control of diseases, predators and fouling availability of space in suitable areas and maintenance of
3.7.1 Diseases. Mass mortalities of oysters, often due to high water quality in bays and estuaries.
unexplained causes, are known
to occur wherever oysters
are grown and there are only a few cases where the causa-
tive organism or condition has been identified. Sindermann 4 Conclusions
(1974) lists ten recognized oyster diseases in the United Oyster farming methods have been well established and a
States,Canada and Japan, including one caused by virus, viable aquaculture industry exists in many countries. New
two caused by bacteria, two caused by fungus, two caused methods, including intensive culture systems in which
by protozoans, one caused by a parasitic copepod and two oysters are raised from the egg to market size in factories,
from unknown causes. Mass mortalities of oysters have are being developed on an experimental basis but the
also been reported in France, England, Australia, Tahiti economic feasibility of such ventures has not been
and elsewhere. determined.
The widespread occurrence of oyster mortality and its The use of hatchery-produced seed is increasing in the
disastrous effect make it important to organize multi- United States and this will lead to genetic improvements.
national efforts to identify causes and to develop treatments Several disease-resistant strains have already been
and preventive measures. developed.
Processing, distribution and marketing procedures have
3.7.2 Predators. Macro-predators such as boring gastro- been well established and standardized methods are avail-
pods (oyster drills), starfish and crabs may cause extensive able to provide consumers with a high quality, safe product.
losses in commercial farming of oysters. Control methods In practice, continual monitoring and enforcement are
usually involve proper site selection, fencing or modified needed to keep those oysters which are raised in contami-
culture methods such as raft or long-line systems. nated areas or processed in less than satisfactory facilities
from reaching the consumer.
3.7.3 Fouling organisms. Bio-fouling can be a serious The demand for oysters, especially in the United States,
problem especially where the mother shells
in raft culture has stabilized even though the population has expanded.
with attached spat are suspended close to the surface. In Increasing the market for oysters will require improve-
such cases the shells are attractive settling areas for various ments of product form, year-round availability, good qual-
species of plants, barnacles, mussels and other organisms. ity control and market development activities primarily by
Suggested control methods include immersion for a short industry. The economics of oyster culture in the United
time in saturated salt solution followed by drying. In some States are somewhat questionable because of the stable
cases, fouling can be reduced by providing shade from price which has partially been caused by increased imports
direct sunlight. Another alternative used experimentally in of oysters produced at lower cost and by increasing produc-
the Palau Islands by the Micronesian Mariculture Demon- tion costs in the United States.
stration Center was to surround oyster rafts with a net Oyster production could be greatly increased through-
enclosure and to stock the pens with herbivorous rabbit fish out the world by using methods which have been developed
331
and tested in various parts of the world and if financial DOUMENGE, Aquaculture des Regions Cotieres. Agregations et
F. L'
1974 D.A.P.E.S. d'Histoire et de Geographic, concours 1974.
incentives are adequate.
Universite vol. 1 54 :
Paul-Valery-Montpellier. p.
Research and development needs include: genetic FAO, Yearbook of fisheries statistics. Catches and landings, 1972/
improvement of stocks for aquaculture, identification of 1973 Fishery commodities, 1972. Yearb. Fish. Statist. FAO, (34) (35)'
pag. var.
causes of disease and development of control methods for the Japanese marine aquaculture. Tokyo.
FURUKAWA, A. Outline of
predators, parasites and diseases. 1971 Japan's Fisheries Resource Conservation Association: 39 p.
The worldwide importance of oyster mortalities suggests
GLUDE, J. B. South Pacific Islands. Report on the potential for shellfish
1972 aquaculture in Palau Islands, Guam, Truk,
Yap Islands,
the need for development of a multi-nation effort to identify
Ponape, Ellice Islands, American Samoa, Cook Islands, Fiji
causes of oyster mortalities and to find solutions, treat- Islands, New Caledonia and French Polynesia. Rome, FAO,
'hanging methods and the more primitive stick and bottom sowing
) oysters are harvested from October to March and the harvest is contin-
methods. Oyster culture in Japan is of two types: seed production (for ued for canning until May. Following harvest, the oysters are shucked by
internal use and to the USA and to France X and hand, packed in 20 kg plastic containers and sent to the Tokyo fish
export, particularly
production for food. market. They are kept under refrigeration (at less than 10C)for 1-2
Site selection is determined by local ecological conditions: (/) the days. Most oysters in Japan are eaten raw but they are also processed
farming bed must be protected against wind and wave action; (/'/) adult into extract and fried, frozen, canned and smoked.
oysters which produce the necessary spawn must be close by; (Hi) tidal Among dangers to oysters are: (/) abnormally high water temperature
and current flow must be sufficient to change the water on the bed; (iv) and high salinity; (11) abnormally low water temperature and low
salinity must be about 27 ppt (range 19-33 ppt); (r) the water must salinity; (///) insufficient food; (iv) predators and parasites including the
contain adequate nutrients for plankton production,
especially
that of mudworm (Polydora ), flatworms, oyster drills and hydroids; (v ) disease;
phytoplankton, suitable for oysters and their larvae; (w) except where and (w) pollution. Mass mortalities appear to be coincidental with the
hanging methods are used, the bottom must be fiat and free of enemies; development of the hanging method and also connected with advanced
and (v//) the water temperature must be within 10-30C. eutrophication.
The bottom sowing method, the simplest one, requires a hard bottom, Oyster culture enterprises are usually owner-operated. The manpower
otherwise the shells are easily buried. It has low productivity and is little necessary depends upon location, type of culture and technology in-
practised now. Similarly, stick culture has diminished in importance. volved. Culture is divided into boat work and shore work. Yields vary
Hanging culture which started in 1 923 has now become by far the most depending upon the method of culture and its location. The general trend
important type of oyster culture in Japan. Figure 1 illustrates some of the of production in Japan is shown in Table III. It is difficult to determine
principal oyster culture methods in Japan and Table I shows the the average cost of producing a given unit of oysters.
differences in production from the five methods of culture.
Hanging culture has certain advantages over the other types: (/) the Situation de la culture de Phuitrc du Pacifique au Japon
crop per unit area of sea bottom is increased; (//) more food can be Resume
ingested by the oysters because the water supply is continuous, and the La culture de du Pacifique, ou huitre japonaise (Crassostrea
1'huitre
growth rate is doubled; (///) as the type of bottom or depth of water is gigas), s'est developpee au Japon sur la base de methodes qui ont vu le
unimportant, the culture area is less restricted; (iv) the oysters can be jour a Hiroshima, et elle s'est poursuivie pendant plus de deux siecles
cultured in clean, unpolluted water and the meat is of higher quality; (v) sans connaitre de modifications importances. Cinq methodes sont ac
the oysters are out of reach of predators. tuellement utilisees: la culture sur radeaux, sur claies et sur palangres
Rafts are used for production of seed and adults. A typical raft (toutes methodes dites par suspension )et les methodes plus primitives de
consists of 10-15 m wooden poles laid parallel about 0-5 m apart and culture sur pieux et d'ensemencement au fond. L' ostreiculture japonaise
fastened with wire to lateral beams. The latter are used to suspend the appartient a deux types: production de naissain (pour r usage mterieur et
seed oysters. Eight to twelve floats, usually of polyethylene, are generally pour I'exportation, notamment aux Etats-Unis et en France) et produc-
1
used and more must be added as the weight of oysters grows. The rafts tion pour I ali men tat ion.
are fastened end to end in series and anchored fore and aft. Le choix des sites est determine par les conditions ecologiques locales :
Long-line culture, a modification of raft culture, can weather rough (/) pare d'elevage doit etre protege centre Faction du vent et des
le
A
seas best of all. typical long-line is 70-75 mlong and secured at each vagues; (//) les huitres adultes qui produisent le naissain necessaire
end with two anchors. It consists of about 12 polyethylene floats doivent etre proches; (///) le flux de la maree et des courants doit suffire
connected by two parallel polyethylene ropes 2 cm in diameter, and pour renouveler 1'eau surjacente; (iv) la salinite doit etre d'environ
about 60 cm apart A series of strings of oysters (called 'rens') about 27 ppt (gamme dc 19 a 33 ppt); (v) 1'eau doit contenir des nutriments
7-5 m Ion* are hung from the parallel ropes. adequats pour la production du plancton, en particulier celle du phyto-
The rack method, a shallow water adaptation of the hanging method, plancton qui convient aux huitres et a leurs larves; (vi) sauf lorsque 1'on
is used for both adult and seed oyster production. Wooden poles, driven utilise des methodes de culture par suspension, le fond doit etre et
plat
into the bottom 2-4 m
apart, are connected by horizontal poles which exempt d'ennemis des huitres; et (v//) la temperature de 1'eau doit etre de
of cultch placed 30 cm apart. I'ordre de 10 a 30C.
support suspended strings
Oyster growers in Japan have several kinds of culture grounds: La methode d'ensemencement au fond, la plus simple, necessite un
332
fond dur, faute de quoi a une
les coquille* s'enterrent facilement. Elle ha de ser piano y libre de enemigos; y (v//) la temperature del agua ha de
peu pratiquee a Fheure actuellc. La culture
faible productivite et elle est 8er de 1O-30C.
sur pieux a egalement diminue en importance. La culture par suspension El metodo de siembra directa sobre el fondo, que es el mas sencillo,
qui a commence en 1 923 est desormais, de loin, le type le plus important exige fondos duros, ya que de no ser asi las conchas se entierran
au Japon. La Figure 1 illustrc certaines des principals facilmentc. Su productividad es baja, y actualmente es poco utilizado.
d'pstreiculture
methodes d' ostreiculture japonaise et le Tableau I indique les differences Tambien el cultivo en varas ha disminuido en importancia. El cultivo en
de production pour les cinq methodes de culture. suspension, que comenzo en 1923, es en la actualidad el sistema mas
La culture par suspension presente certains avantages sur les autres importante de cultivo de ostras en el Japon. En la Figura 1 se indican
types: (/) la recolte par unite de surface du fond marin est accrue; (//) les algunos de los metodos principals de ostricultura en el Japon y en el
huitres peuvent ingerer une plus grande quantite d'aliments puisque Cuadro I se muestran las diferencias en la produccion con los cinco
1'apport hydrique est continu et le taux de croissance est double; (i/i) metodos.
etant donne que le type de fond ou la de 1'eau est sans El cultivo en suspension tiene algunas ventajas sobre los otros tipos de
prpfondeur
importance, 1'aire de culture est moins restreinte; (iv) les huitres peuvent cultivo: (/) aumenta el
rendimientp por unidad de superficie del fondo
etre elevees dans une eau propre, non pollute et la chair a une qualite marino; (//) las ostras pueden ingerir mas alimentos, ya que el suministro
superieure; (v) les huitres echappent aux atteintes des predateurs. de agua es continuo, y la tasa de crecimiento se duplica; (///) como el tipo
On utilise des radeaux pour la production de naissain et d'adultes. Un de fondo y la profundidad del agua no tienen importancia, la zona apta
radeau typique est forme de perches en bois de 10 a 15m disposees para cultivo es menos restringida; (iv) las ostras pueden cultivarse en
parallelement avec un espacement de quelque 0,5 met attachees par du aguas limpias, no contaminadas, y la carne es de mejor calidad; (v) las
fil de fer a des
poutres laterales. On utilise ces dernieres pour y suspendre ostras quedan fuera del alcance de los depredadores.
des reproducteurs, Le svsteme est soutenu par huit a douze flotteurs, Las balsas se utilizan para producir semillas y adultos. Consisten de
d'ordinaire en polyethylene, et Ton en ajoute a mesure le poids des ordinario en de madera de 10- 1 5 m, colocados paralelamente, a
que listpnes
huitres augmente. Les radeaux sont lies ensemble en serie et ancres a unos 0,5 m de distancia, y amarradas con alambre a viguetas laterales,
Pavant et 1'arnere. que se utilizan para suspender la semilla. Generalmente se utilizan de 8 a
La culture sur palangres, variante de la culture sur radeaux, resiste 12 flotadores, generalmente de polietileno, y se tienen que anadir mas a
mieux que les autres methodes a la grosse mer. Une palangre typique a de medida que aumenta el peso de las ostras. Las balsas estan amarradas
70 a 75 m de long et est ancree aux deux extremites. Elle comporte une una a otra, en serie, y ancladas de proa a popa.
douzaine de flotteurs en polyethylene lies a deux cordages paralleles de El cultivo en palangres, que representa una modificacion del cultivo en
2 cm de section et espaces d'environ 60 cm. Une serie de chapelets balsas, es el que mejor resiste a la mar gruesa. Un palangre tipico tiene de
d'huitres de quelque 7,5 m de long sont suspendus a ces cordages 70 a 75 m de longitud, y estan sujetos en cada extremo con un ancla.
paralleles.
Tienen de 8 a 12 flotadores usualmente de polietileno, unidos por dos
La methode de culture sur claies, adaptation en eau peu profonde de la cabos paralelos de polietileno, de 2 cm de diametro, situados a una
methode par suspension, est utilisee tant pour la production d'huitres distancia de 60 cm. De esos cabos paralelos cuelgan otros cabos me-
adultes que pour celle du naissain. Des perches en bois enfoncees au fond nores (llamados 'rens'), de unos 7,5 m de longitud, donde se fijan las
avec un espacement de 2 a 4 m, sont reliees ensemble par des perches ostras.
horizontals auxquelles sont suspendus des chapelets de collecteurs de El metodo de cultivo en bastidores, que es una adaptacion del metodo
naissain de 30 cm. de cultivo en suspension a aguas poco profundas, se utiliza para la
espaces
Les ostreiculteurs japonais utilisent plusieurs types de pares selon les produccion de adultos y semilla. Se clavan en el suelp estacas de madera
operations: elevage. durcissement, croissance et engraissement. Les de 2 a 4 m
de distancia, y se unen mediante varas horizontals, de las que
diverses activites exercees aux difTerentes saisons et en des secteurs penden cabos para la fijacion de las ostras, a 30 cm de distancia uno de
differents sont indiques a la Figure 2. Les progres recents des techniques otro.
portent essentiellernent sur Pengraissement et la recolte precoce. Los pstricultores de ostras del Japon disponen de varios tipos de zonas
Apres le frai d'ete, lachair de Thuitre est de qualite inferieure; c'est de cultivo: para semillas, endurecimiento, crecimiento y engorde. Las
pourquoi la recolte se fait d'octobre a mars; elle se poursuit pour la diversas actividades de cultivo segun las estaciones y las zonas pueden
conserverie jusqu'au mois de mai. verse en la Figura 2.
El progreso reciente de la tecnicas se refiere sobre todo a la aceleracion
Apres la recolte, les huitres sont ecaillees a la mam, emballees dans des
conteneurs en plastique de 20 k et expediees au marche au poisson de del engorde y a la recoleccion.
Tokyo. Elles sont gardees sous refrigeration (a moms de 10C) pendant Despues de la suelta de larvas en verano, la carne de las ostras es de
1 ou 2 jours. La
plupart des huitres sont mangees crues au Japon, mais
mala calidad; por esa razon las ostras se recogen de octubre a marzo, y la
el les peuvent egalement etre transformees en extrait, ou bien etre frites, recoleccion envarsarlas, hasta mayo, Despues de la
prosigue, para
congelees, mises en boite et fumees. recoleccion, las ostras se descpnchan a mano, se envasan en recipientes
Parmi les dangers qui menacent Thuitre, on signale les suivants: (/) de plastico de 20 kg y se envian al mercado de pescado de Tokio. Se
une temperature et une sahnite de Peau anormalement elevees; (//) une mantienen refrigeradas (a menos de 10C) durante 1-2 dias. En el
temperature et une sahnite de 1'eau anormalement faibles; (///') une Japon, las ostras se consumen ante todo crudas, pero tambien se
alimentation deficiente; (iv) des predateurs et parasites, y compris le ver preparan extractos y se frien, congelan, envasan o ahuman.
polydora, les vers plats, les perceurs et les hydroides; (v) des maladies et Entre los peligros a que estan expuestas las ostras figuran: (/) tempera-
(vi) la pollution. Les mortalites de masse semblent comcider avec les
tura anormalmente alta del agua y elevada salinidad; (//) temperatura
progres de la methode par suspension, ainsi qu'avec Peutrophisation anormalmente baja del agua y baja salinidad; (i/i) insuficientes alimen-
croissante. tos; (iv) depredadores y parasites, incluidos polidoridos, platelmintos,
Les entreprises ostreicoles sont generalement gerees par leur proprie'- urosalpios e hidroideos; (v) entermedades, y (vi) contaminacion. Los
taire. La main d'ceuyre necessaire depend du site, du type de culture et de casos de mortandad masiva parecen coincidir con el desarrollo del
la technologic utilisee. La culture se repartit entre des metodo de cultivo en suspension y parecen estar tambien relacionados
operations a bord
et des operations a terre. Les rendements varient scion la methode et le con una cutrofizacion ayanzada.
site. La tendance generate de la Las empresas de ostricultura son operadas usualmente por el mismo
production japonaise est indiquee au
Tableau III. II est difficile de determiner le cout moyen de production propietario. La mano de obra necesaria depende de la localidad, el tipo de
pour une unite donnee d'huitres. cultivo
y la tecnologia utilizada.
Los cultivos pueden dividirse tambien
segun el metodo de trabajo: desde embarcaciones o desde la orilla. Los
rendimientos varian segun el metodo de cultivo y el emplazamicnto. La
Situacidn del cultivo de la ostra del Pacifico en el Japon
Extracto trayectoria general de la produccion en el Japon puede verse en el
El cultivo de la ostra del Pacifico o japonesa (Crassostrea gigas) se
Cuadro III. Es dificil determinar el costo promedio de produccion de
desarrollo en el Japon a partir de los metodos utilizados originalmente en cualquier unidad de ostras.
Bamboo or
IK Wood pole
Horizontal type
Raft method
Rack method
Anchor Rope
<& ^Collector
Collector Anchor
334
TABLE I
DIFFERENCES FN PRODUCTION BETWEEN FIVE METHODS OF OYSTER CULTURE nw JAPAN
3.1 Bottom sowing culture entire period before they reach marketable size. However,
The 'bottom sowing method', the simplest of oyster culture this old method has low productivity and is little practised
methods, has been used in the Hiroshima and Kyushu now. Stick culture has also diminished in importance. Table
districts of the East China Sea region since oyster culture II illustrates changes in oyster culture in Japan from 1964
areas the shells are easily buried and lost. Although sowing 3.2 Hanging culture
is a very old method, it still has practical application even in Until 1923, the culture of oysters was essentially a sea
connection with the most modern culture procedures. For bottom industry. In that year 'hanging culture' started in
example, the bamboo sticks on which spat is collected are Kanagawa Prefecture. This method produced excellent
not strong enough to support growing oysters during the results for fattening oysters in the mid-water zone, an area
TABLE II
CHANGES IN OYSTER CULTURE IN JAPAN
335
abundant in food but previously regarded as of no value to connected by horizontal poles. The horizontal poles sup-
the oyster culturist because of its inaccessibility. This mid- port the suspended strings of cultch, which are placed about
water zone has now been utilized extensively; the hanging 30 cm apart (Fig. 1 ).
method now
the usual culture technique in Miyagi,
is
Shizuoka, Hiroshima, Niigata and Ishikawa Prefectures. 3.2.4 Seasonal activities of oyster culture. The cultural
The hanging method has certain advantages over other activities in different seasons and in different areas are
types of culture: (/)The crop of oysters per unit area of sea shown in Fig. 2.
bottom is greatly increased as a result of vertical suspen- The culture techniques are highly developed. The major-
sion. (//) More food can be ingested by the oysters because ity of the growers have several kinds of culture grounds for:
the water supply is continuous. The resulting growth rate is seeding, hardening, growing and fattening. Each ground is
about twice that obtained by other methods; consequently, used for its own special purpose. Recent advances in
even with the culture period reduced to six months, a culture techniques are concerned primarily with earlier
growth can be attained which is equal to that of the sowing fattening and harvesting.
and stick culture methods. (m)The grower can culture his
oysters without regard to the character of the sea bottom or
the water depth. This permits expansion of the culture area 4 Harvesting
to deeper water away from the restricted shore area, (/v) After the summer spawning, the meat of the oyster is lean
The oysters can be cultured in clean, unpolluted seawater. and of poor quality. Therefore, the cultured oysters are
The resulting meat is of much higher quality than that harvested from October to March and for canning almost
produced by the sowing method. (v)The oysters are out of untilMay. After harvesting, oysters are carried to a nearby
reach of predators. and shucked by hand using an iron spatula. The
facility
shucked oysters are usually packed in 20 kg plastic con-
3.2. 1 Rqft method. The districts of Japan which have been tainers and sent to the Tokyo fish market. In order to avoid
most successful in the use of raft culture are: Hiroshima bacterial contamination, oysters are kept under refrigera-
Prefecture, Kesennuma Bay in Miyagi Prefecture, and Mie tion (at less than 1 0C
) for 1-2 days where they remain in
Prefecture. This method is now used not only for the good condition. In Japan most of the oysters are eaten raw,
production of adults to be used as food, but also for the but there are also processed products such as: oyster
production of seed oysters for domestic use or export. extract, fried oysters, frozen oysters, canned oysters, and
The details of raft construction vary considerably as to smoked oysters.
structure and size in the different regions. A typical raft can,
however, be described as follows (Fig. 1 ): Wooden poles,
10-15 m
long, are laid parallel to each other about 0-5 m 5 Dangers to oysters
apart and fastened by wire lashings to lateral beams. Each The principal causative agents of oyster mortality are the
lateral beam is used to suspend the seed oysters ffom the following: (/) Abnormally high water temperature and high
raft. usually made from polyethyl-
The floats for the raft are salinity. (//) Abnormally low water temperature and low
ene. From 8 to 12 floats are used, the number required salinity, (iii) Insufficient food, (/v) Predators and parasites
being determined by the weight of the hanging culture. As including the mudworm (Polydora), carnivorous flatworms
the oystersgrow and become heavier, additional floats must and oyster drills, and hydroids. (v) Disease, (w) Pollution.
be added. The rafts are fastened end to end in series, and are There may be interaction of several of these, as well as
firmly anchored fore and aft to prevent their being carried with other environmental factors. Recent studies have re-
away by wind or wave. vealed that the most important cause of mass mortality is
coincident with the development of the hanging method and
3.2.2 Long-line method. Long-line culture, developed in increase in productivity. Mass mortality is also connected
Miyagi Prefecture, is a modification of raft culture. This with the phenomenon of advanced eutrophication in coastal
method, which is used for offshore culture along the north- waters.
ern coasts of Japan, can weather rough seas best of all. The
basic feature of a unit for this method consists of a series of
polyethylene floats arranged in a row (Fig. 1 ). This long- 6 Management
line is secured at each end with two anchors. A long-line is Oyster culture enterprises are usually owner -operated. The
70-75 m
long and consists of about 12 floats connected by manpower needed depends upon the location, the type of
two parallel polyethylene ropes 2cm in diameter. The culture and the technology employed. Culture operations
ropes are about 60 cm apart depending on the width of are divided into two parts: work on boats and work on
the floats.A series of strings of oysters (called 'rens') shore. The preparation of facilities used for seed collection
each about 7-5 m
long (the exact length varies with the and growing the oysters, transport of seed to the growing
depth of the water) are hung from each of the parallel area and harvesting are included in the work using boats.
ropes. Work on the shore includes: preparation of seed collectors,
construction of rafts, and shucking and packing the har-
3.2.3 Rack method. The rack method is a shallow water vested oysters.
adaptation of the hanging culture method. It is used in Yields of cultivated oysters vary according to the
Miyagi, Shizuoka, Mie, Ishikawa and Hiroshima Prefec- method of culture and its location, but the general trend of
tures for culture of adult oysters and is the usual method production in Japan is summarized in Table III. However,
used in Miyagi Prefecture for production of seed oysters. the average cost of producing a ton or a raft of oysters is
To construct a rack, wooden poles are driven into the difficult to determine due to the wide range of oyster culture
bottom from two to four metres apart These uprights are methods and efficiency.
336
2. Seasonal activities of oyster culture in Japan
TABLE III
OYSTER PRODUCTION IN JAPAN
'
The collectors are strung on 'rens' of wire, rope, etc.
337
Culture of Pacific Oysters (Crassostrea gigas) in R. Meixner
fond de mer utilisee pour Pelevage de Crassostrea gigas en conteneurs cooperating with fishermen at five places along the German
donne maintenant 1 000 huitres de taille marchande/an. coast. The backbone of this programme is the use of a
Cultivo de ostras del Pacifico (Crassostrea gigas) en contenedores en specially designed container (see Fig. 1 ). Such a container
uuat costeras de Alemania consists of a steel frame (length 210 cm, width 130 cm,
Extracto
height (including 50cm legs) 130 cm) which contains up to
Para sustituir a la ostra natural de Europa (Ostrea edulis), cuya produc-
cion disminuye continuamente, se estan cultivando en zonas costeras de
100 perforated plastic trays (55-5x35-5x6-Ocm inside
Alemania, en contenedores, varios cientos de millares de ostras del dimension). The legs hold the trays above the bottom
Pacifico (Crassostrea gigas) incubadas artificialmente. Los contene- sediments. It is fitted with a marking buoy and a hauling
dores tienen un marco de acero en el que van colocadas hasta un maximo
device. Such a container covers 2- 73 m of sea bottom and
2
de cien bandejas perforadas de plastico (55,5 x 35,5 x 6,0 cm). Cada
contenedpr ocupa sobre el fondo del mar una superficie
de 2,73 m2
y offers 20 m 2 of oyster-growing space. It can be stocked with
dene cabida para 100 000 larvas de ostra, u 1 1 500 ostras jovenes de un
either 100 000 seed oysters or 1 1 500 yearlings and has
ano, o 2 500 ostras de tamano comercial. Los contenedores, que tienen
patas para eyitar que las ostras entren en contacto con los sedimentos del space for 2 500 market oysters.
rondo y estan equipados con un gancho para arrastrar y una boya de
senalar, son faciles de manipular con un malacate instalado a bordo de
una embarcacion pesquera o en una platafonna flotante.
Las ostras asi cultivadas estan protegidas contra la baja marea, los
depredadores, el hielo, turbulencias, sedimentos y nivel bajo de oxigeno.
Estan taxnbien protegidas contra eventuales hurtos. Winch
La pesqueria alemana tradicional de O. edulis did un rendimiento de
una ostra de talla comercial/3,74 mVano. Utilizando la misma superficie
de fondo marine para el cultivo en contenedores de Crassostrea gigas se
obtienen actualmente 1 000 ostras de tamano comercial al ano.
1 Introduction
About a hundred years ago the German coast of the North
Sea yielded up to 5 million European oysters, Ostrea edulis.
The area here which was covered by wild oyster beds at that
time amounted to 1 869 ha. Since 1873, a constant down-
ward trend in the yield of these beds has been observed.
Various attempts have been made to stabilize oyster pro-
duction, eg, by completely closing the beds from 1882 to
1891, and by transplanting seed oysters of O. edulis. Oyster
fishing became unprofitable nonetheless, and was finally Fig 1. Schematic drawing of the use of oyster containers in the
stopped in 1926. Only a small production of imported Flensburg Fjord (western Baltic)
338
3 Advantages of containers 4 A two-year eycle of oyster production
Use ofthese oyster containers in German coastal waters The present aim is for a two-year cycle of oyster produc-
offers the following advantages: (OThe container is easy to tion. A scheme, which serves more or less as a guideline to
handle by using a winch mounted on, for example, a shrimp the fishermen, is shown in Tables I and II.
or mussel boat in the coastal region of the North Sea, or a Hatchery-reared seed Crassostrea gigas averaging 0-01
pontoon in the partially sheltered waters of the Flensburg g (5 mm) per individual are stocked on trays in April
2
Fjord. (//)The container combines the advantages of rack (month IV) at a density of 5 000/m These trays are .
and tray culture with increased flexibility in handling. (///) suspended from rafts or placed in containers. The density is
The container provides the opportunity to cultivate Pacific then gradually reduced through natural mortality, by thin-
oysters in a submerged condition. On the German coast, ning out (ie, filling new trays) and by elimination of slow-
where a considerable growth of oysters can take place for growing individuals. The yearlings, of 8-5-10-0 g (4-5
no more than two thirds of a year, no growing time should cm), are then transferred to other areas for production of
be wasted, eg, by exposure at low tides, (iv) Oysters in marketable oysters. The trays on which they are stocked
containers are well protected from predators, just as are with a density of about 600/m 2 from February to April
oysters on trays fixed to the bottom or on trays suspended are placed in containers. Stocking density in the second
from rafts, (v) German coastal waters offer many more year is again reduced through mortality by thinning out,
areas suitable for oyster container use than areas suffi- elimination of slow-growing individuals, and finally by
ciently sheltered for oyster raft culture, (vi) Containers harvesting.
which are well submerged in the coastal waters of the North This scheme takes into account a total loss of 50% from
Sea and the Baltic are protected from turbulences during seed stage to marketable size. The total loss is quite vari-
rough weather and from ice, which presents an extreme risk able. A
total loss in two years of 27% (13% dead or missing
during severe winters, (v//) These containers are very useful oysters plus 14% eliminated because of slow growth) of a
in areas covered by soft sediments where ground culture of small consignment of some hundred seed oysters, which
oysters is usually impossible. In the western Baltic, use is have been checked continuously, is considered an excep-
made of a former sand dredging pit with a maximum depth tionally good result. A
hundred years ago, the traditional
of 7 m. The muddy sediments and occasional lack of German fishery for Ostrea edulis yielded 1 market oyster/
oxygen in the bottom layers of this pit would result in great 3-74 mVannum. The same sea bottom area used for con-
losses and slow growth if oysters were to be cultivated on tainer culture of Crassostrea gigas yields 1 000 market
the bottom. (VIM) With the containers lowered to the bot- oysters/annum.
tom, the oysters have good protection from theft.
TABLE I
HATCHFRY-REARED SEED Crassostrea gigas ON SMALL-MESH TRAYS, SUSPENDED FROM RAFTS OR PLACED IN CONTAINERS (PHASE i)
TABLE II
YEARLING Crassostrea gigas GROWN ON TRAYS PLACED IN CONTAINERS ON THE GERMAN COASTS (PHASE n)
339
individuos por colcctor, utilization rational de ostiones menores des-
llegar a practicar en estos momentos ya, el cultivo en
prendidos casualmentc y la intcrferencia de otros organ ismos sobre el
crecimiento de los osUones. A estos se les debera prestar atencion pequena escala comercial (Isabela de Sagua).
durante los experimcntos venideros con miras a mcjorar el sistcma que Agradecemos a todos los que aportaron con sus esfuer-
actualmente se emplea en una granja ostricoia a escala piloto.
zos al desarrollo de los experimentos descritos en el pre-
Experiments in mangrove oyrter eutaire (Crassostrea rhizophorae) sente trabajo.
Abstract
During a period of twelve years ( 1 963-74 ) studies have been carried out 2 Resultados alcanzados durante
on the biology and ecology of mangrove oysters as well as experiments la fase experimental
with the culture of this species in many places around the island of Cuba. 2. 1 Las areas seleccionadas para el cultivo
The main objective of this work was to develop a system of breeding Nikolic
Segiin (1970), Nikolic y Alfonso (1971) y
mangrove oysters (until then unknown) in order to modernize the
inadequate collection methods. Nikolic, Bosch y Alfonso (1976) cada area destinada al
Studies were originally directed toward determining the most import- cultivo de ostiones del mangle debe reunir las siguientes
ant characteristics of the potential breeding areas, stations and optimum
levels for adhesion (fixing) of the larvae, growth of the oysters during the
condiciones ecologicas elementales. La profundidad del
year and during their life, natural mortality, and percentage of individu- agua debe estar entre 1 y 2 m
(medido con marea baja) para
als accidentally becoming detached, with consequent loss for the facilitar la construction de las instalaciones necesarias; la
breeder.
On the basis of this knowledge a system of salinidad del agua debe ser entre 28 y 36 partes por mil
mangrove oyster culture
has been developed. The most important operative conditions of the (con pequenos afluentes de agua dulce que no alteran
system are the correct location of the collectors and adequate harvesting. considerablemente o por mucho tiempo estos limites); el
The yields obtained are satisfactory, but there are still some problems,
such as determination of the optimum density of individuals per collec- pH del agua entre 7,9 y 8, 1 la concentration del oxigeno en
;
tor, rational utilization of the smaller oysters which have become elagua entre 2 y 5 mg/1; debiles corrientes marinas (unos
accidentally detached and interference of other organisms in the growth
of the oysters, to which due attention should be given during future
30 cm por segundo) ademas del flujo de las mareas las que
experiments to improve the system which is already being employed on a proporcionaran nuevas masas de agua, facilitar an renova-
pilot scale in an oyster farm. tion alimentaria y la difusion de las larvas; adecuada
Experiences <rtfevage d'huhrei de patttuvier (Crassostrea rhizophorae) protection (natural o artificial) contra el oleaje excesivo y
Resume agua circundante libre de contamination. Las demas condi-
Pendant une periode de 12 ans (1963-74), des etudes ont porte sur la
et 1'ecologie des huitres de paletuvier et Ton a pratique 1'elevage
ciones no deben diferir mucho de las encontradas en las
biologic
experimental de cette espece en de nombreux sites dans les parages de areas naturales.
File de Cuba. Ces travaux avaient pour objectif principal de mettre sur
pied un systeme d'elevage des huitres de paletuvier (jusqu'alors inconnu) Los metodos
2.2 utilizados en los experimentos
permettant de moderniser les precedes inadequats de collecte.
Les etudes ont tout d'abord etc orientees vers la determination des Durante experimentos se construyeron varios tipos de
los
car acted stiques les plus importantes des zones de culture potentielles, instalaciones descritas por Nikolic y Alfonso (1970 y
des saisons et des fonds qui conviennent le mieux a la fixation des larves,
de la croissance des huitres sur une annee et durant tout le cycle 1971) y Nikolic, Bosch y Alfonso (1976). Las estacadas
biologique, de la mortal ite naturelle et du pourcentage d'individus en lineas simples, estacadas en lineas dobles y estacadas
accidentellement decolles, et par consequent perdus pour Televeur.
cuadrangulares dieron resultados similares. Entre los colec-
Compte tenu de ces donnees, Ton a mis au point un systeme de culture
des huitres de paletuvier. Les conditions operat ion ne lies les plus import- tores usados (ramas y cujes de mangle rojo Rhizophora
antes du systeme sont la localisation correcte des collecteurs et 1'emploi
mangle y de otros arbustos, valvas de ostiones en collares y
de methodes de recolte adequates. Les rendements obtenus sont satisfais-
cestas, tejas de barro y cartones moldeados), fueron preci-
ants, mais il subsiste un certain nombre de problemes, comme la
determination de la densite optimale des individus par collecteur. samente las ramas terminales de mangle rojo las que pro-
des huitres plus petites accidentellement deta-
I'utilisation rationnelle
chees et Faction d'autres organismes qui nuisent a la croissance des
porcionaron los mejores resultados. Estos colectores se
huitres; on devra preter attention a ces problemes lors d'experiences
ataron al principio sobre los arbustos de mangle cercanos.
futures pour perfectionner le systeme deja utilise e'xpenmentalement Una de las tareas principals fue establecer el nivel medio
dans une exploitation ostreicole.
del eulitoral (2.3.1) lo que no fue dificil observando la
1 Introduccion distribution vertical de ostiones naturales y el recorrido
Durante doce (1963-74) se han efectuado en Cuba
afios diario de las mareas. Los colectores se quedaron asi atados
estudios biologicos y experimentos en el cultivo de ostiones (colgados) entre1
y 3 meses y poster iormente trasladados a
del mangle (Crassostrea rhizophorae). Dicha especie lasinstalaciones preparadas al proposito observando el
abunda en las costas (estuarios, lagunas, ensenadas, etc.) mismo nivel establecido previamente en el manglar.
pobladas por mangle rojo (Rhizophora mangle). Los os-
tiones del mangle se encuentran adheridos, normalmente en 2.3 Algunos datos biologico-pesqueros
camadas, a las raices terrestres, raices aereas zancudas y 2.3. 1 Reclutamiento. Los ostiones son de sexos separados
ramas terminates u otras partes de dicho arbusto pero pero no presentan caracteres sexuales secundarios. El
exclusivamente a los del cinturon cubierto por las mareas menor macho sexualmente maduro encontrado tenia 14
(eulitoral). mm y la menor hembra 19 mm (Nikolic y Soroa Bofill,
El principal objetivo de estos estudios fue el de conocer 1 9 7 1 ). La composicion por sexos; que parece varia durante
si existe la posibilidad de cultivar dicha especie, nunca el ano, fue estudiada por distintos autores. Los resultados
lograda con anterioridad, puesto que el Instituto Nacional demostraron que habia una relation promedia anual entre
de la Pesca deseaba modernizar tambien esta rama de la los individuos de tamano comercial de un 32,3% (Nikolic y
production pesquera utilizando las tecnicas de cultivo Soroa Bofill, 1 97 1 ) y para el total de la poblacion un 45,2%
conocidas y eliminando paulatinamente el lento e inadecua- (Bosch y Nikolic, 1975) en favor de los machos.
do trabajo del 'ostioncro' en busqueda de ostiones en su Los individuos a los cuales no se les pudo determinar el
habitat natural, siempre mas alejado y limitado. sexo oscilaron entre 0,3 y 4,6%. Como un ejemplo, estos
Al principio los estudios eran dirigidos hacia las pobla- porcentajes oscilaban considerablemente durante los anos
cioncs de ostiones residentes en areas naturales. Durante la 1969y 1970. Desde 59,4% en el mesde mayo de 1969ycl
segunda fase se construyeron instalaciones cxpcrimentales 5 3,4% en septiembre bjgo a 24,0% en noviembre, 3 7,5% en
de cultivo (en Cabanas, Casilda e Isabela de Sagua) para diciembre del mismo ano y 29,6% en el mes de marzo del
340
ano siguiente. 1
porcentaje de los individuos sin pcxier seccion. De este modo obtuvo que el mayor numero de
determinar el sexo bajo desde 9,5% y 6,2% a 5,3% durante ostiones estaba en las secciones entre 10 y 25 cm de altura
estos ultimos tres meses. Todo lo dicho hace pensar en la (por encontrarse un tiempo adecuado bajo el agua y sin
posibilidad de que en ostiones del mangle ocurre un cambio importantes competidores); entre los 25 y 40 cm de altura
de sexo en determinada epoca del ano y/o de su vida. este numero iba bajando considerablemente (por tiempo
Nikolic y Soroa Bofill (1971) determinaron (macros- insuficiente de estancia bajo el agua). Muy pocos indivi-
copicamente) cinco estadios en el desarrollo de la gonada duos habia entre y 1 cm de altura (debido a la competen-
(0, 1, 2, 3 y 4) siendo los estadios 2 y 3 aptos para desovar o cia mas fuerte, por el alimento y el espacio, con otros
muy proximos a este proceso. Los mismos autores registra- organismos). En el sublitoral (enorme competencia) y
ron un alto porcentaje de estos dos estadios durante los supralitoral (alcanzado raras veces por mareas altas) los
meses de marzo, abril, agosto, septiembre y octubre en los ostiones eran casuales y escasos. Resultados similares ob-
anos de estudios. Bosch y Nikolic (1975) encontraron que tuvieron Simpson, Soroa Bofill y Alfonso (1974) asi cpmo
el mayor porcentaje (53% y 70%) de estos estadios lo hubo Vazquez, Alfonso y Simpson (1974). Segun estos ultimos
en Casilda entre los meses de noviembre de 1969 y marzo autores el mayor numero de fijaciones (Casilda 69,8% e
de 1 9 70. El desove normalmente ocurre durante todo el ano Isabela de Sagua 90,3%) fue en la superficie del colector
con mayor o menor intensidad pero se distinguen dos que quedaba entre la marea media y bajamar, pero mas
periodos de desove mas intensivos: marzo-junio y sep- cercano a bajamar. Los mismos autores afirman que la
tiembre-noviembre (Nikolic y Soroa Bofill, 1971). Al- presencia de ostiones varia tambien en diferentes sitios
fonso, Soroa Bofill y Simpson (1973) registraron en Ca- (distancia del manglar) lo que depende de muchos factores
silda (1970-71) tambien dos periodos: el primero entre entre los cuales, segun parece, las corrientes son los mas
marzo y mayo y el otro desde finales de agosto hasta importantes.
septiembre. Vazquez, Alfonso y Simpson (1974) encontra-
ron en Casilda (1973-74) 3 periodos (marzo-abriljulio-
agosto y noviembre-enero) y en Isabela de Sagua (1973) 2.3.2 El crecimiento. El crecimiento de ostiones del man-
dos (mayo y julio-agosto). La mayor abundancia de las gle es relativamente rapido en comparacion con otras
larvas de bivalvos en las muestras del plancton se obtuv-
especies. Saenz (1965) encontro el crecimiento diario de
ieron en Casilda, segun Alfonso, Soroa Bofill y Simpson 0,50 mm en Cabanas y 0,42 mm en Isabela de Sagua para
( 1 en abril de 1971. Vazquez, Simpson y Soroa Bofill
973 ), los individuos juveniles (tallas por debajo de la maduracion
(1974) registraron el mayor numero de larvas de ostiones sexual). Nikolic (1969 y 1970) obtuvo en Casilda
en Casilda durante los meses de Julio (2 088 larvas por
3
m (1965-66) mediante observation directa los siguientes
de agua) y diciembre (1 610 larvas). Segun los mismos promedios para el crecimiento diario: hasta la edad de 2
autores hay de 6 a 8 veces mas larvas de bivalvos cerca del meses 0,52 mm, entre 3 y 5 meses 0,34 mm, entre 6 y 8
mangle que en las areas alejadas unos 1 50 m. Los mas altos meses 0, 1 9 mm; mas tarde el crecimiento fue lento y/o casi
valores se encontraron durante la bajamar lo que indica que ninguno. Nikolic y Alfonso (1971) encontraron que los
los ostiones mayormente desovan con la bajada de las ostiones alcanzaron el tamano comercial minimo estable-
mareas. Segun Nikolic y Alfonso (1971) la mayor adhe- cido de 50 mm
entre 5 y 7 meses de edad, pero hallaron
sion ('fijacion') de las larvas occurio en Casilda desde tambien a los individuos con tamanos entre 89 (7 mm
febrero a abril. Alfonso, Soroa Bofill y Simpson (1973) meses ) y 1 00 mm (9meses ). El individuo de mayor tamano
registraron lo mismo en Casilda (1971-72) entre abril y encontrado, sin conocer su edad, tenia 1 1 8 mm. Bosch y
mayo mientras que en Cabanas e Isabela de Sagua (1972) Nikolic (1975) efectuaron 3 series de experimentos
se produjo durante el mes de Julio. En el ano 1973 (Simp- (areas naturales, instalaciones ostricolas sin interferencia
son, Alfonso y Soroa Bofill, 1974) se encontro en Casilda del hombre y con eliminacion de reclutas). Solamente
mayor numero de ostiones juveniles adheridos durante algunos individuos alcanzaron la talla de 50 a los 4 mm
abril y mayo mientras que en Isabela de Sagua esto ocurrio meses de edad, el 25% de ellos llegaron a esa misma talla a
entre los meses de junio y noviembre. Estudiando tres areas los 5 meses y despues de 6 meses el 50% de los individuos
diferentes (Cabanas, Casilda e Isabela de Sagua) entre los tenia dicho tamano. A los 8 meses habia entre los del
anos 1971, 1972 y 1973, Vazquez, Alfonso y Simpson experimento con la eliminacion de los reclutas un 82%.
(1974) llegaron a la conclusion de que en estas areas, Segun Nikolic y Alfonso (1968, 1970 y 1971) la deter-
aunque no comparables entre si, habia un numero de mination del nivel optimo de crecimiento para los ostiones
ostiones juveniles adheridos durante los meses de mayo a (en Casilda son 30 cm donde vive la totalidad y 15 cm
junio y tambien en los ultimos meses del ano. Bosch y intermedios donde vive la mayor ia de ellos) es de suma
Nikolic (1975) encontraron en Casilda el mayor numero importancia para el exito del cultivo artificial. Simpson,
de reclutas entre los meses de junio y agosto de 1969 asi Soroa y Alfonso (1974) tambien determinaron el
Bofill
como entre noviembre de 1969 y febrero de 1970. nivel de crecimiento para Casilda (30 cm) e Isabela de
Todo lo dicho hace pensar que la adhesion de las larvas a Sagua (50 cm). Segun estos autores el mayor crecimiento,
los substrates varia algo segun los anos y ocurre en las areas no rapido pero constants fue de los ostiones situados en el
nivel medio de las mareas y algo menor se registro entre los
situadas en la costa norte algo mas tarde que en las de la
costa sur, probablemente por la bajada y/o subida posterior que se encontraban cerca de dicho nivel. Los ostiones
de las tempcraturas del agua. cubiertos constantemente por el mar sobrevivieron los
La abundancia de ostiones varia tambien en distintos primeros 3 meses de experimentos a pesar del pequeno
niveles y distancias de la costa. Nikolic (1970) repartio crecimiento y los que estu vieron casi siempre fuera del agua
un area natural de Casilda, con amplitud de las mareas crecieron algo, pero perecieron tambien durante el mismo
aproximadamente de 40 cm, en secciones de 5 cm regis- periodo. El crecimiento fue siempre mayor durante la
trando el numero de individuos encontrados por cada primavera.
341
2.3.3 La mortalidad. Varies estudios se encaminaron para obtenido para la primera cosecha por los mismos autores
determinar tambien la mortalidad natural basandose en el (1971) arrojo 1,2 kg por colector en el periodo desde
porcentaje de ostiones encontrados muertos sobre los subs- marzo a septiembre (seis meses) en Casilda. Segun Simp-
trates en distintos meses. Ademas se estimo el numero de son, Alfonso y Soroa Bofill (1974) en Puerto Jobabo,
ostiones desaparecidos de la poblacion (desprendidos de Casilda, cada colector dio 4,5 kg y en Isabela de Sagua
los substrates). Nikolic (1969) encontro que la mortali- solamente 1,0 kg de ostiones durante su tiempo util de
dad natural maxima encontrada en Casilda (1965-66) fue: aprovechamiento (8 y 9 meses). Bosch y Nikolic (1975)
49,1% entre los ostiones hasta dos meses de edad, 13,2% obtuvieron en instalaciones ostricolas de Puerto Jobabo,
entre los de cuatro, 21,2% entre los de seis y 16,8% entre Casilda, un promedio de 5,2 kg de ostiones de tamario
los que alcanzaron ocho meses de edad. En una poblacion, comercial por cada colector en ocho meses de su permanen-
el9 1,2% de los muertos pertenecia a los tamanos menores cia en las instalaciones de cultivo (colocados en abril de
de SO mm. Segun Nikolic y Alfonso ( 1 97 1 ) la mortalidad 1969 y analizados en diciembre del mismo ano).
natural encontrada fue mayor entre los individuos de tama-
nos menores y menor entre los que sobrepasaron los SO
mm. Este ultimo dato sera casi siempre afectado si no se 3 Aplicacion de los resultados experimentales al cultivo
conocc el porcentaje de ostiones desprendidos. Bosch y comercial
Nikolic (1975) registraron que la mortalidad natural 3.1 Los procedimientos de cultivo en pequena escala
(minimo 2,5 kg de ostiones por colector). Otro dato otra donde se practicara el cultivo.
Fig 1. Vista parcial de un criadero de ostiones del mangle en pequena escala comercial
342
Al colocar los colectores en las instalaciones hay que
tener especial cuidado de atarlos al nivel medio de las
mareas en area y acorde a la temporada puesto que las
el
3.2 Los rendimientos obtenidos Fig 2. Las instalaciones ostricolas (estacadas en linea doble con
colectores suspendidos) atendidas por cultivadores
El metodo desarrollado (Nikolic, Bosch y Alfonso,
1976) ha proporcionado hasta la fecha los siguientes
rendimientos:
Se estima que cada cultivador debe atender, bajo las mismas bajo las condiciones artificiales de cultivo (2.3.4).
condiciones de cultivo comercial, por lo menos 7 500 Tales informaciones pueden proporcionar orientaciones
colectores de los cuales en la production constante estarian utiles pero desde el punto de vista practice es bueno
unos 3 500 de ellos, produciendo aproximadamente 26,2 desarrollar el cultivo en cada nueva area, enforma progre-
toneladas de ostiones anualmente. Para eso se necesita siva y mantener un control estadistico basado en el registro
solamente un area entre 600 y 700 m
2
. de la production (rendimientos de los colectores, produc-
Con la introduction del cultivo de esta especie se pre- tion por area, etc) y mediante muestreo sistematico. Du-
tende ofrecer al cultivador el campo de production (granjas rante los estudios preliminares sobre la densidad y la
ostricolas) cercano a su residencia. De este modo el puede selection (Bosch y Nikolic, 1975) se observe el creci-
producir mas de lo que encuentra durante las busquedas en miento de un numero limitado de ostiones juveniles en
los viajes a lo largo de la costa a traves del ano. colectores (183) eliminando consecuentemente a todos los
reclutas y a otros organismos aparecidos posteriormente.
3.3 Las dificultades y las perspectivas Ocho meses mas tarde hubo un 82% de individuos may ores
Una de las dificultades afrontadas durante las labores de de tallacomercial por cada tal colector (comparado con
cultivo fue la densidad excesiva de ostiones obtenida por 46% solamente en areas naturales y 52% en colectores sin
cada colector. Es por eso que la tarea inmediata de los interferencia del hombre). Los resultados preliminares indi-
investigadores sera determinar el numero optimo de indivi- can que estudios similares pueden proporcionar las infor-
duos que se puede cultivar por cada colector sin que estos se maciones utiles sobre el numero optimo de ostiones que
afecten mutuamente. Algunos (Jmeliova y Sanz, 1969)han puede sostener cada colector.
dirigido sus esfuerzos en calcular la biomasa de ostiones Otra tarea inmediata seria los estudios sobre el manteni-
sobre una superficie natural determinada y a estimar las miento de individuos no comercializables desprendidos
343
casualmente durante las cosechas para llevarlos hasta la deberian estudiarse tambien con miras a utilizarlas, en un
talla comercial. Algunos estudios realizados con anteriori- futuro cercano, como areas para practicar el policultivo.
dad (Nikolic, 1969; Nikolic y Alfonso, 1971). no
dieron resultados satisfactorios.
La mayoria de las
areas estudiadas reunen las caracteri- 5 Rcferencias
ALFONSO, S. J., SOROA BOFILL, J. y SIMPSON, A. C. Observaciones
sticas necesariaspara el cultivo de ostiones del mangle y
1973 bio!6gicas sobre ostiones cultivados en Cabanas, Isabela de
para desarrollar tambien otros cultivos como camarones Sagua y Casilda en los aftos 1971 y 1972. Doc. Intern. Cent.
(Penaeus duorarum y Penaeus schmitti\ peces herbivoros Invest. Pesq. Inst. Nac. Pesca, Cuba, julio 24 p. (mimeo)
:
mente rapido alcanzando un 50% de ellos el tamano comer- NIKOLIC, M. y ALFONSO, S. J. El osli6n del mangle Crassostrea rhizo-
1971 phorae Guilding, 1828. Explotaci6n del recurso y posibilidades
cial establecido (50 mm) entre los 5 y 6 meses de edad. para el cultivo. FAO Fish. Rep., (71-2) 209-18
La mortalidad natural es mayor entre los individuos de NIKOLA, My SOROA BOFILL, J. El osti6n del mangle Crassostrea
1971 rhizophorae Guilding, 1828. Algunas observaciones sobre sus
menores tamanos (hasta 50 mm) y menor entre los ma- dimensiones, pesos y sexos. FAO Fish. Rep., (71.2): 201-8
yores. Esta tambien varia por temporadas; es menor du- NIKOLIC, MBOSCH, A. C. y ALFONSO, S. J. A system for farming the
,
rante la estacion de verano (lluvias) y mayor durante el 1976 mangrove oyster (Crassostrea rhizophorae Guilding, 1828).
Aquaculture (9) 1-18
.
invierno (sequias y mareas bajas). Si no se realizan las SAENZ, B. A. El osti6n antillano Crassostrea rhizophorae Guilding,
cosechas en el momento oportuno y con la periodicidad 1965 1828 y su cultivo experimental en Cuba. Nota Invest Cent
Invest. Pesq. Inst Nac. Pesca, Cuba, (6): 1-34
indicada se puede producir desprendimiento elevado de
SIMPSON, A. C., ALFONSO, S. J. y SOROA BOFILL, J. Desarrollo de la
individuos (principalmente con tallas may ores) los cuales 1974 ostncultura en Cuba. (Informe del afto 1973) Doc Intern. Cent.
desaparecen de la poblacion y de este modo afectan la
Invest. Pesq. Inst Nac. Pesca, Cuba, enero. 19 p
SIMPSON, A. C., ALFONSO, S. J. y SOROA BOFILL, J. Fijaci6n, rendimicnto
production. 1974a y crecimiento de ostiones cultivados. Resum. Invest Inst Nac.
Los rendimientos de los colectores (durante tiempo litil y Pesca Cent. Invest. Pesq., Cuba, 1 (B-29). 157-9
SIMPSON, A. C., SOROA BOFILL, J y ALFONSO, S. J. El crecimiento del
por ano), de las secciones y del cultivador (por ano) son ostion del mangle (Crassostrea rhizophorae) en relacion con
aceptables y la primera cosecha debia realizarse entre los 5 el nivel de marea y su cultivo. Doc. Intern. Cent. Invest. Pesq.
Inst. Nac. Pesca, Cuba, octubre: 18 p (mimeo) Publicado
y 6 meses despues de la colocacion de los colectores. Las
tambien como Resum. Invest Inst. Nac. Pesca Cent Invest
cosechas parciales hay que efectuarlas todos los meses
Pesq., Cuba, 2(B-17).66-9
subsiguientes. VAZQUEZ, B ALFONSO, S. J. y SIMPSON, A. C. Abundancia de larvas
,
Para obtener mejores resultados de los alcanzados hasta 1974 de ostiones en el plancton de Puerto Jobabo y Cayos de
Enfermeria durante 1973. Doc. Intern. Cent Invest. Pesq. Nac.
el presente debe perfeccionarse aun mas el metodo de Inst. Pesca, Cuba, noviembre: 11 p. (mimeo) Publicado
cultivo aplicado a traves de los estudios sobre la densidad tambien como Resum. Invest. Inst. Nac. Pesca Cent Invest.
Pesq., Cuba, 2 (B/18): 69-71
optima de individuos por cada colector, sobre la utilization VAZQUEZ, B., SIMPSON, A. C. y SOROA BOFILL, J. Estudio de la fijaci6n
rational de ostiones desprendidos casualmente y sobre la 1 974 del osti6n del mangle (Crassostrea rhizophorae) sobre colectores
interferencia de diversos organismos asociados (competi- de rama de mangle rojo. Doc Intern. Cent. Invest. Pesq. Nac.
Inst. Pesca, Cuba, octubre: 15 p (mimeo). Publicado tambien
dores, enemigos, etc.) con los ostiones cultivados. como Resum. Invest. Inst. Nac. Pesca Cent. Invest. Pesq., Cuba,
Las areas dedicadas al cultivo de ostiones del mangle 2(B/19):71-73
Mangrove oysters in their natural environment have typically stunted Other factors which should be considered in developing mangrove
populations, growing to a maximum size of 5 cm. The stress of exposure oyster culture include: land ownership, leasing and tenure, pollution,
to long periods of heat is thought to contribute to the stunting process. navigable waters regulations, market research, processing plant design,
Seed for mangrove 'oyster culture is readily available on mangrove roots and training oyster culturists.
(virtually a self-disintegrating cultch), but intensive cutting of mangrove Investigation of culture techniques applicable to Crassostrea tulipa,
roots should be controlled to prevent elimination of this valuable C. braziliana and C. belcherii in Sierra Leone, southern Brazil and
344
Sabah, Malaysia, respectively, have given promising results. Best growth 1 Introduction
was achieved in Sabah, Malaysia with C. belcherii through a combina-
tion of rack and raft (with trays) culture techniques. Seed collected on
The great oyster industries of the world have been devel-
asbestos strips and reared on racks and rafts reached a length of 14 cm oped in the temperate zones by entrepreneurs, large and
(meat weight 14-21 g) after 18 months. small, because of the availability of ready markets. This was
It is considered that culture of mangrove oysters offers excellent
potential for further development, and to a large extent the prospects may probably due to the high esteem in which oysters have
be limited by the problems of transfer of culture technology for entrepre- always been held by all economic levels of the population.
neural or artisanal participation, and the provision of investment financ-
In the tropics, although oysters are as widely distributed
ing to the latter group.
as in the temperate zones, they have not been accorded the
L'elevage de I'huitre de paletuvier dans la zone tropicale: Problemes et same regard and have remained merely as one of a number
perspectives of naturally occurring foods of relatively low value. More-
Resume
A la difference de 'ostreiculture en zone temperee, ce n'est que recem-
1
over, temperate zone oysters were easily cultivated because
ment que Ton a pleinement mesure, dans nombre de pays tropicaux, le of the occurrence of natural beds of fairly large oysters and
potentiel de 1'elevage des huitres de paletuvier comme source locale de the existence of substrates where oysters could be relaid.
proteines, voire comme produit d 'exportation.
L'huitre de paletuvier dans son habitat nature! forme des populations This is seldom the case with mangrove oysters.
qui se caracterisent par leur croissance arretee, puisque cette huitre There have been sporadic attempts to cultivate mangrove
n'excede pas une taille maximale de 5 cm. L'on estime que P exposition a
de longues periodes de chaleur contribue au processus de rabougnsse- oysters but the investigations were seldom pursued beyond
mcnt. L'on trouve facilement des geniteurs pour r ostreiculture sur les preliminary experiments. Recently, there has developed in
racines des paletuviers (qui constituent pratiquement des collecteurs de
naissain a autodes integration), mais Ton au decoupage
many tropical countries an awareness of the potential of the
deyrait op poser
s'
excessif des racines de paletuviers pour prevenir la disparition de cette oyster as a local source of protein and as a possible export
utile ressource. Les techniques trad itionnel les d'elevage de 1' huitre sur commodity. There have been numerous inquiries to organi-
support avec quelques modifications semblent convenir particulierement zations concerned with resource development and, as a
aux huitres de paletuviers. Les deux problemes les plus importants
auxquels se heurte cet elevage sont les salissures et la faible salinite partial result, there has been the opportunity to examine the
pendant la saison des pluies. mangrove oyster as a culturable organism in seven tropical
Parmi divers facteurs qu'il faut envisager en mettant sur pied un tel
countries on four continents. This paper is a review of the
elevage figurent: le regime de propnete, de location et de tenure des
terres; la pollution; les reglements relatifs aux eaux navigables: les etudes conclusions derived from these experiences and of oyster
de marche; la conception des usines de traitement et la formation des culture projects in progress in Sierra Leone, West Africa; in
eleveurs.
Sabah, Malaysia and in Brazil, South America.
Les recherches sur techniques d'elevage applicables a Crassostrea
les
techniques d'elevage sur pieux et sur r ad eaux (et claies). Des geniteurs
2 The mangrove environment
recueillis sur des bandes d'amiante et eleves sur pieux et sur radeaux ont Mangrove trees, mainly Rhizophora and A vicennia but also
atteint une longueur de 14 cm (poids de chair 14-2 1 g), au bout de 1 8
a number of other genera, are common along the shores and
mois.
L'on estime que la culture des huitres de paletuvier ofTre un potentiel estuaries on the continental masses between the two tropics,
de developpement excellent, mais que ses perspectives risquent d'etre and in some cases extend both north and south of these
limitees par les problemes du transfert technologique tant pour les
boundaries. The water temperatures in this region are
entrepreneurs que pour les exploitations artisanales, ainsi que par les
difficultes du financement des investissements necessaires a ce dernier consistently high, generally between 20 and 30C. Salinity,
groupe. however, may vary considerably, from zero during the
annual rains to 40 ppt in the dry season. Mangrove trees are
Cultivo de ostra de manglar en zonas tropicales: Problemas y
characterized by the formation of numerous aerial roots in
peripectivas
Extracto addition to the main stem, so the silt-laden currents, either
A diferencia de lo que ha sucedido con las ostras de zonas templadas, tidal or river, are interrupted and
solo recientemente se ha caido en la cuenta de las posibilidades que
by these barriers silt is
345
according to the particular environment and geographic mangrove oysters is the lack or shortage of materials
area. readily available to temperate zone culturists. This is partic-
The mangrove Crassostrea occurs typically on the aerial ularly so if the development is to be on an artisanal level.
roots of the mangrove trees or bushes. The tree roots remain Experience has shown that bamboo may be used for cultch,
relatively free of silt because of their vertical position, trays, racks, and floats. The new synthetic twines are
current action and wave lapping, and they develop a firm, relatively inexpensive and long lasting.
hard surface owing to the relatively long periods out of
water. Therefore, they form ideal setting surfaces for oyster
larvae, being the only sites in the mangrove environment 5 Culture methods
where the tidal range is usually not more than 3 m. Oyster There are numerous variations of the relatively few basic
larvae no doubt settle on the roots from the highest tidal methods of oyster culture. Nearly all of them have been in
level to the mud line but mortality occurs down to about the existence for a very long time and most of the innovations
1 m level, and survival increases from there toward the mud relate only to new types of material. The most basic is
line. Oyster growth rates follow the same pattern, being bottom culture, as this seems to be the normal habitat of
least at higher levels and increasing toward the mud line, most oyster species, and it is the type that, in the past, has
and growth is a function of the period of submergence. This produced the greatest volume of oysters. The other basic
period, even at the low level of the mud line is insufficient type has been termed 'off-bottom' rearing, where the great-
for Crassostrea to realize its full growth potential. Except est strides in oyster culture have been made in recent years
in special circumstances, and these do occur occasionally, although the principle dates back to Roman times. Oysters
the mangrove oyster is typically stunted with a maximum may be held off the bottom by suspending them from rafts
size of about 5 cm. Doubtless the stress of heat through or racks on strings, panels or in trays. Possibly the most
many hours of exposure each day contributes to the stunt- recent innovation is their suspension in mesh tubes, such as
ing process. In some areas at least, the normally intertidal are used in one form of mussel culture. Oysters may also be
mangrove oyster can survive and grow when moved from held off bottom on single vertical stakes. Except for the
the mangrove root to continuous submergence. mesh tube system, all of these forms of culture have been
welldocumented in literature.
Decision on the most suitable system of culture for the
4 Seed availability mangrove oyster may be assisted by the use of a simple
A consistent supply of seed is a basic requirement for form of analysis, with the various culture types being
successful oyster culture and is often a problem in temper- assessed against a list of factors known to be significant in
ate zones, hence the development of oyster hatcheries. In their success or failure. For instance, trays or strings
most mangrove oyster areas, however, there is usually an suspended from rafts may be compared either quantita-
over-abundance of seed, and their availability is not a tively or qualitatively against such factors as growth rate,
limiting factor. There are two possible techniques for col- condition factor, fouling, predation, capital cost, and work-
lecting seed for culture purposes. One is to expose cultch to ing cost. To assess the suitability of a given area for the
collect seed by traditional techniques, and the other is to various types of culture, comparisons may be made on such
utilize the smaller oysters (which in reality are a form of factors as: temperature, salinity, depth, substrate, tidal
seed) on the adventitious mangrove roots. In the latter, the level, tidal range, wave action, predation, and navigation
roots are simply cut from the tree with the attached oysters. area available. Such tabulations provide a visual image and
However, it has been found that when these aerial roots form a basis for discussion.
with the attached oysters are immersed continuously in salt Such evaluations for most mangrove situations show
water the oysters drop off owing to decomposition and that rack or raft culture are likely to be most effective.
sloughing of the bark of the root. Thus, the mangrove root The decision relative to the use of strings or trays is
is virtually a self-disintegrating oyster cultch, a feature based on the local economic situation relating to such
which has been widely but unsuccessfully sought in temper- factors as labour, material costs, and market value of the
ate zone oyster culture. oyster.
Retention of the oysters after sloughing to permit contin-
ued growth may be accomplished with trays if these are
economically feasible. Alternatively, it may be possible to 6 Culture problems
enclose the mangrove root in a webbing or net tube, such as It isobvious that any culture technique to induce mangrove
is used in one form of mussel culture. oysters to grow faster and larger means longer or total
Use of the mangrove seed, which are by this time 2-3 cm periods of immersion, which generally involves some form
in diameter, provides a growth gain of several months over of hanging culture, such as suspending strings or trays from
collected seed and the equivalent of nearly a full year's submerged racks or rafts. This introduces two factors
growth in the seven or eight months of the dry season. This which have, in the past, been the main obstacles to advance-
presumes the mortality of the mangrove oysters is not ment in the utilization of mangrove oysters. One is fouling,
excessive during the rainy season. which may either inhibit entirely or reduce the growth rate
If mangrove roots are to be used for oyster culture the of the oyster. The other is the low salinity mortalities during
question of conservation must be considered and some the rainy season, which in some instances may be enough to
form of controlled cutting may be desirable, according to decimate the intertidal stocks of mangrove oysters, as in the
the local situation. Most mangrove estuaries have many Jaguaribe River in north-eastern Brazil.
miles of shore with oyster-covered mangrove roots, which In some circumstances it is possible to accept the fouling
constitute a potentially valuable resource if properly used. that occurs. Alternative solutions may be related to timing
Aserious difficulty in developing a culture system for of the initial immersion to evade at least some of the fouling
346
organisms. This presumes knowledge of the main species, able expectations that the lease will be renewable. If the
their breeding cycles and growth rates. Chemical control by situation requires leases, then lease fees and taxes must be at
pre-dipping cultch in certain pesticides may be used to a level that the developing industry can accommodate.
inhibit settling of a specific organism, but not of oysters.
This, however, is not a satisfactory solution. further A 7.2 Pollution
method of control is by dessication where oysters are It isthe established practice in countries or states with an
removed from the water for periods long enough to kill at oyster industry to carry out sanitary and pollution surveys
least the soft-bodied organisms, such as tunicates, poly- of an area before permission to cultivate oysters is granted.
chaetes and hydroids, and yet not harm the oyster. Alterna- This is to protect the health of the public, as filter-feeding
tively, the material may be dipped briefly in fresh water or a shellfish, such as the oysters, have the ability to concentrate
concentrated saline solution. Most of these methods are pathogenic bacteria and virus particles as well as heavy
terms of labour and equipment.
fairly costly in metals, such as copper and zinc. These surveys include
Another method that should be investigated involves oceanographic studies for current configurations, the loca-
taking advantage of the euryhalinity of most species of tion of present and potential pollution sources, and the
Crassostrea and the stenohalinity of most fouling orga- bacteriological quality of the growing waters and of the
nisms. Mangrove oysters occur in estuaries and it may be shellfish. Even if all of these factors are satisfactory, regular
possible to locate areas, usually distant from the ocean, surveillance is continued.
where the salinity is high enough (10-15 ppt) to permit For import of shellfish, most countries
filter-feeding
oyster growth, yet low enough to inhibit settlement of most require reciprocal agreements on sanitary control. This
fouling organisms and possibly oyster larvae as well. On comes about only after lengthy negotiations have shown
the west coast of North America (USA and Canada) the that adequately safe sanitary controls are applied.
introduced Japanese oyster (Crassostrea gigas) flourishes The mangrove environment is most frequently associ-
in temperatures and salinities where the species does not ated with estuaries. These are favoured locations for cities
reproduce. This permits complete separation of the year- and villages, which tend to furnish industrial and sewage
classes during culture. This is a critical difference when pollution sources that are most difficult to eliminate or
compared with tropical oyster habitats. control. Pure water sites for natural purification or artificial
Regarding the possible effects of salinity reduction dur- purification facilities for oysters using chlorine, ozone or
ing the rainy season, there are two main solutions. The first, ultra-violet light must be considered in the early stages of
and be of most practical use, is the design of the
likely to the development of an oyster industry in such situations.
culture schedule to encompass a single dry season. Breed- Illness, such as typhoid or infectious hepatitis, traced to
ing appears to take place during most of the year and, in oysters, can destroy an oyster market for many years.
some cases, into the beginning or at the end of the rainy
season. Proper timing of the collection of seed may permit 7.3 Navigable water regulations
taking full advantage of the total duration of the dry season Since oyster culture in most mangrove situations requires
which may be seven or eight months. Growth is so rapid at either racks or floating structures, these may constitute
the prevailing high temperatures in mangrove areas, that navigational hazards. There are doubtless navigable water
oysters of a size which rr\ay be marketed after one season regulations, so permission will be needed to place such
(ie, eight months) are obtained. This schedule obviates the structures in these waters.
risk of mortality from reduced salinity and in a single Another consideration is the historic rights of local
season the fouling problem will be less than in an extended fishermen to navigable waters. Unless co-operation and/or
period. Further, optimum use is made of the equipment involvement is obtained at an early stage, it has been found
whether it be raft, rack or tray, which are the large invest- most difficult to maintain even experimental material in
ment items. such areas.
The alternative is to lower the oysters below the halo-
cline if one exists and if there is sufficient depth of water. 7.4 Market research
Depending on the geography of the area, it may be possible The specific type of culture methods employed will, in part,
to move rafts or accumulated seed to areas of higher salinity be determined by the kind and form of oyster product that is
during the rains. to be marketed. For example, information, such as size and
shape requirements, is necessary if a raw (half-shell ) oyster
is to be produced. The cultural requirements can be quite
7 Other considerations in development of mangrove oys- different if a processed (shucked) oyster for soups, canning,
ter culture freezing, smoking or for the fresh market is envisaged.
As well as the biological aspects in the culture of oysters, The location and possible extent of these markets is
such as breeding and growth rate, there are administrative necessary information in respect to storage and transporta-
problems to be considered. tion facilities. Oysters spoil very quickly at high tempera-
tures so cooling and refrigeration will be the most import-
7.1 Land ownership, leasing and tenure ant consideration in the tropical climate, unless a dried and
To grow oysters it is necessary to have property rights to sealed product is produced.
land, either intertidal or subtidal, and to the cultured oys-
ters themselves. This may be in the form of outright 7.5 Processing requirements
ownership or on a lease basis. If the latter, then length and Doubtless there are local regulations governing the design
security of tenure is involved. Leases for a reasonable and construction of food processing plants. These will have
length of time, at least 10 years, must be secured before to be investigated and considered relative to the special
capital is likely to be invested. There should also be reason- requirements for processing oysters.
347
Whatever processing methods are to be used will depend panied by a water temperature drop. Various types of cultch
largely on the outcome of the market studies. Oyster have been tested; strips of corrugated roofing asbestos
processing techniques have been well worked out and the proved to be the most useful. Fouling of collectors by
main problem is to adapt them to artisanal use where barnacles was avoided by timing the exposure of cultch and
necessary. placing it at the correct tidal level.
The is collected on the asbestos strips held in trays
seed
7.6 Training oyster culturists on racks and retained there for about four months after
A problem in beginning a new industry is the supply of which they are removed to higher intertidal racks for
trained people. Workmen of potential foreman calibre hardening. After two months on these racks the individual
should be associated with the oyster work from its incep- seed, now 3-5 cm in length, are removed from the cultch
tion so they may take charge of field work and train others surface and grown in trays suspended from rafts. After
as needed. This phase cannot be over-emphasized. one year on the trays, 80-90% of the oysters had
reached a length of 14 cm with a range in meat weight of
14-2 1 g. The condition factor ranges between 1 1 5 and 135
8 Recent results of mangrove oyster culture in selected points on the standard 50 to 150 condition scale for
countries oysters.
8. 1 Sierra Leone The productivity of this system in Sabah in the Tawau
In the Sierra Leone oyster culture project a variety of area is estimated to be about 1 8 000 kg/ha/year.
culture techniques were used in the Freetown estuary with
Crassostrea tulipa (Kamara and McNeil, 1975). The con-
clusion is that a string system either from rafts or racks 9 Prospects
produces the most satisfactory results. Collected seed The mangrove oyster has two important attributes that
grown on rafts for the seven to eight months of the dry provide it with an extraordinary potential. These are its
season have produced oysters quite acceptable to the mar- fecundity and an environment that permits a rapid growth
ket.With a mean length (height) of 7 cm and some as large rate. The seed supply in most areas is virtually unlimited
as 10cm, this oyster is four times the volume of the and data from widely separated studies indicate that a
mangrove oysters now
being marketed. Seed is readily marketable oyster may be produced in a growing season of
available over most of the year. The condition factor has so 18 months or less.
far shown only mediocre values with no apparent seasonal Of equal significance is the vast stock of oysters present
trend. This may be typical of this mangrove oyster, or it on countless mangrove roots which have little value in situ
may be a reflection of the size and age as it is with most or as a crop because of small size. With the right technology
Crassostrea in temperate waters. they may be utilized and the costly seed collection step
The market requirements in Sierra Leone are not being removed from the culture procedure by a natural, automati-
met with the wild mangrove oyster harvest and the potential cally-suspended cultch.
is believed to be considerable. The potential is there. Some of the culture problems have
been explained and some solutions or partial solutions
8.2 Brazil advanced as demonstrated by the projects described.
In southern Brazil in the Cananeia area south of Sao Paulo, Others will be forthcoming as projects already under way
a culture technique has been developed for the mangrove continue and others are developed. To a large extent the
oyster Crassostrea brasiliana (Quayle, 1973; Wakmatsu, prospects may be limited by the problems of transfer of
1 9 73 ). In this area the water
temperature varies between 20 culture technology for entrepreneural or artisanal participa-
and 30C and the
salinity between about 10 and 30ppt. tion,and the provision of investment financing to the latter
Breeding occurs over most of the year with a main peak group.
from February to May. Shells, bamboo, asbestos or roofing
tiles are suggested as cultch materials.
Bottom, raft and rack culture have been used. Bottom 10 Acknowledgements
culture here requires about 18 months to harvest oysters The work being undertaken by the Government of Sierra
about 6cm in length and 30 months for an 8 cm Leone and the further development of oyster investigations
oyster. of the Government of Sabah (Malaysia) are being sup-
In north-eastern Brazil, floods are of sufficient frequency ported in part by the International Development Research
to be inimical to oyster culture possibilities in a number of Centre.
otherwise suitable estuaries.
348
Oyster Mortalities and their Control C. J. Stndermann
practices to take advantage of salinity, temperature, or other limitations growing season; in other areas mortalities have been less,
on the activities of the causative factor or factors. but often repeated for several years before abating. Effects,
in terms of lost production, have been and can be deter-
La mortallt des huftres et les mesures de contrite
Resume mined accurately.
La plupart des principals zones de production du monde ont garde trace It might be well at this point to discuss a few generaliza-
des mprtalites massives d'huitres, qui ont frequemment entraine des
reductions sensibles de la population. Certaines de ces grandes mortal- tions about mortalities and their causes. It should be stated
ites ont ete attnbuees a des epizootics provoquees par des agents at the outset that mass mortalities are merely an exagger-
infectieux tandis que nombre d'entre elles restent d' 'origine inconnue' en
ated form of natural mortality, usually distinguished by
depit de recherches scientifiques apprpfondies. Les populations d'huitres
europeennes, japonaises et nord-americaines ont ete attemtes au cours de being of rapid onset, and affecting a large proportion of the
ce siecle par des mortalites catastrophiques, qui dans certains cas ont
population over an extensive geographic area. Many mass
conduit a la stagnation de Pindustrie ostreicole pendant un certain
nombre d'annees.
mortalities of oysters undoubtedly result from interactions
Outre les mortalites catastrophiques tres repandues, de nombreuses of environmental and biological factors; only a few have
a utres morts massives plus localisees ont atteint des populations been clearly associated with a single overriding causal
d'huitres; en outre, des mortalites prolongees atteignent parfois des
1
epocas alcanza indices que llegan a mquietar a la industna marisquera. suspects in searches for causes of mortalities, sometimes to
Normalrnente se intenta reducir las repercusiones de esa mortalidad en la the exclusion of other possible causes.
produccion adaptando los sistemas de cultivo para aprovechar la salini-
In many instances of mass mortalities, it is probably the
dad o la temperatura o limitando de otras formas la actividad del factor o
factores que la producen. combination of an infectious agent and environmental
stress that eventually kills animals on a large scale.
reducing oyster production in these areas significantly. This form of fungus-induced shell disease, which will be consid-
paper, confined largely to the third type of mortality, is an ered later.
attempt to distill the often frustrating research over a 75- The next major European oyster mortalities in chrono-
year time span designed to understand the nature and logical sequence began in 1 9 1 9. Catastrophic mortalities of
TABLE I
1
Adash (-) after the date of mortality indicates that the exact year when mortalities ceased is not adequately reported in the literature availab'- in some instances,
mortalities did not cease, but merely receded into background levels
350
Ostrea edulis occurred in western Europe. Deaths began in A subsequent severe outbreak of shell disease with high
1919 in Mar Piccolo, near Taranto, Italy (Cerruti, 1941) mortalities occurred in the summer of 1 94 7, and the disease
and soon after were reported in England and other Euro- is now known thoughoutwestern Europe in Ostrea edulis
pean countries, where they persisted until 1923. Orton and Crassostrea angulata. Recent work by Alderman and
(1924, 1 924a), who carried out exhaustive and painstaking Jones (1967,1971) identified the causative organism as the
investigations during the period, suspected but was unable phycomycete Ostracoblabe implexa, and considered shell
to demonstrate a bacterial pathogen. Although no infec- disease and 'maladiedu pied' (discussed earlier) to be
tious agent could be directly associated with the mortalities, identical.
disease signs such as mantle retraction, pale digestive Beginning in 1967, new oyster mortalities began to
glands, muscle degeneration, gut inflammation, and shell affect production in western Europe. Some of the mortali-
and mantle pustules were seen. Ulcerations and pustules on ties have been attributed to so-called 'gill disease', which
the body and mantle, and shell pustules containing dead or was first Portuguese oysters, Crassostrea angu-
reported in
moribund leukocytes were observed in oysters from Eng- lata, from the French coast by Marteil (1968). It was
land and the Netherlands during the mortality (Orton, almost simultaneously reported from Portugal (Vilela,
1937). These signs are quite likely associated with a disease 1968) and from the United Kingdom (Howell, Key and
process. In addition to the exhaustive studies of Orton, Eyre Shotton, 1 968). Alderman ( 1 969) and Alderman and Gras
( 1 923, 1 924) isolated a fungus, Cladothrix dichotomy and (1969) reported heavy mortalities (in some instances over
nine species of bacteria from sick and healthy oysters, but 90%) of C. angulata imported to England from Portugal in
expressed doubt that any were true pathogens. 1969. Mortalities were severe in 1968 and 1969 in Portu-
Korringa (1952) has given an excellent historical ac- guese beds (Vilela and Sampayo, 1969). Gross indications
count of these mortalities of 1919-1923. Cultured oyster of abnormality were similar to those seen in 1967 and 1968
beds in France, England, Denmark, Germany, and the in France, where mortalities were also severe (reaching
Netherlands were affected almost simultaneously, begin- 80% in the Marennes-Oleron region). Affected oysters had
ning in late 1919, peaking in 1920, and abating in 1921- thin, yellowish meats, with damage to gills and palps, and to
1 923. In Ireland, the
peak was in 1921. Many natural beds a lesser extent the adductor muscle and mantle, in the form
were also destroyed. A few isolated populations (Helgoland of yellow-green pustules which increased in size and devel-
and Brittany) were not affected until several years later. oped into extensive brownish areas of necrosis. The disease
Mortalities did not occur in Portuguese oysters, Crassos- condition was described in 'active' and 'remission' stages
trea angulata. Although environmental factors such as (the remission stage apparently lacks the yellow staining
poor food supply and low temperatures were claimed to be and brownish necrotic areas).
causes of the catastrophic mortalities by a few authors The precise etiology of gill disease is still somewhat in
(Gaarder and Alvsaker, 1951;Sparck, 1950), the available doubt. Besse and Poirier (1968) felt that the disease was
evidence strongly indicates an infectious disease (Cole, due to erosion of the gills by Trichodina, while Arvy and
1951; Fischer, 1951; Korringa, 1952). Franc (1968), Gras (1969), and Comps (1969, 1969a,
Beginning in 1930, mortalities affected Ostrea edulis 1969b) found cells in gills and palps of infected oysters in
stocks in the Netherlands. Deaths were attributed to 'shell French waters that they felt were similar to life history
disease' (Korringa, 1947; 1951, 195 la) thought to be stages of Labyrinthomyxa marina (the organism responsi-
caused by a fungus. The disease condition had been known ble for oyster mortalities in the Gulf of Mexico and south-
in the Netherlands since 1902, but began an explosive ern Atlantic coast of the United States). Franc and Arvy
increase in the Oosterschelde in 1930, following implemen- (1969) then described as Thanatostrea polymorpha n. sp.
tation of a programme for widespread use of cockle shells the Labyrinthomyxa-Mte organism thought responsible for
as spat collectors. gill disease on the coast of France.
The disease was characterized by formation of green or Similar stages have been observed in many of the
brown pustules on the inner shell surfaces. Activity of the affected oysters in England, and have been isolated in
fungus varied directly with temperature. Thin parts of culture (Alderman and Gras, 1969). Specimens of O. edulis
oyster shells were perforated by the disease agent, which have been found in France, Portugal and the Netherlands
proliferated after reaching the interior surfaces. The fungus with some of the same disease signs (remission stage), and a
was identified as a species of Monilia by Voisin (1931), Labyrinthomyxa-\\\it organism was isolated from a French
who found the infection in 40% of oysters imported into sample by Alderman (1969). Comps (1969a) found gill
France from the Netherlands in 1931. Cole (1950) and disease in Crassostrea gigas imported as seed from Japan,
Cole and Waugh (1956) reported infections in the Euro- Korea, and British Columbia after one year's residence in
pean oyster from Brittany, and in Portuguese oysters, French waters. Recently, Cousserans et al ( 1974) cultured
Crassostrea angulata, grown in England. Infections were heart tissue from C. gigas sampled on the Atlantic coast of
common in beds where old shells were abundant. Cole and France and found numerous isolates to be parasitized by an
Hancock (1956) found the disease in almost all beds of organism with stages similar to Labyrinthomyxa marina.
native European oysters in England, and described two Despite what seemed like a consensus in the published
distinct forms: the typical one, characterized by greenish literature favouring a Labyrinthomyxa-like pathogen, re-
rubbery warts and knobs on the inside of the shell, particu- cent unpublished observations by several European work-
larly in the region of the muscle attachment; and an atypical ers suggest that the disease may be of viral etiology.
form in which young oysters had thickened shells with Alderman (1971) reported a decrease in mortalities due
numerous white patches but had no deformation of the to disease in England in 1970. Mortalities continued
gill
muscle attachment area. The shells of affected oysters may high through 1973 in the Arcachon and Gironde produc-
be distorted, the condition index is reduced, and the adduc- tion areas of France, reducing stocks drastically. Only the
tor muscle may become detached. replacement of C. angulata by C. gigas in the Arcachon
351
basin has enabled continued production there, according to 1915 and continuing for a number of years. Over 80% of
A
Deltreil ( 1 9 7 3 ). proposed method to reduce effects of gill the oysters in that bay died annually. Ogasawara et al
diseasewas proposed by Deltreil (1969, 1969a, 1970- (1962) reported similar mass mortalities on the Miura
Oysters not sold but remaining on beds after three years peninsula, beginning in 1927 and continuing for 10 years.
were heavily infected and could constitute a reservoir of Oyster farms all along the coast of the peninsula lost from
infection. Deltreil suggested the destruction of all oysters 50 to 80% of their crop annually.
unsold at four years, and preferably at three years. More recently,large-scale mortalities of 2-year-old
A second disease, of uncertain etiology, called 'Aber Pacific oysters, Crassostrea gigas, occurred in Hiroshima
disease' or preferably 'digestive gland disease' has recently Bay and adjacent localities, beginning in 1945 (Fujita et al,
been reported as a cause of mortalities in Ostrea edulis on 1953, 1955). A 10 year study (Takeuchi, 1963; Takeuchi
the French (Brittany) coast (Comps, 1970; Herrbach, et al 1955, 1956, 195 7; Takeuchi, Takemoto and Matsu-
1971; Bonami et al, 1971). Mortalities began in 1967, bara, 1 960) provided somewhat inconclusive evidence that
continued to spread until 1972, and began regressing in a bacterial pathogen was responsible for the mortalities.
