Jesus As Shepherd

Durham E-Theses
Jesus as shepherd in the gospel of Matthew

Hedrick, Terry J.
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JESUS AS SHEPHERD
IN THE GOSPEL OF MATTHEW
Fr. Terry J. Hedrick
The copyright of this thesis rests with the

author or the university to which it was
submitted. No quotation from it, or
information derived from it may be
published without the prior written
consent of the author or university, and
any information derived from it should be
acknowledged.
A Thesis Submitted for the Degree of

Doctor of Philosophy
Department of Theology and Religion

Durham University
2007
1 3 FEB ZOOS
11
JESUS AS SHEPHERD IN THE GOSPEL OF MATTHEW

Fr. Terry J. Hedrick
Thesis Abstract
The aim of this thesis is to demonstrate that Matthew and those who first
received and transmitted Matthew's Gospel during the late first century believed that
Jesus was the righteous and royal Shepherd-Messiah of Israel, the Son of David.
Matthew also believed that Jesus was the true teacher and interpreter of the law who
could give definitive leadership and guidance to Israel in the aftermath of the Jewish
war. Matthew's Gospel was written sometime during the last quarter of the first
century, during the formative period of early Judaism. In this context, Matthew
presented Jesus as the defining figure for the future of Israel. Jesus, as the righteous
royal shepherd, will provide the authoritative understanding of Judaism and her
traditions. Jesus is the Messiah, the Son of David, and fulfills the promises of the
Hebrew Scriptures. Therefore, as God's choice, he is the one to be turned to during
this time of transition and change. As the Son of God and Messiah, he has been given
God's authority and is personally present with the community to give this guidance.
One of the ways the evangelist demonstrates this is in his use of the shepherd
metaphor in regard to Jesus. The ancient metaphor of shepherd was an image for
leadership in the history of the tradition. The shepherd metaphor was often associated
with the spiritual and national leaders in Israel, for example, Moses and David.
According to Matthew qualities of this kind of shepherd leadership are now revealed
in their fullness in Jesus, the Son of God. Jesus as Shepherd-Messiah is revealed both
explicitly and implicitly in Matthew. He is revealed explicitly in the shepherd texts of
Matthew and implicitly in the Gospel through the literary and typological
correspondences in the history of Israel.
The shepherd metaphor has a long history both inside and outside Israel's
tradition. Kings and rulers of many types were referred to as shepherds. In the thesis,
the metaphor is explored in the Ancient Near East generally, the biblical tradition,
second Temple Judaism, the Dead Sea Scrolls and Philo. The shepherd metaphor was
also used to describe evil, false or abusive rulers and leaders. In Israel's tradition this
false shepherd metaphor became especially prominent in the exilic and post-exilic
prophets. After the time of the exile, messianic hopes grew. The shepherd metaphor
became associated with these messianic expectations. Other relevant texts from
Rabbinic Judaism and Greco-Roman sources are also considered.
In light of this social and historical background, the intertextual and narrative
implications of Matthew's use of the shepherd motif will be investigated in relation to
his christological concerns.
Finally, the shepherd metaphor as it is applied to 'Jesus as shepherd' is thoroughly
examined in regard to the Gospel of Matthew. It is the intention of this thesis therefore
to make a contribution concerning Matthew's use of the shepherd metaphor in the
wider context of Matthean Christo logy.
11l
Declaration
I hereby declare that no part of the material contained in this thesis has previously
been submitted for a degree in any other University or College.
Copyright
The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. No quotation from it should be
published in any form, including electronic and the Internet, without the author's prior
written consent. All information derived from this thesis must be acknowledged
appropriate! y.
IV
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This thesis would not have been possible without the support of many colleagues,
friends and family. With that realization, I would like to acknowledge those who helped
make it possible.
Dr. Stephen C. Barton, my supervisor and advisor who worked tirelessly with me
over the many years of this process. Stephen was personally involved with me and gave
me specific guidance and support without which I could not have completed this thesis.
Not only was he an advisor extraordinaire in this intellectual endeavor, but also a
mentor and friend throughout the whole of life providing emotional and spiritual
support as well. I cannot thank him enough.
My examiners, Dr. William Telford and Professor John Riches, for their willingness
to participate in this process. I would like to thank them for their scholarly example and
for the helpful feedback they provided. Also, Professor Loren Stuckenbruck for his
guidance and continual support throughout my time at Durham and for his
encouragement to pursue publishing the thesis when completed.
My beloved bishop, Bishop Michael B. Davidson, ICCEC, for his unconditional
support and encouragement throughout the research and writing of this thesis.
My dear friend and partner in Christian ministry, The Rev. Jeff Gannon, UMC. This
thesis could not have been completed without the support of Rev. Gannon and the entire
congregation at Chapel Hill Fellowship, UMC. Not only did Jeff provide personal
encouragement but he gave me time at several critical junctures in which to focus on
my research and writing. The entire congregation at Chapel Hill Fellowship was
interested in and encouraged this endeavor for which I will always be deeply grateful.
Specific congregational members read the thesis in part or in its entirety. I would like
to thank each of them: Dr. Ernie Rieger, MD who met regularly with me to discuss the
thesis and who made many helpful suggestions, especially with the Hebrew text; Dr.
Chuck Schalon and Lori Shunk who proof-read the thesis and offered helpful
suggestions.
Dr. Steve Rankin, Southwestern College, who offered both friendship and
intellectual dialog which stimulated me at several times of blockage.
Dr. Jerry Truex who paved the way before me at Durham University and so offered
helpful insight and focus along the way. I especially appreciated his dialogue with the
penultimate draft. He was a God-send in helping me over that initial hurdle.
Dr. AI Gregg, Wichita State University, who interacted with Chapter 3 on Metaphor.
My longtime friend, Professor Dale C. Allison, who many years ago inspired me to
focus on Matthew's Gospel through his own incredible scholarly work and influence.
Also, many thanks to the staff of Edmond Stanley Library at Friends University for
their tireless efforts to locate books and articles through Inter-Library Loan.
Last, but not least, I dedicate the thesis to my family. My oldest daughter, Jaimee
Anne whose calls provided hope on a daily basis and light when the path was dark. My
youngest daughter, Tera Lee whose interest in my scholarly work and her willingness to
listen and dialogue gave the task a joy and purpose beyond what she will ever know.
Finally, to my wife, Julie, who has always supported and encouraged me to pursue my
goals. She believed in me when I didn't believe in myself. She not only supported me
emotionally and financially in this endeavor but also in many practical ways, along with
hours of proof reading when it came time to submit th~Ji!l~lproduct.
I give thanks to all ofthese and to God, who has made himself known to us in Jesus
and from whom all good things come. To him be the Glory.
v
1'ABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT ........................................ ii
ACKN"OWLEDGEMENTS .................................................................. iv
ABBREVIATIONS .............................................................................. viii
1~1rlt()I>1JC:1rl()~ ................... 1
Chapter 1. HISTORY OF RESEARCH ..................................................... 10
1.1 Joachim Jeremias .............................................................. 10
1.2 Wilfred Tooley ................................................................... 15
1.3 Francis Martin ....................................................................... 19
1.4 John Paul Heil ..................................................................... 21
1.5 Nicholas Cachia ................................................................. 22
1.6 Jonathan David Hutzinger .......................................................... 26
1. 7 Timothy S. Laniak.................................................................... 27
Chapter 2. METHOD ........................................................................ 29

2.1 Introduction ......................................................................... 29
2.2 Perspective regarding the Gospel. ..................................................... 29
2.2.1 Matthew's Jewish-Christian Setting........................................ . 30
2.2.2 Matthew's Sources ....................................................... 34
2.3 Procedure regarding the Gospel ............................................ 36
2.4 Matthew's use of Biblical Tradition, Intertextuality and the Shepherd Texts .... 37
2.4.1 Matthew's use of the Biblical Tradition ............................. 38
2.4.1.1 A review of research of Matthew's use of the OT ............ .. 38
2.4.1.2 Matthew's Use of Typo log)' ....................................... 47
2.4.1.3 Relevance of this research for the shepherd texts ............. . 49
2.4.2 Intertextuality and the use of the Biblical Tradition in the NT ..... . 50
2.4.2.1 Intertextuality: Quotations and Allusions .................... .. 51
2.4.2.2 Intertextuality: Text, Sub-text and Context.................. .. 57
2.5 Summary 62
Chapter 3. METAPHOR ...................................................................... 65

3.1 Metaphor: Definitions, Theories and Approaches .................................... 65
3.1.1 What Metaphor Is ............................................................ . 67
3.1.2 How Metaphor Functions .............................................. 71
3.1.2.1 Classical Approaches ................................................. . 71
3.1.2.2 Pragmatic Approaches ....................-.................... 75
3.1.2.3 Interactionist or Incrementalist Approaches .................. .. 79
3.1.2.4 Cognitive Approaches ............................................. 87
3.1.3 The Approach to Metaphor in this Thesis ............................... . 92
3.1.3.1 An Interanimation/Perspectival Approach ..................... . 93
3.1.3.2 Metaphor Analysis ....................................... 101
3.1.3.2.1 'Established' Metaphor.................................. .. 101
3.1.3.2.2 'Extended' Metaphor ...................................... . 103
3.2 Summary ................................................................................ 105
VI
Chapter 4. SHEPHERDS AND SHEEP IN HISTORICAL CONTEXT ............. . 107