1973 (Grizel and Tige, 1973; Tige and Morel, 1974). Takeuchi, Takemoto and Matsubara (1960) implicated a
Characteristic disease signs include poor condition index, gram -negative, motile, 1-3^ bacillus, probably sinAchro-
yellowing of the digestive gland, glycogen loss, and tissue mobacter, although the evidence presented was incomplete.
necrosis. One histological feature of significance is the Experimental infections were achieved with cultured bac-
presence in the digestive gland tubule epithelium (and teria, but the organisms could be isolated from healthy as
occasionally in gills and palps) of spherical bodies contain- well as sick oysters, and also from sea water. Moribund
ing several types of inclusions. A preliminary paper (Grizel oysters were characterized by diffuse cell infiltration, mas-
et ai 1974) concluded that the parasite was unlike any sive increase in bacterial numbers, and tissue necrosis.
1961 in Matsushima Bay and since 1969 in other import- virginica from Prince Edward Island, Canada, in the Gulf
ant oyster culture areas, particularly but not exclusively on of Saint Lawrence (Needier and Logic, 1 947). In the period
the Pacific Ocean coast of Japan and the Inland Sea. from 1915 to 1939, the disease called Malpeque Bay
Mortality rates were estimated at 40-60% annually. Koga- Disease, spread around the Island and destroyed most of
nezawa further points out the striking resemblance of ear- the oyster stocks, some of which required 20 years to return
lier mass mortalities in Hiroshima and more recent ones in to previous levels of abundance (Logic, 1956). The most
Matsushima Bay. Characteristics in common are that mor- obvious signs of distress were extreme thinness of meats,
talities: occur during and immediately following the spawn- yellow-green pustules on the body surface, stunting of shell
ing season, are greater in larger, faster-growing oysters, growth, and failure to spawn. About 95% of all oysters in
begin when water temperatures reach 21C, and are more an affected area were killed within three years of the first
severe when temperatures are high. He points out that most deaths. During the outbreak period, oysters apparently
of the major Japanese oyster production is in areas of developed resistance to the causative organism, whose
advancing eutrophication, and subscribes to the hypothesis identity remains undetermined. Recovery of a devastated
of Mori (described above) which attributes mortalities to stock by natural reproduction of resistant stock to a point
gross metabolic disturbance resulting from heavy and rapid where it could support a fishery took from 10 to 15 years
gonad formation and massive spawning during times of (Logic, 1956). During this period, severe selection pressure
high water temperatures in eutrophic bays. Infectious was demonstrated by high but declining mortalities of spat.
agents are not considered by Koganezawa to be primary Beginning in 1955, mortalities (probably due to the
causes of mass mortalities in Japan. same disease) began in waters of the adjacent mainland of
Japanese oyster growers are apparently adopting prac- New Brunswick across the Northumberland Strait from
tices which prevent heavy gonad formation and massive Prince Edward Island. Oyster populations along the entire
(exposed to winter air temperatures during part of the tidal disease-resistant oysters from Prince Edward Island waters,
cycle); and (//) placement of oysters in poor nutritional beginning in 1957 and continuing until 1 962, hastened the
353
recovery of the fishery (Logic, 1958; Logic, Drinnan and find L. marina consistently north of Chesapeake Bay sug-
Henderson, 1960; Drinnan and England, 1965). gests that prolonged low temperature may be a significant
The great oyster mortalities of the Gulf of Saint Law- limiting factor. Andrews (1965) found that the organism
rence have waned; recovery of stocks has been aided by proliferates readily only at temperatures above 25C, and
transplantation, but control of the causative agent was overwinters as sub-patent infections. Infections and result-
achieved only by natural forces. If the mortalities were due ing mortalities are reduced in salinities below 15% Ray .
toan infectious agent, and if that agent is still present (as it (1954a) showed that low salinity retarded development of
seems to be) in resistant stocks, then it is hard to understand terminal infections in laboratory populations. Ray and
why the identification of the disease organism has proved to Chandler (1955) suggested that excessively high salinities
be so difficult, in view of the intensive (if somewhat spo- may also be unfavourable for Labyrinthomyxa. Mackin
radic) investigations which were carried out. Today, sixty (1956) found a positive correlation between high salinity
years after mortalities began, the cause of the mortalities and high incidence of the fungus, but observed in experi-
remains a mystery. mental studies that the salinity tolerance range was wide.
While the early oyster mortalities in Canada caused by Dilution of infective elements by inflow of fresh water was
'Malpeque Bay Disease* have left scientists with a sense of suggested as an important limiting factor and a possible
frustration, investigations of recurring mortalities of Cras- control measure.
sostrea virginica in the Gulf of Mexico beginning in the late The continuing role of Labyrinthomyxa marina as a
1940's have proved more definitive. Mackin, Owen and cause of mortalities has been investigated. A
detailed study
Collier (1950) recognized and described a primitive fun- of the pathogen in Florida waters (Quick and Mackin,
gus, Dermocystidium marinum (now called Labyrintho- 1971) indicated that 'the normal annual mortality from L.
myxa marina) as the etiological agent. Exerting its effects marina parasitism is about 50% of the adult oyster popula-
in higher salinities and temperatures among dense aggrega- tion.'Other studies have disclosed high prevalences of the
tions of oysters, the pathogen has been reported to cause pathogen in Texas, Mississippi, and Louisiana waters. Oys-
annual mortalities in excess of 50% (Ray, 1954, Ray and ter culture schedules and planting densities have been
Chandler, 1955; Mackin, 1962). It has been identified in adapted to reduce the impact of the disease. Methods used
oysters throughout the Gulf of Mexico and northward include: (i) low density planting (since transmission of the
along the Atlantic Coast as far as Connecticut. Although pathogen is direct), (it) early harvest at minimal commer-
prevalence of the fungus may at times reach epizootic cial sizes, (Hi) planting of large seed oysters in high salini-
proportions in particular areas, its most significant effect is ties late in thegrowing season, and (iv) utilization of low
probably that of continuing attrition year after year during salinity growing areas.
periods of high seawater temperatures. Effects of the dis- Major mortalities, with consequent severe depression of
ease on commercial beds are now controlled to some extent the oyster fishery, occurred in Delaware and Chesapeake
by planting and harvesting at prescribed times of the year Bays on the United States east coast, beginning in the late
and by planting oysters thinly on beds. 1950's. Ahaplosporidan parasite with distinctive charac-
Early discovery of a useful diagnostic technique, based teristics,Minchinia nelsoni (Fig. 2), has been associated
on a fluid-thioglycollate medium fortified with antibiotic, with the mortalities. Extensive mortalities and drastic de-
by Ray (1952, 1966a) enabled rapid determination of cline of the oyster fishery began in Delaware Bay about
infection levels and distribution of the pathogen. Labyrin- 1957, and in lower Chesapeake Bay in 1959 (Haskin,
thomyxa marina is common in most high salinity waters of 1961; Mackin, 1960; Engle and Rosenfield, 1963; An-
the southern United States. Ray ( 1966) surveyed the occur- drews, 1964). In each affected area, mortalities exceeded
rence of the fungus in the Gulf of Mexico in 1961 and 95% for several years. Because of the severe impact of the
1962, and found infections in 35 of 39 oyster samples, with A/, nelsoni epizootic on Crassostrea virginica stocks of the
prevalences as high as 100%. Hoese ( 1 964) was able to find Middle Atlantic states, a number of
university, state, and
Dermocystidium marinum in the digestive tracts and faeces federal research groups have participated in scientific stud-
of fish, oyster drills, and crabs that had fed on dying and ies since the late 1950's, and significant papers have been
dead infected oysters. He speculated that transmission of published.
the fungus might be furthered by scavengers, and that Farley (1965, 1968), after completing a 5-year histo-
scavengers may release the parasite from host tissue. pathological study of Chesapeake Bay oysters, categorized
Pathological changes in infected oysters were described natural infections according to extent of invasion and
by Mackin (1951). Invasion takes place through the gut nature of host response. He found that initial infections
epithelium and possibly through the mantle. The epithelium occurred in epithelia of gills palps. The pathogen
and
is destroyed; the parasite lyses the basement membrane and spread into adjacent connective tissue, provoking infiltra-
is distributed by the blood to all parts of the body. All tion of hyaline haemocytes. In intermediate infections the
tissues are invaded and damaged, and multiple abscesses haplosporidan plasmodia invaded connective tissue adja-
are formed. Normal gonad development is inhibited, in- cent to the digestive tract and gonad, and advanced infec-
fected oysters become severely emaciated (Ray, Mackin tions were recognized by generalized invasion and infiltra-
and Boswell, 1953; Ray 1954a), and growth is retarded tion of connective tissue by hyaline haemocytes. Terminal
(Menzel and Hopkins, 1955). infections were characterized histologically by pyknosis of
Temperature is important in the epizootiology ofLaby- nuclei and tissue necrosis even before gross signs of death
rinthomyxa disease (Hewatt and Andrews, 1956). Infec- were apparent. Farley also recognized a stage of the disease
tions and associated mortalities rise during the warm termed 'remission,' identified by diminished intensity of
months and decline during colder periods. Mortalities de- infection and cell infiltration, localization of parasites near
cline in winter, probably because of reduced parasite me- external epithelia, increased pigment cell formation, diape-
tabolism rather than elimination of the organism. Failure to desis, deposition of necrotic tissue and moribund parasites
354
Simultaneous examinations of salinity regimes, disease
prevalence, and mortalities in the James River seed beds of
Virginia disclosed that infections disappeared from areas of
marginal disease occurrence during low seasonal salinities
and during several years of rainfall. The importation of the
infective agents from high salinity areas of the lower estu-
against the shell, and conchiolinous encapsulation. Death Maryland and Virginia, along the lower eastern shore of
from M. nelsoni infection was attributed to combined Virginia, and in Delaware Bay (Andrews, Wood and
action of seasonal, environmental or physiological stresses Hoese,1962; Wood and Andrews, 1962; Sprague, 1963;
on oysters weakened by effects of the disease. Haskin, Stauber and Mackin, 1966; Couch, 1967). First
As an example of the effects ofMinchinia nelsoni on the recognized in moribund and dead oysters from Hog Island
United States oyster fishery, landings in New Jersey waters Bay, Virginia, by Wood and Andrews (1962),M. costalis
of Delaware Bay in the late 1940's and early 1950's had was held responsible, on the basis of epizootiological evi-
fluctuated around 6 million pounds (2 724 metric tons) of dence, for sharp peaks of mortality in May and June.
shucked meats. Disease decimated the stocks beginning in Striking characteristics of the disease are the sudden onset
the mid-1950's. Landings fell precipitously to a low of of mortalities in May, and the abrupt termination of
355
mortalities about mid-June. The pathogen and mortalities Commercial oyster production in Australia, according
caused by it continue to characterize Maryland and Vir- toWolf (1967) is restricted largely to New South Wales,
ginia seaside oyster populations (Couch, 1967; Couch and and to the Sydney rock oyster, Crassostrea commercialis.
Rosenfield, 1968). Throughout much of the 20th century, an important factor
While mortalities of Crassostrea virginica were occur- limiting production has been the so-called 'winter mortal-
ring on the United States Atlantic coast in the late 1950's ity.'First described in scientific literature by Roughley
and the 1 960's, similar events were taking place in Crassos- (1926), the mortalities had characteristics very similar to
trea gigas populations on the United States Pacific coast. C. those seen in European Ostrea edulis during the extensive
gigas at that time was largely imported as seed from Japan
and planted in waters of the west coast states of Washing-
ton, Oregon, and California. Mortalities were most serious
in the two principal west coast growing areas, Puget Sound
in Washington, and Humboldt Bay in California. Oysters
in their second year after introduction were most com-
monly killed, and deaths were most often noted at the heads
of bays, although occurrences were irregular. Unlike the
east coast mortalities, no clear association has been made of
specific pathogens with mortalities of C. gigas on the
Pacific coast of the United States, and it is quite possible
that other environmental factors were operative in the
mortality areas.
Glude (1975) has published an excellent account of the
west coast oyster mortalities, and of the attempts to under-
stand them. Losses in principal growing areas reached 35-
58% annually during the 1960's. Oysters died during the
second summer following planting; most seriously in- 4. Polydora infestation of oysters
Fig
volved were fast-growing individuals near the heads of
eutrophic bays and estuaries in Puget Sound and in much of
Humboldt Bay. Glude emphasized the striking similarities mortalities of 1919-1923. Roughley described mass
between mortalities in Matsushima Bay, Japan, and those in deaths of oysters in the Georges River, NSW
in 1924 and
Puget Sound. In both places, as he points out: (/) fast- 1925. Disease signs, in the form of abscesses and ulcera-
growing oysters died, (11) affected oysters were character- tions were observed, and a bacterial pathogen was sus-
ized by rapid over-maturation of gonads, (Hi) mortality pected but not demonstrated. Winter environmental stress
occurred during the summer spawning period, and (iv) no was also implicated, since rock oysters are grown
specific pathogen could be associated with the mortalities, intertidally.
despite indications of degenerative necrosis of the digestive Wolf (1967) has reviewed the history of 'winter mortal-
diverticulum. ity'. He feels that the essentially unknown, but
cause is still
In an attempt to understand the causes of the west coast salinity may be a factor, since high mortality occurs in
mortalities, a large federally-funded co-operative investiga- years of low autumn rainfall. Bacterial infections may be
tion was carried on from 1 966 to 1 972. This resulted in an involved, possibly aggravated by winter stress. Wolf re-
unparallelled description of the pattern of oyster mortali- ports that annual and areal effects may vary, but severe
ties, related environmental events, and histopathological outbreaks of 'winter mortality' can kill 80% of the market-
observations (see section 7). One of Glude's conclusions is able oysters in specific production areas, and can affect
that The of pathological investigations to find a
failure younger oysters as well. Signs in affected oysters include
causative organism tends to strengthen the physiological pinhead ulcerations in the flesh, first in the palps, then the
stress theory' (discussed earlier in this paper as Mori's gills,and finally in the adductor muscle and gonad. Oysters
hypothesis to account for Matsushima Bay mortalities). then gape and die. Sprague (1971) has pointed out the
The termination of federal funding in 1972, with conse- similarity of these signs to European gill disease, and
quent reduction in research effort, coincided with a decreas- Mackin (1961) thinks that the mortalities result from
ing trend in observed during 1972 and
mortalities Labyrinthomyxa infections.
1973 (Glude, 1975). This agrees generally with the Very recently, quite a different type of mortality oc-
finding of Sindermann (1975) that, with localized excep- curred in C. commercialis in Moreton Bay, Queensland,
tions, west coast mortalities have subsided since about and persistedfor several years (Wolf, 1972). A
sporulating
1970. haplosporidan, not further identified, was seen in tissues of
moribund oysters and was considered to be responsible for
the mortalities. This finding is significant, in view of the
5 Oyster mortalities in Australia recent oyster mortalities on the United States east coast
Reports of oyster mortalities in Australia extend back to caused by haplosporidans, and of the recognition of haplo-
1 890 when Whitclegge ( 1 890) published a report on 'worm
sporidan infections in oysters from the United States west
disease' caused by Polydora (Fig. 4) in New South Wales. coast and from Korea. Recently, Perkins and Wolf
He considered the disease (with limited evidence) as a cause (1976) have named the Australian oyster pathogen Martei-
of extensive mortalities which eventually brought about the lia sydneyi, placing it in the same genus as the parasite
development of intertidal culture methods in New South associated with digestive gland disease of the European
Wales. Ostrea edulis.
356
6 Oyster mortalities in the Pacific islands consisting of state, university, and federal research groups
Mortalities in native and introduced oysters have been was organized on the US Pacific coast to investigate oyster
reported recently from islands of the South Pacific. Intro- mortalitieswhich were occurring there. The Pacific coast
duced Crassostrea virginica in Pearl Harbour, Hawaii, died group, formed in the mid-1960's and guided by a steering
during an epizootic of Labyrinthomyxa in the summer of committee chaired by John Glude of the National Marine
1972 (Kern, Sullivan and Takata 1973). Mortalities ex- Fisheries Service (Glude, 1975), probably represents a
ceeded 90%, and high prevalence of &Labyrinthomyxa-\ike model for the structure of research response to a severe
parasite was confirmed by culture and histological studies. mortality problem, since it included expertise in environ-
C. gigas in hanging culture in Fiji died in 1975 and mental as well as pathological specialties, and provided for
1976, with mortalities reaching 88% (R. M. Stone, commu- continuing co-operation of research.
nication to Glude). No pathogen was identified, and
J. B. What is needed badly and this was pointed out by
the cause was felt to be environmental stress. Similar Sprague ( 197 1 ) as well is continuity of research, during
mortalities of C. gigas in their second year of life occurred quiescent periods as well as mortality periods. Examining
inPalau (Glude, personal communication). mass mortalities while they are occurring can be an exciting
Mortalities occurred in native mangrove oysters of experience, but it will be more useful if a chronicle of events
French Polynesia, C. glomerata, in the early 1970's preceding the mortalities is available. Insights often accu-
(Glude, personal communication). Histological examina- mulate very slowly, sometimes long after populations have
tion did not disclose a pathogen. been decimated and the public has lost interest in the
All of these island mortalities are of course localized, and problem.
do not approach the dimensions of the mass deaths dis- In addition to continuity of research, also needed is a
cussed in previous sections. criticalmass of scientific competences to approach effec-
tively any problem of mass mortality. Biology, chemistry,
ecology, pathology, immunology, physical oceanogra-
7 Conclusions phy all must be available initially, until some insights are
The twentieth century has been a troublesome period for gained which can give more precise direction to the investi-
oysters in many parts of the world. Decline in abundance of gations. It is very encouraging that during the past decade
oysters actually started in the nineteenth century, probably there has been a critical examination of major mortalities
caused in large part by a combination of poor setting, which have occurred in Europe, Japan and the United
indiscriminate harvesting, and destruction of beds. Exten- States.
sive mortalities from unknown causes also contributed to Looking at the record of successes and failures in at-
decreased oyster production. The rate of decline has accel- tempts to understand mass mortalities, it is not difficult to
erated within the past two decades, partly because of large- become discouraged. Often these 'visitations' have ap-
scale mortalities several of which have been caused by peared, exerted major impact on oyster production, then
infectious disease. Due to their worldwide economic impor- dwindled away, while individuals or small groups of scien-
tance, oysters are among the most thoroughly studied of tists have groped in vain for causative factors. This course of
marine animals, but unresolved problems remain. Mortali- events has been true for about 75% of the major oyster
ties constitute one such problem area. mortalities in this century. However, there is some solace in
Oysters die for many reasons. Mackin (1961) has at- those few instances (such as the Labyrinthomyxa marina
tempted to classify types of mortalities based on their research in the United States) where causative organisms
origin: (/) those caused by extremes of physical environ- were recognized, understanding of the life cycle was devel-
mental factors; (11) those caused by disease; (in) those due oped, and reasonably effective control measures were
to starvation; (/v) those resulting from spatial competition; proposed.
(v) those due to predators; (vi) those due to toxins; and (v/7) Even though adequate insights about the origins of some
those due to metabolic competition. Certain general mortalities are lacking, there have been enough investi-
still
characteristics can be associated with each type. Unfortu- gations, particularly during the past two decades, to allow
nately, an additional and very large category, 'those of certain generalizations to be made:
9
unknown origin is the one which, as Mackin admits, has (i) Notall mortalities of oysters are caused by the
'produced the most spectacular declines in populations of activities of pathogens, but among the disease organisms
oysters.' Probably there should be still another category: identified as etiological agents of epizootics and concomi-
'those of apparently complex origin' since it seems that at tant mass mortalities there are two groups the Labyrin-
least some of the recent mortalities in Japan and on the west thomyxa-like protistans, and the haplosporidans, particu-
coast of the United States may involve environmental and larlyof the genus Minchinia which are emerging as of
physiological components, with the possibility of disease as world-wide significance. The Labyrinthomyxa-likt orga-
a secondary factor. Mackin concludes, with some justifica- nisms in particular may be of much greater significance to
tion, that of all the causes of mortality, disease ranks first oyster populations than has thus far been demonstrated. In
both as a cause of spectacular major declines in production, addition to numerous recent reports of such organisms in
and as a cause of much 'background' mortality. European oysters, there is also the observation of Quick
Mass mortalities are receiving greater scientific attention and Mackin (1971) of a lethal oyster parasite a second
now than in the past. For example, oyster mortalities in the species of Labyrinthomyxa associated with oyster mor-
1960's in Matsushima Bay, Japan, resulted in a combined talities in Florida which were originally thought to be
research effort by the Oyster Research Institute, the Prefec- caused by Labyrinthomyxa marina alone. Sprague (1971)
tural Fisheries Co-operative, the Tohoku Regional Fisher- also felt that the possible role of amoeboid Labyrintho-
iesLaboratory and Tohoku University. Almost simultane- myjca-like organisms in heretofore unexplained mortalities
ously, a large federally-funded co-operative research group had been underemphasized.
357
(//) During times of mass mortalities, there is often in high salinity waters of the bays along the Gulf of Mexico
pressure to assign a cause. The identification of a parasitic coast but does not flourish in low salinity areas. Minchinia
organism in the tissues of oysters is an important but very nelsoni, which has seriously affected oyster stocks of the
preliminary phase in the process of assigning blame for Middle Atlantic states, also occurs in higher salinities. Both
mortalities. The rigorous sequence of steps necessary to pathogens seem most active in salinities above 15 % this ;
stages are very vulnerable; recent experience in shellfish advantage of the relative quiescence of the disease in cooler
hatcheries (Davis et ai 1954; Tubiash, Chanley and Leif- seasons. Surveys of Labyrinthomyxa prevalences have in-
son, 1965) has demonstrated that larval mortalities are not dicated marked decline in winter. Minchinia nelsoni, of
uncommon; other studies have demonstrated the high mor- Chesapeake and Delaware Bays, is similarly quiescent in
tality rate of spat in the first year of life (Walne, 1961; winter; new infections are not apparent, prevalence of
Westley, 1975). Walne found in a six-year study that disease declines, existing infections seem less active, and
mortality in the first year of life of O. edulis, after setting, mortalities are reduced.
varied between 66 and 92%. Westley was concerned with The development of resistance to particular infectious
the fate of seed oysters planted on growing beds in Puget agents can be used as a method of control. Severe mortali-
Sound, Washington. He found mortalities of about 62% ties exert selectionpressure favouring survival of individu-
during the first year after planting (partly due, of course, to als with some degree of resistance. Propagation of such
smothering of seed on the underside of the cultch). On the individuals and re-exposure to the pathogen over a number
other hand, very young oysters seem to be less vulnerable of generations can lead to a stock which is resistant to at
than older ones to mortalities caused by pathogens such as least the acute stage of infection. Such a sequence of events
Labyrinthomyxa or Minchinia at least during the first seems to have occurred in oysters of Prince Edward Island
few months of life. during the 'Malpeque Bay Disease' outbreaks. Some resist-
ance seems to have been developed also in oyster stocks
exposed and re-exposed to the haplosporidan Minchinia
8 Recommendations for control of mortalities nelsoni in Delaware and lower Chesapeake Bay. Here
Mortalities in natural oyster beds are not usually subject to infection levels have remained high, but mortalities have
control in the sense that populations in restricted aquatic declined. Experiments have been underway in Virginia to
environments may be controlled (fe, by water quality man- propagate artificially, using hatchery methods, oysters re-
agement, application of chemotherapeutic agents, etc). sistant to M. nelsoni.
What is feasible, however, is the limitation of the extent of Another approach to problems of mass mortalities, is
mortalities by: (/) environmental manipulation (cleaning replacement of $ susceptible species by another which is
beds of dead shells, selective removal of possible intermedi- more resistant to infections or other agents identified as
ate or reservoir hosts of pathogens, selective use of chemi- causes of continuing mortalities. This approach is being
cals); or (//) stock manipulation (moving oysters to low used (only partly by design) in France (Deltreil, 1973)
salinity at prescribed low densities,
growing areas, planting where Crassostrea gigas, originally imported as seed from
suspending oysters at specific depths in the water column, Japan, is replacing both C. angulata and O. edulis in some
moving oysters to waters with poor nutrient content for French oyster producing areas.
part of the growing season, planting seed late in the growing Control of mortalities may, of course, depend on special
season, and harvesting oysters before annual mortalities are circumstances. The finding that a large reservoir of the
9
expected). In only one instance has chemical control been fungus responsible for 'shell disease of oysters lived in dead
proposed; Korringa (1952) suggested disinfection of oys- cockle shells led Korringa (1951) to propose, very logi-
ters with shell disease with organic mercury salt solutions. cally, the removal of all dead shells from growing areas and
(Because of its toxicity to other organisms, use of mercury the near vicinity, and to concentrate spat production in
would not be recommended at present). areas not heavily infected.
Usually, though, by the time control methods can be A final method to reduce mortalities is to grow oysters in
implemented, the peak of mortalities has been passed, and closed systems, where environmental variables may be
annual deaths have begun receding to background levels. controlled.
Control methods developed can still be useful, however, in Since oyster mass mortalities will undoubtedly occur in
reducing that part of background mortalities that is attrib- the future, as they have in the past, some measures useful in
utable to the longer-term effects of specific pathogens. For responding to the next major mass loss should be examined:
example, control methods developed in the Gulf of Mexico (/) Governments should institute a continuing monitoring
for Labyrinthomyxa marina epizootics (reduced stocking system for coastal species of economic concern, such as
densities, use of low salinity growout areas, and early oysters. This monitoring should include, but not be limited
harvest) are of continuing utility in suppressing annual and to, surveillance of prevalences of known pathogens and
continuing mortality due to the pathogen. predators. (/'/) Some form of rapid funding response to
Studies of two serious pathogens of oysters, Labyrintho- marine environmental crises (such as mass mortalities)
myxa marina and Minchinia nelsoni, have revealed the very should be available. Even limited emergency funds
1
important role of a 'salinity barrier to certain diseases. can serve as a springboard for expanded research contribu-
Labyrinthomyxa exerts severe effects on oyster populations tions by states (provinces), universities, and industry.
358
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SPARCK, R. Investigation on the biology of the oyster 12 On the 1975 and oyster production in the State of Washington. Proc Annu. .
1950 fluctuations in the oyster stock of northwestern Europe Rep. Workshop World Mancult. Soc., 5
Dan. Biol. 5m, 52: 41 -50 WHITELEGGE, T. Report on the worm affecting the oysters of New
SPRAGUE, V. Revision of genus Haplosporidium and restoration of 1890 South Wales. Rec. Austr Mus 1 (2)- 41-54 ,
1963 genus Mmchinia (Haplosporia, Haplosporidiidae). J. Proto- WOLF, P. H Winter mortality hits state's oyster output. Fisherman,
zool., 10:263-6 1967 Austr June 20-2
,
SPRAGUE, V. Diseases of oysters Annu Rev Microbiol., 25: 211-30 WOLF, P H Occurrence of a haplosporidan in Sydney rock oysters
1971 1972 (Crassostrea commercials) from Moreton Bay, Queensland,
TAKEUCHI, T Study of measures to control oyster mortalities. Australia. J. Invert. Pathol 19 416-7
,
1963 Hiroshima-ken Suisan Shikenio Hokoku. 24 29-46 (in Japanese) WOOD, J L. & ANDRFWS, J D. Haplosporidium costale (Sporozoa)
TAKEUCHI, T., TAKEMOTO, Y & MATSUBARA, T Haematological study 1962 associated with a disease of Virginia oysters Science, Wash ,
1960 of bacteria affected oysters. Rep. Hiroshima Prefect Fish Exp D.C., 136-710-1
Stn., 22 (1) 1-7. Transl. U.S. Joint Publ. Res Serv. for Transl ANON. Pour survivre et prosperer 1'ostreicolc charantais (et meme
Program, Bur. Comm. Fish, Milford, Conn (1965) 1972 francaise) va tenter de s'organiser. Peche Marit., (1 128) 162
Extracto United Kingdom, although only with lower annual production. Other
El presente trabajo intenta resenar los conocimientos actuales acerca de species of mussel are cultured in Thailand, Korea and Chile.
los factores biologicos, ambientales, socioeconomicos y tecnologicos The raft culture method developed in Spain has contributed to
relacionados con el cultivo de Mytilus edulis en distintos paises, y se increasing production to such a degree that approximately 40-45% of
subraya la necesidad de exam mar estos parametros antes de introducir el the current world mussel production (mean production for the period
cultivo de mejillones a escala industrial. 1970-74 about 306 000 tons) is obtained from that country.
Los mayores productores europeos de mejillon (M. edulis) son A variety of floating rafts, constructed either with timber or recently
Espana, los Paises Bajos y Francia, cada uno de los cuales tiene su propio with steel, are used in Spain. The life span of the material used in the
sistema de cultivo. Tambien en Dinamarca, Italia el Reino Unido se classical type of floats is between 2 and 3 years with a maximum of 10-
y
practica el cultivo del mejillon, pero su production anual es inferior. 1 2
years.A raft having a surface area of 2 5 x 1 5 m
for 8 1 6 ropes of 8- 1
Otras especies de mejillon se cultivan en Tailandia, Corea y Chile. m length, costs about USS 6 000. Rafts of such dimensions can produce
1
El metodo de cultivo en balsas desarrollado en Espana ha contribuido annually about 60 tons of mussel, yielding 23 tons of meat equivalent to
a incremental la produccion hasta tal punto que aproximadamente 40 a 12-6 tons of cooked meat.
45% de la actual produccion mundial de mejillones (produccion media
et posslbilites pour son extension
del
periodo^ 19 70-74, unas 306 000 toneladas) se obtiene en este pais. L'elevape de la moult, Mytilus edulis,
En Espana se utilizan distintos tipos de bateas flotantes construidas Resume
con madera o recientemcnte con acero. La duration del material em- L'auteur fait le point des connaissances actuelles sur les facteurs biolo-
pleado en eUipo clasico de bateas es de dos a tres anos, con un maximo giques, de milieu, socio-economiques et technologiques concernant
de 10-12 anos. Una batea de 25 x 1 5 m
de superficie para 8 1 6 cuerdas Felevage de Mytilus edulis dans differents pays et souligne la necessitc de
de 8-10 m
de longitud cuesta unos USS16000. Las bateas de tales prendre ces parametres en consideration avant d'entreprendre des opera-
dimcnsiones pueden producir anualmente unas 60 toneladas de meji- tions de mytiliculture a une echelle industrielle.
llones (peso en bruto), con un rendimiento de 23 toneladas de came En Europe les principaux pays producteurs de moule (M. edulis) sont
equivalente a 12,6 toneladas de carne cocida. 1'Espagne, les Pays-Bas et la France, chacun utilisant son propre systeme
d'elevage. La mytiliculture se pratique aussi au Danemark, en Italic et au
Culture of the mussel, Mytilus edulis, and possibilities for its expansion Royaume-Uni, encore que la production annuelle de ces pays soit faible.
Abstract La Thailande. la Coree et le Chili cultivent des especes de moules
This paper attempts to review the available knowledge of the biological, diflerentcs.
environmental, socio-economic and technological factors related to the La methode de culture sur radeau, mise au point en Espagne, a permis
cultivation of Mytilus edulis in different countries, and emphasizes the de pousser la production a un degre tel qu 'environ 40 a 45% de la
need for considering these parameters before introducing mussel farming production mondiale actuelle de moule (production moyenne pendant la
on an industrial scale. periode 1970-74: environ 306 000 tonnes) provient de ce pays.
1
The major mussel (M. edulis) producing countries in Europe are L Espagne utilise divers types de radeaux flottants, construits en bois
Spain, the Netherlands and France; each having its own system of ou, en acier. La duree de service des materiaux utilises pour
depuis peu,
culture.Mussel cultivation is also practised in Denmark, Italy and the les radeaux de type classique se situe entre 2 et 3 ans pour atteindre au
361
maximum 10 a 1 2 ans. Un radeau d'une surface de 25 x 15m dotes de cultivo integral 'a flote' en la costa atlantica meridional de
8 1 6 cordes de 8- 1 m revient a environ US S 1 6 000. Les radeaux de ces
Francia, (b) semicultivo 'a pie', en la costa atlantica septen-
dimensions peuvent produire chaque annee environ 60 tonnes de moules
donnant 23 tonnes de chair de moule fraiche, equivalent a 1 2,6 tonnes de trional de Francia, (///) cultivo sobre cuerdas colgantes: (a)
chair cuitc. cuerdas fijas en la costa mediterranea (Francia, Italia), (b)
cuerdas flotantes en la costa atlantica y mediterranea
(Espana).
1 Introduccion Todos los paises citados obtienen una buena produccion
El tema sobre cultivo del mejillon ha sido tratado con
el
del mejillon con cada uno de los sistemas mencionados, ya
anterioridad por muchos autores entre los cuales se senalan
que se adaptan a sus peculiares caracteristicas. Andreu
principalmente los trabajos de Andreu (1968, 1968a); (1968) piensa que cada sistema de cultivo sera mas o
Bardach, Ryther y McLarney (1972); Davies (1970); menos idoneo, segun las circunstancias geograficas de pro-
Hurlburt (1974); Iversen (1968); Korringa (1970); duccion primaria y biologicas de las respectivas especies.
Mason (1972); Waugh (1966); Wiborg y Bohle (1968) y
otros. 2.2 Factores a tener en cuenta para su implantacion
La finalidad de este trabajo es: (a) colaborar en la La introduccion de nuevos metodos de cultivo a nivel
obtencion de mayores rendimientos y mejoras en la tecno- industrial suscita ciertas dificultades que deben preverse
logia de su aprovechamiento y cultivo en aquellas areas oportunamente y el ejemplo mas reciente de Nueva Zelan-
donde la mitilicultura esta desarrollada, (b) oriental sobre dia (2.3.3), New Zealand (1971) es buena prueba de ello.
los cambios convenientes en el perfeccionamiento del sis- No basta exclusivamente tomar en cuenta los altos valores
tema de cultivo actual en otras areas donde hasta ahora el de produccion (2.4).
rendimiento no alcanzo el nivel de produccion factible y (c)
ayudar en la eleccion e implantacion del metodo mas eficaz 2.2.1 Biologia de la especie
de cultivo alii donde en la actualidad este no exista a pesar (a) Sistematica y distribution
de condiciones apropiadas. El genero Mytilus esta practicamente extendido por todo
el mundo, alternando o conviviendo con otros generos y
especies afines tales como el genero Perna en Venezuela,
2 Cultivo Africa atlantica y Nueva Zelandia, el Choromytilus en
Segun la clasificacion hecha por Kinne (1970) los cultivos Chile, etc. Las poblaciones naturales de Mytilus edulis
marines comprenden cuatro grados: (/) 'maintenance' estan distribuidas desde el Oceano Artico hasta las costas
(= mantenimiento): simple estabulacion o deposito sin africanas, desde el Rio Grande (Brasil) hasta el Estrecho de
crecimiento apreciable con fines cientificos o comerciales, Magallanes; en el Pacifico desde Alaska hasta California y
(//) 'raising' (= engorde) o mantenimiento con aumento de las costas de Chile.
peso de jovenes o adultos, (111) 'rearing' (=recria) o desar- Varias de las especies del genero Mytilus son objeto de
rollo a partir de los primeros estadios ontogenicos (huevos cultivo. En Europa se cultivan el A/, edulis y el M. gallo-
fecundados, larvas) y (/v) 'breeding' ( = cria) que com- provincialis\ en Chile existe el M. edulis chilensis y en
prende la produccion, el desarrollo y engorde. Nueva Zelandia el M. edulis aeotanus; en Filipinas el M.
He aqui nuestra clasificacion: (a) cultivo integral, smaragdinus; en India el M. grayanus y el M. viridis\ en
cuando en el se
cumplen la
produccion, desarrollo y el
el Corea el M. coruscus y el M. crassitesta\ en Australia el M.
engorde ('breeding'), (b) semicultivo, cuando solo se prac- edulis en la costa meridional y suroccidental y Trichomya
tica el desarrollo y engorde ('rearing'), (c) deposito o hirsuta en la oriental (Andreu, 1968; Mason, 1972).
mantenimiento, cuando solo se realiza el engorde ('raising'/
'maintenance'). (b) Ecologia
Los principios basicos y ventajas de todo cultivo fueron Las condiciones ambientales que determinan la supervi-
resumidos por Mason (1972). En una parte de su trabajo vencia de las especies varian segun las latitudes. Los valores
expresa que 'la exclusiva produccion de larvas es, a menu- de estos factores tienen limites amplios y han sido estudia-
do, la parte mas dificil y costosa, por lo cual solo se realiza dos principalmente por Kan wisher (1955), Loosanoff
para aquellas especies de precio elevado, que no es precisa- (1942), Renzoni (1961, 1963), Seed (1969), Segerstrale
mente el caso del mejillon'. Por esta razon el considera el (1957), White (1937), etc., recopilados por Mason ( 1972).
cultivo del mejillon como perteneciente al segundo grado El efecto de la luz sobre el crecimiento del mejillon es
de la clasificacion de Kinne (1970, 'raising'). Sin embargo, importante segun Huntsman (1921) y Coulthard (1929).
en el cultivo como se practica en Espana, los progenitores Insolaciones de baja intensidad estimulan el crecimiento. El
se tienen en el mismo parque de cultivo. Estos se reprodu- peso medio de los mejillones mantenidos en la oscuridad
cen dando origen a larvas, que se obtienen adheridas a fueun 26% superior a los de penumbra y un 70% a los de la
cuerdas colectoras. Tal cultivo pertenece al cultivo integral luz.Los individuos mantenidos en penumbra tuvieron un
o la 4* categoria ('breeding') segun Kinne. peso medio de un 33% superior a los de la luz (Andreu,
Estos principios podrian servir tambien para definir el 1960).
tan discutido concepto de 'banco natural de moluscos'.
(c) Fisiologia
2.1 Mttodos Reproduction: Mytilus edulis esta sexualmente maduro
Las descripciones delos metodos estan en los trabajos de a la edad de un ano segun la mayoria de los autores (Field,
Andreu (1968X Mason (1972) y Hurlburt (1974). Los 1922; White, 1937; Seed, 1969). Sin embargo, el mejillon
metodos principales y el pais de Europa donde estos se de la ria de Vigo empieza a madurar sexualmente cuando su
practican con mayor intensidad son los siguentes: (/) cul- talla alcanza unos 40-50 mm, lo que corresponde a los 6-7
tivo sobre el fondo en Holanda, (it) cultivo sobre postes : (a ) meses de edad, segun la epoca de puesta de que proceda.
362
Chipperfield (1953) establecio claramente la separacion estado de condition de los individuos. Andreu (1960,
por sexos, lo cual no excluye que a veces puedan encon- 1963, 1965) destaca que la infestacion es mayor en areas
trarse individuos hermafroditas (Figueras, datos ineditos). proximas a la desembocadura de los estuarios y en los
La puesta mas importante en casi toda Europa es en parques flotantes de cultivo proximos a tierra que en aque-
primavera pero en las costas de Galicia (Espana) se presen- llos situados alejados de la orilla. Tambien se debe destacar
tan dos importantes y dilatadas epocas de puesta; una en que la infestacion vertical (a lo largo de la cuerda) no varia
primavera con fijaciones desde abril hasta Julio, y otra apreciablemente en areas de fuerte corriente de marea,
en otono con fijaciones desde octubre hasta febrero. mientras que el numero de parasitos aumenta con la profun-
Practicamente, puede decirse que hay mejillones sexual- didad en aguas de relativa tranquilidad. El porcentaje de A/.
mente maduros durante todo el ano. Todas estas diferencias edulis atacados por Mytilicola aumenta proporcionalmente
nos hacen pensar en la necesidad de proseguir con los con la talla de los individuos. En los mejillones menores de
estudios de la reproduccion de dicha especie en diversas 20 mm no se encontraron parasitos (Andreu, 1960). El
partes del mundo. peso medio de los moluscos desconchados es inversamente
Crecimiento: Segiin las latitudes geograficas y las condi- proporcional al numero de Mytilicola existentes en el tubo
ciones ambientales (luz, salinidad, temperatura, produc- digestive (Andreu, 1965). Teoricamente cada parasito
tion primaria, regimen de corrientes, etc.) el crecimiento de puede ocasionar una perdida del peso medio del cuerpo de
M. edulis varia (Andreu, 1958). Mientras en Galicia llega a un 1%. La vida media de los parasitos es alrededor de 3
la tallacomercial (80-90 mm) en un ano o ano y medio, en meses pero pueden alcanzar 6 meses de edad. Durante
Francia alcanza los 40-50 mm, talla comercial establecida, todos los meses del ano se puede encontrar un elevado
a los 2 arios. A los 3 anos alcanzan en Holanda 72 mm
y en porcentaje de hembras con sacos ovigeros (Andreu, 1963).
Inglaterra 54 mm. Con 5 anos de edad logran en Gales 6 1 En cuanto a los organismos competidores e incrustantes
mm y en Canada 63 mm
(Andreu, 1958). los mas importantes en la ria de Vigo son: la ascidia Ciona
Segiin Fraga (1956) el periodo de engorde (medido por intestinalis y las algas del
genero Ulva, Enteromorpha, etc.
el aumento de glucogeno) va en Espana desde febrero hasta como competidores en cuerda; mientras que los crusta-
la
octubre (8 meses) y en Holanda desde mayo hasta agosto ceos y poliquetos, Elminius modestus Pomatoceros trique-
t
(4 meses). El mejillon de la ria de Vigo alcanza su peso ter respecti vamente y el briozoo arborescente Bugula neri-
maximo entre los meses de septiembre y diciembre. Los tica representan incrustantes sobre las valvas del mejillon.
mejillones grandes mantienen el peso durante mayor nO- Por ahora el mejor modo de combatir las ascidias y las
mero de meses (Andreu, 1963). algas parece ser una moderna maquina de limpieza que ya
Alimentation: El mejillon M. edulis de la ria de Vigo se se emplea para las ostras. Consiste en un cilindro en el cual
alimenta de materia organica donde el fitoplancton, repte- estan dirigidos chorros de agua a presion; es eficaz y no
senta solo el 14% del total (Fraga, 1958). perjudica a los animales. Para combatir la fijacion de los
Tasa defiltration o de bombeo Esta especie puede filtrar
: incrustantes el cultivo tendria que condicionarse a la action
de 2 a de agua por hora segun las condiciones del
5 litres de la luz. Segiin Andreu (1960) Pomatoceros se fija prefe-
individuo (Andreu, 1958). Los individuos de una cuerda rentemente en la oscuridad al reves de Elminius que prefiere
son capaces de filtrar al dia no menos de 90 000 litros de las zonas iluminadas. Observando las epocas de fijacion de
agua y los de todo un parque flotante alrededor de 70 uno y otro se podrian obtener las valvas de M. edulis sin
millones de litros en el mismo tiempo (Andreu, 1963). Los organismos incrustantes.
mejillones de un parque flotante mediano pueden por lo Como ejemplo de algunos enemigos se pueden enu
tanto ingerir 1 80 toneladas de materia organica al ano, de merar, el molusco Thais lapillus, el equinodermo Asteria
las cuales unas 1 00 toneladas son devueltas al mar en forma rubens las aves Larus argentatus y L.fuscus, etc.
t
indiscriminado' del mejillon "a flote' en areas donde existen atura de las aguas y sus variaciones extremas a lo largo del
otras especies de alto valor comercial (Andreu, 1974). ano; (Hi) luminosidad ambiente, recuerdese la influencia de
Recientemente tambien el profesor Uno de la Universidad la luz tanto en el crecimiento como en la fijacion de
de Tokyo, en sii visita a Vigo, ha advertido otros inconve- organismos incrustantes y competidores (Andreu, 1960b);
nientes de un monocultivo demasiado intensive. (iv) energia incidente, por su influencia primordial junto
Eitfermedades, pardsitos, competidores y enemigos: con la circulation del agua y el aporte de nutrientes, en la
Nuestros conocimientos son mas bien reducidos respecto a production primaria; (v) production primaria y tasa de
las enfermedades del M. edulis. Recientemente se ha se- materia organica particulada; (vi) condiciones de abrigo
guido mas de cerca una enfermedad de las branquias, pero suficientes para la seguridad de los artefactos de cultivo y
que afectaba principalmente a la ostra. del mismo mejillon; (vii) circulation del agua suficiente
El parasito mejor conocido que ha causado mayores que permita una buena renovation, pero que no tenga una
dafios, por ejemplo entre los mejillones cultivados en Ho- excesiva velocidad de corriente; (vili) ausencia en el agua de
landa e Inglaterra, es crustaceo copepodo Mytilicola
el
particular minerales en suspension.
intestinalis
(Kprringa, 1950, 1951, 1952). Afortunada-
mente en Espana a pesar de un cierto grado de infestacion 2.2.3 Factores socioeconomicos. Los factores socio-
relativa (Figueras, datos ineditos) esta no ha llegado a economicos a tener en cuenta son:
extremes alarmantes y no se han notado los efectos sobre el (/) la disponibilidad y el costo de la mono de obra.
363
En el Plan Indicative para el Desarrollo Agricola se consi- y un peso de 10 toneladas. La capacidad es de 80 a 100
dero que los mejillones 'constituyen un medio excelente toneladas de mejillones sumergidos de talla comercial.
para responder a la necesidad de alimentos proteinicos, no El mantenimiento: La mano de obra utilizada en los
(//')
solo per su bajo precio al consumidor, sino porque ademas, cultivos es de empleo fijo o eventual pero cada vez mas esta
el principal componcnte de su produccion es la mano de ganando terreno el empleo fijo al dejar de ser una ocupacion
obra' (Anon., 1970). de tipo familiar para convertirse en una empresa industrial.
Webber (1968) y otros autores consideran que uno de De un reciente estudio economico se dedujo que la rentabi-
los mayores inconvenientes para poner en practica el cul- lidad minima de explotacion se puede obtener con un
tivo 'a flote' es el elevado costo de la mano de obra en los minimo de 6 parques flotantes.
paises de mayor desarrollo economico. For nuestra parte (Hi) El material usado en la construccion de los parques
consideramos que la mecanizacion en el proceso de cultivo flotantes es el clasico hecho de madera revestido con
ira progresando y mejorando las condiciones laborales al cemento, tiene un periodo de carencia entre 2 y 3 afios y una
igual que ha sucedido en otras fuentes de produccion duration maxima (promedio) de 10 a 12 anos; algunos
agricola o industrial. tienen mas de 20 anos de existencia.
(ti) la existencia, magnitudy exigencias cualitativas del Uno de los problemas importantes son las perdidas
mercado actual o potential causadas por las sacudidas de los temporales en particular
(ill) el precio de venta remunerador en determinadas areas mas expuestas. Las companias de
La afirmacion de Mason (1972) que tambien recoge seguros, que hasta hace poco no se hacian cargo de estos
Bardach et al (1972) de que en la industria mejillonera de riesgos, estan en la actualidad estudiando esta posibilidad.
Espana al aumentar la produccion ha disminuido el precio Las perdidas por este concepto afectaban alrededor del 1 o
precisa alguna aclaracion. Un ligero descenso del precio 2% de parques flotantes y unas perdidas medias de US$
unitario no implica necesariamente una reduction de los 2 000 por cada parque afectado lo que hace aproximada-
beneficios. La prueba evidente es que la industria mejillo- mente el total anual de unos US$ 120 000.
nera espanola, no ha disminuido o estancado las actividades En la actualidad la estructura organizativa de la industria
en los ultimos tiempos, sino que la curva de la produccion y mejillonera espanola esta dividida entre los siguientes ni-
de la construccion de nuevas instalaciones va en au- veles: (a) la production, con una base minima de 10
mento quizas de un modo demasiado acelerado en de- parques en explotacion, esta normalmente compartida con
trimento del cultivo de otras especies de mayor rentabilidad otras industrias subsidiarias o de manipulation (estaciones
y necesarias para el equilibrio ecologico de las rias. Al de depuration, cocederos, fabricas de conserva, etc.)\ (b) la
socaire de dicha industria han proliferado tambien un buen manipulation comprende las estaciones de depuracion,
numero de otras nuevas industrias (estaciones depuradoras, cocederos, frigorificos, fabricas de conservas, preparation
cocederos de mejillon, frigorificos, etc). Se ha incrementado de platos precocinados (ejemplo 'paellas') etc. (c) en la
la exportation tanto en fresco como en conserva; se regulan comercializacion se estan organizando empresas que con-
los stocks mediante el congelado; se han constituido trolaran un elevado porcentaje de la produccion de materia
grandes firmas de comercializacion, etc. Finalmente en los prima, tanto en fresco como en conserva, para el mercado
ultimos anos, el precio de primera venta del mejillon se ha nacional e internacional.
revalorizado.
(iv) la disponibilidad y el costo de los materiales para la 2.2.4 Factoresjuridico-administrativos. Segun las circuns-
construccion de los artefactos (instalaciones) o las opera- tancias de los paises las normas legates favorecen en unos
clones de cultivo (2.2.5) y se oponen en otros a la implantation del cultivo. De las
Uno de los ejemplos clasicos es la disponibilidad de la experiencias pasadas se puede suponer que habra que arbi-
'redecilla' para sujetar el mejillon a la cuerda. A
este trar losinstrumentos legales pertinentes a la medida que la
respecto es ilustrativa la experiencia de Nueva Zelandia industria del cultivo y las industrias anejas vayan presen-
(2.3.3). tando sus particularidades.
A titulo indicative se exponen a continuation algunos Todos los sistemas de cultivo del mejillon confluyen en
datos sobre el costo y mantenimiento de las instalaciones la jurisdiction de varies departamentos gubernamentales.
actuates en Espana: En Espana, por ejemplo, existe una reglamentacion elabora-
(/) La instalacion de artefactos flotantes: Un parque da por comisiones interministeriales en las que intervienen
flotante (mediano) con accesorios y anclado viene a costar representantes, entre otros, de sanidad, obras publicas,
US$ 000 y 20 OOO
Acaban de salir al mercado sindicales, cientificos, autoridades marinas, etc. A la hora
1
entre 15 .
nuevos tipos de parques flotantes con vigas de flotation de decidir las zonas aptas para el cultivo habra que contar
rellenas de poliuretano expandido, vigas del entramado del con los representantes de turismo y de agricultura que
mismo material y huecas. Los de superficie 25 x 15m con tambien tienen que ver con el dominio marine. Las conce-
una capacidad para 816 cuerdas de 8 a 10 m y un peso de siones o autorizaciones las otorgan normalmente la Direc-
200 toneladas cuestan unos US$ 16000 (al cambio tion General de Pesca, que en Espana depende del Minis-
citado). terio de Comercio. Existe una previa determination de
Otro nuevo tipo de parque es el construido con vigas y zonas de interes preferencial bien para el cultivo 'maris-
perfiles de acero naval y 4 flotadores de forma semiesferica quero', bien para el turismo, agricultura, etc. En la actuali-
fabricados por moldeo de contacto a base de poliester, dad esta vigente un Plan de Explotacion Marisquera de
tejidos especiales y fibra de vtdrto. El anclaje se puede hacer Galicia de cuya competencia son los cultivos marines entre
en forma de estrella en varies puntos de la parrilla. Sus ellos el del mejillon.
dimensiones son de 1 6 x 16m con un 8 7% de superficie util
2.2.5 Factores tecnoldgicos. Se hace principalmente la
uss 1,00= Pu. 50 description del sistema con cuerdas colgantes aflotc por ser
364
el que mejor conocemos y el que presenta tambien la torno o maquinilla ha tenido mayor aceptacion.
maxima complejidad y costo. Las operaciones de cultivo estan descritas en el Cuadro
La production: El elemento primordial y mas costoso de I. Estas se realizan a lo
largo del ano segun la temporada de
9
las instalaciones es la batea Craft en ingles, 'radeau' en la puesta (primavera u otono). Las
principales operaciones
9
frances, 'xangada' en portugues y 'balsa en espanol). Sus son las siguientes:
principals elementos son: un emparrillado cuadrado o Obtencion de semilla: Estas se adquieren de 'los marisca-
rectangular de donde penden las cuerdas sostenido en el dores' que las arrancan de las rocas del litoral a principios
agua por medio de uno o variosflotadores. Estos artefactos de primavera o en otono o bien se colocan cuerdas ('colec-
pueden ser construidos para el proposito, pero tambien se toras') alrededor de las bateas en primavera (la fijacion de
pueden aprovechar y adaptar cascos viejos de embarca- otoiio no se presenta en las cuerdas).
ciones de madera. Entre las ventajas de estos ultimos estan Colocacion de la semilla en la cuerda: Un punado de
la reduction en gastos de compra y de adaptation, resisten- semilla se coloca junto a la cuerda donde se les venda con
cia al mal tiempo, capacidad y la uniformidad de creci- la 'redecilla'. En el Cuadro II estan los datos aproximados
miento del mejillon en toda su superficie. Actualmente es de la talla, peso y mimero de mejillones por kilogramo y
dificil encontrar embarcaciones de madera destinadas al metro de cuerda.
desguace. Desdoble: Con esta operacion se quita el mejillon de una
Otros tipos de parques flotantes estan descritos por cuerda, se limpia y distribuye de nuevo entre dos o tres
Andreu (1968), Mason (1972) y Hurlburt (1974). cuerdas nuevas. Estas cuerdas son mas finas (por ello en
Cada batea sefondea a uno o dos 'cuerpos muertos' con ingles la operacion se llama 'thinning'). Dicha operacion
cadena gruesa del desguace. Los 'cuerpos muertos' suelen tiene doble finalidad, por una parte limpiar el mejillon del
ser de hormigon armado de forma prismatica y de unas 6 fango, algas y demas incrustantes y/o competidores y por
toneladas o mas de peso. En fondos limosos estos pueden otra reducir el niimero de mejillones por unidad longitudi-
ser mas pequenos, ya que al enterrarse el amarre resulta mas nal de cuerda; ambas cosas favorecen su crecimiento. La
seguro. colocacion del mejillon en la cuerda nueva se hace igual que
Las empleadas en Espana, constan de dos
'cuerdas', con la 'semilla' (Cuadro II).
partes. La parte superior que va atada al emparrillado y Cosecha: Al termino del periodo de tiempo segun las
alcanza hasta los 26-40 cm por debajo de la superficie del condiciones de la zona, el tamano legal minimo exigido y
agua se llama 'rabiza'. Es una cuerda estrecha, muy resis- las exigencias delmercado, se procede a quitar el mejillon
tente, de material sintetico. El resto de la cuerda donde se comercial de cuerda y prepararlo para su venta. La
la
adhiere el mejillon es de unos 3 cm de diametro y conviene separacion se hace con repetidas sacudidas de la cuerda.
que tenga una superficie rugosa. En la actualidad estas Ciertas industrias poseen maquinaria apropiada para la
cuerdas son de material sintetico (antes de esparto em- limpieza y separacion mediante cuchillas que cortan los
breado) pero fabricadas con las fibras sinteticas filamento- bisos. De este modo no se dana al mejillon y se ahorra mano
sas que tienen caracteristicas muy parecidas a las anterior- de obra (Cuadro II).
men te usadas; ademas su duration, resulta practicamente La depuration: El mejillon retiene en su intestino bacte-
ilimitada. rias patogenas procedentes de las aguas residuales de la
La cuerda empleada para la captation de semilla ('cuer- tierra (Castellvi, 1971, 1972). Para evitar la contamina-
das blancas' o 'colectores') son redes viejas estiradas, pre- tion por el consumo de mejillones en crudo, se han estable-
feriblemente de hilo grueso. cido por iniciativa privada varias estaciones depuradoras.
Las cuerdas llevan atravesadas, a trechos aproximados La depuracion es obligatoria para todos los bivalves que
de unos 30 cm barrotes de madera llamados 'palillos' tengan que consumirse en crudo.
(listones cuadrangulares de 2 cm en cada lado y una Los principales agentes esterilizadores del agua que se
longitud de 30 a 40 cm). emplean son: el cloro (como gas o en solution), el ozono,
Para fijar el mejillon a la cuerda se emplea una 'redecilla' las aguas oceanicas previa decantacion y exposition a la
de caracteristicas especiales (fabricada en Espana por Giro, action solar y los rayos ultravioletas. Aunque no es nece-
S.A. en Badalona, Barcelona) en carretes de 100 y de 200 saria la limpieza interna de particulas de fango, como en
m ( 1 00 metros las de algodon y 200 las de viscosa y rayon ) aquellos provenientes de las areas donde se cultiva directa-
a un precio de unos US$ 1. mente sobre el fondo, la depuracion realiza ambas fun-
Tambien se ha patentado en Espana un sistema para ciones a la vez.
cuerda y la redecilla, consistente en una manga
sustituir la En las depuradoras se verifica al mismo tiempo tambien
de material sintetico resistente, cuya malla es mas o menos laoperacion del 'endurecimiento', dejando durante algunos
laxa. La materia usada en su fabrication es diferente de la periodos de tiempo el mejillon en seco a fin de endurecer su
patentada en Noruega y ensayada con exito por Bohle musculo aductor y hacerle mas resistente para soportar
(1970) pero en Espana todavia no se ha generalizado su despues un transporte mas prolongado.
empleo. Las caracteristicas principales de dichas estaciones y del
Para transporte del mejillon se emplean sacos de
el procedimiento de depuracion son: (/) tiempo de estancia:
'netlon' con una capacidad de 15 kg de color amarillo entre 36 y 48 horas; (//) capacidad de depuracion: entre 40
despues que el mejillon ha pasado por una estacion depura- y 60 toneladas al dia; (///) superficie de tanques o piscinas:
1 500-3 000 m
2
dora; los demas son de otros colores. La perdida de peso (iv) cantidad maxima: 30 kg de mejillon/
;
que el mejillon sufre durante el transporte se calcula en un m (v) capacidad de bombas de agua de mar: entre 300 y
2
ESQUEMA DE LAS OPERACIONES QUE SE REALIZAN MEDIANTE EL CULTFVO CON CUERDAS COLGANTES EN PARQUES FLOTANTES ESPANOLES
CUADRO II
ATOS DE TALLA, PESO Y NIJMERO DE MEJILLONES FOR KILOGRAMO Y METRO DE CUERDA Y PESO APROXIMADO DE LA CUFRDA 'LLENA' FN CADA
OPERACI6N
"
La longitud de la cuerda varia entre los 6 y 10 m siendo 8 m la longitud media que empleamos para hacer los calculos
dos permanentemente. Los cultivadores del area de Bacoor relata todas sus vicisitudes sufridas hasta consolidar su in-
prefieren el cultivo en postes, en vez del cultivo en balsas dustria y reconoce haber gastado en 6 anos mas de US$
flotantes propugnado por la Comision de Pesca, porque 26 000 sin ningun otro beneficio que la experiencia
pueden adquirir los materiales necesarios mas facilmente en adquirida.
las proximidades del area de cultivo. Los mejillones se Este es otro ejemplo de la implantacion de un sistema de
comercializan a una talla entre los 3 y los 8 cm (a los 4-10 cultivo a costa de la iniciativa privada. En 1972 esperaba
meses de edad) tamano preferido por el consumidor tener instaladas 36 bateas de 104 cuerdas cada una (3 744
filipino. cuerdas en total). Los dos capitulos de mayor costo, segun
En 1966 estaban en cultivo unas 8 ha con una produc- McFarlane, son: el suministro de semilla, la colocacion de
cion de 2 000 toneladas de mejillon desconchado (unas los mejillones en cuerdas y la separation de las mismas. No
1 000 toneladas de carne o 125 toneladas/ha). Con el cree que los gastos que ocasiona el 'desdoble' compensen el
cultivo en cuerdas colgantes seria posible una produccion balance final de la produccion.
de carne de mas de 250 toneladas/ha. Ya Andreu (1958) habia insistido que el suministro
Los dos principales problemas con que se enfrenta la de la semilla es el factor principal para la prosperidad del
mitilicultura en Filipinas en la actualidad parecen ser: (a) el cultivo.
367
2.4 Production ocupa', nos parece oportuno hacer aclaraciones mediante
La captura mondial de M. edulis fue durante los ultimos los datos del Cuadro III, los tres tipos de superficie de
cinco anos como signer produccion a los que se pueden referir las cifras de produc-
tividad en el caso del mejillon.
Aho Production en toneladas Se cree que la superficie mas idonea para referir la
1970 269 900 produccion relativa es la ocupada por los poligonos de
1971 290 900 F bateas dado que si dentro de los poligonos de mejillon
1972 341 300 aumentasemos el numero de bateas (o dentro de una batea
1973 341500 el numero de cuerdas) la produccion no aumentaria sensi-
corresponde a unas 181 818 toneladas de peso bruto. Hay que admitir que la informacion manejada por
Como en la actualidad produce solamente unas 30 000 Ryther no es exacta en cuanto a los datos siguientes empla- :
toneladas de peso bruto la produccion de mejillon segun zamiento de 10 bateas por hectarea y un rendimiento de
Figueras y San Feliu (1972), podria facilmente quintupli- carne fresca del 50%. Tampoco podia ser exacta la afirma-
carse. Fraga (comunicacion personal) ha llegado reciente- cion de que el cultivo colgante del mejillon era de 5 00 a 1 000
mente a la misma conclusion por distinto metodo. veces superior al de cualquier otro tipo de cultivo sin ali-
Segun datos recogidos por Gomez Larraneta (comunica- mento supletorio.
cion personal) la produccion primaria (expresada como Hurlburt (1974) recoge dichas cifras de produccion con
cantidad de carbono asimilado por el fitoplancton mediante las cuales resulta la produccion relativa de Espana en 20
la fotosintesis) por hectarea de superficie acuatica durante veces mayor que la de Holanda y 75 veces mayor que la de
un ano en algunas areas del mundo es como sigue: 6 Francia. Pero si la rebajamos a su valor real (5 veces
toneladas en Peru; 3 toneladas en la ria de Vigo; 1-1,5 menor) entonces es solamente 4 veces mayor que la de
toneladas en el Atlantico Norte, 0,2 toneladas en el Mar Holanda y 1 5 veces mayor que la de Francia.
Mediterraneo. Segun Hickling (1968) la produccion de carne de buey
La produccion relativa de especies litiles para el con- en un buen prado de Inglaterra seria de 340 kg/ha/ano.
sumo, segun el mismo autor, sigue el siguiente orden de Creemos que en el futuro deberia especificarse con
valoracion: 200 kg/ha/ano de anchoveta en el Peru y 186 claridad sobre todo para el cultivo colgante la naturaleza de
kg/ha/ano de mejillon (bruto) en la ria de Vigo; 80 kg con la superficie a que referimos nuestros datos, y la clase de
pesca de arrastre en Islandia; 60 kg en Ias4slas Faroe; 5 5 kg peso que calculamos (peso bruto, carne humeda, carne
en las costas de Marruecos; 40 kg en Galicia; 22 kg en cocida, desecada, etc.).
mejillon de la ria de Vigo en unas 60 toneladas/ha/ano recapitulaciones adicionales sobre la biologia del mejillon
teniendo en cuenta que los parques flotantes estan separa- que abarquen aquellos puntos de mayor interes aplicado al
dos por termino medio unos 100 metres, por lo que cultivo como por ejemplo, factores ambientales favorables
realmente cada uno utiliza alrededor de una hectarea en su al crecimiento (efecto de la luz, temperatura, produccion
casi totalidad gracias a los desplazamientos de los parques primaria, etc), epocas y condiciones de reproduccidn mas
en torno al punto de fondeo. favorables, enfermedades, parasites, enemigos, etc (b) De-
Independientemente de la apreciacion expresada por dicar estudios especiales a los efectos y dinamica evolutiva
Andreu, ya que el fondeo puede hacerse a unao dos cadenas, de los dctritos que se acumulan sobre el fondo en un cultivo
y de Ryther (1969) el cual dice que los mejillones como intensive de mejillon y su repercusion en la produccion de
organismos filtradores *por su capacidad de filtrar el agua otras especies del bentos. (c) Extension maxima compatible
traida por las corrientes, es capaz de aprovechar la produc- con un pelicultivo simultaneo con otras especies de interes
ci6n de un ambito muchisimo mayor que el que en realidad cemercial. (d) Unificar criterios para obtener cifras de
368
CUADRO HI
DATOS DE LOS VALORES MEDIOS PARA EL CALCULO DE LA PRODUCCION RELATIVA DE MEJILLON DE LA R'IA DE Vioo
Dimensiones
Dimensiones medias de una batea 20 x 20m
Separacion entre cuerdas 0,50m
Supcrficie util del emparrillado de cuerdas 62,5%
Numero medio de cuerdas por batca 750
Idem en toda la ria (500 bateas) 375000
Longitud media de una cuerda 8m
Separacion media entre bateas 100m
Pesos y rendimlento
Peso bruto del mejillon comercial por metro de cuerda 12,5kg
Idem bruto del ejemplar de mejillon comercial (75-80 mm) 0,035kg
Rendimicnto medio anual de carne fresca 38,5%
Rendimiento medio de carne cocida 21,0%
Superficie (ha)
de una batea 0,04
de las 500 bateas de la ria (C ) 20,00
ocupada por los poligonos de bateas (B) 500,00
de toda la ria (A) 16000,00
Relaciones
Entre la superficie de la ria (A) y:
la superficieocupada por los poligonos de bateas (B) 32
la superficieestrictamente ocupada por las bateas (C ) 800
Porcentaje de C con respecto a A 0,125%
Porcentaje de B con respecto a A 3,125%
Production (toneladas)
Por batea en 1 5 meses 75
Anual por batea 60
Anual en toda la ria 30000
Produccion relativa si la produccion anual de la ria se reparte entre:
CUADRO IV
DATOS DF COMPOSICION QUIMICA Y VALOR NUTRITIVO SEOUN LOS FRABAJOS DE pRAGA (1956, 1958) Y FRAGA Y LOPEZ-CAPONT (1958)
Sustancia
% kcal
kcal
Total Total
Agua 81,06
Proteinas:
Precipitables por alcohol (1:2) 9,53 38,2
No precipitables 1,32 5,3
Total 10,85 43,5
Taunna (aminoacido no asim liable) 0,52
Glucidos:
Glucogeno 2,36 9,9
Oligosacaridos superiores 0,11 0,4
Maltotetraosa 0,09 0,4
Maltotriosa 0,43 1,7
Maltosa 0,11 0,4
Glucosa 0,11 0,4
Total 3,71 14,2
Mitilita 0,03
Lipidos 1,48 13,3
Acidos organ icos 0,50 3,0
Cenizas:
Precipitadas por alcohol 1,35
No precipitadas por alcohol 1,00
Total 2,35
100,00 72,97*
"
kcal por 100 g de carne fresca
productividad. (e) Divulgar los valores nutritives referidos en proceso de cultivo y estudiar sus conveniencias segun
el
al precio unitario del peso de la carne. (f) Desarrollar las condiciones socioeconomicas del area, (d) Encontrar
metodos de obtencion de semilla (en bancos naturales y en materiales adecuados para la construction de artefactos,
criaderos artificales). cuerdas y demas material empleado. (e) Promo ver el desa-
(//) de indole tecnica: (a) Divulgar a nivel internacional rrollo tecnologico de los artefactos de cultivo (forma de los
los tres metodos principals de cultivo. (b) Determinar flotadores, posibilidades de inmcrsion de los artefactos para
relacioncs entre la edad, el crecimiento y la textura de la aprovechar las zonas mas batidas, sistemas de colocacion
carne (fresca y en conserva). (c) Introducir lamecanizacion de la semilla en cuerdas u otto tipo de soportes, etc), (f)
369
Mejorar las condiciones del transporte del mejillon vivo y/o 10-30 September 1968, edited by K. Tiews. Berlin, Westkreuz-
Druckerei. 364-75
envasado segiin las condiciones climaticas del area.
ANDREU, B. Perspectivas de la acuicultura marina en Espafta. Inf. Tec.
(///) de tipo administrativo y socioeconomico: (a) Anali- 1973 Inst. Invest. Pesq.. Bare.. (9): 9-15
zar la repercusion cconomica del aumento de la produc- ANDREU, B. Scminario interdisciplinar de acuicultura marina, 1974.
1974 Inf. Tec. Inst. Invest. Pesq., (14): 5-4
tion, (b) Determinar las ventajas e inconvenicntcs y lograr
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A Hurlburt (1974), despues de estudiar diversos siste- 329-36
J. E., RYTHER, J. H. y MCLARNEY, W. O. Aquaculture.
BARDACH,
mas de cultivo de mej ill ones existentes en Europa para 1972 N.Y., New York, Wiley Intcrscience
introducirlos en los Estados Unidos le surgieron los sig- BOETIUS, I. Temperature and growth in a population of Mytilus edulis
1962 (L) from the northern harbour of Copenhagen (the Sound).
uientes interrogantes casi todos de tipo administrativo:
Mead. Danm. Fiskeri-og (Havunders), 3 (11): 339^6
(0 i cual sera la respuesta del mercado a la produc- B0HLE, B. Forsak med dyrking av blaskjell (Mytilus edulis L.) ved
tion? 1970 overforing av yngel til nettingstromper. Fiskets Gang, 56
(13-14): 267-71
(//) i se obtendra la concesion por la administration
BOHLE, B. Settlement of mussel larvae Mytilus edulis on suspended
central para el uso o disfrute del espacio o del agua 1971 collectors in Norwegian waters. In Fourth European Marine
necesarios para el cultivo? Biology Symposium, edited by D. J. Crisp. Cambridge Uni-
versity Press: 63-9
(Hi) i como obtener apoyos financieros de tipo estatal BOHLE, B. y WIBORG, K. F. Fors0k med dyrking av Blaskjell. Fiskets
para las primeras instalaciones y tanteos a nivel de cultivo 1967 G<w0,53(24):391-5
BRENKO, M. HRS. Index of condition in cultured mussels on the
piloto? 1967 Adriatic coast. Thalassia Jugosl., 3: 1-6
preparacion del cultivador, consumidor
(/v) L cual es la BRUNER, K. K. y HOUWINO, H. Research of the transport of mussel in
de los escalones intermedios? 1974 containers using different air-conditions. Rapp. Rijksmst. Viss.,
y
(0-88)
(v) 6 como realizar estudios de rentabilidad CASTELLV!, J Consideraciones generales sobre la depuraci6n de
economica? 1971 moluscos. Publ Tec Dir. Gen. Pesca. Marit., Madr (9): 327-40
,
(vn) 6 como seleccionar el mejor metodo de cultivo para CHIPPERFIELD, P. N. J. Observations on the breeding and settlement
cada area disponible? 1953 of Mytilus eduhs (L.) in British waters. J. Mar. Biol. Ass. U.K.,
32:449-76
Segiin Mason (1972), el principal obstaculo para un COULTHARD, H. S. Growth of the sea mussel. Contrib Can. Biol. Fish.
mayor desarrollo del cultivo de Mytilus en el norte de 1929 (New Ser.), 4 (10): 121-36
seria la temperatura baja de las aguas y por consi- COSTLOW, J. D. (Ed.), Marine biology, 5. Proceedings of the fifth
Europa 1969 on marine biology New
interdisciplinary conference York,
guente el crecimiento lento de los mej ill ones cultivados. Gordon and Breach, 606 p.
Como posible instrumento para la solution de los pro- DARE, P. J. The stocks of young mussels in Morecambe Bay, Lanca-
1973 shire. Shellfish Inf. Leafl. MAFF, V.K (28) 14 p.
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KORRINGA, P. The basic principles of shellfish farming on the continental RYTHER, J. H. Invertebrate and algae culture. In The status and
1970 coast of Europe. Proc. Symp. Ser. Mar. Biol. Assoc. India, 3 (3) : 1968 potential of aquaculture, particularly fish culture, by J. E.
818-23 Bardach and J. H. Ryther. Washington, D.C., American
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F. y :
371
and marine fish. The basic requirements are: a reasonable satisfactorily and usually suffer heavy losses from a variety
amount of shelter, sea water of good quality, and a fair of causes. Transfer to safer and richer grounds is, therefore,
amount of phytoplankton or remains thereof. These pre- the basis of mussel fanning in the Netherlands. The
requisites are fulfilled in the coastal waters of several Government gives permission to fish on the seed beds
countries. during short, well-defined periods. Then the seed is trans-
Five different systems of mussel farming are practised, ferred by the farmers to their private growing plots where it
predominantly in Europe: bottom culture (the Nether- is evenly scattered on the bottom. Though the mussel
lands), bouchot culture (France), raft culture (Spain), rack farmer can control certain predators he is faced with a
culture (Italy, Yugoslavia) and a system using submerged number of risks beyond his control.
collectors (the Philippines). These five systems are adapted As the seed grows the farmer can decide to distribute his
to the hydrographical, social and economic conditions mussels over a greater bottom acreage. In due course he will
prevailing in these countries. transfer his half-grown mussels to plots where he expects
The total world production of marketable mussels ranges that growth and fattening will be optimal. Natural condi-
from 300 000 to 400 000 tons, weighed in the shell. Spain tions control the quality and quantity of food in the water
and the Netherlands are the leading producers. Further flowing over the farming plots. Marketable mussels are
expansion seems very possible: the common blue mussel fished from the plots and have to undergo a cleansing
(Mytilus edulis) is adapted to waters of the temperate zone procedure before they can be offered to the consumer. They
and can stand prolonged low water temperatures; the can be kept in storage on the cleansing plots in order to
closely related Mediterranean mussel (Mytilus galloprovin- serve the market according to demand.
cialis) can be grown with success in subtropical waters,
whereas the green mussel (Mytilus smaragdinus)is adapted 2.2 Economic aspects
to tropical waters. Still, it should be realized that a variety The following information is generally based on observa-
of constraints makes a rapid increase in production un- tions of Johannes Zuijdweg and Sons, Yerseke, during the
likely: (/) Sheltered areas required to protect the crop, the period 1963-72.
rack or raft against damage by gales or ice are not available
everywhere. (//) Water rich enough in plankton is not 2.2.1 Rents. One can only become a mussel fanner when
always available, and when the water is too rich in nu- one or more culture plots have been leased. The rent to be
trients, dinoflagellate blooms may occur which may render paid for the plots does not place a heavy burden on the
the mussels temporarily dangerous for consumption, caus- enterprise since it does not fully reflect all the services the
ing either severe gastrointestinal disturbances or, in the Government offers to mussel farmers. The plots in the
case of Gonyaulax blooms, even paralytic poisoning. (Hi) Waddenzee, measuring 500 x 200 m, nine of which are
Many sheltered areas are so grossly polluted by domestic or rented by the firm observed, are leased for a uniform rate of
industrial wastes that it is not safe to eat molluscan shellfish FL 300 per year The Zeeland plots, however, differ con-
1
.
from these waters, especially so when eaten in the raw state, siderably in rent according to their quality. They measure
(/v) In some countries, pressure from recreationists makes 300 x 150 m and the company has eight of these plots in
it impossible to allocate promising sites to mussel farmers, use. The rents paid by the firm for these Zeeland plots vary
(v) Consumer acceptance for mussels differs greatly from from FL 200-900 per plot per year.
country to country. Conservative feeding habits, prejudice
against invertebrates as food, the fact that some people are 2.2.2 Inventory items. A
well-equipped ship is the most
allergic to mussel proteins, and more or less vague religious expensive inventory item for the mussel farmer. A good
precepts, make it difficult to market fresh and preserved mussel ship (eg, a 25 m
steel cutter with a 250 hp engine,
mussels in many countries. The most striking case is a four power dredges and a hold which can take 50-60 tons
country like Japan: its people readily consume seafood and of mussels) presently costs about FL 450 000. The hull of
are largely dependent on it for animal protein, but mussels the ship has,if properly maintained, a life of 40-50 years.
are considered as repugnant. It is not easy to alter such The engine, which has to work at full speed for prolonged
attitudes. A
spicy preserve like 'escabeche' is more easily periods due to the considerable distance between the farm-
accepted than a main dish of stewed mussels; raw mussels ing plots in the Waddenzee and the centre for cleansing,
to be eaten from the half shell are considered with even storage and dispatch at Yerseke, has a much shorter life.A
greater reluctance. new engine is which recurs about every 6
therefore an item
For the purpose of this review on economic aspects of years on the budget The firm has two mussel ships in
mussel farming, exact figures are given for one well-selected permanent use; one operating in the Waddenzee and one in
enterprise for each of the five farming systems, together Zeeland; the latter ship works both on the farming plots and
with the characteristics and limitations of each system. The on the cleansing beds. For maintenance of these two ships,
period for which the figures are valid is indicated. The exclusive of amortization, there is an estimated annual
conversion rates given for local currency to US$ were those expenditure of some FL 50 000. During periods of heavy
in effect at the time the observations were made. workload it is necessary for the firm to hire extra ships. For
fishing mussel seed this is regularly done at a contract price
of FL 4 per 100 kg of seed fished. For one day working on
2 Mussel forming (bottom rearing) in die Netherlands plots in Zeeland, FL 400 is paid per day for ship and crew
2.1 General farming techniques of three persons.
Mussel Arming Dutch-style is a semi-culture, in which the
production of mussel seed is completely left to nature. The 2.2.3 Expendable items. In comparison with inventory
public seed beds are in principle closed for fishing. Mussels
which settle on the natural beds often do not grow there 1
US$ 1-00=FL 3-23 (6 Nov. 1972)
372
items, expendable items do not account for a large propor- and the other 50% from its plots in Zeeland. The farmers
tion of the budget of the mussel farmer. Oak sea marks have to deliver their mussels at the auction even if they are
delimiting the plots should be replaced at least once a year. also, likeZuijdweg, wholesale dealers. In the 1969-70 sea-
These sea marks are 7-13 m
in length, taking the local son, the price paid at the auction fluctuated between FL 18
depth into account, and cost about FL 1 per m. They are and FL 25 per 100 kg of mussels.
placed at 50-60 m
intervals. Under heavy duty, the mussel
dredges last about two years; replacement of a dredge costs 2.2.8 Cleansing and storage. Since some of the sand and
about FL 800. For fishing in deep water the dredge requires siltswirled up during dredging operations may enter the
about 165 m of steel wire, double galvanized, 10 mm
thick mantle cavity of the full-grown mussels, a cleansing proce-
with a life of about one year. The ship's engine requires fuel dure is necessary. Mussels purchased by the dealer are
for fishing operations and for voyages to and from the spread on cleansing plots near Yerseke. Here they are
headquarters. One three-day trip from Yerseke to the Wad- covered with sea water most of the time and get ample
denzee and back requires about 1 400 1 diesel oil. In addi- opportunity to eliminate any sand or silt Moreover, they
tion,modest expenses are required for salt to kill starfish, can recover from the fishing stress and transportation and
rubber boots and oilskins, forks, shovels and metal baskets. regain enough strength to be transported alive to the mar-
kets in Belgium and France.
2.2.4 Labour. It isof great importance to have a skilled The cleansing plots serve at the same time as wet store-
crew on board the mussel ships. Often, the mussel farmer houses, from which the marketable mussels are carefully
himself, the leader of the enterprise, will work on board his dredged up to be guided through a mechanized production
own ship, but for a large enterprise operating more than one line in which they are washed, declustered, graded, and
ship, and in the case where one is both mussel farmer and packed in burlap sacks. Therefore the dealers, purchasing
mussel dealer, the director will seldom sail himself. The mussels at the auction from the farmers, have to sell their
firm observed, which operates two ships, has six men marketable product at a higher price, approximately double
permanently in service aboard its ships. Wages and social the price of purchase.
security payments account for at least FL 50 000 per year
for a ship with a crew of three. This means that such a ship 2.3 Discussion
should land mussels valued at at least FL 100 000 per year Mussel farming Dutch-style in which mussel seed is planted
to operate on a profitable basis. The number of working on growing plots and thinned out whenever necessary and
hours per week should not deviate too much from those in transferred to deeper plots, has been practised for more than
other enterprises. 100 years. Up to 1950 all the plots for growth and fattening
were situated in the Zeeland streams; now 60-70% of the
2.2.5 Profitability. The Dutch Institute for Agricultural consumption mussels come from plots in the Waddenzee.
Economy has carried out investigations on the profitability The industry has kept pace with technical developments,
of the Dutch mussel industry. Enterprises differentiated has duly taken into account increase in the costs of labour,
into 'small', 'medium' and 'large' categories showed signifi- and is now mechanized to a high degree. In the first part of
cant differences in profitability with larger firms operating the century, the mussel industry stood economically in the
on a much sounder economic basis than smaller enter- shadow of the Dutch oyster industry, but in the post-war
prises. This is achieved partly through spreading the farm- period, mussel farming gained in importance and surpassed
ing risks in using a greater number of plots in various areas, the oyster industry by developing a high degree of mechani-
but above all because the larger firms can make more full- zation and by expanding the markets through making use of
time use of employees and equipment. modern transportation facilities. The rapid technical evolu-
One of the greatest problems in this type of mussel tion in Dutch mussel farming should be credited to the
farming enterprise is keeping labour fully employed. Rent- imaginative power of the mussel farmers themselves and to
ing is advisable only on a daily basis during periodic heavy their close collaboration with local constructors. Another
workload, and not for normal operating conditions. There favourable development was the gradual evolution from a
should be good equilibrium between the number of ships large number of small enterprises to a smaller number of
operating, the numerical strength of the crew, and the units of greater dimension. Remuneration increases rapidly
number of plots worked. with the size of the company. There are now about 120
mussel farmers and 1 2 mussel dealers in the Netherlands,
2.2.6 Prospects of growth in mussel culture. The basic accounting for a total annual production of about 100 000
principle of mussel farming
is growing small seed to large tons of marketable mussels. Some 1 5% of the mussels are
consumption mussels on well-protected plots. It is the absorbed by canneries.
growing and fattening of mussels which should bring the Comparison of the Dutch mussel industry with those in
Mussel farming is a semi-culture, and growth and
profit. Spain and Italy shows that Dutch mussels need more time
fattening are to a certain degree governed by the whims of to reach consumption size. It could be surmised that this
nature. Starting with one ton of small seed, a doubling or difference is due to bottom culture as compared with mid-
tripling of weight can be expected during growth from seed water farming or to use of water poorer in plankton, but
to half-grown mussels (measuring 45-50 mm
shell length), there is no proof for such an assumption. In all probability
but reliance cannot be placed on increasing the tonnage the difference is brought about by the fact that the Dutch
during the growth period from half-grown mussels to mus- mussels have to winter at temperatures under 10C for a
sels of marketable size. period of some five months, in which the temperature often
drops below 5C. This slows up the mussels' filtering
2.17 Production. The firm Zuijdweg lands some 1 600000 activity and leads to a serious interruption of growth and
kg of mussels per year, about 50% from its Waddenzee plots fattening.
373
3 Mattel farming with boachots in the Pertuis Breton, wire netting. The wood has a life of 5 years, but the wire
Fwce netting should be replaced every year. Ashore, a truck with
3.1 General farming techniques a carrying capacity of 500 kg and an estimated life of 4
The origin of mussel fanning on bouchots, a typical case of years is used for local transport of poles and personnel, as
semi-culture, is said to date back to about 1235 in the Bay well as for transporting material to the Bay of St Brieuc, on
of Aiguillon. Since then, rows of poles have been placed in Brittany's north coast, where the operator observed has
the intcrtidal zone in this area in an effort to collect mussel auxiliary parks. Small tools such as scrape-nets, scrapers
seed and to grow it to consumption size. Originally, opera- and shovels used on board are not included in the inventory
tions were in the very muddy area of the Anse de PAiguillon list
itself,and rows of poles called 'bouchots' served to catch
the mussel seed. In a later phase the seed was transferred to 3.2.3 Expendable items. The poles of the bouchots last five
bouchots placed somewhat higher in the intcrtidal zone. or six years. Therefore regular purchase of oak poles of 4 to
These bouchots consisted of rows of poles interwoven with 6 m length, costing FF 8 each, is a necessity. The operator
branch-wood which eventually caused silting up of the area has 3 000 mof concession, partly used for production of
to such a degree that operators had to gradually move mussel seed (130 poles per 50 m) and partly for growing
farther away. For transportation in the muddy area, a small, consumption mussels (84 poles per 50 m). The poles are
light, flat-bottomed boat ('aeon') was used, but this has bought from fanners or timber merchants in the area. The
given way to transportation of both workers and material total number of poles the company has in the field repre-
by motorboats, making it possible to construct bouchots sents an appreciable capital. For procuring seed with coco-
farther and farther away from the Bay of Aiguillon. The rope, 100 m
of concession is used which requires an annual
interwoven bouchots are now obsolete, and even officially purchase of 5 000 m
of 1 cm diameter rope, costing FF
forbidden to prevent excessive silting and reduce damage 0- 1 5-0- 20 per m
if purchased directly from a wholesaler in
3* 10 m
long, with a life of 5 years. For storage of modest always assisted by one man. In times of heavy workload,
quantities of consumption mussels, the company uses 2 such as building a new bouchot or making a rack for rope-
wooden racks carrying wooden cages strung with metal farming, assistance is requested from another mussel
farmer. Administration is handled, but not paid for, by
US$ 1-00=FF 5-035 family members.
1
(6 Nov. 1972)
374
3.2.6 Sales. Some 100 tons of marketable mussels are hung from specially constructed mussel rafts. The seed
produced annually from this operator's bouchots in the area which settled directly on ropes is in due course distributed
under consideration. It should be noted that a further 50 over more ropes and then hung again from the rafts. Rafts
tons is produced on another 1 200 m
of concession in the have to be used here since the rias (sunken river beds in
Baie de St. Brieuc on the north coast of Brittany. Workers coastal regions) are deep and have a muddy bottom.
are hired often during the period 15 February to 15 April. Hydrographical conditions prevailing in the rias of Gali-
The price the farmers will receive for consumption mussels cia account for the production of dense phytoplankton
is fixed by a syndicate in the month of March. In 1 9 7 1 , the which makes the mussels, permanently bathed in sea water,
price paid for regular quality mussels packed in sacks grow rapidly. When the total weight of mussels on a given
('depart loge') was FF 1-35/kg. rope exceeds a certain limit, the ropes are taken up and the
mussels distributed over a greater length of rope. When the
3.2.7 Further development. The operator is not planning to mussels have attained marketable size they are detached
increase the production of mussels for the time being. There from the rope and either sold to canneries or placed in a
is no lack of mussel seed; if so desired, it could be easily purification basin to provide markets in the interior and
increased by using a greater length of coco-fibre rope. Lack abroad with mussels of a high standard of cleanliness.
of personnel is not a limiting factor either. Shortage of high
quality concessions for rapid growth and fattening of con- 4.2 Economic aspects
sumption mussels is the real bottleneck for the company. It This information is based on the operation of Industrias
is an economic disadvantage that the company's conces- Maritimo Pesqueras (Proprietor-Director Don Luis Lo-
sions east of the River Lay are so heavily divided. Re- sada Lago), Punta Preguntioro (Villajuan), Villagarcia de
allotment would certainly be advantageous to the firm. The Arosa, which was observed in 1970-71.
market for small-size consumption mussels does not seem
to be very elastic, especially at the beginning of the season 4.2. 1 Rents. Spanish mussel fanners need not pay rent for
when the mussels can only be transported over rather short mooring their floating parks in the rias.
distances.
4.2.2 Inventory items. The company under consideration
3.3 Discussion operates with six floating parks for mussel farming, one
Mussel farming with the aid of bouchots, a system of semi- being a sturdy old wooden boat with a system of outriggers,
farming with a very long tradition, has escaped the danger very convenient for an exposed site, and the other five being
of 'involution'. There has been no hesitation in introducing large rafts of a catamaran-type carrying some 1 000 ropes.
new methods and modern equipment to keep pace with It costs Pts. 500000 to build such a catamaran-park
1'Aiguillon, to which the mussel farming operations have Another important inventory item is a motorboat. Such a
certainly contributed, has made it necessary to gradually boat, equipped with a 24 hp diesel engine, costs about Pts.
build the bouchots farther and farther away. Introduction of 250 000 and has a life of some 20 years. Since no heavy
motorized vessels has supported this action. The mussels duty such as dredging has to be done, the engine also has a
do not reach a large size here, presumably because of long life. The powered crane on the bow used for taking up
farming in the inter-tidal zone and because of physiological ropes coated with mussels costs about Pts. 50 000.
interference by excessive amounts of inert suspended mat- The investment in purification and storage basins of the
ter. The minimum legal size is remarkably low (4cm, company under consideration are out of proportion to the
formerly 5 cm), but the meats are usually plump and of mussels farmed by the enterprise itself as the company
extraordinarily good flavour. Therefore the regional mar- ships about 20 times the quantity of mussels it produces
kets readily absorb these mussels. with its own parks. Size and construction of the shore plant
( 1 200 m of outdoor basins, 800 m of indoor basins with
2 2
The total length of all bouchots in the Aiguillon-La
Rochelle area amounts to some 600 km, with an annual two 50 hp electric pumps of a capacity of 700 mVhour,
production of 7 000 tons of consumption mussels. The complete with pipelines, shed, workshop and laboratory)
total mussel production in France amounts to some 45 000 give some idea of the magnitude of such an investment.
tons. Hanging culture systems in the Etang de Thau, similar Some equipment that would be necessary for a smaller
to mussel farming in Italy, are the leading producers with plant includes: a wagon with pneumatic tyres (Pts. 15 000)
10 000 tons. Another 10 000 tons are fished from natural for dragging containers with mussels from the quay to the
beds. shed with a 10 hp electromotor (Pts. 20 000) and a 50 m
steel cable1 2 mm
thick. The plastic baskets, holding 1 7 kg
of mussels and used in the storage basins, cost Pts. 1 60
4 Mussel rafts in Galicia, Spain each, and iron baskets Pts. 100.
4.1 General farming techniques
Mussel farming Spanish-style is a semi-culture in which the 4.2.3 Expendable items. Purchase of ropes is an ever-
first phase of the mussel's life-cycle, ie, larval development,
present item on the budget of the Spanish mussel farmer.
is left
completely to nature. The mussel seed settles freely Rope made of synthetic fibres such as that used by the
on rocks, especially in the intertidal zone, but also during company under consideration costs some Pts. 50 per kg
part of the year on ropes hung especially for that purpose (about 8m) and though it has a life of many years, it should
from floating mussel parks. The mussel seed is collected by
hand from the rocks to be transferred to ropes, which are 1
US$ l-00=Ptt. 63-5 (6 Nov. 1972)
375
be replaced occasionally. Each catamaran-raft carries Spain would be more than Pts. 7/kg plus freight to the
1 000 ropes of 6-9 m length. A further item is a specially border.
made tissue, which costs Pts. 25 per roll of 200 m, suffi-
cient to coat 6-8 ropes with mussels. It is used once only 4.3 Discussion
during the period the mussels are left on the rope (3-6 Mussel farming in Galicia is a striking example of rational
months for seed to half-grown mussels, 8-12 months for exploitation of a natural resource which yielded nothing
the growth period from half-grown size to consumption until man intervened. Early in the century, a system of
size). Sometimes a third lot of tissue is required when extra mussel farming on racks on the Mediterranean coast was
thinning out deemed necessary.
is developed, especially in the areas of Tarragona and Barce-
The company buys about half the seed it needs. About lona, based on the old Italian system of mussel farming.
100 boxes (40kg) of seed, purchased at a price of about Then the first floating mussel park was built in 1 946 in the
Pts. 3-50/kg, are required to adequately coat the ropes Ria de Arosa, closely followed by another in the Ria de
attached to one catamaran-raft. Vigo, and this led to a rapid development of the Galician
Expenditures should also be allowed for fuel and lubri- mussel industry. Fortunately, it was possible at the same
cating oil for the motorboat; maintenance of ships and time to develop a market for mussels in parts of Spain where
engines; electricity for lights, for electromotors and pumps; mussels were otherwise not known. Initially only old barges
and sacks for packing the mussels (Pts. 4 -SO for a gauze were used for the construction of mussel parks, but in the
sack carrying 15 kg of mussels). early mussel culturists started to construct special
fifties
4.2.6 Further development. Considering that the company 5 Mussel farming on racks in La Spezia, Italy
buys far more marketable mussels than produces with its
it 5.1 General farming techniques
own floating parks, it could be that it is more economical to Mussel farming Italian-style is a semi-culture in which
buy marketable mussels from small private farmers who both larval development and the provision of food for
do not count their hours than to produce mussels with juvenile and adult mussels are fully left to nature. Though
hired hands. This assumption may not be correct as the the mussel farmers do use mussel seed which settles natu-
company has applied to construct six more parks of its own. rally on rocks and other solid substrates as primary mate-
It cannot be denied that mussel farming Spanish-style rial, byfar the largest part of the seed requirement is
requires a considerable amount of manual labour and that procured with the aid of artificial collectors.
mechanization has not been incorporated to any significant Characteristic of the Mediterranean Sea is the very low
degree. Therefore, the price of labour determines to a very tidal range and hence the prevailing low current velocities.
great extent the production costs for consumption mussels. In the sheltered areas where mussel farming is practised the
The price for export mussels has not changed appreciably bottom is predominantly soft and muddy, and the mussels
in recent years and, since one has to take into account the must be grown off the bottom. For this, the Italian mussel
price paid for mussels produced in France, the Netherlands farmer constructs mussel parks comprising networks of
and Italy, it cannot be expected that the price received in poles connected with horizontal ropes. From these ropes
376
they hang their strings of mussels which are permanently 5.2.3 Expendable items. Purchase of wooden or iron poles
bathed in sea water and do not touch the muddy bottom. A is a recurrent item on the budget of the Italian mussel
farmer. To construct a standard park of 1 000m , 116
2
special type of rope is stretched around the parks to collect
To control fouling organisms the strings of mus-
the seed. poles are required of different lengths from 13-15 for m
exposed for some time to air whenever necessary.
sels are sites 8-9 m deep, and from 16-18 m where the
for places
Most of the actual work is done at sea. The marketable depth is 1 1-12 m. One pole of chestnut wood costs about
mussels are cleaned and graded and sold on strings or Lit. 6 000; they last two years only. The co-operative under
neatly separated and packed for local consumption. consideration now uses iron poles almost exclusively
(92%) which cost more than double the price (Lit. 14 000)
5.2 Economic aspects but will last five years and hence require less labour for
This information is based on observations made in 1971- replacement. For 90% of its operation, the co-operative
72 of Cooperativa La Proletaria, Viale S. Bartolomeo 525, uses pipes of plain iron (76 mm
diameter, wall 3-75 mm
La Spezia. thick) costing Lit. 1 000/m, but experiments are being
conducted with galvanized iron pipes costing Lit. 1 200/m
5.2.1 Rents. The Italian Government promotes exploita- and pipes coated with a mixture of bitumen and glass wool
tion of mussel parks by co-operatives by granting them very (Lit 1 200/m ) which are said to last for at least seven years.
favourable leasing terms; in the case of the firm under Parks constructed in deeper places have higher costs for
1
consideration, an annual rent of Lit. 5 OOO is charged. The poles than in shallow areas but the greater length of the
co-operative, consisting of 1 8 participant-proprietors has at mussel strings compensates to some extent for the higher
its disposal 3 1 plots with a total surface of 2-7 ha. costs.
For the construction of the parks, another item required
5.2.2 Inventory items. The co-operative, La Proletaria, is mm thick. For a standard park of
polyethylene rope, 14
operates with 8 motorboats, 18 working boats and 2 1 000m 2 , 1 900m of rope
is needed at a cost of Lit. 160/m,
smaller boats called 'gozzetto'. Five outboard engines are and should be replaced every 3-4 years. In addition, 275 m
kept in stock to be mounted on the working boats when of a thicker rope is needed for collecting mussel seed, and
there is no motorboat available. A
motorboat, as used by lengths of 8 mm polyethylene rope to tie the poles together
the mussel farmers of La Spezia, can be purchased for about at the periphery of the park, and to suspend the collecting
Lit. 700 000 and a suitable (12-15 hp) engine costs about rope from the oblique poles.
Lit. 800 000. It may have a life of up to 25 years, but after A further item required is the cylindrical netting which
about 15 years considerable repair work may be needed. contains the strings of mussels. A park of 1 000
2
m
carries
The engine may also last 25 years, but with the new and some 720 strings measuring 4-8 m. First the seed is put in
better types of engines on the market it is likely that old rather fine-meshed netting (Number 14 mesh). It is trans-
engines will be replaced sooner. Maintenance costs for the ferred a couple of months later to Number 1 2 mesh netting,
boat would be about Lit. 50 000 per year, which includes and often it is necessary within the same year to transfer the
painting twice a year. mussels to Number 10 mesh. Therefore, allowance should
The wooden working boats cost about Lit. 700 000 be made each year to purchase 8- 1 6 000 m
of 'Netlon' at a
cost of Lit. 6-50/m for every 1 000m of park.
2
each. If properly maintained they will last at least 20 years,
and annual maintenance costs are in the same order of Packing material (boxes or sacks) is estimated at Lit. 5/
magnitude as for the motorboats. A hp outboard engine
7 kg of mussels, and electricity ashore, eg, for illumination,
can be purchased for Lit. 400 000 and has a life of about 4 for welding and for operating pumps and ladder is obtained
Lit. 54 000 for fuel for outboard engines (average use 5.2.4 Labour. The mussel farming technique in this area
made: 2 hours per day during 25 days per month), Lit. requires a considerable amount of manual labour. Apart
10 000 for diesel oil for the motorboat and Lit. 10 000 for from the use of engines and motor pumps in the boats, very
motor pump fuel. little has changed in the labour pattern in the course of this
Other inventory items are the motor pumps to be used on century. The main jobs to be done are: welding poles
board to wash the mussels, which cost Lit. 60 000 and have together to the desired length; constructing parks with
a life of 4 years. On shore the following items are needed: a poles and ropes; replacing poles and ropes occasionally;
derrick on the wharf, to hoist boats and engines, costing Lit. collecting mussel seed; making strings from the seed by
250 000 with an estimated life of 25 years; welding appara- packing it in cylindrical netting and hanging them in the
tus tomake iron poles of the desired length, costing about parks; transferring half-grown mussels to a greater length of
Lit. 200 000 with a life of 20 years; a pump for washing netting; hanging the strings repeatedly in the air; transfer-
consumption mussels, costing Lit. 700 000 with a life of 1 2 ring strings from polluted parks to clean parks; harvesting
years; a weighing machine with a capacity of 100kg, the strings carrying consumption mussels and cleaning,
costing Lit. 300 000 with a life of four years; a non- grading, washing and packing the mussels for sale.
automatic balance of Lit. 50 000 which lasts eight years; a It is difficult to separate the exact number of working
ladder to load the sacks with mussels on the trucks for Lit. hours required for each of those items but in general one
500 000, life 15 years; and a 5 m long barrow on two may assume that one experienced mussel farmer can oper-
pneumatic tyres to transport poles to the boat. ate a park of 1 000
2
m The co-operative La Proletaria,
.
A landing stage, and a shed to store various materials is which comprises 18 participant-proprietors exploiting
also required. There is an office for administration. 27 000 m 2 of parks, also employs 4 hired workers the year
round at a cost of Lit. 1 75 000 per month including taxes
US$ 1.00=Lit. 584-5 (6 Nov. 1972) and recruits approximately 40 man-days of labour during
377
periods of high workload for a total annual cost of Lit. have settled in fair numbers on the bamboo well under the
200 000. A
watchman is also employed at a rate of Lit low water mark. The mussel farmers in Bacoor Bay do not
58 000 per month. transplant or thin out their mussels, but keep them on the
bamboo supports until they reach marketable size, roughly
5.2.5 Sales. The price for which the consumption mussels six months after settling. The mussels are harvested by
are sold to the wholesalers amounts to Lit 115/kg for divers, who pull the poles carrying the mussels out of the
mussels packed in sacks and boxes, and Lit. 80 for mussels mud and strip them clean on board a boat Well-graded and
in bulk, fe, the complete string. The retail price is about Lit cleaned, the mussels are transported rapidly to the market
250. The total production of marketable mussels fluctuates where they are sold while still alive.
somewhat from year to year. The co-operative La Prole- Based on experience gained in oyster farming, several
taria sold about 570 tons of mussels in the year 1968 and systems of park construction were devised, but it was found
450 tons in 1970. The total annual production of mussels that a rather open construction is to be preferred because of
in Italy amounts to some 30 000 tons. During the last few greater strength and better growth and fattening of the
years, all the mussels produced could not be sold, partly mussels. Formerly, the so-called 'wigwam* method was
because of severe competition by importation of Spanish practised on quite a large scale, in which eight long bamboo
mussels which are of larger size (89 cm against 6-7 cm poles were placed in a circle 4 m
in diameter around a
for the mussels of La Spezia) and often have a better meat central pole and nailed together with short horizontal bam-
content, especially in the winter months. Therefore, the boo braces just above the low water mark. Slender bamboo
Spanish mussels can be sold to the wholesalers at Lit. 200- poles were then placed inside the frame, using the central
250/kg, who in turn sell them retail for Lit 400Ag. pole as the pivot However, the 'wigwam' method may
easily lead to overcrowding and poor growth, and breakage
5.2.6 Losses. It is estimated that annual losses due to of one pole may easily lead to collapse of the whole
damage to parks by gales in La Spezia amount to 5%. Theft structure. Therefore virtually all the Bacoor Bay mussel
is a rare occurrence since paid watchmen survey the area. farmers, including the firm chosen as the example, now
practise the 'stage' system, characterized by rectangular
5.3 Discussion bamboo structures.
Mussel farming as carried out in La Spezia is an excellent Since mussel farming Philippine-style has only two
example of rational exploitation of a body of sea water rich labour peaks, ie, for building the bamboo structure and for
in phytoplankton. The perfect shelter offered by the western harvesting the crop, the underwater work is carried out
peninsula makes it possible to construct mussel parks at mostly by divers hired for this purpose.
rather low costs. The percentage of loss of mussels during Most of the farmers work on a small area of 0-25 ha,
the fanning procedure is exceptionally low. which may yield some 2500 gal (about 6500kg) of
Reasons for concern for this industry include: the very mussels in the shell per year.
low degree of mechanization; the large number of man-days
required to produce one ton of marketable mussels; the 6.2 Economic aspects
rather scanty gross income per participant-proprietor of the This information is based on the tahong farm of Mr. M.
co-operatives; the difficulty of attracting young farmers to Alagar, Barrio Siniguelasan Bacoor, Cavite, Luzon in
take over from the older ones in the co-operative; the 1971-72.
increasing pollution of the water, which leads to greater
expenses in constructing parks in deeper sites further away 6.2. 1 Rents. For a park of 0-25 ha a municipal tax of PPs.
1
from the headquarters, extra costs for bringing marketable 18 is paid per year .
378
The farmer needs gasoline for the engine of his boat. A total production of 5 000 gal per year per 0-25 ha
Since the distance from the wharf to the park is only about park is considered as normal.
3 km and frequent visits are only necessary at the time the The price paid for the mussels varied at the time of
stakes are put out and when the mussels are harvested, this observation from PPs. 1-50-2-00 per gal. On the retail
item does not weigh heavily on the budget of the farmer. market, consumers pay PPs. 0-50-1-00 more per gal.
6.2.4 Personnel and wages. The mussel farmer considered 6.3 Discussion
has no personnel in permanent employment. When the Based on the experience of oyster farmers, a mussel farming
stakes have to be put out in the park he contracts a group of industry has been created in recent years with the assistance
divers, usually five in number. This group can place 1 000 of the Philippines Fisheries Commission. The capital re-
stakes in 2-3 hours. The wage prevailing at the time of quired to start a 0- 25 ha farm is small, in the order of a few
observation was PPs. 50 per 1 000 stakes. The whole thousand Pesos, so that a reasonable living can be made by
0-25 ha park holds about 5 000 stakes. farming mussels. The different varieties of bamboo required
Atthe time of harvesting the farmer again hires a group for material are readily available at a low price, and workers
of workers for diving to pull out the stakes covered with to be contracted as divers for a few days are easily located in
mussels, for scraping the mussels off, and for grading and the densely populated sections of the Philippines. There is
cleaning them on board the boat. Five male workers can considerable potential for production and marketing of
gather 500 gal of mussels in 2-3 hours when the poles are green mussels in the Philippines which would contribute
well covered. They are paid PPs. 0-30-0-40 per gal of materially to the food value of the diet of the local
mussels collected. population.
running metre of pole, and to the length of the poles used. KORRINGA, P. Farming marine organisms low in the food chain. A
1976 multi-disciplinary approach to edible seaweed, mussel, and
Poles of the type used in the farm under consideration may clam production. Developments in Aquaculture and Fisheries
each carry 2 gal of mussels in the shell weighing about 5 kg. Science, 1. Amsterdam, Elsevier Scientific Publ. Co., 264 p.
weeks (Evans, Scaplen and Idler, 1973). The protracted CLUGSTON, M. Observations on scallop farming in Newfoundland
1974 1974. submitted to Department of Fisheries, Govern-
Report
major spawning of the giant scallop usually begins some- ment of Newfoundland and Labrador. 14 p. (Restricted mimeo)
what later, reaching a peak in September in Port au Port COSTELLO, 1. J. el al. Larval culture of the calico scallop, Argopecten
1973 gibbus. Proc. Natl. Shellfish. Assoc 63 72-6
Bay (Naidu, 1 970). The larval period, as determined by the
:
,
Abstract grounds and pearl quality are being conducted in Japan. As a result ot
Several species of pearl oyster, Pinctada fucata, P. maxima, P. margari- these studies and efforts to maintain the culture grounds, good prospects
t(fera, Pteria penguin and Hyriopsis schlegeli, are used for pearl farming. may be expected for pearl farming.
The first four species are marine bivalves; the fifth is a freshwater species.
Procedures used m Pinctadafucata pearl farming consists of preparation Culture des huitres perlieres au Japon
of host shell, nucleus insertion, convalescence, nurture and cultivation of Resume
mother oysters. Plusieurs sortes d'huitres perlieres, Pinctada fucata, P. maxima, P.
In Japan, the maximum annual pearl production is presumed to be margaritlfera, Pteria penguin et Hyriopsis schlegeliscmt utilisees pour la
about 35 tons for the Pinctada pearl, and 10 tons for the freshwater culture des perles. Les quatre premieres especes sont des bivalves marins,
species. la cmquieme est une espece d'eau douce. Les methodes appliquees pour la
Major problems facing future pearl farming are security of good culture des perles de Pinctada fucata consistent en preparation de la
culture grounds and preservation of their environmental conditions.
coquille h6te, insertion du noyau, convalescence, soins et culture des
Continued studies on the environmental conditions of pearl farming huitres meres. Au Japon, la production annuelle maximum de perles est
381
evaluce a environ 3 5 tonnes pour les huitres Pinctada et a 1 tonnes pour pearl oyster' is most suitable for the production of steel-
les especes d'eau douce.
black pearls and half pearls.
Les principaux problemes que se poseront a la culture des perles sont
la securite des bons sites de culture et la preservation des conditions du (tv) Pteria penguin. This species, known as 'Mabe' in
milieu. Des etudes permanentes sur les conditions de milieu des aires de
Japan, is cultured to obtain large-sized half-round pearls. In
culture des perles et sur la des perles sont en cours au Japon.
qualite the Amami-oshima areas of Japan, growers can obtain the
Grace a ces etudes et aux efforts deployes pour preserver les aires de
culture, la culture des perles se presents sous une perspective favorable. spats artificially in vitro and use them for culture.
(v) Hyriopsis schlegeli. Pearl culture with this freshwater
CuWvo de perlas en el Japon
Extracto mussel has been attempted for 45 years in Lake Biwa near
Para el cultivo de perlas se utilizan diversas especies de ostras perliferas: Kyoto and its farming has been extended to several other
Pinctada fucata, P. maxima, P. margarttffera, Pteria penguin y Hyriop-
sis schlegeli. Las cuatro primeras especies son bivalves marines, y la
places during the last decade. For the most part, an artificial
quinta una especie de agua dulce. Los procedimientos utilizados para el
nucleus is not employed and the techniques used are differ-
cultivo de la ostra per lifera Pinctada fucata consisten en la preparation ent from those used with other pearl-forming molluscs. The
de las conchas-soporte, insertion de un nucleo, convalescencia, alimen-
colour of the pearl is salmon pink, the shape and size are
tacidn y cultivo de ostras reproductoras.
En Japon se supone que la production maxima anual de perlas es de variable, and they are much appreciated as distinctive
unas 35 toneladas de perlas de Pinctada y 10 toneladas de la especie de
pearls.
agua dulce.
Los principles problemas que se plantearan en el future para la cria In China, many freshwater pearls are produced with
de ostras scran conseguir buenas zonas de cria y conservar el other species, but the details are not well known to the
perliferas
medio ambiente. En Japon siguen realizandose estudios sobre las condi- author.
ciones ambientales de los criaderos de perlas y la calidad de estas
ultimas. Como consecuencia de estos estudios y de los esfuerzos por Table I shows the amount of pearls produced in Japan.
mantener las zonas de cria, es de esperar que la cria de ostras perliferas
ofrezca buenas perspectivas.
2 Farming procedure
As Pinctada fucata is the main species used in pearl
Alargaswami (1970) and others have not only extended history of the pearl oyster, and careful adherence to each
this description but have provided additional information step in the procedure is very important for producing pearls
on pearl culture in other parts of the world. Nevertheless, of good quality. The steps are as follows:
for the purposes of a worldwide review of the status of
aquaculture it is considered desirable to present a brief
account of this example of a highly specialized type of
tada fucata and Pteria penguin. Pinctada maxima is used in this operation and one can not expect to grow pearls of
in south Pacific waters (Australia, Burma, Indonesia, and good quality. The period that the gonad is devoid of
the Philippines). P. margarittfera is used in the Okinawa gametes comes just after spawning and has short duration.
area, Tahiti and Fiji. Freshwater pearls are produced in There is, therefore, a necessity to extend this limited period
Japan using Hyriopsis schlegell and another species of for the nucleus-insertion operation artificially. Two
meth-
limnetic mussel is used in China. ods are used to improve gonadal conditions for the opera-
Additional notes on these species follow: tion; suitable conditions for the operation can be expected
(/) Pinctada fucata. This is the species most commonly using either treatment:
used for pearl culture in Japan, and the techniques of this (/) Inhibition of maturation. This treatment is usually
culture which produces spherical pearls have been devel- applied to oysters for the operation in April-May. During
oped primarily with this species. The major producing area the previous season, after spawning, oysters with no eggs or
Japan used to be Mie Prefecture, but new
for this species in small eggs are selected and placed under low temperatures
farming grounds have been established in the Shikoku and to inhibitgonad maturation.
Kyushu areas, because of the deterioration of fanning areas Acceleration of maturation. Under this treatment,
(//)
and water pollution. early maturation of the gonad is expected and the oysters
(//) Pinctada maxima. About 70-80% of the world's are spawned before the operation. Normally, the oysters are
pearl production using this species is cultured in Australia. put in a cage where they are a little crowded and placed in
This species makes the largest round or half pearls having a warm temperatures in the sea. If conditions are suitable,
maximum diameter of 18 mm
and a silvery-white colour. early maturation can be expected. After they mature, the
(Hi) Pinctada margarittfera. This species, the 'blacklip oysters are stimulated to induce spawning. Usually,
382
TABLE I
NUMBER OF MANAGEMENT UNITS AND QUANTITIES OF CULTURED PEARLS PRODUCED IN JAPAN (1926-73)
compiled by the Japanese Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry and by the Fisheries Agency
1
Statistics
2
Statistics compiled by the Japan Export Overseas Pearl Producer's Association
changing the hanging layer of their cages is sufficient 2.2.2 Preparation ofgrqft tissue. Proper preparation and
stimulation. After spawning, the oysters are placed under careful insertion of the graft tissue governs, to a large
conditions which promote recuperation from the treatment. extent, the production of the pearl. The graft tissue is
When they resume a normal condition, they are ready for obtained from the pallial zone of living oyster mantle. The
the nucleus-insertion operation. oyster is opened carefully with a sharp knife and the
adductor muscles are cut from their point of attachment to
2.2 Preparation for nucleus-insertion the shell.The rmyor care in this operation is to remove the
2.2. 1 Opening of host shell. Before the operation, many mantle without injury. All extraneous matter is scraped out
host oysters must be prepared. The oysters are placed in a using the blunt edge of a scalpel.
shallow tray with the hinge or dorsal portion of the shell A strip about 2-3 mmwide is then cut from the pallial
downward and covered with sea water. Within a few min- zone of the mantle. Every operation must be performed
utes, the valves start to open. Shell openers are gently carefully and gently because rough treatment can damage
inserted between the valves to open them wider and a the epithelium in the pallial zone of the mantle. The strip is
bamboo wedge then applied to keep them open.
or key is cut into pieces 2-3 mm
square. The size of these squares is
Other methodsmay be employed to open the shells but determined by the size of the nucleus to be used, each
the mortality rate for oysters prepared by this procedure is graft being sufficiently large to cover one third of the
lower than when others are used. nucleus.
383
Under moderate temperature, 1 7-22C, the graft tissue 2.5 Subsequent culture
will live forabout two hours if kept moist with sea water. The cages are suspended from rafts or long lines at a depth
of 2-3 m. At least three times a year, the cages are lifted, all
2.2.3 Preparation of the nucleus. Layers of nacre bind encrusting marine organisms are removed from the oysters,
most satisfactorily with calcareous substances; for the final and the cleaned oysters replaced under the raft. few A
product the nuclear material should have the same or oysters are picked out to determine the rate of pearl growth.
similar characteristics of deposited nacre. The shells of Normal harvesting operations begin in October and con-
other molluscan species are therefore used for the nucleus. tinue until the middle of January.
In preparing nuclei the donor shells are cut into small
cubes of the general size required and then placed between 2.6 Nurturing procedure
two sheets of iron. As the upper sheet is revolved, the cubes 2.6. 1 Facilities. At one time the sowing method was ap-
are ground between the plates and against one another to plied in nurturing pearl oysters but, at present, all pearl
produce rough spheres. Further finishing work is done to farming uses a hanging method with rafts or long lines.
make them smooth but a high polish is not essential. (/) The use of rafts: Two kinds of materials are generally
Although the general size of the finished product is deter- used for raft construction: logs or bamboo. (Steel pipe has
mined by the size of the original cube, some variation been used recently but its use is not yet common.)
occurs, and finished nuclei are graded according to their Log rqfts. Cypress or cedar logs are used for these rafts.
diameter. The standard size of a log raft is about 6 4 x 5 5 m and four
floats are attached underneath the raft. A hundred ropes are
2.2.4 Surgery on the oyster. The organ in which the usually hung from a raft and each rope holds a cage. A
nucleus or nuclei will be inserted is the gonad. As other standard-sized cage, about 70 x 45 cm, composed of syn-
organs, such as the adductor muscle, hepatopancreas, intes- thetic fibre net, contains about 60 oysters.
tine and byssus gland are located around the gonad, the Bamboo rqfts. Two poles of bamboo trunk, 9- 10m
surgery must be performed without injury to them. The long, are tied together, and put on the surface of the water
number of nuclei to be inserted depends upon the size of the parallel to each other at intervals of about 2 m. Usually 1 5-
nuclei. Two to five nuclei are put into an oyster if they are 20 ropes with cages are hung on a raft of 1 5 m length. The
3 mm or less in diameter; one nucleus is inserted when it is raft can float on the surface without floats.
larger than 3 mm. (//) The use of long lines: A rope is attached to a
The operation is usually carried out during the period spherical plastic float. This system, which is stronger than
from spring through autumn but it should not be done rafts in rough weather, is placed outside a bay or inlet. The
during the hot summer or rainy season. cages that hang under the rope are similar to those used
with rafts.
2.2.5 Insertion of nucleus. When
the partly open pegged
oyster has been placed in an oyster clamp and the graft 2.6.2 Hibernation. The pearl oyster was originally a semi-
tissues have been prepared, the operator smooths back the tropical or temperate organism. Optimal temperature for its
mantle folds with a spatula exposing the foot and main growth is the minimum is 8C. In winter time,
20-25C;
body. An incision is made in the gonad, the graft mantle therefore,it is common practice among growers to let these
tissue is then inserted and nucleus-insertion follows. The oysters hibernate placing them in warm water to keep
graft tissue must be placed on the nuclei^. physiological conditions normal.
A highly skilled technican can insert from two to five
nuclei in an oyster, usually completing these operations on 2. 6. 3 Other specialized treatment. The growth rate of pearl
25-40 oysters per hour. or nacre on the nucleus and the quality of pearl produced
depend upon water conditions and usually waters which
2.3 Convalescence provide a good growth of pearl do not always produce good
The operated oysters are placed in culture cages, consisting quality pearls. Conversely, waters which produce pearls of
of heavy wire frames (68 x 60 x 30 cm) covered with fine good quality are not suitable for good growth. Therefore,
mesh wire netting, each of which can hold 50-60 oysters. growers move their oysters to different places to obtain
The cages, suspended horizontally from rafts, should be better products. When farming begins, the growers first put
placed in an area with calm conditions to avoid disturbance their oysters in places where they will get good growth;
for four to six weeks after the insertion operation. later they transport them to areas where a better quality of
lifted and the oysters are inspected. All dead shells are hundred kilometres to achieve these ends.
removed and the cages are transferred to ordinary culture
rafts.
3 Enemies and damages
2.4 Pearl formation on the nucleus There are many constraints on pearl farming. Among
In oysters where the operation has been successful, the graft natural factors, damage from parasites is the most serious
tissues begin to grow; they form 'pearl-sacs' which com* problem. Among the parasites are polychaete worms which
pletely cover the nuclei. After the sacs are formed, the are harmful to pearl formation and the physiological func-
epithelial cells secrete a nacreous or pearly substance and tions of oysters. Oysters invaded by polychaetes are first
deposit it on the surface of the nuclei. It usually takes three soaked in fresh water to make the shells close tightly so that
to four years for pearls of commercial value to develop. the oyster itself may avoid the effects of salt water. They are
384
then soaked in highly concentrated salt water for 20-25 slump in pearl farming in Japan was caused by an unsuit-
minutes to eliminate the polychaete. able price due to the increase in pearls of poor quality. Mere
Trematodes also sometimes cause serious damage to the increased production of pearls in the future is not visual-
oysters. The only practical control of these parasites is to ized; the aim of the industry should be to improve the
transfer the pearl oysters from infected to non-infected quality of cultured pearls. If this planned production of
waters in September; the month when trematode invasion pearls is carried out, pearl farming may have a bright
normally takes place. (It is impossible to remove the host future.
fish from coastal areas.) The maximum pearl production in the future is expected
Unsuitable physical and chemical environmental condi- to be about 35 tons/year ofPinctada pearl, and that of the
tions are also serious hazards for pearl oyster farming. freshwater one about 10 tons in Japan. As a pearl market
Among these factors are: decrease in salinity, high water for Pinctada maxima, P. margarittfera and Pteria penguin
temperatures, cold tides, red tides, hydrogen sulphide and pearls opens, production of pearls may be governed, to
pollution by domestic and industrial effluents. Areas where some extent, by supply and demand. If a method which
these unsuitable conditions can be frequently observed includes artificial seed production technique is established
should be avoided by pearl farmers. more stable production of pearls may be expected in Pinc-
tada maxima and P. margarittfera.
There may be considerable difficultiesto apply the tech-
4 The supply of mother oysters
niques established for Pinctada fucata to the culture of
Although native oysters were previously used, today's other pearl oysters. Physiological and ecological studies on
supply comes mainly from oyster farms because of the each species will be required concerning pearl formation.
decrease in natural stock.
Through these studies, new techniques which will be suit-
The free-swimming veliger larvae of the pearl oyster able for each species can be established.
have a markedly negative phototropic behaviour just before
For the further prosperity of pearl farming, not only
setting and this reaction is utilized for the collection of spat
must culture techniques be improved but, simultaneously,
artificially. Cedar tree leaves and palm tree bark are usually
studies should be made in various areas and under different
used as collectors. These materials are combined and put
environmental conditions to resolve problems with respect
into the water during the spawning season, July-September.
to pearl qualities, eg, lustre and formation of the pearl layer.
During this period, the spat attach on the collectors, and
Finally, steps must be taken to secure good culture grounds
remain in place until late November when they become
and a continued vigilance exercised to preserve them from
young oysters, about 1 5 cm long. They are then removed environmental deterioration.
from collectors and transferred into rearing cages for
growth. The cages are hung under rafts or long lines. It
usually takes about two years for the host shell to develop 6 References
to the stage required for pearl farming.
ALARGASWAMI, K. Pearl culture in Japan and its lessons for India.
1970 Symp. Ser. Mar.
Biol. Assoc. India, 3 (3): 975-93
CAHN, A. R. Pearl culture in Japan, Fish Leafl. USFWS, (347):
5 Future of pearl farming 1949 91 p
Beautiful pearls are desired by many people. One cause of a
Technology
Abstract mercial and pilot) in both the USA and Canada has demonstrated the
The controlled purification of molluscan shellfish by natural biological economic, technical and biological feasibility of the process in North
processes is widely known and has been researched since the turn of the America.
century. The process is an integral and mandatory part of the shellfish Despite all that is known about molluscan shellfish biology, no
industry in England, France and Spain. It is little known or practised in reliable biological or physiological phenomena quantitatively demon-
the USA and although sporadically used in Portugal, Japan and Canada, strate successful purification of pathogenic micro-organisms. The only
has never been an integral or major part of the shellfish industry there. way to assure that purification has taken place is by the use of bacterial
The need for purification arises from a need to protect public health indicator systems.
from shellfish which are notorious for concentrating pathogenic micro- Generally speaking, viral accumulation and depletion rates follow that
organisms from sewage-polluted sea water. Assessment of pollution in of coliform for the species studied. The fact that virus can be removed is
harvest areas is difficult and never certain. Purification may also be used not at issue any longer. It is the initial level of virus in the mollusc that is
to reduce the unknown hazard of viral pathogens, especially infectious the crux of the matter.
hepatitis which is difficult to monitor either in the environment or in The engineering design and operation of a purification plant are
shellfish. predicated on maintaining the proper biological state of the molluscs,
A synopsis of commercial purification plants shows that they have especially with respect to their excretory, nervous, respiratory, muscu-
been operated for soft clam (Mya arenaria\ hard clam (Mercenaria loskeletal and reproductive systems.
mercenaria\ Pacific oyster (Crassostrea gigas), European oyster (Os- Fundamentals of plant design include: (/) plant siting (water supply
trea edulis\ Portuguese
oyster (Crassostrea angulata),
mussel (Mytilus amount, type, method of delivery, etc)\ (//) plant structure (materials,
edulis), chirla (Venus gallina) and other species. whether indoor or outdoor); (///) plant layout (consideration of effi-
Development of purification plants in the USA has lagged and only ciency and product flow, and positive separation of purified from
the soft clam is currently being purified on a commercial scale. Possibly unpurified shellfish); O'v) handling (whether by carts, trolleys or belts, in
the industry is reluctant to invest in new purification plants because of baskets or in bags); (v) sea water systems (plastic pipe and advance
belief that the massive sewage treatment plant construction programme engineering are recommended); (v/) water supply and treatment which
now in progress in the USA will eliminate much of the hazard of polluted will ensure that shellfish receive processed water comparable with their
harvest beds. There is also some distrust of the value of viral depuration, biological systems and not become contaminated in that water (tempera-
especially of hepatitis. Nevertheless, operation of various plants (com- tures of 10-20C, oxygen content of 5 mg/1 to saturation, turbidities of
385
20 JTU, and salinities with 20 %o of the value at harvest areas are recyclage sur 1'eau de mer artificielle, taux de deterioration de 1'eau de
generally advised); (v//) water treatment for microbials (whether chlori- mer et evacuation des dechets du mctabolisme.
nation or, as have generally supplanted it ozone or ultra-violet (UV)
light); (vlii) purification tank design which will ensure uniform hydraulic de nohiseoss de la teenoloftia
flow, proper stocking of containers, cleanability, prevention of disturb-
ance and contamination of shellstock. Extracto
Research needs include: (/) continuation of virus model studies to La depuracion controlada de moluscos mediante procesos bioldeicos
determine how viruses enter and leave the shellfish; (//) a complete naturales es bien conocida y ha sido objeto de investigaciones desde
interdisciplinary study of process needs to relate studies by bacteriolo- principios del siglo. El proceso de depuracion constituye parte integral y
gists and virologists to basic biology, engineering or chemistry, and (Hi) obligatoria de la produccion de moluscos en Inglaterra, Francia y
effects of recirculating systems on artificial sea water, the deterioration Espana. En los Estados Unidos es poco conocida o aplicada y aunque en
rate of sea water and removal of metabolic waste products. Portugal, Japon y Canada se ha utilizado esporadicamente, nunca ha
sido parte integral o importante de la industria de produccion de
moluscos.
Purification des mottusques: Examen de la technologic actuelle
Resume La necesidad de depuracion deriva deja necesidad de proteger la salud
La purification sous controle des mollusques par des processus biolo- publica contra la capacidad que tienen los moluscos de concentrar los
micro-organismos patogenos presentes en las aguas de mar contamina-
giques naturels est bien connue, et a fait 1'objet de recherches depuis le
das por descargas de alcantarillado. La evaluacion de la contaminacion
debut du siecle. En Anglcterre, en France et en Espagne. il s'agit la d'un
en las zonas donde se explotan los moluscos es dificil y nunca totalmente
element integre et obligatoire de I'industrie des mollusques. Cette purifi-
cation est peu connue ou n'est guere pratiquee aux Etats-Unis, et bien segura. La depuracion puede utilizarse tarn bien para reducir los riesgos
desconocidos de patogenos virales, especialmente hepatitis infecciosa.
qu'elle soit pratiquee de temps a autre au Portugal, au Japon et au
Canada, elle n'a jamais etc partie integrante de 1' Industrie des mollusques cuya presencia en el medio ambiente y en los moluscos es dificil de
determinar.
dans ces pays.
La purification resulte de la neccssite de proteger la sante publique vis- Una sinopsis de las plantas comerciales de depuracion muestra que se
nan utilizado para la almeja blanda (Mya arenaria) y la almeja dura
a-vis des mollusques dont on sait qu'ils concentrent les micro-orga-
nismes pathogenes provenant de I'eau de mer polluee par les effluents. (Mercenaria mercenaria), ostra del Pacifico (Crassostrea gigas), ostra
L'evaluation de la pollution dans les aires de recolte est difficile et europea (Ostrea edulis), ostra portuguesa (Crassostrea angulata), meji-
llon (Mytilus edulis), chirla (Venus gallina) y otras especies.
manque de precision. La purification peut egalement servir a reduire les La construccion de plantas depuradoras en los Estados Unidos ha
dangers imputables aux virus pathogenes. notamment celui de P hepatite
infectieuse qu'il est difficile de surveiller tant dans 1'environnement que procedido con lentitud y en la actualidad solo se depura a escala
comercial la almeja blanda. Tal vez la industria sea reacia a invertir en
dans le mollusque.
nuevas plantas depuradoras por creer que el programa masivo de
Un tableau rccapitulatif des usines de purification commercial
construccion de plantas para el tratamiento de aguas residuales actual -
montre qu'il en existe pour la myc (My a arenaria\ le clam (Mercenaria
mente en curso en los Estados Unidos eliminara buena parte de los
mercenaria), Thuitre du Pacifique (Crassostrea gigas\ 1'huitre d'Europe
derivados de la contaminacion de los parques de cultivo. Hay
(Ostrea edulis\ 1'huitre portugaise (Crassostrea angulata], la moule peligrps
ademas cierta desconfianza sobre el valor de la depuracion de virus,
(Mytihis edulis), le petit clam (Venus gallina), et d'autres especes.
La construction d 'usines de purification aux Etats-Unis a pris du especialmente por lo que se refiere a la hepatitis. De todas formas, el
funcionamiento de varias plantas (comerciales y en los Estados
retard et seule la mye est couramment purifiee a une echelle commerciale. pilotp)
II se peut que ('Industrie repugne a investir dans de nouvelles usines de
Unidos y Canada ha demostradp la viabilidad economica, tecnica y
biologica de este proceso en America del Norte.
purification parce que Ton espere que le vaste progamme de construction
d' installations de traitement des eaux usees actuellement en cours
A pesar de cuanto se sabe sobre la biologia de los moluscos, no hay
d'execution dans le pays eliminera une bonne partie des risques imputa- ningun fenomeno biologico o fisiologico fidedigno que revele cuantitati-
bles a la pollution des gisements de mollusques. II existe egalement une yamente que la depuracion de micro-organismos patogenos ha tenido
exito. La unica forma de asegurarse de que la depuracion ha tenido lugar
certaine mefiance a
Petard de la depuration virale, notamment en ce qui es utilizando indicadores bacterianos.
concerne Fhepatite. Neanmoins, le fonctionnement d'un certain nombre
d'usines (tant commercials que pilotes) a la fois aux Etats-Unis et au
En general, la tasa de acumulacion y eliminacion de virus, en la
Canada a demontre la possibilite en termes economiques. techniques et especie de que se trate, responde a la de coliformes. Del hecho de que
puedan eliminarse los virus ya no se duda. El enigma es cual es el nivel
biologiques, de mettre en oeuvre ce processus en Amcrique du Nord.
inicial de virus en el molusco.
Malgre toutes les connaissances dpnt on dispose sur la biologie des En el diseno de ingenieria y funcionamiento de una planta de
mollusques, aucun phenomene biologique ou physiologique liable n'a pu
fournir une demonstration quantitative de la purification des micro- depuracion se tiene en cuenta el mantenimiento del buen estado biolo-
gico de los moluscos, especialmente en lo que se refiere a sus sistemas
organismes pathogenes. La seule maniere de s'assurer que cette purifica-
excretorio, nervioso, respiratorio, musculo-esqueletico y reproductive.
tion est effective est de recourir a des indicateurs bacteriens.
Entre los aspectos fundamentals que hay que tener presentes en el
D'une maniere generale, les taux d'accumulation et de resprption
diseno de las plantas figuran: (/) emplazarniento (suministro de agua:
virales a ceux des coliformes pour les especes etudiees. La
correspondent cantidad, tipo, metodo de abastecimiento, etc); (//) estructura (materia-
possibilite d'eliminer le virus n'est plus en doute. C'est le taux initial
les, ya sea bajo techo o al aire libre); (///) disposicion de la planta
d'accumulation virale dans le mollusque qui est au cceur du probleme.
(eficiencia y entrada y salida del producto; clara separacion de los
La conception technique et le fonctionnement d'une usine de purifica-
moluscos ya depurados de los no depurados); (/v) manipulacion (en
tion visent au maintien adequat de 1'etat biologique des mollusques.
carretillas o cintas transportadoras, en cestas o bolsas); (v) sistemas de
notamment du point de vue de leurs appareil excreteur. nerveux. respira-
agua de mar (se recomiendan tuberias de plastico y tecnicas avanzadas);
toire, musculo-squelettique et reproductif.
(vi) abastecimiento y tratamiento de aguas, para asegurar que los
Les elements de base de 1'installation sont les suivants: (/) site de
1'usine (approvisionnement en eau
moluscos reciban agua que corresponda a sus sistemas biologicos y no se
quantite, type d'amenee, etc); (/'/)
contaminen en esas aguas (se aconseja, en general, temperaturas de 10-
structure de 1'usine (materiaux, installation en systeme clos ou a ciel
ouvert); (Hi) disposition des lieux (examen de 1'efficacite et de
20C, contenido de oxigeno de 5 mg/1 a saturation, turbidez de 20
Pecoulement des produits, separation effective entre mollusques purifies unidades de Jackson (UTJ), salinidad que se mantenga dentro del 20 %<,
de la de la zona de explotacion); (v/7) tratamiento del agua para
et mollusques non purifies); (/v) manutention (par charrettes, trolleys ou
courroies transporteuses, en paniers ou en sacs); (v) systemes d'eau
eliminacion de microbios (con
clorp,
ozono o rayos ultravioleta (UV));
marine (les tuyauteries en plastique et les techniques de pointe sont (viii) diseno del tanque de purificacion que asegure un flujo uniforme del
recommandees); (vi) approvisionnement en eau et epuration assurant agua, una colocacion adecuada de los contenedores, la posibilidad de
aux mollusques une eau traitee comparable a celle de leur systeme limpieza y la prevencion de perturbaciones y contaminacion de los
moluscos.
biologique et non susceptible de les contaminer (1'on recommande
Entre las investigaciones necesarias figuran: (/) proseguir los estudios
generalement des temperatures de 10 a 20C, une teneur en oxygene de
sobre virus, para determinar como-entran y salen de los molus-
5 mg/1 a saturation, des turbidites de 20 UTJ et des salinites de 20 %o de modelp
(//) realizar un estudio interdisciplinal
la vtieur dans les zones de recolte); (v//) traitement de 1'eau pour les
cos; completp del proceso, para
micro-organismes (spit par chloration, soit par 'ozone ou les ultra-
1 poner en relacion los estudios realizados por bacteriplogos y virologos
con las consideraciones biologicas, ingenieria o quimicas basicas, y (///)
violets, methodes qui se sont generalement substituees a la precedente);
estudiar los efectos de los sistemas de circulacion en el agua artificial de
(v///) plans des reservoirs de purification assurant un flux hydraulique
mar, indice de deterioramiento del agua del mar y la eliminacion de
uniform*, k stockage adequat des conteneurs, la possibilite du nettoyage,
desechos metabolicos.
la prevention des troubles affectant le stock de mollusques et de sa
contamination eventuelle.
La recherche doit porter notamment sur les points ci-apres: (i)
continuation des etudes de modeles visant a determiner comment les 1 Introduction
virus penetrent dans le mollusque et en sortent; (i7) une etude interdisci- Controlled purification of molluscan shellfish has been a
plinaire complete des besoms oe traitement visant a etablir un lien entre
les etudes des bacteriologistes et des virologistes et la biologie, la recognized process throughout the world for many years.
technique ou la chimie fondamentales, et (///) effets des systemes de The research literature on the efficacy of this natural
386
biological process begins at about the turn of the century non-existent. There are no standards for viruses in shellfish,
(Dodgson, 1928). Basic and applied research has been yet there are many reports of infectious hepatitis transmis-
done in the United Kingdom, Spain, France, Italy, Sweden, sion by the American oyster (Crassostrea virginicd) and
Portugal, Japan, Canada and the United States (Furfari, hard clam (Mercenaria mercenarid) (Liu, Seraichekas and
1966). Murphy, 1967). More recently, concern was raised about
In England, France and Spain the process is an integral approved area oysters, Crassostrea virginica, which trans-
and mandatory part of the shellfish industry and has been mitted hepatitis to more than 200 people in two cities in the
routinely used for many years. By contrast, in the United United States (Portnoy, 1975). The cities are 800 miles
States, purification of shellfish is little known to the general (1 287- 5 1cm) apart and the oysters were harvested from an
public, and except for a few localities, the shellfish industry area remote from them. Because of the repeated outbreaks
is not cognizant of the value of the process. The process has of hepatitis which have been documented over the past 20
been sporadically used in Portugal, Japan, and Canada, but years, the need to purify all molluscan shellfish which are or
it has never been an integral or major part of the shellfish may be subjected to direct or indirect sewage pollution will
industry there. confront health officials more and more.
The purposes of this paper are to: describe the depura-
tion process, discuss current commercial practices and
public health ramifications of depuration, and review engin- 3 Synopsis of commercial plants
eering parameters of the process. Table I gives some basic information on existing or recently
operated purification plants. These plants provide a wide
2 Public health justification variety of water treatments, tank designs, hydraulics, and
In discussing the justification for the process, complexities operations. (The list is not comprehensive for European
arise because of the various philosophies of the countries countries as the necessary information is not currently
using the process. For example, in the United States, available to the author.)
harvesting areas are deemed polluted by virtue of low water The plant in British Columbia, Canada, is not active nor
quality, and are closed to shellfishing for direct market is the larger plant in Maine which operated for about five
harvested for purification regardless of water quality. This reasons including poor business practices, lack of proof of
isnot the case in the United States where levels of bacteria efficacy, and/or inadequate planning.
in water and shellfish prevent harvesting despite the possi-
ble use of a purification plant. 3. 1 Development in the USA
The need for purification arises from a need to protect Commercial plants for American oysters, hard clams, and
public health, which is based on a continued desire on the soft clams (Mya arenaria) have been sporadically tried in
part of the public to eat raw or inadequately cooked the United States but only the soft clam is currently being
molluscan shellfish shellfish are notorious for concentrat- purified on a commercial scale on the northeastern sea-
ing pathogenic micro-organisms from sewage-polluted sea board. Why this situation exists is not really known since
water. many oyster beds and hard clam areas throughout the
Each year, populations increase along the coasts with United States are not being harvested because of moderate
resulting increases in sewage pollution reaching the water- pollution. One explanation is that, because of the massive
ways. Efforts are underway in many countries to treat and sewage treatment plant construction programme in the
disinfect sewage, but the population growth rate may be USA, the shellfish industry is somewhat reluctant to invest
exceeding attempts to do so. Furthermore, the adequacy of in new shellfish purification plants which may not be
sewage treatment is often questionable because of equip- needed in just a few years.
ment and operational failures, frequent overflows as a result However, another reason relates to the fact that soft
of rainfall, and by-passing of raw sewage. There are several clams usually are fried or steamed but oysters and hard
reasons for by -passing: maintenance of equipment, flooding clams are eaten raw in large amounts. Thus, there is some
because of high stages of receiving waters, and slugs of distrust of the process, a paradox in view of the years of the
unbeatable industrial wastes, to list a few. European experiences. The distrust in the process relates
Shellfish control authorities cannot be assured that all mainly to viral depuration, especially of hepatitis. There are
harvesting areas within the influence of municipal sewage a considerable number of works on viral depuration (sec-
will never become polluted. There always remains an ele- tion 4.3) but none on hepatitis. The United States has spent
ment of risk. To assess the probability of contamination is several million dollars researching viral depuration and the
difficult.Establishing a surveillance programme over such limitations have been shown. Debate on this aspect still
harvest areas is difficult because a sampling programme is exists.
costly and time-consuming. Thus, purification of shellfish The soft clam plant in Massachusetts, which was built
in plants is an alternative to no harvesting and it is thought about 1930, is still operating. The basic tanks and layout
of in the context of an added safety factor. have been used throughout the period of operation. Modifi-
Another reason for using purification is to reduce the cations in its operations have changed to keep up with the
unknown hazard of viral pathogens, especially infectious latest research on biology and engineering. Originally,
hepatitis. Viralpathogens are extremely difficult and costly water was treated with chlorine and recirculated using an
to monitor, in both the environment and shellfish. Labora- aeration/lift principle. The water is still being recirculated
tory methodology for detection of infectious hepatitis is but by means of pumps and is still aerated to maintain
387
TABLE I
SYNOPSIS OP PURIFICATION PLANTS
Portuguese oyster
(Crassostrea angulata)
European oyster
(Ostrea edulis)
Chirla (Venus gallina)
Clams
Tortosa OZ, FILT 22 tanks each 30m 2
3
UV ultraviolet light; CL chlorination; OZ ozonation; FILT filtration; SED sedimentation
See San Fcliu (1973)
3
In 1960, 1 100 tons of shellfish; in 1970, 1 735 tons
4
Personal communication J. LePauloue, Traihgaz, Paris (1975)
oxygen levels. The water treatment, however, is being done the plant contained features needed for a soft clam
many
now by ultraviolet (UV) light. The construction of the UV purification plant. A
year-round source of sea water was
units follows the design of Kelly (1961). Monitoring of the available and large underground concrete seawater storage
process is no longer by the fermentation tube test for tanks were appropriate for a recirculating process. The
coliform, but by the elevated temperature plate test (Cabelli numerous (54) wooden tanks and their tiered arrangement
and Heffernan, 1970). Section 5 on monitoring and con- offered flexible operation. Furthermore, a seawater cooling
trols discusses this further. system used to maintain the lobsters has proven exceed-
Despite the long tradition of soft clam depuration in ingly useful for maintaining shelf-life of the soft clams after
Massachusetts, workers in Maine wished to improve the purification. The drawbacks to this functional conversion
process. Goggins et al ( 1 964) demonstrated a flow-through are: (i) poor product flow; (//) poor tank hydraulics; (tii)
system for smaller tanks and provided more detailed studies lack of ability to maintain good separation of treated and
on the biological aspects of soft clam purification. The untreated clams; (/v) small storage space; and (v) inability
results of the pilot-scale research provided a basis for to install the commercially-bought UV
units in a safe place.
establishing methods of standardizing the purification proc- The drawbacks have been and have caused only
tolerated
ess for other species. minimal operational problems. However, the UV units
Commercial soft clam plants of various sizes were sub- which are in a corrosive and humid atmosphere have
sequently constructed in Maine, but only three small plants revealed electrical and safety problems. The plant also
are operating today. The Maine experiences showed that filters the raw water through fibreglass of the type used for
the use of salt water wells was not detrimental to the insulation. Another innovation is the use of plastic mesh
process, that flow-through systems were economically fea- bags (in lieu of wire baskets). The bags, although less
sible and that small wooden tanks and plastic-coated wire durable than plastic-coated wire baskets, are substantially
baskets were quite desirable, and thus, the process econom- cheaper (a few cents versus US$ 20). Although the soft
ically feasible. The soft clam washer was another significant clam shells are quite fragile, breakage is minimal because of
development provided for minimal breakage, excellent
It careful handling.
TABLE II
BIOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF SHELLFISH PURIFICATION
1. Excretory (a) faeces production Sea water should contain food to enhance purging of
gut
(b) pseudofaeces Turbidity factor
production
(c) diapedcsis A factor in eliminating pathogens from the blood
stream
2. Nervous (a) detection of Proper temperature, salinity, dissolved oxygen, pH, to
adverse environment maintain overall activity
(b) hibernation Occurs with adverse environment
3. Respiratory water transport Dissolved oxygen levels. Low turbidity to prevent gill
(gills) clogging
4. MusculoskeletaJ shell opening and Proper stacking of shellfish in baskets
(adductor muscle closing
and ligament)
5. Reproductive spawning Immediately after spawning, shellfish may not be
active enough to
purify. Spawning is induced by rapid
temperature rises
389
and Wood
( 1 96 1 ). An excellent overall view of biology of Section 5 on monitoring and controls provides the stand-
with emphasis on oysters has been published by
shellfish ards used in the United States.
Galtsoff(1964).
Despite all that is known about the biology of molluscan 4.3 Viral depuration
shellfish, no reliable biological or physiological phenomena Inability to monitor viral depuration has possibly held back
quantitatively demonstrate successful purification of patho- the use of the process for some species in many localities in
genic micro-organisms. It is merely presumed that a large the United States. Several good works on viral depuration
population of molluscs in a tank are active and purifying if are available in research literature. Not only are they
shells open and close, faeces and pseudofaeces are pro- valuable with regard to viral depuration per se, but they are
duced, or dissolved oxygen drops, and, in general, things important from the aspect of the attainment of the perfect or
appear normal. The only way to assure or demonstrate that ultimate purification process. This relates to the complete
purification has taken place is by the use of bacterial purging of all microbial contaminants and the optimization
indicator systems. of environmental parameters needed to control the process.
To partially compensate for the inability to study hepati-
4.2 Bacterial reduction tis virus, research has been conducted on oysters (Crassos-
Since the turn of the century, much research has been done trea virginica. Ostrea edulis), hard clams (Mercenaria
on bacterial purification for oysters, clams, and mussels. mercenaria), and mussels (Mytilus edulis), using polio,
The majority of the work has involved coliform bacteria, fc, coxsackie, and ECHO
viruses. Generally speaking, viral
total coliform group, faecal coliform, or Escherichia coli. accumulation and depletion rates follow that of coliform for
Only limited data are available for Salmonella, Shigella, ie, sometimes virus was present at 24 or
the species studied,
and marine flora. 48 hours or longer depending on initial levels and other
In order to show how bacteriological criteria for purifi- experimental factors.
cation of molluscs in the United States were developed, it is Hamblet et al (1969) showed that oysters (Crassostrea
appropriate to review some of the research along these virginica) purified themselves of poliovirus in 48 hours,
lines. from greater than 10 3 Plaque Forming Units (PFU)/ml to
The coliform data reveal species differences in rates of non-detectable (<0-2/ml) despite turbidities as high as
purification. For example, the American oyster, Crassos- 80 mg/l. Mitchell et al (1966) also showed rapid elimina-
trea virginica, may reduce quite high levels of coliform to tion of poliovirus from oysters at rates paralleling that of E.
indeterminately low levels in 24 hours, while the soft clam, coli.
Mya arenaria, is quite slow in reducing levels. Typical Liu, Seraichekas and Murphy (1967) demonstrated that
values for this oyster are given by Huntley and Hammer- the hard clam (Mercenaria mercenaria) could be purified
Strom (1971). Zero-hour values (time at which the purifica- of poliovirus at varying removal rates depending on tem-
tion process begins) in the realm of 1 700 faecal coliform/ perature, salinity, and initial pollution levels. Some interest-
lOOg typically reduced to 1 8/1 00 g in 48 hours. Zero- ing questions brought up by these studies include: What
hour values in the range of 49 000/100 g reduced to 18/ initial levels of viral pollution are to be depleted? Do
lOOg in 72 hours. Different experimental set-ups, of artificially polluted shellfish really simulate natural condi-
course, produced different reduction rates. Presnell, Cum- tions? What pitfalls are there in experimental systems that
mins and Miescier (1969) showed 99-9% reductions of E. cannot be foreseen for commercial size plants? Liu, Serai-
7
coli in 24 hours starting with values in the realm of 10 E. chekas and Murphy (1967) also raised the possibility that
colil 1 00 g. Wood (1961) showed for the European oyster, the poliovirus-shellfish interaction is not the same as that
Ostrea edulis, rather consistent 99% reductions of E. coli to for hepatitis virus.
indeterminable values in 48 hours. The crux of the matter, as they pointed out, is the initial
Hcffernan and Cabelli (1970) showed for the hard clam, level of virus in the molluscs. The fact tljat virus can be
Mercenaria mercenaria, 99-99% reductions inE. coli in 48 removed is not at issue any longer. The initial level of virus
hours, and non-detectable levels of E. coli after 24 hours and its effect seem to be analogous to the initial level of
when zero-hour values were less than 1 04/1 00 g. bacteria. The initial level of virus relates to epidemiology of
Data by Goggins et al (1964) on the soft clam, Mya the pollution source and the subsequent die-off and dilution
arenaria, generally revealed 90% reduction in 24 hours. in die sea water.
The data did not demonstrate a rapid decline in bacteria in
the 24 hours as indicated for oysters and hard clams.
first
The Cabelli and Heffernan (1970) data for soft clams did 5 Monitoring and controls
show more rapid reductions, however. As with any food process, there is a need to know that the
Heffernan and Cabelli (1971) recommend target (or process working and that the product is safe for
itself is
purified) levels of 25 faecal coliform/ 100 g at 48 hours of human consumption. Monitoring and control over the
purification. This imposes a ceiling level at zero-hour for water by sampling are, therefore, required. The shellfish
soft and hard clams of about 2 000 organisms/ 100 g. The must also be sampled in an orderly manner.
inter-relationships of zero-hour bacterial level, time for In the United States, recommendations call for bacterio-
purification, and target or finished product level are inter- logical sampling of water in the harvest areas, the untreated
esting from the point of view of what public health officials process water, the treated water, and tank water at the plant.
will allow. In Europe, there are no specified zero-hour As data accumulate to establish a norm, the continued
values, yet for one locality in the United States, there are sampling will reveal problems as they arise. Attempts can
such values. Furthermore, the allowed zero-hour value is be made to relate a poor finished product with evidence of
automatically set by an allowable water quality despite poor water quality during the time a particular lot of
species differences in ability to accumulate sewage bacteria. shellfish was purified. Other water samples are taken for
390
analyses of turbidity, salinity, and dissolved oxygen to product flow. The most important factor in the site is a
determine if these factors were responsible for the poor suitable supply of sea water for the shellfish. The site should
has taken place as evidenced by reduced bacterial levels, other important consideration is sewage pollution and
and if guidelines for the finished product are met Although whether extraordinary disinfection is required. The factors
there is no official federal standard in the United States, the of temperature, turbidity, and dissolved oxygen are dis-
general guideline for the soft clam, Mya arenaria, is a cussed later. The sea water should not contain industrial
median value of 50 faecal coliform/ 1 00 g of meat by a most pollutants which may contaminate the shellfish.
probable number (MPN) tube liquid broth technique or by Another factor in site selection is the suitability of a
an elevated temperature plate test on modified Mac- seawater intake and a discharge outfall. Poor planning will
Conkey's media. In England, the allowed level of bacteria lead to operating problems associated with reliable pump-
for Ostrea edulis is five E. coli colonies/ml of meat using a ing over all tides.
MacConkey's media, which is approximately ten times the The plant in Massachusetts must operate on the tide
guideline level in the United States. simply because of poor plant siting. It is located on a river
Sampling frequency is not standardized in the United with a large tidal range of about 3 m. On low tide the
States, but it is left to the discretion of the health depart- salinity of the river is too low for effective purification; also
ments of the individual states. In Massachusetts, an ele- on low tide, the coliform level is much higher than desired.
vated temperature plate test using a modified MacConkey's Thus, the plant can only pump water on high tide when the
media is used since results are available in 18-24 hours saltwater wedge reaches the seawater intake. As the time of
(Heffernan and Cabelli, 1970). If a zero-hour value for high tide advances one hour each day, the plant's operations
Mya arenaria exceeds 1 600 colonies/ 1 00 g, the harvest also advance one hour. This feature affects shellfish deliv-
area is immediately closed. If a zero-hour value falls bet- ery, monitoring, timing, ability to handle large numbers of
ween 1000-1600 colonies/ 1 00 g, another sample is shellfish (wash and cull) and pumping. This has resulted in
taken after 24 hours of purification; if the 24-hour value is many logistic problems when the pumps have failed at a
less than 500 colonies/ 1 00 g, the shellfish are released at 48 critical time.
hours. If the 24-hour value is greater than 500 colonies/ Saltwater wells are not always appropriate despite their
1 00
g, another sample is taken at 48 hours, and the shellfish Maine and New York. An oyster purification
utilization in
are purified for an additional 24 hours. Shellfish are sam- plant in Delaware encountered problems with hydrogen
pled at the plant at zero-hour. Only a few routine 24- or 48- sulphide in the water with the accompanying sulphide
hour samples are taken. Thus, it can be seen that emphasis odour tainting the shellfish. The plant had to change to the
is on good control over the harvest areas from which the more polluted surface water supply. The saltwater wells in
shellfish are taken. Maine are about 2 m deep, but the one in New York was
In Maine, several small plants are monitored by taking about 40 m deep.
weekly zero-, 24-, and 48-hour samples on certain lots.
There are no limits on zero-hour values of faecal coliform 6.2 Plant structure
by the MPN liquid broth method. However, the harvest The physical structure of plants in the United States is
area iscarefully controlled by water sampling. The water in varied. Most wooden structures with shingled roofs.
are
the harvest area rarely exceeds 700 total coliform/ Generally, concrete floor slabs with drainage channels or
100 ml about equivalent to 140 faecal coliform/ 100 ml. traps are used. Some plants have been made by converting
In New Jersey, shellfish sampling emphasis is on the shucking houses or lobster pools. There is no standardized
finished product: but again, the harvesting areas are care- design for purification plants. There are, however, regula-
fully monitored by water sampling to assure that the me- tions governing sanitation of structures containing shellfish
dian total coliform does not exceed 700/1 00 ml. When a with regard to adequate wash water, cleanability of walls,
plant starts anew, five sub-samples of shellfish are taken at floors, and equipment, animal and pest control, and
0, 24, and 48 hours for each lot. After several months of adequate toilet facilities with sewage disposal.
this heavy sampling, the sub-samples are reduced to two, An all-indoor plant is not mandatory but in cold weather
three, and five at 0, 24, and 48 hours, respectively. climates the need is greater. Electrical equipment needs to
Raw and untreated water samples are taken in all plants be protected against wet weather and the subsequent corro-
on either a weekly or daily basis depending on circumstan- sion and hazards. So far, all plants in the United States have
ces. Temperature and salinity are measured daily. Dis- had all components under a roof. However, in some plants
solved oxygen is monitored in Massachusetts and New in Europe, components such as depuration or water treat-
Jersey because the water is recirculated. ment tanks are outdoors and other parts are indoors. There
is no absolute rule about this.
391
constructed using the concepts of this layout. All of these prevent operational problems. The practice of haphazardly
plants were converted structures; eg, lobster pools, wet putting together seawater systems has invariably resulted in
storage areas, garages, shucking houses. malfunctions. Problems encountered include: poor pump
priming, growth of marine life in piping systems that cannot
be cleaned; and poor valving such that flow balancing
among tanks and treatment units is impossible.
SiA WATER
INTAKE 6.6 Water treatment and environmental levels
The most important aspect of purification is assurance that
shellfish receive processwater comparable with their bio-
logical systems and that the shellfish do not become con-
HOUSE taminated in that water. Each of the parameters of water
quality is subject to species and geographic differences.
AERA- Although it is the responsibility of the official control
TION UV OR
OZONE agency or purification plant operator to experiment and find
the best levels for these parameters, general ranges may be
promulgated to be used nationwide in the absence of experi-
DISCHARGE mentation. These are given in Table III (Furfari, 1966).
TABLE III
WATER-QUALITY PARAMETERS FOR PROCESS SEA WATER
UTILITIES
FOTARLE
WATER
ELECTRICITY
1
JTU = Jackson Turbidity Units as defined by the Candle Turbidimeter
TABLE IV
DESIGN PARAMETERS FOR ULTRAVIOLET TREATMENT UNITS
Size of plant The number of treatment units is a function of the number of shellfish,
and the number of tanks.
Flow rate The flow rate allowed through a particular unit depends on water quality
and dimensions of the unit The number of shellfish affects the flow rate.
Water quality High levels of bacteria in sea water require more treatment units, more
electrical power for more UV lamps, more residence time, and conse-
quently larger UV units. Turbidity has the same effect
Seawater system Flow-through systems will generally require more UV lamps than
recirculating systems.
393
7 Contemporary research Effects of recirculating systems on artificial sea water
7. 1 New and ongoing work should be studied in depth. Data are needed on the deterio-
Research on shellfish purification in the United States and ration rate of sea water and efficient removal of metabolic
elsewhere is at a low ebb. The federal government is waste products. The work of Allen et al (1950) should be
sponsoring two projects: one relating to virus in the soft continued with modern technology and treatment methods.
clam (Mya arenaria), the other to development of commer-
cial parameters for the American oyster (Crassostrea
virginica). 8 References
The work is basically a monitoring of an existing
virus ALLEN, L. A. et al, Repeated re-use of sea water as a medium for the
commercial soft clam purification plant in Massachusetts. 1950 functioning and self-cleansing of molluscan shellfish. J. Hyg.,
48 (4): 431-57
Samples of zero-hour and final product at 48 hours are run CABELLI, V. J. &
HEFFERNAN, W. P. Elimination of bacteria by the
for enteric viruses. 1970 soft shell clam, Mya arenaria. J. Fish. Res. Board Can., 27 (9):
1579-87
The oyster work is comprehensive and involves basic
DEVLIN, I. H. Operation report. Oyster depuration plant. Vancouver,
laboratory as well as commercial-scale work on purifica- 1973 B.C., Fisheries Marine Service, Inspection Branch, Ladysmith,
tion rates with a wide variation in environmental parame- B.C., Environment Canada
DODGSON, R. W. Report on mussel purification. Fish. Invest. Minist.
ters. This work being done on oysters from Chesapeake
is
1928 Agric. Fish. Food, G.B. (2), 10 (1): 498
p,
Bay in Virginia. Although some of the work appears to be a FURFARI, S. A. Depuration plant design. Public Health Serv. Pub I.
1966 t/.S.,(999-FP-7):119p.
repetition of that reported in the literature, there is a
GALTSOFF, P. S. The American oyster, Crassostrea virginica. Fish. Bull.
possibility of geographical differences. Some of the ques- 1964 USFWS, 64: 480 p.
tions being answered concern the suitable ranges of the GOGGINS, P. L. et al, Soft clam depuration studies. Augusta, Maine,
1964 Maine Department of Sea and Shore Fisheries, 35 p.
environmental parameters of these oysters. Temperature,
HAMBLET, F. E. et al. Oysters and human viruses effect of sea water
turbidity, salinity, plankton density and condition index of 1969 turbidity on pohovirus uptake and elimination. Am. J. Epi-
the oyster have been studied. The influence of certain oyster demioi, 89 (5): 562-71
HEFFERNAN, W. P. &
CABELLI, V. J. Elimination of bacteria by the
diseases such as MSXand Dermocystidium have also been 1970 northern quahog (Mercenaria mercenaria): Environmental
explored and in-depth studies of biodeposition have been parameters significant to the process. J. Fish. Res. Board Can.,
27(9): 1569-77
carried out Shellfish pumping rates have been correlated
HEFFERNAN, W. P. &
CABELLI, V. J. The elimination of bacteria by the
with rates of bacterial indicator depletion. Maximum per- 1971 northern quahog. Variability in the response of individual
missible levels of bacteria are being determined and several animals and the development of criteria. Proc. Natl. Shellfish
Assoc.,6\: 102-8
large tank designs are being engineered to optimize flow HILL, W. F., HAMBLET, F. E. & AKIN, E. W. Survival of poliovirus in
ratesand tank cleaning operations. Effects of waste prod- 1967 flowing turbid sea water treated with ultraviolet light Appi
Microbiol., 15 (3): 533-6
ucts on the purification rate are also being studied. This
HUNTLEY, B. E. &
HAMMERSTROM, R. J. An experimental depuration
project began in 1973. 1971 plant.Operation and evaluation. Chesapeake Sci., 12 (4): 231-9
In the United Kingdom some work is underway to purify INSTITUTE OF MARINE FISHERIES, New observations on the use of ozone
1974 as sterilizing agent of sea water for the cleansing of shellfish.
hard clams in a new system of tiered trays but published
France, Site Laboratory, 6 p.
reports are not available as yet (Personal communication, KELLY, C. B. Disinfection of sea water by ultraviolet radiation. Am. J.
1961 Public Health, 51(11): 1670-80
Peter Ayres, 1975).
Liu, O. C., SFRAICHEKAS, H. R. & MURPHY, B. L. Viral depuration of
As can be seen from the references, there was a peak of 1967 the northern quahog. Appl. Microbiol 15 (2): 307-15
,
activity in the sixties, but the seventies brought a lull in MITCHELL, J. R. et al, Accumulation and elimination of poliovirus by
1966 the eastern oyster. Am. J. Epidemiol., 84 (1): 40-50
research especially in the United States. The Canadians
NEW YORK, Operation of a depuration plant for hard clams (Mercen-
have done work on purification of oysters and clams in 1969 aria mercenaria). Final Report, Contract No. 3-68-D-2. State
British Columbia and soft clams in Quebec and Nova of New York, Bureau of Marine Fisheries, Conservation
Department
Scotia. (The reports on these are not generally available and Am. Med. Assoc.
PORTNOY, B. L. et al, Oyster associated hepatitis. J.
the results of the work have not yet been published.) 1975 233(10): 1065-8
PRESNELL, M. W., CUMMINS, J. M. & MIESCIER, J. J Influence of
1969 selected environmental factors on the elimination of bacteria
7.2 Research needs by the eastern oyster, Crassostrea virginica. In Proceedings of
The preceding section reveals the paucity of ongoing re- the South Atlantic Shellfish Sanitation Research Conference.
Public Health Serv. Publ. U.S., (999-UIH-9): 46-64
search on the purification process. Several questions must &
RICE, R. G. BROWNING, M. E. (Eds.), First international symposium
still be answered to provide assurances that the process is 1975 on ozone for water and wastewater treatment. 2-5 December
1973. Waterbury, Conn., International Ozone Institute, 910 p.
reliable or that can be improved or made more rapid.
it
SAN FELIU, J. M. Present state of aquaculture in the Mediterranean
One basic needis a continuation of virus model studies 1973 and South Atlantic Coasts of Spain. Stud. Rev. GFCM, (52):
in the laboratory to demonstrate how viruses may enter and 1-24
U.S. FOOD AND DRUG ADMINISTRATION, National Shellfish Safety
leave the shellfish.
1975 Program, Proposed rule making. Fed. Reg., 40 (119): Part 2
A complete interdisciplinary study of the process needs VIOLLE, H. The sterilization of sea water by ozone. Rev. Hyg. Med.
to be carried out to relate studies reported by bacteriolo- 1929 />ret?.,51:42-6
WOOD, P. C. The principles of water sterilization by ultra-violet light,
gists and virologists to basic biology, engineering, or 1961 and their application in the purification of oysters. Fish. Invest.
chemistry. Minist. Agric. Fish. Food, G.B. (2), 23 (6): 48 p.
394
Chapter V Culture of Algae and Seaweeds
aquaculture can be expected to continue in suitable marine coastal areas colaboracion internacional para lograr progresos teen cos en sectores
i
throughout the world. As an aid to future development, continuing como el control de plagas y enfermedades, la genetica y seleccipn de
international co-operation is required to produce technical advances in semillas, y la fisiologia aplicada y es precise, ademas, difundir los
areas such as: pest and disease control, genetics and seed stock selection, conocimientos que se vayan acumulando como fruto de investigaciones
applied physiology, and dissemination of knowledge as research results y nuevas experiencias.
and experience are accumulated.
GENERA OF ALGAE USED AS FOOD, FODDER OR MANURE, THEIR UTILIZATION LEVEL AND MAJOR GEOGRAPHICAL REGIONS OF PRODUCTION. AFTER
CHAPMAN (1970) AND JOHNSTON (1966)
1. Africa 6. Europe
2. Australia/New Zealand 7. North America (east)
3. Asia (west and southeast) 8. North America (west)
4. Asia (China, Russia) 9. Pacific Oceania
5. Asia (Japan) 10. South America and Caribbean
*
Genera for which commercial cultivation is practised or is being developed
Symbols in brackets ( ) denote algal classes: (C)Chlorophycophyta; (Cy)Cyanophycophyta; (P) Phaeophycophyta; (R)Rhodophycophyta; with
1
396
Japan, China and Europe. Cheng (1969) pointed out that class Phaeophycophyta. Most seaweeds utilized by the
Laminaria is regarded as a valuable food source in China, alginate industry are large forms, such as Macrocystis,
and evidence cited by Chapman ( 1 9 70) indicates that most Nereocystis, Laminaria and Ascophyllum.
food algae serve as a useful source of minerals and of trace Agar-agar has important food and medicinal uses, carra-
elements, while red algae, such as Porphyra and Rhody- geenan is widely used in the dairy industry and alginates are
menia, provide a source of assimilable carbohydrate and used in a number of industrial processes related to textile
protein. Throughout history, marine plants have been par- sizing, and the production of synthetic rubber, adhesives,
ticularly valued for their role as a source of iodine. paper products, and pharmaceutical products. The major
Chapman (1970) has reviewed much of the literature world centres for vegetable gum production are the north-
concerning uses of algae for fodder and manure. The eastern and southeastern United States, western Europe,
detailed work of Jensen (1972) on Ascophyllum has Japan, China and Russia. Although crude forms of agar-
pointed out the value of this seaweed as a feed supplement agar can be produced in simple factories, most forms of
for pigs, cattle and other livestock. Seaweeds provide trace vegetable gum require elaborate production facilities and
elements, minerals, roughage and carbohydrate to live- the industry tends to be centralized. For example, most
stock, and some animals, such as sheep, can live entirely on carrageenan is produced by three companies in the USA,
a diet of seaweeds. France and Denmark, and a large proportion of world algin
When used as manure, seaweeds act both as fertilizers and alginate production is concentrated in southern
and Marine plants do not have a high
soil conditioners. California.
sheets.These sheets may be treated with various spices and believed to be in excess of 100 000 tons per annum.
cooked. The most common use of Porphyra is as an Close management of national stocks, commercial culti-
ingredient in dishes, such as the Japanese sushi, in which vation or development of culture techniques are being
portions of Porphyra (nori) sheets are wrapped around undertaken with a number of other algal genera (see Tables
flavoured rice. Dried Laminaria serves as a component of 1 and II). Within the past five years, cultivation in the
soup stocks or may be eaten as a vegetable. It is consumed Philippines has become an important source ofEucheuma
in large quantities in China and Japan, where it is called for the carrageenan industry, and at least two of the three
kombu. Rhodymenia (dulse) is consumed fresh or dried in a major world producers are developing cultivation tech-
whole frond form, or may be reduced mechanically to niques for Chondrus, Gigartina, Hypnea and Iridaea. The
powder and flakes for use as a condiment and as a compo- cultivation of agarophytes is a matter of great interest to
nent of pills. Many edible seaweeds are reduced to powder investigators throughout the world and extensive commer-
for use in tablets which are consumed primarily for their cial agarophyte cultivation can be expected in the near
trace element value. future. Besides being important to kelp production in
Seaweeds used as fertilizer and stock feed supplements China, aquaculture is an important producer of Laminaria
are generally dried and ground to produce a meal or in Japan, and kelp habitat improvement has been instru-
powder. Whole seaweeds may also be fed to animals or mental in reviving the southwest North American Macro-
mulched into the In Europe and North America, basic
soil. cystis industry (North, 1976).
hydrolysis of seaweeds, such as Ascophyllum, Macrocystis At present, virtually all intensively harvested popula-
and Laminaria, is carried out to produce liquid fertilizer tions of marine algae are closely managed or are cultivated
extracts. over much of their geographical distribution. Algae are
particularly well suited to cultivation because they are
2.2 Algae as sources of chemicals primary producers which can be grown in an attached or
By weight, more than 50% of the harvested algae are used as detached form, and production rates from cultures of algae
raw material for the chemical industry. Until the first half of equal or exceed yields from the most productive forms of
the twentieth century, large quantities of algae were burned terrestrialagriculture (Mann, 1972). Throughout the
in Europe and Asia to produce iodine and potash until more world, inadequate sources of supply or escalating labour
economical means were found for their production. The and material costs for harvesting natural algal resources are
bulk of industrial seaweed utilization is now in the vegeta- stimulating the development of aquaculture techniques;
ble gum industry; 29 genera of seaweeds utilized in this outstanding successes have been observed in the Porphyra,
industry are listed in Table II. The most important gums Eucheuma and Laminaria industries.
produced from these genera are agar-agar, carrageenan,
funorin, furcellarin, and alginates. All but the latter class of 3 Cultivation technology for algae
gums are produced from red algae (class Rhodophyco- 3.1 Techniques used for culturing algae
phyta), while alginates are extracted from seaweeds of the The cultivation of algae involves a range of techniques as
397
TABLE II
GENERA OF ALGAE WHICH SERVE AS SIGNIFICANT SOURCES OF CHEMICAL PRODUCTS, AND MAJOR REGIONS FOR THEIR PRODUCTION. AFTER CHAPMAN
(1970)
Key to geographical regions:
1. Africa 6. Europe
2. Australia/New Zealand 7. North America (east)
3. Asia (west and southeast) 8. North America (west)
4. Asia (China, Russia) 9. Pacific Oceania
5. Asia (Japan) 10. South America And Caribbean
1
Geographical region
Genus (product)
10
Macrocystis (Al)*
Nereocystis (Al)
Pelagophycis (Al)
Phyttophora (A; M)
Pterocladia (A)
Sargassum (Al)
Suhria (A)
*
Genera for which commercial cultivation is practised or is being developed
1
simple as the management of natural stocks, or as complex ture and is practised with most intensively harvested algal
as the propagation of selected clones aqd genetically-bred populations throughout the world. In Canada and Norway,
hatchery seed stock in capital intensive cultivation situa- for example, A scophyllum harvesting is carefully controlled
tions. Table III lists the genera of algae that are cultivated, to allow sustained harvest, and intensive research is carried
and includes their cultivation techniques which are de- out to determine rates of regrowth from harvested beds. The
scribed below: same is true of Chondrus from eastern Canada, Great
(/) Management of natural stocks. Management and Britain and Spain. Laminaria is a cultivated genus, but
husbandry of natural stocks is a first step toward aquacul- carefully managed exploitative harvesting still yields
TABIF III
CULFURFD GFNFRA OF ALGAF AND TFCHNIQUFS FOR THFIR CULTIVATION
Cultivation techniques
Note: 'x' denotes developing techniques, or techniques yielding small quantities of raw material
'x x' denotes strategies which are currently used commercially on a large proportion of utilized raw material
398
significant quantities in western Europe and Japan. Efforts cropping back to maintain crop densities and produce the
to regulate the Macrocystis harvest are particularly notable yield. Capital-intensive techniques with a low labour con-
since harvestable stocks virtually disappeared off the Cali- tent are being investigated for vegetative propagation of
fornia coast in the late fifties. The habitat improvement carrageenophytes by Marine Colloids, Inc. of Rockland,
work of W. J. North plus careful management of harvesting Maine, USA, and Kobenhavcn Pektin Fabrik of Denmark.
by the industry have now resulted in recovery of an import- The techniques being developed by these companies are
ant source of alginates. based on initial work carried out at the National Research
(//) Habitat improvement. In his analysis of marine algal Council of Canada by Neish and Fox (1971) and by
ecology, Chapman (1974) pointed out that marine macro- Shacklock et al (1973), and involve the propagation of
phyte communities are complex systems in which desirable macrophytes (eg, Chondrus) in detached form in agitated
commercial species do not always prevail. This fact, and the ponds or tanks. This form of macrophyte culture resembles
difficulty of harvesting widely dispersed wild stocks, pro- the cultivation of unicellular organisms in the fermentation
vided the initial impetus for seaweed plant culture. The industry or cultivation of unicellular algae for feeding to
earliest form of algal aquaculture was the addition of molluscs. Although still in its development stage, this
suitable substrate to areas which were not capable of technique is under active commercial development and is
supporting populations of commercially useful algae. For expected to produce significant quantities of Chondrus
example, early forms of Porphyra cultivation in Japan, within the next five years. This system is also being consid-
which started in 1 736 at Tokyo Bay, consisted primarily of ered for culture of Eucheuma, Gigartina and Hypnea.
the addition of twigs and other types of substrate to muddy The selection of fast-growing clones with desirable char-
areas which did not provide suitable places for the attach- acteristics is an important aspect of culture techniques
ment of this plant (Okazaki, 1971). Substrate addition to utilizing vegetative propagation, and has contributed to the
increase stocks of Gracilaria and Eucheuma has also been high productivity of Eucheuma farms in the Philippines
practised in tropical areas by spreading dead coral over (Doty and Alvarez, 1975). Development work with Chon-
predominantly sandy areas where these seaweeds cannot drus has shown that selected strains of seed stock grow two
attach. to three times as fast as mixtures of wild stock. Clone
Live storage of harvested plants. Detached, live-
(iii) selection will continue to be an important aspect of vegeta-
harvested plants can be stored for periods varying from a tive propagation procedures for algae farming.
few days to many months depending on the conditions (v) Cultivation of algae from hatchery seed. Two very
provided. In the alginate industry, for example, live Asco- important seaweed culture industries, the Porphyra indus-
phyllum is sometimes held in large ponds until it can be try of Japan (Okazaki, 1971), and the Laminaria industry
processed. Rhodymenia processors in eastern Canada hold of China (Cheng, 1969), are largely based on the cultiva-
live material in air-agitated tanks until suitable drying tion of plants produced from hatchery seed. In these forms
conditions are available or until harvested plants can be run of cultivation, seed is attached to nets, ropes and a variety of
through a mechanical dehydrator (Neish, 1976). In this other suspension materials before being placed in the sea
industry, harvesting is carried out only during very low forgrow-out to commercial size. In North America, prelim-
tides of the spring, summer and autumn so the flow of raw inary investigations are underway by carrageenan produc-
material through a processing facility is uneven and a ing companies to determine whether the seed of hatchery-
capacity for holding live material greatly enhances process- produced macrophytes can be grown economically in a
ing efficiency. In holding tanks, the algae are cleansed of detached form in agitated culture tanks. This form of
dirt, mussels, epiphytes and other contaminants. Rhody- cultivation would be useful for sexually reproduced annual
menia also grows in storage tanks, and yields of over 60 g plants of commercial significance.
dry weight/mVday have been obtained in storage ponds Centuries of experience in agriculture have conclusively
stocked at a density of approximately 10 kg fresh weight/ demonstrated the desirability of propagating selected
m 2
. strains rather than wild stocks. This has also proved to be
Vegetative propagation of cultured algae. Some
(iv) the case with seaweeds, and in China fast-growing Lami-
perennial algae can be vegetatively propagated in culture, naria strains, such as Hai-Ching No. 1, have increased
and algae with a distinct sexual phase can be bred in yields according to Cheng (1969). Such techniques are
hatcheries to provide seed. These two modes of reproduc- applicable to any sexually reproducing alga of commercial
tion provide two distinct approaches to obtaining seed interest and can be expected to become prevalent as algal
stock for algal culture. cultivation develops. Propagation of selected strains has
Vegetative propagation of wild stock in enclosures or been practised formany years with planktonic algae, such
attached to suspension materials is a logical extension of as Chlorella, and various other algae serving as food for
the live storage of harvested material. This technique may oysters and other shellfish. There are also preliminary
be commercially developed for species with annual fronds studies underway in the United States to determine whether
and perennial holdfasts, such as Iridaea and Rhodymenia, unicellular carrageenophytes can be cultured.