4.1 Ancient Near Eastern Background ...................................................... . 107
4.1.1 The Realities that Inform the Shepher/Sheep Metaphor............... . lOi
4.1.1.1 Biblical beginnings .................................................. 114
4.1.1.2 Ancient Near Eastern 'herding contracts' ........................ 116
4.1.2 The Shepherds of Mesopotamia ........................................... 120
4.1.3 The Shepherds of Eg)'pt...................................................... . 124
4.1.4 Summacy.................................................................. 125
4.2 Shepherd/Sheep Metaphor in Greco-Roman Traditions ............................. 126
4.2.1 The Literal Usage .............................................................. . 126
4.2.2 The Metaphorical Usage ...................................................... . 129
4.2.3 Pan: The god of the herders and shepherds .............................. 134
4.3 Summary .............................................................................. 137
Chapter 5. YHWH: THE SHEPHERD OF ISRAEL

AND THE UNDER-SHEPHERDS OF HIS PEOPLE ...................................... 138
5.1 YHWH the Shepherd of Israel .......................................................... 138
5.1.1 Introduction ............................................................. 139
5.1.2 YHWH as the Sheoherd ofisrael.. .......................................... . 142
5.1.3 Psalm 23 ...................................................................... 144
5.1.4 Israel as 'the sheep' of YHWH's pasture ................................... 155
5.1.5 Summacy ........................................................................ 156
5.2 The Under-Shepherds of his people .................................................... 157
5.2.1 The Patriarchs: The Shepherd Heritage ................................. 157
5.2.2 Moses: The Shepherd Lawgiver.......................................... 158
5.2.3 David: The Shepherd King ................................................... . 160
5.2.4 The Shepherd-Messiah and the False Shepherds oflsrael. ............. . 163
5.2.4.1 ~icah .................................................................. 163
5.2.4.2 Jeremiah ....................................................... 165
5.2.4.3 Ezekiel ................................................. 172
5.2.4.4 Zechariah ................................................. 176
5.3 Summary ..................................................................................... 179
Chapter 6.SHEPHERD/SHEEP METAPHOR IN EARLY JEWISH LITERATURE.. 180

6.1 Early Judaism ................................................................................ . 180
6.1.1 Judith 11:19 ................................................................... 181
6.1.2 Sirach (Ecclesiaticus) 18:13 ............................................ 184
6.1.3 LXX: Psalm 151 (11 QPs8 : Psalm ISlA) ............................... 185
6.1.4 I Enoch 89:10-90:42 ................................................. 189
6.1.5 Qumran: Selected Texts ................................................ 199
6.1.6 Psalms of Solomon 17:21-46............................................... 204
6.2 Phllo ........................................................................................ 205
6.2.1 Introduction ..................................................................... . 206
6.2.2 De agricultura l :26-66 ..................... 206
6.3 Some Rabbinic References ................................................................ 209
,;;.
6.3.1 Shepherd as a,'despised trade' .......... -. ............................ 210
6.3.2 Shepherds as ordinary peasants ...................................... 211
Vll
6.3.3 Shepherd as a 'would be' Messiah ............................................ . 213

6.4 Summary ...................................................................................... 214
Chapter 7.JESUS AS SHEPHERD IN MATTHEW......................... 215

7.1 Introduction ................................................................................. 215
7.2 Mt 2:6 Introduction and Structure ofMt 2:1-11 ...................................... 215
7.2.1 Textual Analysis ofMt 2:6 .. _................................................ 220
7.2.2 Intertextual Analysis ofMt 2:6 and Mt 2:11 ............................. 226
7.2.2.1 Mt 2:6 and Mic 5:2(1); II Sam 5:2/11 Chr 11:2 .................... 227
7.2.2.2 Mt 2:11 and Ps 72:10-11, 15........................................ 232
7.2.2.3 Mt 2:11 and Isa 60:6-7 ................................................ 237
7.2.3 Contextual Analysis of Mt 2:1-11 ............................................. 238
7.2.3.1 Usc of Comparison .................................................... 239
7.2.4 Metaphor Analysis ofMt. 2:6 ............................................... 243
7.3 Introduction and Structure ofMt 9:35-10:1. ........................................ 245
7.3.1 Textual Analysis ofMt 9:35-38 .............................................. 249
7.3.2 Intertextual Analysis of Mt 9:36 ........................................... 255
7.3.2.1 Num 27:17; I Kgs 22:17/III Chr 18:16; Jdt 11:19 ................. 256
7.3.2.2 Jer 3:15,23:1-6, 50:6; Ezek 34:4-6; Zech 10:2 ..................... 258
7.3.3 Contextual Analysis of Mt 9:35~38 ......................................... 261
7.3.4 Metaphor Analysis of Mt. 9:36 ............................................. 263
7.4 Introduction and Structure of Mt 15:21-28.......................................... 264
7.4.1 Textual Analysis ofMt 15:24 ................................................. . 267
7.4.2 Intertextual Analysis of Mt 15:24 ............................................ 269
7.4.2.1 Jer 50:6 (cf. Isa 53:6; Ezek 34) ...................................... 270
7.4.3 Contextual Analysis ofMt 15:21-28 .......................................... 271
7.4.4 Metaphor Analysis of Mt. 15:24........................................... 272
7.5 Introduction and Structure of Mt 25:31-46 .............. .'........................... 274
7.5.1 Textual Analysis ofMt 25:32 ............................................... 277
7.5.2 Intertextual Analysis of Mt 25:32 ......................................... 281
7.5.2.1 Isa 66:18 and Joel3:1-3 (LXX 4:1-3), .............................. . 282
7.5.2.2 Ezek 34:17, 20-24 ............................................. 284
7.5.3 Contextual Analysis ofMt 25:31-46 ....................................... 285
7.5.4 Metaphor Analysis of Mt. 25:32 ........................................ 286
7.6 Introduction and Structure of Mt 26:30-35 ........................................ 288
7.6.1 Textual Analysis ofMt 26:31-32 .......................................... 289
7.6.2 Intertextual Analysis of Mt 26:31-32 ...................................... 291
7.6.3 Contextual Analysis of Mt 26:30-35 ...................................... 293
7.6.4 Metaphor Analysis ofMt 26:31. .......................................... 294
7.7 Summary ....................................................................... 295
CONCLUDING SUMMARY .................................................................. 297
BIBLIOGRAHY ........................................................................ 303

..;.;
Vlll
ABBREVIATIONS
The Bibliographic style and most of the abbreviations in this thesis are those
recommended by the Society of Biblical Literature, The SBL Handbook of Style,
published by Hendrickson, 1999. The following abbreviations are used in the
footnotes for commonly-cited works.
ABD Anchor Bible Dictionary. Edited by D. N. Freedman. 6 vols. New

York, 1992.
ANET Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament. Edited by J.
B. Pritchard. 3d ed. Princeton, 1969.
BDAG Bauer, W., F. W. Danker, W. F. Arndt, and F. W. Gingrich. Greek-

English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian
Literature. 3rd ed. Chicago, 1999.
BDB Brown, F., S. R. Driver, and C. A. Briggs. A Hebrew and English

Lexicon of the Old Testament. Oxford, 1907.
BDF Blass, F., A. Debrunner, and R. W. Funk. A Greek Grammar of the

New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature. Chicago, 1961.
EDNT Exegetical Dictionary of the New Testament. Edited by H. Balz, G.

Schneider. ET. Grand Rapids, 1990-1 993.
HALOT Koehler, L., W. Baumgartner, and J. J. Stamm, The Hebrew and

Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament. Translated and edited under the
supervision of M. E. J. Richardson. 4 vols. Lei den, 1994-1999.
LEH Lust, Johan, Erik Eyrikel, and Katrin Hauspie. Greek-English Lexicon
of the Septuagint. Revised Edition. Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft. 2003.
LSJ Liddell, H. G., R. Scott, H. S. Jones, A Greek-English Lexicon. 9th ed.

with revised supplement. Oxford, 1996.
TDNT Theological Dictionary of the New Testament. Edited by G. Kittel and

G. Friedrich. Translated by G. W. Bromiley. 10 vols. Grand Rapids,
1964-1976.
TDOT Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament. Edited by G. J.

Botterweck and H. Ringgren. Translated by J. T. Willis, G. W.
Bromiley and D. E. Green. 14 vols. Grand Rapids, 1974-2004.
TLNT Theological Lexicon of the New Testament. C. Spicq. Translated and

edited by J. D. Ernest. 3 vols. Peabody, Mass., 1994.
IX
TLOT Theological Lexicon of the Old Testament. Edited by E. Jenni, with

assistance from C. Westermann. Translated by M. E. Biddle. 3 vols.
Peabody, Mass., 1997.
TWOT Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament. Edited by R. L. Harris, G.

L. Archer Jr. 2 vols. Chicago, 1980.
Major Commentaries Consulted (see the Bibliography for full citations):
Davies & Allison 1, 2, 3 Davies, W.O. and Dale C. Allison. A Critical and
Exegetical Commentary on The Gospel According to
Saint Matthew. 3 vols. The International Critical
Commentary Series. Edinburgh, 1988-1997.
Hagner 1, 2 Hagner, Donald A. World Biblical Commentary:

Matthew. 2 vols. Dallas, 1993-1995.
Holladay 1, 2 Holladay, William L. A Commentary on the Book ofthe

Prophet Jeremiah. Hermeneia-A Critical and Historical
Commentary on the Bible. 2 vols. Philadelphia 1986-
1989.
Lundborn 1, 2, 3 Lundbom, Jack. A New Translation with Introduction and

Commentary: Jeremiah. The Anchor Bible. 3 vols. New
York, 1999-2004.
Luz 1, 2, 3 Luz, Ulrich. A Commentary ofthe Gospel ofMatthew.

Hermeneia-A Critical and Historical Commentary on the
Bible. 3 vols. Minneapolis, 1989-2005.
Zimmerli 1, 2 Zimmerli, Walter. A Commentary of the Book of the

Prophet Ezekiel. Hermeneia-A Critical and Historical
Commentary on the Bible. 2 vols. Philadelphia 1979-
1983.
NRSV: New Revised Standard Version is used for English Bible quotations.
NA27 : Nestle-Aland 27th edition is used for the Greek NT.
BHS: Biblia Heraica Stuttgartensia is used for the Hebrew OT.
1
INTRODUCTION
This thesis will demonstrate that Matthew the evangelist believed that
Jesus was the Shepherd-Messiah, specifically the righteous and royal Shepherd-
Messiah come from God, to give leadership and guidance in the aftermath of the
devastating events of the Roman war with the Jews in 66-70 C.E. 1 Matthew wrote
during a time of crisis and transition for Judaism. Some Jews were searching for
leadership and direction and some found it in what would later be known as Rabbinic
Judaism. In this context, the Evangelist believes he knows who and how leadership
should be redefined in light of this crisis. Jesus as the Shepherd-Messiah, the Son of
David and Son of God, comes in fulfillment of the promises in the Hebrew Scriptures.
He is the one chosen by God to give the new and authoritative interpretation of the
law, to clarify the identity ofthe new community ofthe people of God and to define
the nature of renewed leadership that should serve the new community.
When I began this thesis several years ago, my interest in the shepherd
metaphor was primarily personal and practical. I had been in parish ministry for
twenty-five years and had just resigned from a church that I had pastored for almost
eighteen years. At that time, I was interested primarily in the shepherd metaphor and
its connection to a biblical understanding ofleadership. This time of transition allowed
me to reflect on those years of pastoral leadership: How had my leadership been
effective? How had my leadership been ineffective or even detrimental? Where had I
received my guidance for my leadership style? Was I following what Jesus did and
taught in the Gospels? These questions were fresh on my mind as I began to probe the
shepherd metaphor in hopes that it might give me a fuller understanding of biblical
leadership.
1
The social context of the Gospel will be discussed further in Chapter 2 and Chapter 7.
2
My second interest at the time was with Matthew's Gospel and his
considerable skills as a communicator as illustrated by his literary techniques,
techniques I still find remarkable. I came to appreciate: 1) his repetition of favorite
words, phrases, formulas and whole sentences; 2) his utilization of the inclusion, and
chiasmus; 3) his use of framing, not just with formulas or the inclusion, but by making
use of whole peri copes or narrative events in order to establish a theological theme; 4)
his collection of like material; for example, miracle stories, sayings of Jesus and
parables; 5) his application of triads; 6) his drawing upon 'Matthean vocabulary' to
cross reference to other passages in the Gospel by echoing similar themes through
verbal allusion; 7) his application of these literary techniques whereby he creates
structural markers that sometimes run throughout the Gospel. These are only some of
the ways that Matthew uses his literary genius in the composition of his Gospel.
But as I studied Matthew, I found that equal to his communication skills were
his pastoral skills. He sets forth the story and significance of Jesus in a way that is
uniquely relevant to his readers in order to give them guidance and spiritual direction
in light oftheir contemporary crisis of leadership. He provided the Jewish Christians
of his day the perspective and tools they needed to help them form their own spiritual
identity in relation to their Jewish heritage. In addition to this specific personal
relevance and application, he also deals with broad pastoral and catechetical concerns.
By his leadership, he helps the Jewish community embrace the leadership and
guidance that Jesus the Shepherd-Messiah offers them.
These interests persist to this day as I continue to engage in full time pastoral
work along with teaching responsibilities. But as the thesis progressed it became
apparent to me that the.'shepherd texts,' as trefer~to.them,-were larger and more