Vegetative propagation of selected clones is a commer- (/) Marine plant cultivation, which comprises the major
cial reality in the Philippines, where various strains of component of the algae culture industry, must compete for
Eucheuma are cultivated (Doty and Alvarez, 1975). Filip- shore frontage and protected water space with several other
pino culture techniques are labour-intensive and involve the industries. Navigational needs, the needs of other fisheries
manual attachment of fronds to lines or nets and continuous and aquaculture operations, needs of the lumber industry
399
and effects of pollution, all play a part in restricting the represent an intensive utilization of foreshore and near-
global areas available for marine plant cultivation. The shore waters. Algae must, therefore, be cultivated in coun-
same constraints apply for much of the freshwater cultiva- trieswith a well developed legal framework to protect
tion of algae. aquaculture interests, and a stable political and economic
(//) Selection of techniques for cultivation of algae will environment.
depend on the socio-economic structure of the region in
which they are to be carried out In some areas, such as 3.3 Elements of the culture of algae
southeast Asia, there is a long growing season, ready At present, virtually all forms of the cultivation of algae are
availability of labour in coastal areas at low cost, and a low either labour-intensive or capital-intensive. Regardless of
enough cost of capital equipment to encourage the develop- which cultivation technique is used, however, the basic
ment of labour-intensive, low-capital investment marine elements of algal aquaculture remain the same. These are
plant culture techniques. In other areas, such as North depicted in Table IV.
America and Japan, such practices are becoming progres- Natural organic and inorganic energy and materials are
sively less attractive, and the cultivation of algae can be the basic requirements for culture of algae. These include
expected to develop along capital-intensive lines which dissolved nutrients and gases, and solar radiation which
require sophisticated technology and a small labour provides photic and thermal energy. Seed stocks are also
content. needed to initiate culture. Diseases, pests and contamina-
(///) Some marine plant industries, such as the vegetable tion can significantly affect algal production. These basic
gum industry, are most efficient and most profitable if
they elements of algal cultivation are manipulated or controlled
are vertically integrated. This may tend to concentrate to varying degrees as described below:
cultivation development of phycocolloid-bearing algae to (i) Invest in capital equipment which transports and
areas capable of supporting technologically sophisticated modifies natural energy and materials. In capital-intensive
extraction plants which have access to markets and market- forms of cultivation, such as the growth of detached carra-
ing organizations. geenophytes, plants may be held in agitated enclosures and
(/v) All forms of marine plant aquaculture require ponds which require a significant investment. In labour-
significant investment in either capital or labour costs, and intensive techniques, algae may be attached by hand to rafts
TABLE IV
THE MANIPULATION OF NATURAL ENERGY AND MATERIALS THROUGH ACTIVITIES INVOLVING THE USE OF CAPITAL AND LABOUR IN AN AI GAl
AQUACULTURE ENTERPRISE
5. Harvest, process and market Regulate harvest Integrate harvest Integrate harvest Manipulate access Manipulate
1
the
yield;
maximize efficiency or rate to maintain regime with pest techniques and to light to 'finish temperature as an
profitability by regulating optimal population control levels to water management the product before aid to finishing' or
aquaculture farm production to structure and suit market harvesting storing end product
suit market structure to as great density demands
an extent as possible
400
(as in Chinese kelp culture) or to strings and nets (as in culture conditions is critical to successful crop production.
southeast Asian Eucheuma culture). Other investments in Water temperature, water flow rates and popu-
light levels,
capital equipment may include: filters and sterilizers to lation structure can
be regulated, but proper balances
all
control pests and contaminants; water distribution systems must be sought. For example, costs of supplying water must
and equipment for fertilizer provision; electric lights and be balanced against fertilization costs.
reflectors to increase growth rates during some stages of (v) Harvest, process and market the yield; maximize
cultivation; the provision of shades to control weed growth efficiency or profitability by regulating aquaculture farm
on the sides of enclosures; and the provision of heaters and production to suit market structure. After algae have bio-
coolers to allow manipulation of water temperatures. All of synthesized the desired end products, the aquaculturist
these control techniques are utilized for the production of must make an investment of capital and labour to harvest,
hatchery seed in the Porphyra industry, and they are being process and market the yield. Harvest rates and harvest
investigated for application to capital-intensive carrageeno- times are generally a compromise between the need to
phyte cultivation. maintain optimal population densities and the need to
(ft*) Purchase and use of consumable materials, such as supply the market with raw materials at the correct times.
energy, materials and labour for maintenance and operation Some forms of algal cultivation, such as Eucheuma farming
of equipment. No matter which cultivation strategy is used, and developing forms of Chondrus farming, permit a rela-
labour and materials must be invested to maintain capital tively steady supply of raw material on a year-round basis
equipment for each phase of the operation. In capital- but other crops, such as Porphyra, remain seasonal even
intensive cultivation, operational costs may become signifi- under cultivation.
cant, especially if electricalenergy is necessary for water
pumps, lights, adjusting water temperatures, maintaining
the crop in suspension and sterilizing the water. 4 Future development
(///) Conduct applied biological research to develop crop 4.1 Future development of industries utilizing algae
control and management techniques. Cultivation of algae Since 1950, the utilization of algae has steadily increased
has benefited greatly from the application of scientific throughout the world and has developed as a truly world-
techniques to its development and genetics; clone selection, wide undertaking. All present phases of the algae industry
population biology, ecology and phytosociology have all are expected to continue in this expansion. Steadily increas-
been successfully applied, as in the cultivation of Porphyra, ing worldwide needs for fertilizer and stock feed have
Laminaria and Eucheuma. stimulated the production of seaweed fertilizers and feed
In algal cultivation, as in all other forms of intensive additives.The use of algae as human food is increasing as
culture, pathology, microbiology, mycology and other dis- world population increases, and in the developed countries
ciplines related to pestand disease control are extremely of North America and Europe human consumption of algal
important. Algae effectively concentrate heavy metals and food products is increasing in conjunction with expansion
other chemical components, so an awareness of water of the health food trade. Although 1975 vegetable gum
quality is essential as well. production receded from the record levels of early 1974,
Study of nutritional physiology is necessary since fertil- this industry is projecting steady growth. Attempts to
ization is used in the cultivation of algae. Natural nitrogen synthesize inexpensive substitutes for vegetable gums have
levels are inadequate for intensive cultivation in most sea not been successful since these compounds are extremely
water, so nitrogen fertilizers are used in the Porphyra and complex and the reasons for differences in quality between
Laminaria industries. Economic utilization of fertilizer is gums are not well understood.
also becoming increasingly important as fertilizer prices As the utilization of algae increases, cultivation can be
between nitrogen fertilizer and
increase. In China, the ratio expected to increase as well, especially intensive forms of
kelp production varies between 1 1 and 1:3-75, depending
: culture which lend themselves well to vertical integration of
on the culture technique used (Cheng, 1969). raw material production with other aspects of the industry.
All phases of algae culture require a knowledge of plant Cultivation is also becoming increasingly necessary as
physiology since the processes of photosynthesis and respi- more and more natural stocks are heavily exploited
ration must be well understood before the crop can be throughout the world, and demand for algal products ex-
adequately managed. Knowledge of the significance of ceeds supply.
thermal energy is also critical since in tropical areas cul- Besides increasing the total supply, algal aquaculture is
tured algae are frequently raised at temperatures close to also attractive in that it has the capability of providing high
their lethal limits, and in cold climates temperature can be qualityraw material with specifically selected characteris-
regulated to maximize yields. production can be concentrated in geographical areas
tics,
(/v) Monitor crop and culture conditions and control the which are close to market or processing facilities, and algae
use of energy and materials to achieve optimum benefit/ have good polyculture potential since they are primary
One of the greatest benefits of aquaculture is the
cost ratio. producers which do not compete with fish for nutrients. The
ability of the farmer to influence the quality and supply of production of algae may also be undertaken as part of
his crop to the market, but increasing levels of control are sewage treatment. This is standard practice with freshwater
achieved at a cost in labour and capital. In capital-intensive effluents, and Ryther, with his co-workers, is studying the
cultivation, the regulation of costs and benefits can become use of marine macrophytes for tertiary sewage treatment in
particularly complex since large, intensively stocked, partly Wood's Hole, Massachusetts, USA (Ryther et at, 1975).
automated systems may be controlled by a few people.
Close monitoring of culture conditions by automatic means 4.2 Constraints to development and technical problems
and by the attention of skilled aquaculturists becomes The cultivation of algae has developed rapidly since 1950
essential and a knowledge of how to respond to changes in and is continuing at an accelerating pace. As a result, many
401
technical problems have arisen, and solutions can only be or business reasons, even though some sharing of informa-
provided through research and the accumulation of experi- tion and experiences would benefit everyone.
ence by aquaculturists. Virtually all areas of technical de- There is also an ever-present need for translation services
velopment would gain strength from international co-oper- so that valuable documents in English, French, German,
ation and communication between algae farmers. Some Chinese, Japanese, Russian and other languages can be
areas which require particular attention are the following: made available to practising aquaculturists. Available in-
(0 Pests and diseases are a matter of extreme concern in formation must be correlated and integrated to produce
most intensive algal monoculture enterprises. Fungal, viral useful economic management models, and the techniques
and bacterial diseases have been discovered in Laminaria of computer simulation are being usefully applied to algal
and Porphyra culture, and it can be assumed that similar cultivation. Simulation modelling by scientific and techni-
problems will arise in all forms of algal cultivation. Epi- cal support workers can provide an invaluable service to the
phytes also cause great concern, as do weeds in terrestrial practising aquaculturists who, in the last analysis, are
plant culture, and means must be found for providing the responsible for raising the crop.
desired crop with the maximal competitive advantage over
other algae in a culture situation. Some forms of chemical
control would also be useful, but such measures must be
used with great care in order to protect environments 5 References
adjacent to seaweed farms, and to ensure that only un- AITKEN, J. B., SENN, T. L. &
MARTIN, S. A. The effect of varying
1961 concentrations of Norwegian seaweed ( Ascophyllum nodosum)
wanted algae are selectively destroyed.
on Duncan grapefruit and pineapple orange seedlings grown
(ii) Seed stock selection will continue to be of major under greenhouse conditions. Res. Ser. Clemson Coll N.C.,
importance in seaweed cultivation. The principles of popu- (24): 28 p.
country or sold internationally. Therefore, appropriate CRAIGIE, J. S. Underutilized seaweeds in the Canadian Atlantic In
quarantine regulations must be promulgated and observed. 1971 Proceedings, Meeting on the Canadian Atlantic Seaweeds
(///) Applied algal physiology is essential to the further Industry. Ottawa, Fisheries Service, 149 p
DOTY, M. S. & ALVAREZ, V B. Status, problems, advances and
development of cultivation techniques. This was well dem- 1975 economics of Eucheuma farms. Mar. Technol. Soc. J ,9(4): 30-5
onstrated in the Porphyra industry, which was radically DRIGGERS, B. F. & MARUCCI, P. E. Observations on the effect of
alteredwhen Drew carried out reproductive physiological 1964 seaweed extracts on peaches and strawberries. Hon. News. May
issue
work leading to the technology for breeding Porphyra in JENSEN, A. The nutritive value of seaweed meal for domestic animals.
hatcheries. Applied physiology becomes particularly im- 1972 Proc, Int. Seaweed Symp., 1 7-14
JOHNSTON, H. W. The biological and economic importance of algae.
portant in the allocation of energy and materials in inten- 1966 2. Algae as food. Tuatara, 14 (1): 30-66
sive cultures, where careful use of fertilizers profoundly MACFARLANE, C. I. The cultivation of seaweeds in Japan and its
affects production costs. 1968 possible application to the Atlantic provinces of Canada. Pro}.
Rep. Can. Dep. Fish., (20): 96 p.
Finally, there are many aspects of seaweed life cycles MANN, K. H. Ecological energetics of the seaweed zone in a marine
and general physiology which are not 'understood even 1972 bay on the Atlantic coast of Canada. 2. Productivity of the
seaweeds Mar. Biol., 14. 199-209
though significant effects have been observed in cultured MILTON, R. F. Liquid seaweed as a fertilizer. Proc. Int. Seaweed Symp.,
algae. Doty and Alvarez (1975) have reported a 'senes- 1964 4:428-31
cence' phenomenon in which Eucheuma fronds show slow NEISH, A. C. & Fox, C. N. Greenhouse experiments on the vegetative
1971 propagation of Chondrus crispus (Irish moss). Tech. Rep All.
growth, and the author has observed a similar phenomenon Reg. Lab. Nat. Res. Counc. Can., Halifax, (12): 35 p.
inRhodymenia. Propagation of macrophyte clones is also a NEISH, I. C. The role of mariculture in the Canadian seaweed industry.
1976 J Fish. Res. Board Can., 33 (4) Pt. 2: 1007-14
recent innovation which will probably reveal many previ-
NORTH, W. J. Aquacultural techniques for creating and restoring beds
ously unknown algal physiological phenomena. 1976 of giant kelp, Macrocystis, spp. J. Fish. Res. Board Can., 33 (4)
(/v) Methodsfor correlating and utilizing knowledge are Pt. 2: 1015-23
as crucial as the need for producing information. Although OKAZAKI, A. Seaweeds and their uses in Japan. Tokyo, Tokai Um-
1971 versity Press, 165 p.
international conferences and journals enable exchange of RYTHER, J. H. et al Physical models of integrated waste recycling
1975 marine polyculture systems. Aquaculture, 5: 163-77
information, there are still barriers to the useful sharing of
SHACKLOCK, P. F. et al. Further experiments (1972) on the vegetative
knowledge among cultivators of algae. Much information is 1973 propagation of Chondrus crispus T4. Tech. Rep. All. Reg. Lab.
regarded as being proprietary by aquaculturists for political Nat. Res. Counc. Can., Halifax, (18): 22 p.
Abstract accomplished, efforts should be made to: increase the harvest per unit of
Seaweeds have long been utilized by man as foodstuffs, fertilizers, feeds cultivating area; improve the quality of harvests; and reduce production
and industrial materials. They are available as food for useful shellfishes, cost
and the algal 4 aquatic forest* provides spawning and nursery environ- Many effortshave been made to improve seaweed propagation.
ments for many coastal marine animals. Effective measures with some seaweeds include: provision of new sub-
Many varied techniques have been developed for seaweed cultivation. strates, improving old substrates, weeding, transplantation of mother
In some seaweeds, artificial seeding and seedling culture have been plants and cultured seedlings and spore sowing. Prevention of the effects
realized. If consumer demand for seaweeds increases, the production of of grazers has also been tried. In future the techniques may include
cultivated seaweed will also be increased In order for this to be changes in broader areas of the seaweed environment such as current and
402
wave action and light intensity. The seaweeds of the aquatic forest are favourite foods for
The cultivation of 'Nori' (the red alga, Porphyra) and 'Wakame' (the
useful shellfishes, such as abalone (//a //or/5) and top-shells
brown alga, Undaria) in Japan are described in considerable detail. The
status of cultivation of these seaweeds in China and the Republic of (Trochus). The aquatic forest and 'Zostera zone' are also
Korea is also noted.
spawning and nursery grounds for many marine animals.
Cultures des algues dans le Pacffique nord-ouest
Much effort has been made, therefore, to keep and enlarge
Resume the area occupied by these useful plants.
L'homme utilise depuis longtemps les algues comme aliment, engrais,
fourrage et matiere premiere industrielle. Les algues servent de nourri-
ture a des mollusques utiles, et la 'foret aquatique' quelles forment offre
un terrain de frai et d'elevage a de nombreuses espcces marines cotiercs. 2 Cultivation of seaweeds
De multiples techniques pnt etc misse au point pour cultiver les algues. The progress of seaweed cultivation depends upon con-
Pour certaines algues on a realise 1'ensemencement artificiel et la culture
de plants. Si la demande d 'algues s'accroit, la production d'algues sumer demand. At present, edible seaweeds are intensively
cultivees pourrait du meme coup augmenter. Pour parvenir a ce resultat, cultivated in Japan, the Republic of Korea and China. The
les efTorts devraient viser: a accroitre la recolte par unite de superficie
cultivee; a ameliorer la qualite des recoltes; ct enfin a reduire les coiits de
genera cultivated here are: Porphyra, Monostroma, Entero-
production. morpha, Undaria, Laminaria and Nemacystus. The red
De nombreux efTorts ont etc entrepris pour ameliorer la multiplication
alga Eucheuma, used to produce kappa carrageenan, is
des algues. Parmi les mesures qui se sont revelees efficaces pour certaines
cultivated in the Philippines.
algues figurent: la realisation de nouveaux substrats; Tamelioration des
anciens substrats; le desherbage; la transplantation de plantes meres
amsi que la culture de plants et rensemencement a 1'aide de spores. On a 2. Cultivation of Won"
1
(Porphyra)
egalement essaye de parer a Faction des brouteurs. Les techniques
futures pourraient avoir recours a des changements sur des zones plus 2.1.1 Japan
vastes du milieu, par exemple Faction du courant et des vagues et 2.1.1.1 Development of Nori cultivation. In a broad sense,
I'mtensite lumineuse.
cultivated Nori (laver) includes not only the red alga
Laculture au Japon de
*Npri' (algue rouge Porphyra), et de 'Wakame'
(algue brune Undaria) est decrite crune fa<?on tres detaillee. L'etat de la Porphyra but two green algae, Monostroma and Entero-
culture de ces algues en Chine et en Republique de Coree est egalement
morpha. The latter are usually cultivated on different
mentionne.
grounds from those of Porphyra. All of these harvested
Cultivo de algas en el noroeste del Pacffico seaweeds are processed in rectangular paper-like sheets
Extractp
Hace tiempo que el hombre utiliza las algas para la preparacion de (about 20 x 20 cm in size and about 3-4 g in weight). The
alimentos, fertihzantes. piensos y productos industriales. Las algas greatest amount of the production is that of Porphyra.
sirven de alimento a moluscos y crustaceos que son utiles para el hombre.
After the second world war, cultivation of Nori in Japan
y los 'bosques acuaticos' de algas ofrecen refugios para el desove y la cria
a muchos animates marines que viven en las zonas costeras. developed rapidly, especially so during the past ten years.
Son muy variadas las tecnicas que se utilizan para el cultivo de algas. At present, Nori is cultivated inmost bays along the Pacific
En algunos casos se llega incluso a la siembra artificial y al cultivo desde
coast of Japan and inland sea areas. About 50 000 families
semilla. Si aumenta la demanda de algas, aumentara tambien la produc-
tion de algas cultivadas. Para ello sera necesario esfprzarse por aumentar are engaged in its cultivation on Nori grounds about
de zona de cultivo, mejorar la calidad de las 70000 ha
los rendimientos
por unidad in area. They produce about 8-10 thousand
cosechas y reducir los costos de production.
Se han realizado muchos esfuerzos para mejorar la propagation de las
million sheets of Nori, having a value of Yen 80-100
1
algas. Entre las medidas utilizadas con eficacia para algunas algas thousand million .
potassium and iodine, and various medicines, as shown in 2.1.1.2 Techniques of Nori cultivation. The methods of
Table I. Japanese and east Asians have particular prefer- Nori cultivation and recent changes in its production are
ences for seaweeds as food, and most of the seaweeds shown in Figs 1 and 2.
harvested are consumed as foodstuffs. In western countries, (a) Collectors or cultivating devices: Originally, the
however, only little seaweed is eaten, and this because of its structures on which the edible plants (the thalli) were
palatability or as a health measure. However, as the world's grown, were tree twigs, split bamboo poles or bamboo
population increases, with consequent shortage of food branches. Today, nets made with synthetic twine (about 2-
supply, the amount of seaweed may have to be increased in 3 mm in diameter of three-twist yarn) are commonly used.
the future for use as human food. These nets are rectangular, usually about 1 -2 wide andm
The zones are inhabited by
sublittoral belts of coastal 1 8 m long, of about 30 cm stretched mesh. 'Blinds' or
various abundant large-sized seaweeds, sometimes called screens made of split bamboo connected with rope at
an 'aquatic forest'. Such 'forests' are composed mainly of intervals of about 10-15 cm are also used to some extent.
seaweeds belonging to the families Laminariaceae and The nets or blinds are suspended from bamboo poles,
Sargassaceae. The sandy mud bottoms of inland seas and
bays support a thick growth of Zostera, a spermatophyte. USS 1.00=Yen 303.00
403
TABLE 1
THE UTILIZATION OFSEAWEED IN THE WORLD
E: Europe, NA: North America, SA: South America, SAP: South Africa, P: Polynesia, EA: East Asia, J: Japan.
*
Important genera which are cultivated or propagated.
driven into the bottom of the shallow sea so that the flat phyra is now completely dependent on the use of spores
surface parallel to the water surface. These man-made
is from its cultured 'conchocelis stage'. This filamentous stage
structures have many advantages over the old ones: they of Porphyra was originally described as a separate shell-
require less care, are resistant and produce more. boring algal species under the name of Conchocelis, but is
By using these nets, Nori cultivation has been extended now recognized as the sporophyte stage. This stage devel-
to new areas with deeper water. Nori cultivation grounds ops in mollusc shells, from carpospores produced sexually
are also developed by using a floating system. In this by the main plant or thallus (the gametophytic generation).
system, synthetic ropes are supported on the surface of the In turn, the conchocelis produces non-motile floating
sea by buoys and held by anchors. Twenty nets with small monospores ('conchospores') which develop into the
buoys are usually stretched between the ropes. This system thallus the part of the alga which is eaten.
makes it possible to utilize even offshore waters of about Culture of the conchocelis is started in March or April,
20 m depth with strong wave action. generally using oyster or scallop shells as substrates. Re-
(b) Culturing of conchocelis: The cultivation of Por- cently, transparent vinyl films covered with calcite granules
404
ICULTURE OF CONCHOCELIS I of 1-2 mm diameter have been partly used as a substitute
( CONTROL OF LIGHT INTENSITY, for shells. These substrates are placed on the bottom of a
WATER TEMPERATURE, SPECIFIC GRAVITY )
shallow tank filled with seawater to await 'seeding' with
carpospores from the parent thalli.
["ARTIFICIAL SEEDING
Carpospores are obtained as follows. A suspension may
I
together and set out in the sea. Shells or pieces of film with
mature conchocelis are put into vinyl bags, which are hung
under the nets in order to collect conchospores on the net
twines. Sometimes the layered nets are placed in a large
sealed vinyl bag containing conchocelis-bearing shells and
sea water. The bag is left floating on the surface of the sea.
405
bottom. Conchospore attachment to the nets is induced by meshed bamboo or plastic, and dried. The drying has to be
this movement which up the spore-containing sea
stirs carried out quickly at a moderate temperature, commonly
water. In another method, the nets lie on the water surface lower than 50C, and drying is completed in 2-3 hours.
and the tank water is stirred by compressed air bubbles Under these conditions, the thalli are kept alive until the end
forced through lateral pores of pipes lying on the bottom. of the procedure so that their good qualities, such as
Again, the contact with and attachment to the net fibres is glossiness, sweet odour and good taste are enhanced.
facilitatedby keeping the water in motion. When the quantity of the plants harvested exceeds the
There are several advantages in artificial seeding. In manufacturing capacity, the plants can be stored temporar-
outdoor seeding, attachment of spores to the nets is en- ily at about -20C
after about 50% reduction of their
sured. With indoor seeding, regulation of spore density on moisture by centrifuging.
the net twines is possible, and the operation is not affected (g) Reclamation of Nori grounds: The following condi-
by the weather. tions are required for a suitable Nori ground: (/) sufficient
(d) Preparation of young buds: Layered nets, 20-40 in exchange of sea water by currents and waves, (//) good
number, which are set for seeding, are separated into sets nutrient supply, and (iii) moderate inflow of fresh water.
each of 5-6 layered nets and attached to new supporting About ten years ago, civil engineering principles were
poles or rafts. The germlings are exposed naturally to the air introduced into Nori cultivation. Waterways have been dug
at ebb tide under the pole system and artificially by eleva- to improve the exchange of water and distribution of fresh
tion of the nets in the floating system. The cultivators water.
control the period of exposure according to climatic and sea (h) Breeding of Porphyra and introduction of exotic
conditions, so that the buds do not suffer from severe species: Today the most common species of cultivated
drying out and the growth of harmful weeds and diatoms. Porphyra are P. tenera and P. yezoensis.
When the buds are 5 r 30 mm
in length, some of the Selection and transplantation of specific populations of
nursery nets are removed from the cultivating ground. Porphyra can be accomplished easily through conchocelis
These nets are dried until the moisture of the young buds is culture and artificial seeding. Cultivators have recently
diminished to about 20-30%. The nets are then packed in selected some useful lines from populations of P. tenera and
polyethylene bags and put into cold storage at -20C. P. yezoensis which have characteristics of high growth and
Here buds can be kept alive formonths. The
more than six disease resistance. Exotic species of Porphyra which have
refrigerated nets can be used to increase production as a excellent characteristics were also introduced from Argen-
later crop or as a back-up or security measure when the tina, Canada and the Federal Republic of Germany.
planted Porphyra suffers from severe disease. In the past, (i) Indoor artificial culture: Indoor artificial culture
when too many nets were set up during bud rearing, these techniques were recently established by an industrial chem-
buds suffered damage, resulting in a reduction of harvest. ical company. In this method, the conchocelis are cultured
This problem has now been solved by reducing the nursery free without substrates and the fronds are also floated. A
nets in each cultivating ground to a manageable number. free-living culture is very suitable for Porphyra production
(e) Growth and harvest: In about 50 days after germina- because it is much easier to prevent its contamination by
tion, the plants have grown to 1 5-20 cm in length and are bacteria, yeast, fungi and unwanted algal cells. The frond
ready for the first harvest. After the first harvest, other buds culture medium and apparatus are unique.
on the net will grow to be harvested in another 1 5-20 days. The method has not beenindustrialized, however, as the
The harvest from a net can be repeated several times during production cost too high and a recent increase of the
is
the same season. When a crop on a net decreases after harvest indicates oversupply from cultivating grounds.
repeated harvests, the net is replaced with a new net which
has been kept under refrigeration and can produce a crop in 2.1.1.3 Problems of Nori cultivation. The Nori harvest
1 5-30
days. The amount of Porphyra thalli harvested each attained a total of about 10 thousand million sheets in
time is generally equivalent to 500-2 000 sheets of dried 1973. This created an oversupply of the products, es-
Nori per net. pecially those of low quality, which led to low market prices
At times, disease occurs in association with unsuitable and a decrease in the net income of Nori cultivators.
weather, environmental conditions in the sea and with Moreover, mechanization of cultivation has raised produc-
overpopulation of the plants on the cultivating ground. The tion costs, especially those of small-scale operations. The
trouble is prevented fairly well by controlling the number of most serious problem in Nori cultivation is its administra-
nets to be set out. tion. In order to stabilize its economics, the cultivators have
In some cases, where the nutrients are poor, or when a to make every effort to increase the harvest per cultivating
shortage of nutrients occurs, the cultivating grounds are unit, produce a high quality of product and reduce the costs
fertilized to get a better quality of harvest. of production.
Today, the plants are harvested rapidly by machines In the near future, Nori cultivators will be divided into
which are adapted for each rearing system. By using two groups: one group going over to mass production, the
these machines, labour at sea is reduced and disease pre- other going into small-scale operation to produce a special
vented. quality of Nori.
(/) Processing techniques: Harvested Porphyra thalli are Under these situational changes, one can expect that: (/)
processed into dried products having rectangular shapes by Decreases in harvest which are generally caused by dis-
the cultivators themselves. All of the operations are now ease will be prevented by techniques to forecast and
mechanized. The harvested Porphyra thalli are washed prevent disease occurrence. (//) Each cultivation process
thoroughly with sea water to remove contamination, such will be simplified and improved in order to reduce produc-
as diatoms and mud, chopped into small pieces and placed tion costs, (tit) Product quality will be improved through
in fresh water. The thal)i are then spread on screens of fine development of efficient fertilizing techniques and disease
406
prevention, (iv) Breeding of new lines and the use of exotic districts and developed gradually in other areas throughout
species, especially those with rapid growth and more resist- the country. Cultivation was also developed remarkably by
ance to diseases, will increase. expansion of the cultivation grounds in offshore waters. At
present, U. undarioides and U. peterseniana are also culti-
2. 1.2Republic of Korea. Porphyra plants have been culti- vated to some extent in the southern districts.
vated for many years in most of the coastal waters in Recent changes in Undaria production are shown in Fig.
southern Korea except in some waters of the eastern coast. 3, where production from cultivation and natural beds is
In the thirties the cultivation was developed rapidly by described separately. The total production is now more
introducing a new technique, in which split bamboo screens than twice that produced before cultivation started. Produc-
were used. Ten years prior to the second world war, Korean tion from cultivation is over 100 000 tons, exceeding the
Nori products amounted to about one thousand million harvest from natural beds.
sheets, most of which were exported to Japan.
After the second world war, production decreased for a 2.2. 1.2 Techniques of cultivation. The life history of Un-
time and then increased again. In 1 970, it was reported that daria, in simplified form, consists of an alternation of
Korean production reached two thousand million sheets. generation between: (/) an asexual form (the sporophyte)
Recently, however, the amount of Nori exported to Japan which constitutes the principal or macroscopic algal body,
has been reduced. and (it) the sexual gametophyte which is microscopic in
Under these circumstances, cultivation techniques did size. The sporophyte produces motile
diploid zoospores
not advance much second world war. Most of the
after the fromsporophyll area. These settle on a substrate, where
its
cultivation devices consist of split bamboo screens and they germinate to produce the gametophyte. From the
bundles of bush, and only a few nets are used. Modern union of the latter's sexual products (sperm and egg) a
techniques, such as artificial seeding, cold storage of zygote produced which develops into the sporophyte. It
is
nursery nets and the floating net system are not much used. is this
sporophyte the thallus and fronds which is eaten.
If the domestic consumption and export of Nori were to be Fig. 4 is a process flow diagram of Undaria cultivation.
increased, Nori cultivation would have the possibility of (a) Spore collection and germling culture: Preparation
improving its techniques and increasing its harvest because for seedling culture begins at the end of the season when
there are many waters suitable for Nori culture and an Undaria plants mature and develop zoospores (in May-
abundant labour force in the Republic. June in northern waters, in April-May in southern waters).
'Seedling twines' are now usually used for spore collection
2.1.3 China. In China, Nori cultivation began after the and the culture of germlings. The material used for seedling
second world war and has since developed gradually in twine is mostly synthetic fibre-spun yarn, 2-3 in mm
many localities. The techniques of cultivation and manufac- diameter. The 100 m long twine is wound around a square
ture of Nori have lagged behind those of Japan, and nets
and bamboo branches are still used as cultivation devices. It
is reported that steps are now being made to improve the
for Undaria seedlings. Fig 3. Annual changes in Undaria production from the cultivation
of natural beds
Cultivation advanced mainly in the bays of northern
407
attachment by epiphytic organisms diminishes. Seedling
ARTIFICIAL SEEDING]
twines are attached to a rope (10-20 mm
in diameter, of
synthetic fibres) at suitable intervals. Sometimes the twine
is cut into short pieces, 5-6 cm in
length, and inserted in
[CULTURING OF SEEDLING I
twists of the rope. The cultivation ropes are set in the sea
( SEEDLING-TWINE )
with some kinds of cultivation equipment. In rough waters,
( IN THE TANK ) ( IN THE SEA )
the 1 00 m long cultivation rope is held in the sea with buoys
and anchors, and often many branches of cultivation rope
are hung from the main rope. In calm waters such as those
IREARING OF THAUI"! in a bay, the cultivation ropes are stretched out horizontally
( RAFT SYSTEM ) ( FLOATING ROPE SYSTEM ) in the sea by rafts.
The water depth for setting the cultivation ropes is 0-3 m
in the northern low temperature districts, and 1-5 m in the
southern high temperature districts.
The cultivation of Undaria was at first carried out in
calm bays with simple rafts, but it has gradually progressed
to the open sea using the floating rope system, and is now
\7
[SALTING | [DRYING | |REFRIGERATING|
even carried on in waters of about 50 m
depth with strong
wave action.
Good growth of young thalli is expected at water temper-
atures of 15-1 7 C, but it is delayed at lower temperatures.
The large pinnate thalli elongate well at temperatures below
12-13C. However, the growth of plants may be depressed
at temperatures below 5C.
Rapid currents and strong
wave action are suitable for growth of the plants, but may
damage the cultivation devices.
SALE
(c) Harvest and manufacturing: When the thalli have
Fig 4. Process flow diagram of Undaria cultivation grown to more than 50-60 cm in length, the cultivation
rope is hauled up to a boat and the thalli cut off with a
plastic frame, 50 x 50 cm, at intervals of about 1 cm. sickle. When the density of Undaria plants is high at a
Mature sporophylls of Undaria which have been par- locality favoured with a long period of optimal temperature
placed in a tank filled with fresh sea water.
tially dried, are for thalli growth, a number of thallus groups are produced,
After a large number of spores have been released into the which differ from each other in growth. In such cases, the
sea water, the sporophylls are removed. The 'string' or groups of well developed thalli are harvested first. This
twine frames are then arranged in layers inside the tank to thinning process promotes more rapid growth in the re-
collect the zoospores. After one to two hours the frames are maining groups of underdeveloped thalli. In this way,
removed and hung vertically in culture tanks about 1 m in harvesting from a rope can be repeated several times. When
depth. The so-called seedlings which develop are cultured the density is low, the thalli are harvested by first cutting off
throughout the summer. Within the tanks, according to their upper portions leaving the remaining portions to grow
changes of water temperature, light intensity is regulated so up again. In a locality with a short period of optimal
as to keep the growth of the gametophytes in good condi- temperature for thallus growth, it is recommended that all
tion and their survival rate at high level. If necessary, the the thalli be harvested at once when most of them have their
tank water is changed, circulated or supplied with nutrients. maximum growth. The selection of methods depends on the
Germlings of Undaria develop in the autumn when the economic value of the crops. The harvest from 1 of m
water temperature drops below 20C. The frames with cultivation rope in a season is about 10 kg in wet weight in
their seedling twines are taken from the tanks and sus- the northern waters and about 5 kg in the southern waters.
pended in the sea from a raft in order to raise the germlings Most of the products are dried in the sun or in a dryer,
into healthy young thalli until they grow 2-3 cm in length. and sold as dried Undaria. Some of them are sold salted and
In northern waters, where the period of seedling culture some raw according to local demands. Some thalli are
is short and invasions of fouling seaweeds and animals less stored under refrigeration. The refrigerated Undaria and
severe, tank cultureis not always used and the seedlings are some of the dried product are submerged in water again and
cultured directly in the sea by hanging the frames from a salted for sale.
raft The depth of the frame is regulated according to (d) Transplantation: In Undaria, even the same species
seasonal changes of water temperature and the degree of may have a differing thallus growth and product quality,
insolation. depending upon the habitat. However, the characteristics of
In recent years, however, the culture of Undaria seed- a population such as the growth rate and thallus shape are
lings has been carried out mainly in tanks and a large maintained to some extent through two or three generations
lumber of public and private nurseries of Undaria have after it has been cultivated at a place remote from its native
Dten set up all over Japan. The annual production of locality. Transplantation of those Undaria characterized by
jeedlings in terms of the total length of seedling twines is superior qualities may therefore be carried out
estimated to be 60 million m.
(b) Growing Undaria thalli: Operations for growing 2.2.1.3 Problems of Undaria cultivation. In the last few
Undaria thalli start in autumn (September-November) an oversupply of Undaria, especially
years, there has been
vhen the water temperature falls below 20C and danger of products of low quality. Consequently, the price of the
408
product and the net income of Undaria cultivators has Isoyake. It has been found recently that feeding on young
have to make an effort to increase
fallen. Cultivators will buds by grazers is one of the reasons for the phenomenon.
their income through the production of a high quality When a seaweed population has been reduced through
product and reduction of the production cost. some accident, abalones, turbos (Turbo), sea urchins (echi-
However, the nutrient requirement of Undaria is com- noids) and other grazers may consume the remaining sea-
paratively low, and
cultivation devices, especially the
its weeds and ingest the young seaweed buds which are neces-
floating rope system, are resistant to strong wave action. sary for recruitment. Consequently, seaweed population
Consequently, profitable cultivation can be expected in the recovery is very slow and transplantation of cultured seed-
sea.
open lings coupled with prevention of invasion by grazers may
Under these circumstances, one can expect that: (/) The be useful for recruitment (see 3.1 below).
harvest per cultivation unit will be increased and produc-
tion costs reduced through the development of culture 3.1 Improvements in techniques
techniques to produce more healthy seedlings, as well as The techniques used are both biological and engineering,
development of techniques to prevent ingestion of young used separately or together.
buds by grazers, such as isopods, snails and fish. (11) (a) Provision of artificial substrates: It has proved effec-
Development of efficient fertilizing techniques will improve tive to set stones or concrete blocks into or around the
product quality. seaweed ground to enlarge the seaweed beds and increase
natural algal crops such as Laminaria and Gelidium. The
2. 2. 2 Republic ofKorea, In about 1960, the use of seedling yield in the areas where new substrates are set is nearly the
twines was started in the Republic of Korea and the cultiva- same as that in the adjacent natural beds. This method can
tion of Undaria began with the introduction of techniques not be effectively applied to: areas of low productivity,
from Japan. This cultivation developed gradually in many Isoyake areas, and areas where the new substrates are
localities on the south coast. moved away by wave action or become embedded.
Recently, public and private nurseries of Undaria seed- These improvments are often combined with setting out
lings have been established in many places. The annual mother plants or seedlings of Undaria, Eisenia, Ecklonia
production of seedling twines is estimated to be about 14 and Sargassum in areas where native plants do not exist.
million m. The total amount of harvested Undaria is about (b) Blasting rocky reefs or rock surfaces: Rocky reefs
30-40000 tons, of which the production through cultiva- are blasted with dynamite to modify the depth of rock and
tion attains 6-7000 tons in raw weight. to expose new rock surfaces for seaweed propagation. The
Undaria has recently been in oversupply, as the amount blasting also results in the expansion of surface area by
of domestic consumption and of export to Japan did not scattering the rock blocks, and is useful in eliminating
increase as expected. If consumer demand for Undaria injurious weeds. The method is adapted successfully in the
increases it will, however, be possible to increase its
propagation of Undaria and Laminaria.
cultivation. (c) Weeding: Perennial marine weeds, such as Phyllo-
spadix and Sargassum, are likely to cover the beds of useful
2.2.3 China. After the second world war, both Undaria seaweeds such as Laminaria, Undaria and Gelidium, re-
and Laminaria cultivation were industrialized in China. sulting in their reduced production. These harmful weeds
Thirty thousand tons of raw product was produced are eliminated with tools by diving or from a boat. This
mostly Laminaria. The production from Undaria cultiva- operation is found to be effective in increasing the Undaria
tion appears to be increasing and will so continue in future. crop for a season and the Laminaria and Gelidium crops
for one or two years.
(d) Control of harvestingmethods and period: Harvest-
3 Improvements seaweed propagation
in ing methods and periods are controlled to prevent a de-
Many efforts have been made in Japan to increase the crease in released spores due to unlimited harvesting of
natural production of useful seaweeds such as Laminaria, immature plants. In Undaria and Gelidium, maximum
Undaria and Gelidium. These improvements in propaga- production is usually attained by enforcement of prohibited
tion have been carried out mainly with the support of the harvest periods. In Japan, the methods and periods of
Government, but local self-governing bodies and fisher- harvesting are controlled by the fishermen's co-operative
men's co-operative associations have also made individual association which is given the privilege of seaweed harvest.
efforts to increase natural production. (e) Transplantation of mother plants: Mother plants
In Korea, work has also been done to increase the natural held in the twists of a rope or tied with rope are held down
harvest of Undaria. by sinkers on natural beds or artificial substrates, aiming at
Recently, attempts at aquatic 'afforestation' to improve ensuring spore attachment and an increase in population
spawning and nursery grounds for coastal marine life and to density. With some littoral algae, the mother plants are
provide more seaweed as feed for useful shellfishes, or as a fixed on the rock surface with cement. This work does not
conservation measure, have been carried out in Japan and appear to be very effective except with Hizikia and
the USA. Sargassum.
Sometimes large seaweeds almost disappear over exten- (/) Sowing: Asuspension of spores is prepared by
sive areasand calcareous algae overgrow rocky bottoms. inducing spore release from plants which have been par-
This phenomenon, which is called 'Isoyake' (decadent sea tially dried and then immersed in sea water. Sometimes, in
shore) in Japanese, lasts for several years. It causes a the case of Hizikia, embryos are collected by shaking the
reduction in the production of useful seaweed and abalonc mother plants in sea water. The suspension of spores or
(Haliotis) and also affects the production of marine fishes. embryos is poured onto a resurfaced rock by wading out to
Many studies have been made to determine the causes of the it during ebb tide. Sea water is sprinkled on the fixed spores
409
or embryos to protect them from drying until the rock cage is in the shape of a box (1-5 x 3 x3 m) or a cylinder
surface is submerged. This operation is quite effective with (3-10 m in diameter and 3 m high). The cage remains as
littoral algae, such as Hizikia and Gloiopeltis, in increasing protection from grazers until the plants become adult. This
their production. method has been tried in the southern districts of Japan and
(g) Transplantation of cultured seedlings: Spores or similar trials have been made in California.
embryos are collected on twines or nets in a tank and are
cultured. When buds appear, the seedling twines, which are 3.2 Problems of seaweed propagation
wound on concrete blocks, and nursery nets to which The advancement of methods to improve propagation in
sinkers are attached, are set down on rocky reefs or newly natural beds depends on the economic situation. For
method is applied to Undaria,
established substrates. This example, the expenditure for setting out substrates is re-
Eisenia, Ecklonia, Sargassum and others. The plants covered within 4-5 years in Gelidium propagation and
which develop on the twines and nets form the basis of new within 5-8 years inLaminaria-, but the use of such methods
aquatic forests. for Chondrus or Gloiopeltis is not profitable, because the
In the US, seedlings of the giant kelp, Macrocystis, have period of cost-recovery may be as long as 20 years.
been cultured on plastic rings and the rings set on rocky However, since seaweed resources are useful both for
substrates using an underwater epoxy cement. Methods for harvest and as aquatic forests, their propagation should be
the mass culture of Macrocystis embryos and their disper- continued and improved even without direct profit within a
sal into the sea have been developed in the US recently. short period of time. As the growth of cultured plants is
Macrocystis seedlings attached to polyethylene film sub- greatly influenced by natural environmental conditions,
states or glass fibre cloth substrates are cultured in a care must be taken to ensure selection of the right places
refrigerated room in a long tray through which chilled, and right times for artificial propagation. In the future, the
filtered and sterilized sea water flows. The embryos growing techniques which can alter conditions, such as current,
on the substrates are scraped off, suspended in sea water wave action and light intensity may have to be developed in
and dispersed on a rocky sea bottom by pouring them down order to improve seaweed propagation.
through a hose. Sometimes, dispersal is aided by a diver
who scrapes tiny plants off the substrate near the rocky
bottom. These methods seem to be effective in the restora- 4 References
tion of kelp resources.
CHAPMAN, V. J. Seaweeds and their uses. London, Methuen, 304 p.
1970
Transplanted buds are often eaten by gastropods and MIURA, A. Porphyra cultivation in Japan. In Advance of
phycology in
J. Tokida and H. Hirose, Jena, Gustav Fisher
other grazers, resulting in failure in their propagation. Two 1975 Japan, edited by
pp. 273-304
methods have been tried to prevent this damage to the buds. NISHIZAWA, K. (ed.), Proceedings of the seventh international seaweed
One method is to try to supply these grazers with additional 1971 symposium. Proc. Int. Seaweed Symp., 7 646 p. :
food by cultivating a large amount of seaweed at or near the OKAZAKI, A. Seaweeds and their uses in Japan. Tokyo, Tokai Univer-
1971 sity Press, 165 p.
surface of the sea as a substitute for the food otherwise SAITO, Y. Undaria. In Advance of phycology in Japan, edited by
1975 J Tokida and H Hirose, Jena, Gustav Fisher, pp. 304-20
provided by young planted buds. These trials have been
SUTO, S. Manculture of seaweeds and its problems in Japan. NO A A
carried out on a large scale in northern districts of the
1974 Tech. Rep. NMFS Circ., (388): 7-16
Pacific coast of Japan. In the other method, after the UEDA, S., IWAMOTO, K. & MIURA, A. Suisan Shokubutsu-gaku
1963 (Marine botany). Tokyo, Kosei-sha Kosei-kaku, 640 p.
concrete blocks wound with seedling twines bearing young
buds are set out, they are covered by cages pf synthetic fibre
W M. KECK LABORATORY OF ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH ENGINEERING,
1971-73 CALIFORNIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY. Kelp Habitat
twines and the harmful grazers in the cage are removed. The Improvement Project. Annual reports. 1970-73
poles) total PPs 700, thus providing a net income for the first quarter advantageous if planting areas were at a premium.
only (when expenses are higher) of PPs 2 225. The net annual income to During the 1970-74 period, farmed Eucheuma has increased from a
a family would be about PPs 10 250 or USS 1 360. (Present family negligible quantity (0-6 tons in 1971) to an estimated 10 000 tons in
income in the Philippines is about USS 400.) Larger size farms seem to 1974, while wild Eucheuma has declined from 534 to 75 tons. In 1974
have the potential to compete advantageously with other crops including there were 2 249 families farming it in the Tawi-Tawi and Sulu areas.
sugar and coconuts. Export values rose during 1970-74 from USS 168210 to US$
A farm site for Eucheuma cottonii must be in a coral reef protected 4 533 750. In 1973 the gross value of E. cottonii was USS 20 378/ha
from storms, and shallow enough to facilitate driving poles but deep compared with USS 2 576/ha for sugar. The industry is stabilizing. It is
410
estimated that the annual production level for the Philippines is about souches a croissance rapide et a fort rendement en carragenates, ainsi que
3 500 dry tons with an annual growth of 1096 representing the total sur les affections de ces algues. La societe Marine Colloids Inc. s'effbrce
world demand for E. cottonii. actuellement de realiser aux Philippines la croissance vegetative de E.
Early technological, political and economic difficulties in establishing spinosum, que Ton utiliserait a la place de iota carrageenan, mais n'a pas
seaweed farms in the Philippines have been largely overcome. The major encore trouve de clone adequat. La demande totale n'excederait sans
research on E. cottonii has been undertaken by the University of Hawaii doute pas 4 000 tonnes de produit an.
par
and Marine Colloids, Inc. More research is required on faster-growing Dans le cadre des efforts entrepns pour trouver une autre methode
strains with higher carregeenan yields and on disease. Marine Colloids is d'approvisionnement du marche en carragenates, la societe Marine
now attempting to grow E, spinosum, used for iota carrageenan, vegeta- Colloids Inc. a effectue depuis Pete de 1974 des experiences sur E.
tively in the Philippines but has not yet found a suitable clone. The total isoforme, dans les Florida Keys (Etats-Unis), en recourant a un systeme
demand would probably not exceed 4 000 tons annually. de culture en reservoir a fort coefficient de capital. Dans ce systeme, une
Marine Colloids, looking for an alternative method of developing a amenee d'air provoque une turbulence qui maintient les algues en
supply of carrageenan, has been experimenting with E. isoforme in the suspension dans 1'eau, leur permettant ainsi de recevoir la lumiere solaire
Florida Keys, USA, since the summer of 1974 using a capital-intensive et les nutriments en quantite suffi sante. Les temperatures, Peclairage et la
tank system. A tank of water is agitated by air to keep the alga in fertilisation sont controles. L'on fait actuellement des comparisons
suspension to receive adequate sunlight and nutrients. Temperatures, entre la culture en reservoir et les sur le terrain. Le
exploitations
light and fertilization are controlled. Comparisons between tank-reared programme actuel prevoit deux etapes: (/) localisation de souches qui
and field plants are in progress. The present programme has two steps: (/) resteront viables pendant toute Pannee de maniere que Ton puisse
location of strains which remain viable throughout the year so that seed entretemr un stock de reproducteurs durant Phiver, et (//) regeneration
stock can be maintained through the winter, and (//') to regenerate the du stock de reproducteurs a chaque pnntemps a partir de spores issus de
seed each spring from winter -germ mated spores. germinations hivernales.
pesos, soit USS 1 360 (a 1'heure actuelle, le revenu d'une famille ingresos familiares en las Filipinas son de unos USS 400. Granjas de
Philippine est de quelque USS 400). II semble que de plus grandes grandes dimensiones parecen poder competir ventajosamente con otros
cultivos, incluidos azucar y coco.
exploitations pourraient concurrencer avantageusement les autres cul-
tures, y compris la canne a sucre et le cocotier.
Una granja de Eucheuma cottonii debe hacerse en zonas de arrecifes
coral in os protegidas contra las tormentas y poco profundas, para que sea
La culture d' Eucheuma cottonii doit se faire dans un recif corallien
facil colocar las suficientemente profundas para que
protege des tempetes, assez peu profond pour que Ton puisse y enfoncer pertigas, pero
des perches, tout en 1'etant assez pour etre 1'eau a maree queden cubiertas en baja marea. El flujo de agua debe ser bueno y la
reconvert par
basse. Le flux de 1'eau doit etre suffisant et sa temperature annuelle doit se temperature anual del agua de 26-32C. Han de evitarse los fondos
situer entre 26C et 32C. II y a lieu d'eviter les fonds couverts de sable
arenosos blancos y las zonas donde viven herbivores, asi como las zonas
blanc et les habitats qui hebergent des herbivores. On n'installera pas les de tifones o las areas con grandes variaciones estacionales. Es necesario
hacer ensayos para determinar con certeza si el emplazamtento es
exploitations dans la zone des typhons, ni dans des secteurs exposes a de
fortes variations saisonnieres. L'on doit confier a des unites pilotes le adecuado.
som de determiner avec certitude si le site convient a ce genre d'activite. Existen dos sistemas de cultivo: (/) el cultivo en redes, para el que se
Deux modes d'exploitation ont etc mis au point: (/) la culture en filet utilizan panos de red de 2,5 x 5 m atados a cuatro pertigas y colocados
utilise un engin de 2,5 x 5 m attache a quatre perches et tendu parallele- paralelamente al fondo. Las lineas de polietileno de la red tienen 127
intersecciones, en cada una de las cuales se amarra con una tirilla de
ment au fond. Les fils en polyethylene du filet se recoupent en 127
intersections; a chacune de celles-ci on attache un morceau & Eucheuma plastico un trozo de Eucheuma de 100 g. Cuando la planta alcanza
de 100 g au moyen d'une fine bande en plastique (tie-tie). Lorsque les 1 200-1 500
g se poda. reduciendola a 500 g, y el proccso continua. El
plantes atteignent de 1 200 a 1 500 g, on les ramene a 500 g en les
producto obtenido con la poda se seca en proportion 10:1 y se vende
seco. (//') El cultivo en una sola hilera, ideado por los acuicultores, ha
taillant et ainsi de suite. Les emondes sont sechees au taux de 10:1 et
reducido la manutencion. ya que las plantas permanecen mas limpias. Es
vendues a Petal sec. (//) La culture monoligne. mise au point par les
el metodo mas utilizado actualmente. Sin embargo, la denstdad de
exploitants, a reduit Pentretien a de simples soms de proprete et elle est
maintenant la principale methode utilisee. Toutefois, la densite des plantas por nv es menor que en el cultivo en redes y este sistema podria
ser menos ventajoso si las posibles zonas de cultivo fueran escasas.
vegetaux au metre carre est plus faible que dans ie cas de la culture sur
filet, etce mode d'exploitation peut etre moins avantageux lorsque les Durante el periodo 1970-74, la produccion de Eucheuma cultivada
aires de plantation font prime. ha aumentado de una cantidad insignificante (0,6 toneladas en 197 1 ) a
Pendant la periode 197(>-74, la recolte d Eucheuma de culture s'est
1
un total estimado en 10 000 toneladas en 1 974, mientras la produccion
accrue, passant d'une quantite negligeable (0,6 tonne en 1 97 1 ) a quelque de Eucheuma natural ha disminuido de 534 a 75 toneladas. En 1 974 se
&
10000 tonnes en 1974, alors que la recolte Eucheuma sauvage a dedicaban a su produccion 2 249 familias en las zonas de Tawi-Tawi y
diminue, tombant de 534 a 75 tonnes. En 1974, Ton cpmptait 2 249 Sulu. El valor de exportacion ha aumentado en el periodo 1970-74 de
families exploitant cette algue dans la region deTawi-Tawi et de Sulu. La USS 168 200 a 4 533 750. En 1973, el valor bruto de la produccion de
valeur des exportation s'est elevee de USS 168210 en 1970 a E. cottonii fue de USS 20 378/ha, frente a USS 2 576/ha en el caso del
USS 4 533 750 en 1974. En 1973, la valeur brute de E. cottonii azucar. La industria se esta estabilizando. Se calcula que el nivel anual de
atteignait USS 20 378/ha par comparison avec USS 2 576/ha pour la produccion de las Filipinas es de unas 3 500 toneladas de producto seco,
canne a sucre. L 'Industrie est en cours de stabilisation. L'on estime que la con un aumento anual del 10%, cifra que representa la demanda mundial
production annuelle des Philippines est de quelque 3 500 tonnes de total de E. cottonii.
Las dificultades tecnologicas, politicas y economicas encpntradas
produit sec, et que sa croissance est de 10% par an, ce qui represente le
total de la demande mondialc de E. cottonii. inicialmente para establecer explotaciones de algas en las Filipinas se
Les difficultes techniques, politiques et economiques auxauelles on nan con exito. Las principales investigaciones sobre E. cottonii
superado
s'est heurte a Porigine pour etaolir les exploitations de culture des algues han sido realizadas por la Uniyersidad de Hawaii y por Marine Colloids,
aux Philippines ont etc largement surmontees. Les principales re- Inc. Son necesarias mas investigaciones sobre variedades de crecimiento
cherches sur E. cottonii ont etc effectuees par PUniversite d'Hawaiet la mas rapido, con mayor rendimiento de carragenano y menos expuestas a
societe Marine Colloids Inc. De nouvelles recherches s'imposent sur des enfermedades.
411
Marine Colloids esta intentando rcproducir yegetativamente en las Eucheuma spinosum has not shown the same progress. It
Filipinas E. spinosum, utilizado para la production de carragenano iota,
has been supplemented with a programme to develop a
pero aun no ha encontrado un clono adecuado. La demanda total no seria
probablemente superior a 4 000 toneladas al ano. capital-intensive tank culture system for such iota carra-
Para encontrar otro sistema de abastecimiento de carragenano, Ma-
rine Colloids ha realizado experimentos con E. isoforme en los Florida geenophytes. Experiences with this experimental pro-
Keys de los Estados Unidps desde el verano de 1974, utilizando un gramme with E. isoforme in the Florida Keys, USA will
sistema de tanques que requiere empleo intensive de capitales. Un tanque also be described.
con agua se agita, introduciendo aire, para que las algas se mantengan en
suspension y reciban luz solar y nutrientes suficicntes. Se controla la
temperatura, la luz y la fertilization. Se estan realizando comparaciones
entre plantas criadas en tanques y en su medio ambiente natural. El 2 History of development
programa actual incluye dos fases: (/) localization de variedades que
puedan cultivarse todo el ano, de modo que sea posible mantener
A$ early as 1 966, experiments were conducted with vegeta-
reservas de semillas durante el invierno, y (//) regeneration de las tivegrowth oft Eucheuma cottonii in the Philippines. Subse-
reservas de scmilla todas las primaveras utilizando esporas germinadas
quent work under the direction of the University of Hawaii
en invierno.
(Dr. Maxwell Doty) and Marine Colloids, Inc. demon-
strated that Eucheuma cottonii could be grown vegetatively
and had the ability to grow at a rate that would make
1 Introduction
economic sense. Once this had been accomplished, the
The seaweed, Eucheuma cottonii, is a red alga (family
transition from experimental and demonstration farms to a
Solieriaceae) that produces kappa carrageenan which gives
commercially significant industry was executed by Marine
it commercial importance (Fig. 1 ). Carrageenan is a food
Colloids (Philippines), Inc.
stabilizer with various applications. It is extracted from red
The system by this firm for rapid expansion of
utilized .
3.1 Assumptions
(/) Location: Southern part of the Philippines.
(//) Size of farm: One-half ha reef allocated by a munici-
pal council.
(Hi) Source of labour: Owner-operated, assisted by wife
and three children.
(iv) Type of farm: A line type constructed from 300-
1 10 Ib (135-50 kg) test nylon monofilament lines, 10 m
long attached at both ends to poles placed in parallel rows.
Each line has 25-30 plants for a total count of 7 500
plants.
(v) The harvest: The initial wet weight of the seedling is
200 g which, after 90 days, has grown to 3 kg. The total wet
harvest is approximately 22 500 kg from which a dry
Fig L Eucheuma cottoni plant saleable weight of 2 250 kg is recovered.
412
(v/) Selling price: P.Ps. 1.30/kg. The price has fluctuated stable, and have been sited in a coral reef (as shown in Fig.
but is stabilizing as shown below. 2) with an almost total absence of seasonality producing
relatively constant environmental conditions. Lately, there
3.2 Statement of income and expenses has been some success in the fanning of . cottonii in areas
4 Method of farming
Up to now, most of the farms have been located in the south
of the Philippines where environmental conditions are
413
light. Although the technique appears simple, several years Calculations by Dr. Doty and Mr. Alvarez indicate that, in
of experimentation were required to develop it and techni- 1973, the gross value of E. cottonii/ha was US$ 20 378 in
cal guidance is necessary to start a new farm and make it comparison with a gross value of US$ 2 576 for sugar/ha.
profitable.
The fanners have improved upon the method described
above by using monolines rather than nets. This reduces 6 Stabilization
maintenance to a minimum; the individual plant keeps Inasmuch as E. cottonii produces pure kappa carrageenan,
cleaner and is free from silt. This method has the disadvan- there a limited market for the seaweed because the total
is
1 The problems
There have been three orders of problems in the establish-
ment of seaweed farms in the Philippines. The first were
technological, but through the assistance of the University
Atthe height of production in 1 974, there were approxi- of Hawaii (with the help of US Sea Grants), the problems
mately 2 249 families (4-8 persons/family) farming and were eventually overcome and the technique of growing E.
producing seaweed in the Tawi-Tawi and Sulu areas. The was successfully developed.
cottonii vegetatively
number of seaweed buyers increased, and a major effort was The second problem, no doubt equally as serious, was
made by all purchasing companies to break into the pro- used in its broadest sense, referring to
political ('political' is
curement of E. cottonii which, for the first time, represented
any relationship with government or representatives of the
a resource available in unlimited quantities.
people at any level). Many problems of such a nature
slowed development in the early days, but there has also
5.2 Value been excellent co-operation on the part of various govern-
The export value of E. cottonii rose in line with the produc-
ments which has accelerated the farming of E. cottonii.
tion, but also rose because the price paid to the farmers had Keen understanding and desire on the part of the people's
been substantially increased over the previous price paid
representatives has been a considerable asset in establishing
for wild seaweed. The price of 10-12 centavos/kg in the
the farms.
mid-sixties, and 50 centavos/kg later on, increased with the Another problem was created by the competitive ele-
advent of farming to PPs 3/kg. This attracted many people, ment that existed in the early days of farming. Some
as indicated above, to E. cottonii farming. As a matter of
competitors, unwilling to recognize that there was an abun-
fact, it attracted too many people. dance of seaweed, paid extremely high prices and monopo-
The export value of seaweed from the Philippines is
lized the original seedstock. These high prices created a
shown below: false impression that lured too many farmers into the
system. Some of these competitors stopped buying once
they had purchased all they wanted; thus, the competitive
situation created a false condition for some time, which is
now being rectified. There is no doubt that a high degree of
grow E. cottonii commercially, Marine Colloids (Philip- until well into October, when there was a drastic change in
pines), Inc. is attempting to grow E. spinosum commer- tank conditions. The plants had been maintained with low
cially. This red seaweed, which is used commercially for level illumination at night, and were being fertilized daily.
iota carrageenan production, grows in the Philippines in a This cycle was interrupted for one day in mid-October and
number of regions and considerable work has already been within 24 hours all of the plants in the tank became
done at a farm in Ilo-Ilo to grow it vegetatively. So far, no reproductive and shortly thereafter began to disintegrate as
'magical' clone with a fast growth rate and ability to resist do the field plants. This brought the experiments with this
unfavourable conditions has been found. No doubt this species of Eucheuma to an abrupt halt for most of the
would help expand and accelerate the farming of E. winter.
1976. Again, the demand for E. spinosum is a finite quan- field had grown to about 20 cm while the holdfasts in the
systems in various countries. One such capital-intensive field plants;tank plants not given any additional fertilizer
programme is described below. lagged behind the others. As the water temperature in the
When it became obvious that the cultivation of E. spi- Keys approached its summer peak, plant growth slowed,
nosum was not going to be as rapidly successful as that both in the tanks and in the field.
achieved with E. cottonii an alternative method was sought
t During the late summer to help understand the experi-
for developing a controlled commercial supply of this raw ence of the previous year in temporarily arresting the onset
material. Some measure of success had been achieved in the of reproduction in the plants an attempt was made to
cultivation of Chondrus crispus in Canada, and it was induce reproduction by dropping the water temperature
decided to use the same basic mechanical system on a prematurely, and by artificially shortening the length
species of Eucheuma native to coastal waters of the United of day. Neither of these moves was successful, and
States. The species selected was E. isoforme. The location during September 1975 the plants in the tanks became
selected was
the Florida Keys, a chain of islands extending reproductive on the same schedule as the plants in the
from the tip of southern Florida into the Gulf of Mexico. field.
The basic cultivation system used was a square tank with Based on these experiments a two-step programme for
a slanted bottom, its water agitated by bubbling air into the tank culture of Eucheuma has been initiated. The first step
deepest part of the tank. This established a circulation is to locate strains which remain viable throughout the year.
pattern strong enough to keep the dense E. isoforme in Such populations are known in Florida coastal waters. This
constant suspension. This assured that all plants would will allow maintenance of seed-stock through the winter,
receive their share of sunlight and be uniformly exposed to even if the growth is insignificant during that period, and
the dissolved nutrients in the sea water. harvest only during the six month growing season.
The variety of E. isoforme selected was known through The second approach is to regenerate the seedstock each
research conducted at the University of South Florida. It spring from spores germinated during the winter. A
pro-
showed extremely fast growth in the spring and early gramme is underway to develop techniques for operating a
summer, with stagnation of growth in the autumn. The winter sporeling nursery. Through these efforts, it is ex-
plants became reproductive and disintegrated in the autumn pected that the farmed E. spinosum will be supplemented
and early winter. In the spring, fresh thalli emerged from the with tank-cultured material until one or the other reaches a
holdfasts and new plants were germinated from spores cast stage where the carrageenan industry can be assured of an
by mature plants in the autumn. adequate supply.
415
Chapter VI Aquaculture in Raceways, Cages and
Enclosures
416
water after treatment. Land-based fish farms allow maxi- on the marine life in the area and help clarify the suitability
mum supervision but the critical factor in site selection is of the area for fish farming.
the permissible freshwater abstraction rate. Prior to acqui-
sition of the site, the quality of the water should be deter-
mined by regular sampling to check on its basic constitu- 3 Construction techniques
ents as well as the presence of toxic chemicals polluting the Construction techniques vary throughout the world, de-
riverupstream of the fish farm, and here the whole pending on the type of farm and species. In fish farm design
catchment area should be checked for possible pollutants it is essential to gear the facilities and materials to local
417
talEurope in both the intertidal and sublittoral zones has
stemmed mainly from the large sea enclosures constructed
in Japan for the farming of the finfish 'yellowtail' (Seriola
quinqueradiata).
418
Identification: 1-Nylon 1-m mesh; 2-Ulstron 1-in; 3-Courlene 1
Fig 4. Marine fouling test panels, each 0-66-m square from Loch Sween, Scotland, after ten months' immersion
Having carried out basic research into the design, con- Development Authority constructed a 40 ha pilot project
struction and hydrography of sublittoral net enclosures, it for farming milkfish (Chanos chanos) in a water depth of
isrewarding to see successful enclosures of this type being 1-5 m. Although the lake fishermen were sceptical of the
builtthroughout the world. success of such a project, the acceptance of change has now
A similar technique using bamboo poles instead of been recognized, and by 1973 some 1 5 00 ha of bamboo
galvanized scaffolding has been used at Laguna de Bay in enclosures were in use.
the Philippines (Fig. 6). Initially in 1970 the Lake Laguna Sublittoral enclosures for Atlantic salmon farming have
Fig 5. Galvanized scaffolding and galvanized weldmesh used to form Fig 6. Bamboo barricades constructed for milkfish farming in
two 12-m square fish enclosures at Faery Isles, Loch Sween, Laguna de Bay near Manila in the Philippines
Scotland
419
engineering study of the fish husbandry techniques required
for succesful operation of this type of enclosure.
FISH ENCLOSURE
j-WATER LEVEL _
FLOATS ON HEADROPES f
SMALL WEIGHTS
ON FOOTROPE
ITROPE SECURED TO
CHAIN-LINK BETWEEN
CONCRETE SINKERS
Fig 8. A floating fish net barrier design for providing large enclosures for milkfish farming in Laguna de Bay, Philippines
420
vertical net. This section of netting also acts as an assurance pended from a bamboo framework supported by either old
against the lake water level rising to 7 m
(the 1 00 year flood steeldrums or polydrums. The sizes of these cages grew
condition, which occurred in 1972) since the net will rise rapidly from 2 m square up to a normal 7-9 m size with a
into a vertical position thus maintaining a fish seal. This maximum of 14m. Unfortunately, at the same time as the
technique of using horizontal floating net sections has fish harvest was increasing so was the deterioration of the
already proved successful for farming Pacific salmon (On- bamboo poles and the fouling of the polydrums. To combat
corhynchus) in Japan as described in section 3.3.2. the latter, polythene bags are now used to cover the drums
To spread the load of the forces due to water movement and these are replaced each year rather than cleaning the
and wave action from the fishing net down to the sinkers, a drums themselves. The bamboo poles must, however, be
latticework of nylon ropes is provided. In practice, the The fish bag nets also foul during
replaced every 2-3 years.
complete latticework of nylon ropes, nylon netting and the summer months, restricting the water flow and thus
chain-link footrope will be assembled on the shore, ferried require changing and cleaning regularly one set of yel-
to the site on a floating barge, lowered into position and lowtail fish cages at Shirahama in the Inland Sea has its nets
connected to previously placed and buoyed sinkers. The changed every eight days, although in most cases once a
only underwater work involved will be the attachment of fortnight is sufficient.
the chain-link risers from the sinkers to the chain-link The continuous replacement of the bamboo poles due to
footrope. One considerable advantage in a floating enclo- their deterioration in sea water has caused concern. Some
sure system is that there is no need for any allowances for yellowtail farmers, especially at Sakaide have now started
wind forces on the exposed sections of netting and struc- to use galvanized steel collars for their floating fish cages.
tures,where typhoon damage is normally caused. Another These collars are fabricated from four *L' sections of
advantage is the ease of access for boats, since no boat locks galvanized structural scaffolding bolted together to give a
are required and smooth-bottom boats may slide over the 7 m
square framework. This technique offers considerable
net, provided the engine's propeller is lifted clear or scope to the prospective fish farmer who does not wish his
shielded with a fairing. With such a flexible floating net capital costs to escalate.
enclosure technique, this method can be applied universally The problems in Japan of deterioration of bamboo poles
to any part of a shore line, thus simplifying design and and fouling of netting have been studied by Professor T.
construction. Harada, Director of the Fisheries Laboratory of Kinki
University at Shirahama. To provide a rigid collar for
3.3 Floating fish cages supporting the fish retention bag net, Professor Harada has
The decade has seen a considerable expansion in the use
last now transferred his allegiance from indigenous materials to
of floating facilities for aqua-farming, and this has increased galvanized steel, which is much stronger and has a much
the potential development of aquaculture throughout the longer life than the bamboo, but he is still using polydrums
world. There are three very important advantages in the use sheathed in polythene bags. These new cages are circular
of floating techniques. Firstly, they can be used in areas and are constructed in two sizes. The small 8 m diameter
where the sea bed unsuitable for traditional shellfish
is cages 6 m deep were used for the first time in 1972,
farming; secondly, by using off-bottom methods predators followed by the use of larger 14m diameter cages 7 m deep
can be more easily controlled with less loss of stock; and, in the spring of 1973 (Fig. 9).
422
marine fouling on the netting. Site fouling tests carried out 7 References
on different materials before the selection of the ultimate CARSTENS, T, Salient features of coastal waters for aquaculture. Paper
1974 presented to the NATO workshop on waste heat and nutrient
material may save considerable time on maintenance and
loaded effluents in aquaculture, Solstrand, 30 p.
cleaning, as differential growth rates have been observed in DELMENDO, M. N. & GEDNEY, R. H. Laguna de Bay fish pen aqua-
Scottish tests (Milne, 1975b). 1976 culture development Philippines. Proc. Annu. Meet. World
Maricult. Soc., 7: 257-65
Predator control is another problem. For shellfish the
HUNTER, C. J. & FARR, W. E. Large floating structure for holding
use of off-bottom culture techniques will prevent starfish 1970 adult Pacific salmon ( Oncorhynchus spp.) J. Fish. Res. Board
and crab losses. For surface cages and enclosures, some Con., 27: 947-50
LANDLESS, P. J. An economical floating cage for marine culture.
form of high level netting is essential to keep out birds. 1 974
Aquaculture, 4 (4) 323-8 :
In the last five years the total world production from 1972 95-9
aquaculture has doubled to over 6 million tons per annum. MILNE, P. H. Hydrography of Scottish west coast sea lochs. Mar Res ,
Mekong Basin
Abstract Au Kampuchea, les cages sont faites de tiges et d'ecailles de barnbou,
The traditional cage culture techniques in Kampuchea and the adapta- frequemment renforcees de planches et de poutres de bois. Les dimen-
tions of these techniques used in the southern part of Viet Nam
are sions des cages varient entre 40 et 625 m et Ton eleve notamment des
3
described. In Kampuchea, cages are made of bamboo poles and splints Pangasius, des Clarias, des Channa, et des Oxyeleotris. Les alevms
which are often reinforced with wooden planks and beams. Cages vary in destines a la mise en culture sont preleves dans la nature, et les poissons
size from 40 to 625
3
m
The major genera cultured include Pangasius,
. sont nourris de produits animaux ou vegetaux locaux. D'apres une
Glorias. Channa and Oxyeleotris. Fry for stocking are obtained from enquete realisee en 1969, 946 cages fonctionnaient au Kampuchea.
natural sources and fish are fed with local vegetable or animal products. La pisciculture en cages a etc entreprise dans la partie mcridionale du
According to a survey conducted in 1969, there were 946 cages Viet Nam par des immigres du Kampuchea et la technique prend
operating in Kampuchea. rapidement de Pextension aupres des pecheurs et entrepreneurs du pays.
Cage culture was initiated in the southern part of Viet Nam by On estime actuellement a 10 000 le nombre de cages fonctionnant dans
immigrants from Kampuchea, although the technique is rapidly gaining la partie mdridionale du Viet Nam. Les dimensions des cages varient
popularity with Vietnamese fishermen and entrepreneurs. There are now entre 60 et 181 m et peuvent durer
3
dix ans. Parmi
approximativement
an estimated 10 000 cages operating in the southern part of Viet Nam. les principaux genres eleves on citera Barbus et Leptobarbus (dans 6 1 %
Cages vary in size from 60 to 181 m 9
and have an average life of 10 des cages), Pangasius (20%) et Channa ( 1 8%). On rccueillc les alevms
years.
The most important genera cultured include Barbus and Lepto- dans la nature avec des barrages, des nasses, des sennes coulissantes et
barbus (in 6 1% of the cages), Pangasius (20%), and Channa ( 1 8%). Fry des carrelets. On les stocke a des densites qui varient entre 80 et 361
3
are collected from natural sources with weirs, traps, seines and dip nets, alevins/m Les poissons sont nourris de produits animaux et vegetaux
.
and stocked at densities varying from 80 to 36 1 fry/m 3 Fish are fed with
. locaux et I'indice moyen de conversion alimentaire est de 4,0. L'elevage
local vegetable and animal products and the average feed conversion rate s'etend sur 9 a mois. suivant 1'espece et Ton estime entre USS 2 500
1 1,5
is 4-0. Period of culture
ranges from 9 to 1 1 5 months depending on the et USS 3 1 500de la recolte, sort 3 000 a 25 000 kjg/cage/an.
la
yaleur
species, yielding a harvest of 3 000-25 000 kg/cage/year valued at US$ Les frais de fonctionnement de la pisciculture en cages dans la partie
2 500 to US$ 3 1 500. Operating costs for cage culture in southern Viet meridionale du Viet Nam oscillent entre 120 et plus de 300% des
Nam exceed capital investment by 120 to over 300% while net returns investissements en capital, pour un benefice net rapporte au cout total de
on between 12 and 44%.
total costs are generally I'ordrede 12 a 44%,
Cage culture is not subject to the many inherent problems of pond La pisciculture en cages n'est pas aflectee par les nombreux problemes
culture and it is recommended that more emphasis should be placed on de la pisciculture en ctangs et Ton recommande de chercher a elaborer
developing sound cage-culture practices. des pratiques culturales rationnelles en cages.
Pisciculture en cages flottantes dans le bassin inferieur du Mekong Cultivo de pecet en Janlat flotantes en la cuenca baja del rio Mekong
Resume Extracto
On decrit les techniques traditionnelles de pisciculture en cages et Se describen las tccnicas tradicionales de cultivo en jaulas en Kampu-
1'
adaptation de ces techniques dans la partie mendionale du Viet Nam. chea y las adaptaciones de esas tecnicas utilizadas en el sur de Viet Nam.
423
En Kampuchea las jaulas se construyen con varas y tablillas de bambu,
reforzadas con frecuencia con travesanos y vigas de madera. Las dimen-
siones de las jaulas varian de 40 a 625 j
m, y los principaJes generos
2 Traditional cage culture in Kampuchea mixture of salt, mud and leaves into the cage. The efficacy
Bamboo poles and splints are the basic materials used to of these measures has not been systematically evaluated.
construct fish cages in Kampuchea. Large cages are often According to a survey conducted for the Mekong Com-
reinforced with wooden planks and beams. Generally, mittee in 1969, a total of 946 cages were operating in
cages trailed behind boats or those moored near shore are Kampuchea. Of these, 723 were located in the Mekong
box-shaped, while cages that form part of a fisherman's boat itself and the rest in the Great Lake/Tonle Sap sector
are streamlined to fit the shape of the boat (Fig. la). Cages (Overseas Technical Cooperation Agency, 1969). Cage
vary considerably in size with large cages being 4-5 m culture is generally considered a lucrative practice here.
424
ent sizes in Chou Doc province, which has by far the largest
number of cages. The total number of cages in operation in
southern Viet Nam is estimated to be in the region of 10 000.
centres of cage culture in southern Viet Nam. Other prov- observed a sample of 25 cages, ranges between 60 and
in
An Giang and Phnong Dinh. Official figures based on local to shore or moored near shore in rivers and their tributaries
census records indicate that there are 7 000 cages of differ- (Fig. 3). They are buoyed by airtight metal drums. While in
by stocking cages with readily available fry of any species. favourable and fluctuate around 4-0. One exception, how-
A recent Mekong survey of 173 cages (Rainboth et al, ever, was an instance where the common carp was cultured
in an experiment monitored by staff of the Mekong Com-
1974) has shown that barbs are cultured in 61% of the
mittee. The fish were fed on a mixture of rice bran, fish meal,
cages, pangas in 20%, murrels in 1 8% and miscellaneous
species in 1%.
and soya bean cake. With this feed, the conversion rate
obtained was 1 8.
3.3 Stocking
Cages are stocked with 38-63 mm
( 1 5-2-5 inches) fry of 3.5 Production
the desired species, usually during August to October. Harvesting usually takes place during March to August,
Some cage owners, however, prefer to stock fingerlings or after a culture period ranging from 9 to 11-5 months (see
even early juveniles. Fry are obtained from natural sources, Table I) depending on species cultured. Maximum produc-
such as rivers, canals and paddy fields, with weirs, traps, tion per unit area appears to be achieved in the case of the
seines and dip nets. Fry are either sold directly to cage common carp, followed by murrels, pangas and barbs in
owners or to wholesalers who raise the fry further in small that order (seeTable I). Some cage owners delay harvesting
cages to fingerling or early juvenile sizes. Although stock- to ensure a higher market price. The size of the harvest
ing large cages directly with fry is initially less expensive, usually ranges from 3 000 to 25 000 kg/cage/year depend-
the wide disparity in size of the fry obtained from fishermen ing on various factors, principal among these being the
has an adverse effect on the total production of fish in the species raised and the quality and quantity of feed
cage. Wholesalers generally grade their stock and sell administered.
fingerlings or early juveniles in lots of uniform sizes. Uni-
formity in size of initial stocking material is generally 3.6 Economics
conducive to increased production in cages. Stocking den- Cage culture of considered to be a very
fish is generally
sity offish fry incages varies with the species. An analysis lucrative practice. For number of cages
this reason, the
of random samples of cages (Table I) has indicated that operated has been increasing very rapidly in recent years,
3
stocking density for murrels is about 80 fry/m for pangas ,
particularly near urban centres. Annual income from a cage
varies generally from US$ 2 500 to US$ 31 500.
3 3
93 fry/m , for barbs 361 fry/m (Rainboth et al 1974) and
3
for common carp 107 fry/m . Fish food the major operating cost in cage culture
is
TABLE I
426
TABLE II
COSTS AND INCOMES IN CAGE CULTURF IN VIET NAM
a
Convertedat the rate of VN. Ptrs. 605 = USS 1.00
*
Boats, motors, pumps, food choppers, grinders, etc.
r
38-63 mm (10-2-5 inches) long
d
No expenditure on this item for the first three years
*
This cage was only one year old hence no expenditure on this item
instance of common carp culture, the net return over total type of aquaculture; its productivity is 10-20 times higher
investment was 183% as a result of high production cou- than that of pond culture for comparable inputs and area.
pled with the prevailing high market price offish. Benefit/ Cage drawbacks inherent in
culture also eliminates the
cost ratios (Pantulu, 1 974) at 1 5% discount rate for the two pond due to flooding, seepage
culture, such as loss of stock
cage-culture operations shown in Table II, are estimated to and evaporation losses and the resultant need for water
be 1 6 1 for an enterprise in Chou Doc and 3- 67 for one in replacement, problems of pond excavation in marshy and
Bien Hoa. waterlogged areas, dependence on soil characteristics
Despite the profitability of cage culture, the high capital which are not always favourable, and the inescapable prox-
and high recurring costs involved make it necessary for the imity to agricultural areas and chances of contamination of
fishermen to seek loans. At the time the survey was con- ponds by agricultural chemicals. Fish cages can be located
ducted in 1 974, bank loans were difficult to obtain, particu- conveniently in waterways and water areas near urban
larly for the cage-owning fisherman who was considered a market centres, ensuring supply of fresh fish without expen-
sive preservation and transportation.
poor financial risk. Relatively rich entrepreneurs could
easily obtain loans at favourable rates of interest. Interest
Another factor limiting fish farming in ponds is the
rates fluctuatedbetween 12 and 30%, depending on the increasing demand on land for agricultural, industrial and
source and the size of the loan. habitational uses which are likely to make suitable land
unavailable for aquaculture and even encroach on existing
3.7 Sociological aspects pond sites and operations. The increasingly rapid adoption
It is reported that 70% of the cage owners in southern of modem techniques of intensive agriculture and the con-
Viet Nam
are migrants from Kampuchea and the rest are comitant hazard of contamination of aquaculture opera-
tions by agricultural chemicals is more immediate in the
relatively more affluent local entrepreneurs (van Heck,
1974). The immigrant cage owners tend to live together in case of pond culture than in cage culture. In view of this, it
is perhaps reasonable to consider cage culture as one of the
floating villages of their own (see Fig. 3). Each fisherman
generally owns one cage and has the role of an owner-cum- important aquaculture practices that will prevail in the
operator, living with his family in a dwelling built over his
future. Research institutions and organizations charged
cage. Some absentee urban owners who have other occupa-
with developing aquaculture might, therefore, devote more
tions own more than one cage, the maximum number attention to the development of cage culture. It is suggested
owned being These absentee owners employ hired
ten. that agencies responsible for the development of aquacul-
hands to live and work on their cages. After installation of ture consider establishing cage culture experiment stations
his cage, the operator prepares the feeds and feeds the fish. in different regions with a view to developing scientifically
The more enterprising owners fish for or collect feed items, sound culture practices.
such as small fish, molluscs, and plants, as well as fry for
stocking. The harvest from the cages is usually purchased at
site by merchants in carrier boats.