3
significant than I originally anticipated since they are a part of Matthew's extensive
use of scriptural tradition.
In order to appreciate Matthew's perspective concerning Jesus as the
Shepherd-Messiah and specifically his use of the shepherd motif in regard to Jesus, it
became important to understand Matthew's use of the Jewish scriptures in both their
Hebrew and Greek forms. Matthew uses some sixty-one quotes from the biblical
tradition in his Gospel. According to NA 27th edition, forty of these are explicit
citations, or as I call them, 'marked quotations,' 2 and twenty-one of these direct
quotations are without explicit citation. When the allusions (which approximate nearly
300) are taken into account, it becomes clear how important the biblical tradition is for
Matthew. All of the shepherd texts are either quotations from the biblical tradition or
allusions to it. This is another way Matthew lends importance and authority to
shepherd motif. 3
Matthew uses TIOL~~v ('shepherd')4 three times in his Gospel (9:36; 25:32;
26:31) and the verb not~a[vw once (2:6). 5 Matthew always uses these terms
metaphorically, never literally. The shepherd image is implied in regards to Jesus in
15:24 and 18:12. Through these uses Matthew establishes Jesus as the Shepherd-
Messiah.
Matthew has five shepherd texts that describe Jesus in his birth, ministry and
death as the messianic shepherd. He employs the shepherd metaphor more than either
2
Allison (2000) x.
3
Senior (1997) 89. These statistics will differ in some of the details among scholars, e.g. Davies and
Allison I :29-58, 3:573-577, but this only illustrates the difficulty of identifying scriptural citations and
especially allusions. The primary point ofthe statistics is to emphasize that Matthew uses the biblical
traditions with an intensity and theological intentionality beyond the other Gospel writers.
4
lTOtf.L~V, EVo<;, 6 shepherd- I. lit. Lk 2:8, 15, 18, 20; fig. Mt 9:36 II Mk 6:34; Mt 25:32; Mt 26:31 //
Mk 14:27. . . . .
5
noq.ux(vw herd, ten(/, (lead to) pasture- I. lit. tend sheep Lk 17:7.-2. fig.-a. in the sense 'lead,'
'guide,' 'rule' Mt 2:6; J 21: 16; Ac 20:28; I Pt 5:2; Rv 2; 27; 12:5; 19: 15.-b. care for, look after Jd 12;
Rv 7:17.
4
Mark or Luke. Matthew shares Luke's one reference, the lost sheep parable found in Q
(Mt 18:12-14//Lk 15:3-7), although Matthew applies the parable differently. With
Mark, Matthew shares two references, both from the biblical tradition: (i) the
unmarked quote 'sheep without a shepherd' in Mk 6:34//Mt 9:36, intertextually related
to Num 27:17; and (ii) Mk 14:27//Mt 26:31 where the shepherd is 'struck' and the
sheep are scattered, identified in the marked quote from Zech 13:7. Matthew has two
shepherd texts from his own source(s) and alone uses the verb, noq.ux(vw, in the
compound quote in 2:6, 'a ruler shall shepherd my people'. 6 This quotation combines
the Davidic text of II Sam 5:2 and the shepherd-messiah prophecy of Micah 5:2. In
25:31-32, the 'Son of Man' is described as the shepherd who 'separates the sheep from
the goats'. Matthew alone implies that Jesus is the shepherd in the encounter with the
'Canaanite' woman when Jesus says that his mission is 'only to the lost sheep of the
house oflsrael' (Mk 7:24-30//Mt 15:21-28; cf. Mt 10:6). Matthew also associates the
shepherd motifwith christological phrases like 'Son of David' and the 'Son ofMan',
and with typological themes like the 'new Moses' and the 'new David.' Matthew's
intertextual use of the biblical tradition is therefore of primary importance in regard to
the shepherd texts.
The term intertextuality is used as an umbrella term that describes the
relationship between previous texts (subtexts) and their use and influence on the
current text that quotes or alludes to the previous textual tradition. The meaning of
intertextua/ity varies when used by different authors, but in its most comprehensive
understanding it may include all potential relationships between texts. The focus here
is concerned with 'only one species of intertextuality, namely, deliberate literary
borrowing,, the sort of borrowingcthat a text encourages ,its audience, to"discoverrand
6
Cf. The two texts are Mic 5:2 and II Sam 5:2.
5
recognition of which enlarges meaning'. 7 From the standpoint of this thesis,
intertextuality in Matthew primarily involves the Jewish Scriptures, in both their
Hebrew and Greek forms. The Matthean shepherd texts exist as part of a larger Jewish
literary tradition. 8 The emphasis here is in regard to the intertextuality of the textual
tradition.
For Matthew, Jesus, the Son of God and Messiah, was given divine authority
by God to interpret afresh the Jewish Scriptures and after his resurrection to be
personally present with the new community of God's people in order to provide them
with spiritual guidance. 9 The ancient shepherd metaphor, which once was associated
with the godly leadership of David and Moses, is now revealed in its fullness in Jesus,
the Son of God. This image of Jesus as Israel's shepherd is both explicit and implicit
in Matthew's Gospel. The ways in which Jesus is the shepherd are explicitly stated in
the shepherd texts of Matthew and implicitly in the typological correspondences in the
Gospel.
The shepherd/sheep metaphor in the Gospel is rooted in the rich soil of the
Ancient Near East generally and specifically in the biblical tradition and Second
Temple Judaism. The metaphor had a positive history in regard to YHWH as the
shepherd of Israel. 10 There were also important individuals such as the patriarchs,
Moses, David and the future Messiah, who are associated with the shepherd
metaphor. 11 But, alongside this positive image, a negative use ofthe metaphor also
7
Allison (2000) ix. Cf. Moyise (2000) 41, '[lntertextuality] is best used as an "umbrella" term for the
complex interactions that exist between "texts" (in the broadest sense)'.
8
While intertextuality has to do primarily with texts, this does not exclude the historical and
cultural/social setting of the texts and their sources. This also includes the literary forms, the final
literary and canonical shape of the texts and the way the shepherd metaphor is understood in light of
this background.
9
E.g. Mt. t:23,
10 - ' .
J&:20,
.
28:20.
E.g. Gen 48:15, 49:24.
11
E.g. Ez 34:23, 37:24; Ps Sol 17:23-46.
6
emerged. This negative metaphor coincides with mixed views of the literal practice of
shepherding. For instance, laws were enacted to protect against the potential
dishonesty of shepherds who were hired to tend the flocks of others. 12 As a metaphor
of bad leadership in antiquity the evil shepherd, or anti-shepherd metaphor, whether
political or religious, becomes an image for leaders that do not care for or tend those
being led. At least from the time of Jeremiah and Ezekiel, evil shepherds who took
advantage of, used and abused the sheep/people for personal gain 13 are shown as a
problem. The shepherd metaphor was often used in times when there was a crisis of
leadership or leadership was being contested. Cultural associations with the actual
trade of shepherding also became more negative. During the first century and
especially later there is evidence that shepherding as a trade, while necessary, was
despised as an occupation linked with thieves and cheats. 14 1t is the purpose of this
thesis to consider these various traditions and their importance for Matthew.
In the study of Matthew's Gospel, many have emphasized the christological
titles of Jesus; Jesus is King ofthe Jews, Messiah, Son of Man, Son of David and Son
of God. 15 Scholars have debated over the importance that Matthew places on any one
or combination of these titles. This thesis will argue that Matthew uses the shepherd
metaphor to depict Jesus as the 'righteous royal shepherd/leader' who, as the Son of
Abraham and in the royal lineage of David (Mt 1:1 ), will rule/tend the people of God
in righteousness and mercy. Matthew contrasts Jesus as the good (true)
12
E.g. Ex 22:9- I 3 and The Code of Hammurabi ANET I 77.
13
E.g. Jer 23, Ez 34.
14
m. Qidd. 4:14. Cf. Jeremias (I 975) 303-307. Horsley (1989) I 02-03 contends that 'The texts from
which these lists are taken are very late, hence not good evidence for the time of Jesus. Equally as
important as the dating of evidence should be the social location of evidence. It is, unli~ely that rabbinic
debates- on who~is in:Iigible to-servlas witnesses mco1irCpfoviC!e goocfevidence for wileth~erC'eHain
people were despised or hated "by the people"'.
15
E.g. Davies and Allison 3:718-21; Stanton ( 1997) 180-85.
7
shepherd/leader of Israel over against Jewish leaders, who deny his Messiahship and
who are characterized as evil (false) shepherds/leaders.
A number of studies concerning the shepherd/sheep metaphor have focused on
specific texts throughout Scripture and beyond the biblical materials into the history of
the church. 16 Others have restricted themselves to the Gospels in one form or
another. 17 A primary focus of research in regard to the shepherd metaphor in the NT
has been Jesus the Good Shepherd in John's Gospel. 18 This thesis will seek to clarify
the shepherd/sheep metaphor in regard to Jesus as shepherd in the Gospel of Matthew.
The purpose of this thesis is not to argue that the metaphor of Jesus as the
righteous royal shepherd is the dominant description of Jesus in Matthew's Gospel. It
is one among many of the christological themes that Matthew uses to show that Jesus
is the Messiah, the Son of God. 19 As noted above, Matthew's Christo logy has often
been evaluated on the basis of a study of christological titles and various attempts have
been made to identify the most important title. 20 This is not the approach of the present
thesis. This thesis hopes to show that the shepherd metaphor deepens Matthew's
overall christological concerns. It will be argued that Jesus is the righteous royal
shepherd and this christological perspective sheds light on the Son of David theme
specifically and other christological themes generally. This thesis will demonstrate
that the shepherd/sheep metaphor illuminates and enriches Matthew's central
christological concern that Jesus is God's Messiah. Matthew does this by showing
16
E.g. Thomson ( 1955), Jeremias (TDNT) 6:485-502, Beyreuther ( 1978), Tidball ( 1986), Winstanley
(1986); Sabbe (1991), Bosetti (1993), Soggin (1997), Huntzinger (1999), Lanik (2006).
17
E.g. Tooley (1964) 15-25; Martin, (1975) 261-301; Heil, (1993) 698-708.
18
E.g. Beutler and Fortna (1991); Cachia (1997); Kostenberger (2002) 67-96; Sabbe (1991) 75-93.
19
Davies and Allison (1997) 3:720-21 emphasize that the 'very multiplicity' of titles and typologies, is
one of the main ways Matthew makes his point that 'Jesus is larger than all of them'. 'Matthew's
narrative serves not to define titles, significant as they are, but to reveal a person whq_ cannot.l:>~ .
0
capturedby one label or even'by manY'':" ' ' .
20
E.g. the Kingsbury and Hill debate concerning Jesus. Cf. Kingsbury (1984) 22-32, Hill (1984) 48-51,
Kingsbury (1985) 68-74. .
8
how Jesus demonstrates the qualities and actions of God's righteous royal shepherd. In
the Synoptic tradition, Jesus himself does not often explicitly say that he is the
Messiah, although others certainly do. The tradition, however, does present him as
doing what the Messiah is thought to or expected to do. 21 This same pattern occurs as
regards to the shepherd metaphor. Jesus does not often speak of himself as the
shepherd (if at all), but the text certainly implies this. Matthew emphasizes Jesus'
actions as fulfilling the expectations as the righteous royal shepherd according to the
promises ofthe biblical tradition. It will be pointed out that the majority of texts
indicating Jesus as shepherd are biblical texts applied to Jesus by Matthew. For
example, Matthew 2:6 is a marked compound quote from Micah 5:2 and II Samuel
5:2; Matthew 9:36 is an allusion from Numbers 24: 17; Matthew 26:31 also a marked
quote from Zechariah 13:7. Jesus does indirectly allude to himself as shepherd in
Matthew 15:24 and 25:32 which are unique to Matthew.
It will also be argued that the social setting of Matthew's context influences the
use of the metaphor. In the social setting of Matthew, the shepherd/sheep metaphor is
used to remind Israel generally and his community/communities specifically that Jesus
is the righteous royal shepherd and fulfills this role in a way that none have before
him. For Matthew, Jesus comes to fulfill and interpret anew the Jewish Scriptures; he
comes to save and heal, to deliver and provide guidance, and to remain present with
his flock, rather than abusing them or abandoning them. 22
The study of the shepherd/sheep metaphor will begin by considering the
Ancient Near Eastern texts that illustrate the metaphor and its influence especially as it
21
E.g. Peter's confession in Mt 16: 13-20; Jesus response to the disciples of John the Baptist in Mt II: 1-
15.
22
. ... .. . ...
0 "
Ps 23: YHWH provides, protects, heals, and is present with thepsalmisfeven in the midst of deep
darkness, possibly a time of personal exile. It will be argued that these attributes are also characteristic
of Matthew's understanding of Jesus as the righteous royal shepherd.
9
relates to the biblical traditions of Israel. The shepherd/sheep texts in the biblical
tradition will be dealt with extensively but not exhaustively. This same approach will
be taken in regard to the early Jewish texts and those of the Greco-Roman tradition.
Finally, Philo and rabbinic materials will be considered. While the rabbinic writings
are later than the NT, they will be considered in light of how they might reflect the late
first century understanding of the metaphor in Judaism. By drawing upon these
various textual traditions, the metaphor will be explored in such a way as to help
clarify more fully the different dimensions of Jesus as shepherd in the Gospel of
Matthew.
In sum, this study has five purposes and one clear qualification.
1) To demonstrate the Matthew believed that Jesus was the Shepherd-