427
A Review of Cage Fish Culture and its A. G. Cache
Application in Africa
Abstract examinees: (/) C. carpio 35+kg/m Vmois et davantage (pour une duree
Cage culture which originated in the Far East and was introduced
offish, d'elevage atteignant 3,5 mois); (//) /. punctatus 20 kg/mVmois (9
into the USA
and Europe, has had virtually no practical application in mois); (Hi) T. nilotica 1 7
kg/mVmpis (4 mois); et (iv) S. gairdneri
Africa. Cage culture of fish has numerous advantages over other culture 15+kg/mVmois et davantage (4 mois).
techniques but there are some serious limitations which must be taken Pour ce qui est du cout des differentes activites de pisciculture en
into consideration before it is applied on a large scale. cages, on a determine que les frais d 'alimentation representaient la plus
The most commonly reared species in cages include: (/) in fresh grosse partie (60%), suivis de la main-d'oeuvre ( 1 3,5%), des installations
water Cyprinus carpio, Pangasius spp., Silurus glanis, Clarias spp., (8,0%), des frais de fonctionnement (7,5%) et du stock d'alevinage
Ictalurus punctatus and Ophiocephalus spp., and (//) in brackish (6,5%).
water Seriola quinqueradiata, Salmo spp, and Oncorhynchus spp. On en conclut que les techniques de base relatives a la conception et la
Tilapia nilotica has also been reared experimentally in cages in fresh- construction des cages sont disponibles et que les progres de la piscicul-
water ponds. ture en cages ne sont freines que par les difficultes d' adaptation des
The types of cages used for fish culture can be classified into: (/') techniques a la situation des nouvelles zones.
surface cages resting on the bottom, thus occupying the full water
column; (//) cages floating at the surface; (///) cages submerged, either
floating in mid-water or resting on the bottom. Ideally, cages have to be Examen de la piscicultura en jaulas y su aplicacion en Africa
inexpensive, durable and easy to handle. These criteria are met in Extracto
different ways depending on the materials available locally, on the type La piscicultura en jaulas, que comenzo en el Lejano Oriente y paso luego
of culture undertaken and on the possible investments which may be a los Estados Unidos y a Europa, no ha tenido virtualmente ninguna
made according to local economic conditions. aplicacion practica en Africa. El cultivo de peces en jaulas tiene varias
Artificial feeds used in cage culture vary from raw materials obtained ventajas respecto a otras tecmcas de cultivo, pero hay tambien algunas
locally to nutritionally -balanced pelleted feeds. While most of the feed- graves limitaciones que hay que considerar antes de aplicarlo a gran
ing is by hand, the use of mechanized feeders is increasing. escala.
Fastest growth rate in freshwater cage culture has been recorded for Entre las especies mas comunmente criadas en jaulas figuran: (/) en
Cyprinus carpio, which grow from 40-80 g to 400 g in about four aguas dulces Cyprinus carpio, Pangasius spp., Silurus glanis, Clarias
months and can reach 800 g in 6-8 months. Growth of Ictalurus spp., Ictalurus punctatus y Ophiocephalus spp.; y (//) en aguas sa-
punctatus is also good (700 g in 7-8 months), while Salmo gairdneri has lobres- Seriola quinqueradiata, Salmo spp.; Oncorhynchus spp. Tam-
slow growth rate ( 100 g in four months). Tilapia nilotica appears to have bien se ha en jaulas, en estanques de agua
criadp experimentalmente
intermediate growth rate, as the average growth during experiments in dulce, Tilapia nilotica.
Lake Kossou, Ivory Coast was 1 20-200 g. Lostipos de jaulas utilizados en piscicultura pueden clasificarse en
The stocking rate of fish in intensive cage culture varies
initial tres grupos: (0 jaulas que emergen en la superficie y descansan sobre el
according to the species, generally between 15 and 25 kg/m', but the fondo, ocupando, por tanto, toda la columna de agua; (/'/') iaulas flotantes
total production of cages increases as the initial biomass increases. The en la superficie; o (m) jaulas sumergidas, bien flotando an media agua o
average maximum production per month for the principal fish species descansando sobre el fondo. Lo ideal es que las jaulas scan poco
studied is summarized as follows: (/) C. carpio 35+kg/mVmonth costosas, duraderas y faciles de manipular. Estos critenos se atienden en
(when reared for 3-5 months); () /. punctatus 20kg/mVmonth (9 diversas formas en distintas partes del mundo, segun los matenales de
months); (///) T. nilotica 17kg/m'/month (4 months); and (/v) S. que se dispone localmente, el tipo de cultivo de que se trata y las
gairdneri 15+kg/mYmonth (4 months). mversiones que son posibles de acuerdo con las condiciones economicas
In considering the costs involved in various cage culture activities, locales
feeding costs were highest (60%), followed by labour (13-5%), facilities Los piensos artificiales utilizados para la piscicultura en jaulas varian
(8-0%), operational costs (7-5%), and seed stock (6-5%). desde matenas primas obtenidas localmente hasta piensos granulados
It is concluded that the basic technology for the design and construe bien equilibrados desde el punto de vista nutncional. La mayor parte de
tion of cages appears to exist, and the difficulty in developing cage la alimentacion se hace a mano, pero va en aumento el empleo de
culture in new areas lies in adapting the technology to local conditions. alimentadores mecanicos.
La tasa mas rapida de crecimiento en el cultivo en jaulas en agua dulcc
Revue de la pisciculture en cagei et de ses applications en Afrique se ha conseguido con Cyprinus carpio que crece de 40-80 g a 400 g en
Resume unos cuatro meses y puede alcanzar 800 g en 6-8 meses. Tambien el
La pisciculture en cages, qui a etc realisee en premier lieu en Extreme- crecimiento de Ictalurus punctatus es bueno (700g en 7-8 meses),
Orient puis aux Etats Unis et en Europe, rfa jamais ete pratiquee en mientras el ritmo de crecimiento de Salmo gairdneri es lento ( 00 g en 4
1
Afrique. Elle offre de nombreux avantages par rapport aux autres meses). La tasa de crecimiento de Tilapia nilotica es media: el creci-
techniques encore qu'elle connaisse certames limitations importances miento promedio registrado en expenmentos en el Lago Kossou, en la
dont il faut tenir compte avant de la pratiquer a large echelle. Costa de Marfil, fue de 1 20-200 g.
Les especes les plus frequemment elevees en cages sont notamment: La tasa inicial de siembra de peces en el cultivo intensive en jaulas
2
(0 en eau douce Cyprinus carpio, Pangasius spp., Silurus giants, varia segun la especie, generalmente entre 15 y 25 kg/m ,
y la produc-
Clarias spp., Ictalurus punctatus et Ophiocephalus spp.; et (//') en eaux cion total de las jaulas aumenta a medida que aumenta la biomasa inicial.
saumatres Seriola quinqueradiata, Salmo spp., et Oncorhynchus spp. La produccion media maxima por mes de las principales especies de
On a egalement pratique Felevage experimental en cages de Tilapia peces estudiadas ha sido la siguiente: (/) C. carpio 35+kg/m Vmes
nilotica dans des etangs d'eau douce. (criadas durante 3,5 meses); (U) I. punctatus 20 kg/m Vmes (9 meses):
Les cages employees en pisciculture sont de plusieurs types: (/) cages (///) T. nilotica -17 kg/m Vmes (4 meses); y (iv)S. gairdneri 15+kg/
emergentes reposant sur le fond occupant ainsi toute la colonne d'eau; m Vines (4 meses).
(//) cages flottant a la surface; ou (Hi) cages submergees, flottant entre Por lo que se refiere a los costps necesarios para el cultivo en jaulas,
deux eaux ou reposant sur le fond. L' ideal serait que les cages soient peu estos se desglosan, a saber, los piensos (60%), seguido por la mano de
onereuses, durables et d'un maniement facile. Ces conditions sont obra (13,5%), las instalaciones (8,0%) los gastos de funcionamiento
real i sees de differentes fagons dans le monde suivant les materiaux (7,5%) y los peces para semilla (6,5%).
disponibles sur place, le type d'elevage entrepris et les investissements Se concluye que existe la tecnologia basica necesaria para el diseno y
possibles compte tenu des conditions economiques locales. construccion de jaulas y que la dificultad para introducir el cultivo en
La npurriture artificielle employee dans la pisciculture en cages varie. jaulas en nuevas zonas consiste en adaptar la tecnologia a las condiciones
On utilise des matieres premieres obtenues sur place aussi bien que des locales.
granules equilibres du point de vue nutritionnel. Le nourrissement
s'eflcctue le plus souvent & la main, mais 1'utilisation de systemes
mecanises se generalise.
On a enrcgistre les taux de croissance les plus rapides en eau douce 1 Introduction
pour Cyprinus carpio, qui passe de 40-80 g a 400 g en 4 mois environ et Cage culture offish consists of raising fish from the juvenile
peut atteindre 800 g en 6-8 mois. La croissance de Ictalurus punctatus
est egalement bonne (700 g en 7-8 mois), tandis Salmo gairdneri ne stage to commercial size in a volume of water enclosed on
que
se developpe que lentement ( 100 g en 4 mois). Tilapia nilotica a un taux all sides, including the bottom, while permitting the free
de croissance intermediate; en efTet, au cours d' experiences real i sees
circulation of water through the 'cage'.
dans le lac de Kossou (Cote-d'Ivoire), ce taux a ete de 120 a 200 g.
Dans la pisciculture en cages, le taux d'empoissonnement initial varie Even though this method offish culturewhich originated
3
suivant I'espece; il est generalement de 1'ordre de 15 a 25 kg/m .
in the Far East has rapidly developed during the last
Cependant, la production totale des cages augmente a mesure de
raccroissement de la biomasse originelle. La production mensuelle decade, in the United States and Europe, until lately it has
maximale moyenne s'etablit comme suit pour les principales especes had practically no application in Africa. However, research
428
on cage culture has recently been started. The Kossou Norway, for example, faced with increased organic pollu-
hydroelectric dam in the centre of the Ivory Coast has tionand rising costs of pumped water, now tends to use
resulted in the inundation of a vast region, the loss of floating cages in preference to ponds and enclosures (Brett,
plantations (coffee and cacao), and the displacement of 1974). In fact, for mariculture, cage culture is today con-
about 70 000 people. The subsequent increase in popula- sidered an important technological breakthrough.
tion density around the new lake and the lack of fertile land Cage culture also permits more intensive use of existing
has required diversification of the regional economy and inland waters. In particular, this method is progressively
intensification of the methods of production. Development expanding in the heated effluents of power plants where
of the fishing industry has been officially encouraged and very high fish production can be obtained even in temperate
thus the experiments of rearing fish in cages were
first countries (Anon., 1974a; Collins R. A., 1970; FAO,
started inJanuary 1974 (Coche, 1975, 1977). 1974;Gribanove/a/, 1968;Heald, 1973;Steffens, 1969,
This review was made to define the inherent problems of 1970; Huisman, personal communication). In Africa, the
cage culture with special reference to Africa. It is based on a creation of large man-made lakes can be used to a similar
study of world literature on the subject as well as personal end, although the inherent problems of this cultural method
experience in Africa. will first have to be solved through research (Coche, 1975;
T\BLF I
Advantages Limitations
1. Possibility of making maximum use of all available water resources Difficult to apply when the water surface is very rough
2. Economic use of water
3. Helps reduce pressure on land resources
4. Facilitates combination of several types of culture within one water
body; treatments and harvests remaining independent
5. Easy relocation of culture installations in case of emergency
6. Need for adequate water renewal in the cages for elimination of metabo-
lites and maintenance of a high dissolved oxygen level. Sometimes rapid
fouling of the cage walls requiring frequent cleaning
7. Optimum utilization of artificial food for growth, minimizing its High dependence on artificial feeding. High quality balanced food
conversion rate to fish flesh desirable; in particular proteins, vitamins and minerals. Feed losses
possible through the cage walls
8. Easy daily observation of the fish population
9. Easy control offish reproduction (especially of Tilapia spp.)
10. Easy control of competitors and predators Sometimes important interference by the natural fish population round
1 1. Reduced fish handling and mortalities the cages (carps in particular)
1 2. Parasite and disease control are easier and more economical (es- Increased susceptibility of fish to a dissolved oxygen deficit
429
Siluridae and Clariidae (Hickling, 1962; FAO, 1970; Bandama Valley Authority (AVB) at its Kossou Fishery
Huet, 1970). Development Centre. The possibilities for cage fish culture
Historically, this method of fish culture has progres- in Lake Kainji, Nigeria, as well as in the Niger River
sively expanded to the other Far Eastern countries. It first immediately below the Kainji dam, have been studied by
spread to Thailand, where for some fifty years cages floating FAO (UNDP/FAO, 1975).
inrunning water have been used following the Kampuchean
method (Ling, 1967; FAO, 1970; Bardach, Ryther and
McLarney, 1972). Apparently this technique then ap- 4 Fish species raised in cages
peared in the island of Java, Indonesia, where it was In fresh water the fish species raised in cages essentially
adopted around 1940 as originally described by Vaas and represent five families known for their hardiness: Cyprini-
Sachlan in 1956 (cited by Hickling, 1962). Numerous dae (C. carpio), Siluridae (Pangasius spp. and Silurus
bamboo cages standing along the shores or rivers (greatly giants), Clariidae (Clarias spp.), Ictaluridae (Ictalurus
enriched by town sewage) produced 200 g carps (Cyprinus punctatus) and Ophiocephalidae (Ophiocephalus spp.). Re-
carpio) in four months, without additional feeding (Huet, search has recently begun with Chinese carps in Hungary
1956; Hickling, 1962). and the Netherlands in mono- and poly-culture. In brackish
About ten years later Japan started experimenting with water only two families are largely represented: Carangidae
fish culture in floating cages made from netting material. (Seriola quinqueradiata) and Salmonidae (Salmo spp. and
Seriola quinqueradiata (yellowtail) in brackish water and Oncorhynchus spp.). Several other species are
experimen-
C. carpio in lakes then proved to be excellent producers cages to determine their potential value.
tally cultivated in
(Kuronuma, 1968; Furukawa, 1973; Ling, 1973). By In fresh water, research is particularly concentrated on
1970 the commercial production of fish had reached Salmo gairdneri and various Tilapia species. Among the
52 000 tons (Anon., 1973a)from more than 9 OOOfloating latter, aurea has been experimentally raised in cages
T.
cages covering less than 100 ha of water surface (Furu- suspended in ponds at the Auburn University, Alabama,
kawa, 1973). The present number has been estimated at USA (Schmittou, 1969; FAO, 1969a, 1970b). This re-
more than 1 5 000 net cages and the popularity of this search has shown that this species presents an excellent
method keeps increasing (Brett, 1974). potential for this type of culture. It has a rapid growth and a
Following this success and combined with the develop- high survival rate. It easily accepts artificial pelleted feed,
ment of balanced artificial feeds promoting intensive fish the conversion rate being favourable, and it easily adapts to
culture, the geographic distribution of cage culture has relatively high population densities.
increased during the last decade. Introduced for the first The qualities of Tilapia were confirmed during recent
time in 1 964 into the US in Alabama (Trotter, 1970) active experiment carried out in Kossou with T. nilotica (Coche,
1
research is conducted today in at least ten states. Canada 1974, 1975, 1977). Its adaptability appeared to be similar
(Seguin, 1970), Chile (Arroyo, 1973), Finland (FAO, to that of S. gairdneri and C. carpio, and might be superior
1975b), UK (Milne, 1972) and the USSR (Gribanov etal, to /. punctatus (R. A. Collins, 1972).
1968; Anon., 1974a) are equally interested. Research is One of the principal disadvantages of raising Tilapia in
also being carried out in numerous other countries such as ponds is their reproduction rate. If uncontrolled it leads
Hungary, Ireland, Norway, the Netherlands, Poland, the quickly to overpopulation and stunting. This tendency
Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic disappears in cages where these fishes appear to be unable
Republic. Brett (1974), noting the excellent results ob- to reproduce successfully. Although cage culture does not
tained in Japanese and Norwegian brackish waters, has necessarily stop the reproduction of Tilapia it is very
proposed that this new technology be applied to Canada. unlikely that the eggs, even if fertilized, will be able to
Recently cage farming has been started in the Philippines in develop with success in a floating cage populated with a
Laguna de Bay (Milne, 1974). very high density of fish. Ibrahim, Nozawa and Lema
Even though the commercial production of Ictalurus (1975) mention that and
T. zillii reach matu-
T. esculenta
punctatus in cages in freshwater progresses fairly rapidly in but do not reproduce in spite of the
rity in these conditions
the United States (Trotter, 1970; R. A. Collins, 1970 and low fish density present. Coche (1977) confirms these
2
1970a; Bennett, 1971; C. M. Collins, 1972), the large results .
commercial enterprises generally operate in brackish Up to the present there has been very little experimenta-
waters, in Japan (Milne, 1974), Australia and the UK tion with fish polyculture in cages. It would appear how-
(Milne, 1972; Glen, 1974), Norway (Bardach, Ryther and ever, that it might have real advantages. In Hungary very
McLarney, 1972; Anon., 1973b; Brett, 1974) and in the encouraging results have been obtained by associating the
Puget Sound, Washington, USA (Anon., 1973; Brett, common carp (65%) with Hypophthalmichthys molitrix
1974; Novotny , 1 9 7 5 ). In the USSR the alternate intensive (18%) and Aristichthys nobilis (18%). In 177 days of
raising of carp and trout in heated effluents becomes in- rearing, C. carpio grew from HOg
to 540 g in average
creasingly popular (Anon., 1974a). weight, the two other species growing from 150 g to 360 g
In Central Africa practically no experience in this field and from 17 g to 200 g respectively (Csavas, personal
has been obtained before 1974. Some semi-intensive rear- communication). In Puerto Rico, experiments were
ing was done in Tanzania in Lake Victoria using Tilapia
esculenta and T. zillii (Ibrahim, Nozawa and Lema, 1975).
Recently considered as Sarotherodon niloticus (Trewavas, 1973)
1
430
recently started combining Tilapia aurea and Ictalurus material, particularly in Africa, results in lower initial cost.
punctatus (FAO, 1974a). In the US the cages preferred for commercial culture are
3
made of steel (R. A. Collins, 1970) One particularly well.
In more intensive culture fish culturists prefer synthetic 1975 for experimentation in African conditions (Fig. 2).
netting (eg, Japan) or a rigid metal or plastic meshed
Hermann (1970 cited by Dahm, 1975) recommends the
material (eg, USA). It would appear that in industrial-scale use of netting with twine of 2 1 0/ 1 8 (470 Rtex). The twine
should preferably be dark coloured. If treated with tar it
operations the use of wire mesh is becoming more and more
favoured (Dahm, 1975). Even though this material requires becomes very resistant and fouling is greatly reduced.
rigid supports which increase the weight of the cage thus Square rather than diamond-shape meshes are preferable
requiring more flotation, galvanized wire mesh (/) requires
less cleaning than other materials (especially in brackish
waters Milne, 1972); (ft) is easier to clean in situ than
netting; and (///) is very resistant to corrosion if appropri-
ately treated. On the other hand, polyamide netting (dede-
ron, nylon, capron or perlon) is less expensive (particularly
in Africa). It does not need vertical rigid supports and
431
(Dahm, 1975). Knotless netting, which is more economi- ordinary pellets the feeding box used in small cages of 1
2
m
cal,has demonstrated an overall superiority, at least in area considerably reduces feed losses, especially if the
brackish water (Novotny, 1975). wateris rough and a strong current passes
through the cage
(Coche, 1977).
5.3 Other cage components
Three possible components annexed to cages for fish cul- 5.4 Shapes and dimensions offish culture cages
ture will be separately considered: The shape most generally adopted for cages is box-like with
(/) The flotation system: The flotation of cages at the a square or rectangular base. In brackish water Tatum
water surface can be accomplished in different ways using, (1973, 1 974) used a cylindrical model adapted to research
for example, metal or plastic drums, sealed PVC tubing or needs. Some more elaborate forms (octagonal, decagonal,
stryofoam floats. Milne (1972) and Dahm (1975) present dodecagonal, for example) have been studied in industrial
the different solutions adopted which can be classified into mariculture (Milne, 1972; Anon., 1973b). Today in Nor-
the four following categories: (a) single floats, without a way the most popular floating cages are of octagonal shape
surface structure (net cage); (b) surface structure with (D. Moller, personal communication).
floating elements (net cage); (c) self-floating surface struc- The dimensions of culture cages vary considerably (in
ture (net cage); (d) rigid underwater structure with floating general from 1
3
m
to more than 100 3
m
) according to the
elements (cage made from a stiff mesh such as plastic or kind of construction material used, the type of culture
wire). practised and the local conditions (Table II) (see pages
Kelley (1973) proposes blocks of styrofoam protected 434-5). For research purposes cages of small capacity
against birds by thin aluminium foil and attached along two
J
(0-7-10m ) are generally preferred. For the commercial
sides of the metal cage. A similar kind of flotation has been production of catfish in the United States (250 kg/year per
used with success in Lake Kossou (Fig. 3). Landless (1974) cage), Kelley (1973) recommended a capacity of 1
3
to m
prefers reinforced concrete pontoons injected with styro- facilitate handling and harvest. In contrast, in the Far East
foam. For a similar cage model, but of reduced dimensions, (except in Indonesia) cage dimensions are much larger,
four plastic drums provide adequate flotation (Fig. 2). sometimes reaching 150m 3 Similar capacities are also
.
(ii) The top covering: The presence of an opaque top currently used in European mariculture (Milne, 1972;
cover (Fig. 3) presents several advantages. It reduces the Dahm, 1975), but in the Federal Republic of Germany the
algal growth on the cage walls, stops predation, reduces the net cage recommended for salmonid production does not
risks of theft, and sometimes encourages the fish to feed exceed 27 m j (3x3x3 m Kuhlmann, personal commu-
better. This apparently critical for /. punctatus
last point, nication). In the Netherlands the intensive production of
(Schmittou, 969) 1 of much less importance for 5. gaird-
is rainbow trout and carp is carried out with great success in
neri (R. A. Collins, 1972). A top covering made from a net cages of only 6- 5 m *
(Fig. 3) which holds the food and also decreases its loss, is cages is not a priori advisable. It results in the loss of
somewhat controversial. Extended to the whole surface of several inherent advantages of the cage culture method
the cage it contributesonly limiting the dispersion of
little, (Table I), mainly of management and manoeuvr-
flexibility
food by the fish. If only partial, it favours more aggressive ability. The risks of fish losses also increase. On the other
individuals to the detriment of others. A
feeding ring hand, the investment costs increase in the case of small
measuring 25 x 45 cm did not prove satisfactory in the cages. It remains, however, to be demonstrated, for T.
culture of punctatus larger than 340-450 g (C. M.
/. nilotica in particular, that large capacity cages (more than
Collins, 1 972). For S. gairdneri a partial feeding ring is not m
20 3 ) offer real advantages in comparison to small cages.
recommended (R. A. Collins, 1972). It appears to be much Such a demonstration has not yet been carried out in the
the same in the case of T. nilotica in the presence of a United States for catfish production (Kelley, 1973). For 5.
floating pellet or within a relatively large cage. But with gairdneri it has been shown that a lower limit of capacity
exists for guaranteeing good feed conversion rates (Koops,
1969); cages have to be sufficiently large to reduce feed
losses through the walls caused by turbulence created as the
trout feed voraciously.
432
frequency, nets can be chemically treated. The use of a The dissolved oxygen concentration in the cages can then
copper salt on synthetic fibre reduces fouling by 50% easily reach critical levels, adversely affecting the fishes and
(Brett, 1974). Tar is also effective (Dahm, 1975). In the even endangering their survival. A
good location for cages
Federal Republic of Germany, H. Kuhlmann (personal can also be important. If they are placed within a large
communication) specifically recommends the use of Wie- water mass they should be located where wind-induced
dox Grim (Wiederhold-Farbwerks) every two years. Nets currents are favourable. This can contribute to reduced
can also be easily replaced without any handling of fish. risks of lowered production and increased mortality. The
One net dries on land while the other is in the water. inspection and maintenance of cages would have to become
This problem of fouling of submerged cage parts was more frequent, thus increasing production costs.
discussed at length by Milne (1972) who, after numerous Net cages generally need protection on the outside
experiments in littoral waters of Scotland, concluded that against possible attacks by aquatic predators. In this re-
galvanized metal was superior in this regard. In fresh water gard, either a second net of stronger twine (Figs. 1 and 2) or
this problem is generally less bothersome, although in a lightweight meshed wire may be used (Landless, 1974).
certain conditions the cage walls can be excessively colo- The mesh size of this outside netting should be large enough
nized by bryozoans and sponges (Dahm, 1975). to maintain minimum water exchange. The location of
A
biological method of controlling fouling of cage walls cages is thus very important, particularly if the water mass
in brackish water was used by Tatum (1974) who recom- tends to stagnate, with little renewal. A
sufficient quantity
mends adding 30 Mugil cephalus (average weight 20 g of oxygenated water needs to be assured throughout the
each) per m of cage. At Kossou it was observed that T.
3
testing period to optimize production (Coche, 1977). Pref-
nilotica browse on available algal colonies (eg, Spirogyra erably, cages have to be placed perpendicularly to the
spp.) which may develop on the cage walls (Campbell, principal water currents in relatively shallow water where a
personal communication). continual total circulation is maintained. A
water depth of
Cages constructed from wood (Fig. 4) can be seriously at least 2-5 m however, advisable to keep the cages far
is,
damaged by larvae of Po villa adusta (Fig. 5) (see page enough from the bottom where numerous parasites may
435). This mayfly species is widely distributed in Africa occur or where unconsumed food may accumulate. In the
and notably in East Africa where it is well known by latter case it would be advisable to move the cages to a site
boatbuilders for the serious damage done to submerged where water circulation is more complete.
wooden structures (Corbet, 1957;Hartland-Rowe, 1958).
The wood appears to greatly influence the
quality of the 5.7 Experimentalfloating cages in the Ivory Coast, Africa
frequency of borings; hardwoods (eg, mahogany Khaya The experimental floating cage used in Lake Kossou
spp.) being only slightly attacked after one year of immer- (Coche, 1975) has a rearing capacity of 1
3
m
Constructed
.
sion in Lake Kossou. with hardwood (mahogany Khaya spp.) and covered on
Finally, it should be noted that under certain limnologi- five faces with plastic meshed netting it has a dry weight of
cal conditions, notably when the tannic acid level in the about 40 kg. The use of metal netting practically doubles
water high, corrosion of metal cage parts can proceed
is the weight, thus reducing the manoeuvrability of the cage
very rapidly even in fresh water. For efficient protection and increasing the flotation requirement.
Kelley (1973) recommends the use of a special black paint The
culture cage consists of four distinct parts, (a) The
(Lagotex). cage proper: a wooden frame is assembled with reinforce-
ments at the corners and on the bottom (Fig. 4). This frame
5.6 Effects of the design and location of cages is covered on five of its faces with plastic netting (black
The possible effects of the presence of an opaque cover and Netlon) with mesh openings of 24
2
mm
The fibre is 2
. mm
of a feeding ring have been discussed. The choice of mesh thick; (b) The two floats: blocks of styrofoam
size to be used on the cage sides, however, remains of (0- 1 x 0-2 x 1 m) laterally attached to the wooden frame
fundamental importance. (Fig. 3). (c) The opaque cover: marine plywood fixed to a
Too low a rate of water renewal can strongly decrease wooden frame. A small mobile hatch (Fig. 3) is placed in
fish production (Schmittou, 1969). The total open area the centre over the feedingbox which is also made of marine
(spaces) on the sides of cages should therefore be as large as plywood. This box extends 20-25 cm into the water, (d)
possible. For example, Netlon plastic mesh with 8 mm Thefeeding tray: wooden platform attached laterally across
meshes only provides 60% openings while 24 mm meshes the cage and permanently submerged 30-35 cm below the
offer as much as 85%; however, such large meshes limit water surface. It appears that it might not be necessary and
rearing to individual T. nilotica weighing not less than 25 g. experiments are now in progress to see if it could be
It thus appears that for this species a rigid 20 mesh mm eliminated (Fig. 4).
would be preferable for initial stocking of smaller fish. For
Lpunctatus R. A. Collins (1970) recommends a mesh size
of at least 13 mm
(bar). 6 The feeding of fish in cages
In the case of flexible netting preferable to refer to the
it is 6. 1 Type offeeding
minimum mesh size for gill entanglement of the fish cul- The
artificial food used in the majority of cases (except eg,
tured. For example, for trout-like fish, Kuhlmann (personal Indonesia) represents the sole nutritive source for fish
in
communication) recommends that the mesh size be less confined in cages at a relatively high population density.
than one tenth of the length of the stocked fish. For T. The composition and presentation of the food therefore
nilotica a mesh size of 25 mm
(bar) requires a stocking size greatly influence fish production and the conversion rate.
of at least 70 g live weight. The feeding of fish in cages varies according to locally
On the other hand, the smaller the mesh size the faster available feeds, species cultured and the type of culture
the openings may become clogged by aquatic organisms. practised (Table II). In traditional fish culture the feeds
433
i
i*
ca
q/*
environ
ing rvoi
TVp*
/i</
434
Fig 4. Wooden frame of Lake Kossou experimental cage with
reinforcement at the corners and the bottom. The wood is
mahogany (Khaya spp.) cut into runners 3 x 3- 5 cm thick. Overall
dimensions: 1 x 1 x 1-3 m, Note transverse feeding tray in this
particular model
435
mainly comprise local untreated by-products (rice, rice It has been demonstrated that division of the daily ration
bran, maize, brewery wastes, fresh trash fish) which are into several smaller rations can play an important role
placed in the cages (Kampuchea and Thailand). In com- (Shell, 1967). The need to reduce the interval between two
mercial enterprises, similar feed is only preferred (eg, in feedings to at least 1 2 hours was demonstrated for Trachin-
Japan) absence of industrial feed (a mixture of local
in the otus carolinus (Tatum, 1974) and for young /. punctatus
by-products), balanced (vitamins and minerals) and pro- (R. A. Collins, 1970b), but such a regime does not appear
cessed into water-stable pellets (USA and Europe). These to be necessary for I.furcatus (R. A. Collins, 1970b). T.
pellets aremainly used for commercial production of trout, nilotica has no true stomach and the capacity of its intes-
carp and American catfish. They are normally non-floating, tinal bulb is relatively small. It would therefore appear to be
but floating pellets would appear to be preferable for distri- advisable to divide the food ration into several feedings. In
bution in cages, their consumption and loss being more this case, the daily ration could probably be increased while
easily and better controlled. However, the preparation of still giving an advantageous production and conversion
floating pellets requires the use of high temperatures which (Shell, 1967a). This increase in the frequency of the feed-
apparently results in the deterioration of vitamin C
1
.
ings is equally justified by the relatively slow digestion rate
In super-intensive cage culture the food most often used observed in T. nilotica. For example, brewery wastes re-
in the United States appears to be a trout feed for raceway quire as much as 12 hours to be digested while Clarias
culture (eg, Purina Trout Chow with 40% protein) as well lazera can digest such food in only 6 hours (Micha, 1973).
as a special floating feed for catfish (eg, Purina Catfish Cage
Chow with 36% At Kossou, non-floating pellets 6.3 Conversion rate of artificial feed
protein).
largely made of chicken feed (24-7% protein) have given The conversion rate of artificial feed in cage culture reflects
very satisfactory results (Coche, 1977). the interaction between the fish (size and density), the food
(quality, ration and distribution) and the physico-chemical
6.2 Daily food ration environment (in particular water temperature, dissolved
In cage culture the quantity of natural food accessible to the oxygen concentration and renewal rate of water in the
fish is generally insignificant. The choice of a daily food cage). Among all parameters of fish production the feed
ration in view of conversion rate has been shown as that which is most
optimum utilization of the artificial feed
then becomes much more important than in earth pond affected by unfavourable cultural conditions (Schmittou,
culture. This choice is made more difficult because the 1969). For an identical food ration, utilization of the given
feed decreases as the individual size of the fish increases, or
relationship between feeding rate (expressed in percentage
if the stocking density is too low or too high. On the other
of live fish weight) and conversion rate of this food is
mainly a function of the fish species cultured, the size of the hand, the relationship between the feed conversion rate and
the daily ration being parabolic, utilization also decreases
individuals, the food quality and the water temperature.
There is little information on this subject for fishes in on either side of an optimum ration.
very
general; for T. nilotica in particular, it is practically non- Finally, feed utilization can be greatly diminished if feed
existent. losses through cages are too high. Generally these losses are
436
TABLE III
RESULTS OF C. Carpio REARING IN 6-5 m j
NET CAGES IN HEATED EFFLUENTS OF POWER STATIONS IN THE GERMAN DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC
oxygen concentration in the cage reached critical levels (Csavas, personal communication)
437
months can reach 800 g or more when the initial stocking
it initial biomass (Tables III and IV) up to the optimum rate.
3
(maximum of 14 kg/m )- In heated effluents
rate is average Beyond a certain density, at least with 5. gairdneri (Al-
(25-30C) carp held at this stocking rate have grown to brecht and Gollub, 1 97 1 ), it appears that the fish live under
343 g in 79 days on an average (Table III). At a doubled constant stress which adversely influences their growth.
stocking rate the individual growth still averaged 260g The holding capacity of a cage can be very high, as in
(Stefiens et ai 1969). In slightly colder water (27-17C) American catfish culture (/. punctatus more than 220 kg/
the growth varied between 650 and 1 015 g in 75 to 118 m 3
R. A. Collins, personal communication) and in the
days (Steffens, 1970). The growth of /. punctatus also Dutch culture of C. carpio (at least 1 89 kg/m j Huisman,
appears to be very good, reaching more than 700 g in one personal communication). In Arkansas the holding capac-
3
growing season of 7-8 months at low densitites (7-8 kg/ ity of one cage containing S. gairdneri reached 80 kg/m
m 3 ). S. gairdneri gives a much lower average weight gain; a (R. A. Collins, 1972) and in Alabama more than 100 kg/
little more than 100 g in four months. From the point of m 3
(Tatum, 1 9 73 ). In Florida 166 kg/m was achieved with
3
view of growth in cages, T. nilotica appears to be intermedi- T. carolinus in brackish water (FAO, 1973). Compared to
j
ate between the two groups. In standard trials in Kossou, the above values, the highest holding capacity (76 kg/m )
the average growth in three months varied from 1 20-200 g. reached in 1974 in Kossou with T. nilotica reared for four
T. nilotica is characterized by sexual dimorphism and months cages (Coche, 1977) could be considered as
in
the growth of the males is much higher than that of the is most likely that the maximum holding
relatively low. It
females. In ponds and in monosex culture Micha (1973) capacity has not been reached, and that it would probably
3
observed that the average growth rate of the males was approximate 100 kg/m .
more than 2-5 times higher than that of the females after The maximum production corresponds to the maximum
three to fourmonths of rearing. In Kossou the cage culture holding capacity of a cage. For C. carpio the maximum
final
of a monosex male population equally demonstrated a production appears to be relatively high (Table III). In 1 09
3
better overall growth rate compared to standard popula- days it reached at least 1 3 1
kg/m in the Federal Republic
tions (Coche, 1977), the average growth being 150 g and of Germany (Steffens, 1970). In the Netherlands in 6-5
220 g in three and four months respectively. months it attains more than 1 60 kg/m 3 (Huisman, personal
communication). In nine months, I. punctatus production
3
was close to 175 kg/m (C. M. Collins, 1972). For S.
3
8 Stocking rates and production gairdneri it appears to vary between 55 and 65 kg/m (R.
The production offish in cages decreased under unfavour- A. Collins, 1972; Tatum, 1973). For T. nilotica the maxi-
able physico-chemical conditions. For example, a reduc- mum production was estimated in 1 974 to be about 70 kg/
tion of water exchange by the use of small meshes (6-4 mm m 3
(Coche, 1977).
instead of 1 2- 3 mm) lowered the production of I. punctatus The mortality of fish reared in cages is generally low if
by 50% (Schmittou, 1969). While rearing T. nilotica in correct cultural practices are adopted. In the USA, it varies
Lake Kossou, a comparatively lower production was ob- for /. punctatus between 2 and 1 0% over an average period
served following the deterioration of the oxygen content of of eight months (C. M. Collins, 1972). In Alabama, for
the water due to the annual thermal cycle (Coche, 1977). fishes initially weighing 1 94 g each, it did not exceed 0-4 to
The stocking rate of fish in intensive cage culture varies 0-8% over 40 days (Schmittou, 1969). In the case of high
according to the species, generally between. 15 and 25 kg/ was only 0-6% in
densities of S. gairdneri the mortality
m 3
, but the total production increases with increase in the
four months (R. A. Collins, 1972). With T. nilotica the
TABU IV
SFIFCTFD DATA FOR INTFNSIVF FISH CULTURF IN FLOATING CAGFS (CF TABU III). TMF XVFRAGF PRODUCTION RVTI (APR) is FXPRFSSFD IN
PFRCFNT OF THI AVFRAGF BIOMASS AND PI R DA>
Remarks: (a) 12 cage average, (b) 6 cage average, (c) in brackish water, (d) in heated effluents, (e) average 10 cages 6-5 m '
each, (/*) average 4 cages 6-5 m 1
each
438
average mortality was 5-9% (3-6 months), a value to be The efficiency, in fact, consists of producing fish of good
considered as a maximum (Coche, 1977). The mortality market value with an acceptable food conversion rate
rate can, however, considerably increase if fry are stocked during a given period of time and in a quantity that is
initially. economically beneficial.
The resistance offish to diseases and parasites is particu- Cage-reared fish are preferably marketed fresh, generally
larly important in cage culture because the population after three to eight months of growth, depending on the
densities are relatively high. /. punctatus, for example, artificial feed used and the market value of the fish. The
appears to be somewhat susceptible to bacterial diseases market size varies from one species to another and for the
(C. M. Collins, 1973). On the contrary, T. aurea was same species it may vary by country and even by season. C.
apparently resistant to diseases and parasites in Alabama carpio (except in Indonesia) and catfish (in Asia particu-
(FAO, 1969a). In Africa it has not yet been demonstrated larly) are sold at a relatively large size, more than 600 g in
that this is also the case with T. nilotica. Several serious general (Table III). Cage-reared trout and salmon produced
cases of mycosis were observed in 1975 in Ivory Coast for the growing luxury market of 'pan-size' fish have indi-
which gravely affected the growth of the fish. In Lake vidual weight of approximately 225 g. The Atlantic salmon
Victoria T. esculenta and T. zillii were similarly attacked (S. salar) is sometimes raised to the relatively large size of
(Ibrahim et al, 1975). several kilogrammes. The market size of tilapias varies
Finally, the potential of a fish species is directly related enormously in Africa. In the Central African Empire it is at
to its survival rate in cages even under occasionally un- the most 1 00 g, while in the Ivory Coast it can often be over
favourable conditions. From this point of view, it would 250 g.
appear that T. nilotica has a great potential for cage culture. Very few detailed economic studies have been made until
Physiologically this species is characterized by high ther- now on cage culture of fish. Menzel (1971) studied the
mal tolerance and a low metabolic rate. At
relatively 25C economics of S. gairdneri culture in the German Demo-
the oxygen consumption of 2 g fingerlings is only 14-8 cc/ cratic Republic. For the same country but for C. carpio,
h/ 1 00 g live weight which is 3 7 times less than for similar Steffens et al (1969) discussed cage culture in heated
S. trutta fingerlings reared at their optimum temperature power plants and Albrecht et al (1976) studied
effluents of
(Denzer, 1968). The metabolism per unit of weight de the economics of large-scale cage culture. In a more general
creases as the fish size increases. T. nilotica appears to manner, C. M. Collins (1972) presented a comparative
become particularly resistant to a temporary deficiency in study for the cage culture of /. punctatus in the United
dissolved oxygen when larger than 20 to 30 g live weight. States.
This was confirmed by the observations made in Kossou Within the stocking rate limits described earlier, the cost
where no mortality was observed in the cages following a of fish production per kilogramme decreases and the total
period when the dissolved oxygen content at the beginning net profit increases as the initial biomass increases. Among
of the day was only 0- 7 mg/1 at 26- 7C, which corresponds the various cage culture techniques tested for J. punctatus,
to about 9% saturation (Coche, 1977). C. M. Collins (1972) obtained the maximum profit by
The net productions achieved under experimental and rearing the largest fingerlings (20 to 23 cm) at the highest
commercial conditions (Table II) vary considerably. They density (360/m'). Similarly, in Florida, with the cage-
1
may be summarized as follows: rearing of pompano the highest density (900/m ) gave the
best profit, US$ 160 per cage in about eleven months
(FAO, 1973).
These results therefore suggest that both from the eco-
nomic and biological points of view, the best results are
obtained with relatively high initial biomass. However, this
type of cage culture is more delicate to operate. It requires a
good circulation of clean and well-oxygenated water
If the production rate is expressed in percent of the
through the cages as well as intensive feeding, balanced and
average biomass per day (average production rate APR), adapted to the fish population present in each cage.
appears that it varies relatively little and in general 0-8-
it
The price of feed is a determinant in the production cost
1-6% for the four principal species when intensively culti-
and, similarly, in the possible profits as demonstrated by
vated (Table IV). The highest values (1-6-1-8%) are re- Furukawa (1971 cited by Brett, 1974) for the culture of
corded for C. carpio. They are generally greater than 1% for Seriola quinqueradiata in Japan. This species is mainly fed
/.punctatus, but this value seems to be only exceptionally with fresh trash fish at the daily rate of 5 to 20% of the
reached by 5. gairdnen. Values close to 1 2% were attained biomass.
with T. nilotica. The breakdown of average production costs (percent)
The observed production during the first year of T.
according to the cultural method chosen are as follows:
nilotica cage culture in Kossou therefore appears to be very
PRODUCTION COSTS (PFR CENT)
encouraging. This is particularly so if it is considered that in
a tropical climate favourable conditions for such culture
might exist for at least 300 days each year, 2-3 crops being
produced annually.
9 Fish yield
From the economics standpoint, efficient cage culture is not
necessarily that which produces the highest quantity offish.
439
The feeding costs were highest in cage culture, reaching numbers. They should be modified and intensified if the
60% of the total expenditure. In this particular type of goal of increased fish production by cage culture is to be
culture an effort must therefore be made to reduce these reached.
costs to a minimum. This is the most urgent problem to
overcome in Africa at this time.
11 Acknowledgements
Mr. D. Campbell, now responsible for the AVB aquacul-
10 Conclusions ture programme in Kossou, has communicated his recent
Cage culture of fish presents numerous advantages, allow- observations on the cage culture of T. nilotica in the Ivory
ing a considerable increase in fish production in existing Coast.
waters. This method is particularly well developed in the This study was conducted within the framework of the
German Democratic Republic, Japan, Norway and the Lake Kossou Fishery Development Project. Jointly
USA. From a general point of view, those countries are financed by the United Nations Development Programme
leading the technological progress in this field. Research is (UNDP) and the Bandama Valley Authority (AVB), it was
currently being pursued in numerous other countries and executed by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)
knowledge is increasing rapidly. It is important that re- from 1 97 1 to 1 975. The opinions expressed are those of the
search be intensified in Africa to adapt this new knowledge author and do not necessarily reflect the views of these
to the particular conditions prevailing there and to make the organizations.
necessary modifications.
Of the fish species reared in cages, some seem to be
particularly well adapted for Africa. From a general stand- 12 References
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MENZEL, H. U Untersuchungen iiber die Okonomik der Speiseforell-
,
1973b Floating cages for salmon Fish Farming Int 1 (1) 35 ,
/. M. Lindbergh
The Development of a Commercial Pacific
Salmon Culture Business
Abstract kg was harvested in late 1973, and preliminary success was achieved
A joint pilot project was initiated by Domsea Farms, Inc. and the with a captive broodstock of coho salmon. The net cage complex was
National Marine Fisheries Service in 1970 to rear coho (Oncorhynchus then completely re-designed and performance to date has been excellent.
kisutch) and chinook (O. tshawytscha) Pacific salmon to market size. No problems have been experienced with predators in the new facilities,
Juveniles were reared in heated fresh water and grown out to marketable and mortality from vibnosis has been significantly reduced through
size in floating cages located in salt water near Manchester, Puget Sound, immunisation of juvenile fish.
USA. Although some problems were experienced in saltwater rearing
with disease (Vibrio anguillarum),
predators
and facilities, the pilot Developpement d'une entreprise commerciale d'elevage de saumons du
project was considered successful and Domsea expanded the concept to Pacifique
a commercial venture in 1971. Resume
The first large-scale facility design for cages in salt water was deficient, En 970,
1 la societe Domsea Farms, Inc. et le Service national des peches
and serious problems resulted from structural failures, as well as disease maritimes ont lance un projet pilote conjoint d'elevage de saumon coho
and predation. Nevertheless, a crop of 655 000 fish weighing 2 3 000 1
(Oncorhynchus kisutch) et de saumon royal (O. tshawytscha) de taille
441
marchande. Les jcuncs ctaient eleves tout d'abord dans de Feau douce migrate to the sea where they live until mature. At this stage
chauftee, puis jusqu'a ce qu'ils atteignent une taillc marchande dans
des cages flottantes en eau de mer pres de Manchester, Puget Sound
they return to their individual native streams and lakes to
(Etats-Unis). Bien que I'elevage en eau salee ait donnc lieu a quelques spawn and die shortly afterwards. The question might be
difficultes liees aux maladies (Vibrio anguillarum), dux predateurs et aux asked, why pick such a fish to farm? General reasons are
installations, le prqjct pilote a etc juge satisfaisant et la societe Domsea
that the word 'salmon' is an old and esteemed name, the
1'a transforme en une entreprise commerciale en 1971.
Le premier ensemble a grande echelle de cages en eau salee s'est revele product has an attractive appearance, the flesh is tasty, and
inadequat et de nombreux problemes ont surgi du fait des imperfections people are willing to pay a high price for it.
structurales, ainsi que des maladies et des predateurs. Toutefois, a la fin
de 1973, 655 000 saumons d'un poids total de 213 000 kg avaient etc Artificial propagation of Pacific salmon has been prac-
preleves, et un stock d'alevins captifs de saumon argente a donne des tised for many years but the fish were released at a small
resultats preliminaires interessants. L'ensemble des installations (cages
size to migrate and forage at sea. Little attempt was made to
et filets) a done etc entierement repense et les resultats obtenus jusqu'ici
sont excellcnts. Les predateurs n'ont pose aucun prpbleme avec les cultivate them in captivity to marketable size until the US
nouvelles installations et la mortalite par vibriose a etc sensiblement National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) in 1969 ac-
reduite grace a 1' immunisation des jeunes poissons.
quired migratory coho salmon, Oncorhynchus kisutch, and
Detarrollo del cultivo comercial del salnrfn del Pacifico reared them in floating net pens in Clam Bay near Manches-
Extracto ter, Washington (Fig. 1). These experiments were con-
En 1970, la Domsea Farms, Inc. y el Servicio Nacional de Pesca
Maritima iniciaron un proyecto piloto conjunto de cria de salmon coho
ducted to study survival and growth of adult salmon in
(Oncorhynchus kisutch) y Chinook (O. tshawytscha) de talla adecuada captivity in salt water and problems that might be encoun-
para la venta. Los salmones se criaron hasta la fase juvenil en aguas dulce tered in this rearing technique (Mahnken, Novotny and
calentada y posteriormente, hasta alcanzar una talla comer cializable, en
jaulas flotantes en agua salada cerca de Manchester, Puget Sound, Joyner 1970). Domsea Farms (then a division of Ocean
EE.UU. Aunque durante la fase de cria en agua salada se encontraron Systems, Inc.) followed the experiment closely, and con-
algunos problemas con enfermedades (Vibrio anguillarum\ depreda- cluded that the results were sufficiently promising that, if
dores e instalaciones, se considero que el proyecto piloto habia tenido
exito y la D0msea expandio en 1971 los trabajos hacia una empresa the rearing programme could be scaled up from hundreds to
comercial. several hundred thousands offish, a viable business could
El dtseno de la primera serie de jaulas a gran escala para uso en agua
salada fue deficiente y surgieron graves problemas debidos a fallos
be established.
estructurales asi como a enfermedades y depredaciones. De todas for-
mas, a finales de 1973 se obtuvieron 655 000 peces, con un peso total de
2 1 3 000 kg, y se consiguio un primer exito preliminar con una poblacion
de reproductores de salmon coho en cautividad. Por lo tanto posterior- 2 Pilot programme
mente se diseno de nuevo toda la serie de jaulas, y el rendimiento hasta la In 1970, NMFS worked with Domsea to initiate a joint
techa ha sido excelente. En las nuevas instalaciones no se nan pbservado
government-industry pilot programme (Lindbergh, 1972).
problemas de depredacion y la mort alidad causada por vibripsis se ha
reducido notablemente gracias a la inmumzacion de las formas juveniles. Domsea provided funds and personnel; NMFS
provided
technical servicesand space at the Manchester laboratory.
A grant of US$ 100 000 was awarded by the Sea Grant
1 Introduction Office of the US Department of Commerce to implement
salmon (Oncorhynchus spp.)
Pacific in their natural envi- the pilot programme.
ronment spawn in inland rivers and lakes, and the young Working under the broad umbrella of an NMFS research
BAINBRIDGE IS.
PILOT NETS
COMMERCIAL NETS
442
programme, a minimum of government regulatory prob- and 8 m deep and two nets were situated on each side of a
lems were encountered. A small hatchery was constructed central walkway (Fig. 2). They were supported by floats on
and coho salmon eggs were procured from the State of the top perimeter and weighted along the bottom perimeter,
Washington for the first phase of the programme. Coho and the netting was reinforced by polypropylene rib lines.
were selected as the primary species for the experiment A cover of lighter netting was suspended over each net to
because they are a hardy species with good resistance to discourage bird predation.
disease, and preliminary data were available on their cul- The mooring system was designed to hold the complex in
They are also voracious feeders, accept-
ture in salt water. a stable position through the use of multiple anchors,
ing both wet and dry feed. Later, a second species was counter weights, and wire cable, but the effectiveness of the
added to the programme, chinook salmon, O. tshawytscha. system was marginal. Anchor dragging was finally pre-
Chinook has the advantage of being able to adapt to salt vented by replacing 75 kg anchors with others weighing as
water (smoltify) at about 7 g rather than at 1 5 g for coho. much as 2 500 kg. 200 kg counterweights, attached at
mid-depth on the mooring cables, were intended to stabilize
2.1 Freshwater phase the complex during 5 m tidal fluctuations but did not
The freshwater phase of the pilot programme was in general prevent the skewing action of strong currents, which re-
carried out according to standard salmonid rearing prac- sulted in severe strain on the nets.
tices.Eggs were incubated in Heath-Teona trays and the fry
reared in an earth-bottom pond (Glud's Pond) up to the 2.3 Predation
time of transfer to salt water. There was one significant Large predatory dogfish, Squalus acanthias, which entered
deviation, however. In nature, normally takes about 16
it one of the nets, chewed large holes through the nylon
months from spawning for a coho to attain a size of 1 5 g netting while feeding on dead fish near the footline. Control
and go through the process of smoltification. To reduce this of this problem was finally achieved by enclosing grower
period, heat was introduced to the incubators and ponds to nets with a larger predator net made of nylon gill netting.
accelerate growth. Although the water temperature in The space between the grower and predator nets was
Glud's Pond could not be elevated overall more than 1C, normally 1| m, but frequently the two were brought to-
fish in the warmwater plume near the heated
congregated gether by currents. Nevertheless, the predator nets were
discharge pipe, and approached smolt size after only 8-9 completely successful and no new problems of this nature
months. occurred.
Bird predation exacted a low but continuous attrition of
2.2 Saltwater facilities stocks. Overhead nets were partially effective, but they
Approximately 50% of the juvenile coho (which included were blown about by the wind and tended to snag as the net
the largest fish) were transported in July to floating net pens complex distorted in the tidal currents. Whenever the pro-
in Clam Bay, followed by the remainder in early August tective bird nets slipped away from part of the grower nets,
1971. Floating net pens in salt water have been the key to gulls, diving ducks and blue herons preyed on stocks.
Domsea's salmon culture programme in Puget Sound. Adjustment of bird nets to allow access to fish also resulted
They are simply bag nets, supported by flotation, which in excessive time losses.
completely enclose the Free-flowing tidal currents
fish.
renew dissolved oxygen and flush out metabolic wastes. 2.4 Disease
The nets D0msea uses are weighted, but have no rigid Efficient economic use of fish cultivation enclosures re-
subsurface structure and yield in the face of currents. Nets quires relatively high fish densities, which in turn result in
have partially collapsed at times, but the reduced volume is increased susceptibility to diseases. The gram-negative bac-
compensated by high water exchange. Deep, continuous teria, Vibrio anguillarum (causing vibrio disease) is en-
mixing waters of central Puget Sound act as a thermal demic in Puget Sound and affects salmonids (Novotny,
buffer, with temperatures remaining between 7 and 14C MS). Each of the large nets in the pilot-phase operation was
the year around. This temperature regime contrasts with stocked with about 50 000 young salmon and evidence of
1
that in isolated shallow inlets and diked lagoons where vibrio appeared within days of the first transfer to salt
extremes are much more pronounced. The floating net water, with chinook salmon being very severely infected.
systems are also secured to the bottom using conventional Epizootics of vibrio were controlled by administering terra-
anchors and do not impose permanent changes on the mycin in the feed. It proved worthwhile to treat prophylact-
bottom ecology. ically with terramycin before initiating any stressful situa-
The nets used in the pilot programme were fabricated tion, such as transfer to salt water, seining, or grading.
with knotless nylon of 28 kg twine with a stretch mesh Although outbreaks of vibriosis during the pilot pro-
measurement of 2- 2 cm. Net dimensions were 1 6 m square gramme were contained, the disease was a chronic problem.
19m.
ENTRAL WALKWAY
TO ANCHOR
GROWER NET'
PREDATOR NIT'
Fig 2. Elevation view of pilot programme floating net complex
443
2.5 Feeding Regardless of the basic success of the project, several
With 0-5 million 250 g salmon demanding as much as 2 j significant problems had not been completely resolved: (/)
tons of feed/day, the logistics of maintaining this supply Inventory control was inadequate. There were more fish
became a significant problem. It was resolved through missing at final harvest than were accounted for by mortal-
purchase of a surplus second world war amphibious vehicle ity counts. (//) Saltwater facilities were underdesigned, and
(DUKW) to transport feed from the shore to the nets. failures were frequent. The net complex twisted in strong
In an effort to reduce labour and cost, Oregon moist currents, nets ripped, anchors dragged, and cables and lines
pellet salmon food was replaced with a dry pellet. Dry broke. (///) Significant numbers of the second group of
pellets are lighter, do not require frozen storage, and are coho, transferred to salt water in August did not smoltify
considerably less expensive in terms of cost per unit of and did not grow until the following spring, (/v) Available
protein. The coho salmon accepted dry feed readily and feeds were adequate, but certainly not ideal for maximum
grew at a rate comparable to those on moist feed with a feed growth and market acceptability of cultured stocks.
conversion ratio of 1-5:1-0 (weight of feed/ weight gain).
Results with chinook salmon were, however, not as promis-
ing. In summer, growth rate and feed conversion with dry 3 Commercial programme
pellets were acceptable, but in October their growth slowed Although data for a complete year were not available by
drastically and did not resume until the following spring. late summer 1971, Domsea elected to proceed with a full-
Reinstituting moist pellet feed to some of the chinook scale production programme to take advantage of the short
helped, but growth rate was never equal to that of the coho. salmon spawning season later in the year.
CENTRAL WALKWAY
20m.
.YSTYRENE tlLLETS MOORING
iUOY 1.5m rflo
/- WATEftUNE
WEIGHTS *""
GROWER NET
COUNTERWEIGHT PREDATOR NET
444
Washington Department of Fisheries; Washington Depart- In the summer of 1972, in spite of the problems with
ment of Ecology; Washington Department of Natural Re- nets, extra net space was available in the rearing complex.
sources; Washington Parks Department; Washington De- Consequently, Domsea
negotiated a contract with Wash-
partment of Health; and finally, the Kitsap County ington Department of Fisheries whereby 560000 coho
Shorelines' Management Group. smolts were given to Domsea and, in return, the company
While most of the agencies had legitimate reasons to be agreed to release 50% after several months of rearing.
involved, many appeared to have overlapping require- Unfortunately, by July only 4 000 of these fish remained; it
ments. A considerable amount of time and paper work was appears that coho salmon smolt have an overpowering
involved with these negotiations before final clearance was instinct to migrate, and the majority had been able to escape
obtained to proceed with the operation. through three small (3 cm diameter) holes near the surface
of the net.
3.3 Design and operation of net complexes Engineering failures occurred again in the autumn of
The generally accepted assumption in the United States that 1973. Moorings were not stable in the face of tidal action
size is directly proportional to efficiency was followed in and both complexes continuously skewed in the current.
designing the new net complexes. The next generation Accumulated stress resulted in tears, again at ribline inter-
grower nets were 20 m
square, 10 deep, and had am sections and at weight tie-down points. The skewing was
theoretical capacity of 250 000 salmon weighing 250 g particularly damaging to the overhead bird nets. Five m
each. Net strength was reinforced by doubling the twine poles were affixed to floats in the centre of each grower net
strength to 57 kg and adding more and stronger criss- to keep the bird nets clear of the surface. Skewing, however,
crossing rib lines. Each pair of grower nets was enclosed by broke the securing lines and dropped the nets into the water.
a predator net 45 x 23 x 1 1 5 m
deep. The predator net was Some of these protective nets were gillnets which entangled
made in similar fashion to the grower net, but of 28 kg twine fish resulting in high mortalities.
of a larger mesh size. Both nets were treated with preserva- A year after nets had been installed in sea water, fouling
tive to reduce abrasion. At the bottom end of each vertical became a major problem. Algae, and similar
tunicates,
rib line on the predator net a 30 kg weight was attached. marine growth reduced water flow, but not to a critical
The grower net was tied to the predator net by lines between degree. However, the presence of mussels (Mytilus edulis)
the bottom perimeters. The top perimeter of both nets was was more serious. A heavy mussel set in 1 972 threatened to
supported on all sides by a continuous chain of polystyrene sink the polystyrene perimeter floats with the heavy weight
billets approximately 35 cm square in cross section. causing significantly increased current drag and resul-
One set of nets within a confining grid of cables was tant stress to the systems. In attempting to move the nets
secured to each side of a central walkway (Fig. 3 ). The ashore for cleaning, the force required to lift them caused
walkway and grids were moored with 14 mooring legs. extensive damage. Some success was obtained through
Each leg, from the grid to the bottom, consisted of 25 of m cleaning nets by divers but at great expense of time and
1-9 cmdiameter galvanized wire cable, a buoy 1-5 m in effort.
diameter, 1 50 m
of 1 9 cm cable, and 1 5 of 3 8 cm chainm With these accumulated problems, an extra strong tide in
terminated by a 1 360 kg danforth-type anchor. The entire June 1975 caused catastrophic failure of the wire cable
complex was maintained in tension throughout the tidal system with a resultant collision of the two net complexes
cycle by weights of approximately 200 kg attached 30m which resulted in total destruction of the saltwater rearing
below the buoy. Two such net complexes were fabricated facilities.
and later extended to a total of 1 2 nets. Subsequently, a very simple new net with dimensions of
The first new complex was
installed in the late spring of 14x5-5x5-5m deep was designed. It was made of 5 7 kg
1972. Tidal currents with water velocities up to 1 -5 per m twine with 2-5 cm stretch mesh. All seams were stitched
second dragged and twisted the vast expanse of netting. and there were no head lines, foot lines, or rib lines. Weights
Tears appeared, usually at the intersections of rib lines or at were suspended on the inside. With this net design, it was
the attachment points of weights. Several times, rib lines hoped that all major stress points would be eliminated. Cost
came loose and whole panels of netting tore free. Floating was also about one third of a net reinforced with lines.
debris and logs, often embellished with spikes, damaged the Sixty-four nets were installed within a lattice work of
top sections of mesh. The long predator nets were replaced perimeter walkways secured on each side of a 4 m centre
with single nets enclosing only one grower net apiece. walkway (Figs. 4 and 5). All walkways were tied together
Strength of grower nets was increased so that the upper 4 m with cables and held in tension by moorings. This articu-
had a twine strength of 1 1 5 kg. For the next year these nets, lated system which is still in use, undulates on the water
reduced in size and greatly reinforced in strength, held surface as waves pass through the complex. Each net well is
together. bordered by a wooden railing with pegs on the top which
14
CENTRAL WALKWAY
2.5cm.
NET / WALKWAY ~
WIRE CAM.E
TO ANCHOR
INTERNAL WEIGHT
445
hold up the net, the weights, and a tightly stretched bird occur, however, and high losses were experienced. While
predator net. perhaps 50% of these fish smoltified the following spring in
The operation of these nets has proved to be very growth was slow and feed conversion was
salt water, their
Fig 5. Dtfmsea Farms, Inc. floating net pen facility in Puget Sound, Washington State, U.S.A. (photo by US National Marine Fisheries
Service)
446
Fryer's bacteria before introducing them to salt water to cohos began in November 1973. Fish were confined by
assess this technique of immunization. seining a grower net and then pumping fish out and across a
These two methods were used in a programme to immu- Nielsen grader. Those larger than 140 g continued into a
nize most of the 1973 year-class coho salmon against two tank of cold brine (-2C) where they were killed and
strains of vibrio occurring in Clam Bay (Harrell et al, cooled to a temperature just above freezing. They were
1976), at a cost for each method of US$ 10-00/1 000 fish. dressed, sorted into 28 g weight increments, sealed in
While no final data are available on the success of this individual plastic pouches, placed in 2-3 kg boxes, and
immunization programme, losses to date from vibrio have blast frozen. Six boxes were packed into a 1 1 -4 kg case for
been less than 2%. final marketing.
Six hundred and fifty-five thousand fish were harvested,
3.6 Efficacy of captive broodstock with a total round weight of 2 1 3 000 kg. As each net was
When stocks from the pilot programme were harvested, the emptied, it was invariably found that there were fewer fish
largest and fastest growing fish of both coho and chinook than shown in the inventory, but average size was larger
salmon were selected as broodstock. They were held in a than indicated by subsampling techniques. The shortage
separate net and fed commercial dry pellets with the caro- was attributed to bird predation, tears in nets, escapes over
tenoid pigment, canthaxanthin, added. Mortalities for coho, the billets, and uncounted mortalities. The larger average
from the time of their selection to sexual maturity ten size was attributed to the fact that a higher percentage of the
months later, was about 50%, mostly from kidney disease. bigger, stronger fish escaped the subsample seine.
Weight of the coho at maturity averaged 2- 7 kg which was
less than the average weight of wild Skykomish parent
stock. The average number of eggs per female coho was 4 Present status
almost equal to that of wild females. It is now believed that Domsea has overcome the two most
No success was obtained with the chinook broodstock serious obstacles to success in the commercial culture of
programme. Out of several hundred fish selected, only two Pacific salmon in floating net pens, namely suitable facili-
females reached maturity at age two years and both of these ties and control of diseases. Some problems, of course, still
died before viable eggs could be taken. This failure with remain to be completely resolved (Mahnken, 1976). Less
brood chinook salmon was attributed primarily to deficien- expensive methods of imparting red carotenoid pigment to
cies in the diet, and the programme was terminated. the flesh to improve health and market acceptability are
Eggs from the coho broodstock were stripped, fertilized, needed, saltwater nutrition requires further refinement, and
and incubated in the project facilities. Sperm from net- further efforts must be made to obtain a higher percentage
reared males was also used to fertilize 590 000 wild eggs of coho salmon which smolt in their first summer. How-
purchased from the State. The eggs from Domsea net- ever, theseproblems are not major constraints to continua-
reared 1970 year-class coho were smaller than wild eggs tion of the programme, and in 1976 the Domsea Farms
and had less carotenoid pigments, but they were larger and operation in Clam Bay hopes to 'turn the corner' to become
distinctly more pigmented than eggs from NMFS 1969
a profitable aquaculture enterprise.
MAHNKEN, C V W
Status of commercial net-pen farming of Pacific
were smaller, and early fry losses were higher than in 1976 salmon in Puget Sound Proc Annu Meet World Mancult
standard hatcheries. After reaching a weight of one Soc 1 285-98
,
Aquaculture in Norway
Abstract location, topography, various environmental factors (oxygen, currents,
The culture offish in floating net cages or netted enclosures is a relatively pollution, shelter, tides), biological factors (fish behaviour, physiological
new development. Floating cages, which consist of a floating unit, a requirements, etc), feeding and handling offish, mooring, fouling of nets,
framework and a net are in most common use among mancultunsts. predation and costs of construction and upkeep.
Sublittoral netted enclosures are more dependent upon locality but can The construction of three major types of cage/enclosures is described
fence in large areas and rear a large number of fish. in detail: octagonal cage, a cage system from Bakelittfabnkken, and the
The most important factors concerning these devices are discussed: Osland enclosures
447
DiveloppcmenU recent! dans I'aquaculture en cages et en enclos en of the netted enclosures used in
Many fish farming have
Norvege
Resume already been described (Howard and Kingwell, 1975;
L'elcvage des poissons dans des cages flottantes et dans des enclos en filet Milne, 1972, 1974 and 1 9 74a). Cage and enclosure culture
est assez recent. Les cages flottantes, comportant un flotteur, un cadre et
is, however, in rapid development. The aim of this
un filet, sont surtout utilises parmi les mariculteurs. Les enclos sublitto- paper is
raux en filet sont plus etroitement lies au site, mais peuvent servir a to contribute to that development by providing the most
enclore de vastes superficies et a clever un grand nombre de recent information on the subject. After a section on cage
poissons.
Le document envisage les facteurs les plus importants dont dependent
ces dispositifs: emplacement, topographic, divers facteurs
and enclosure techniques, the paper discusses in general the
ecologiques
(oxygene, courants, pollution, abris, marees), des facteurs biologiques most important problems involved in these systems of
(comportement du poisson, besoins physiologiques, etc\ alimentation et culture (MacCrimmon, Stewart and Brett, 1974; Webb
manutention du poisson, mouillage, encrassement des filets, action des
predateurs, ainsi que couts de construction et d'entretien. 1975). The last part of the paper describes three types of
La fabrication des trois principaux types de cage est decrite en detail :
pen facilities for fish farming whose specifications have not
la cage octogonale, un systeme de cage de Bakelittfabrikken et 1'enclos
Osland.
yet been detailed in international publications (Braaten and
Saetre, 1973).
Progresos recientcs de la acuicultura en jaulas y recintos en Noruega
Extracto
El cultivo de peces en jaulas flotantes o en cercos de red es una actividad
relativamente nueva. Las jaulas flotantes, que constan de un flotador, un 2 The floating net cage
armazon y una red que lo circunda, se utilizan muy comunmente en
maricultura. En el caso de los cercos de red en zonas sublitorales, su
Today most marine fish farmers use floating net cages (Fig.
1 because of their relative adaptability. Culture in cages
)
dependencia de la localidad es mayor, pero pueden abarcar vastas zonas
y en ellos puede criarse gran numero de peces. does not make severe demands on the locality except that it
Se examinan los factores mas importantes que hay que tener en cuenta has a certain degree of shelter and opportunity for water-
al utilizar estos artefactos: emplazamiento. topografia, diversos factores
ambientales (oxigeno, cornentes, contaminacion, proteccion, mareas), mass exchange. The units can be small or large. They can be
factores
biplogicos (
com por tarn lento de los peces, necesidades fisiologi moored separately or built together in systems. In addition,
cas, etc), alimentacion y manipulacion de los peces, amarradero, mcrus-
tacion de las redes, depredacion, y costos de construccion y floating cages have great variation in form and choice of
mantcnimiento. material. The use of cages is appropriate, therefore, for
Se describe detalladamente la construccion de tres tipos principals de
many different species and for fish farms ranging from the
jaulas/recintos: jaulas octagonales. sistema de jaulas de la Bakelittfabrik-
smallest 'hobby pen' to the biggest plant.
ken, y recintos Osland.
A
floating net cage commonly consists of a floating unit,
a framework and a net. The framework keeps the net apart.
1 Introduction Often, however, the framework is simplified and replaced
There is now increasing interest in farming fish and shellfish by a rigid floating collar and sinkers.
in coastal waters due, among other things, to depletion of The floating unit can consist of empty barrels, plastic
natural stocks. The culture offish in floating net cages or materials such as Styrofoam, or ready-made pontoons of
netted enclosures in such waters is a relatively new plastics and metal. The buoy units are often built into a
development. framework which is strong enough to bear a man's weight,
MOORING -FENCE
COLLAR WITH
FLOATING MATERIAL
FRAMEWORK
ANCHORING-
BAG OR
-CAGE NET
I '-SINKER
\mmmm!
448
walking or handling fish. However, a cage can also consist More than half of this value represents feed loss.
feed given.
of only an unattached bag net tied to four moored buoys. Faeces and food particles sink to the bottom. If the water
The material in the framework is impregnated wood, flow is low and the enclosure bottom bounded by reefs or
bamboo spars, galvanized scaffolding or welded aluminium other thresholds of the main basin, the wastes will accumu-
bars. Nylon can be used for the net; weldmesh is also used. late and may contaminate the farm. Small fjords with
The mesh is often stretched over frames which, for easy narrow inlets are not good localities for intensive fish farms
replacement, slide into the general framework. above a certain size.
Another important topographical factor is the amount of
shelter. Few, if any, structures will withstand the impact of
3 The sublittoral netted enclosure the open sea, but many modern cages or enclosures can
There is considerable interest among mariculturists con- bear the winds of an open fjord and waves up to 1 5 m. In
cerning the sublittoral netted enclosures, due to the efficient cage culture in rough seas it is essential that devices above a
operations of these pens. Each unit can fence in a large area certain size move smoothly with the waves. One part of the
and consequently keep a large number of fish in captivity. buoy-supported framework must be able to move down
Fish feeding and handling can be done easily and independ- while another part moves up simultaneously. This flexibil-
ently of a boat. However, these enclosures make certain ity can be achieved by using materials such as bamboo or
demands on the locality, especially as to current, the differ- plastic in the framework, or by making the collar of several
ence between low and high water and shore topography. pieces fastened together by hinges.
Most enclosures are constructed with a framework of In some coastal areas the differences between low and
timber, steel or concrete piles, or galvanized scaffolding high tide cause difficulties for fish farming. Due to
may
tubes driven firmly into the sea bed. The net can be of nylon, differences in sea level, it might be
impossible to operate
galvanized chainlink mesh or weldmesh stretched over the with sublittoral enclosures, and the mooring of cages could
bars. A
special problem is that of escape of fish under the offer difficulties. These problems can be overcome, how-
footrope. This is solved by an overlap of netting on the ever, by attaching the cages to rings (tyres) which have been
bottom bar, heavy rubble piled on top of the net, or passed over large piles.
sometimes by providing the entire enclosure with a net
bottom. The mode of solution depends upon the bottom 4.2 Biological factors
structure. The conditions of captivity for the fish vary according to
Enclosures are made also with the aid of concrete bar- the biology of the species. Yellowtail (Seriola quinquera-
riers with steel or aluminium screens. A recent development diata) and the species of salmonids reared in cages and
is a floating fishnet barrier (Milne, 1974a) kept in place by enclosures today are fast-swimming, pelagic, schooling and
heavy sinkers and equipped with a horizontal floating net to predacious. Each species has a unique set of optimum
prevent fish escape by jumping. responses. Success in rearing these fish is in part due to
Most of these fences are constructed along the shoreline, satisfaction of their important biological needs.
making the shore the longest side of the enclosure. In this The biological success of a fish farm, as measured in
way fish farms have been built in bays and sounds. survival offish or their growth rate, is highly dependent on
the right choice for each species of factors such as: tempera-
ture, feeds, feeding strategy, water quality (eg, pollution,
4 Important factors in cage and enclosure culture oxygen content), disturbances and density. Deviations in
4. 1 Location and topography time and space from the normal or optimal conditions for
It is most important that a survey of prospective localities one or several of these factors will ultimately affect growth
for cage or net culture be made before the enterprise is and the susceptibility of the fish to disease. Interaction of all
started. A
number offish farms have had to stop production these factors makes an extremely complex picture.
or have operated under heavy difficulties due to environ- Cultivated rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) are excep-
mental factors. tionally insensitive to density and volume. Atlantic salmon
Low levels of oxygen appear to be the reason for low fish (Salmo salar) are more dependent on the area accessible to
growth in some farms. Oxygen consumption depends on them than to the depth below 3-4 m. These salmon usually
the species and amount offish held, and increases with a rise swim in circles and are great leapers. Such characteristics
in temperature and activity of the individual. These de- reflect behaviour traits which should be considered when
mands cannot always be satisfied immediately. Oxygen planning the construction of cages and enclosures, with
saturation depends on temperature. In sea water at about respect to their size, area, depth and form.
5C there is more than four times the oxygen available at
20C. Marine organisms, in particular plankton, also cause 4.3 Fish feeding and handling
variations in oxygen level through their production or Fish feed, preparation and the feeding itself represent the
its
449
processing area and the pens should be as short as possible, (3-4 kg) and formic acid (10-15 1) in fresh water (400 1).
(/ft) The unit amount of fish feed should be as large as Let the net remain there for two to three days, then wash it
possible without losing control of the biomass. (iv) fish A with cold water using a hose under high pressure.
farmer should strive toward mechanization, (v) If a boat is In addition to the difficulties caused by fouling orga-
not used for feeding, pontoon bridges or walkways from nisms, shipworms (Teredo) bore into untreated wood, and
land and along the cages may be useful. Walkways will both sea water itself corrodes nearly every kind of metal.
assist in control of, and provide access to, the net and fish.
Fish sorting or sampling, net cleaning and replacement can 4.6 Predators
be done more easily from a rigid walkway collar than from Heavy mortality in enclosures caused by predation has
a boat. The collar will both act as protection against drifting been reported. It has been shown by M011er and Bjerk
logs or debris and, if built strongly enough, facilitate cage (1975) that more than half of the total loss of fish has been
removal to another site. due to predators. The greatest inroads are on small fish,
apparently caused by birds (herons, gulls and cormorants).
4.4 Mooring Predation by larger fish and mammals (seals) has also been
The type of mooring selected is dependent on the site. reported.
Connexions to the land are preferred to anchoring, but Predatory animals often demonstrate unbelievable cun-
installation of bollards on the land may be expensive. ning in reaching the penned fish, and they acquaint them-
Heavy concrete block sinkers with chainlink straps to selves with the protective devices which have been installed.
nylon ropes or galvanized wires are commonly used as About the only advice that can be given in this regard is to
anchors. Their size depends on the size of the pen, the sea seal off the cages or enclosures completely with nets and
bottom, current and weather. The type of attachment be- wires and to use a shotgun in such a way that birds and
tween the pens and the anchor varies from farm to farm. mammals avoid the locality. Predatory fish and seals can be
A few other points deserve consideration. A single cage kept away with a safety net.
or enclosure may require more moorings than when it is
part of a group, ie, a set oftnoorings can serve several cages. 4.7 Cost
Ropes and wires should be arranged so that they do not Cost of production is the most important item in fish
Fouling in brackish water does not appear to be as pro- shown in Figs. 2-6.
nounced as in sea water. Another factor of importance is the The units are made of impregnated wood (Figs. 3 and 4).
original level of nutrition in the area. The bearing frame is 2 x 5 inch (51x127 mm) plank. The
The time of year chosen for replacement is important. In floating units are blocks of styrofoam cut to the size of the
general, clean nets should be placed in the water after most frame. Crossbars of 1 x5inch(25-4x 127 mm) planks are
of the fouling organisms have settled. nailed to the top and bottom of the frame to keep the
Fouled nets are cleaned in several ways. A simple floating units in place. The crossbars on top are 3 cm longer
method is to place the net in a solution of copper sulphate than the bottom side crossbars, extending outside the
450
120CM
ROPE -LATH
NET-
18CM
NYLON
Fig 2. The octagonal cage WIRE ^
40 CM
451
25
larger than 5 x 5 m
be used unless another set of hinges is
mounted in the middle of the elements. The size of the raft
depends on the hinge connexions. The biggest raft measures
33 x 21 m with forty 3 x 3 m holes. Generally, the raft is
moored by its four corners. It moves easily with the waves
and can be towed.
In spite of the rather complex construction, the cost of
this raft is relatively low due to the ease in obtaining its
Fig 10, The Osland enclosure
standard elements.
The nets are controlled or exchanged with the help of
5.3 The Osland enclosure hauling ropes, which also protect the nets against wear by
This enclosure is named after its constructor, fish farmer providing clearance between the piles and nets (Fig. 12).
Erling Osland. Its installation requires a sloping shore; The hauling rope goes through a hole in the crossbar and
about 25 m from the shoreline the depth of the water should through a cramp hammered in near the bottom end of the
be about 10 m. pile. The connexion between the midline and the pile goes
Concrete or timber dock piles are driven into the sea bed over the hauling rope.
out from the shore forming a square or a horseshoe form of
about 25 x 35 m (see Fig. 10). The distance between the
piles is about 5 m. The piles must be higher than the water
level at spring tide. A concrete wall is built at the shoreline
for mooring the net.
Two nets are stretched along the piles; one on the inside
to hold the reared fish and one on the outside to ward off
driftwood and to keep away predatory fish (Fig. 1 1 ). The
nets are reinforced by a headline, a midline and a leadline.
The headline is connected to the pile with a crossbar, and
the midline to the bottom end of the pile. The net between
the midline and the leadline, however, lies on the bottom
stretched out without any additional hold. In this way the
inside and outside nets are attached on each side of the piles,
making a barrier for confined fish. Fig 12. Detail of net attachment of the Osland enclosure
IMPREGNATED
QUAY POLE
MID LINE
LEAD LINE
To facilitate feeding, a platform is built out into the White Fish Authority on the Scottish west coast) In Oceanology
International 75. London, BPS Exhibitions Ltd 183-90 :
enclosure. Further details of the arrangement are shown in MACCRIMMON, H. R., STEWART, J. E. &
BRETT, J R. Aquaculture in
the figures. 1974 Canada. Bull. Fish. Res Board Can., (188): 84 p.
MILNE, P. H. Fish farm enclosures 8 Estimates of net and barrier
1970 costs. World Fish 19- 37-41 ,
MILNE, P H
Fish and shellfish farming in coastal waters. London,
6 Conclusions 1972 Fishing News (Books) Ltd., 208 p
MILNE, P H A visit to Japan's fish farm industry Fish Farming Int
The octagonal cage is in common
use along the Norwegian 1974 1:38-55
,
coast and with respect to practical use and economy it has MILNE, P. H. Floating enclosures and nets for fish farming Fish
1974a Farming Int., 1 82-9
proved satisfactory for the cultivation of rainbow trout and
:
453
demand for low-value fish. Thus, aquaculture, which in- Lights are suspended above the holding pens at night to
cludes feeding, has a significant meaning in Japan in spite of attract these organisms through phototaxis.
the world's protein shortage. Seeds sold for stocking in growing cages vary from 5 to
Since an aquaculture programme for marine products 10 cm in total length and 8-50 g in weight but larger size
was first promoted by the Government in the early sixties, seeds are preferred. Growth to this size usually requires 4-
production has expanded rapidly to reach 83 800 tons in 6 weeks in pens.
1973. The marine species used in aquaculture include
yellowtail (Senola quinqueradiata\ red seabream (Pagrus 2.2.2 Growing for market
major), file fish (Monacanthus cirrhifer\ and rock fish (/) Facilities and farming ground
(Sebasticus marmoratus). When yellowtail farming first started, three types of
Production of yellowtail is approximately 95% of the growing facilities were used: ponds, netting enclosures, and
total marine aquacultural fish production, followed by that floating net-cages. The floating net-cage is now the most
of red seabream. Yellowtail culture is considered, therefore, popular of these.
to be the most representative type of coastal fish culture in The siting of the cages is strictly regulated by the
Japan. Consequently, a description of its status and the prefectural governments and in choosing a cage site, the
techniques which are used in its cultivation will occupy the following factors have to be taken into consideration: (a)
major part of this paper. It will be followed by brief The farming area has to be protected naturally or by simple
explanations of other types of coastal fish culture in Japan. construction against violent wind and wave action, (b)
Tidal and/or current flows have to be sufficient to keep the
concentration of dissolved oxygen over 3 ppm and to clean
2 Yellowtail culture the cages by washing away faeces and uneaten food. (c)The
2.1 General background water temperature has to be suitable for the species; usually
Yellowtail (Seriola quinqueradiata): Adult size in nature: the range for yellowtail is 18-29C. The optimal tempera-
weight 5-8 kg; length 80-100 cm. Market size of cultured ture range for best growth is 24-29C. The lower and
fish: weight 1-1-5 kg, and length 30-50 cm in one year; higher critical temperatures are 9 and 31C
respectively.
weight 2-3 kg; and length 40-60 cm in two years. (d) Water salinity has to be above the critical concentra-
Seasonal routine: tion. For best growth, cages should not be sited where the
January-August Spawning. Water temperature 1 6- salinity drops below 6 ppt. (e) The growing area has to be
1
29C in the southern regions. protected against pollution from agricultural, industrial and
April-May The larvae are collected from coastal domestic wastes. (/) The water should be clean from a
seas. The average size is less than sanitary point of view.
15mm (0-1 g). Two types of cages are used for yellowtail farming:
May-June The young are reared to 25-40 mm floating and submerged. The basic structure of these two
(0-3-0.5 g) for culture seed. types of cages is shown in Figs. 1 and 2. The ordinary type
June-December Growing period.
December Shipped to market at 11 -5 kg in
weight; or, in a two-year culture oper- Side view
ation, shipped to market on demand.
454
Float
Surface Opening- for Feeding-
is raised to the surface and the stocked fish are fed through
it.
grouped as a unit. A 'feeding passage' is connected to the circumstances; see Table II for recommendations for opti-
top of the net. At feeding time, the upper end of the passage mal feeding rates.
TABLF I
1
Size of cage: I -3-0x3-0 x 3.0m; 4-5 X4-5 x4-5 m; 111 = 5-4 x 5-4 x 5-4 m; IV = 6-0 x 6-Ox 6-Om; 7-2x 7-2 x 7-2m
455
TABIE II This is one of the main reasons for the expansion of the
FFEDING RATE OF YELLOWTAIL The
floating cage technique among yellowtail growers.
product is transported to the market by boat or truck
mostly in live condition. Otherwise, fish are pithed immedi-
ately after harvest to keep their fresh quality.
The economics of yellowtail farming is dependent upon
the method used, location and circumstances. Feed is the
most costly item. The development of reasonably priced
feeds is required for future expansion as the market value of
yellowtail cannot be expected to increase.
The average production of a family size grower is
10 000-20 000 fish each weighing 1 -0-1 5 kg. A middle
ling ra class income can be assured with yellowtail farming in
F = Amount or food/day
- Weight of fish Japan.
456
Natural spawning under
artificially-controlled
conditions
but in sea water with specific gravity below 1-023, they shrimp or fish can be fed to them. The fry can now be
sink to the bottom and have a poor hatching rate. transferred to the growing facilities and are ready as
Following hatching, the fry are inactive for a day and seedlings.
then become active. At this stage, they are transferred to a
rearing tank filled with 'green sea water'. Green sea water is 3. 1.2 Growing for market. In intensive farming, seabream
usually prepared by filling an outdoor tank with fresh clean are usually kept in a floating cage. The cage consists of a
is added at the rate of 500 g/ton
sea water to which fertilizer wood or steel pipe framework and a synthetic fibre net. In
of water. The tank then inoculated with phytoplankton.
is shape and size, it is similar to a yellowtail cage.
Within 10 days, the green sea water is ready for fry rearing. Around August, fry are accommodated in floating cages
Many species of phytoplankters and zooplankters can be at a density of 6-8 kg/m 3 of water volume where they are
found water and some are quite suitable as the food
in this fed frozen fish, such as anchovy and sand eel. An artificial
for this developmental stage. A plastic container of about diet which is now available is becoming popular among
4-1 ton capacity is a suitable tank, and fry can be accom- growers but is more costly than the trash fish diet. Sea-
modated here at a density of 40 000 fry/ton of water. bream reach market size in 12-18 months.
A few days after their introduction, the water should be An
extensive type of farming is also practised. In this
refreshed gradually with fresh sea water and, after this time, case, the fry are kept in floating cages or net enclosures for
feeding is required. The swimming stage of oyster larvae acclimation for several weeks until they are about 5-7 cm
and zooplankters, such as rotifers are used. About 10 days long. These juveniles are then released into the sea where
after hatching, the fry become quite active. The nauplii of natural productivity is utilized for their growth. The suit-
brine shrimp (Anemia salina) can now be fed and wild ability of coastal environmental conditions is determined
copepods can also be used as food at this stage. before this release.
During the fry-rearing stage, water quality control is Some of the released fish will be caught commercially
most important. Dead eggs, fish and food organisms must and some of them should aid in restoration of the natural
be removed from the tank as soon as possible. Some stock and increased recruitment. In order to obtain success-
biological treatment, such as placing small crabs, hermit ful results it may be useful to improve environmental
crab or other shellfish in the tank, may be effective in conditions in the areas of release, eg, by providing shelters
keeping the water clean. of concrete blocks or artificial (plastic) seaweeds.
The egg of the red seabream has an oil globule which has
several black pigments; the number of these pigments
changes with fluctuation in light intensity. It appears that 4 Other species cultured
the oil globule acts as a control of light penetration. It is In addition to yellowtail and red seabream, several other
considered that the range of light intensity permitted into fishes are cultured both intensively and extensively in
the egg by the pigments is roughly 100-3 000 lux. Thus, Japanese coastal waters, but their production is much
the hatching tanks require illumination with a maximum lower. Production of puffer (Fugu rubripes) reached 600
intensity of 3 000 lux at the water surface. The larvae also tons/year during 1959-61 along the coasts of the inland
require suitable light but these requirements fluctuate ac- sea but decreased to a level of only 10-20 tons/year
cording to the individual and its growth stage. It is recom- because of increased catch in the capture fishery and a rise
mended, therefore, that the rearing tank should have several in the amount imported.
zones of different light intensity ranging between lux and Horse mackerel (Trachurus japonicus) farming is in-
2 000 lux so that the larvae can choose the most suitable. creasing and the farming of file fish (Monocanthus cirrhi-
When the seabream's length exceeds 20mm, minced fer) is also growing.
457
With respect to future development, research on tuna production of 200 000-300 000 tons/year offish weighing
culture has been carried out for a number of years, con- about 2 kg each is now possible.
cerned primarily with determining methods to rear larvae, Several other fishes are now being considered as candi-
young and adults. The establishment of complete tech- dates for Japanese marine fanning.
niques for artificial propagation, growing and breeder nurs-
ing is expected, and some successful results have been
obtained. 5 Acknowledgements
Experiments have been conducted to develop a technol- The author gratefully acknowledges the co-operation of the
ogy of Pacific Chum salmon (Oncorhynchus keta) culture Association of Marine Fish Culture and the Kochi Prefec-
in the sea and commercial operation of rainbow trout tural Fisheries Experimental Station in providing informa-
(Salmo gairdneri) farming was started in 1 968. An annual tion used in this paper.
458
expected damping effect. Sometimes the float synchronized ments on a sheet which was given density difference, or on a
its motion with that of incident waves (ie, the float rode on sheet from which weights were suspended. As a result,
the waves) and was unable to dissipate the wave height fairly satisfactory damping effect was obtained in experi-
sufficiently. ments carried out in an experimental water tank. However,
It can, therefore, be stated in general that the damping since the analogous relationship between the conditions in
function of the floating breakwater is greatly dependent the experimental tank and those in the field was not clear,
upon the damping mechanism (reflection in this case). more experiments had to be carried out for the purpose of
However, Kato et al (1969) demonstrated that an excel- practical application. In addition, the shape of the float was
lent damping effect could be obtained by causing the too complicated to make it a suitable marine structure.
motion period of incident waves to shift from that of the Consequently, experiments were carried out on a spherical
float, ie, by utilizing the phase difference, and postulated float from which weights were suspended, namely, a typical
that the vital point in the future development of floating flexible float having a pontoon it was found that such a float
;
breakwaters based on reflection lies in utilizing the phase also had the same defects as the plain sheet and was still
difference. unsatisfactory for development for practical application.
Later, the authors selected typical floats of various Therefore, consideration was given to a float structure in
shapes excluding the pontoon, and repeated experiments which damping effect could be obtained by friction alone,
with them to determine their damping effect. In the case of neglecting reflection for the time being. The structure used
the pontoon, excellent damping was obtained by utilizing was an absorber mattress, and satisfactory results were
the mechanism of phase difference, but difficulty occurred obtained from this kind of float.
in anchoring the float securely, because the mooring rope Through these various experiments, the authors were
and the sides of the float developed strong stresses. Conse- able to determine generally the nature of the damping
quently, experiments were conducted on simpler floats such effects of all floats from the viewpoints of damping func-
as a 'board' and a float, which was made by fitting a tions and damping mechanisms. were possible to obtain
If it
perpendicular wall at the end of its horizontal board. sufficient damping effect for practical application by a
However, these floats did not give sufficient damping effect single float and to design a structure which would not cause
when they were made on a practical scale. Then an experi- the float anchoring device to generate too much tension or
ment was made on the double-spaced barrier. This float was stress (by incident waves), such a float would have practical
effective eliminating the difficulties of the pontoon,
in use as a floating breakwater. However, it was found that it
indicating its potential as a practical float. was impossible to develop a practical floating breakwater
All the floats mentioned above operate on reflection as by means of a single float, and it was considered that a
the main damping mechanism, and at the same time are not combination of floats of more than two kinds, namely, a
deformed by incident waves. Flexible floats which rely on float that combines different damping mechanisms, was
friction were then taken into consideration. The simplest required for developing a practical floating breakwater. For
form of this kind of float was a sheet. Wiegel (1962) this purpose, consideration was given to the 'double-spaced
conducted experiments on the sheet; the results showed that barrier', one of the simplest forms utilizing the phase
in order to obtain practical damping effect, it was necessary difference, and to the 'mattress' which relies on friction as
for the sheet width to be more than ten times the length of its main mechanism. These two types will be fully de-
incident waves. However, even in the case of flexible floats, scribed, and the possible shape of a practical float will be
the benefit of shifting the motion period of the float from suggested by limiting practical design conditions.
that of incident waves (ie, causing the phase to shift) can be Floats can be classified as shown in Table I according to
taken into consideration. The authors repeated the experi- their damping effect.
TABLF I
Max damping
effect in Advantage Damping
Name Kind laboratory Disadvantage mechanism
A Rigid or (1) Pontoon Nearly 100 Damping effect is the largest and Tension applied to mooring device
immutable is large, and construction cost is
designing according to theory is
459
The following are the symbols used in this paper: length was twice as long as the water depth (normally
H = Height of incident waves moored).
L = Length of incident waves
H T = Height of transmission waves 2.2 Discussion of experiment results
T = Rolling period of float (rotary motion in the ing mechanism was obtained by the phase difference be-
plane parallel with the travelling direction of tween the motion of the float and that of incident waves, and
waves) the barrier-type float was compared with the pontoon type.
T w = Wave period It should be stated that since the theoretical analysis of the
a = Board interval of perpendicular-board float damping mechanism cannot yet be clarified because of the
= Length of mooring cable
1 complexity of the phenomenon, the phenomenon will be
t= Thickness of mattress explained from the experimental observation.
d = Distance from still water surface to bottom line As a result of the complexity of the damping mechanism
of float of this type of float, it was observed that the float made a
E w = Kinetic energy of incident waves rolling motion when immersed up to a certain limit of the
P = Density of water draft, but if the draft became smaller than this limit (/,
1 = Length of mattress when the float rises higher on the water surface) a heaving
t = Thickness of mattress above water level
}
motion of the float became predominant.
a = Coefficient of friction However, the rolling motion was not the motion around
h d = Height of perpendicular board of float the symmetrical axis of the sectional area of the float.
hw - Draft Instead, when the draft was larger and the period of incident
E = Kinetic energy of waves contained in the water waves coincided with that of the float, thereby causing
column from water level to water bottom per resonance between the float and incident waves, a very
unit area peculiar motion was observed in which the land-side wall
E d = Kinetic energy of water from water level to the remained nearly stationary while the sea-side wall made a
centre of weight conspicuous elevating motion (a rolling motion around the
asymmetrical axis with respect to the sectional area of the
float). When such a motion was generated, the damping
2 Floating double-spaced barrier effect of the float became very large.
Even though the barrier-type float is slightly inferior in its In connexion with the above, it has been alleged that the
motion of a float is related in general to the natural period of
damping function compared to the pontoon, it is considered
here because smaller load and smaller tension are applied the float (which is related to the shape of the float, fe, to such
factors as the draft or material of the float and the interval
by waves to the float and the anchor rope of a barrier-type
float to a pontoon-type float. between the front and rear walls) and to incident waves
compared
(especially their period). However, the authors consider
2.1 that damping mechanisms give damping actions peculiar to
Experimental procedure
2. 1. 1 Wave
tank. The wave tank was a concrete structure respective cases as a result of mutual interference among
measuring 2 1 6 x 1 8 m
x 20 m m
deep. On one side of the the most predominant factors under the conditions of
tank, two glazed observation windows each 4-0 long m particular shapes (intervals of walls in this case) and of the
were provided. At one end of this tank, a flap-type wave restraining force (of the rope) of various kinds of floats.
generator (5 PS) was installed. At both ends of the tank,
wave dampers were fitted to prevent reflection. 2.2.2 Damping effect. Before measuring the damping ef-
steepness Ho/L = 0-01 5-0- 1 1 0. For measuring wave therefore, necessary to consider first how strong the effect
forms, a resistance-wire wave gauge and an electromagnetic of this phase difference is between the period of the float and
oscillograph were used in combination. Measuring loca- that of incident waves within a certain range where reso-
tions were at three positions in front (sea side) and two nance occurs as a result of coincidence between the two
positions in the rear (land side). periods (fe, within the range where the damping effect is
boards of three models were set to 0-50 m, 1-00 m and motion has been examined.
1 50 m, respectively. In each case, provision was made for In general, when a single force is applied to a float in still
enabling the relative depth h w/h d ( = ratio of draft h w to water, the float generates vibration and the period of vibra-
barrier height h d ) to be: j (0- 125 m), \ (0-25 m) and } tion dissipates. In the case of the double-spaced barrier, the
(0-375 m). The anchor rope was connected to the model dissipation so quick that measurement of vibration is
is
at the bottom ends of board walls. The rope length was possible only up to the fourth period at the most. In the
so arranged that trials could be made when the rope length preliminary experiment, therefore, measurements of period
was equal to the water depth (moored) and when the rope were made from the second period (where the period is
460
assumed to be constant) onward and the values of several relative depth (h w/h d ) of the float motion was not clearly
runs were averaged to determine the natural period of the indicated, but the relative depth of the float motion was
float. Next, continuous external force was exerted on the considered to between | and |.
lie
float at the above-mentioned period in still water, thereby (/) When deep (hjh d >\): In Fig. 1(1,2, 4, 5, 7
draft is
causing forced vibration of the float; and the variation in and 8), the rolling motion is predominant. It can be ob-
resistance due to phase difference was measured. As a served in these graphs that the damping effect in these cases
result, it was found that the variation in resistance due to seems to show period variation, though it is not very clear.
was small and insignificant for practical This may be attributed to the fact that when the period of
phase difference
purposes. From this fact it is possible to surmise that the the waves coincides with the natural period of the rolling
phase difference accompanying a resonance phenomenon is motion of the float (fe, when T/T W 1-0), the float gener-
what makes the damping effect of a float larger. ates a resonance phenomenon, and simultaneously the
In such a case, it can be perceived that the interference water between the front and rear walls acts on the float
between incident waves and reflected waves within the float motion; also, the restraining force due to the anchor rope,
that occurs between the two walls simultaneously with the etc, acts on the float motion simultaneously. Thus, reflec-
forced vibration and also the tensile action of the anchor tion of waves upon the rear wall, waves generated by the
rope exercise their influence upon the float motion; namely, motions of front and rear wall, restraining force of the
they cause a peculiar float motion stabilizing the rear wall in anchor rope and many other factors acting upon the float,
a stationary state and giving wide elevating vibration to the cause the phase difference between the period of waves and
front wall. This peculiar float motion also explains why the the motion of the float. Therefore, the damping effect has
range where a large damping effect can be obtained is so nothing to do with the wave steepness.
narrow. This peculiar float motion is discussed below, using Secondly, the damping effect of a float slightly varies
the same indication symbols as were used in the case of the with the magnitude of the interval (a) between the front and
pontoon. rear walls, even if the depth h w /h d remains the same. In the
casewhen T/T W = 1-0, the larger the interval (a) the better
2.2.2. Relationship of damping effect (H T /H ) to period
1 is damping effect. This is attributable to the tact that
the
of rolling motion of float versus wave period (T/T W ). The when the float motion has the same angle of heel, the larger
damping effect of the barrier-type float is shown in Fig. 1 interval (a) brings about increased stability of the float:
(1-9). From these graphs, it can be seen that the shapes of namely, the larger the stability, the easier it is to bring about
the plotted curves can be broadly divided into two kinds the phase difference.
according to the difference in appearance of the float (//') When draft is comparatively small (hjh d ^\): In
motions. Since only three kinds of experiments with h w / Fig. 1 (3, 6 and 9), the damping effect becomes larger as T/
h d = |, 4- and 7 were conducted in this case, the transition Tw increases, contrary to (/), but the damping effect has no
I
-*-2v
I
O 6 OB
Hr/Ho
6 06
4 04
2 2
f
'T
Tb
hw / hd - 1 /2
08
HT/HO
06
02
I I
HT/HO
461
bearing upon the wave steepness as was the case in (i). It closely with those of Stelzlide and Carr. The reason for this
can be observed that since the draft of the float is smaller, a dispersion may be attributed to the degree of strength or
heaving motion rather than the rolling motion is predomi- weakness of, and the presence or absence of, the restraint by
nant in this case. As a result, it is indicated that the damping the anchor rope.
effect is brought about by a damping mechanism based on (ii) When draft depth is comparatively small (hjh d |).
=
energy transmission, as opposed to (/) where the damping In Fig. 2 (3, 6 and 9), a certain trend is noticeable according
effect was brought about by a damping mechanism based to the variation in the float-fitting interval (a). For instance,
on the rolling motion. given a/L =0-5, the comparison of the transmission fac-
tors (H T/HO) shows that when a = 0-5, 1-0 and 1-50, the
2.2.2.2 Relationship of damping effect (H T/H ) to fitting values of HT/HO are 9-2, 0-55, 0-80 respectively, thereby
space interval of float versus wave length (a/L ). In general, indicating that as the fitting interval (a) increases, T /H H
the natural period (T) of a float varies with its draft and its also increases. This means that when the fitting interval (a)
waterline area, but in the case of the double-spaced barrier, is 0-5, 1-Oand 1-5, the wave length L will be l-9m,2-0m
damping effect deteriorates before and after these two coincides with that of the float, the float develops resonance,
points and also near the middle of the two points. However, and if the float is so designed that phase difference will
the dispersion of the plotted points on the graphs is more occur due to the draft (and other shape features) of the float,
conspicuous than in Section 2.2.2.1. These results fit well a damping effect can be expected of this double-spaced
with those of experiments by Stelzlide and Carr, and the barrier for practical purposes.
line connecting the upper limits of the dispersion also fit (ii) However, compared with the pontoon-type float
I 2
I
N2:I~~}
HT/HO
08
06
04
02
0,^ CM- 075 025 050 075 100 125 150 173 025 050 075 100 125 150 I "5 200
2) c=0 DOrr, hw/hd* 1/2 5) o; 100m hw/hd- I /2 8) or I 50m hw/hd = I /2
O- -OSfc'ilKfe Corr I
06
HT/HO
6 06 06
04 04 04
02 2 a?
O2'j Ot>0 025 0.50 075 100 125 025 Q50 075 100 125 150 T75 ZOO 225
t 2 L 2
1
I O
08 09
HT/HO
06
04 04
02 02
050 0/5 1 00 125 023 050 075 ICO 125 150 .75 2OO
a / Lo a/ Lo
Fig 2. Effectof normally moored floating double-spaced barrier on wave transmission (HJH ~/L ) for varying board intervals (a) and relative
depths (h w/h d ). Results of similar experiments by Stelzlide and Carr in Wiegel (1962) are indicated by O O
462
upon which experiments have been conducted by the au- (shown in white circles) the value of H T /H increases in the
thors, the double-spaced barrier has a design problem in former (black circles) with increasing wave steepness,
that the range within which T/T W 1-0 can have a large while in the latter (white circles), it is scarcely affected by
damping effect is narrower at the time of resonance. the wave steepness. This may be explained by the greater
(m) Although graphs in Figs. 1 and 2 can be used as a wave overtopping when t,/t=0. This trend remains the
guide, it was not established how T should be calculated same with greater lengths of mattress, only the gradient of
theoretically for designing. After the cross-sections have the curve varying.
been determined with the aid of Fig. 2, it is necessary to It should be noted that in such an instance the value oft
,
make the float coincide with the period of the designed tends to decline at every incidence of wave; that is, the
waves at the site. mattress tends to sink.
(/v) Although the double-spaced barrier as it is cannot be
adopted as a practical type of floating breakwater; the main
points mentioned above concerning the damping effect will
play an important role in designing a practical type of
floating breakwater.
I' 57
-
/> small plastic '*,
jx_ pieces 52 8 ky/m 3
HT 6
mm
synthetic rope *9
3 Wave damping effect of absorber type floating
,
breakwater
4
3. 1Experimental procedure
3. 1. 1 Models. In these experiments, floats in the form of a
463
I
' - I 00 - 2 00 3.2.3 Wave damping effect. As described in the foregoing
"T
1 sections, the damping effect of a breakwater of the wave
i
i energy absorptive type, of which the damping effect is by
8 smoll plasttc pieces frictional action alone, is generally expressed as an expo-
C-52 8 kg/m3
j^l__h
I
I
'% t m 20 60 cm
nential function. Assuming that the wave damping mecha-
06 d - 10 43 cm nism permits application of the process of power transmis-
sion if the reflection by the float is neglected, a comparison
of the transmisssion coefficient curves for different compo-
4
nents can be made as shown in Fig. 6. Although some
dispersions are noted, the power transmission of the energy
? of incident waves by friction in the damping (mattress)
breakwater can be readily explained. The dispersions are
considered to be due to overtopping. The overtopping
005 !O C 15 020 025 030 phenomenon was greater with greater incident wave and
d/L had an influence where the value of
F/# 5. Relation between the transmission coefficient and d/L for a
mattress float sinh 2k(h - d)} I
\ V .
- was small.
smh2i I L
figure also indicates an instance of the filling density of
small plastic pieces packed at 52- 8 kg/m\ In this case too, Where the filler consists of buffering material, the damp-
the damping effect is greatly influenced by the parameter ing effect varies with the filling density and increases
'
when proportionately with the filling density. In Fig. 6, the o
k
1/L and, the parameter kept constant, increases with
is
increasing d/L. It may be seen that this trend is also symbols represent a filling density of 26-4 kg/nr\ while the
exponential. black symbols represent a density of 52- 8 kg/m\ When the
In Figs. 4 and 5, the wave length L was considered as an respective values of resistance coefficient a are read from
important factor relative to the transmission of wave the graph, they are 4-5 in the case of the former and 9-0 in
energy. The most important problem here is the quantum the case of the latter, and are in exact proportion to the
k
d' represented as the length and that, strictly speaking, it is filling densities.
related to the transmission of wave through the float. It In the case of the plastic balls (symbol A), application of
should, therefore, be regarded as a two-dimensional the power transmission theory is rather difficult. The reason
quantum. for this is that where the ball diameter is great as compared
Fig 6. Comparison of the transmission coefficient curves for different mattress breakwater components (a resistance coefficient
varying with the filling material and filling density)
464
with the incident wave length, the reflection due to the balls designed according to the table below is found
If the float
is great; for the waves of large wave length, the balls make a theoretically correct and analogous to the results obtained
movement complying with the orbit of water molecules, so by indoor experiments, then it will be necessary to examine
that in either instance the mattress produces no frictional with the aid of Fig. 2 how large the scale of waves will be
action against the incident waves. that a float of this size can cope with.
As described in the foregoing, where the damping mech- As has been described in section 3, it is impossible to
anism of the mattress dependent solely on the absorption
is calculate accurately the rolling period of the double-spaced
of the energy of incident waves by friction, it may be barrier because the motion of water between the two walls
possible to generalize the expression of the damping effect of the float interferes with the walls at the time they roll.
by appropriate determination of the value of a. Thus, it is Therefore, the rolling period of the double-spaced barrier is
relatively easy, in the present case, to find a similarity for calculated only as a rough guide, using the same formula as
field application,and resolve the outstanding problem in the was used in the case of the pontoon.
case of the sheet type or flexible breakwater utilizing phase The lateral vibration period of a float can be calculated
difference. with the following formula:
Expression of the damping effect of a wave energy ab-
sorber by frictional action must take into consideration the I
= 271
resistance coefficient a, which represents the filling density
and physical properties of the filler.
4.2 Basic float shape make the lateral oscillation period larger for an effective
The float interval (a), which represents the approximate design.
calculated using Fig. 2 as a guide,
scale of the float shape, is
and taking into account the wave conditions given in 4.3 Design conditions for practical construction of a flexi-
Section 4.1, as shown below. (Fig. 2 (4) is shaded to ble float
indicate the ranges where 21= 25 m is taken as the practical The expected damping effect in this case also is taken as
upper limit.) 50% or more. Under this assumption, the designed waves
If the maximum length of 21 is taken as 25 m, the area will have steepness (H/L) of 0-04 or less, and wave length
distribution of values of a less than 25m in the table below (L) of 100 m or less. With respect to these designed waves,
willdetermine the appropriate scale. Since the demarcated the size of the mattress floatmay be given the following
values have a wide margin of allowance, there is consider- values which are practical from the viewpoint of available
able flexibility in design limits to suit actual situations. material and economy.
465
Mattress length (l)=less than \ wave length basic shapes of kinds of floats with respect to incident
all
Distance from still water surface to bottom line of float waves has been Floats can be classified according
clarified.
(assuming sea-water density to be constant) are obtained as (//) It is suggested that a practicable floating breakwater
4.4 Shape of a floating breakwater for practical conducting field experiments, it will be possible to design a
development floating breakwater for practical use.
From the above, it is considered that a combination of the
double-spaced barrier and the absorber mattress will pro-
vide the most practical and feasible design for a floating
breakwater in marine waters. 6 References
KATO, J. et al. Damping effect of floating breakwater Proc. Am Soc
5 Conclusions 1969 Civ Eng , 95: 337-44
WIEGEL, R L Oceanographical engineering, Chapter 6 Effect of
(/) With
the object of developing floating breakwaters, 1962 structureon waves. Englewood Cliffs, N.J Prentice-Hall Inc , ,
the nature of float resistance (ie\ damping effect) of the pp. 137-41
Six stocks offish of wild origin, having mean weights between 33 and d'un poids moyen de 38 et 80 g, destines a etre transferes dans les cages
79 g were transferred from an onshore nursery in May or June, 1972. en 1975. [/augmentation de poids, 143 et 1 14% des stocks d'eclosene
1973, 1974 and 1975. Hatchery-reared fish, from a successful season in au cours des six premirs mois est tout a fait favorable, compare aux
1974, provided two stocks, having mean weights of 38 and 80 g, for augmentations de 107 et 104%, constatees sur des stocks similaires
transfer to the cages in 1975. Weight increases of 143% and 1 14% in d'ongme sauvage. On a obtenu des poids moyens de 240 g apres 2 1
first six months compared favourably with mois, de 590 g apres 24 mois et de 1 230 g apres avoir eleve en mer,
hatchery stocks over the
weight increases of 107% and 104% from similar stocks of wild origin. pendant 29 mois en cages, des turbots du groupe de 1'annee 1972.
Mean weights of 240 g were achieved after 12 months, 590 g after 24 On a etudie le stockage a raison de 30, 8 1 1 1 et 240 poissons par m \
,
3
months and 1 230 g after 29 months of sea-cage growth with the 1972 au taux moyen d'empoissonnement variant entre 34,7 kg/m pour les
year-group turbot. turbots maintenus a raison de 28
specimens par m 3 1
et de 4 1 kg/m pour
3
Numerical densities of 30, 81, 1 10 and 240 fish per m' have been les turbots maintenus a 240 unites/m les taux de croissance et de survie
;
investigated with maximum stocking levels ranging from 34-7 kg/m^ sont independants de la densite, aux niveaux evalues jusou'ici.
with turbot at 28 fish perm 3 '
to 4 1 kg/m with turbot held at 240 fish per Les poissons nourris de granules humides, formules et fabnques par
m 3
; growth and survival were independent
of density up to the levels so r Authority, ont obtenu un taux de conversion alimentaire aliments
far evaluated. humides: poisson humide egal a 2:1 et une efficacite de la conversion
Fish fed on moist pellet diets, formulated and manufactured by the atteignant 50%. On a obtenu des taux et efficacites de conversion
Authority, have yielded wet-food to wet-fish conversions of 2:1 and analogues avec un aliment moins onereux, des sprats non transformes
conversion efficiencies of up to 50%. Similar conversions and conversion (Sprattus sprattus).
efficiencies have been obtained with a cheaper food, unprocessed sprats, Aucune maladie ne s'est produite et les taux de survie ontdepasse 90%
Sprattus sprattus. pour tous les stocks, et meme 98% dans certains cas.
No disease problems have been encountered, and survivals have been
in excess of 90% for all stocks with several exceeding 98%. Avances en el cultivo de rodaballo, Scophthalmus maximus, en jaulas
flotantes
Progres en ilevage en mer du turbot, Scophthalmus maxtmms, dans des Extracto
La White Fish Authority de Gran Bretana se ocupa desde 1965 de
capes flottantes
Resume estudiar y fomentar metodos de cultivo de peces marinos. Desde
pianos
La British White Fish Authority s'occupe depuis 1965 de recherches et 1971 vienen realizandose ensayos de cria de rooaballo (Scophthalmus
de developpement dans le domaine des methodes d'elevage des pleuro- maximus) en jaulas flotantes experimentales, de en una zona 3m\
nectides marins. A
partir de 1971, des essais ont etc realises avec des protegida de una ensenada de la costa occidental de Escocia.
turbots (Scophthalmus maximus) dans des cages experimen tales de Durante los meses de mayo o juniode 1972, 1973, 1974 y 1975 se
466
trasladaron desde un criadero situado en tierra seis grupos de peces de by the Authority in 1974 were used for the first time in sea
origen silvestre, con pesos medios de entre 33 y 79 g. Peces de criadero,
de una incubacion realizada con exito in 1974, dieron dos grupos que se
cage trials during 1975.
colocaron en las jaulas en 1975, con pesos medios de 38 y 80 g. Los were to determine both growth
Initially, the objectives
grupos incubados en vivero registraron durante los seis primcros meses potential and survival of stocks held in ambient sea water in
aumentos de peso del 143 y el 114%, respectivamente, mientras el
aumento de peso de grupos analogos de origen silvestre fue del 107 y el floating cages, and in the process to identify husbandry
104%. Con los grupos de rodaballos de 1972, cultivados en jaulas, se techniques and any problems of health. As more fish
logro un peso medio de 240 g al cabo de 1 2 meses, 590 g a los 24 meses became available for experimentation, the programme was
y 1 230 g a los 29 meses.
Se ha estudiado el crecimiento a densidades numericas de 30, 8 1 110
extended to investigate the type and frequency of feeding,
,
evaluados hasta la fecha, el crecimiento y la supervivencia ban resultado application in mind, the eventual objective being the dem-
ser independientes de la densidad. onstration of the Authority's developments on a pilot com-
Alimentando a los peces con raciones a base de granules humedos,
mercial production scale.
preparadas y fabricadas por la White Fish Authority, se ban obtenido
indices de conversion de alimentos humedos a pescado fresco de 2 1 con
: ,
(Jones, 1972; Kerr, 1974). ambient surface sea temperatures varied from minimum
With salmonid species excluded from the Authority's winter conditions of 6-0 C to maximum summer tempera-
brief, because they are in terms of its act of constitution not tures of 16-4C (Fig. 2). Surface salinities in the area were
considered to be 'white fish', there were three possible within the range 29-0-33-8 ppt with a 1% incidence per
contenders. Dover sole, Solea solea, require warmer water year of salinities below 29 r>o. Dissolved oxygen content,
0/
than the UK
ambient for rapid growth, therefore the Au- measured at irregular intervals, was within the range 96-
thority's work with this species has been conducted only in 1 1 2% saturation.
onshore tanks in water warmed by cooling the condensers The cages were moored in a small bay close to the shore
of the electrical generating station at Hunterston in Scot-
land (Kingwell, 1974). The other two species, turbot,
Scophthalmus maximus, and halibut, Hippoglossus hippo-
glossus, were considered suitable for investigation in sea
cages at the Authority's Farming Unit, Ardtoe, Scotland,
where a system for growing flatfish in a sheltered sea loch,
afteran initial period of growth in onshore tanks, was being
developed. Turbot have been fattened in sea cages since IN
467
to each cage from all four sides. Each cage was supplied
with a hinged lid made of Weldmesh attached to a PVC
framework to protect the stock from predators, especially
gulls and herons.
TABI F I
surround of fibreglass with a central section of rigid plastic- 3 Results and discussion
coated Weldmesh, the areas being in the ratio of 60:40 3.1 Growth and growth rate
respectively. Buoyancy was provided by 82 litre plastic The mean increases in weight for the stocks are given in Fig.
barrels (Chas. Tennant), filled with expanded polystyrene, 4. Comparison of this with the temperature graph (Fig. 2)
enclosed in an angle-iron frame having a marine ply sur- shows clearly the relationship between temperature and
face. The buoyancy units were arranged so as to give access growth, with good growth being achieved during the period
468
TABLE III
PERCENT AGF INCREASE IN WEIGHT IN STOCKS OF TURBOT DURING PERIODS OF SUMMFR AND WINTER GROWTH
Mean Fish age 13-18 months Fish age 19-23 months Fish age 24-29 months
Year-group Stock Number offish weight (g) (June-November] (December-April ) (May-October)
of May-November, peaking in August, and slow growth which only became apparent at the onset of gametogenesis
during the remainder of the year. The percentage increases in their third year of growth (Il-group). The manner in
in weight for the different growth periods are given in Table which the spread of variation in weight increased with age
III. in two stocks of I-group turbot of wild and hatchery origin
Due to the individuality of the different year-groups, is shown in Table V.
in cages (months 13-18) were slightly better in 1975 than with stocks of wild origin of the same year-group (W4 and
in 1974 or 1973 and that temperatures during 1975 were W5) showed some superiority (Table IV and Fig. 5) and a
slightly warmer than in preceding years. This apparent greater uniformity in size. This superior performance,
growth enhancement did not occur with stock held in their which was also apparent in the food conversion efficiency,
thirdsummer of growth (months 24-29). was possibly linked to differences in behaviour noted be-
The mean weight and timing of transfer of the juveniles tween the two stocks. Hatchery turbot were less active than
from onshore to sea cages have been shown to be important their wild counterparts, even during feeding. Furthermore,
ifthe stock were to achieve a desired final, or harvesting, unlike fish of wild origin, there was no evidence of either fin-
weight at the end of a summer growth period. At present, biting or aggression. One offsetting factor was that hatch-
marketing trials (Kerr and Howard 1975; White Fish ery turbot were more active when handled and therefore
Authority, 1975a) have shown the desired weight for har- more liable to adverse effects from the stress of being
vesting to be just under500 g, which, as can be seen from measured.
Fig. 4, is achievable at the end of the second summer,
providing the fish averaged 50 to 60 g or more when
transferred from the nursery. Fig. 5 gives the growth for
seven stocks during the first six months in cages.
-
150
MEAN
WEIGHT
ACif IN YFARS
Fig 4. Mean
weight increases for 1970, 1972, 1973, 1974 year-
groups of turbot held in 3 m floating sea cages
1
TIML IN DAYS
3.2 Variation in growth Fig 5. Growth of groups Wl W5. H1-H2 of I-group turbot (see
Table III for stock description)
It has been noticed from the earliest farming trials that there
is a large variation in growth amongst fish of the same 3.4 Stocking density
stock. This variation was apparent in O-group turbot As insufficient numbers of turbot were available in the
(Smith, 1979) as well as in older year-groups, and was not earlier years, detailed experiments on growth density rela-
related to the growth differential between the sexes of the tionships have yet to be undertaken with identical stocks.
species (Jones, 1972; Purdom, Jones and Lincoln, 1972) The interpretation of results to date must take into account
469
TABLE IV
GROWTH IN GRADED STOCKS OF I-GROUP TURBOT OF HATCHERY AND WILD ORIGIN DURING THE FIRST SIX MONTHS IN SEA CAGES: WEIGHT GAIN,
SURVIVAL, DENSITY, FOOD CONSUMPTION AND CONVERSION DATA
TABLE V
VARIATIONS IN WEIGHT DISTRIBUTION IN WILD AND HATCHERY STOCKS
the inherent differences between stocksand holding condi- Overall achievement of growth was greatest with the sprat
tions. Limiting stocking rates have not yet been encoun- diet.One such trial result is shown in Table VI.
3
tered, with the maximum to date being 4 1 kg/m at 240 Sufficient datawere obtained to determine the correla-
3 3 3
fish/m with I-group and 34- 7 kg/m at 28 fish/m with Ill- tion between temperature and food consumed, shown in
3 3
group turbot (cf. 87 kg/m at 232 fish/m with plaice Fig. 6 as the relationship between food eaten, expressed as a
(Howard and Kingwell, 1975)). As with plaice, stocking percentage of body weight and temperature, over a 13
density significantly affects the feeding response (Kingwell, month period for 1973 wild stock turbot at a density of 80
3
1974), with greater feeding activity being maintained with fish/m fed a pellet diet (WFA6) to satiation five days a
,
fish
3
stocked at high density (240 fish/m ) than at lower week throughout. The maximum satiation feeding level
3
densities (30, 81 and 110 fish/m ). Perhaps surprisingly,
there was no significantly detectable change in food conver-
sion with density, but further trials are necessary to prove
been established that grading of stocks
this positively. It has
held at high density is necessary at least once a year to
maintain adequate growth in all size groups, by minimizing
the size divergence.
470
TABLE VI
TRIAL RESULT FOR STOCKS OF H-GROUP TURBOT AT 39 FiSH/M 3 FED ON THREE DIETS
TABIE VII
GROWTH OF HI-GROUP TURBOT AT 28 risn/M MONTHS 37-41 FROM HATCHING FED ON SPRATS
1
:
dropped as the fish aged, falling from 2-5% of body weight aging with all year-groups being in excess of 90% and
per day with I-group fish to 1 5% with II-group fish, during several being over 98%.
the period of maximum feeding response in mid-summer. The initial growth rates of the different stocks suggest
The minimum occurred when the sea temperature fell to that the fish should be at least 50-60 g before transfer to sea
6C and was 0-45% for I-group fish. cages. This transfer weight was readily achievable within
1 2 months from hatching (Smith, 1979), the time at which
3.6 Survival and health the sea temperature is becoming sufficiently high to allow
Survival in all year-groups was good, ranging from 9 1 to the transfer to take place, without detriment to growth.
1 00%. interesting to note that the turbot of hatchery
It is
3
Increasing the stocking density to 240 fish/m (giving a
origin have shown 1 00%
survival over the initial six-month maximum stocking biomass to date of 41 kg/m ) has not
3
period to the date of writing. depressed growth, when compared with that of other stocks
The majority of the mortalities recorded were of the held at lower densities, and it has positively aided feeding
smaller fish in the respective populations, either as a result activity.
of starvation (inability of the fish to compete with the With the ambient seawater temperature ranging from
remainder of the population for food), or as a result of algal 6C to 16C, and for approximately 26 weeks each year
growth within the cage. The growth of filamentous algae, above 10C the temperature at which growth becomes
most notably Enteromorpha sp., has on occasion caused marked the growth can be split into distinct phases. On
mortality in some small I-group fish due to accidental transference from the onshore tanks there was a 6 month
ingestion of the algae resulting in gill occlusion and growing phase, from June to November, when the mean
asphyxiation. weight of the stock increased rapidly (Table II), then a
No ectoparasites were observed during the trials. The period of slow growth, between December and April which
tape-worm, Bothriocephalus scorpii, was observed in faecal coincided with the low water temperature, followed by
matter within some cages but this did not appear to affect another rapid growth phase as the sea temperature again
growth rates or condition of stocks. The bacterium, Vibrio rose. Peak growth occurred in August each year when
anguillarum, the cause of considerable mortality in onshore feeding activity was most pronounced.
tanks (Smith, 1979), if present, did not visibly affect any of Under the farming conditions being investigated, the
the stocks held. period of slow growth in the winter months may well prove
Apart from the losses described above, the stocks all to be acceptable, as a market size of 450-500 g has been
exhibited a healthy stress-free behaviour, with vigorous achieved by the following October/November, fe, at an age
feeding activity being maintained even after handling or of 30 months from the egg, including 1 8 months of ongrow-
stock measurements. ing. Holding the fish for a further year has given a mean
weight of I 2 kg. Although this growth rate is slower than
can be achieved in warmed water (Purdom, Jones and
4 Conclusions Lincoln, 1972;Kingwell, 19 74) there are the ad vantages of
It isalready apparent that turbot are suited to the farming higher stocking density, less critical husbandry criteria and
conditions experienced in floating cages in the sea on the the elimination of high costs of energy for pumping water
west coast of Scotland. From over 5 000 fish held under through tanks.
trial conditions, significant growth and survival figures has been amply demonstrated that turbot accept a
It
have been obtained. Survival in particular has been encour- pelleted diet. Fed on moist pellets, formulated and
471
produced by the Authority, the conversion efficiency has JONES, A. Marine fish farming: an examination of the factors to be
1972 considered in the choice of species. Lab. Leafl. Fish. Lab.
been improved to 50%. Recent introduction of a whole
Minist. Agric. Fish Food. G.B. (New Ser.), (24): 16 p.
sprat diet, has indicated that a similar conversion can be JONES, A. Sexual maturity, fecundity and growth of the turbot,
achieved, and has enabled feeding costs to be reduced 1 974
Scophthalmus maximus L. J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. V. K. 54 1 09-25
, :
R. A. Collins and
Comparative Economics of Aquaculture in
M. N. Delmendo
Cages, Raceways and Enclosures
Abstract exigent par consequent une surveillance etroite du milieu; d'autrc part,
In the development of aquaculture methods throughout the world, les poissons sont reunis en grande quantite et leur nournture provient
knowledge about the economics pf the various methods is essential. High presque entierement de sources exterieures. Les techniques d'elevage en
density culture, such as in cages* raceways, and enclosures, is becoming enclos peuvent etre intensives ou extensives. Si des especes comme les
more widespread and information about the economics is scattered and chamdes planctophages sont stockees en faible densite et qu'elles ne
fragmented. The present study brings together the economic aspects of regoivent d'autre nourriture que celle produite par le milieu, il s'agit
these methods of high density aquaculture. d'une methode d'elevage extensive
Cages and raceways are intensive methods, ie. they require some Pour evaluer la rentabilite des trois methodes intensives, on s'est servi
environmental control, the fish are stocked at a high density, and d'une espece particuliere, le poisson chat (Ictalurus punctatus ), et on a
virtually all the feed is provided from an outside source. However, utilise des chamdes (Chanos chanos) pour evaluer la methode d'elevage
culture techniques for enclosures may be either intensive or extensive. If extensif en enclos. Les donnees presentees ici proviennent de nombreuses
species such as the planktophagic milkfish are stocked at a lower density publications et d 'experiences personnelles et non pas d'un seul projet de
and receive all their feed from autochthonous productivity, the method recherche.
becomes extensive. Ce sont les raceways qui exigent les plus importants investissements,
One species, the channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus), was used in the et les cages, les plus faibles. Utilises pour un elevage extensif. ce sont les
economic evaluation of the three intensive methods, and the milkfish enclos qui exigent chaque annee les depenses les plus considerables. Les
(Chanos chanos) was used in evaluation of enclosures as an extensive alevms de chamdes utilises pour constituer le stock initial coutent moms
method. The data represent information obtained from numerous publi- cher, par unite, que les alevins de poisson chat, mais etant donne leur taux
cations and personal experiences rather than from a single research de mortalite eleve, leur utilisation entraine des frais d 'exploitation plus
project. importants. En ce qui concerne ces frais, c'est la nourriture qui en
Raceways required the greatest amount of initial capital and cages constitute la part essentielle (55,5%) lorsqu'il s'agit d'un elevage inten-
required the least. Enclosures used on an extensive basis required the sif. L'elevage en enclos exige une main-d'oeuvre plus importante etant
greatest amount of capital on an annual basis. Milkfish fry for initial donne les travaux auxquels oblige la recolte. Le cout du kilo de poisson
stocking were less expensive on an individual basis than were catfish chat, a raison d'une recolte par an, est le suivant: en cages USS 0,7 1, en
fingerlings, but because of high mortality milkfish fry represented a raceways USS 0,72, en enclos (elevage intensif) USS 0,47. A raison de
greater operational cost. Feed was by far the highest operational cost deux recoltes par an, le cout par kilo est le suivant: en cages USS 0,67, en
(55-5%) in intensive culture. Enclosure culture required more labour raceways USS 0,67, en enclos (elevage intensif) USS 0,71, en enclos
because of harvesting. Costs per kg of catfish with one crop per year (elevage extensif) USS 0,47. Le pompage de Teau qu'exige Putilisation
were: cage USS 0-71, raceways US!> 0-72, enclosures (intensive) USS des raceways augmente de cout du kilo de poisson de USS 0,07.
0-47. With the two crops per year the costs per kg were: cages US$ 0-67, Les evaluations des recettes tirees de ces trois methodes
raceways USS 0-67, enclosures (intensive) USS 0- 7 1, enclosures (exten- d'aquaculture font ressortir des marges de profit favorables (couts de
sive) USS 0-47. Pumping water for raceways increased the cost/kg of pompage et taxes sur les recettes brutes non comptes).
fish USS 0-07.
Estimates of income from all three aquaculture methods show favour- Estudio economico comparative de la acuicultura en jaulas, canales y
able margins of profit (excluding pumping costs and taxes on net recintos
earnings). Extracto
En el desarrollo de di versos metodos de acuicultura en todo el mundo, es
RenUbillte compared de 1'aquaculture en cages, en raceways, et en esencial conocer bien los aspectos economicos de los distmtos metodos.
enclos El cultivo a grandes densidades por ejemplo, en jaulas, canales y
Resume recintos esta cada dia mas extendido, y la informacion sobre sus
Pour ameliorer les methodes d'aquaculture dans le monde, il est essentiel aspectos economicos esta muy dispersa y fragmentada. En este estudio
d'en connaitre les caracteristiques du point de vue de leur rentabilite. La se comparan los aspectos economicos de estos metodos de cultivo a
pisciculture de haute densite, comme celle qui est pratiquee en cages, en grandes densidades.
raceways et en enclos se repand de plus en plus mais les informations que Las jaulas y canales son metodos intensivos: es necesario cierto
Ton possede sur lews aspects economiques sont fragmentaires et dispcr- control del medio am bien te, los peces se siembran a grandes densidades y
sees. La presente etude rassemble les informations dont on dispose sur practicamente todos los alimentos provienen de fuentes exteriores. En
les aspects economiques des methodes d'aquaculture de haute densite. cambio, las tecnicas de cultivo en recintos pueden ser intensivas o
Les cages et les raceways sont des methodes d'elevage intensif qui extensivas. Si se utilizan especies como el sabalote, que son plantofagas.
472
la siembra se hace con baja densidad y todos los alimentos de los peces 2 Basis of economic comparisons
son de origen autoctono, el metodo puede considerarse extensivo. Three tables of production costs, Tables and were
I, II III,
Para evaluar economicamente los tres metodos de cultivo intensive se
utilize bagre de canal (Ictaluruspunctatus\ y para evaluar el valor de los prepared for comparison of intensive culture by each of the
recintos como metodo extensivo se utilize el sabalote (Chanos chanos). three methods considered. One species, the channel catfish
Los datos reiinen informacion procedente de numerosas publicaciones y
en de un solo de (Ictalurus punctatus\ was used in each table in order to
experiencias personales, lugar que proyecto
investigation. reflectmore clearly differences in culture methods, rather
El metodo que mayores inversiones iniciales de capital exige es el than differences in species. The channel catfish was selected
cultivo en canales, y el que menos, el cultivo en jaulas. El metodo que
because: (i) it is a warm water, omnivorous species, and the
exige mayor cantidad de capital anual es el cultivo extensivo en recintos.
El precio unitano de los jaramugos de sabalote para siembra inicial vast majority of fish cultured for animal protein will be
resulto menor que el de los jaramugos de bagre, pero debido a la elevada
del sabalote la adquisicion de jaramugos representa un costo
warm water species; (//) much research data are available
mprtalidad on such factors as conversion
mas elevado de operacion. En el cultivo intensive, el porcentaje mas this species for rates, mortal-
elevado de los gastos operacionales (55,5%) correspond! a los piensos. ity, rate of growth, etc; and (in ) the authors' familiarity with
En el cultivo en recintos fue necesaria mas mano de obra para la
the species.
recoleccion. Los costos por kg de bagre, con un solo ciclo de produccion
al an6, fueron: US$ 0,71 en jaulas, USS 0,72 en canales, US$ 0,47 en The tables do not represent data from any one research
recintos (cultivo intensive). Con dos ciclos de cria al ano, los costos por were compiled from several published
project, but instead,
kg fueron USS 0,6 7 en jaulas, US$ 0,6 7 en canales, US$ 0, 7 en recintos
: 1
(cultivo intensive), USS 0,47 en recintos (cultivo extensivo). El bombeo reports and personal experiences. Therefore, the tables
de agua para los canales aumento el costo por kg de pescade en USS 0,07. represent generalized or hypothetical production costs, but
Los mgresos estimados con estos tres metodos de acuicultura mues- allentries in the tables were based upon published facts in
tran margenes favorables de beneficios (excluidos los costos de bombeo
y los impuestos sobre los beneficios netos).
so far as possible. Table III dealing with intensive culture in
enclosures was supported by less published information
than either of the other tables.
1 Introduction Costs of most items included in the tables vary consider-
Economic comparisons of different methods of aquaculture ably from one country to another. Therefore, the method of
on a global scale are difficult at best and must contain many arriving at each figure was shown in the tables so that they
uncertainties requiring a number of assumptions. Some could be varied when modified for a particular country.
principal problems causing the uncertainties are: (/") the Feed conversions and growth rates were considered to be
many environmental variables; (//') ecologically different the same for each method because if water quality is
species of fish; (///) differences in social culture and eco- approximately equal in each method the rates will be the
nomics in the various countries; and (/v) lack of adequate same. As an example, rainbow trout cultured in raceways
research data on some methods of aquaculture. However, at and cages in similar water produced virtually identical
the present stage of development of aquaculture around the conversions of 1-54 (Collins, 1972; Ward, personal com-
world, economic comparisons are much needed as an munication). A complete, 36% protein, pelleted feed was
interim step in further development (Pillay, 1973). It is considered to be necessary for the intensive methods. An
within this framework, ie, uncertainty opposed by need, average of 32 days was the time allowed for doubling the
that the authors have attempted economic comparisons of weight of the fish (Collins, 1970 and 1971).
three high density methods of aquaculture: cages, raceways Such factors as feed conversion, growth rate, and mortal-
and enclosures. ity are as variable as the abilities and training of the persons
Culture in cages and raceways is exclusively intensive, responsible for aquaculture projects. Some persons lose all
ie, it requires some environmental control, the fish are their fish and some lose less than 1%. Conversions vary
stocked in high density, and virtually all the feed is pro- from 1
1
25 to 4-0 These variations are not inherent in the
.
vided from an outside source. However, aquaculture in systems, but rather in the operators, so average values of
enclosures may be either intensive, extensive, or a combina- 10% mortality and 1-6 conversion were selected as the
tion of the two. If species such as the milkfish are stocked at results expected from knowledgeable and experienced
a lower density and receive all their feed from autochtho- aquaculturists (Arroyo, 1973).
nous productivity, the method becomes extensive (Neal, There are various methods of calculating depreciation,
1973). amortization and interest rates. The method selected for the
Arguments are put forth frequently about the advantages present report was amortization of capital items by dividing
and disadvantages of the different methods of aquaculture. cost of the item by the number of years of life expectancy,
These arguments are often meaningless because proponents and then this value was charged as an annual cost. The
of a given method commonly advocate use of the method interest rate was 8% per annum, an average value most
under a great variety of circumstances. Of course, no common 1976. Interest was charged on amortized capi-
in
method is superior in all situations, and a method should be tal funds based upon the formula:
selected that best suits the conditions. For a given set of
environmental conditions, the method selected should be I x C
where:
the one that is most economical, provides the least risk of N
loss from environmental variables, and is compatible with A = average interest charge if depreciation amount is
473
TABLE I
PRODUCTION COSTS OF 50 000 CHANNEL CATFISH IN CAGES
(160 DAYS AND 800 g WEIGHT AT HARVEST, NO COST FOR WATER)
B. Operational costs
1. Fingerlings at 30 g 50 000 x US5> 0-06 3000 11-8
2. Feed US$ 250/ton, 1-6:1 conversion, 58 tons 14500 56-8
3. Labour USS 2/h
(a) positioning and stocking cages 40 h
(b) harvesting 80 h
(c) daily feed 6 h/day x 1 60 960 h
(d ) maintenance 1 00 h
Grand Total
Production costs/kg
Using the above formula, A will equal interest on ap- II, IIIand IV, raceways required the greatest amount of
proximately 50% of C on long-term depreciation (20-25 and cages required the least amount. How-
initial capital
years), and about 67% on short term (3 years). Interest was ever, when the capital costs were amortized, enclosures
charged on half of the operational funds because all of these used on an extensive basis had the greater capital costs per
funds were not utilized for the entire period. year (Table IV). The high initial capital costs of raceways
The cost of labour can vary considerably, even at the could be changed by using earthen raceways instead of
same rate per hour, depending upon the degree of mechani- concrete, but th cost would simply be shifted from capital
zation. The figures used assume no sophisticated equipment to maintenance and labour. The high annual capital cost of
beyond nets, buckets, scales and possibly a lift boom. enclosures resulted from the use of expensive synthetic
In the first analyses, Tables I, II and III, no cost for water netting which had a relatively short lifetime. Research on
was included so that comparisons under ideal situations more durable materials and better construction to produce
could be made. For instance, the following situations could more permanent types of enclosures could possibly reduce
exist whereby waters owned by a government could be the high annual capital costs as well as maintenance.
made available to stimulate the economy and produce
animal protein: (i) water flowing from a dam could be 3.2 Operational costs
utilized for raceway culture; (//) reservoirs, estuary bays, 3.2. 1 Fingerlings. The cost of fingerlings was the same for
irrigation canals and natural lakes could be made available the three intensive methods, but much higher for milkfish
for cage culture; and (in) estuaries and shallow lakes could production by the extensive method even though the cost
be used for enclosure culture. per individual was much lower. The reason for the high cost
Table IV, which gives production costs of extensive of milkfish fry was the high rate of mortality [ 5 7% average
culture of milkfish (Chanos chanos) in enclosures in the as shown by Delmendo and Gedney (1974)]. This mortal-
Philippines, differs slightly in design from the three exam- ity ratecould be reduced by better fry production tech-
ples of intensive culture because the data were taken niques, handling and transportation methods and by dis-
directly from a single source, Delmendo and Gedney ease and parasite control. All fingerling and fry costs
(1974). Interest costs were added to the original data. probably would be reduced if an established, steady market
was available to the producer.
3 Analyses of production costs 3.2.2 Feed. The cost of feed for all three intensive methods
3. 1 Capital costs was the greatest annual production cost of all items consid-
Of the three basic culture methods considered in Tables I, ered (average 55-5%, a fact which has been reported by
474
TABLE II
PRODUCTION COSTS OF 50 000 CHANNEL CATFISH IN RACEWAYS
(160 DAYS AND 800 g WEIGHT AT HARVEST, NO COST FOR WATER)
B. Operational costs
1. Fingerlmgs at 30 g 50 000 x USS 0-06 3 000 11-6
2. Feed USS 250/ton, 1-6-1 conversion, 58 tons 14 500 56-3
3. Labour USS 2/h
(a ) stock ing and harvesting 1 00 h
21 866 84-8
Grand Total 25 774 100-0
Production costs/kg 72
TABLF III
PRODUCTION COSTS OF 50000 CHANNEL CATFISH IN FFNCFD ENCLOSURFS
(160 DAYS AND 800 g WEIGH! AT HARVEST, NO COST FOR WATER)
475
numerous authors (Piliay, 1973; Shehadeh, 1974). Feed Gedney, 1974; Greenfield, 1970). Research has not yet
costs are difficult to reduce because the ingredients are used provided the industry with a satisfactory alternative to the
in large quantities in many types of feed and the prices time-honoured method of using a seine to harvest fish from
fluctuate with world markets. In 1973, the cost of feed relatively large bodies of water.
ingredients doubled and tripled on the world market caus- One aspect of labour was not included in this report,
ing many profitable aquaculture operations to become namely that required for guarding the fish from thieves.
unprofitable. Moreover, good formulations of feed are This omission may not be justified, based upon reports
essential because the fish receive only what is provided by from virtually every country. Theft of fish that are easy to
the culturist. Formulations using locally produced ingredi- catch seems to be common to nearly all societies.
ents, including lower quality fish, could reduce costs to Labour for the intensive methods shown in Tables I, II
some more research
extent, but is needed in this area. and III cannot be compared equally with that for extensive
Extreme care should be taken by the culturist to keep the culture in enclosures shown in Table IV because the rate of
conversion as low as possible, since feed is such a large pay was much lower in the latter case.
percentage of the total cost (Palfreman, 1973).
The extensive method of culture using plankton feeders 3.2.4 Miscellaneous items. Miscellaneous or smaller ex-
and herbivores avoids the high cost of feed, but such a penses are quite variable depending upon a variety of
method can be used profitably only in waters of high circumstances which may exist in any particular country.
productivity. Extensive culture in enclosures can serve two However, these variable items do not contribute a large
purposes, both important in the world today the produc- percentage to the overall cost of an aquaculture operation.
tion of animal protein and the reduction of organic pollu-
tion. Many of the the highly productive waters of today are 3.2.5 Production costs per kilogramme of fish. Under
productive because of pollution by organic wastes, and if proper management with no cost for water, the costs of
the pollution is not too great, extensive fish culture could producing fish by the various methods are shown in Table
reduce the pollution and aid in recycling materials. Much V. If rental of water should be charged at the rate of 5% of
money is spent on pollution control and it is not unreason- the fish produced (Mathis, 1970), the cost becomes USS
able to propose that some of those funds be applied to 0-75 for cages, US$ 0-76 for raceways, and USS 0-80 for
aquaculture operations to make them more viable intensive enclosures. In the data from Delmendo and Ged-
enterprises. ney (1974) (Table IV), the licence or rental fees for water
amounted to 1 6%, which was included in the figure of US&
3.2.3 Labour. Labour was more costly in enclosure cul- 0-47/kg (the costs were based upon two crops per year).
ture than in either cage or raceway culture, principally
because of harvesting costs. Harvesting costs in enclosures 3.3 One crop versus two crops per year
were comparable to those in ponds (Delmendo and For fish culture in tropical and subtropical climates, two
TABLE IV
PRODUCTION COSTS OF 200000 MILKFISH IN FFNCFD KNCIOSURFS
WITH TWO CROPS PFR YEAR AND AVERAGF wunm OF 460 g AT HARVEST
14950 4305 22 4
B. Operational costs
1. Fingerlmgs 200000 at USS 0-023
2. Feed
3. Harvesting costs
4. Salaries for 4 caretakers
5. Mortality 57% of total fingerlings of
11 3 000 x USS 0-023
6. Marketing costs
7. Licence fees
8. Administrative costs
9. Contingency and maintenance
10. Interest on operational funds, 8%/annum, 6 months
14 789 77 6
Grand Total 19094 100-0
Production costs/kg 0-47
Source: Delmendo and Gedney (1974) based upon exchange rate of USS 1-00-PPs. 10, 15% inflation added
476
crops per year should be common. Temperate climates also ods show that all of them are fairly profitable activities
provide for double cropping if a cold water species is (Table VII). The basis of calculation for income from
utilized in the colder months (Collins, 1972). Double channel catfish reared in cages, raceways and enclosures is
cropping would be economically advantageous because the US$ 1
-
25/kg, while the price of milkfish is US$ 1
-00/kg at
capital costs are fixed and only operational costs need to be the site of production.
repeated for the second crop. Table V shows the production
costs of one crop versus two crops per year.
4 Conclusions
TABLF V
PRODUCTION COSTS/KG OF CHANNEL CATFISH CULTURED IN CAGES, Comparisons on a cost of production basis of the three
RACFWAYS AND ENCLOSURES PRODUCING ONF CROP VERSUS TWO CROPS intensive methods of aquaculture, cages, raceways and
PER YEAR enclosures, revealed no important differences. Therefore, in
selecting one of these aquaculture methods, characteristics
other than cost of production are more important. Within
the economic considerations, the most important differ-
ences were the amount of initial capital required and labour
costs for harvesting. Assuming the proper water conditions
to be available for any of these methods, the method
selected should be decided as follows: (/) if abundant
TABLF VI capital is available and labour is expensive, raceways
PRODUCTION COST FOR PUMPING WATER INTO RACEWAYS (7M LIFI) should be used; (') if little is available and labour is
capital
Initial costs Annual costs moderately inexpensive, cages should be selected; and (in)
US$ US$ with moderate capital and the least expensive labour, the
situation is best suited for use of enclosures.
A. Capital costs
1. Pump and electric motor, 20 year Estimates of income obtainable from intensive aquacul-
amortization 2500 125 ture in cages, raceways and enclosures as well as extensive
2. Reservoir, 20 years payoff 750 38
culture in enclosures show favourable margins of profit.
3. Interest on amortized capital
funds at 8%/annum 137 With further improvements of technology in the latter
method, particularly in the reduction offish seed mortality
3250 300
rates, the income structure of this activity would be greatly
B. Operational costs improved.
1
Electricity, pumping 6 056 I/
Extensive culture enclosures is a method that lends
in
minute
1
2000
2 Maintenance 0% of cost of
1
where there are highly productive
itself best to situations
pump and motor 250 shallow water, inexpensive labour, and a lack of modern
2250 technology and equipment for manufacturing complete
Grand Total 2550 feeds. Whether or not complete feeds are available, if highly
Cost/kg of fish 0-07
produced productive shallow water is available, extensive culture in
Cost of kWh plus US$ 90/month minimum charge
1
for six months (Brewer, enclosures is a relatively inexpensive method of producing
personal communication ) fish.
TABU VII
ESTIMATED INC ovir FROM INIFNSIVI cm TURF OF CHANNFL CATFISH IN
CAGFS. RACIWAYS, AND FNCLOSURFS, AND FXIFNSIVI CUIIUKF OF
MILKMSH IN JNCLOSURFS 5 References
ARROYO, S Chile develops the cultivation of trout in cages. Fish
I
COLLINS, R A The effect of cage size upon growth and feed con version
1971 in channel catfish, Jctalurus punctatus (Rafinesque) 9 p (mimeo)
COLLINS, R. A Cage culture of trout in warmwatcr lakes Am Fish
1972 Farmer World Aquacult News, 3 (7) 4-7
|
2
1
1974 business in Laguna de Bay. Tech Pap. Laguna Lake Dev Auth.,
one year rearing cycle
(2) 67 p
GREENFIELD, J How much profit in pond culture 9 Fish Farming Ind ,
30(12)Pt 2:2118-22
is added to the data in Table II, the cost of production is
PALFREMAN, D A The economics of marine fish farming Fish Farming
increased US$ 0-07/kg or 10% as shown in Table VI. If 1973 //.,(!): 47-52
PILLAY, T. V. R. The role of aquaculture in fishery development and
water should be pumped from deep wells, the cost would be 1973 management. J. Fish Res. Board Can., 38 (12) Pt 2 2202-17
higher. PIPER, R. G. Know the proper carrying capacities of your farm Am
1970 Fishes U.S. Trout News, 15 (1) 4-6
SHEHADEH, Z. H. A preliminary evaluation of the potential for cage
3.5 Estimated income 1974 culture offish in Lake Kossou. Rome, FAO, FI DP/IVC/71/
The approximate incomes from the three aquaculture meth- 526/6: 24 p.
477
Chapter VII Wastes and Use of Recirculating Water
in Aquaculture
Examples are given of how existing fish culture systems reduce BOD Reciclaje de desechos mediante la acuicultura e impedimentos que se
in waste waters under different conditions: with pretreatment of waste oponen a una mayor utilizacion de cste sistetna
water, with dilution, with pretreatment and dilution, and with no treat- Extracto
ment. Improved waste treatment can provide: an increase in Las sociedades mpdernas estan obligadas a aprovechar los sumimstros
phytoplank-
ton, a removal of nutrients and an increase in the rate of disinfection. de agua que contienen un gran porcentaje de aguas utilizadas previa
Meanwhile, benefits to fish culture from wastewater fertilization include mente por el hombre, es decir, "aguas residuales". Aunque de ordinario
increase in yields of fish and natural fish foods. se ha pasado por alto la fune ion de los sistemas acuaticos (por ejemplo,
Restraints on wastewater fish culture may include: unsatisfactory los estanques piscicolas) para el tratamiento de las aguas de descarga, en
dissolved oxygen levels in ponds; presence of toxic materials in waste algunas zonas pueden resultar utiles. El empleo de productos de desecho
waters; presence of unacceptable tastes and odours in fish; presence of para fertthzar los estanques puede aumentar el crecimiento de los peces y
parasites and diseases; various problems of public health; difficulties of la produccion piscicola, y los peces, a su vez, pueden mejorar la
satisfying pond effluent standards; and meeting public acceptance of the capacidad de tratamiento de desechos de los estanques.
practice. Se dan ejemplos de como los sistemas actuates de piscicultura reducen
Successful wastewater aquaculture requires much information on and la demanda biologica de oxigeno (DBO) de las aguas residuales en
satisfaire aux normes fixees pour les affluents dans les etangs; et ited, essentially free\ generally *pure\ 'natural resource.
1'acceptation de cette pratique par 1'opinion publique. Modern industrial societies are now forced to use water
Pour reussir, le recyclage des eaux usees dans Paquaculture necessite
une ample information et une connaissance approfondie de nombreux supplies that contain a large percentage of water previously
processus et de mamtes disciplines, par exemple, la dynamique physico-
used by man, ie, 'waste waters'. Such unavoidable uses of
chimique de I'ecologie des etangs du point de vue des besoms physiolo- waste waters include that for his domestic needs. This
giques d'une espece de culture. Parmi d'autres exemples, citons encore la includes his drinking water, for which the use of waste
connaissance des techniques de 1'amenagement piscicole, les considera-
tions le role des aigues, etc. water is now so large in some areas that official recognition
genetiques,
same publique et
L'integration de Taquaculture, de 1'agriculture, de la of the fact has occurred (ShuvaK 1977). Probably in sub-
de la lutte centre la des eaux est une tache difficile mais
pollution conscious reaction to this fact, uses of waste water coming
necessaire, qu'il faut aborder dans un cadre copperatif et interdiscipli-
naire. Du point de vue de la pisciculture, ('utilisation d'un tel systeme under permit from wastewater control and other public
478
becoming immersed in a sea of rules,
authorities, are by Tsai, plus those in Hepher and Schroeder ( 1974, 1977),
and laws (see Kildow and Huguenin,
regulations, policies, will provide a major portion of the data published since
1974; Huguenin and Kildow, 1974, for a review of the 1965 on sewage utilization in fish culture, exclusive of Asia
situation in the United States). and eastern Europe. An early review of sewage as one
Purposeful uses of waste waters will continue to grow. method of fertilizing fish ponds (Mortimer and Hickling,
The recovery of valuable products carried by waste waters 1954) has been out of print, but their section on sewage in
for plant growth (eg, phosphorus, nitrogen, and other fish culture was appended to Allen (1972). Some additional
elements) is no longer an esoteric matter (Pimental et al, references are listed in proposals for wastewater use in fish
1973). In arid areas the water itself is especially valuable culture, based on practical knowledge and published mate-
for irrigation and aquaculture. by Lin ( 1 974) and Donaszy (1965 ). Papers by Ghosh,
rial,
Aquatic systems to dispose of domestic wastes can Banerjee and Rao (1973) and Ghosh, Rao and Banerjee
probably be associated with the most ancient tribal group- (1974) were not available for review.
ings, since such groupings tended to associate with water
courses. With the coming of the industrial revolution,
sophisticated mechanical systems of wastewater treatment 2 Classification of wastewater fish culture systems
were developed. In disposal of effluents, the principle of Tsai (1975) grouped wastewater fish culture systems ac-
dilution in water is still an integral part of the design of cording to methods of feeding fish. Hepher and Schroeder
systems for wastewater treatment. The utility, however, of (1977) presented a classification system using methods of
aquatic systems, such as ponds for wastewater treatment, reducing the biological oxygen demand (BOD) of the waste
has been neglected, perhaps in part for psychological rea- water. This approach directs attention to a major limiting
sons (McGauhey, 964) and in part because of mismanage-
1 factor controlling the use of waste waters for fertilizing
ment due to their high shock resistance (Stander et al, ponds. Some examples of how existing fish culture systems
1970). Nevertheless, in areas with cheap land, limited reduce BOD in waste waters are tabulated on page 480,
capital resources, or water shortage, pond systems of water using Hepher and Schroeder's scheme.
purification (eg, Parker, Jones and Taylor, 1950; Parker,
1973; Folkman, Meiring and Kremer, 1973) have had
extreme utility. Reclamation of waste water through high- 3 Benefits from wastewater fertilization
energy technologies, such as desalinization, is now becom- The from the utilization of waste
benefits to be derived
ing more viable economically than water production. waters maybe considered under two categories: those
Aquaculturists have used waste products, including those related to fish culture, and those related to wastewater
of man, to fertilize ponds to increase growth and production treatment.
offish since antiquity (Lin, 1954; Prowse, 1962; Borgese,
1975). Recent studies (Schroeder, 19 75; Carpenter, 1974; 3.1 Benefits to fish culture
Coleman et al, 1974; Goldschmidt, 1970) have indicated 3.1.1 Increase In fish yields. Considerable historic evi-
that fish improve the waste treatment capacity of pond dence exists to illustrate the increase in fish production
systems. Similarly, there has been an increased interest in using waste water (Table I). More recent results reported by
using waste water in modern aquaculture. A
recent confer- Hepher and Schroeder ( 1977) showed a 70% greater yield
ence (Carpenter, 1974) stressed the use of waste waters in offish with a 40% reduction in supplemental feed required
food production, while another (D'ltri, 1977) emphasized to grow a unit weight of fish in organically fertilized
food-producing biological systems as wastewater purifica- (manured) commercial ponds as compared to ponds fertil-
tion schemes. Sanitary engineering conferences seem to be ized with inorganic chemicals (Table II). The significance
givingmore stress to aquatic systems (eg, the International of these latest results is not only in the percentage increase,
Conference on Biological Water Quality Improvement Al- but also in the absolute increase in yield (about 3 500 kg/ha
ternatives, University of Pennsylvania, March 1975). It over an 8 month period). Hepher and Schroeder (1977)
can be seen that wastewater aquaculture is a very broad, also report unpublished data from experiments at the Fish
interdisciplinary subject. Within the assigned limits of this and Aquaculture Research Station, Dor, Israel, on use of
paper, the scope will be further restricted to that of waste- fluid cowshed manure only to produce net fish crops, based
water fish culture, and to those principles believed to be of on extrapolated values, of about 4 900 kg/ha. These results
importance to the practical utilization of waste waters to exceed commercial production rates in ponds using supple-
ponds. Some constraints on this practice from a
fertilize fish mental feed and inorganic fertilizers.
fish culture viewpoint, and some immediate research needs,
will also be discussed. 3. 1.2 Increase in natural fish foods. Wastewater-fertilized
ponds produce high yields because of the increase in natural
1.2 Recent literature foods produced by these wastes (Sharp, 1974; Wirshubsky
Reports published primarily in English prior to (roughly) and Elchuness, 1952; Schroeder, 1975). Several recogniz-
1965 on the use of sewage in fish culture were listed by able major processes are involved in this increase in actual
Allen (1969), and a review on sewage fertilization based on fish food supply (Hepher, 1975).
this was published by Allen (1972). A large
literature (i) Nitrogen and phosphorus, and trace elements, stimu-
literatureon the effects of waste waters on fish life exists in late phytoplankton production in the same manner as
the water pollution control and sanitary engineering litera- inorganic fertilizers. This process is limited by autoshading
ture which has been reviewed by Tsai (1975). This latter (Hepher, 1962).
review, based on both fresh- and saltwater regimes, was (//) The smaller particles of organic waste in waste water
undertaken as a basis for considering the potential use of provide a direct source of food to zooplankton and benthos.
domestic waste water in aquaculture. The references listed This process is not light-limited as is the production of
479
2. 1 Pretreatment of waste water
Mayenne Cascading water through six ponds Carp could be grown in the last three units, and only
(1933) in series during summer
Hey Two-stage trickling filters with final Tilapia were successfully reared after ponds were cleaned
(1955) sedimentation and a non flow-through pond system used
Wolny Activated sludge process Fish increased oxygen levels in all ponds used, but the best
(1962) improvement occurred in stagnant ponds
Coleman et al Forced-air system in first two units A variety offish occurred in all cells. High effluent quality
(1974) of a six-cell pond system
Demoll Primary treated water diluted 1 to Summer rearing of carp most successful operation
(1926) 4-6 with fresh water
Vaas Septic tank water mixed :3 with
1
High yields without supplemental feeding; fish losses no
(1948) river water greater than in non -sewage ponds
Allen and Dennis Sedimentation, aeration, and High-quality waste water plus dilution needed for rearing
(1974) oxidation pond treatment. Effluent physiologically sensitive salmon and trout. Pilot-plant
mixed 1 1 with sea water
:
operation
Ryther Secondary effluent into sea water Bivalve faeces require treatment. Flatfish used in terminal
(1975) ponds injected with selected algal units. Pilot-plant operation
cultures; algae fed to bivalves
Bose Preliminary settling and partial High fish production, high demand Fish harvested and
(1944) stabilization in channel leading to sold at pond site
Nair fish ponds. Waste water introduced
(1944) monthly at ratio of 1 part new
Basu water- 3-4 parts stabilized fish-pond
(1949) water
Hepher and Fish ponds filled with fresh water; Wastewater supply to area (Israel) low, thus generally
Schroeder domestic waste waters from rural waste water replaces pond losses from seepage and
(1974, 1975) communities (Kibbutzim) fed into evaporation. Often some stabilization of waste water in
ponds; high dilution rates pipes and ditches
TABI t I
SUMMARY OF EXAMPLES OF FISH PRODUCTION OBTAINED FROM FISH PONDS USING SEWAGF AS A SOURCT OF FERTILIZFR (FROM HICKI ING, 1962)
TABI E II
FISH PRODUCTION AND FEED CONVERSION FACTORS FOR COMMERCIAL ISRAELI FISH POND UNDER VARIOUS FERTII I7ATION SCHEMES (FROM HEPHFR
AND SCHROEDER, 1977)
480
organic matter by phytoplankton. Direct utilization of The second of these'considerations is one that can be
larger particlesby fish undoubtedly also occurs. Bacteria overcome by proper management and supervisory control
on the smaller particulate matter appears to be the major (Folkman, Meiring and Kremer, 1973; Stander et al,
source of nutrients (Mann, 1972). 1970). The first consideration is of special interest to fish
(iii) The direct use of soluble organic material in natural culturists and to fishery biologists. Phytophagous fish have
waters by phytoplankton or zooplankton seems likely. This the ability to remove algal cells from water (Prowse, 969) 1
concept has had lively scientific debate for years (Putter's and are employed in aquatic weed control (Sills, 1970).
Hypothesis). Recent work in fresh waters (Wuhrmann, High yields in fish ponds using polyculture with 'Chinese
1968) and marine areas (Conover, 1966) continues to carp' (Lin, 1974) (Table III) are largely due to phytopha-
suggest this as a pathway to organic production of fish gous fishes. This concept of using fishes that feed on
foods from dissolved organic constituents in waste and differentsegments of the plant and animal community in a
natural waters alike. pond is now
being applied in high-technology approaches
In addition to the quantity of natural foods in wastewater to wastewater aquaculture (Tenore, Brown and Chesney,
fish ponds, qualitative factors are involved. The more the 1974), and to wastewater treatment in an oxidation pond
natural food, the greater the likelihood of providing for the system (Coleman 1974). Thus, phytoplankton, the
et al,
nutritional deficiencies that can often appear in commer- major component providing the basis of natural food
in
(1926) and Kisskalt and Ilzhofer (1937). The considerable These are the same factors which are involved in the
use of aquaculture and agriculture systems for waste dis- removal of phosphates from pond water (Hepher, 1958,
posal in the Federal Republic of Germany has become a 1977). This same chemical system is important in phos-
part of their sanitary engineering principles (Schulte, phate removal in oxidation ponds (Rohlich, 1964). Huge
1969). Wastewater-fertilized fish ponds undoubtedly func- amounts of phosphorus are thus bound up in pond muds,
tion similarly to pond systems designed specifically for plants, and in any level of the biotic pyramid feeding on
waste treatment (Oswald, 1973; Parker, 1973). Such pond pond plants. A second major nutrient in eutrophication,
systems operate primarily through bacterial and algal nitrogen, can be removed in a high degree from waste water
growth. Considerable controversy, however, exists in the treated in well designed pond systems using fish (Coleman
sanitary engineering field over pond systems for wastewater
et al, 1974). Most nitrogen under high pH conditions is
treatment with the criticism arising principally because of transformed to a gaseous NH, and escapes to the atmos-
the following factors: phere. Nitrate ends up in plants but again must be removed
(/) Algal cells produce a BOD in the effluent, which in because the decay of the plants builds up nitrates in the
the United States often exceeds proposed national (EPA ) pond water. Again harvesting the plants and animals re-
standards. In addition, algal concentrate nutrients need to moves this material along with phosphorus. This is es-
be removed from effluent to meet discharge standards pecially important with respect to effluents discharging into
where prevention of eutrophication in receiving water is a marine areas where phytoplankton appears nitrogen-lim-
public objective. No inexpensive way of removing algal ited, not phosphorus-limited as in fresh waters (Ryther and
cells from pond effluents has yet appeared, other than land Dunstan, 1971). Thus, removal of material anywhere in the
application, or been demonstrated to a degree acceptable to plant-animal biotic web removes nutrients and is thus a
wastewater authorities or engineers. tertiary wastewater treatment system. It is possible the
Ponds are operated improperly, often taking BOD
(//)
nutrient drain could be improved by harvesting crusta-
loads beyond their design capacity, thus producing odours ceans, such as amphipods, to produce products using chitin
and poor quality effluents when the pond ecosystem fails (Pariser and Bock, 1972).
(ie, ponds go septic; treatment system fails).
TABLE III
FFFDING CHARACTERISTICS or CHINESE CARPS (FROM LIN, 1974)
481
3.2.3 Capacity for di&irtfection. One of the more interesting the current levels of *hard' detergents (ABS) in Haifa
effects of fish in aquatic systems is that of improving the (Israel) sewage, even after treatment, would be a serious
oxygen regime (Schroeder, 1975) through their part in limitation to its use in fish culture. Each waste water must
producing a "self-designed, self-managed' more balanced be evaluated on its own merits.
ecosystem (Odum, 1977). Due to high photosynthetic
rates, fertilized ponds have high DO
and high (generally 4.3 Tastes and odours in fish
over 8-5) pH values, as previously mentioned. Fish caught in natural waters frequently possess off-tastes
Oswald ( 1973) reports that increasing DO
and pH in an and odours when caught in areas subject to discharges of
aquatic system increases the rate of disinfection of coli- raw wastes or from waste treatment facilities. Such tastes
forms. The levels of coliforms in the Arcata wastewater fish and odours mainly from industrial hydrocarbons. One
arise
ponds in California have also been low, often less than in might immediately suspect that any wastewater-grown fish
the receiving waters (Allen, Busch and Morton, 1979). would suffer the same fate. Some personal observations by
Janssen (1968, 1970) has warned that, although the cur- various workers indicate that fish grown in well treated
rent literature indicates negative findings on human bacte- domestic wastes are equal to or even superior in taste or
rial diseases being transmitted through fish, these results odour to non-wastewater cultivated fish. These observa-
must be confirmed through more intensive studies. The tions have been made on wastewater-grown catfish (Ictalu-
problem of zoonoses in general, let alone in aquaculture rus) (Carpenter, Quail Creek, Oklahoma), common carp
systems using fish, has only recently come under study. A (Cyprinus carpio) (Hepher, Israel), cut-throat trout (Salmo
major initial study in Oklahoma (Carpenter et at, 1974) clarki) (Allen, Arcata, California), common carp (Rei-
showed virtually no human pathogens in cultured fish and chenbach-Klinke, Munich, Federal Republic of Germany)
drastic reductions in coliforms. Preliminary studies under- and common carp (Scheuring, 1939, Munich). A major
taken on small salmonids grown in domestic wastewater- study using panels of experts and modern food tasting
fertilizedponds at Arcata showed faecal streptococci and techniques available in food science and technology labora-
other organisms associated with human diseases only in gut tories, is needed to either confirm or deny these personal
contents of the fish (Allen, Busch and Morton, 1979). experiences that might be challenged on the basis of bias or
vested interest.
Highly fertile ponds, such as those receiving heavy organic ponds could actually be producing quite disease-free envi-
loads and nutrients from waste waters, have healthy phyto- ronmental conditions as opposed to the expectation that
plankton populations that produce sufficient oxygen during such systems must encourage fish parasites, diseases, and
the day to meet BOD at night. With reduced oxygen pathologies, since zoonoses in wild fish from water with
production at night from reduced photosynthesis, oxygen untreated or partially treated sewage have been well docu-
levels become minimal prior to sunrise. When this mini- mented (Janssen, 1968, 1970). Carp reared in wastewater
mum isbelow that required for the species, mortalities ponds in Germany and Israel suffer no greater problems
occur. Under minimal DO for the species cultured, the fish than those commercial ponds. Trout (Salmo)
in regular
are also susceptible to stress from substances which they reared in the Munich system during the summer have
can otherwise tolerate under high oxygen levels (Doudoroff suffered fungal infections, probably associated with high
andKatz, 1950). Schroeder (1975) has developed a simple summer water temperatures. In general, the literature on
method of calculating the maximum amount of waste that wastewater-cultured fish has not reported heavy losses from
can be added to a pond so that the expected morning DO for something which would be inconsistent with
fish diseases,
a pond system is not exceeded. (The procedure is outlined the high production rates reported.
in Hepher and Schroeder, 1977). Aeration systems are now The bacteriocidal method by which natural waters sup-
routinely used in commercial fish culture operations on a posedly destroy human pathogens is not known, but may be
standby basis to ameliorate fish stress or losses during due to an 'obligate ectoparasite' living in sewage or soils
expected periods of low oxygen. Conversely, supersatura- (Janssen, 1970). An unknown therapeutic effect by waste-
tion of pond waters from phytoplankton photosynthesis water-seawater mixtures was recorded in two-week bioas-
may adversely affect both growth and survival of some says on autumn chinook salmon fingerlings (Oncorhynchus
and Shumway, 1970; Warren,
species offish (Doudoroff tshawytscha) (Allen and O'Brien, 1967). In 1974, com-
Doudoroff and Shumway, 1973). panion lots of four species of salmonids suffered disease
problems in conventional hatcheries as opposed to lots
4.2 Toxic materials in waste waters reared in wastewater-seawater mixtures under high sum-
Substances found in various waste waters that can be mer temperature conditions (20-26C) (Allen, 1975). In
deleterious to fish, cover the wide range of wastes produced Japan, the upper temperature limit for rainbow trout
by modern man. Thus, there are many waste waters that (Salmo gairdneri) cultured in nets in marine waters
cannot be used directly for fish culture. Even waste water in was reported as 22-23C, with water over also 23C
rural areas, or from non-industrial cities and towns, may inducing bacterial infections (Kawatsu, 1974). Pre-
cause problems to fish from biocides or detergents. Thus, liminary studies on Vibrio (bacteria) disease in
even with a good prior knowledge of low potential toxicant wastewater-seawater environments at Arcata have sug-
levels in a potential aquaculture waste water, preliminary gested again that some inhibitory effect on the virulence of
bioassay studies are needed to give additional indices to this fish pathogen occurs in wastewater ponds (Allen,
possible success (eg, Allen and O'Brien, 1967). Hepher and Busch and Morton, 1979).
Schroeder (1977) used preliminary studies to indicate how There is a major need for research to elucidate the
482
4.7 Public acceptance
possibility of a therapeutic effect on fish by culturing in
certain types of wastewater systems. Public need will probably determine the degree of public
acceptance of wastewater-grown products in a particular
4.5 Public health problems area. The social, economic, and political considerations
Fish have not been shown to suffer from infections of that influence human behaviour regard are very
in this
Salmonella, Shigella or other enterobacteriacae that cause complicated (Huguenin and Kildow, 1974; Kildow and
disease in humans or other warm-blooded animals (Jans- Huguenin, 1974; D'ltri, 1977). However, openness, can-
sen, 1970). They may, however, carry these infections if dour, public education and public involvement appear the
caught in the wild in polluted waters (Shewan, 1962). keys to public acceptance, at least in societies where con-
Janssen (1970) cites some cases where Vibrio parahemoly- sent of the governed plays a large role in public decisions.
ticus may have maintained itself in fish for a long period, Of the literature reviewed by D'ltri, a report from Califor-
whereas Guelin (1962) and Buttiaux (1962) concluded nia (Bruvold and Ward, 1972) was most intriguing in that
that such pathogens are carried passively, infecting only the 45% of those interviewed were initially prepared to accept
gut surface which can be cleared by depuration. Recent recycled water for drinking and food preparation. In this
studies of human pathogens in salmonids reared in Arcata study, two major reasons were reported by those opposing
wastewater ponds showed bacteria causing human
fish proposed uses of reclaimed water: (/) psychological repug-
infections only in the gut (Allen, Busch and Morton 1979). nance, and (//) lack of purity. It is possible that such high
As in all water supply and wastewater processing systems, general support reflects a high level of education in that
the fate of viral particles infectious to man requires a major state, leading to a substantial understanding of ecological
commitment to supporting research on low-cost standard problems, and thus an ability to accept the new ideas of
methods for identification and quantifying virus (Lund, controlled eutrophication for public benefits.
1977). Zoonoses problems associated with wastewater use Probably the most critical data to obtain public accept-
in irrigation appear much more formidable than in fish ance of wastewater-grown fish relate to the water's content
ponds due to the fact that the pastured forms are warm- of human pathogens. Depuration, such as is often used in
blooded, and because dispersion and decay is more difficult cleaning bivalve^ before marketing, is the primary precau-
to study in non-turbulent sediments, sludges, and soils than tionary measure against transmission of human diseases in
in water (Kristensen and Bonde, 1977). As viral studies wastewater-reared fish (Hickling, 1962; Hepher, 1977).
are expensive, placing fish culture units between the Undoubtedly some systematic study of the length of time
wastewater source and its application onto agriculture human pathogens might stay in the intestinal tract of a fish
lands might be a manner in which co-operative schemes placed an environment clear of human pathogens would
in
could reduce the costs of viral studies, while providing provide the type of data required. Obviously, initial devel-
multiple benefits. Fish ponds, of course, can play a vital role opment of re-utilization schemes not involving direct con-
in understanding the possible role of fish as reservoirs of sumption of the product by human beings would allow time
human viruses about which we have little knowledge (Son- to develop background data on the entire zoonoses prob-
lem. If major disease pathways are found in these systems
stegard, 1977).
that cannot be cheaply and effectively controlled, then the
4.6 Pond effluent standards original operation can be retained without loss of capital as
In the United States, and probably in other western coun- the system can be turned to traditional culture operations.
trieswith oligotrophic waters, fish culture operations are
being scrutinized as to their contribution of BOD
to receiv-
ing waters (Liao, 1970). In a study of the water quality 5 Fish pond management
problems of two California trout hatcheries, W. Winchester It is very difficult to identify all the information in the vast
(personal communication) found a better quality effluent in literature on fish culture, and specifically that of pond
a hatchery with more retention time of its water (settling culture, that will prove useful to wastewater aquaculture.
basin and filtering system for water supply and a large pond An example of understanding the physico-chemical dynam-
forbrood fish) than in a hatchery with a direct flow-through ics of a pond environment in relation to the physiological
design. For many trout hatcheries, effluent sedimentation requirements of a cultured species (carp) is that of Prowse
basins are being seriously considered as a potential ade- (1966). Such understanding, coupled with application of
quate treatment facility. In west coast United States Pacific modern principles of supplementing natural food chains
salmon hatcheries, intensive recirculating of the water to with artificial fodders in high-technology commercial sys-
reduce the volume of effluent is employed. Tsai (1975) tems, through increased stocking rates (Hepher and
points out the efficiency of using a final pond for effluents in Schroeder, 1977), should aid in maximum production in a
general. In water-short areas, fish farmers already recycle pond fishery employing waste waters.
pond water back into the system (eg, the Israeli system at Experimental or pilot projects using polyculture as an
Coastal Plain Kibbutzim). Where increasingly stringent advanced biological (tertiary) treatment system, deserve
effluent standards in all waste discharges to oligotrophic continued support since the public good is served by
waters seems imminent, the extra cost of meeting these systems that can give increased water quality, and have the
standards will have to be carefully considered in plans for real potential for amortizing waste treatment costs by the
commercial wastewater culture operations. Where effluents sale of products. Studies at the Arcata wastewater treatment
are going into already existing fertile receiving waters, the facility (Allen and Dennis, 1974; Allen and Carpenter,
enhancement of that environment by fish-pond effluents 1977) have been aimed at establishing the maximum
should not be overlooked by the fish culturist in dealing growth and survival of juvenile salmonids in wastewater-
with water-quality authorities (see Oswald, 1973; Mc- fertilized seawater ponds without any artificial feeding.