Messiah, specifically the righteous and royal Shepherd-Messiah, who
comes to give leadership to the people of God in the aftermath of the
Jewish War. Matthew presented Jesus as the defining figure for the future
oflsrael.
2) To consider the various shepherd/sheep traditions and their importance for

Matthew.
3) To clarify the shepherd/sheep metaphor in regard to Jesus as shepherd in

Matthew's Gospel.
4) To show that Matthew's use of the shepherd metaphor for Jesus deepens
Matthean Christological concerns.
5) To show that Matthew's social context influences the use of the metaphor.
6) There is one clear qualification concerning this study of Jesus as shepherd.

It is not intended to argue that the metaphor of the righteous royal shepherd
is the dominant description of Jesus in Matthew.
10
CHAPTER 1
HISTORY OF RESEARCH
This chapter will review two types of pertinent research from selected works.
Type 1 are studies that deal with the shepherd/sheep metaphor generally in the Old
and New Testament and specifically contain a discussion on the Gospels, Synoptic
Gospels and/or Matthew. Type 2 are studies that deal with the shepherd/sheep
metaphor in Matthew specifically. Other works relating to the shepherd/sheep image,
for example from John's Gospel, have not been included in the attempt to focus
primarily on Matthew's use of the metaphor. Likewise, specialized studies that address
the shepherd/sheep metaphor will be considered throughout the thesis in appropriate
sections. 23 The scholars chosen for review have been selected because they represent
seminal work (e.g. Jeremias24), consider Matthew's use of the metaphor as part of
their larger work (e.g. Cachia25 , Hutzinger26 Laniak27 ), or represent the state of
research in regard to the metaphor in Matthew specifically (e.g. Toole/ 8, Martin29 ,
1.1 Joachim Jeremias
Jeremias' original German article on 1TOL~~v in TDNT provides a class analysis
ofthe shepherd/sheep word group. Jeremias' article ranges from the ANE, the biblical
tradition, Judaism, the NT and the early church. He assumes the metaphorical use
which he calls 'transferred usage'. The article has no stated theory of metaphor.
Beginning in the ANE he provides illustrations from ancient royal Sumerian,
23
E.g. Moss ( 1992) 218-223; Ham (2005) 115-120. Both deal with Matthew's use of Zechariah.
24
Jeremias 1TOLJ..I.~V TDNT 485-502.
25
Cachia (1997) 85-95.
26
Hutzinger ( 1999) 195-218, 226-244.
27
Laniak (2006) 182-194. -_(.
2
~- TOJlley (196.4); _ __ .
29
Martin (1975) 261-30 I.
30
Heil (1993) 698-708.
11
Babylonian, Assyrian and Egyptian materials. 31 He discusses the 'transferred usage'
(his way of referring to metaphor though he gives no explanation about metaphor) in
regard to YHWH as shepherd. Jeremias notes that shepherd terms are used concerning
the Exodus/wilderness motif but he cautions 'it is hard to determine' to what extent
the shepherd/sheep metaphor is at work. 32 He makes the important point that the term
shepherd is never used as an official title for a specific ruling king in Israel. 33
However, Jeremias does make a distinction. He argues that collective use of the term
shepherds is commonly used to describe groups of political and military leaders,
especially from Jeremiah on. 34 Jeremias goes on to claim that in Israel, different from
the ANE generally, YHWH alone is the true shepherd and those who serve in
leadership are legitimate shepherds to the extent that they follow YHWH as shepherd.
This allows for the possibility of unfaithful shepherds who are indicted by the later
exilic and postexilic prophets. In response to this crisis of leadership, YHWH will take
over the office of shepherd and appoint better shepherds 35 and will finally send the
ultimate shepherd who will be 'the future Messianic Son of David'. 36 Jeremias
develops the Shepherd-Messiah theme, albeit briefly, from the time of Jeremiah
through Deutero-Zechariah to the NT. Up to this point, Jeremias is in line with the
general consensus of scholarship and his work has withstood the test of time. I agree
with his observations to this point and will develop and expand his more general
31
Jeremias TDNT 6:486. This usage will be explored more fully below in 'Ancient Near Eastern
Background'.
32
Jeremias TDNT6:487.
33
Jeremias TDNT6:487-488. He makes a clarification concerning David, n 30: 'It is quite early said of
David that he "tends" Israel (2 Sam 5:2 par. I Chr II :2; Ps 78:71 t) and the people is called by him a
flock (2 Sam 24: 17 par. I Chr 21: 17), but the royal title "shepherd" does not occur'.
34
He notes: I Sam 21 :8; II Sam 7:7 par. I Chr 17:6; Jer 2:8, 3:15, 10:21, 22:22, 23:1-4, 25:34-36, 50:6;
Ezek 34:2-1 0; Is 56: II; Mic 5:4; Zech I 0:3, II :Sf., 16. Foreign rulers are also called 'shepherds' in Jer
25:34-36; Na 3: 18; Is 44:28 HT (Yahwah calls Cyrus 'my shepherd'; the LXX avoids this expression).
35
Jeremias TDNT6:488. He notes: Jer 3:15, 23:4; Ez 34:23f, 37:22,37:24.
36
Jeremias TDNT 6:488.
12
observations, exploring the use of the shepherd metaphor within themes of contested
leadership and/or leadership crises in the biblical tradition and in Matthew.
When considering later Judaism, Jeremias emphasizes the negative attitude
toward shepherds. 37 The primary sources here are late, coming from the Mishnah,
Talmud and the Tosefta. 38 For instance, Jeremias notes the negative comments of the
Midrash on Psalm 23 where the rabbis find it amazing that God is likened to
shepherds, who are by nature despicable. 39 All these sources emphasize the
discrimination against shepherds during this later period. While much of Jeremias'
work remains relevant, this portion of his work has been revised in later years as
recent scholars have questioned the status of shepherds in the first century. 40 It is the
lateness of these sources that have called into question their relevance to NT studies
and cause me to modify some of his findings throughout the thesis.
In spite of Jeremias' interest in the negative attitude towards shepherds
supported by later evidence, Jeremias seems to maintain a positive reading of the
shepherd metaphor in situations where it seems more likely to be negative, such as I
Enoch 85-90. Jeremias' reading of this passage will be challenged in Chapter Six
below when I Enoch is considered. There it will be argued that the metaphor is
probably pejorative and the shepherd designation appears to be intentionally avoided
in regard to YHWH, who is never 'the shepherd' or 'the shepherd oflsrael', but always
'the Lord of the sheep'. The treatment of this passage proves helpful in understanding
Jeremias' negative development of shepherd. We must modify Jeremias' theories due
37
Jeremias TDNT 6:488-489.
38
m. Qidd 4: 14; b. Sanh. 25b; B. Qam. I 0:9; t. B. Qam. 11:9.
39
Jeremias TDNT 6:489, n 42: Midrash on Ps 23, 'No position in the world is so despised as that of the
shepherd'.
40
Horsley ( 1989) I 02-03 contends
~~ "'!';p .,_o::.
that
,. ____ ....,.. ___ ,., ..~.. .
'The texts fro_m which
--"---;';:
..:.. _._,_, .. .>~~
these lists are"' taken
"~- -,.~_:,.._~-;-
are very .,. late, hence
-~!-;;- :. _ _-,-~_:.;~-.<;'j'...;:,,._j:{-'.~-:;..;:;'~,
;- ,,.-!:-.-.---'- . ' .. , .. - . . --.,.-. ----- ~ ------~--- ..'-10~"6 _-.-- . . . . .
not good evidence for the time of Jesus. Equally as important as the dating of evidence should be the
social location of evidence. It is unlikely that rabbinic debates on who is ineligible to serve as witnesses
in court provide good evidence for whether certain people were despised or hated "by the people'".
13
to the lateness of his sources while still acknowledging evidence that suggests that
after the exile the profession and associations with shepherding had increasingly
negative connotations.
Before concluding his material on Judaism, Jeremias highlights two texts of
particular importance for the NT: Qumran, CD 13:7-10 and Psalms ofSolomon 17:40.
The comparison of the leader of the Qumran community to a shepherd, according to
Jeremias, 'is the closest analogy to the similar statements in the NT' .41 In regard to
Psalms ofSolomon, he emphasizes that this text indicates that the Messiah was
associated with the shepherd metaphor and was known to pre-Christian Judaism.
Finally, he devotes a paragraph to Philo and notes his allegorical ('poetic') usage in
which the vou~ is expounded as the shepherd of the irrational powers of the soul.
42
Philo also uses the image of a shepherd watching over his flock (Leg. Gaj., 44) to
describe how a ruler leads his people. Consistent with a universal observation, he even
43
says that shepherding prepares one for leadership (Vit. Mos., I, 60ff.; Jos. 2).
In regard to the NT, Jeremias begins with the observation that Jesus uses the
shepherd image in his parables when referring to God; for example, see Lk 15:4-7 par.
Mt 18:12-14. Because ofhis understanding of'Pharisaic Rabbinism,' Jeremias is
surprised by this much like the Rabbis themselves are surprised by Midrash on Psalm
23. Forced to reconcile Jesus' positive references to shepherds with the negative
rabbinic attitudes, he suggests thatJesus connects God with the shepherd as part of his
44
larger practice of esteeming and identifying with the lowly. This interpretation, of
course, depends upon a presupposition of a universal negative understanding of the
41
Jeremias TDNT6:489.
42
43
Jeremias TDNT 6:490. . . ' '. - . . . ~
Jeremias TFJN'F6:490. (Leg. Gaj., 44 =Legal. 44; Vit. Mos., I, 60ff.; los., 2 =Moses I, 60ff.; Joseph,
2.) This will be discussed below in chapters 4 and 5.
44
14
shepherd. I believe a more convincing interpretation for the reason God is never
addressed as shepherd in the NT is that it becomes a christological statement relating
Jesus to God as the promised Shepherd-Messiah. 45
According to Jeremias, Jesus understands himself to be the Shepherd-Messiah
on the basis ofthe promise ofthe Messianic Shepherd in the OT. 46 Jeremias makes
three observations about how Jesus identifies himself as the Shepherd-Messiah. 47
First, Jesus explains his mission. He uses the shepherd image to explain that he will
gather the scattered people of God, because he has been sent to 'the lost sheep of the
house oflsrael' (Mt 10:6, 15:24). 48 Jeremias understands these texts as 'ancient
Aramaic tradition'. This restriction to the Jews only will give way to salvation for all
the nations after the resurrection. This universal salvation will be explained according
to Jeremias by 'the fact that Jesus expected the integration of the Gentiles into the
people of God in the form ofthe eschatological pilgrimage ofthe nations to the Mount
of God' .49 Second, Jesus used the metaphor to imply his death and resurrection (Mk
14:27-28//Mt 26:31-32). 50 Mk 14:27//Mt 26:31 is a marked quote ('it is written') from