1970). In addition, genetic considerations must be weighed by Israeli botanists to understand the mechanism by which
since various strains offish will react differently in different the brackishwater alga, Pyremesium, affected carp (Sarig,
environments (Wohlfarth and Moav, 1969). personal communication). This eventually allowed a simple
It would be of great value to propose general principles method of controlling blooms of this alga with potential
of wide application with respect to the subject. Each aquatic toxicity to carp by using an inexpensive commercial fertil-
system, however, with its own species and strains of aquatic izer (ammonium sulphate). It would seem likely that differ
organisms, will develop its own unique problems. Some ences primary productivity of the ponds produced much
in
recent examples are listed in Table IV. These problems may of the variability in fish production from the same pond in
be solved by applying techniques suggested in published successive years found by Buck, Thoits and Rose (1970),
information, but probably they will be solved by com- and this would be due directly to the algal communities
pletely new applied research efforts directed at the specific involved.
fish culture problem encountered. This concept is illus- The subtleties involved in algal succession and domi
trated by the organization of research support given to the nance may be too great in hypertrophic environments to
fish farming industry in Israel, which is partly funded by the understand or to control. It is possible that the idea of 'self-
industry and partly by the revenue from fish produced by design' (empirical ) approaches will have to be accepted, as
the research organization, as shown in Table V. it is in operation of trickling filters, sludge digesters, and
An important area of pond management that needs more activated sludge processes.
attention is the role of algae. There is a strong need to
interest botanists, especially algologists, to join research
and management teams. We know that in nature there is 6 Integrated wastewater systems
algal succession by species and dominance by certain Integration of aquaculture and agriculture is little under-
species. This phenomenon occurs even in what we consider stood or practised in much of the western world where high
highly controlled situations (eg, seasonal succession and technologies often become frozen into administrative hier-
dominance of algal species seemingly related to changes in archies. Aquaculture, agriculture, public health, and water
incident solar radiation Ryther, 1977). Dominance of pollution control tend to be empires apart, and interdiscipli-
undesirable algal populations in tropic fish ponds often can nary efforts are difficult to arrange (Allen, 1972; Hepher
TABLE IV
COMPARISON OF SOME RECENT pROBitMS IN WASTFWATFR AQUACULTURH AND FISH CULTURE SYSTEMS
Israeli commercial fish farm Common carp, Tilapia, silver carp Fry on introduction to nursery ponds subject to heavy
predation from invertebrates; short-term control of
predators using a bromine compound (Schroeder, 1975a)
Quail Creek, Oklahoma, oxidation pond Catfish, minnows, Tilapia, others Reduced feeding on phytoplankton during winter; search
treatment system using polyculture for coldwater adapted phytophagous fish (Allen and
Carpenter, 1977
Woods Hole, Massachusetts, pilot project; Flatfish in terminal units Difficult to maintain phytoplankton species most utilized by
tertiary biological treatment system. oysters; determining minimal species combination and
Cultures of algae to strip nitrogen with balance; system heating required in winter (Ryther, 1977)
algae removed by bivalves
Arcata, California, pilot project on pond Juvenile trout and Pacific salmon Improving survival rates of chinook salmon in autumn by
culture of salmonids understanding exact cause of mortalities; establishing
maximum stocking rates (Allen and Dennis, 1974)
TABIE V
SCHEMATIC ORGANIZATION OF ISRAELI TECHNICAI RESEARCH FIELD AND FISH-PRODUCTION EXPERIMENTS
Food habits of selected fish species Monoculture in communal ponds under different
Algal utilization efficiency in fish field situations to study the following
Genetics of breeding practices of carp factors:
Pond fertilization (/) Clone (strain) species cultured
Supplementary feeds (//) Stocking rate
Fish pathology and diseases (///) Type of foods
Fish pond technology Polyculture to apply principles learned above to maximize
Product development production
484
and Schroeder, 1974, 1977; Carpenter, 1974; D'ltri, waters are employed. One is to collect all waste waters,
1977). domestic or industrial, for treatment at a central plant. The
A comparison was recently made of the production, other method
is to prevent the introduction of toxic mate-
economic return, and energy inputs of corn-belt farms in domestic wastewater collection and treatment
rials into the
the United States between units employing inorganic system. The former is the general practice today. The latter
fertilizers and pesticides, and those not using these tech- is the system that is required for allocating a true cost for
niques ('organic' farms) (Anon., 1975), Surprisingly products produced by entrepreneurs, as well as to allow
enough, net income to the farmer was the same under either fuller use of waste waters in all phases of food and fibre
system, but the organic farms used two to three times less production, whether agricultural or aquacultural. Thus, the
energy than the non-organic farms. (The organic farms more rapidly societies place more emphasis on the recovery
grew chiefly corn, soybeans, wheat and oats, which were fed of noxious materials at the site of their production, the
to cattle). There is no doubt that the income level of the sooner will recovery operations be applied. This will result
organic farms could be raised further from increased pro- in waste waters being improved to acceptable quality levels,
duction if suitable waste waters were made available to and re-use will become politically, biologically and eco-
them (Bahr, 1977). nomically feasible.
Shuval ( 1977), for certain uses of waste waters, listed a In the short term, effluents, primarily domestic in origin,
number of treatment processes required to meet given should be utilized in schemes in which direct use by human
public health criteria. Waste water for crops not intended beings is avoided (eg, fingerling fish for commercial grow-
for direct human consumption needs at least
primary treat- sportsmen, juvenile stages in anadromous
ers, bait fish for
ment. For crops which will be eaten cooked, and for fish species, fish to be fed fresh or processed into meal for
culture, primary and secondary treatment, plus sand filtra- feeding species with high market value). This will allow
tion or equivalent polishing methods, were recommended. time for additional work on the efficiency of fish ponds to
Thus, it appears that, where the fish pond acts as an process wastes comparison to other accepted and estab-
in
improved oxidation pond, a high-quality effluent for such lished Undoubtedly these comparisons with
processes.
crops, plus a crop of fish provided by a fish pond in the other systems will be based on the usual parameters used in
system, seems an eminently practical system for considera- sanitary engineering and wastewater control fields (coli-
tion.Such integrated systems do exist throughout the world forms, BOD, pH, colour, odour, etc). However, there are
on informal or unauthorized bases. They probably do work only a few instances of documentation of income from
without excessive public health risks, since no one has yet production in a wastewater aquaculture system. Until this
publicly challenged Stanford and Tuburan (1974) in their is done, a complete cost-benefit analysis cannot be made.
attempt to locate anywhere in the literature a public health Thus, projects involving interdisciplinary scientific fields
problem associated with spray irrigation of waste waters (eg, aquatic biology, sanitary engineering, pathology or
receiving adequate secondary treatment. Most of the epi- disease study and control) and appropriate governmental
demics attributed to wastewater sources are from raw departments (eg, fishery management, public health, waste-
sewage gaining access to food eaten directly by man, or water management and control) are most appropriate to
from contamination of a water supply distribution system achieve this end by producing results which can be ac-
by untreated sewage. Thus, controlled uses of waste waters cepted by all.
seem to be successful in eliminating at least one of the seven From a purely fish culture standpoint, additional docu-
sets of circumstances listed by Bryan (1974) whereby a mentation of the lesser potential of zoonoses through fish
person ingesting wastewater-contaminated foods can be- than through warm-blooded animals would enhance the
come ill. There is substantial reason to consider that heavily status of using waste waters for fish culture. Technical
scrutinized wastewater-based food production schemes support by international or national agencies aiding devel-
may be capable of supplying products safer from a public oping countries to study wastewater utilization in countries
health standpoint than the normal flow offish food products with hot climates would be a judicious use of research
(Huguenin and Kildow, 1974). Such systems will have funds, especially with regard to human pathogens which
only scant chance of being considered in preliminary plan- tend to be more diverse, ubiquitous and virulent in tropical
ning unless the regulatory authorities make it attractive to areas. In temperate climates, utilization of waste waters
design engineers to analyse these systems at the same level during the winter has been started by utilizing waste heat in
as customary treatment systems (eg, activated sludge). aquaculture systems, but is probably restrained by institu
tional blocks, ie, the land, waste water, heat, need for fish
protein and expertise may not all be at the same location.
7 Discussion Some developing countries, however, may have the option
Organic wastes produced by the normal metabolism of of planning to have all these elements in the same location
animals whether they be in faeces from oysters, hippo- and to arrange for administrative structures which support
potami, or man provide direct or indirect sources of food rather than hinder rational and purposeful re-use of waste
for other plants or animals. In industrialized societies, short waters.
485
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Culture
Abstract poisson par hectare dans un etang de 4 hectares qui recevait directement
Addition of organic fertilizers, such as manures and sewage, to fish les eaux usees d'une ville de 5 000 habitants. Les effluents domestiques
ponds results in increased natural productivity of ponds. The biological d'un kibboutz de 500 personnes deverses dans un etang de 3 hectares ou
oxygen demand (BOD) for organic fertilizers used in ponds can be le poisson recevait des aliments supplementaires ont donne un rende-
estimated through the relatively simple determination of percent dry ment de 8 600 kg par hectare en huit mois alors que les etangs voisins qui
matter contained in manures. With this ability to predict rate of oxygen ne recevaient pas les eaux usees ont eu un rendement de 4 700 kg. Par
depletion, manures can be safely added to ponds at daily rates in excess mesure de precaution, les poissons eleves dans les eaux usees sont loges
of 2 tons/ha. ensuite, pendant
plusieurs
semaines, dans des etangs d'eau douce. Ce
Cow manure and sewage from small towns are quantitatively demon- stage permet d'eliminer totalement les odeurs et pathogenes residuels.
strated to be commercially useful bases for natural fish foods. Cow
manure, applied at daily rates of 250-400 1/ha/day for each ton offish as
the fish biomass increased from less than 500 kg/ha to greater than 4 000
kg/ha, resulted in fish yields of 20-40 kg/ha/day with no use of Empleo de desechos agricolas y urbanos en la pisciculture
supplemental feeds. Intensive manuring in conventionally fed fish ponds Extracto
resulted in doubled yields of fish with half the usual feed requirement. La introduccion de fertihzantes organicos tales como abonos y aguas de
Sewage from a town of 5 000 fed directly into a 4 ha reservoir pond alcantarillado en los estanques piscicolas per mite aumentar su produc
yielded 2 800 kg fish/ha/ 6 months with no supplemental feeding. Sew- tividad natural. La demanda biologica de oxigeno (DBO) de fertihzantes
age from a 500 person kibbutz, fed into 3 ha offish ponds which received organicos usados en estanques puede estimarse determinando, con un
8
kg 600 fish/ha/8 months as
compared to calculo relativamente sencillp, el porcentaje de materia seca de los
supplemental feeds, yielded
4 700 kg/ha/8 months in adjacent ponds not receiving sewage. Fish abonos. Gracias a esta posibilidad de prever el indice de consume de
oxigeno se pueden anadir abonos sin peligro a los estanques en proper
-
grown in sewage are held for several weeks in freshwater ponds as a
safety precaution. This 'flush-out' period is to remove residual objection- ciones diarias superiores a 2 toneladas/ha.
able odours and pathogens. Se ha demostrado cuantitativamente que las bostas de bovinos y el
agua de alcantarillado de pecjuenas ciudades constituyen una base
Utilisation de dechets agricoles et urbains en pisciculture comercialmente util para facilitar piensos naturales a los jpeces. Las
Resume bostas de bovinos, aphcadas en proporcion de 250-400 l/dia por cada
L'adjonction d'engrais organiques (fumures, eaux usees) a ameliore la tonelada de pez, segun la bi omasa ictica aumentq de menos de 500 kg/ha
productivite des etangs d'elevage. La demande biologique d'oxygene a mas de 4 000 kg/ha, permitio obtener rendimientos de 20-40 kg/ha/
(DBO) des engrais organiques utilises dans des etangs peut etre estimee dia sin utilizar piensos suplementarios. El abonar intensivamente los
d'apres la teneur de la fumure organique en matiere seche, qui est assez estanques de peces alimentados con los metodos tradicionales permitio
facile a calculer. Grace a cette possibilite de predire le taux de deperdi- obtener rendimientos dobles de peces con la mitad de los piensos
tion d'oxygene, on peut appliquer sans danger des doses journalieres de utilizados usualmente.
plus de 2 tonnes par hectare. Las aguas de alcantarillado de una ciudad de 5 000 personas, descar
Les chiffres montrent que le fumier de vache et les effluents domes- gadas directamente en un cmbalse de 4 ha, permitieron obtener 2 800 kg
tiques des petites villes sont commercialement utilisables comme ali- de pescado/ha/6 meses sin alimentacion supplementaria. Las aguas de
ments naturels en pisciculture. Une application de 250-400 de fumier 1 alcantarillado de un kibutz de 500
personas, descargadas en 3 ha de
de vache par jour et par tonne de poisson, la biomasse de poisson passant estanques piscicolas los cuales recibieron ademas piensos suplementa-
de moins de 500kg a plus de 4000kg par hectare, a donne des rios,permitieron obtener 8 600 kg de pescado/ha/8 meses frente a 4 700
rendements de 20 a 40 kg de poisson par hectare et par jour, sans kg/ha/8 meses en estanques adyacentes que no recibian aguas de alcan-
aliments supplementaires. Dans des elevages a alimentation tradition - tarillado. Los peces cultivados en agua de alcantarillado se mantienen
nelle la fumure intensive a permis de doubler les rendements en reduisant durante varias semanas en estanques de agua dulce, como una medida de
de moitie les rations. seguridad. Este periodo de "limpieza" es para remover todos los olores
En six mois, sans distribution cTali merits, on a obtenu 2 800 kg de desagradables y los agentes patogenos rcsiduaJes.
487
1 Introduction BOD, in turn, could be estimated from the percent dry
During the past three years organic wastes have been used matter contained in the manure. Since dry matter content is
extensively in fish ponds in Israel with the objective of more easily and rapidly measured than BOD, this is often a
replacing part of, or all, supplemental feeding. Experiments convenient method for estimating BOD. With the ability to
were conducted under carefully controlled conditions in predict oxygen depletion, it was feasible to add manure
400 m 2 ponds and also under normal operating conditions safely at daily rates in excess of 2 tons/ha.
in commercial fish ponds ranging in size from 0- 5 to 10 ha. In a properly manured fish pond, the dissolved oxygen
In the controlled experiments, fluid cow manure containing concentration is usually higher after the initial week of
urine and faeces was used while, in the commercial ponds, fertilization than in comparable non-manured fish ponds
fluid manure or sewage from small towns was used. In all because of the increased phytoplankton populations pro-
cases, the use of organic wastes resulted in large increases in ducing oxygen through photosynthesis.
fish yield per unit area of pond as well as sharp decreases in
the feed conversion coefficient. Some aspects of this work
have been reported previously by Hepher and Schroeder 3 Manuring andits effect on fish production
(1974; 1977) and Schroeder (1975; 1975a). This paper 3.1 Domestic animal manures
summarizes the effects of manure on the aquatic environ- The general procedure for applying manure to large com-
mercial fish ponds was determined in experimental 400 m
2
ment and the increased production levels achieved through
the addition of different organic wastes to fish ponds. ponds (0-7m deep) at the Dor Fish and Aquaculture
Research Station, Israel (Wolfarth et al 1975 ). Ponds were
stocked with common carp, (Cyprinus carpio), silver carp
2 Effects of manures on the aquatic environment (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix\ and tilapia (Tilapia aurea)
A study of conditions in, and productivity of, 35 commer- in a ratio of approximately 3:1:2.
cial fish ponds with fish stocking densities ranging from 1 to For a fish biomass of less than 2 ton/ha, manure contain-
5 tons/ha revealed that the amount of natural food in the ing 1 2% dry matter was applied 6 days per week at a daily
ponds was the most important parameter determining the rate of 250 1 manure/ton fish. Ammonium sulphate (21%
efficiency with which supplemental feed was utilized by the N) and superphosphate were applied every two weeks at
fish for growth (Schroeder, 1973; 1974). This knowledge 600 kg/ha. When chicken manure was available, 200 1/ha
led to the investigation of inexpensive methods for increas- was applied once in two weeks. When the fish biomass
ing the productivity of natural fish food organisms in exceeded 2 ton/ha the rate of manuring was raised to 400 I/
ponds. Fluid cow manure containing urine and faeces, was ton fish. The rate of chemical fertilization remained con-
found to be a successful nutrient for growing natural foods, stant at all times. Fish yields throughout the spring, sum-
and standing crops of zooplankton and chironomids were mer and autumn (water temperatures of 20-26C, 25-
10 times greater in manured ponds than in non-manured 32C and 20-26C respectively) ranged from 20 to 40 kg/
ponds. ha/day without supplemental feeding. Observations of the
This increase in natural foods was brought about relative growth rates of the three fish species in manured
through the effects of manure on two basic food chains. The ponds indicate that, of the three species, tilapia and silver
mineralized fraction of the manure provides nutrients for carp are most readily grown in manured ponds when no
enhancing the growth of phytoplankton which, in turn, supplemental feeds are supplied. Common carp benefits
produces oxygen through photosynthesis, while the non- from the addition of grain or feed about
pellets at a rate of
mineralized fraction of the manure is used as a food base for 2% of the common carp biomass.
bacteria and protozoa. Zooplankton appear to ingest small Analysis of protein (calculated as 6-25 times organic
manure particles, digest the bacteria with which the parti- nitrogen determined by the Kjeldahl method) in plankton
cles are coated and then expel the residual particles. This populations present in the ponds consistently showed 45%
was demonstrated in an experiment covering a period of 80 and 55% protein content (dry weight) for phytoplankton
days when dense populations of Daphnia were cultured in and zooplankton respectively. This natural food provided
dark aerated jars receiving fluid cow manure at a daily rate the fish with a diet twice as rich in protein as the normal
of 1 part manure per 1 000 to 10 000 parts of water. The 25% protein in content of pelletized feeds conventionally
absence of photosynthetic production of
light eliminated used Wolfarth et al ( 1975) found that
in Israel fish culture.
plankton as a food source, so manure was the only food carp grown in intensively manured non-fed ponds had a 4%
available. Daphnia grazed actively on the suspended parti- fat compared with a greater than 10% fat content
content, as
cles, and investigation of the gut contents of Daphnia for carp receiving conventional feeds.
showed that they contained bacteria. Conversely, in dark, An 80 day intense manuring trial in a 0-5 ha pond ( 1-
aerated but non-manured jars, which initially contained 2 m deep) gave an average fish yield of 30 kg/ha/day. A 2
Daphnia at the same density as in manured
jars, the ha pond ( 1-2 m deep) receiving intense manuring and
Daphnia population neared extinction after only three supplemental feed yielded 7 500 kg/ha/8 months or about
days. 30 kg/ha/day at a feed conversion coefficient of 1 1. Adja- :
Inherent in the intense use of organic wastes in ponds is cent non-manured ponds provided approximately 60% of
the hazard offish kill due to depletion of dissolved oxygen this yield with a feed conversion coefficient of about 1:1-8.
water brought about by decay of the added organic
in the In a 10 ha reservoir pond (6 m deep), which was intensively
matter.During investigation of this problem, it was deter- manured for half the growing season, and supplied with
mined that oxygen depletion resulting from addition of pelleted feed daily during the entire season at a rate of about
manure could be quantitatively predicted from measure- 3% of the fish biomass, there was a feed conversion coeffi-
ments of the biological oxygen demand (BOD) of the cient of 1 1 2 as compared with a usual coefficient for non-
:
manure at pond temperature (Schroeder, 1974a). The manured ponds of 1:2*6. In the manured pond the
488
fish also reached market size more than 1 month sooner coefficients of 1:2.
than in non-manured ponds. In these examples manure It has been observed that sewage treatment ponds
was poured into the ponds at one location. The results from stocked with fish have higher average dissolved oxygen
the 2 and 10 ha ponds indicate that natural pond circulation concentrations and pH than similar ponds without fish
is adequate to spread the added nutrients throughout large (Schroeder, 1975). Fish graze on plankton, reducing their
ponds. density and eliminating cycles of plankton bloom and die-
off which are typical in ponds receiving organic wastes.
3.2 Human sewage Hence, the effectiveness of sewage ponds is actually im-
Human sewage is equally efficient as other animal manures proved by stocking fish.
in increasing fish growth in ponds but aesthetic considera- The entire fish-culture/sewage-treatment system can
tions often limit its use. However, holding the fish in clean therefore be considered to be a symbiotic relationship with
water ponds for several weeks at the end of the growing the fish improving the treatment of sewage waste, and the
season has proved to be a pragmatic method for providing sewage increasing the yield of fish.
animal waste management, pollution control, and the production of jours (mai-octobre 1975), Taugmentation nette de la biomasse ichtyolo-
protein. Two small Illinois ponds of similar size received nearly identical gique a ete de 2 97 kg/ha dans Tetang de 0,127 ha et de 3 834 kg/ha
1
stockings offish (three Chinese carps, common carp, largemouth bass, a dans celui de 0, 1 2 1 ha. La production elevee de poisson a etc attnbuee:
hybrid buffalo fish and channel catfish), but differing amounts of swine (/ a la haute quahte des aliments donnes aux pores, (//)au taux de charge
)
manure. One pond (0-1 27 ha) received the total wastes from five optimal des etangs en poissons; et (///') a la regulation efficace du niveau
growing pigs (about 39 pigs/ha of water area), the other pond (0-121 ha) de 1'eau. Les poissons ont exerce une influence benefique sur laqualite de
received the wastes from eight pigs (66 pigs/ha). Two consecutive lots of 1'eau a en juger d'apres les teneurs continuellement adequate en oxygene
pigs were fattened during the experiment. Water levels were lowered at dissous et les DBO finales comprises entre 8 et 1 2 mg/1.
mid-season to improve natural circulation, but conditions were other-
wise static, with no artificial circulation or aeration. Over a fish -growing Experimentos de reciclaje de estiercol de cerdo en estanques piscicolas
period of about 1 70 days (May to October 1975) the net increments in Extracto
tish biomass were at the rates of 2 97 1 kg/ha in the 0- 1 27 ha pond, and Se cree que este es el primer expenmento hecho en America del Norte
3 834 kg/ha in the 0-121 ha pond. The high production of fish was sobre la utilizacion de determmados cultivos y tecnicas asiaticos para
attributed to: (/) the high quality of the swine rations; (//) an efficient resolver algunos de elimination de desechos de ammales,
prpblemas
density of stocking ratio of fish species; and (///) effective water level control de la contaminacion y produccion de protemas. En dps pequenos
management. A beneficial influence by the fish population on water estanques de Illinois de dimensiones analogas se sembro la misma
quality was indicated by continuously adequate levels of dissolved cantidad de peces (tres carpas chinas, carpa comun, lobina de boca
oxygen, and final BODs in the range of 8-12 mg/1. grande, un hibndo de catostormdo y bagre de canal), vertiendo en ambos
cantidades distintas de estiercol de cerdo. En un estanque (0,127
Essais de recyclage du ftimier de pore dans des etangs ha) se vertieron todos los desechos de cinco cerdos (unos 39 cerdos/ha
Resume de superficie de agua), y en el otro (0,121 ha) los de ocho cerdos (66
C'est apparemment la premiere fois que Ton a essaye en Amenque du cerdos/ha). Durante el experiment se engordaron dos lotes consecuti-
Nord de recourir a certaines cultures et techniques asiatiques pour vos de cerdos. A mediados de la temporada se redujp el nivel del agua
resoudre des problemes tels que rehmmation des dechets animaux, la para mejorar la circulacion natural, pero, por Ip demas, las condiciones
lutte centre la pollution et la production de proteines. Deux petits clangs se mantuvicron estaticas. sin circulacion ni aireacion artificiales. Du-
de 1'Illinois de dimensions semblables ont repu a peu pres la meme charge rante un periodo de crecimiento de los peces de unos 1 70 dias (de mayo a
de un octubre de 1975), el increment neto de la biomasa ictica fue del orden
ppissons (trois carpes chinoises, carpe commune, perche-soleil,
hybride de cyprin-carpe et poisson-chat), mais differentes quantites de de 2 971 kg/ha en el estanque de 0,127 ha y de 3 834 kg/ha en el
fumier de pore. On a deverse dans un etang (0,127 ha) Pensemble des estanque de 0,12 1 ha. La elevada produccion ictica se atribuyp a: (/) la
dechets de cinq pores en cours de croissance (soit environ 39 porcs/ha de alta calidad de las raciones de los cerdos; (//) la densidad de siembra de
superflcie aquatique), et dans 1'autre (0, 1 2 1 ha) les dechets de huit pores las diver sas especies; y (Hi} la buena administracion del nivel del agua.
(66 porcs/ha). Deux lots consecutifs de pores ont etc engraisses au cours La influencia beneficiosa de la poblacion ictica en la calidad del agua
de Pexperience. Le niveau de 1'eau a etc abaisse a mi-chemin de quedo demostrada por el hecho de que el nivel de oxigeno disuelto fue
489
siempre suficiente y la demanda biologica de oxigeno se mantuvo en 0-113 ha with a maximum depth of about 1-2 m. At all
limites de 8 a 12 mg/1.
other times the pond waters remained static with no artifi-
cial circulation or aeration and with no addition of water
TABLE I
DATES OF FISH STOCKING, INITIAL AVERAGE INDIVIDUAL WEIGHTS, NUMBERS STOCKED, AND STOCKING RATES IN NUMBERS/HA FOR SEVEN SPECIES OF
FISH STOCKED IN EACH OF TWO EXPERIMENTAL PONDS
"
Approximate, due to slight differences in sizes of ponds
*
Bigmouth buffalo female x black buffalo male
TABLE II
INITIAL AND FINAL BIOMASSES, NUMBER OF GROWING DAYS, PERCENT MORTALITIES, NET GAINS IN BIOMASS, AND PERCENTS OF TOTAL GAIN MADE BY
FACH SPFCIFS OF FISH IN PONDS 11 (39 PIGS/HA) AND 12 (66 PIGS/H\)
*
Bigmouth buffalo female x black buffalo male
*
Approximate average for two groups stocked on different days
490
Swine management and introduction of manure
2.3 on 28 and 29 October 1975. The production data presented
A two-section swine house was constructed near the mid- in Table II were computed on the basis of estimated
point of a dike which separated the two ponds. Five grow- seasonal averages of the area of each pond: 0- 127 ha for
ing pigs were maintained on a cement floor which sloped pond 1 1, and 0-121 for pond 12. The production figures
toward pond 1 1,
providing a density of about 39 pigs/ha of would have been larger if based on the pond dimensions
pond water area. Eight pigs were maintained over the floor which prevailed over the last 95 days, which represented
which sloped toward pond 12, providing a density of about about 56% of the growing period. For pond 1 1 (final area:
66 pigs/ha of pond water area. Two lots of pigs were 0-121 ha), the net gain in biomass would have been 3 1 28
fattened during the course of the experiment. The first lot kg/ha; for pond 12 (final area: 0-113 ha), the gain would
was placed in the swine house on 29 April 1975, 10 days have been 4 107 kg/ha.
before the introduction of These pigs had an average
fish. Table IV shows that the largest gains by individual fish
weight of about 32 kg when introduced, and about 88 kg were made by the grass carp, followed by the bighead carp,
when replaced by others on 3 July. The pigs which replaced but that the largest total gain by a species was made by the
them had an initial average weight of about 43 kg and a final more numerous silver carp. Individual gains made by the
weight of about 100 kg when removed on 1 October 1975. buffalo closely approximated those made by the Israeli
The pigs were fed standard rations used in swine production carp, but their total contribution was small due to high
by the University of Illinois. Pigs lighter than 54 kg were mortality. Gains made by the largemouth bass and channel
fed a ration containing 1 6% protein; for heavier animals the catfish ranked far below those made by the hybrid buffalo
protein content of the feed was reduced to 1 2%. Ingredients and the carps, and below levels which these native species
of the rations are shown in Table III. commonly achieved.
TABLE 111
INGREDIENTS OF THE SWINE RATION IN KG 3.2 Water quality characteristics
Lin (1974) has proposed the use of Chinese carps to
Ingredients 16% ration 72% ration
control eutrophication and to purify waters polluted by
domestic sewage. It is believed that the Chinese carps
achieved these functions in the present experiments, as
indicated by the levels of dissolved oxygen, ammonia,
BOD, and other water-quality criteria listed in Table V.
4 Discussion
The production of fish both experimental ponds was
in
TABLE IV
INITIAL AND FINAL AVERAGE WEIGHTS, NUMBER OF GROWING DAYS, AND WFIGHT GAINS FOR FISHES IN PONDS 1 1 (39 PIGS/HA) AND 12 (66 PIGS/HA)
"
Each pond was stocked on 9 May with 500 silver carp having an average weight of 9 g. and on 23 May with 80 having an average weight of 50 g. 1 Gains computed for
silver carp were prorated because size classes were not distinguishable in the final censuses
TABLE V
RANGES AND MEANS OF VARIOUS PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PARAMETERS OF THE POND WATERS
8
*
Temperatures were below 20 C for only a brief period in September
Lowest DOrecorded was 0-8 mg/1 at bottom of pond 1 1 at midnight on 18 June
e
BOD decline from mid- August maxima of 11-0 mg/1 in pond 1 1, and 27-1 mg/1 in pond 12, to final levels of 8-6 in pond 1 1, and 1 1-7 in pond 12
491
received only moderate rates of enrichment by Asiatic Little Rock, Arkansas, for providing the carps used in this
standards and which received no supplementary feeding study.
were a source of surprise to the writers. Contributing
factors are believed to have included: (/) the high quality of
the feed provided to the swine; (//) an efficient density and
stocking ratio offish species; and (i) effective water-level 6 References
management. HICKLING, C. F Fish culture. London, Faber, 295 p
1962
Future efforts will determine whether a fortuitous com- & V R Handbook on
HORA, S L PILLAY, T. fish culture in the I ndo-
bination of factors provided a rate of production which 1962 Pacific region FAO
Fish Biol Tech. Pap (14): 203 p
,
could not be consistently achieved or if this initial high rate LIN, S Y The dialectics of a proposal on biological control of eutro-
1974 phication in sewage lagoons Environ. Protect. Tech Ser.,
of production can be surpassed. Wash D
,
(EPA-660/2-74-041). 417-34
C..
LING, S WFeeds and feeding of warm-water fishes in ponds in Asia
1967 and the Far East. FAO Fish Rep., (44) vol. 3. 291-309
RABANAL, H R Stock manipulation and other biological methods of
5 Acknowledgements 1968 increasing production of fish through pond fish culture in Asia
This study was aided by a grant from the Rodale Press, Inc., and the Far East FAO Fish Rep (44) vol 4- 274-88
,
492
estreptococos fecales siempre fueron altos en aguas sin clonnar de waters to rear juvenile salmonids to smolt stage (fish
estanques de oxidacion y en un arroyo urbano (Jolly Giant Creek) que
adapted to enter salt water) without supplemental feeding of
desemboca en la Bahia de Humboldt y que queda adyacente a los
estanques piscicolas. high-cost protein pellets (Allen and Dennis, 1974). The
Vibrio anguillarum fue aislado de salmones juveniles que estaban system consists of two 0-37 ac (0.15 ha) ponds located
siendo cnados en estanques, pero las tasas totales de mortahdad de los
inside the perimeter of a 55 ac (22 ha) oxidation pond
salmones criados en aguas residuales a causa de esta enfermedad fueron
menores de las informadas de ptras areas dedicadas a la cria de salmones. situated on intertidal mud flats. Water entering the Arcata
Evidencia circunstancial continua apoyando el concepto de que el efecto treatment system at a flow rate of 1 mgd (3 770mVday)
beneficioso sobre la salud de los salmones cnados en afcuas mezcladas
con efluentes de estanques de oxidacion y agua de mar usadas en los receives primary settling, clarification, and aeration before
estanques de acuicultura de Arcata. entering the oxidation pond. The waste waters receive a
high degree of dilution in winter from high rainfall due to
considerable infiltration in the sewage collection lines.
1 Introduction
Allen and Hepher (1979) list potential constraints to wider
The fish ponds can be operated over a wide range of
salinitiesby taking Humboldt Bay water into the ponds and
application of domestic waste waters toaquaculture includ-
mixing it with waste water drawn from the oxidation pond.
ing those involving microbiological properties, especially
where the cultured products may be used directly by human
The ponds are operated as a static system once the desired
sea water-waste water mixture has been obtained for a
beings. These constraints include: (/) possible transmission
of human pathogens through fish, (/7) the need to protect particular rearing experiment (Allen and Dennis, 1974;
Allen and Carpenter, 1975). Until the ponds are drained for
receiving waters from possible negative impacts from aqua-
culture effluents, and (//'/) presumably poor fish health recovery offish, only small amounts of water are added or
released to maintain salinities or keep the ponds from
resulting from waste water use.
This paper gives the results of studies undertaken on flooding. Most experiments to date have been conducted at
about 10-15 ppt salinity (a 2- 1 1 mixture of sea water and
:
separate studies undertaken at different times, the results Aquatic animals intensively cultured in the presence of
are presented separately in the following sequence: (/) the enteric micro-organisms run the obvious risk of contamina-
pathobiology of cultured fish (an area posing the most tion of significance to public health. In this regard, fish are
serious constraint to use of domestic waste waters in considered to be indicators of the sanitary condition of the
aquaculture); (//') bacterial levels in the Arcata ponds (a aquatic environment. Their microbial flora directly reflects
local constraint as pond effluent discharges into a receiving the microbiological condition of the water from which they
water used by a major oyster culture operation); and (///') are taken (Guelin, 1962). Janssen (1970) indicates the
studies on fish diseases, specifically Vibrio anguillarum (a importance offish as vectors of human infectious diseases.
very serious marine bacterial disease offish). Human bacterial pathogens (Aeromonas, Mycobacterium,
Salmonids reared ponds involved in studies re
in the Nocardia, Pseudomonas, and Vibrio), and enteric patho-
ported here chinook salmon (Oncorhvnchus
include: gens, such as Escherichia, Salmonella and Shigella, have
tschawytscha). coho salmon (O. kisuich\ kokanee- been shown to be carried in and on fish (Sinderman, 1970;
lacustrine sockeye salmon (O. nerka\ and rainbow (steel Janssen, 1970;Reichenbach-Klincke, 1973). The majority
head) trout (Salmo gairdneri). of these infections are carried in the gastro-intestinal tract,
and are of primary significance as occupational diseases of
fish handlers when fish are improperly processed and when
2 Pond description and operation fish products are consumed in the raw state. To investigate
The Arcata fish ponds were built as a pilot project (Allen. the nature and extent of contamination of fish cultured in
Conversano and Colwell, 1972) to study the potential for ponds using treated waste waters, rainbow trout, coho
use of salt water fertilized with treated domestic waste salmon and chinook salmon (Table 1 ) from Arcata ponds
T\BLF I
SPHCIES, NUMBER AND Rl \RING \RT\ OF FINGERl ING SALMONIDS IN PONDS FT RTILIZLD WITH CITY OF \RCA1A OXIDATION POND
I FTI HI NT b \\MINJ D FOR SFI FCIFD GROUPS OF B \CTFRI \
Fish taken at end of Experiment IX after 82 days rearing (Allen and Dennis, 1974)
2
Fry introduced into ponds on 4 February 1975
Chinook salmon suffered extensive mortalities in Experiment X from early mid-March (see Fig.
3
8. Allen and Carpenter, 1975)
493
were examined for the presence of selected bacteria in the water fish-culture systems of placing fish into clean water to
and other visceral organs.
gastro-intestinal tract purge them prior to processing. In the Arcata system,
release of juvenile fish into the open ocean for recovery as
3.2 Materials and methods feeding adults at a minimum of a year later provides
Five fish from each cultured lot (experiment) were adequate time for depuration.
examined for the presence of selected bacteria (Table 1 ). A demonstrated potential does exist for the adaptation of
The liver, kidney, spleen and gastro-intestinal tract wash- obligate human pathogens to become pathogenic for fish
ings were aseptically removed as described by Bullock and thereby develop endemic reservoirs for future human
(1971). Five fish samples were pooled by tissue in 5-0 ml infection (Bullock, 1971). The results obtained from the
of 0-5% sterile tryptone and macerated with a Ten Broeck kidney, liver and spleen samples indicate that none of the
tissue grinder. Prepared pools were plated on Eosin Meth- potential pathogens became systemic under the fish culture
ylene Blue agar (Difco), Pseudocel agar (BBL), Tryptic conditions used here.
Soy agar (Difco), Tryptic Soy agar with 5-0% whole
human blood and vibrio isolation agar (Vanderzant and
Nickelson, 1972). All media were incubated at room tem- 4 Bacterial levels in pond waters
perature (20-22C) for 48-72 hours. Representative 4.1 Introduction
colonies were subcultured on stock slants for further mor- The major public health concern in north Humboldt Bay
phological and biochemical identification. Isolates were from domestic waste water discharge into the bay is con-
classified according to the schemata of Bailey and Scott tamination of commercially grown oysters, although har-
(1974), Lennette, Spaulding and Truant (1974) and Buch- vesting of bivalves in general is also involved. The oyster-
anan and Gibbons (1974). Epizootic mortalities and mori- farming industry is located on state lands located about two
bund fish were examined pathologically to determine the miles (3-2 km) from the Arcata waste water aquaculture
etiological agent. system. Bivalve harvesting here may be curtailed when
overlying waters are believed to be overloaded with human
3.3 Results pathogens (Calif. State Dept. Public Health, 1973 and
A variety of enteric and other bacteria were routinely 1973a; Beilfuss, 1967). Under a local authority (North
isolated from the pooled gastro-intestinal tract washings. Coastal Region Water Quality Control Board), a pro-
Representative isolates were identified as shown in Table II. gramme has been in effect for the Arcata aquaculture
Examination of the other visceral organs failed to yield any system to ensure at least minimal protection of values
bacterial isolations indicating a lack of systemic involve- associated with receiving waters, especially the oyster in-
ment. Mortalities occurring during this period were rou- dustry. First, at least a two week retention of oxidation
tinely attributed to physiological stress associated with pond effluent in fish required before release to the
ponds is
abrupt changes in pH and salinity. Vibrio anguillarum was Bay; secondly, the total coliform MPN
index must be
determined, however, to be the causative agent of an epi- determined prior to pond drainage, and reported. In prac-
zootic occurring during warmwater periods and crowded tice, most waters have been retained at least a month before
conditions in recirculating aquaria but not in pond waters any discharges are made. As the ponds are not operated on
(see section 5). a continuous flow-through regime, most waste waters are
only discharged when the ponds are drained at the end of a
3.4 Discussion rearing experiment.
Enteric bacteria are not considered normal flora of fish Reported here are values of a commonly required bacte-
gastro-intestinal tracts and their presence indicates con- rial standard (total coliform MPN index) and some values
tamination of the waters from which they were taken for another indicator, faecal streptococci,
found in Arcata
(Guelin, 1962). Table II shows that 45% of those micro- waste water aquaculture ponds and adjacent waters.
organisms recovered from washings of the gastro-intestinal
tract were Enterobacteriaecae. These results indicate a 4.2 Methods
contamination of public health importance of both fish and The (MPN/ 100 ml) as determined by
total coliform index
water. If such fish were to be reared to commercial size and procedures outlined in Taras (1971) has been routinely
immediately processed for human consumption, there determined. Additional data on total bacteria, faecal coli-
would be a potential for contamination of the product with forms, and faecal streptococci have been gathered. Only
bacteria of public health significance. This supports the data on total coliforms and faecal streptococci will be
practice followed in German and Israeli commercial waste reported here. Faecal streptococci counts beginning in May
1975 have been run by the membrane filtration technique
TABLE II
PERCENT RECOVERY OF SELECTED GROUPS OF BACTERIA FROM THE on M-enterococcus agar with prior enrichment in M-PYC
GASTRO-INTESTINAL TRACT WASHINGS OF CHINOOK AND COHO SALMON media (Taras, 1971). Only a few values for total coliforms
AND RAINBOW TROUT REARED IN PONDS FERTILIZED WITH CITY OF
ARCATA OXIDATION POND EFFLUENT using the newer membrane filter (MF) techniques have
been determined for comparison with MPN values, and
Bacterial groups Percentage recovery these MF values have fallen within the 95% confidence
intervals for the corresponding MPN index. Comparative
MPN and MF values are both listed where available.
4.3 Results
4.3.1 Total col\forms. Initial studies on coliforms were
undertaken in August 1971 immediately after the first use
100
of oxidation pond effluent and salt water to obtain water of
494
19 ppt salinity (Allen, 1973). Total coliform index was 4.3.2 Faecal streptococci. Our first studies on faecal strep-
3
greater than 1- 1 x 10 (MPN/100 ml) in the first pond to tococci content of fish pond and other waters were from
be (North Pond). These values dropped to
operated samples taken on four different days during 1975 (Table
M-9-3xlO l
in eight days (Allen, 1973). The second IV ). It is difficult to assess the meaning of these data since
pond (South Pond), which did not receive waste water, had little information exists on this parameter in local fresh
abandoned and covered with impervious layers of bay completely unexpected (Table IV). These systems were
muds so that coliforms now entering the Bay from this placed in trial operation in May 1975 (see Section 5. 3) to
location would not be of human origin. Substantial coli- determine their holding capacity for fingerling salmonids
form levels are still being recorded, however, in Humboldt (Larry Dennis, personal communication). A one foot
Bay waters next to the fish culture ponds during winter (0-3 m) layer of pea gravel and dolomite over a false
periods. This is probably due to run-off from marsh and bottom is the only water-treatment device in these 1000 gal
pasture lands, and from urban streams (eg, Jolly Giant (3 790-1) units (the actual water volume was only about
Creek) (Table III). 850 gal or 3 2 10 These tanks had been filled with water
1 ).
Only routine sampling of pond waters prior to discharge from South Pond. This water was algae-laden and required
into Humboldt Bay have been conducted since 1972. These about two weeks before it became crystal clear. Subsequent
have all given total coliform indexes which could be accept- additions of pond water made to reduce nitrate levels in the
able for a continuous discharge into an estuarine area used tanks only required a few days before they cleared. On 17
for bivalve production (Table III). November 1975, two additional units of the system (Tanks
T \BLE III
TOTAL COLIFORM IMTFRMIN M IONS IN \RC\TA FISH PONDS \ND ADJAC1NT WYTFRS
1973
21 May 2-3 x 10' 2-3 x 10'
29 Nov. 1-6 x 10' 0-3 and 3-5 and
2*
5-4 x 10 3-5 x 10 26
1974
2 1 Oct. 1-6 x 10' 2-4 x 10 7 2-78 x 10 2 0-2 \ [Q 1
a
Membrane filter (MF) techniques were initiated 29 May 1975. These values (MF counts/ 100 ml) are shown in parentheses. Values not shown in parentheses arc Most
Probable Number indices (MPN/lQOml)
*
North pond had forced air aeration, South pond had one centra] spray aeration unit. Two samples were taken from different parts of each pond
495
3 and 4) were filled in sequence with water pumped from pected. Conversely, the low values in South Pond under a
South Pond. Pond sediments were observed in the intro- higher density of fish and Chlorella supports the concept
duced water as the intake valve was near the pond bottom. that highly fertile waste water ponds stocked with fish have
Faecal streptococci levels were twice as high in water from a significant waste water renovation capacity (Allen and
the tanks as in South Pond waters (Table IV, 1 7 November Hepher, 1979).
sampling), indicating pond sediments as a possible reser-
voir for these forms. The source, mode of maintenance, and 4.3.3 Discussion. The fish ponds at Arcata are drained
accumulation of such high levels of faecal streptococci in during periods of incoming tides, consequently a large
these recirculating tanks, as well as in pond sediments, need dilution is given to the effluent before an outgoing tide
to be investigated further. carries pond water into areas of shellfish production in
In November, faecal streptococci levels in North Pond north Humboldt Bay. This dilution rate may also protect
had risen sharply over that found in September, while levels the oyster beds from contamination by Jolly Giant Creek
in South Pond had decreased (Table IV). The ranges of water; however, creek waters could easily reach the oyster
some physical and chemical parameters in these ponds for beds during low tide periods by moving rapidly in confined
the 1 1 7 November period are shown in Table V. A major tidal channels.
difference is the presence of very high concentrations of As human populations grow and result in increased
Chlorella in South Pond as compared to a lesser population waste waters draining to surface or underground water
of the diatom Chaetoceros in North Pond. South Pond supplies, the degree of possible dilution of waste waters by
phytoplankton population undoubtedly produced the dif- natural waters will become reduced. Thus, the present total
ferences in clarity,pH and oxygen levels between the two coliform and faecal coliform standards, which do not dis-
ponds. There appears a negative correlation between faecal tinguish between those of human and those of other animal
streptococci levels and high phytoplankton populations. origin, or do not include infectious diseases commonly
The negative correlation also held for total coliforms (Table shared by and transmitted between lower animals and man,
III). A very slight seepage into North Pond occurs around or of water-borne viruses (Janssen, 1970; Carpenter el al,
the effluent intake pipe and through one portion of the dike. 1974), will undoubtedly have to be replaced by more
This might have been sufficient to inoculate the ponds and precise tests. This will, of course, be necessary to ensure
produce increasing levels of coliforms and faecal strepto- protection of public health but also to prevent unnecessary
cocci in the absence of high levels of pH and oxygen, or measures against presumptive but innocent waste water
perhaps lack of exocrines due to lack of Chlorella dischargers (Busch, 1 975 ). For example, the major source
populations. of coliforms in Humboldt Bay is the adjacent pastures used
The increase in faecal streptococci counts without the for raising beef and dairy cattle, not waste water treatment
addition of waste water in North Pond was entirely unex- plants (California State Department of Public Health, 1973
IV
TOTAL FAECAL STREPTOCOCCI FOUND IN ARCATA WASTFWATER PONDS AND ADJACENT WATERS, MAY ANDNOVEMBFR 1975 (ALL VAI UFS. NO./
FISH
100 ML, AS DETERMINED BY MEMBRANE FILTER (MF) TECHNIQUES)
Date of sampling
Sampling location
29 Mav 3 Sept. 8 Sept 17 Nov.
Tank 4 1-0 x 10 2
Sanitary landfill leachate
(aftercovering with clay
and abandoning operations) 6-00 x 10 J
1
A communications gap resulted in South Pond being drained before a water sample was taken
TABLE V
RANGE IN VALUF OF SELECTED PARAMETERS, 1-17 NovtMBhR 1975, IN ARCATA WASH- WATER H UTILIZED MSH PONDS
Phytoplankton
(95% dominance) Chaetoceros Chlorella
Fish population I 800 rainbow trout (15 cm) 30 000-40 000 coho salmon
500 kokanee salmon (8 cm) (10cm)
Identification
496
and 1973a; Beilfuss, 1967). Moreover, it may be impossi- beds to convert ammonia and nitrites into nitrates. In late
ble to locate leakages from old sewer mains into natural June, 2000 of these fish were removed to a second aquar-
water courses or replace the mains if located. Estuaries are, ium (Tank 2) where previously several hundred yearling
however, adapted to additions of fresh water. Discharge of steelhead plus a few coho and chinook salmon were being
waste waters to the ocean merely transfers any potential held. By mid-August, all 2000 fingerling coho had died,
harm to humans from zoonoses to salmon, flatfish, and crab together with most of the larger steelhead, coho, and chi-
populations in the area of the proposed ocean outfall where nooks. The cause of this mortality was not determined but
sport and commercial fisheries harvest and process these there is a possibility that the fish became stressed from an
animals for consumption. undiscovered accidental reduction in air pressure in a line
operating the tank's aeration system.
From mid-May September losses in coho
until early
5. Fish diseases fingerlings in Tank were only one or two fish per week. On
1
497
bioassays. Chinook and coho salmon, and steelhead trout, University, Coherent Area Sea Grant Program, Data Report,
42 p.
reared in South Pond during the summer of 1974, showed
ALLEN, G. H. & CARPENTER, R. L The cultivation offish in municipal
fairlyhigh survival rates at the time companion lots offish 1975 wastewater lagoons as an available protein source for human
were suffering heavy losses from diseases in local hatcher- beings with emphasis on salmonids. In The international
conference on the renovation and recycling of wastewater
ies (Allen, 1975). Mass mortalities of salmonids in the
through aquatic and terrestrial systems, Bellagio, Italy, 16-21
Arcata system have been related to factors other than July 1975, edited by F D'ltn, Michigan State University,
Institute of Water Research, Preprints
disease, although specific concurrent studies on disease
ALLEN, G H., CONVERSANO, G & COL WELL, B. A pilot fish-pond
were not available (Allen and Dennis, 1974; Allen and 1972 system for utilization of sewage effluents, Humboldt Bay,
northern California. Humboldt State University, Coherent
Carpenter, 1975).
Area Sea Grant Program, HSU-SG-3. 25
That there appears to be some beneficial effect on fish
ALLEN, G H & DFNNIS, L Report on pilot aquaculture system using
health of salmonids reared in mixtures of oxidation pond 1974 domestic wastewaters for rearing Pacific salmon smolts
effluent and sea water in the Arcata ponds continues to be Environ. Protect Ay Tech. Ser. Wash (EPA-660/2-74-, DC ,
041). 162-98
supported by at least two further results: (/) the high ALLhN, G H. & HfcpHLR, B Recycling of wastes through aqua-
mortalities of vibrio-infected coho salmon reared in closed- 1979 culture, and constraints to wider application. In Advances in
aquaculture. This volume, pp 478-87
recirculating systems (filtered pond waters) as compared ALLEN, G H &
O'BRIFN, P Preliminary experiments on the acclima-
with those of steelhead trout in adjacent ponds; and 07) the 1967 tization of juvenile king salmon, Oncorhynchus tshawytscha, to
saline waters mixed with sewage effluent Calif frisk, (jame,
relatively high survival rates of vibrio-infected pond-reared
53(3). 180-4
kokanee salmon not receiving any therapeutic treatment. ANDERSON, J. I & CONROY, D A Vibrio disease in marine fishes
No explanation could be found for these results. It is 1970 Spec. Publ Am. Fish. Soc (5): 266-72 ,
BAILEY, W. R. &
SCOTT, E G Diagnostic microbiology St Louis,
possible that strains of the two species had different suscep- 1974 C V Mosby Co., 414 p.
tibilities to vibriosis, but it is also possible that the biotic BEILFUSS, E R Bacterial survey of some of the creek, stream, slough,
1967 and sewage plant effluents into Humboldt Bay. Humboldt State
community of the sea water-oxidation pond effluent mix-
University Foundation, Arcata, California 19 p. Unpubl
ture provided some protective mechanism to the salmonids
report to City Council, Eureka, California
which was removed after filtration in the fish tanks. Algal BUCHANAN, R E &
GIBBONS, N. E. Bergy's manual of determinative
1974 bacteriology Baltimore, William and Wilkms Co 1268 p
removal was a major gross change noted in the filtered pond ,
Expanded bacteriological studies in 1975 were possible CARPENTER, R. L el al The evaluation of microbial pathogens in
1974 sewage and sewage-grown fish Environ. Protect Ag Tech Ser,
through the HSU Coherent Area Sea Grant Program. The Wash DC,(EPA-660/2-74-041) 46^55
,
authors gratefully acknowledge the assistance with bacteri- DONNELLY, R B & INOUYE, T T Coliform and phytoplankton
ological studies prior to 1975 of: Dr. William Lester and
1974 studies in a brackish water aquaculture pond fertilized with
domestic wastewater Lnvir on- Protect. Aq Tech Ser Wash,
Dr. Richard Meyer, Department of Biology, Humboldt D C (EPA-660/2-74-041 ) 404- 1 1
,
State University; the Humboldt County Department of GUELIN, A Polluted waters and the contamination of fish In Fish as
Public Health; and Mr. Robert Donnelly, graduate student 1962 food, edited by G. Borgstrom New York, Academic Press,
vol 2 481-502
in fisheries. Graduate students in fisheries assisting with the W
A Fish as potential vectors of human bacterial diseases
JANSSFN,
collection of physical and chemical data on the ponds 1970 Spec Publ Am Fish Soc (5) 284-90 ,
tion of Mr. Larry Dennis who supervised the construction 1974 clinical microbiology Washington, D
C American Society foi
Microbiology
of the fish barn and its recirculating aquaria, and whose NOVOTNY, A HARRELL, L
J ,
W &
NYEGAARD, C Vibriosis A W
rearing of salmonids in the system contributed perti-
initial 1975 common disease of Pacific salmon cultured in marine waters
of Washington. Washington State University, College of
nent data to this paper.
Agriculture, Cooperative Extension Service, 8 p
REJCHENBACH-KLINKE, H
H. Fish Pathology Neptune City, N J ,
498
Utilization of Heated Discharge Water from J. Tanaka
Electric Power Plants in Aquaculture
Abstract
exclusively for this purpose.
Cooling water from electric power generating plants in Japan is dis-
charged in large volumes at temperatures averaging about 7C above In 1964, rearing experiments were carried out with
ambient water temperatures. Research in Japan on the utilization of parrot bass (Oplegnathus fasciatus) in wire mesh pens
heated discharge water in aquaculture, which began about 1 5 years ago,
floated in the discharge canal at the Yokosuka Thermal
has shown its utilization to be very beneficial both in seed production of
such species as the abalone (Haliotis discus hannai) and red seabream Power Station of the Tokyo Electric Power Company. In
(Pagrus major\ and also in rearing kuruma shrimp (Penaeusjaponicus). 1965, good results were obtained with experimental rearing
yellowtail (Seriola quinqueradiata)
and others. These species show
increased rates of food consumption resulting in more rapid growth rates of yellowtail (Seriola quinqueradiata) in ponds utilizing
when cultured at higher water temperatures. Furthermore the increased discharge water from the Owasemita Thermal Power Sta-
food conversion efficiency at higher water temperatures is of special
tion of the Chubu Electric Power Company. In 1 97 1, at the
significance in rearing these species.
Facilities for onshore
rearing with heated water are expensive, and the request of the Science and Technology Agency of Japan
use of floating pens located in the discharge water outfall is recom- and the Japan Fisheries Resources Conservation Associa-
mended for large-scale culture enterprises. It is considered that use of
heated discharge water may have important application in aquaculture
tion, culture ponds totalling 2 040
2
m
were constructed on
development for production of eggs and seed stock, and for rearing of the grounds of the Japan Atomic Energy Research Insti-
culture organisms to adult size. and rearing experiments using these facilities were
tute,
Utilisation en aquaculture dcs effluents thermiques des centrales undertaken with kuruma shrimp, Penaeus japonicus, red
electriques porgy, Evynnis japonica, and other species.
Resume
Au Japon, Teau de refroidissement des centrales electriques est rejetee en The late Dr. T. Imai conducted research on oyster
grandes quantites a des temperatures superieures de 7C en moyenne a culture using heated discharge water about 1 5 years ago at
celles de 1'eau ambiante. Les recherches faites dans ce pays sur
the Sendai Thermal Power Station of Tohoku Electric
1'utilisation en aquaculture des effluents thermiques se
poursuivent Power Company, and seed of the abalone, Haliotis discus
depuis une quinzaine d'annees; cette utilisation s'est revelee tres utile
aussi bien pour la production de naissams d'especes telles que les hannai, is now being produced there. In addition, seed
ormeaux (Haliotis discus hannai) et d'alevins de "taf (Pagrus major},
production and culture to marketable size of various marine
que pour Pelevage de la crevette kuruma (Penaeus japonicus\ de la
seriole (Seriola quinqueradiata), etc. La consommation ahmentaire de organisms is being undertaken at a number of power plants
ces especes a augmente dans des eaux a temperature plus elevee, leur taux
throughout Japan.
d'accroissement s 'accelerant en consequence. L 'augmentation de
1'efficacite de la conversion des aliments en eau a temperature elevee
revet un mteret special pour 1'elevage de ces especes.
Le cout des installations pour 1'utilisation des effluents thermiques 2 Fish and shrimp culture
dans des elevages sur la cote est eleve: il est recommande aux grandes
The temperature of discharge water of power plants in
entrepnses piscicoles d'employer des cages flottantes immergees pres du
deversoir. On pense que 1'utilisation des effluents thermiques pourrait Japan is ordinarily 6 to 10C (7C on the average) warmer
trouver d'importantes applications en aquaculture pour la production de than the ambient seawater temperature. Many different
naissam, d'oeufs et d'alevms, ainsi que pour 1'elevage desjeunes jusqu'au
stade adulte. species have been reared using heated discharge water, each
within the optimum temperature range for the species. Of
Utilizacion para la acuicultura de las aguas calidas descargadas per las
these, the rearing of yellowtail at the Owasemita Thermal
centrales electricas
Extracto Power Station and ofkuruma shrimp at the Tokai Farm of
En elJapon, las aguas de enfnamiento de las centrales electricas se the Japan Thermal Aquaculture Development Society are
descargan en grandes cantidades a temperaturas supenores en unos 7C described here.
a la temperatura ambiente del agua. Las mvestigaciones sobre la utihza-
cion de estas acuicultura comenzaron en el Japon
a^uas calidas en la
hace unos 1 5 anos y han mostrado que su empleo es muy beneficioso 2.1 Yellowtail
para la produccion de semilla de especies como el abalone (Haliotis
discus hannai} y el besugo (Pagrus la cria de camaron 2.1.1 Facilities. The main pond
at Owasemita is con-
mqjor) y para
kuruma (Penaeus japomcus\ pez hmon (Seriola quinqueradiata) y structed of cement, octagonal in shape, has a diameter of
is
otros. En todas estas especies, cultivadas en agua a temperatura mas
elevada, se observa un aumento del indice de consume de ahmentos, que
10 m
and operates at a water depth of 2-5 m
at the centre
da como resultado tasas mas rapidas de crecimiento. En la cria de estas decreasing to 1-5 m
at the periphery. The capacity of the
especies, sin embargo, es especialmente importante el hecho de que al pond is 143
3
m Water is supplied from a pipe crossing
.
calidas es elevado y para el cultivo a gran escala se recomienda el empleo The rate of flow is 100 mVh, giving a water replacement
de recintos flotantes situados en el lugar de descarga de las aguas. El
rate of70 %/h.
empleo de estas aguas calidas puede tener aplicaciones importantes en el
desarrollo futuro de la acuicultura, tanto para producir huevos y material Heated water is pumped from the discharge canal of the
para siembra como para criar los organ is mos hasta la edad adulta. power plant to a tank in which it is first mixed with sea
plants for aquaculture, and in some places commercial sea wall, and sea water enters it by seepage. Fig. 1 shows
culture of aquatic organisms in heated effluents has already daily variation in temperature in the pond and in ambient
been undertaken. In Japan, research in this field was initi- sea water, as well as daily variations in specific gravity and
ated about 1 5 years ago, and in all but one case marine dissolved oxygen concentration of the pond water.
species have been the main concern. This is because there
are few large lakes or rivers in Japan to supply cooling 2.1.2 Results. Yellowtail (average weight 625 g) were re-
water for power plants, and sea water is used almost leased in the pond on 21 September 1965. They were fed
499
such foods as anchovy, horse mackerel and saury. The made of m
fibreglass and measuring 3 x 1 x 1 deep. The
growth curve for yellowtail used in this experiment is tanks can be supplied with 18m 3 of heated discharge water
shown in Fig. 2a as well as growth curves of yellowtail per minute by the Japan Atomic Power Company's Tokai
reared at ambient seawater temperatures in floating pens by Power Plant.
a commercial culturist and at a prefectural fisheries experi-
mental station. The yellowtail reared in the pond under 2.2.2 Results. Because the shrimp seed had to be trans-
controlled temperature conditions continued to grow at a ported by air from the Fujinaga Kuruma Shrimp Institute
rapid rate during the winter season when the growth rates of in Yamaguchi Prefecture, small seed (P20)
initially weigh-
the yellowtail reared in the sea decreased. Daily growth
ing 2-5 mg were used. The shrimp were fed mainly artifi-
and food conversion efficiency rates of
rates, feeding rates cial feedand sometimes mysids. The growth results from
the three groups of fish are shown in Fig. 2. For the fish this experiment are shown in Fig. 3, together with the
reared in the heated water, maintenance of high water
growth curve of kuruma shrimp reared on a shrimp farm in
temperatures during the winter resulted in high food con- western Japan. The growth curves were nearly the same in
version efficiency in addition to continued feeding activity both cases.
and high growth rates. The use of heated discharge water in Insufficient experience has been gained in
rearing ku-
the commercial rearing of yellowtail therefore not only ruma shrimp at the Tokai Farm, and more data are needed
promotes growth, but has a wide range of other effects from on the use of heated discharge water during the winter
reducing feeding costs to altering management procedures. season. From the data that have been collected at the Tokai
Farm, it is apparent, however, that tank water temperatures
2.2 Kuruma shrimp can be maintained above 18C during the winter (Fig. 3).
1 Facilities. The Tokai Farm of the Kuruma shrimp are
2.2. Japan Thermal rarely caught along the coast of Ibaragi
Aquaculture Development Society has 34 indoor rearing Prefecture where the Tokai Farm is located, and up to now
tanks totalling 2 040m 2 in area. Of these, 16 tanks are this species has not been cultured in this area. The kuruma
6 x 10 x 2 m
deep and 1 8 tanks are 6 x 10 x 1 -5 deep. m shrimp rearing effort at the Tokai Farm provides, therefore,
There are also four outdoor tanks: two are decagonal and an example of the culture of a species using heated dis-
two are circular, all have a diameter of 10m and total charge water in an area in which it is not naturally
3 14 m in area. There are also six indoor circulating tanks
2
abundant.
f
iI ^
AKVff V^%H^M^fevv^Av^^x^sr-~
)
1 10 20 1 10 20 1 10 20 1 10 20 1 10 20 1 10 20 1 10
Oct. Nov. Dec* Jan. Feb. March April
Fig 1. Daily variations in culture pond conditions and ambient seawater temperature during the rearing of yellowtail. A. Pond water
conditions. B. Ambient seawater temperature (Prefectural Fisheries Experimental Station). C. Ambient seawater
temperature
(commercial culturist)
500
2.0
0.5
K 2. Growth curves, daily growth and feeding rates, and feed conversion efficiency of three groups of cultured yellowtaii. A. In pond
warmed with discharge water B. In the sea (Prefectural Fisheries Experimental Station). C. In the sea (commercial cultunst)
3 Seed Production
In recent years, techniques for mass production of seed
both for pond culture and sea farming have been developed
and put into practicein Japan. The use of heated discharge
water in the production of seed has proved successful in
shortening the time required to rear fish and other aquatic
organisms to maturity, making early egg collection possi-
ble.In addition, the time required to rear larvae to adequate
seed size can also be reduced. As examples of what has been
accomplished, the early collection of eggs of red seabream
(Pagrus major} and the accelerated production of the seed
of the abalone (Haliotis discus hannai) are described
below.
ponds warmed with discharge water. B. Growth in natural sea season began up to two months earlier than in the natural
water. environment and its length increased from two months
501
under natural conditions to as long as four months. An
increase in the length of the spawning season increases to
30
the same extent the opportunity for egg collection. Further-
more, a greater number of eggs can be obtained, and fry can
be produced at least twice a year in the same facilities. 20
aeration system with a total capacity of 4 mVmin has been other marine organisms. Due to these costs, it is necessary
provided for all the tanks. to culture relatively high-priced species at high densities.
For large-scale culture, the use of floating sea pens
3.2.2 Results. The growth curves for abalone larvae reared located in the discharge water outfall has more potential.
during the winter using heated discharge water and during
the summer when discharge water was not needed are
shown in Fig. 4, together with the corresponding growth 5 Conclusion
curves of abalone larvae in their natural environment. Specific examples of the use of heated discharge water in
During winter, the shell length of cultured abalone larvae marine aquaculture have been described. The results of this
increased by more than three times the increase in shell and other research indicate that the use of heated discharge
length of naturally occurring larvae over the same three- water may have important application in aquacultural de-
month period. The summer growth curves are not signifi- velopment as summarized below:
cantly different; rapid growth occurred in both cases.
In addition to accelerating larval growth, the use of Application Possible benefits
heated discharge water in abalone seed production in- Early maturity of broodstock, with consequent
creases the propagation rate of the diatoms upon which Egg production early egg collection
abalone larvae feed. Egg collection throughout the year
Reliable method for rearing broodstock
result, the costof electricity to operate the pumps signifi- Increased growth rate
cantly increases culture expenses. However, because the Rearing
Increased food conversion efficiency
Development of comprehensive management
discharge water ordinarily flows at a high rate, its physical
techniques in environment control systems
energy can be used to elevate water to pond level by
European eel. Temperature being a limiting factor for rainbow trout, this could be kept under the special brackishwater conditions.
species could be cultured here only during winter. Trout of 50 g. fed on
eaux saumfitres
pellets, reached marketable sizes of 250-300 g within 3-4 months with Experiences preliminaires de pisciculture dans les
a feed conversion of about 2:1. Eels could be reared from 20 g size to d'effluents thermiques
502
Resume station not completed until July 1975. a number of useful
L'on decrit dans cette communication une station piscicole experimen- observations were made, which are described below. The
tale situee sur la cote nord de la Republique federate d'Allemagne ct
alimentee par des eaux saumatres rechauffees provenant du refroidisse- paper also includes some results obtained from a small
ment d'une centrale thermique du tvpe classique. La station comporte 1 5 commercial fish farming unit which has operated for two
reservoirs (fabriques pour la plupart en fibre de verre) dont la taille
s'echelonne de 1-5 a 50 m En pleme marche. le debit atteint 100 I/sec.
1 years in the neighbourhood of the experimental station and
La temperature et la salinite de 1'eau accusent une variation saisonniere received continuous advice from the Institute. The informa-
de 14 a 30C et de 4 a 18 parties pour mille respectivement. tion presented here is considered to be preliminary.
Les experiences menees en 1975 ont porte essentiellement sur
1'elevage de la truite arc-en -ciel et de 1'anguille. La temperature consti-
tuent un facteur hmitatif pour la truite arc-en-ciel. cette espece n'a pu etre
elevee dans la station que pendant 1'hiver Des truites de 50 g. nourries 2 Description of the experimental station
avec des granules, ont atteint des tailles marchandes de 250 a 300 g en
une penode de 3 a 4 mois. avec un taux de conversion des aliments voisin The experimental fish farm was built in Emden, a city on
de deux. On a pu amener des anguilles de 20 a des tailles marchandes de the estuary of the River Ems. which flows into the North
1 80 a 250
g en une penode de 1 a 2 ans A 1'etat naturel, il faudrait de 6 a Sea. The station is supplied with cooling water from a
8 ans pour que les anguilles atteignent cette croissance dans les eaux
mterieures du pays L'on a traite avec succes des maladies bactenennes conventional four-block power plant at Emden harbour.
tant chez 1'anguille que chez la truite au moyen d'antibiotiques. The power plant draws cooling water from the harbour at a
Les fluctuations saisonnieres de la temperature et de la salinite
survenues en 1975 n'ont pas etc tolerees par les especes suivantes: plie. rateup to 28 m
Vs and releases it into the harbour through
flet. turbot, sole, sandre. carpe commune, silure. carpe chmoise et an open channel. The harbour itself is connected with the
saumon argente. L'on a pu conserver certaines especes des eaux plus River Ems only by sluices so that its water is rather
chaudes, telles que le mulct, le bar. les sigamdes et le tilapia, dans les
conditions speciales presentees par les eaux saumatres. stagnant. Temperature and salinity fluctuate seasonally.
The experimental farm station is supplied with water
from the cooling water channel by means of three sub-
Experimentos preliminares de cria de peces en aguas salobres de
efluentes tcrmicos merged pumps with capacities of 20. 30 and 50 1/s in order
Extracto to adjust the pumping capacity economically to varying
Se describe una estacion piscicola experimental mstalada en la costa
situations at the station. The water is pumped into a
septentrional de la Republica Federal de Alemania y abastecida con
aguas salobres calidas procedentes del sistema de enfriamento de una container of 12 m 3
; from there itflows by gravity through
central electrica de tipo tradicional. La estacion consta de 1 5 tanques
pipes into individual tanks. The water level in the tanks is
(pnncipalmente de fibra de vidrio) de 1 -5 a 50 m Cuando funciona a
'.
pleno ritmo, el flujo de agua es de 100 1/seg. La temperatura y la regulated by means of swivel-tubes, from which the water
salmidad fluctuan segiin las estaciones entre 14 y 30C y 18 ppt, concrete raceway before flowing back into the
falls into a
respectivamente. channel. Each tank has a separate water supply and aeration
Los expenmentos reahzados en 1975 se concentraron en la cria de
trucha arco ins y anguila. Dado que la temperatura constituye un factor facility.
limitante para la trucha arco ins. solo puede ser posible cultivar esa Most of the tanks are made of fibreglass in order to
especie durante el invierno Alimentando a truchas de 50 g con alimentos facilitate technical variations, but two tanks consist of a
granulados se obtuvieron truchas de 250- 300 g en 3-4 meses. con un
indice de conversion de piensos del orden de dos. En el plazo de 1-2 metal frame lined with a hanging plastic sheet. The latter,
anos, anguilas de 20 g alcanzaron tallas comercializables de 1 80 a 250 g.
being cheaper than the others, were acquired to test their
Para que las anguilas alcancen esa talla en las aguas contmentales
suitability for fish farming.
naturales del pais son necesanos de 6 a 8 anos. El tratamiento de las
enfermedades bactenanas de la anguila y la trucha con antibioticos dio
resultados satisfactorios. Six types of tanks, ranging in size from about 1-5 to
Las fluctuaciones estacionales de la temperatura y la salmidad en
1975 no fueron toleradas por las siguientes especies solla. platna. 50m 1
are in use:
rodaballo. lenpuado. lucio-perca. carpa comun silundo Silurus giants, y
salmon coho. Algunas especies de peces de agua dulce. como mugil (/) Two square fibreglass tanks
perca de mar, siganides y tilapia podrian mantenerse en esas condi 2-0 x 2-0 m. 0-4 m deep
ciones especiales de aguas salobres.
(//') Four rectangular fibreglass tanks
0-8 \3-5 m. 0-8 m deep
Two rectangular fibreglass tanks
1 Introduction
2-0 \6-Om. 1-Om deep
Search for new methods of aquaculture which can be used
(iv) Three circular fibreglass tanks
locally is an important field of fishery research in the 6 m in diameter. 1 -0 m
deep
Federal Republic of Germany. Although the country is
(v) Two circular fibreglass tanks
located in a temperate climatic zone, relatively unsuited for
8 m in diameter. 1-2 deep m
the culture of fast-growing warm water fish species such as
(VI) Two circular tanks (plastic sheet)
carps and eels, it has heated water effluents from power 7 m in diameter. 1-Om deep
stations and other industries that offer excellent potential
for aquaculture development. The concrete channel can be separated into sections to
In 1975. an experimental fish farm was established by serve as additional units for holding, grading and rearing
the Institut fur Kiisten-und Binnenfischerei at the outlet of a fish. Laboratory facilities are available. Water quality is
conventional power plant located in the harbour area of continuously monitored by an automatic system.
Emden. The project, funded by the Federal Ministry for
Research and Technology, Bonn, was started primarily to
study the problems involved in utilizing this artificial 3 Water temperature and salinity
warmwater potential for fish farming. One question was to In passing through the power station the water temperature
determine which of the indigenous and non-indigenous fish is raised by about 10C. In 1975. the monthly mean water
species available to the Institute could be grown under the temperatures fluctuated between 15C in February and
special brackishwater conditions of the Emden fish farm 29C August. Monthly minimum and maximum values
in
and how they could be farmed commercially. Although the differed by about 2-3 C from mean values. Daily
first experiments were only started in January 1975 and the fluctuations did not exceed in general 2~3C (Fig. 1). Due
503
to the extraordinary summer temperatures in 1975 the covering 180 nr at the commercial farm near the experi-
absolute maximum temperature was 34-8C. Since the mental station could be grown to marketable sizes of 1 80-
winter of 1974/75 was extremely warm, winter tempera- 250 g in from one to two years. After eight months, 30% of
tures might be considerably lower in future years. the eels (50% of the total weight) could be sold. Annual eel
The salinity of the cooling water is influenced by the production amounted to 10-15 kg/m
2
.
salinity of the River Ems at Emden and by the quantity of At the Institute's experimental station, the eels were first
harbour through small inlets. In
fresh water flowing into the fed with minced fish and brown shrimp (Crangon crangon ).
1975. the lowest sahmtv of 5-6 ppt was observed from Later, industrial eel food was offered. At temperatures of
January to June, the months of highest rainfall. The salinity 23-28C the eels foraged wet food at a daily rate of 12-
rose to 15-18 ppt from August to October (Fig. 1). 1 of their body weight. A mixture of 50% industrial eel
6%
food and 50% water was taken by the eels at a daily rate of
79
6-9%. Food intake decreased sharply at water tempera-
C 20C.
~
17-
tS-
*~S tures
On
above 29 and below
the basis of the observations so far, it can be con-
cluded that under normal temperature conditions eel mor
"' tality can be kept low if the initial stocking is at a density of
1 2
" 9.
about 2 kg/m After one month of adaptation, the stocking
.
2
density can be increased to at least 5 kg/m which ob- .
7.
lings of 50 g grew to marketable sizes of 250-300 g and could not withstand the low salinity of 46 ppt in spring
fish of 3 g grew to 30 g. (see Fig. Flounder (Platichthvsflesus)and turbot (Sco
1 ).
Corresponding to experiences gained in cage farming of phthalmus maximus) kept from March to June showed an
trout, stocking density in these experiments was 60fish/m\ increase in weight of 10-15% per month when fed with
This density was reduced to 15-20 kg/m' as the fish minced fish. Their feed conversion rate was 6:1. All floun-
approached marketable size. der died at temperatures of 28C, the turbot at 3 1C. The
At a temperature of about 17-18C, the fish were fed upper temperature tolerance for sole (Solea solea) kept
with commercial trout feeds at a rate of 2-3% of body from March to August was found to be very sharp at 33C.
weight per day. The feed conversion ratio (g feedrg gain) in accordance with Rumohr (1975). Pike-perch (Stizoste-
was about 2:1. dion lucioperca) kept from March to August were fed with
Outbreaks of diseases with symptoms of furunculosis minced fish and grew well but died at a temperature of
were treated successfully by feeding medicated commercial 29C. Freshwater species, such as one-year-old common
trout feeds for a period of three days. carp (Cyprinus carpio) kept from March to July, sheat fish
(Silurus giants) kept from March to July, and grass carp
4.2 Eel (Anguilla anguilla) (Ctenopharyngodon idella) kept from March to July, as
Eels averaging 20 g in weight, farmed in concrete ponds coho salmon (Oncorhvnchus kisutch) kept
well as Pacific
504
from the middle to end of October did not tolerate salinities body weight within three months from 4 to 9 g with a feed
higher than 10-12 ppt regardless of whether the fish were conversion of about 4:1. This is comparable to the results
exposed to this salinity suddenly or after an adaptation obtained by Alliot et aL 1974.
period of several months. All fish which died showed the
same symptoms: darkening of the skin and exophthalmia. 5 Conclusions
In addition the sheat fish had skin lesions. On the other Both rainbow trout and eels were found suitable for cultiva-
hand, the following warmwater fish species mostly non- tion under local brackishwater conditions, although the
indigenous evidenced no mortality or disease up to Janu- trout could be cultured only during the winter months. The
ary 1976 despite the fluctuating water quality: (/) Grey rate of growth of cultured eels (one to two years to attain
mullet (Mugil spp.) 300-800 g in weight, (introduced marketable size) was far greater than that of eels in German
October 1974), which normally have a more southerly inland waters where it requires six to eight years to attain
distribution, but were caught in Emden harbour. This the same size.
species has become more and more abundant Ger-
in the The seasonal fluctuations in water temperature and salin
man Bight in recent years. (//) Rabbit fish (Siganus conca- ity in 1975 were not well tolerated by: plaice, flounder,
tenata and S. oramin\ about 50 g in weight, which origi- turbot, sole, pike-perch, common carp, grass carp, sheat
nated from the Philippines and were partly bred at the fish and coho salmon.
Biological Station of Heligoland (von Westernhagen and Grey mullet, sea bass, rabbit fish and tilapia could be
Rosenthal, 1975), introduced in August 1975. (//7) Sea kept well under the special brackishwater conditions.
bass (Dicentrachus labrax\ about 10 g in weight, intro-
duced September 1975, bred by the Centre Oceanologique
de Bretagne, Brest. (/v) Tilapia (Tilapia tnossambica) 5 g in 6 References
AKER, E Salzwasseraalseuchc in der Deuischen Bucht 1970 Inf
weight, introduced September 1975, bred at the Institute 1971 18(3) 95-6
Fuschwirttch .
for Hydrobiology and Fisheries Science, University of ALLIOT, E et al Besoms nutntifs du bar (Dicentrachus labrax L )
1974 Etudes du taux de proteinc et du taux de hpide dans le regime
Hamburg. Publ CNEXO (Ser Actes Colloq.) 1 79-86
The siganids were found to be very useful in cleaning
,
nel, and number of circuits used for rearing and production of stocking mas elevada (un rendimiento anual de 8-6 toneladas de carpas) se
material. The costs of production of carp in the models vary from obtiene usando un ritmo de siembra semimensual. Se presentan tres
per kg
DM 3-66 to DM 4 29 in comparison with a common cost of DM 3-60 modelos de granjas piscicolas comerciales que difieren en los costos de
in pond culture. calentamiento, el numero de personal y el numero de circuitos utihzadps
para criar y producir el material de siembra. Los costos de produccion
por kg de carpa en los diversos modelos vanan de 3-66 a 4-29 marcos.
frente a un costo comun de 3-60 marcos en la piscicultura en estanques
Aspects biologiques et economiques de la production de poisson en eau
chaude dans un systeme clos
Resume
Le document traite des possibilites de I'elevage des poissons en eau 1 Introduction
chaude a des fins commerciales dans un systeme clos. Apres avoir An aquaculture system based on a closed water circuit with
examine les courbes de croissance de carpes mirroirs (Cvprinus carpio}
elevees dans un systeme aquicole mis au point a Ahrensburg (Repub- water purified by activated sludge has been developed at
lique federate d'Allemagne), on a elabore un modele pour determiner des Ahrensburg in the Federal Republic of Germany. This
densites et des echeanciers d'empoissonnement compte tenu du
ppids system has been designed and used exclusively for scientific
corporel moyen final du poisson pour une capacite totale d'un circuit de
50 m t contenant 1-5 tonnes de poisson. On obtient la plus forte produc- purposes. In view of the general lack of information on the
tion un rendement annuel de quelques 8-6 tonnes de carpes en economics of such systems, it is given trial here as a model
utilisant un echeancier d'empoissonnement a 1 5 jours d'intervalle. Le
forcommercial fish production.
document presente trois modiles de fermes piscicoles a des fins commer-
ciales qui different par les couts de chauffage, 1'effectif du personnel et le
nombre de circuits servant a Felevage et a la production de materiel de
peuplement. Scion ces mode les, le cout de la production d'un kilo de 2 A 50 m 3 circuit for
carpes vane de DM3-66 a DM 4-29 par comparaison avec le cout carp production
habituel qui est de DM 3-60 dans les etangs de pisciculture. The techniques and biology of a 50 m 3
circuit, running on
505
fresh water and developed at Ahrensburg have been de- FISH
WEIGHT
scribed by Meske (1973). As the mirror carp (Cyprinus
carpio) is the most important warm-water fish cultured in
the Federal Republic of Germany, scientific studies with
the system have been concentrated on this species. As data
2000-
input for the models which will be discussed later was only
available for mirror carp, this species was used for the
models. Another reason for selecting this species is that
induced spawning and controlled breeding permits the
production of carp fingerlings throughout the year.
The water volume of the model circuit is 50 m 3 6 3 in
: m 1500"
the fish tanks and 44m in the purification unit. The
3
different average weights are shown in this graph (500g, system. Dotted lines indicate 500 g intervals for final individual
mean weights
1 000 g, 1 500 g, 2 000 g), which indicate different weights
for harvesting in the model used (see Table I). For example, capacity is exceeded, the system may break down. On the
weight per day (Feed C,), and 4% j(Feed C 2 ) (Meske, and grown to 2 kg fish, the system would be working far
1973). In this example, the period of growth required to below its carrying capacity most of the time. Using Feed A,
produce a 1 500 g fish is extended by about 1 9 5% ( 1 2 2 5 the maximum would be reached only every ten months. If,
-
months compared with 10-25 months). however, the carp were to be raised to sell at a weight of
500 g, the turnover would be reduced to about 5 5 months
and the capacity far better utilized.
4 Stocking rates and stocking sequences An
even better approach to utilize the capacity to the
Closed circuits have a limited carrying capacity; when the optimal degree is to stock all tanks in successive charges at
TABLE I
ANNUAL PRODUCTION OF CARP IN A 50 m 3 CLOSED WARM- WATER SYSTEM AT DIFFERENT STOCKING SEQUENCES IN RELATION TO THE FINAL INDIVIDUAL
FISH WEIGHT
506
shorter periods. In Table I, the annual production is calcu- 7 Economic models for carp production in closed water
Feeds A and B mentioned above for stocking
lated for circuits
sequences, and consequently also for harvesting, of 0-5, 1 Three economic models for carp production are presented
and 1 5 months. For Feed A the total production at a semi- in Table III. All these models are calculated on the basis of
monthly stocking sequence is 35% lower for 2 000 g fish 12 circuits, each with 50m 3 of water, and an annual
compared with 500 g fish. This relative difference is re- production of 8 663 kg of 500 g carp per circuit (cf. Table
duced at longer stocking sequences to 29% at the 1-5 I, Feed B). In Models I and II all 12 circuits are used to
monthly interval. For Feed B, the difference is even more produce carp of marketable size. In Model III, one circuit is
evident. It is 51% at the 0-5 month stocking interval and used for the production of the stocking material. Model I
44% for the 1-5 month stocking. For 500 g fish in both operates on central oil heating; in Models II and HI, the
cases the annual production is reduced by 21% when the energy is derived from heat exchangers connected to indus-
stocking sequence is extended from 0- 5 to 1-5 months. As trial cooling water. Thus, the operating costs are reduced by
Table I indicates, the maximum production is achieved for the heating costs (ie, for oil) in Models II and III.
500 g fish. Although the carp grow slower when fed with In Model III, no costs for the stocking material enters the
Feed B than Feed A, Feed B provides better annual produc- model and feed costs are reduced, but on the other hand the
tion for all stocking sequences for 500 g fish. production and feeding of fry in this model requires the help
of three trained persons instead of the two used in Models I
and II. In addition, Model III has a lower production
5 Influence of feeding intensity on carp growth because one less circuit is available for the production of
The influence of the intensity of feeding is shown for Feed C marketable carp.
in Table The annual production is calculated for a feeding
I. The calculations in Table III are based on the following
level of 5% body weight/day (Feed C,) and for a 4% level data:
(Feed C 2 ). The carp fed with Feed C,, which receive 20% (a) carp are sold at DM 6/kg
more food than the fish given Feed C 2 have nearly 20% , (b) price of food: 1DM
1
5/kg -
higher annual production in a semi-monthly stocking se- (c) conversion rate (kg food/kg weight gain): 2
quence. The difference decreases for longer stocking (d) salary per person/year: DM 26 000
intervals. (e) oil for heating: DM 0-25/1
(/) at a flow rate of 25 m Vhour the decrease in tempera-
ture is 0-5C; thus, 600 mVday have to be heated
6 Influence of costs of feed through 0-5C
As feed costs are the main operating costs when using this (#) 60 1 of oil (based on heating efficiency of 0-5) are
system, the differences in income are considerably higher needed for heating each day, and heating costs are
than the differences in the production offish weight per year DM
5 475/year
as shown Table I. The total income (less feed costs) has
in (h) electric power: lOOkWh/day at 0-12/kWh DM
therefore been estimated for different average weights of and costs per year of 4 380 DM
fish at the time of harvesting for systems using Feeds A and (/) 500 of water must be added per day (i.e., 1 percent
1
B with three stocking sequences (Table II). It can be seen day) to a system at a price of
loss per 2/m 3 DM ;
Model III
only).