Zechariah 13:7. The LXX of Zechariah 13:7 has 'smite' (mxra~arE, imp. aor.) whereas
Mark 14:27 changes it to 'I (God) will smite' ('rrara~w, fut. ind.), which Matthew
follows. On this basis, Jeremias argues that this change connects the shepherd motif
with the suffering servant motif in Is 53 :6b. So, the shepherd metaphor is a basic
image implying Jesus' death and resurrection. 5 1 The third assertion is that, on the
45
46
Jeremias TDNT 6:492
47
Jeremias TDNT 6:492-93. Cf. Jeremias (1967) 19f, 25-30. He develops these points in much greater
detail in the monograph, Jesus' Promise to the Nations.
48
Jeremias TDNT 6:500, n. 17.
49
50
51
Jeremias TDNT6:493. n.78, 'The smitten Shepherd is the Servant of the Lord. God vicariously lays
on him the judgment which should have smitten the whole flock'.
15
basis ofMt 25:32 and Lk 12:32, Jesus is the one who will execute the 'eschatological
judgment' and the scattered nations will be gathered like a flock to enter the
kingdom. 52 These three points are generally helpful and each will be further explored
and expanded in Chapter 8.
Throughout his work, the great strength of Jeremias' contribution is his
identification of the primary texts and his discussion of the development of the
shepherd motif in the biblical tradition. Likewise, he also points out some of the
unique ways that the biblical tradition utilized and appropriated the shepherd image in
the ANE. The major weakness of the work was his conviction that shepherds as a class
were looked down upon or despised, based on material from the Mishnah and other
late Jewish sources. While this perspective persists, in some circles the idea is
understood to be fallacious. However, in light of the influence of TDNT over the last
half century and its continued widespread use, this idea will likely continue to be
perpetuated.
1.2 Wilfred Tooley 53
Tooley is less wide ranging than Jeremias and focuses on the shepherd/sheep
image in the synoptic gospels, principally Mark and Matthew. The article is a response
to the three points made by Jeremias in the TDNT article reviewed above in which
Tooley wants to examine how 'firmly embedded this image is in Jesus' teaching and
in what categories it was used'. 54 He takes issue with Jeremias' three synoptic
categories cited above and examines each of the occurrences separately, along with
their parallels. He begins with the two occurrences in Mark and their parallels in
Matthew (Mk 6:34//Mt 9:36 and Mk 14:27-28//Mt 26:31).
52
53
Tooley (1964) 15-25.
54
Tooley (1964) 15.
16
He argues that the context of the first use in Mark 6:34//Mattew 9:36 would
appear to be different in each of the Gospels but then appeals for the common theme
of 'teaching' in both. 55 He notes references to teaching in Mark 6:30 and Matthew
9:35 and also notes that both texts are in the context of the choosing and sending out
ofthe twelve. (Note the sending of the twelve in Mk 6:6b-13 and the continuation of
the theme in 6:30-34 after a long interlude concerning John the Baptist in Mk 6:14-29;
Cf. Mt 10). Tooley's conclusion that Matthew is dependent upon Mark is incorporated
into the argument of Chapter 8 of this thesis. The teaching context seems valid enough
but Tooley does nothing with the shepherd image itself. By default one is left with the
impression that because the context is one of teaching the shepherd image is at best
marginalized. Also, Tooley does nothing regarding any possible intertextual
connections with the biblical tradition concerning the phrase 'sheep without a
shepherd'. The metaphor itself is not dealt with nor is it related to the biblical tradition
from which it comes.
Tooley then continues his review of Mark 14:27-28//Matthew 26:31. Tooley
questions whether these verses are verba Christi. He concludes that since it is the only
Synoptic reference where Jesus uses the shepherd image of his death (and death of a
shepherd is not to be found in the OT), Jesus surely did not use the shepherd metaphor
to speak of his own death. The nearest thing in the OT to the death of a shepherd is
Isaiah 53:6, which he discounts because from his perspective the only connection 'is
the pastoral image'. 56 The problem here is that he does not address the points made by
Jeremias concerning the relationship between the 'smiting' of Zechariah 13:7 and
55
Tooley (1964) 15-16.
56
Tooley (1964)
17
Isaiah 53:6 57 where 'the Lord has laid on him the iniquity of us all'. Further, he states
that because of the political overtones of the image in the OT and in Zechariah
especially, this is inconsistent with the passion story. And, because Jesus wanted to
avoid political misinterpretation Mk 14:27-28 cannot be a saying of Jesus. Finally, he
concludes the Zechariah quote probably originates in the early church's search for
testimonia in regard to his death and resurrection. 58 The major contention I have with
Tooley on these three points is that he simply asserts these statements and does
nothing to argue positively for them or argue against the points made by Jeremias.
There is minimal critical examination of the texts themselves. Often his reasoning is
based on a conclusion that assumes that Jesus would or would not do something based
on some overarching theological theme (in this case, the avoidance of being
misunderstood as a political messiah). Or, he assumes that a certain portion of the text
is the perspective of the early church and therefore could not have originated with
Jesus. It may be that one takes exception to the interpretation of the texts by Jeremias
but to reject it without dealing with the texts directly in an alternative fashion is not
helpful. Therefore, Tooley's dismissal of Mark 14:27-28//Matthew 26:31 as a key text
for the shepherd motif is unfounded.
When Tooley turns to Matthew he identifies 'six "shepherd texts", including
two that have parallels in Mark (Mk 6:34//Mt 9:36 and Mk 14:27-28//Mt 26:31),
which we have dealt with, and four others (Mt 7:15; Mt 10:6//15:24; Mt 10:16//Lk
10:3).' 59 Surprisingly, for whatever reason, he omits and never discusses Matthew 2:6.
Tooley deals with the four additional Matthean texts briefly: 1) For Matthew 7, he
57
Jeremias TDNT 6:493:
58
Tooley (1964) 19.
59
Tooley (1964) 19-20.
18
concludes 'the reference to the shepherd is heavily veiled if present at all'. 60 2)
Matthew 10:5-6 is a saying of Jesus but Matthew 15:24 is dependent upon it and is
secondary. 61 3) In Matthew 10:16//Lk 10:3, the two shepherd parables are of little help
in establishing the shepherd motif because the first is from Matthew 18: 12-14//Lk
15:3-7 and is in the context ofthe early church. If it originated with Jesus the original
Sitz im Leben is lost. Yet, the parable does suggest that Jesus uses 'the image to
describe the love ofGod'. 62 Tooley maintains that since Matthew 25:31ffis Jewish
apocalyptic 'it would therefore be most unwise to use the passage as an example of
Jesus' use of the shepherd image' .63
Tooley concludes the article by asserting that in light of his argument the
shepherd metaphor is not as 'strongly embedded' in the synoptic tradition as is often
asserted. In response to Jeremias' three categories, only one of the three may be
authenticated, namely the mission of Jesus. Tooley concedes that Jesus probably did
call 'new shepherds to feed God's people' in Matthew 10:5-6 (possibly also in Lk
12:32) and so implicitly reveals the neglect of the current Jewish leadership. 64 Besides
simply discounting certain shepherd texts, Tooley offers three main arguments against
the shepherd image. First, shepherds were despised in society, so Jesus would have
been reluctant to use the image. 65 As noted in the critique of Jeremias, there is no
longer the willingness to view shepherds in the first century on the basis of late
rabbinic materials. Secondly, Tooley asserts that the image of a shepherd dying plays
no significant role in the OT or any other relevant literature so it is unlikely that Jesus
60
Tooley (1964) 20.
61
Tooley (1964) 20-21.
62
Tooley (1964) 23.
63
64
ToMey' U96's) :h.
Tooley (1964) 24.
65
Tooley (1964) 23.
19
used the shepherd image to describe his own death. 66 The problem here, as is
elsewhere in the article, Tooley never truly argues anything, he simply asserts that
because there is little evidence then it does not matter. The reality is that Zechariah
13:7 and Isaiah 53:6 were texts that exercised considerable influence in the early
church. In addition, there are other arguments that have led many scholars to believe
that Jesus did relate to and identify himself with these passages. This will be explored
more fully when Matthew 26:31 is considered in Chapter Seven. Third, Tooley argues
that because the shepherd metaphor had military and political overtones that Jesus
would have used it only marginally. This, it seems, does not take seriously enough the
shepherd-messiah texts in the exilic and post-exilic prophets (e.g. Jer 23: 1-8; Ez
34:23-24, 37:24-25) and the role they play in Matthew. I will argue this in Chapter
Seven when the shepherd texts are analyzed. And as 'unwise' as it may be, according
to Tooley, this thesis will include Matthew 25:31ffamong the shepherd texts to be
considered.
1.3 Francis Martin 67
Of primary interest in Martin's article is his consideration of issues related to
Matthew's use ofintertextual techniques which leads him to deal with a theory of
metaphor. While he uses his own language, not the current idiom, for discussing the
use of 'theme' or 'image' (metaphor), 'literary heritage' and 'image context'
(intertextuality), 68 he comes close to giving a definition of metaphor when he says,
There are many ways in which a theme or image may be evoked. An image
may become the vehicle by which two themes interpenetrate and mutually
modify one another. 69
66
Tooley (1964).
67
Mariiri'(I975)'261-30t.
68
Martin (1975) 265.
69
Martin (1975) 264.
20
In Chapter Three, I consider some of the basic theories of metaphor and how they
come to bear upon the shepherd/sheep motif. Martin anticipates the need to understand
the idea and function of 'image,' even if he only does this in a brief manner. His
language of 'interpenetrate and mutually modify' sounds similar to the language of
I.A. Richards whom he alludes to, but does not reference. 70 Martin's comments are
brief but they reveal his awareness of several implications: 1) The need to recognize
that in a discussion of 'image' there is some kind of interactive dimension. 71 2) An
image must be shared by common human experience in order to have meaning. 72 3)
That an image has the possibility of creating new insight. In relation to the shepherd
image in Matthew specifically Martin puts it this way,
Mtr' s use of the image of shepherd is an instance of the interaction and