All three models require an estimated capital investment of
DM 1 200 000. On the basis of DM
6/kg of carp, Models I
1
USS1-00-DM2-6 and II produce carp valued at DM 623 740, while Model
TABLE II
INCOME (AFTER REDUCTION OF FEED COSTS) FROM ANNUAL PRODUCTION OF CARP IN A CLOSED WARM- WATER SYSTEM IN RELATION TO THE SEQUENCE
OF STOCKING AND FINAL WEIGHT OF INDIVIDUAL FISH (IN DM)
1
Indicates values not calculated
507
Ill production is worth 8-3% less. In Model I, the operating 8 Discussion
costs are equivalent to more than 70% of the value of the This paper provides a model for an economic approach to
fish produced, and feed costs are about 5 7% of the operating commercial fish farming in closed-water circuits. The bio-
costs. In Model II, the operating costs are reduced by DM logical data as well as the operating costs have been derived
65 700 for heating. This results in a reduction of the from an experimental circuit used for scientific studies.
operating costs per kg offish by nearly 15%, fe, from DM Operating costs, especially those related to technical de-
4-29/kg to DM
3-66/kg. The fingerling production within sign, must be considered as preliminary and may change for
the system does not compensate for the costs of buying the commercial farming. Circuits larger than 50 m 3 will proba-
stocking material; one more person is employed and addi- bly be more economical and reduce investment and operat-
tional costs for production and feeding of fry lead to an ing costs. A lesser number of larger tanks compared with
increase of operating costs of DM 3-90/kg of marketable the large number of experimental tanks will allow better
fish. isolation of stocks and should reduce the heating costs of
Model I.
Model III Germany and other countries. Other fish like trout
(Salmo)
Capital investment 1 200 000 or eel (Anguilla) have a much greater market value. For
Operating costs
Feed 219180 these species, however, only part of the data necessary for a
Personnel 78 000 model are available. The model presented, however, per-
Electricity 52 560
mits adjustments to other biological or technical
Water 4 380
Others 18000 parameters.
Total 372 100
Income 571760
Profit minus depreciation (10%) 79 600 9 Reference
Operating costs per kg of fish 3 90 MESKE, C Aquakultur von Warmwasser-Nutzfischen Biotechniken
1973 und Tierversuche Stuttgart, Eugen Ulmcr. 163 p
There is emphasis here on the type of complex systems used analysis conventions, and with describing with a minimum
in a number of major applications in North America. Such of detail some of the processes. This material is based
a geographic focus reflects the author's experience and the primarily upon referenced work by Liao, Mayo and Kra-
lack of literature suggesting other large-scale applications. mer, Chin and Mayo, Inc. Thus, specific references are
sometimes excluded in this section as attribution is prop-
1.3 Species focus erly to several documents.
Most major aquaculture reconditioning units are used for
finfish culture, primarily that of salmonids. Thus, this 2. 1 Fish rearing systems
discussion is focused on that area. Other applications As a basis for discussing water reconditioning systems, it is
should not be ignored, however, because reconditioning useful first to visualize the entire fish rearing system in its
appears to be especially appropriate to lobster and prawn several forms. For example, there is the simple flow-
culture (Kramer, Chin and Mayo, Inc, 1974). through system of Fig. 1 which is, primarily, a rearing unit.
However, it is often necessary to modify the character of
1.4 Natural systems the water supply prior to use in the fish-rearing unit through
Emphasis in this discussion is on sophisticated systems some form of pre-treatment. On occasion, it also is neces-
constructed by man conjunction with major aquaculture
in sary to provide post-treatment to water from a rearing unit
facilities (as typified by large, salmon-smelt propagation before it discharges into the receiving water. This is illus-
hatcheries or commercial trout farms). This responds to the trated in Fig. 2.
magnitude of expenditures programmed for future systems. The quantity of water required from the supply for the
However, it is important that we do not forget that many systems described in Figs. 1 and 2 is primarily a function of
natural water -reconditioning systems now exist. These are the water quality, the oxygen requirements in the rearing
typified by Asian carp ponds, catfish farms in the USA, and units, and the tolerance of the fish to their own metabolic
fishpens in natural bodies of water throughout the world. A products. Other factors of occasional importance are hy-
full understanding of these systems may offer the best draulic requirements, incidental pollution, and temperature
potential for cost reduction. or acidity changes in the rearing units.
The definitions and analysis presented here are appropri- When the water supply is inadequate, or when pre- and
ate to this understanding because, in the longer view, post-treatment costs are high, the fish culturist often must
natural systems and sophisticated systems differ little in resort tosome form of water reconditioning to allow re-use
function or results. of the available supply, as illustrated in Fig. 3.
through a series of definitions; (b) describe the range of systems. These treatment systems may consist of one or
processes which may be involved in water reconditioning; more treatment processes, each of which can be described
(c) describe why reconditioning is used in aquaculture; (d) as a process which changes the character of the water that
review the literature; (e) summarize major applications; (/) passes throughit in one or more ways. A simple process, for
provide some economic information; (g) suggest areas of example, would be one where the water is simply heated. A
research. more complex process would be one in which oxygen is
added and ammonia is removed in a single operation. While
509
Table /. Major reconditioning systems
510
Table 1 (continued)
511
Table 1 (continued)
512
complete re-use system (such as non-overflow ponds or
many aquarium tanks), there is a continuous discharge of 4.0 O- saturation oxygan laval //
Ot
- initial oxygan laval
jfy//
water from fish rearing systems. This water often will
3.0 Tamparature 20 *C
require some form of (post) treatment after use and prior to I
3456810
' '
aerationbecomes increasingly costly. Aeration to over 95% moval, while sedimentation the 'size-density factor con-
in
seldom can be justified, (b) Excessive aeration tends to trols. Thus, organic solids, especially those of small size or
modify water temperatures to a point matching air tempera- of colloidal nature, may not be removed by sedimentation.
tures. This may or may not be considered desirable, (c) Solids can be removed on a continuous basis in sedimen-
Aeration methods which tend to expose water surfaces to tation; thus no backwashing process is required.
air at minimum pressures also tend to release gases in Sedimentation can be accomplished by detention, such
excess of saturation. Bubbles under pressure tend to entrain as in open clarifiers, channels and lagoons. A 1 h retention
gases to levels in excess of saturation, (d) As water becomes clarifier used for raceway effluent typical of a salmon id
increasingly contaminated with organic solids, as may hatchery with a 10-pass system, is reported to remove 70%
occur in re-use systems, its oxygen absorption capacity is of the solids and 20% of the ammonia (Kramer, Chin and
reduced. This effect is magnified in some aeration devices in Mayo, Inc., 1972).
which slimes form that reduce the turbulent actions which
aid aeration. 2.3.4 Centrifugal concentrators. A centrifugal wastewater
concentrator, originally designed for stormwater treatment,
2.3.2 Mechanicalfiltration. This term as used here refers to has been tested for post-treatment in fish hatcheries. It is
a process where solids are 'mechanically' filtered from the apparent that this sytem also has application in recondition-
water by media such as sand, finely broken oyster shell, ing treatment systems. Kramer, Chin and Mayo, Inc.
diatomaceous earth, or graded media (reverse bed). Other (1974) tested such a unit in co-operation with several
changes, such as pH modification or biological filtration, private and governmental agencies and found it to be
may take place in the water supply during mechanical relatively effective in removing suspended solids (6 l%)and
filtration. nitrates (48%). Reported ammonia removal was approxi-
The need to be cleaned periodically by backwashing or mately 25%, though some difficulty was encountered in the
some form of agitation is a feature of any mechanical measurement. This device also provided an effective
filtration process. In hatchery systems, this sometimes is method of increasing dissolved oxygen. Operation of this
made difficult by the 'matting'. unit required about 10ft (3 m) of hydraulic head.
Most mechanical filtration systems can reduce organic
(settleable and colloidal) and inorganic solids significantly, 2.3.5 Biological filtration. Biological filtration is a process
but little reduction in dissolved materials will be realized. which changes water quality primarily by changing sub-
It has been demonstrated in a 10-pass reconditioning stances in the water to other forms that are either less
system for salmonids that sand filters (No. 30 sand) operat- noxious than the original or can be more easily removed by
2 2
ing at 5 gal/min/ft (3-3 1/sec/m ) have the capability of other processes.
removing 70-90% of the suspended solids in water leaving In fish rearing and water -reconditioning systems, pri-
a raceway, as well as 15% of the ammonia (range 2-35%) mary concern is with nitrifying processes that reduce levels
(Kramer, Chin and Mayo, Inc., 1973). of certain metabolic by-products. The paths whereby these
513
by-products (NH } , NO 3, and/or PO 4 ) are reduced or and the system. Plastic media systems, with the hydraulic
2 2
changed in a biological filter are illustrated by the following loadings necessary (1-5 gal/min/ft or 0-65-3-3 1/sec/m )
equations: in intensive-culture systems for salmonids, reduce ammo-
nia in the following amounts in a single pass through the
N " rM moM8
filter (Kramer, Chin and Mayo, Inc., 1972).
2NH 3 + 3-50 2 '2N0 2 Retention time (min) Reduction (%)
12 20
30 48
Demtrification vt VT _ 38 60
N 2O
..
) >-N 2 ,
'yntheg " 2.3.6 Nitrifying micro-colonies. Similar in function to the
NH + CH,O + O, eel
3
> BIO-MASS
above would be the
(C 2 H 6 N02 )
nitrifying biological filters described
(Remaining NO 3 and NH 3 will remain as NO 3 or will be maintain the necessary nitrifying biomass within a fish-
culture system in the form of free-floating micro-colonies.
combined as shown below or into a salt inorganic)
This concept has not been demonstrated on a major scale,
NH 3
but it does suggest an appropriate direction for research.
photosynthesis
+ H 2 O + PO 4 + CO 2 + light organic + O2 2.3.7 Ion exchange. Various chemical means for removing
N0 3 ammonia from fish rearing systems have been evaluated.
NH + Mg + PO 4
3
*
Mg(NH 4 )PO 4 One of these, ion exchange, has shown special promise with
use of the naturally occurring substance, clinoptilolite.
(insoluble)
+ Its use involves passing water through a clinoptilolite
N (heavy metal ion) + n NH; *
M(NH 4 )n+ filter bed to remove ammonia. A brine solution is then used
(insoluble ion) for the regeneration of the filter bed. Kramer, Chin and
Of Mayo, Inc. ( 1973) reported 98% removal in such a system
special significance in salmonid culture is the first
2
5. Nitrite development during the system activation Simple Reconditioning System: This is one where the
Fig
514
processes used add something only to water leaving the (a) Given the following system (Fig. 9) of water use for
rearing units, so as to allow its re-use in other rearing units. fish rearing,the concentrations of metabolic by-product at
Typically, such a process would be aeration and the number the rearing unit outlet is M/Q, with being the input of aM
of times water may be re-used is one to five times. One such metabolic by-product and being the flow. Q
system is illustrated in Fig. 3. (b) Given a reconditioning system where the treatment
6 illustrates another such simple reconditioning
Fig. process removes (or modifies) the metabolic by-products,
system. (Q is water flow rate with arbitrary, dimensionable the concentration of metabolic by-products at the rearing
values shown.) Based upon the values shown this system unit outlet is C x M/Q,
would be defined as a three-pass (or 67% re-use) system. where C=
Complex (Open) Reconditioning System: With this 1
-R + RE
type, water flows into the system continuously and nor- and R= Portion of raceway water supply being
mally is subjected to two or more processes that extend its re-used.
use from 5 to 50 times by reducing concentrations of and E= the efficiency of the treatment unit in
certain metabolic by-products. Fig. 7 provides an example removing or modifying a given meta-
operating as a five-pass (or 80% re-use) system. bolic by-product.
Complex (Closed) Reconditioning System: This is simi- 2.4.3 Analysis examples. Simplified examples of the analy-
lar tothe 'open' system except, by the definition proposed sis of the four systems just described are provided in Table
M
1
TABLE II
A comparison of inflow rates, reconditioning efficiencies and calculated metabolite concentration for given Q and M values
515
____ SALMON TROUT
oxygen consumption during filtration.
Hirayama (1966) conducted a study to determine the
i rate of pollution of water by fish and the possible number
and weight of fish kept in an aquarium. The possible
relationships between fish by weight, feeding rate, rate of
pollution, filter bed volume, filter hydraulic rate, and the
size of sand were proposed based upon his test results.
Giudice (1966) described a recirculating water system
built for spawning and hatching at the fish farming experi-
mental station in Stuttgart, Arkansas. The capacity of the
unitwas 30 gal/min (1-9 I/sec). It consisted of two 1 000
Watt flexible immersion heaters, a centrifugal pump, a
thermostat temperature controller, and three filters. Aera-
Fig JO. Required flow volume (at elevation1 300 ft, dissolved tion was incidental as the water circulated. The author
oxygen concentration 95 percent saturated, minimum discharge indicated that the system was satisfactory for flathead
oxygen content 5.0mg/l or more)
catfish fingerlings.
McCrimmon and Berst (1966) installed a semi-portable
3.3 Water quality/economic criteria recirculating system at the University of Guelph, at On-
It is not always clear where reconditioning is made tario, Canada, to rear young rainbow trout. The basic
necessary by the relationship between water quality and components of the unit included a centrifugal pump (capa-
economics. Examples of situations where water recondi- city 20 gal/min or 1-26 I/sec), a sand filter, temperature
tioning is indicated, although ample water is available, are control unit, an activated charcoal filter and an air compres-
where: (a) Pretreatment is needed to remove pathogens and sor. After a 120 day study period, these authors indicated
the unit cost of reconditioning treatment is less than the unit that the system had proved to be satisfactory for the
cost of pretreatment. (b) Heating is needed to meet pro- laboratory production of rainbow trout. However, the load-
gramme growth goals, such as described by Lewis (1973), ing rate of their study was only of the order of 1-26 Ib of
and a reconditioning system would reduce energy needs fish/gal/min (9-5 kg/l/sec).
enough to offset added capital cost, (c) Post-treatment is a Parisot (1967) described a seawater re-use system for
requirement for pollution control and unit reconditioning laboratory test purposes. The filter bed (in addition to other
cost is than unit post-treatment cost.
less components, such as the heat exchanger, pump, etc) con-
The specific answer as to what system best meets the sisted of a water distribution tray, 2 inches (51 mm) of
quality/economic criteria is a function of the specific site, crushed oyster shells, 2 inches (5 1 mm
) of activated char-
the proposed programme and the biological criteria used. coal, 4 inches (102 mm) of coarse sand, 6 inches (152 mm)
Systems applied to specific situations are described else- of gravel (1 inch or 25mm diameter) and 10 inches
where in this discussion. (254 mm) of rock (2 inch or 5 1 mm
diameter). The filter
was backwashed periodically.
Chu and Greene (1967) described a bio-filter used for
4 Literature review removing wastes from fish tanks for re-use. The bio-filter
Water reconditioning for fish propagation can be classified system consisted of a 39 cm diameter bucket with a perfo-
into two categories natural and artificial. A natural recon- rated bottom filled 35 cm deep with washed gravel of 0-5-
ditioning system can be a stream or lake. Emphasis in this 5 cm in diameter. A 2 cm layer of activated charcoal was
discussion, however, is on artificial systems such as those spread on top of the gravel with a flow rate of 6 1/h. An air-
man builds for various fish cultural uses. Following is a lift pump was used for pumping water from three settling
516
Kramer, Chin and Mayo, Inc. (1968) compared a 90% sions of this study are repeated below (in slightly abbrevi-
re-use recirculating-system hatchery to a single-pass hatch- ated form) to provide information on the criteria developed
ery in terms of capital cost and heating required to achieve and to indicate the content of the study.
equivalent production at a particular site in Michigan State, (a) In order to develop better treatment schemes for
and concluded that neither system has a clear cost hatchery water reconditioning and pollution abatement,
advantage. various water-treatment methods have been studied. Meth-
Anon. (1968) reports that Dr. Gerhard Grunseid of ods studied included an activated-sludge process, extended
Austria has raised trout fry and fingerlings in an indoor aeration,submerged filter and trickling filter. Formed plas-
circulating water system. No large-scale application is ticmedia (3} inches or 90 mm in diameter ) were used in the
indicated in the brief note. submerged and trickling filter studies. All are sufficient for
Murphy and Upper (1970) conducted a study on a pollution abatement based upon the present policy. How-
treatment system (including three trickling filters filled with ever, in terms of water reconditioning and recycling for
1, 2 and 4 ft (0-3, 0-6 and 1-2 m) of shale or rocks) for salmonid fish propagation, filter systems are more reliable.
channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) culture. These au- (b) The efficiency of nitrification in a filter was found to
thors, as a result of their study, suggested the following be mainly a function of media retention time and solids
design criteria for a filter: filled 4 ft ( 1 -2 m) deep with 1/2 level, providing the water temperature and pH were main-
inch (13 mm) rock with a hydraulic loading of 3 gal/min/ tained within acceptable ranges. The efficiency is propor-
ft
2 2 2
(2 l/sec/m )and 2 ft (0- 19
2
m
) of filter area required to tional to the media retention time. A retention time of 1 5
hatchery water-reconditioning, using an upflow filter ( 10} surface/day ) by a filter is approximately the same, disre-
inch or 267mm diameter x 12 inch or 305 height) mm garding the size of media or whether the media are sub-
and a horizontal filter similar to that used at the St. Paul merged or not, providing the same operating conditions are
Hatchery. The filters, filled with 3/4 inch diameter ( 1 9 ) mm maintained.
gravel,removed ammonia ranging from 150 to 200 mg (e) The acceptable maximum hydraulic loading of a filter
NH,-N/ft Vh (530 to 707 mg/100 1/h) at a temperature of can be as high as 2-5 gal/min/ft 2 or 1 7 1/sec/m 2 (which is
68F (20C and a hydraulic loading rate of 9-5-42-5 bed 2-5 times higher than the previous criteria used at Dwor
volumes/h compared with Burrows and Combs' system of shak ) when the depth of the filter bed is 4 ft ( 1 2 m ) or more.
2 bed volumes/h. Unfortunately, the pumping facilities for (f) The maximum ammonia loading rate was found to be
the large-scale, horizontal filter became inoperable right 20 x 10' 5 Ib NH 4
2
-N/day/ft or 1
2
g/day/m (media specific
after the system was started. As a result, the study on the surface area). When the ammonia loading rate exceeded
horizontal filter system was not carried out. this limit, the nitrification efficiency dropped dramatically
Anon. (1971) reports that Aqua-Systems, Inc. has de- due to the presence of high organic levels which support
veloped a water re-use system for the cultivation of channel heterotrophic bacteria growth.
catfishon a commercial basis, using a pre-filter, a bio-filter (g) A settling basin with a retention time of greater than
and aeration. 1 5 min was found to be sufficient for removing most of the
Anon. (1970) reports a laboratory-scale recirculating settleable solids from water before it enters the filter.
system used at the Unilever Research Laboratory for Dover Aeration may or may not be required, depending
(/z)
sole (Solea solea). The system involves 95% re-use through upon whether the filter media are submerged or not. (No
30 cm of mussel shells and 1 20 cm of crumbled granite. additional aeration is required if an elevated trickling filter
Heating, aeration and ultraviolet sterilization are also used. is used.) The aeration, required when a submerged filter is
Kramer, Chin and Mayo, Inc. (1972) prepared, for the used, may be accomplished by installing an aeration basin
3
Walla Walla (Washington) District Corps of Engineers, a of 10 min retention time with an air supply rate of 0-3 ft
study for the development offish hatchery water-treatment air/gal (0-008 mV3-78 1) water.
systems. This study, conducted at the Federal hatchery in (/) Whether or not a buffering
facility is required de-
Bozeman, Montana, evaluated four different 50 gal/min pends upon water quality. Buffering is not required when
(3-15 I/sec) pilot systems which were constructed on the the alkalinity of the water is higher than 100mg/l as
grounds, and developed design criteria for the development CaCO 3 Buffering, when required, can be accomplished by
.
of major units. These criteria were used in the development placing crushed limestone or oyster shells in the aeration
of a number of systems constructed since that time, some of chamber or the filter bed.
(/) Thin-bed filters are not recommended
which are described in the next section of this report. This because of a
study was directed both at reconditioning treatment and possible hydraulic short-circuiting and algal growth on the
post-treatment, and placed some emphasis on pollution surface (which reduces the effective surface area for
control (Liao, 1970 and 1972). The summary and conclu- nitrification).
517
(k) Because of the development of nitrite build-up during the same system would cost about 40% more.
the early stages of a new water-reconditioning system, a
gradual increase of fish load is recommended in order to
avoid fish mortality due to nitrite toxicity. The start-up time 5 The mqjor reconditioning systems in service
for a reconditioning system is dependent upon water tem- The technology described in a previous section of this
perature. With the normal temperature ranges used in report has, in part, been applied to a number of major
salmonid rearing, the start-up time for a new facility may be reconditioning systems which have been constructed in
one to two months. Start-up with chemical feed may be North America. Table I describes these systems in detail
desirable where advance preparation is necessary. (Source: phone inventory and Kramer, Chin and Mayo,
Mayo (1972) reported on system costs at a large hatch- Inc. study files).
ery at Warm Springs, Oregon. There the reconditioning Set out below is a summary tabulation of these systems.
system had an estimated construction cost equal to approx-
imately 20% of the hatchery cost or about US$ 40/gal/min.
Crocker (1972) reported for complex re-use systems 6 Economics
(open) a capital cost in the range of US$
50-80/gal/min. The cost of a water-reconditioning system in a large salmo-
Bardach, Ryther and McLarney (1972) described a nid hatchery is significant. Typically, 20% of the capital
broad range of reconditioning systems. cost of a facility based upon complex water reconditioning
Kramer, Chin and Mayo, Inc. (1972) developed a theo- is cost related to the reconditioning filter, pumps and
retical analysisbase for complex systems, combining mech- aeration devices. This, however, is not an accurate measure
anical processes, a lake and a groundwater system for the of the economics of reconditioning systems and, in fact, no
State of Michigan. general statement can be made. The question is entirely site-
Combs (in US Army Corps
of Engineers, Walla Walla specific and, on occasions, is not even a question that is
Dist., 1974) reported on research at the Abernathy, Wash- discussed. Where a hatchery must produce a given number
ington Federal hatchery in three rock-and-oyster bio-filters offish and where the available water supply is inadequate to
operating under normal hatchery conditions. At loads that raise these fish on a single-pass basis, it is inevitable that
simulate fully-loaded salmon hatchery operating condi- reconditioning be imposed. Thus, the primary question is:
tions, the filters were able to maintain suitable water treat- what is the most economical reconditioning system? This
ment conditions at 90-95% re-use. too has answers as varied as the programmes that hatcher-
Serfling, Van Olst and Ford (1974) reported on a recir- ies are based upon or as the sites that hatcheries are built
culating culture system for larval American lobsters (Hom- upon.
arus americanus). This system is based upon a sand filter, a One
study for the State of Missouri (Kramer, Chin and
charcoal filter and direct heating. The circulating rate is Mayo, 1973), however, provided an interesting eco-
Inc.
10 1/min. This unit can be operated as a closed or open nomic comparison. Basically, the study said this: Tor a
system. given propagation programme it would be more expensive
Risa and Skjervold (1975) reported on a prototype for the State of Missouri to construct two hatcheries, each
recirculating system which included sedimentation fol- utilizing water supplies suitable for single-pass rearing,
lowed by limestone bio-filters. Preliminary conclusions than it would be to select one of these two sites and build a
were that growth and viability of Atlantic salmon (Salmo hatchery suitable for the full programme, using recondi-
salar) smolts were satisfactory in that system. tioning techniques'.
Gaines (1975) reported on a proposed reconditioning
system which would use breakpoint chlorination followed
by dechlorination for ammonia removal. This 10 000 gal/ 7 Research needs
min or 37 860 1/min system (for intensive culture of warm- In the description of major existing reconditioning systems
water fish species) would cost US S 800 000 in capital cost in North America (Table I) it is clear that there is no
and US$ 70 000/year to operate. Ion exchange studied for common agreement as to the best recirculation system for
1
Estimated
518
aquaculture facilities. It is also clear that some of the Often the most useful research that can be conducted is
systems are partial or total failures. Thus, it seems to compare the designer's assumptions with the actual
reasonable to expect that there are still a significant number performance of a facility after it has been constructed.
of design problems to be solved. These design problems can Of specific interest to a designer would be the effect of
be solved either by reference to research on similar water- filter-bed geometry, void ratios and loadings. At the same
treatment applications or by further research. time, it would be useful to have more detailed studies of
Undeniably, some of the past research in water recondi- bacterial populations in the biological filter systems.
1
of sanitary and industrial engineering could have been 7.4 Sludge removal and disposal
better utilized by the aquaculture researcher. However, Many of the devices used for removing solids from recondi-
such engineering technology is not always applicable. An tioning systems follow the pattern of sanitary engineering
appropriate point to consider is that a fish's entire environ devices. This may or may not be appropriate, but the
ment is water and, unlike man, he cannot escape a brief available devices certainly should be tested for
7. Disease control
1 7.5 Water chemistry and nitrification
7.1.1 Incoming water supply. In unprotected water sup- There is a wide variation in nitrification rates at the ammo-
plies, often it is necessary to sterilize the water to eliminate nia concentrations and temperatures typically found in
pathogens harmful to fish. Major reconditioning systems coldwater hatcheries. This variation may be related to pH
currently utilize ultraviolet sterilization but such systems and the other elements of water chemistry. Tables have
have, on occasions, not proved satisfactory. Ozonization been prepared, suggesting the toxic levels of ammonia (both
has been suggested as a system which would provide both in its ionized and un-ionized form). These are not entirely
pathogen control on contact and toxic residual not found in consistent and a body of rational data based upon long-term
ultraviolet methods. It has been suggested that ozonization bioassays would be desirable.
would be especially effective in virus control.
7.6 Aeration
7.1.2 Internal to the system. Even where sterilization is Numerous methods of aeration are used in fish hatcheries
provided for the incoming water supply, it is not uncom- (both in reconditioning and single-pass systems), /^aspira-
mon for diseases to be found in fish populations within a tors, surface aerators, bubblers and other devices. Gener-
recirculating system. Thus, there is a need for methods that ally, the design of these devices has come from sanitary
will allow the fish diseases to be treated within a system engineering technology, where the liquidwas typically low
without reducing the system's effectiveness. Methods have in or entirely deficient of oxygen. It would be desirable to
been studied and a number have been used intuitively by study other methods for the aeration of water with rela-
hatchery operators with varying levels of success. There is a tively high values of dissolved oxygen. Approaches that
need for a rational comparison of various methods under have been suggested include: (/) insertion of pure oxygen
similar conditions, with a measurement of the effects upon and (//) high pressure injection of air at pump inlets.
reconditioning systems themselves.
7.7 Nitrification of ammonia
7.2 Monitoring Nitrification of ammonia through biological methods has
Water-reconditioning systems, even where the recondition- been investigated, and is being applied in many facilities.
ing is not especially effective, generally operate at relatively Other methods have been suggested, including the oxida-
low concentrations of ammonia and nitrates, but the level tion of ammonia directly through the use of ozone and/or
variations are important. Most simple monitoring methods catalytic devices. These deserve further investigation.
that have been devised are more appropriate to sanitary Ion exchange for nitrification has been suggested and to a
engineering, where the concentrations are higher. There is a degree quantified. It also deserves further study.
need for a device that will allow continuous monitoring by
the hatchery operator at the lower concentrations. 7.8 Biological filter media
There a considerable variation in the material and geome-
is
7.3 Operating data try of media now being used for biological filters. They
There is a wide variation of operating units in both cold- range from sand to rock, to plastic rings and styrofoam
and warmwater aquaculture facilities throughout the world. beads. There is a need, however, for investigation in this
The data accumulated by researchers on: (/) the production area, especially if it relates not just to the character of the
of metabolites and (//') the effectiveness of reconditioning media but also to the character of the basic water supply.
systems are gathered from pilot units and are of doubtful
validity for full-size operating units. A useful element of 7.9 Pond cleaning devices
research would be the publication (in some consistent Numerous designers have suggested that water-recondi-
format), of operating data from a number of hatcheries tioning systems that have rearing units that allow solids to
operating under various conditions of load, water supply, settle out (in the rearing unit) may provide significant
need and climatic conditions. To allow this, it would be economies by the elimination of sedimentation chambers.
desirable that new hatcheries have flow-measuring devices These require an economical means of cleaning the ponds
and sampling taps built at appropriate points. which is not detrimental to fish. Although informal research
519
is being undertaken by many hatcheries, there seems to be 1964 bactena aquarium with circulating system 1 Changes of the
in
conserve energy in the modification of water temperature. KRAMER, CHIN & MAYO, Inc. A comprehensive plan for the anadro-
There is a need for information, if not research, for ways to 1968 mous fish hatchery program for the State of Michigan. Volume
1 General considerations and site selection Seattle, KCM,
reduce the energy required for achieving the desired tem- 182 p.
perature modification. This might include solar ponds, KRAMER, CHIN & MAYO, INC. A study of the pollutional effects of
1969 salmomd hatcheries Seattle, KCM, 109 p.
better heat exchangers, pond covers and similar devices.
KRAMER, CHIN & MAYO, INC. A study for development of hsh hatchery
1972 water treatment systems Seattle, KCM, 127 p
KRAMER, CHIN &
MAYO, INC. An updated program statement for the
1972a proposed Michigan State warm water fish hatchery at Pontiac,
8 Prospects
Michigan, Seattle, KCM, 86 p.
The major prospects for the use of water reconditioning for KRAMER, CHIN &
MAYO, INC. A study on buffering requirements for
1
1972b Bonneville fish hatchery water reconditioning system. Seattle,
aquaculture (a) hatcheries producing migrant sal-
lie in :
KCM, 112 p
monids for ocean-ranching ventures: (b) hatcheries produc- KRAMFR, CHIN & MAYO, INC Shepherd of the Hills (Missouri) trout
ing large quantities of high-quality fingerlings for sale to 1973 hatchery conceptual plan report Seattle, KCM, 105 p
fish farmers: (c) the expansion of existing hatcheries with
KRAMER, CHIN &
MAYO, INC Evaluation of Baker sand filtei and
1973a clinoptilolite bed for hatchery water reconditioning Seattle,
good quality, but limited water supplies. This applies es- KCM, 20 p
pecially to hatcheries well located in relation to major KRAMER, CHIN &
MAYO, INC Evaluation of Sweco centrifugal waste-
1974 water concentrator for hatchery effluent treatment Seattle,
markets or to good ocean-ranching planting sites. KCM, 27 p
Much of the trout and catfish production of North KRAMER, CHIN &
MAYO, INC. Process design program statement,
1974a pmposed Bodega Aquaculture Facility, University of Cali-
America is based upon water supplies suitable for high-
fornia, design report Seattle, 40 p KCM,
production, low-cost fish rearing. It is these hatcheries that KRAMER, CHIN & MAYO, INC Process
design program statement,
establish the economic base against which other facilities 1974b proposed Bodega Aquaculture Facility, University of Cali-
fornia, supplemental report site data, bioengineenng critei la
must compete. It seems unlikely in the near future that
Seattle, KCM, 57 p
production in direct competition with these existing facili- LEWIS, E R. Production management through temperature contiol
ties can be sustained on the basis of complex reconditioning 1973 Paper presented to the Northeast Fish and Wildlife Conference,
Mount Snow, Vermont, June 1973
systems. LIAO, P B Pollutional potential of salmomd fish hatchenes Water
,
of Asia and parts of Europe. This should be understood in considering 1971 210-5
his views of the prospects for water reconditioning (R D. Mayo) LIAO, P B &
MAYO, R D. Salmomd hatchery water reuse systems
1972 Aquaculture, 1. 317 35
LIAO, P B &
MAYO, R D Intensified fish culture combining water
1974 reconditioning with pollution abatement. Aquaculture, 3 (1)
61-85
MAYO, R D Comments on the cost of water reconditioning systems
1972 for large hatchenes Traverse City, Michigan, Great Lakes
1964 hatchery-reared salmonids Res Rep. Bur Sport Fish Wildl., MtADE, T L Letter to Walla Walla District, U S Army Corps of
(66). 12 p. 1975 Engineers, 13 February 1975
BURROWS, R. E. &
COMBS, B D Controlled environments for salmon MURPHY, J P. &
LIPPER, R I BOD
production of channel catfish
1968 propagation Prog Fish-Cult 30(3) 13-36 , 1970 Prog Fish-Cult 32 (4) 195-8 ,
1967 remove wastes from fish tanks. Proc Annu Con/ Southeast 1967 29(3) 133-9
Assoc. Game Fish Comrn 20 446-57 .
RISA, S & SKJERVOLD, H Water re-use system foi smolt production
CROCKER, M. C. Economics of water reuse systems. Great Lakes 1975 Aquaculture, 6 (2) 191 5
1972 Fishery Biology-Engineering Workshop, Traverse City, Michi- SERFLING, S. A., VAN OLST, J C & FORD, R F. A recirculating culture
gan, October 1972 1 974
system for larvae of the American lobster, Homarus americanus
GAINES, R. J. Physical chemical treatment in hatchery reuse systems Aquaculture, 3 (3) 303-9
1975 Trans. Northeast Soc. Conserv. Eng., 1975- 78-92 SMITH, C. t. Effects of nitrite on the blood and tissues of salmon and
GIGGBR, R. P. Jr. &
SPEECE, R. E. Treatment of fish hatchery effluent 1971 trout. Annu. Proc. Northwest Fish Cult. Conf., 22 89
1970 for recycle. Las Cruces, N.M., New Mexico State University, SOUSA, R J., MEADE, T L &
WOLKE, R E. Reduction of ammonia
119 p. 1974 toxicity by salinity and pH manipulation Proc Annu. Work-
GIUDICE, J. J. An inexpensive recirculating water system. Prog Fish- shop, World Mancult Soc., 5: 343
Water reuse
1966 CWr.,28(l).28 U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers, Walla Walla District,
HIRAYAMA, K. Studies on water control by filtration through sand bed 1974 systems for fish hatcheries; workshop proceedings Seattle,
1965 in a marine aquarium with closed circulating system. 1 Oxygen KCM, 119 p.
consumption during filtration as an index in evaluating the WILLIAMS, W. G. The occurrence of nitrite toxicity in water reuse
degree of purification of breeding water. Bull. Jap. Soc. Sci. 1971 systems. Proc. Annu. Northwest Fish Cult Con/., 22: 80 2
Fish., 31 (12): 977-82 ANON. Trout breeding in circulating water system FAO Fish Cult
HIRAYAMA, K. Studies on water control by filtration through sand bed 1968 Bull., 1/1): 4
1966 in a marine aquarium with closed circulating system. 4. Rate of ANON. Dover sole culture in recirculated water. FAO Fish Cult. Bull.,
pollution of water by fish and the possible number and weight 1970 2 (2): 8
offish kept in an aquarium. Bull. Jap. Soc. Sci. Fish ,32(1)- 2(K7 ANON. Aquaculture development. United States. FAO Aquacult. Bull.,
KAWAI, A., YOSHIDA, Y. &
KIMATA, M. Biochemical studies on the 1971 3 (2): 10
520
A Model Closed System for Aquaculture R. A. Neal and C. R. Mock
1
Incorporating the Recycling of Wastes
Abstract functional models in which parameters can be controlled
Much aquacultural research is conducted without the use of appropriate and supplemental inputs evaluated effectively. The typical
model systems. Models of aquaculture systems can be valuable aids in
measuring the value of supplemental inputs planned to increase produc- outdoor pond is not entirely satisfactory as a model because
tion per unit of area. The complex interactions occurring among the factors influencing production (eg, weather, disease, preda-
many factors influencing production are particularly difficult to evaluate
without adequate control. An intensively regulated model can be used to
tion, competition and the general ecology of the pond)
obtain necessary control. frequently cannot be controlled. The effects of uncontrolled
An example of a model closed system is discussed and observations variables interacting with the experimental variables com-
are made regarding those inputs to the system which have been most
valuable for the high-density culture of penaeid shrimp plicate the interpretation of results, sometimes to an extent
It is hoped that this paper will encourage: (/) the use of models to that actual relationships between the organism and its
explore the benefit of environmental control in aquaculture; (//') defini- environment cannot be determined.
tion of various inputs and environmental parameters by researchers so
that results can be used by others; and (//'/') investigation of innovative In addition to the value of model systems in evaluating
and sophisticated approaches to environmental control for aquaculture. inputs and understanding the complex interactions among
Un modele various inputs, models are useful in providing a framework
d'aquaculture en systeme clos incorporant le recyclage des
effluents for conceptualizing a system and planning experimenta-
Resume An
tion. intensively regulated model can provide many
Une bonne partie des recherches aquicoles est effectuee sans recours a
des modeles de systemes appropries. Les modeles de systemes aquicoles man-
clues to the correct management of less intensively
peuvent constituer d'utiles auxiliaires pour mesurer la valeur des inputs aged systems. The increased use of model aquaculture
supplementaires auxquels il est prevu de recounr pour accroitre la
systems in teaching and demonstration situations should be
production par unite de surface. Les interactions complexes qui inter
viennent entre les nombreux facteurs dont depend la production sont encouraged.
particuheremcnt difficiles a evaluer sans temoin adequat. L'on peut
utihser un modele ngoureusement controle pour obtenir le temoin
necessaire.
L/auteur examine un modele de systeme clos, et communique des 2 Characteristics of a model aquaculture system
observations concernant les inputs ajoutes au systeme qui se sont reveles Sinceman has had more experience with terrestrial animals
les plus utiles pour 1'elevage en forte densitc de crevettes peneides.
L'on espere que ce document encouragera: (i) 1'emploi de modeles than with aquatic animals, it is logical for him to look at the
pour etudier les avantagcs du controle de renvironnement dans most successful animal husbandry systems to
terrestrial
1'aquaculture; (// ) la definition de divers inputs et parametres ecologiques
predict the kinds of controls which will be economical in
par les chercheurs de maniere que leurs resultats soient utilisables par
d'autres; et (//'/') 1'etude de methodes novatnces et modernes applicables aquaculture. The chicken industry has developed highly
au controle de renvironnement dans Faquaculture. controlled systems with consequent production of a low-
Modelo de sistema cerrado para acuicultura, con reciclaje de desechos priced product. Many of the controls successfully and
Extracto economically exercised in the chicken industry are usually
Son muchas las investigaciones acuicolas que se reahzan sin emplear not exercised by aquaculturists. Some examples of these
modelos adecuados Los modelos de sistemas de explotacion acuicola
are: elimination of predation, effective treatment of disease,
pueden constituir una ayuda valiosa para medir el valor de los insumos
suplementarios que tienen por pbjeto aumentar la produccion por unidad breeding of genetically superior strains, and complete con-
de superficie. Especialmente dificil es evaluar, sin un control adecuado,
trol of food intake.
las complejas interacciones que se producen entre los muchos factores
que mfluyen en la produccion. Para lograr el control necesario puede Functional experimental models should be designed so
utihzarse un modelo regulado intensivamente. that measurements can be made of the effects of varying
Se examma un eiemplo de modelo de sistema cerrado y se hacen
levels of inputs of several types. The interactions or syner-
algunas observaciones sobre los insumos al sistema que se ban demos-
trado mas utiles para el cultivo de camarones peneidos en grandes of these inputs may also occur and need to be
gistic effects
densidades. understood. Although any single model may not be ade-
Se espera que este documento fomente: (/) el empleo de modelos para
explorar los benericios del control del medio ambiente en la acuicultura; quate to evaluate the effects of all inputs, a classification of
(//) la definicion de los diversos insumos y de los parametros ambientales inputs is listed below as a guide to the design of suitable
por parte de los investigadores, de modo que sus resultados puedan ser models.
aprovechados por otros; y (///) el estudio de enfoques mnovadores y
perfeccionados del problema del control del medio ambiente para la (a) Stocking: (/) Density (//') Variety and strain (///)
acuicultura.
Species combinations
(b) Feeding: (/) Presentation of prepared feed -Type
-
Amount (ii) Growth of natural foods (///) Fertilization to
1 Introduction promote plant and animal growth
In most aquacultural activities some costs are related to (c) Aeration
space requirements. Consequently, a significant proportion (d) Water circulation
of aquacultural research and development is aimed at in- (e) Temperature control
creasing the production per unit of area. In fact, a com- (/) Chemical control: (/) Pesticides (ii) Herbicides (Hi)
monly used measure of success is a statement of the Disease treatment
production per unit area. (#) Labour requirements
Unfortunately, much of the research directed toward (h) Waste removal: (/) Water exchange (//) Ecological
refinement of culture systems to improve production has recycling (//7) Filtration
been trial-and-error testing of various inputs under poorly Although not complete, this list of inputs serves to
controlled conditions. There has been a notable absence of demonstrate the types of controls a researcher may wish to
evaluate as well as the complexity of interactions which
[
A contribution of the National Marine Fisheries Service, Gulf Coastal
Fisheries Center, Galveston Laboratory, 4700 Avenue U, Galveston, may occur. The researcher's ability to control parameters in
Texas 77550, USA. a model system distinguishes the model from other systems
521
in which the scientist can only monitor changes. As one In Texas, winter temperatures are too low for penaeid
learns to control research systems, a degree of standardiza- shrimp, therefore, the water is heated to maintain suitable
tion will be possible and research results from one location temperatures year round. A
closed system is used rather
will have comparative value in other situations. than exchanging water to avoid unnecessary heat loss.
As the ability to measure and control these inputs im- Temperature control is accomplished through shading,
proves in a model, so the ability to evaluate individual solar heating and with a gas-heated heat exchanger during
inputs is greatly enhanced. Because the costs of the various cold weather. Water temperatures have been maintained
inputs vary greatly among geographical locations, the capa- within a range of about 4C
when this system was function-
bility of measuring the value of these inputs in each location ing properly.
is needed. No chemical control has been used
in the system al-
though size
(43,000
its 1) and the fact that no water is
exchanged would enhance evaluation of chemical control
3 Example of a model closed system techniques.
Because of the expense of land and labour in the United Labour requirements, which can be measured for any
States, efforts have been made at the Gulf Coastal Fisheries system, are related to the levels of control exercised, the
Center in Galveston, Texas, to evaluate a carefully con- degree of automation, and the design of the model. The
trolled closed raceway system. Initial models of the system evaluation of labour input is not necessarily simplified by
were described by Mock, Neal and Salser (1973). the use of a model system.
The system has evolved as techniques for the control of The closed system has the advantage of producing no
environmental conditions and waste removal have im- effluent, but does require elaborate waste treatment to
it
proved. In most cases existing water treatment technology maintain suitable water quality at high stocking levels. For
has been modified only slightly for the special applications this purpose a variety of physical and biological filters have
of marine aquaculture (Mock, Ross and Salser, 1975; been tested. Those used in the present model are: an
Mahler, Groh and Hodges, 1975). A recent model is a inclined plate separator for removal of particulate wastes; a
portable tank lined with plastic with a floating centre wall protein skimmer; and a biodisk filter for removal of dis-
which supports airlift pumps. The detailed techniques will solved wastes (Mock and Neal, 1975). One factor consid-
not be discussed in this paper since this information is ered in the selection of these filters was the ease of recovery
reported in Mock and Neal 1 9 7 5 the approaches taken and
;
of filtered wastes and biological growths, since these can be
the principles incorporated into this model to date are utilized.
outlined below. Although this model is still in the developmental stages,
A high level of control over the animals held in this the use of the system has helped evaluate various forms of
model is possible because the tank is completely drained environmental control.
between experiments and water is filtered when the system The beneficial effects of the following inputs have been
is filled. The system is closed and plastic tank covers are surprising: aeration, water circulation and waste removal
used virtually eliminating predators and competitors. by filtration. Waste removal by filtration has been difficult
A formulated pellet ration is fed at predetermined rates to measure and standardize, but Ross, Mock and Salser
to shrimp in this system. The rations (Zein-Eldin and (1975) have obtained preliminary data on the effects of
Corliss, 1979) have been shown to produce good growth in small filters on the chemical nature of filtered water.
high levels of oxygen to the cultured animals, the aeration constraints and seriously consider new and more progres-
also oxidizes the wastes rapidlyand prevents the formation sive approaches to aquaculture, there are many opportuni-
of anaerobic conditions throughout the system. ties to increase control of systems without excessive ex-
Water is created with this pump system by
circulation penses. For example, techniques for the efficient use of solar
attaching elbows to the upper end of each airlift. This energy and wind are being developed rapidly, and these
creates a current the direction of which can be adjusted by uses may involve relatively low costs. Circulation of water
changing the angle of the elbows. The tank design (rectan- within a pond or tank has niany desirable effects, but the
gular with rounded ends and a centre wall) was chosen uses of wind, tides or water power for this purpose have not
because of circulation patterns occurring in the tank. Suffi- been explored thoroughly. The use of aquacultural wastes
cient current velocities are maintained to keep paniculate to produce methane for fuel is another area which seems to
wastes suspended in the water column. offer considerable potential with present technology and
522
relatively low investment costs. Numerous other possibili- MOCK, C. R. &
NEAL, R. A. Engineering aspects of a closed system for
1975 aquaculture. Paper presented at the 10th European Symposium
ties exist for the economical application of engineering
on Marine Biology, Ostend, Belgium, September, 1975
technology to aquaculture. MOCK, C R., NEAL, R. A. & SALSER, B R. A closed raceway for the
If the full potential of the husbandry of aquatic plants 1973 culture of shrimp Proc Annu. Workshop World Maricult. Soc.,
4 247-59
and animals is to be realized we must be willing to develop a MOCK, C R., Ross, L R. & SALSER, B R Design and evaluation of
new technology which will offer means of controlling the 1975 waste removal systems for shrimp culture in closed raceways
organism cultured and its environment. The use of models Paper presented at the Sixth Annual Meeting of the World
Manculture Society, Seattle, Washington, January, 1975
will aid in this development. Ross, L R MOCK, C R. & SALSER, B. R Observations on water
,
Recirculated Water
A bstract be used as another cash crop for fish farmers who grow
Techniques were investigated for culture of rainbow trout (Salmo
wiirdnen) in a recirculated water system during the winter months in
channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) or some other warm-
south Georgia, USA. After a 129 day culture period, trout fingerhngs water species during the summer months. The object of this
stocked at densities of 7-8 m increased from an initial mean weight of
'
respectivement.
water was used only to fill the reservoir. The reservoir was
encircled with a diversion channel so very little surface
Experimento de crfa de trucha arco iris en aguas recirculadas
water got into it from rainfall. Water was electrically
Extracto
En el sur de Georgia (EE.UU.) se han estudiado algunas tecmcas para el pumped from the reservoir to the head of the raceway at the
cultivo de trucha arco iris (Salmo gairdneri} durante los meses de rate of 530 gal/min (2-OmVmin). The water flowed
invierno en un sistema de agua recirculada. Al cabo de un penodo de
cultivo de 29 dias, jaramugos de trucha de un peso medio inicial de
1
through raceways and back to the reservoir by gravity.
54- 5 sembrados a razon de 17-8 por m\ alcanzaron un peso medio de
g,
Each of the eight segments contained about 126m 3 of
253-9 g. La temperatura del agua oscilo entre 5 y 25C. Aunque la water.
caJidad del agua se deterioro algo, a medida que el agua fluia por los
canales, ningunp de los parametros medidos se considcro nocivo para los
peces. El estudio del crecimiento de las truchas revela que. utilizando
agua procedente de la superficie, es necesario, para que los peces
alcancen una talla explotable, que la temporada de cria dure al menos 2 Methods and materials
100 dias, con aguas a temperaturas entre 10 y 25C. Los indices medios Rainbow trout fingerlings from a private hatchery in north
de conversion de piensos y supervivencia fueron, respectivamente, 1-3:1
y 93%. Georgia were stocked in the raceways at the Coastal Plain
Experiment Station on 1 5 November 1972. The fingerlings
ranged from 152 to 203 mm
in length and had a mean
1 Description of the study area weight of 54-5 g. The stocked weight per raceway segment
The Coastal Plain Experiment Station, where this experi- was 125-9 kg or approximately 2 250 fish at a density of
3
ment was conducted, is located at Tifton, Georgia, about 17-8/m .
midway between 31 and 32N latitudes in the coastal A commercial floating trout feed approximately 6 in mm
plain region of the state. This area is a part of the temperate size was fed to the fish twice daily in equal amounts at
zone; surface water temperatures during the winter months 08-30 and 16-00 hours for 129 days. The amount of feed
are similar to those of cold climates during the summer given the fish was based on: water temperature, bi-monthly
months. For this reason, cultures of rainbow trout (Salmo sample weights offish, estimated conversion ratio of feed to
gairdneri} in the winter months in the temperate zone could fishand acceptance of the feed by the fish.
523
Feed treated with 4-5g active ingredient tetracycline the system, and ranged from 0-2 to 0-9 ppm on the first
hydrochloride per 45-4 kg fish was fed for 10 days post- raceway segment and from 0*8 to 1-7 ppm in the eighth
stocking as a precaution against bacterial infection from segment. This was expected since the metabolic wastes
stress. Dissolved oxygen, total hardness, pH and ammonia from the fish accumulated in the water as it flowed through
were measured weekly. the system. These data indicate that the carrying capacity of
A nylon seine 9- 1 m long with 12-7 mm
mesh and a this system was not reached; thus it should be possible to
1 2 m bag was first used to harvest most of the trout. Each grow greater densities offish before water quality degrada-
raceway segment had a 2- 4 mm
shear valve which was tion would become a limiting factor.
opened to drain the water and recover the fish which Survival of the trout was 93%. Data in Table II show that
escaped the seine. Harvest took place during the period 1 4- 93-1% of the mortalities occurred during the first two
26 March 1973. The fish were sold either to processors or weeks after stocking. Most of these losses were attributed to
to live haulers for re-sale in fish-out ponds in north Georgia. stress of the fish as they were hauled 483 km from the
mountains of north Georgia. Losses during the remainder
of the culture period were minimal.
3 Results and discussion Parasites and diseases presented no problem to the fish.
Water temperatures are a factor which must be considered Protozoan parasites (Trichodina) were found on gills of
not only because they should remain low enough for sur- some of the fish shortly before harvest but treatment was
vival and health of trout in temperate zone waters, but also never warranted.
because there must be enough warmwater days (water Harvest data for the trout are presented in Table III.
temperature at least 10C ) for the fish to make satisfactory More than 2 000 fish were harvested from each of six of the
growth during the months of winter culture. Hill,
five raceway segments and more than 1 900 from the other two
Chesnessand Brown (1972) used 21C deep well water to segments. The number of fish harvested plus those which
maintain satisfactory growing conditions for trout during died during the experiment totalled 18 084. Some of the
unusually cold days when the fish refused feed. Under most segments had more than 2 250 and some had less, but the
conditions, this practice would be prohibitive due to the average number per segment was 2 260. It would be diffi-
cost of electricity and many fish farmers who would be cult to have more accurate estimates when fish are stocked
interested in growing trout would not have a deep well. by weight, even when closely graded fingerlings are used.
A summary of water temperatures in the
raceways is
given in Table 1. Water temperatures ranged from a low of IABIE II
5 to a high of 25C. The trout experienced the 25C MoRFAimrs OF RAINBOW DURING THF 1972-73 GROWING
TROLII
SEASON, COAST AI PLAIN FXPERIMFNT STATION. TIFTON. GEORGIA
temperatures for four successive days with no apparent
adverse effects. From this information, it appears that Racewav
rainbow trout can withstand fairly high water temperatures Month
\ 3 8
so long as other water quality parameters are acceptable.
November 186 237 161 336 90 102 67 69 93 1
December 14 15 2-9
TABLE 1 January 1 2 1
During the late 1800s, Delaware Bay, on the eastern which resulted in the construction and maintenance of life-
coast of the US, produced 23 million Ib ( 10-4 million kg) of support systems for human flights in outer space.
525
Thus designing a pilot mariculture plant is not a simple The present water-quality laboratory was established and
matter of scaling up an already workable technology, but the use of an ammonia electrode was demonstrated in
includes the development of biological and chemical princi- seawater analyses (Srna et al, 1973). Alkalinity problems
ples and data as well. Our
current biological and chemical system were identified, and a solution
in the recirculating
research focuses on just these problems in order to provide was implemented (Epifanio et al 1973).
engineers with the information they require in developing During the sixth year (1973/74), growth studies contin-
the prototype. ued of clams and oysters fed selected species of laboratory-
The design, construction, and operation of a controlled raised algae in recirculated sea water, and the shellfish
environment shellfish mariculture prototype is based on the approached market size. This was the first time anywhere
following considerations: (/) need of a strictly non-toxic that oysters and clams had been grown successfully in a
physical system of economically and biologically optimal recirculating seawater system (Epifanio and Mootz, 1975).
size and configuration; (w) behavioural characteristics, Preliminary biological specifications for construction of a
densities, and interactions of shellfish; (in) specific nutri- commercial system were developed (Epifanio, Srna and
tional requirements of shellfish at various stages in their life Pruder, 1975). Studies of tolerance of clams and oysters to
history; (/v) maximal limits of shellfish wastes consistent their own waste products, particularly ammonia, were com-
with a desirable marketable shellfish product; (v) recurring pleted (Epifanio and Srna, 1975), and feeding rates of
danger of blooms of microbiota resulting from dense popu- oysters were determined. The chemical kinetics of small
lations of shellfish, and risks of outbreaks of shellfish scale marine biological filters were characterized (Srna and
diseases; (v/) elimination of biota potentially pathogenic to Baggaley, 1975), the use of chloride, calcium, and divalent
or parasitic in humans; (v//) the constantly changing rates electrodes to maintain major ion balance in recirculating
of concentrations and combinations of mineral and organic sea water was demonstrated (Srna, 1974), and preliminary
chemicals in sea water. data on production of ammonia by active and sedated
To our knowledge, no other group of investigators is shellfish were collected (Srna and Baggaley, 1975a),
engaged in such extensive investigations to develop con- During the seventh year ( 1974/7 5), additional investiga-
trolled environment shellfish mariculture. tors were attracted to the programme to fill in the following
critical areasof investigation which were not yet adequately
covered: prepared feeds, algal culture and kinetics, microbi-
2 History of Delaware research ology, ozonization, engineering, and legal aspects of mari-
Research in mariculture at the University of Delaware was culture. Clams and oysters were grown to seed size in
initiated in September 1968, under the direction of Dr K recirculating seawater systems, and hard clams (Mercen-
Price and Dr D Maurer (Price and Maurer, 1969). aria mercenaria) and American oysters (Crassostrea vir-
During the first three years (1968-71), success was ginica) were raised to edible market size, exhibiting a
achieved in conditioning broodstock, spawning parents at growth rate approximately three times that of the fastest
and growing oysters for six
will, rearing larvae to setting, reported growth of the species in Delaware Bay. Studies of
months on natural plankton (Maurer and Price, 1968; the assimilation efficiencies of clams and oysters fed differ-
Price and Maurer, 1971; Keck et al 1 9 7 1 Maurer, 1972).
; ent algal diets were begun, as were exploratory studies on
Agricultural engineers fed starch and protein to oysters, but preparation and feeding of formulated feeds (Epifanio,
with success (Dwivedy, 1972). Small recirculating
little 1976; Epifanio, Logan and Turk, 1976). Preliminary
systems were constructed, but chemical data were insuffi- growth studies of four species of algae were carried out, and
cient to gauge performance of the systems, and survival of study was begun of nutrient utilization by a weed species
oysters was poor (Dwivedy, 1973, 1974). and a good food species in chemostats relative to particu-
During the fourth year (1971/72), under the charge of late carbon, nitrogen, and chlorophyll as a function of
Dr C Epifanio, improved methods for setting of larvae were growth. Bacteria were isolated and characterized from algal
explored, methods for prevention of gas bubble disease cultures and recirculating seawater systems and correlated
were developed (Malouf et al 1972), and an assimilation with water quality. Simulation of massive lysis of algal
efficiency study of oysters fed on the alga Phaeodactylum cultures using bacteria and their metabolic products was
was completed. An engineer joined the team and most of the begun. A virus concentrator was constructed. Studies of
design and construction of .the present Maricultural Labo- nitrification kinetics and a new modular nitrification filter
ratory was completed and a specification manual was pub- design were completed (Srna, 1975). Ahigh density small-
lished (Pruder, Epifanio and Malouf, 1973). The first two scale recirculating seawater system was designed and con-
recirculating systems were built, loaded with finfish, and structed (Srna, 1976). A rate equation for metabolic pro-
monitored for chemical data (Srna et al, 1973). In addition, duction was integrated and solid waste production rate
preliminary experiments were directed toward maintaining experiments were initiated (Srna and Baggaley, 1975a;
the blue crab (Callinectes sapidus\ in a recirculating cul- Srna, Baggaley and Ewart, 1975). Equipment and facilities
ture system (Winget, Maurer and Andetson, 1973; Winget were set up for bench-top studies on the application of
et al 1976). ozonization in the treatment of mariculture fluids. Signifi-
During the fifth year (1972/73), an algal culturist joined cant increase was obtained in mass algal production. The
the group and the algal culture system currently in use was design and construction were completed and operation of a
established. Postlarval clams and oysters reared in the four bushel shellfish closed-cycle prototype was begun
laboratory were maintained in recirculating sea water and (Pruder et al 1976). Design and construction of a 50
fed different diets of cultured algae; growth of the clams bushel prototype was started. Significant reductions were
during the first six months was 50% faster than in nature achieved in make-up water, waste treatment and make-up
(Hartman et al, 1974). Two more large recirculating sys- nutrients in the small prototype. A
study of legal problems
tems were constructed. A physical chemist joined the team. of new product development for closed-cycle mariculture in
526
the Delmarva region
identified Delaware as being particu- 1975 ion and orthophosphate to Mercenana mercenaries and Crass-
establishment of commercial mariculture ostrea virginica Mar BwL, 33* 241-6
larly suited to the
EPIFANIO, C E., LOGAN, C M. TURK, C Culture of six species of &
from the point of view of fishery law. 1976 bivalves in a recuculating sea water system Proc Eur Symp
Priorities for research have been established by the Mar. Biol 10(1) 97-108 ,
26 59-74
updated by similar analyses.
K.ECK, R. et al Chemical stimulants affecting larval settlement in the
1971 American oyster Proc Natl. Shellfish Assoc 6\ 24^8 ,
3 Current status and possibilities MAURER, D & PRICE, K S Holding and spawning Delaware Bay
1968 oysters out of season Laboratory facilities for retarding 1
which support rapid growth; and has demonstrated that PRICE, K. S., Jr MAURER, L. (Eds &
Artificial propagation of D )
(DEL-SG-1-71) 220 p
(Pruder et ai 1976). However, culture of massive volumes PRKI , K S , Ji .
MAURER, D Holding and spawning Delaware Bay
of desired species of algae necessary to develop controlled 1971 oysters out of season 2 Temperature requirements for matura-
tion of gonads Proc Natl Shellfish Assoc 61 29-34 ,
and that economic feasibility is within reach, a substantial SRNA, R The use of ion specific electrodes for chemical monitoring of
1974 marine systems Part 2 A
rapid method of detecting changes in
amount of research and development remains to be done to the relative concentration of chloride and divalent ions in sea-
achieve commercial success and to bring mariculture sys- water Umv Del Sea Grant Publ (DEL-SG-1 1-74) 31 p ,
DWIVFDY, R C Instrumentation and technique to control the environ- SRNA, R & BAGGALFY, A The rate ol excretion of ammonia by the
1
C
ment for shellfish nutritional studies Umv Del Sea Grant Publ
>72 ,
1975a hard clam (Mercenana mercenana) and the American oyster
(DLL-SG-6-72) 8p (Crassostrea virginica)
DWIVEDY, R C Instrumentation and technique of electrophysio- SRNA, R BAGGALFY, A & EWARI,
, J The feasibility of utilizing solid
1973 logical studies of chemoreccptois on labial palps of the 1975 waste material from the cultivation of shellfish as a marketable
American oyster Trews Am Sot Agric Eng.. 16(2) 367-73 niodiict r/f/r Del St>u Grant Publ (DEL-SG-1 2-75)
RCA
.
DWIVEDY, proposed method of waste management in closed- SRNA, R et al The use of ion specific electrodes for chemical moni-
1974 cycle mariculture systems through foam-fractionation and 1973 tormg of marine systems Part 1 The ammonia electrode as a
chlormation Proc Natl Shellfish Assoc., 64 111 7 sensitive water quality indicator probe for recirculating man-
EPIFANIO, C E. A marine analogue to the husbandry of poultry on culture systems Umv. Del Sea Grant Publ (DEL-SG-14-73) ,
1976 cult Nutr, Univ Del Sea Grant Publ (in press) , WINGET, R et al Effects of diet and temperature on growth and
EPIFANIO, C. E. &
MOOTZ, C Growth of Crassostrea virginica fed 1976 mortality of the blue crab, Callmectes
sapidus,
maintained in a
1975 defined algal diets. Proc Natl. Shellfish Assoc., 1975 recirculated culture system. Proc Natl Shellfish Assoc., 66
EPIFANIO, C E &SRNA, R F Toxicity of ammonia, nitrite ion, nitrate 29 33
527
tank. The purified water continues through a heating and pumping tank por lo que se refiere a nitrogeno amonico, nitntos o nitratos, no se
and back to the fish tanks. Water losses are compensated for by addition superan los valores toxicos para la carpa comun (Cyprinus carpio), la
of well water. carpa herbivora (Ctenopharyngodon idella), y el bagre europeo (Silurus
More than ten years of experience with this system has shown that glanis). De todas formas, puede anadirse otro tanque de desnitrificacion
toxic values are not exceeded with respect to ammonium nitrogen, nitrite (sin aireacion, pero con un mecanismo para agitar el cieno) para obtener
or nitrate, for common carp (Cyprinus carpio), grass carp (Ctenopha condiciones optimas para especies de peces mas sensibles.
ryngodon idella) and European catfish (Silurus giants). However, an En este sistema es posible criar peces a gran densidad de siembra: el
other den itrifi cation tank (non-aerated but with a sludge stirrer) can be aprovechamiento optimp de la capacidad del circuitp se obtiene mante
added to provide optimal conditions for more sensitive fish species. niendo la densidad lo mas constante posible. Manteniendo
todp el ano la
Fish can be reared in this system at a high stocking density, whereby temperatura del agua a 26C. la carpa comun, la carpa herbivora y el
optimal utilization of the capacity of the circuits is obtained when the bagre europeo crecen en un ano desde el huevo hasta 1-5-2-5 kg.
stocking density is as constant as possible. When kept throughout the Para la alimentacion se usan
piensos granulados.
Estos expcnmentos
year at a water temperature of 23C, common carp, grass carp and nan demostrado el efecto positive de las algas verdes (Scenedesmus)
European catfish grow in one year from the egg stage up to 1 5-2 5 kg. come aditivo al alimento basico (un pienso sin harina de pescado). Esta
Pellets are used for feeding. The positive effect of green algae (Scene- mezcla ha resultado al menos tan buena come los piensos tradicionales
desmus) as an additive to a fishmcal-free basic food was demonstrated by manufacturados.
the experiments. Such a food mixture has proved at least equally as good Manteniendo el agua a 23C durante todo el ano la carpa comun llega
as conventionally manufactured feeds. a la madurez al cabo de un ano, aproximadamente, y puede desovar
If kept in water of 23C throughout the year, common carp will varias veces al ano.
become mature after about one year, and can spawn several times a year. Se senalan las posibihdades de aplicacion de este metodo a la produc-
Attention is drawn to the application of this method to commercial cion pisicola comercial
fish production.
sludge Tank A
by air pumps. The sludge level in the
sedimentation tank is continually measured, since by in-
crease of the activated sludge mass, the sludge level in the
sedimentation tank also rises, it may then happen that
sludge will overflow into the heating and pumping tank,
which causes turbidity of the circulating water. In order to
avoid sludge should be pumped off occasionally so
this, the
that does not exceed a certain level.
it
place. The sludge deposited on the bottom of the sedimenta- occur, have, thus far, not shown any negative effects on the
Measurements in cm
Fig 2. Sectional view of one of the Ahrensburg purification units with a capacity of about 50 m 3
529
Fig 3. View of the purification room with six separate water circuits,
each with a capacity of about 50 rrP
2500
development of weight in common carp (Cyprinus carpio).
grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) and European cat-
fish or wels (Silurus glanis). However, in order to offer
1:30, te, for 1kg of fish, 30 1 of water are required. carp from the warm water recirculating system (solid line)
530
is carried out throughout the
catfish. Feeding year with feed
in eithergranulated or pelleted form. It is normally com-
posed of fishmeal containing commercial mixed trout feed.
Holding fish in this manner permits tests of the effect of
various abiotic and biotic parameters, including problems
of physiology offish nutrition. Such a closed water system
can also be used when carrying out experiments on the
development of new diets for fish. For example, a fishmeal-
free feed, substituting dairy products as a protein source,
was developed and tested on common carp and grass carp
(Meske, Ney and Pruss, 1976). Tests have also been
30-
20- O
10- o
(6
D Feeds
Fig Tests of a fishmeal-free food mixture containing algae (A)
7.
5 Acknowledgements
conducted with this recirculating system using the unicellu-
The diagrams were furnished by A. Mollwo and W. Sza-
lar green alga (Scenedesmus obliquus) as a food additive
blewski; the photographs by K. Engelhardt.
(Meske and Pruss, 1976). It was shown that an accelerated
growth rate in carp can be obtained by increasing the
6 References
amount of algae in the feed. It was only when the algal
content amounted to over 50% that deficiency symptoms MtSKt, CH Aquakultur von Warmwasscr-Nutzfischen (Biotechmken
1973 und Tierversuche) Stuttgart, Verlag Eugen Ulmer
and loss in weight occurred (Fig. 6). A mixture of 68% MESKE, CH & NAGEI L Bau ciner Versuchsanlage zur Entwicklung
,
fishmeal-free basic feed and 32% of green algae was com- 1975 ernes geschlossenen Salzwasserkreislaufes zur Aufzucht von
Salzwasserfischen Inf Fischmnsch., 22 172-3
pared with three manufactured feeds containing fishmeal. MFSKE, CH., NtY, K H. & PRUSS, H D Fischmehlfreies Fischfuttcr
Fig. 7 shows that this fishmeal-free fefed mixture (feed A) is 1977 auf Molkenbasis Fonschr Tierphyswl Ticrerndhr jAdv Amm
at least as good as the usual feeds (B, C, D) tested. Analysis Physiol Amm Nutr (8). 56-70
,
protein content (19-6%) (Reimers and Meske, 1976). 1976 sivhaltung von Fischen im Warmwasserkreislauf Arch Fisch-
Apart from the development of feeds, retention offish in ereiwiss., 27. 9-13
a circulating system can also serve the study of reproduc- REIMERS, J & MESKE, CH. Der Emfluss eines fischmehlfreien Trocken-
1977 futters auf die Korperzusammensetzune von Karpfen Fortschr
tive biology. If kept throughout the year in water of 23 C, Amm. Amm
Tierphyswl. Tierernahr./Adv. Physiol. Nutr., (8)
common carp will become mature after about one year. 82-90
Their reproduction is not dependent on a seasonal rhythm, SENGBUSCH, R VON, MESKE, CH & SZABLEWSKI, W. Beschleunigtes
1965 Wachstum von Karpfen in Aquanen mit Hilfe biologischer
and the fish can spawn several times a year. Wasscrklarung. Experientia, 21 (10): 614-5
531
Chapter VIII Artificial Recruitment and
Transplantations
originates: il peut s'agir d'eaux depourvues de poisson ou encore cfeaux man upon their aquatic environment.
dans lesquelles on estime que les especes exotiques pourront etre utiles
pour 1'alimentation humaine, pour la peche sportive ou pour la nourri-
As civilization progresses, industries mushroom, agri-
ture d 'autres poissons ou bien pour combattre des especes indesirables. culture expands, power needs increase and problems of
On passe en revue les methodes generalement pratiquees pour le
water conservation and management which affect these
repeuplement des cours d'eau, des lacs, des reservoirs et de certames
lagunes d'eaux saumatres et Ton decnt les resultats obtenus en Amerique fisheries are compounded. Pollution of both organic and
du Nord et du Sud, en URSS, en Europe, en Asie, en Afrique, en
inorganic origin, together with harmful forms of water
Australie et en Nouvelle-Zelande.
Certains principes applicables en matiere d 'empoissonnement sont development, interfere with the requirements of aquatic
examines et Ton en conclut que: (/) nombre de transplantations ont etc organisms for food, reproduction and living space. Over-
utiles et certaines nuisibles; (//) les pratiques de repeuplement contmu en
fishing is also a cause of decline in fish stocks.
alevins varient beaucoup selon la partie du monde: empoissonnements
massifs en URSS et bien moins considerables en Amerique du Nord ou Dams cause physical obstructions to valuable anadrom-
Ton a constate un rendement extremement faible du stockage des alevins ous fish species, such as salmon, shad and sturgeon, pre-
de salmon ides dans les fleuves et legerement meilleur dans les petits lacs;
(Hi} dans les regions nanties ou la peche sportive est importante, on
venting them from reaching spawning grounds and interfer-
pratique la mise en eau d 'especes interessant la peche sportive; (/v) ing with downstream migration. Eels face a similar problem
Pempoissonnemcnt avec certains salmomdes anadromes peut etre econo- in reverse. Fishways sometimes apppar to hinder not help
miquement rentable a condition qu'ils soient eleves et implantes dans des
conditions correctes; (v) rempoissonnement des eaux deja peuplees n'est
the ascent of fish, and devices designed to assist down-
pas simple et il faudrait realiser des evaluations minutieuses avant de stream movement of young are not always successful
continuer a empoissonner.
propagation through the release of hatch-
either. Artificial
M^jora de los recuraoi petqueros de las aguas continentales mediante ery-reared fingerlings or fish of larger size is, in many cases,
repoblacifa an invaluable method of preserving these stocks to ensure
Extracto
sustained fisheries.
Se indican algunas de las razones por las que se procedc a la rcpoblacion
de las aguas continentales (sin contar los estanques piscicolas); entre Stocking also has an important role in the development
ellas, la necesidad de sustituir o aumcntar las poblaciones diezmadas por of fisheries in reservoirs. In many cases only initial stocking
el cmpeorarniento de la calidad del agua (por ejemplo, debido a la
is required, but there are also a large number of cases where
contaminacion), las barreras que se oponen a los movimientos migrato-
rios hacia los frezaderos (en el caso de los peces anadromos) y la there is limited spawning habitat for prime species, and it
sobrepesca. Tambicn se pueden trasplantar nuevas poblaciones a zonas also be useful to fill vacant ecological niches. Many
de las que no son nativas. En ese caso, puede tratarsc bien de aguas
may
totalmente desprovistas de peces o de aguas en las que se cree que la lagoons in the Mediterranean area have registered signifi-
introduccion de especies sera util para la alimentacion, para la pesca cant increases in fish yield as a result of intensive stocking.
532
Similar results have been achieved in many waters in the largemouth black bass (Micropterus salmoides). Stocking
Far East. policies are, therefore, in a certain state of flux, but in any
Stocking a powerful tool in stock manipulation and
is case the practices are generally based on scientific investi-
larger harvests can often be realized by selectively stocking gation of the actual returns to either commercial fishermen
fishes that utilize the lower segments of the food chain. or anglers.
Transplantation another important management tool in
is Trout stocking for sport dominates the stocking pro-
the improvement of fishery resources in inland waters. It is gramme by both the state and federally -operated hatcheries.
practised on a massive scale in the USSR. In India, many of Circa 1974 these agencies stocked more than 100 million
the major carps have been transplanted from rivers of the fingerling trout and about
70 million large (25 cm) trout, so
Northern Plain to those in Peninsular India with considera- called 'catchables'.
ble success. North America has been an especially fertile Production of chinook (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha)and
such transplants although some, such as the intro-
field for coho (O. kisutch) Pacific salmon, and steelhead trout
duction of the common carp, have received little approval. (Salmo gairdneri) is a major programme in the western
The stocking practices and policies adhered to in differ- USA with over 320 million of these salmonids produced
ent countries are examined in this review. yearly. The salmon are utilized, of course, primarily as
commercial fish but also as sport fish. Atlantic salmon
(Salmo salar) are being stocked on the east coast to try to
2 Stocking practices in different countries rebuild the debilitated American fishery for this species;
2.1 North America about a quarter million smolts are produced yearly.
2.1.1. USA. Stocking
practices in the United States have Finally, with respect to warmwater species, the annual
been modified considerably within the last few decades. At production for stocking (again circa 1974) totals about
one time, fish culturists there, and in Canada, experimented 100 million fish of which about three quarters are bluegills
with the propagation of many food and sport fishes, think- (Lepomis macrochirus), largemouth bass (Micropterus sal-
ing that this was the key to maintenance of stocks. Most of moides) and channel catfish (Ictalurus lacustris). The other
these programmes have longsince been discontinued fol- one quarter is composed largely of striped bass (Morone
lowing investigations which showed that, although initial vitreum\ pike (Esox lu-
saxatilis), walleyes (Stizostedion
introductions of a species were often successful, mainte- cius) and some muskellunge (Esox masquinongy) (see
nance stocking using fry or small fingerlings was all too Anon., 1974).
often a failure. For example, the introduction of shad The management of lakes in the United States includes
(Alosa sapidissima) from the Atlantic to the Pacific sea- such aspects as chemical treatment to remove undesirable
board firmly established this species in a new habitat. Many species, provision of cover, and stocking. Stocking there is
years of stocking shad in its native east coast streams has now undertaken largely for the benefit of sport fisheries,
produced no evidence of increase in its population. although in the pastcommercial fishing was considered,
There has been an overall tendency to: (/) be much more especially Great
in the Lakes. Stocking with coldwater
discriminate in the choice of fish to be planted (thus species includes primarily salmonids, such as rainbow trout
lessening the waste offish in unsuitable waters as well as the (Salmo gairdneri), brown trout (Salmo trutta), some land-
danger of unsuitable introductions); (//') eliminate much of locked salmon (Salmo salar) and the chars, brooktrout
the former planting of fry and fingerlings in waters where (Salvelinus fontinalis) and lake trout (5. namaycush) and
returns have been found to be negligible; (Hi) rely much two Pacific salmon, the landlocked kokanee (Oncorhyn-
more on natural propagation (coupled with greater restric- chus nerka) and the coho (O. kisutch). In waters less
tions on fishing) to maintain stocks in many waters, es- suitable for salmonids, various species (some called cool-
pecially streams; (/v) cultivate sources of broodstock rather water fish) like black basses (Micropterus), white perch
than obtain eggs or young from wild sources. (Morone americana), and pike-perches (Stizostedion) are
Conversely, there is continued progress toward: (/) pro- considered for stocking.
duction of much better stocking material (especially with In warm waters, largemouth black bass (Micropterus
respect to salmonid stocks) in the sense that the fish to be salmoides), bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus), and other sun-
stocked are genetically adapted to their environment, nour- fishes, crappies (Pomoxis spp.) and catfish (Ictalurus) are
ished adequately, and free from disease; (//") in the case of stocked.
anadromous salmonids (whether stocked for food or sport), Many high mountain lakes in California and other west-
rearing to larger size and release at the times and places ern states are jcharacterized by being unfavourable for
where seaward migration will be facilitated; and (//'/) in the spawning and, in these instances, are often stocked regu-
case of trout sport fisheries, rearing to catchable size for larly, especially with brook or rainbow trout.
quick catch in areas of heavy fishing intensity. The Great Lakes, which constitute an important area for
In warmwater lakes and reservoirs largely devoted to freshwater commercial fisheries, were once intensively
sport fishing, the general policy for about thirty years has stocked with whitefish (Coregonus clupeaformis) and wall-
been to rely on only initial stocking of a wanted species or eye (Stizostedion). However, an early analysis of data on
to depend upon the original fauna to provide the harvest. stocking of whitefish in relation to yield did not show any
This practice was, however, often supplemented by initial positive correlation in Lake Erie (Van Oosten, 1942).
stocking with forage fish, as well as with predaceous fish to Similar stocking efforts in the case of yellow pike-perch
fill vacant
ecological niches, reduce the numbers of un- (Stizostedion vitreum) in Lakes Huron and Michigan
wanted species or to furnish a particular type of fishing. (Hile, 1937) and in the Lake of the Woods, Minnes-
There is now, however, in a few areas with very high fishing ota (Carlander, 1945) were similarly unsuccessful.
intensity,thought of a partial revival of the policy of Competition with resident species and poor viability of the
continuous stocking even of predaceous sport fish such as hatchery-reared fry could have been, among other factors.
533
responsible for unfruitful stocking. In recent years, the black crappie (P. nigromaculatus), largemouth bass
laris),
Great Lakes have also been stocked with lake trout. The (Micropierus salmoides\ smallmouth bass (M. dolomieu)
failureof lake trout has been attributed to the parasitic sea and spotted bass (M. punctulatus) often occur naturally.
lamprey (Petromyzon marinus\ which gained access to Continual stocking of such fish is rarely practised as natural
these lakes after construction in 1932 of the Welland propagation usually suffices. Some selective stocking of
Canal. The introduction of coho salmon (Oncorhynchus other fish is done in some reservoirs, eg, white bass (Mo-
kisutch) in Lake Michigan as a predator on alewife (Alosa rone chrysops\ walleye (Stizostedion vitreum), rainbow
pseudoharengus), which invaded Lake Michigan in the trout, muskellunge (Esox masquinongy). In order to serve
same manner as the sea lamprey, marked a new chapter in the need of a small forage fish, the threadfin shad (Doro-
the stocking history of the Great Lakes (Smith, 1968). The soma petenense) has been introduced into many southeast-
coho has seemingly brought under control an explosive ern and western irrigation and power reservoirs so that it
population growth of alewife. In the wake of successful can be utilized by all sizes of predator fish (Parsons and
stocking of coho, Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshaw- Kimsey, 1954). The threadfin shad as well as gizzard shad
ytscha) were also introduced in Lakes Michigan and Supe- also utilize plankton and detritus effectively (Baker and
rior as a predator of alewife (Smith, 1968). Schmitz, 1971). Striped bass (Morone saxatilis) are also
The policy for stocking streams in the USA has some- stocked in reservoirs to boost sport fishing and control
what similar objectives to that of lakes, namely develop- gizzard shad.
ment or maintenance of sport fisheries. Deforestation, ero- Another form of stocking often practised now is planting
sion and other results of man's activity here have seriously trout (usually rainbow) to occupy the coldwater portion
impeded natural reproduction in many trout streams neces- (the 'lower storey') of a reservoir while the warmer top
fc
sitating stocking on a continuing basis. Generally speaking, storey' is occupied by warmwater species.
the survival of stocked fry or fingerling trout in streams is
extremely low. Consequently, an effective but costly pro- 2. 1.2 Canada. The sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka)
gramme of stocking catchable trout Oput and take fishing') occupies an important place in Canada and is a dominant
has been developed in many heavily fished waters. species in the Fraser River of British Columbia. It prefers
Rivers assume enormous importance as pathways of rivers that have lakes which form the nursery grounds.
anadromous fishes, and Pacific salmon (Oncorhynchus) Sockeye, in common with other Pacific salmons, are con-
form important commercial fisheries in the USA and Can- fronted with overfishing and river obstructions and need
ada. These salmon catches have dwindled during the last stocking support.
few decades because of dams, abstraction of
in great part In Canada, propagation of sockeye is largely carried out
water, other destruction of habitat and pollution. In addi- through artificial spawning channels. The hatchery rearing
tion, the expansion of high-seas fishing has resulted in the and stocking is largely confined to chum salmon (O. keta)
overfishing of the same stocks by the operating fleets of the and pink salmon (O. gorbuscha). Canada and the USA
USA, Japan, the USSR and Canada. Against this back- together produce 100 million fry of these two species for
ground large-scale stocking of smolts seems inevitable if the stocking (Bardach, Ryther and McLarney, 1972).
valuable stocks are to be preserved. Fortunately the tech- From a stocking point of view, special mention has to be
nology of hatchery propagation is well developed in the made of the Salmon Enhancement Programme of the
USA and other countries where Pacific salmon have natural Pacific Biological Station of the Fisheries and Marine
In the USA the hatchery propagation of
distribution. Service, Environment Canada, Nanaimo, British Colum-
Pacific salmon includes chinook salmon, coho salmon, bia. This programme seeks to develop new, and improve
chum salmon (Oncorhynchus keta) and pink salmon (O. existing, ways of increasing production of Pacific salmon
gorbuscha). Hatcheries in California, Oregon and Wash- by (a) improving efficiency and reducing costs of hatchery
:
ington annually release about 200 million chinook and rearing of coho; (b) developing a new technique of incubat-
coho salmon (Bardach, Ryther and McLarney, 1972). The ing salmon eggs boxes that greatly increases
in gravel-filled
impact on the fishery by stocking smolts is reflected by the fry survival; (c) increasing stream production of coho and
fact that in 1965 22% of the chinook salmon catch of the chinook salmon; (d) increasing efficiency of spawning
commercial Columbia River fishery and 15% of its sport- channels; and (e) establishing salmon runs by transplants
fishing catch was a result of stocking. to streams having small runs or no runs.
Estimates for 1967 indicate that hatcheries provided The pink salmon accidentally introduced in the Cana-
15-7 million pounds (7- 1 million kg) of salmon and steel- dian waters of Lake Superior in 1956 has successfully
head trout (Salmo gairdneri) to this fishery (Glude, 1971). adapted to the new environment and is developing into a
Similarly, coho salmon stocking has resulted in increased fishery of commercial importance (Bardach, Ryther and
yield (Bardach, Ryther and McLarney, 1972). McLarney, 1972).
Reservoirs are now one of the important inland water Fry of the white fish (Coregonus clupeaformis) were
resources in the USA. They total in excess of 3-5 million ha stocked nearly every year between 1882 and 1954 in the
in area and projections indicate that they will total 4-6 Canadian waters of Lake Ontario. In some years, the level
million ha in area by 1976 (Stanberry, 1967). of stocking was as high as 208 million. However, analyses
In coldwater impoundments, rainbow trout, brown trout, of stocking and yield during 1927-54 did not show any
lake trout and other salmonids are stocked. Most reservoirs definite correlation (Lapworth, 1956; Christie, 1963).
in the USA are, however, of a warmwater or coolwater type. General ecological adaptability could not be a reason as the
Many southeastern reservoirs contain gizzard shad (Doro- fish is indigenous to the Great Lakes and forms a commer-
soma cepedianum) which often provide a forage base for cial fishery in Lake Ontario, but viability of hatchery-reared
the development of sport fisheries. In these reservoirs blue- fry, their size, place of release and subsequent predation are
gill (Lepomis macrochirus\ white crappie (Pomoxis annu- possible factors rendering the stocking ineffective.
534
The brook one of the principal native sport fish in
trout is The so-called Caspian 'salmon' (Salmo trutta caspius),
the fresh waters of the Canadian maritime provinces and which needs upstream stretches for spawning, dwindled
has been stocked in lakes and streams in an effort to into an insignificant fishery on account of power projects on
augment the supply for sport fishing. The lake trout (brown the Samur and Kura Rivers. As attempts at hatchery
trout), rainbow trout, smallmouth bass, and largemouth propagation for Caspian salmon have not been successful,
bass, are also stocked in Canada to serve the same purpose. the chum salmon (O. keta), which spawns in the lower
There are a large number of small, shallow, unproductive reaches of rivers, was stocked in the Caspian Sea. During
lakes in Manitoba and Saskatchewan in which it may be the period 1962-65, 5 850 000 fry of chum salmon were
some of these
difficult for fish to overwinter. In recent years, released. The fish has established itself and breeding runs
have been stocked in spring with the fry of rainbow trout have been observed in the Samur River (Magomedov,
which have been harvested as food fish in the autumn 1970).
(Bardach, Ryther and McLarney, 1972). Various whitefishes (Coregonus spp.), native to the
northern waters of the USSR, are another group of fishes
2.2 South America which are affected by dams in their spawning migrations
Members of the and may require stocking support. The European cisco
2.2. 1 Brazil. family Characidae (Curima-
tus, Leporinus, Prochilodus and Triportheus) are bred and (Coregonus albula), the whitefish (C. lavaretus) and peled
stocked in reservoirs in the northeastern part of the country. (C. peled) have been extensively transplanted into
These characins include both herbivores and carnivores. In new waters (Karpevich and Lukonina, 1968, 1971 and
addition, carnivorous cichlids (Astronotus ocellatus, 1972).
Cichla ocellaris and C. temensis) and sciaenids (Plagios- Hydro-electric dams, especially on the Black, Caspian
cion surinamensis and P. squamosissimus) are bred and and Aral sea basins, pose threats to migratory stocks of
stocked in reservoirs (Bardach, Ryther and McLarney, cyprinids like roach (Rutilus rutilus), bream (Abramis
1972; Acero. Sanchez, 1974). brama\ vimba (Vimba vimba) and shemoia (Chalcalbur-
nus chalcoides) (Bardach, Ryther and McLarney, 1972).
As many as 3 358 million young roach and 762 million
2.2.2 Peru. The pirarucu (Arapaima gigas), the gigantic
freshwater bred and stocked in the upstream
is
young bream were released in 1954 to replenish natural
fish,
stocks (Ovchynnyk, 1963).
stretches of the River Amazon. The impact of these meas-
With the damming of the Volga and other rivers of the
ures on the stock and yield is not known.