interpenetration of various facets of an image that had already begun to
coalesce in the successive uses of that image in the tradition which preceded
the writing of the gospel. 73
His terminology may need refinement according to current theories of metaphor and
some theorists, as we see in Chapter Three, would take issue with his interactionist
approach. But his sensitivities to the issues surely point the way forward.
Martin explores the shepherd metaphor from both Matthew's use of the OT
and Matthew's 'interior allusion'. 74 His discussion ofthese interior allusions reveals
an awareness of some of the Matthean literary dimensions. These are not unique from
contemporary literary perspectives but in light of his primary focus on a historical-
critical approach, it reveals literary sensitivity. 75
70
Martin (1975) 265. Richards (1936) and the theories of metaphor will be discussed in chapter 3.
71
Martin (1975) 264.
72
Martin (1975) 264.
73
, Martin,(1975) 270.
74
Martin (1975) 269-270.
75
For the text forms he follows Gundry ( 1967) and Roth fuchs ( 1969).
21
Martin does not restrict himself to the direct quotes, but also includes allusions
and so considers a wide range ofMatthean texts: Mt 2:6,9:36, 10:6, 12:9-14, 12:22-
30, 14:14, 15:21-28, 18:12-14,20:29-34,21:1-12,24:30,25:32,26:15,26:31,26:56,
27:3-10. Some ofthese texts will be dealt with in Chapter Seven. However, I have
limited my focus to only those shepherd texts that directly allude to Jesus as shepherd.
Overall Martin's article is helpful and contributes to an understanding of the
shepherd metaphor. There may be disagreements in detail concerning an exegetical
choice or final way of looking at a specific text. Yet, his historical-critical approach
rooted in seriously considering Matthew's sources along with his literary awareness
makes his work an important contribution.
1.4 John Paul Heil 76
Heil specifically distinguishes his treatment from that by Martin. Martin
analyzed a number of indirect references to the image but Heil identifies eight
passages that deal directly with the shepherd and sheep metaphor in Matthew. 77
Different, too, from Martin is his lack of a theory of metaphor; he makes no comment
about metaphor or how he understands it, but simply assumes it.
A strength ofHeil's argument is his appeal for a narrative strategy in
approaching the passages, believing they build and reach a kind of climax in the
passion narrative (26:31-32). 78 In Chapters 2 and 7, I will argue in continuity with
Heil's narrative strategy on the basis of Matthew's literary and intertextual
76
Heil (1993) 698-708.
77
Heil(l993}699; n 3. He briefly analyzes Mt 2:6, 9:36; 10:6 and 16, Mt 14:14, 15:24 and 32, Mt
18:12-14,25:31-46 and 26:31-32.
78
Heil ( 1993) 698.
22
techniques. 79 Matthew not only uses the biblical tradition intertextually, but uses it
intratextually by relating themes and motifs to one another within the Gospel.
Heil proposes 'that Ezekiel 34 in particular contains the entire semantic field
needed for the implied reader to appreciate fully the Matthean shepherd metaphor'. 80
This approach is too narrow, especially when we take into account Matthew's use of
the broader biblical tradition. In light of the fact that Matthew explicitly quotes the OT
over sixty times and alludes to it nearly three hundred times, it would seem that the
'implied author presupposes' that the 'implied reader' knows far more of the biblical
tradition than just Ezekiel 34. 81 In all fairness he acknowledges this 'rich tradition of
the Jewish Scriptures', recognizing the explicit quotes in Matthew 2:6 and 26:31 but in
both cases he appeals for an Ezekiel 34 background. Yet, even with these minimal
concessions asserted by Heil, his main concern is to show the connections between
Ezekiel34 and Matthew's use ofthe shepherd/sheep metaphor. Heil's ostensive
neglect of the broader biblical tradition has allowed him to keep a sustained focus on
Ezekiel 34, which substantially contributes to our understanding of the shepherd and
sheep metaphor.
1.5 Nicholas Cachia 82
In a substantial study Cachia examines the image of the Good Shepherd with
the ultimate goal of using the image as a resource for spiritual leadership in regard to
the ministerial priesthood. Cachia's main emphasis is on John's Gospel. However,
79
These literary techniques will be considered in chapters 2 and 7 below. E.g. how Matthew
emphasizes the presence of Christ throughout the Gospel in I :23, 18:20 and 28:20.
80
Heil ( 1993) 699. _ , .. ,:. , ., <-- _ -~
81
Heil (I 993)'699, n 3. MattheW's use ofthe"biblical tradition is considere~d in chapter 2 and applied in
chapter 7.
82
Cachia ( 1997).
23
before he addresses the Gospel in chapter two, he turns his attention first to a
discussion on image 83 and then a survey of the shepherd motif in the ANE, the biblical
tradition, Jewish tradition and the NT. 84 The heart of the study focuses on the image in
John with the final two chapters considering the image in the early church and how it
may be applied to the ministerial priesthood. His discussion on image is the primary
focus for review here.
Cachia first considers what he calls the basic principles at work in the use of
symbol, image, metaphor and meaning in his introduction. 85 Following Tracy, he
begins by discussing the different meanings of meaning. 86 Throughout his discussion
he uses image, symbol and metaphor interchangeably. This can be problematic. As I
argue in Chapter Three, following Soskice, metaphor and image may be used
interchangeably but, symbol should be 'distinguished from metaphor as a category
which includes the non-linguistic; e.g. the cross is a symbol for Christianity' .87 In
addition while image is often used to designate mental events and visual
representations, in this thesis image will be used as a generic term for figures of
speech associated with metaphor.
Using symbol and metaphor synonymously, Cachia explains the
methodological presuppositions necessary for his understanding of the significance of
analogical (imagistic) language in theology with four assertions:
First, images have their own original contexts and continue to change; they are
not static, but dynamic. 88 In this consideration he reminds us that symbols/metaphors
i
83
Approx. 25 pages.
84
Approx. 85 pages.
85
He bases his studies primarily on Van Roo ( 1992), Rahner ( 1975), Lonergan (1990), Tracy ( 1970,
1981 ), McFague (I 982), Dulles (1995).
86
Tracytl970)20~217 and ( 1981 ).
87
Soskice (1985) 55.
88
Cachia (1997) 15.
24
develop and may be affected by other cultures. Therefore a symbol/metaphor can
change from a positive one in a given context and become negative or irrelevant in
another because they become out of date. 89 This observation is in keeping with his
primarily diachronic approach to the shepherd/sheep metaphor. His observation
supports my thesis in that diachronic change occurs with the shepherd metaphor and I
will attempt throughout the thesis to note when and how this occurs.
Second, the capacity for the symbol/image to be understood assumes a shared
perception by the perceiver with the metaphor that is being used. 90 Here he also
emphasizes that a symbol/metaphor may express more than the understanding can
conceive or grasp. Therefore, 'metaphors aim to call forth feelings and attitudes as
well as to shape perception and interpretation. They are emotional, evaluative, and
cognitive, all at the same time' .91 This, he notes, is why a symbol or image may be
perceived by different people in different ways. His fundamental point here is a
methodological one because in order to understand a symbol or image one must
appreciate the context which gave rise to it and the context in which the image is
perceived and appropriated.
A third characteristic is that because the metaphor speaks about something that
is not the thing itself it also has limitations. 92 By this he is considering the limitations
of any given metaphor. In Chapter Three I basically agree with these three
observations even though I arrive at them in a very different way than Cachia has.
89
Cachia ( 1997) 15.
90
Cachia(l997)~15.
91
Cachia (1997) 16.
92
Cachia ( 1997) 17.
25
His final claim is that the same image may be the symbol of more than one
reality. 'All symbols are polyvalent'. 93 If by this he means that what is said by way of
metaphor is unique and cannot be said in any other way and that the parts of the
metaphor create new meanings, then I agree. Yet, it is here that I take issue with using
symbol as a synonym for metaphor and image. This will be examined in detail in
Chapter Three.
His position in 'Images in Theology' is similar to my argument in Chapter
Three that metaphor is essential in religion and for talking about God. After a
discussion of the limitations of symbol and then following A. Dulles, 94 he emphasizes
that mostly, 'although not exclusively,' biblical metaphors are 'personal, relational
images'. 95 God as shepherd is one ofthose images. The point is primarily to
emphasize that since symbols or images are human expressions to describe God 'they
96
are normally not a word on God in himself but on our relationship with him' .
At this point he introduces, rightly, the caution that any time one image is
being considered, it must be kept in mind that it is only an 'angular interpretation' of
the Christ story. 97 This is of course true and a good reminder. He also footnotes
approvingly McFague's observation, 'A metaphorical theology will insist that many
metaphors and models are necessary, that a piling up of images is essential, both to
avoid idolatry and to attempt to express the richness and variety of the divine-human
relationship'. 98 With this caution and the recognition that imagistic language will have
many interpretations, Cachia sets out three criteria he will follow: 'a) the biblical texts
93
Cachia ( 1997) 17.
94
Dulles (1995) 19.
95
Cachia ( 1997) 19.
96
Cachia ( 1997) 1'9.
97
'angular interpretation' is Dulles' phrase (1995) 19.
98
Cachia (1997) 20, n 49, quoting Mcfague (1982) 19
26
which make use of the image are to be carefully and adequately studied; b) the
memory of Jesus Christ is allowed to function in its critical and corrective role; c) the
full Christian tradition, especially the patristic one, is allowed to work its corrective
and expansive functions' .99 Our approach focuses on the first point. This thesis will
offer a careful study of the biblical texts (in particular in the Gospel Matthew) that
make use ofthe image.
1.6 Jonathan David Huntzinger 100
In an unpublished doctoral thesis, Huntzinger studies the shepherd/sheep
metaphor in the exilic and post-exilic prophetic and Synoptic Gospel literature. He
opens with a discussion about metaphor and speech about God and after a brief
introduction on metaphor he identifies his perspective on metaphor and his method
(after the brief introduction he discusses definition, theory and meaning in Chapter 1,
pp 23-54).
Huntzinger identifies I.A. Richards and Janet Martin Soskice's interanimation
theory of metaphor as representing his perspective. 101 The interanimation approach
builds on and modifies the interactionist theories. The different approaches to the
various theories of metaphor will be discussed in Chapter Three. Here we will only
note some ofthe more important elements that Huntzinger identifies: 102 1) Metaphors
are linguistic exemplifications and say something that cannot be said in any other way.
2) The meaning of the metaphor is not in the word but the context of the complete
utterance. 3) The meaning is the interanimation between tenor (tenor=subject) and its
vehicle (vehicle=means by which the subject is described). 4) Metaphors are based
99
Cachia (1997) 21; He notes that he has adapted this criteria, in part, from Tracy (1981) 372.
100
Huntzinger (1999) 1-282. .
101
Huntzinger ( 1999) 20. I also follow Soskice ( 1985) in Chapter 3. I located the Huntzinger thesis after
developing my perspective on metaphor.
102
Huntzinger (1999) 35fT.
27
upon models that come from shared human experience. This theory of metaphor is part
of his method and he assumes that shepherd/sheep metaphor was familiar and became
a basic way that the biblical writers attempted to speak of God and understand their
relationship with him. 103
In his second chapter, Huntzinger looks at the background of the model that
the shepherd/sheep metaphor is based upon. He limits his study to specific texts
because of the extensive use of the metaphor and because he intends to develop a
thematic study of the image as it relates to God rather than a full biblical theology. In
Chapter Three he considers the metaphor in the exilic and post-exilic prophets. His
focus is on Jeremiah 23; Ezekiel20:33-38, 34:1-31; Isaiah 49:8-12 and Second
Zechariah (Chapters 9-14 ). One aspect of his method throughout is to consider the
literary context by examining the verbal vocabulary. To this end he says, 'The verbal
vocabulary will define the behavior and activity of the shepherd in these passages and
will describe, as a result, the nature of the relationship perceived to exist between God,
his leaders, and his people' . 104 In Chapter Four he briefly reviews the intertestamental
literature and then considers selected texts from the Synoptic Gospels. Specific to
Matthew he examines: Matthew 9:35-10:16; 18:10-14; 25:31-46; and 26:30-35.
Specific observations by Huntzinger will be considered throughout the thesis.
1.7 Timothy S. Laniak 105
Laniak provides a full biblical theology of the shepherd/sheep metaphor. He
traces the shepherd-leadership tradition through the OT and the NT, along with
chapters on metaphor, the pastoral realities in the ANE and Israel and shepherd-rulers
in the ancient word. Taking his title from Jeremiah 3:15, Laniak's thesis is that there is
103
Huntzinger (1999) l-3.
104
Huntzinger (1999) 21.
105
Laniak (2006).
28
a 'discemable pastoral "stream of tradition"' running through scripture from beginning
to end. 106
A strength ofLaniak's study is the identification oftwo fundamental
dimensions or traditions within this pastoral tradition. 107 The first of these is YHWH as
shepherd~ Moses as YHWH's under-shepherd~ YHWH is protector, provider, and
guide in relation to the exodus/wilderness/conquest tradition. The second ofthese is
YHWH as shepherd~ David as YHWH 's under-shepherd~ YHWH promises to send
the royal Shepherd-Messiah motif. YHWH is the shepherd of Israel but Moses and
David become prototypical leaders in the shepherd tradition. The prophets, especially
the exilic and post-exilic prophets, develop both of these traditions creating a new
hope and expectation of a second exodus and a righteous-royal Shepherd-Messiah.
According to the Gospels and the rest of the NT, this is fulfilled in Jesus. At the same
time, Laniak acknowledges that there is still the tradition in different parts of the NT
108
that Christians are still understood to be in 'exile' until the end ofhistory.
Laniak makes the claim that Matthew understands Jesus to be the
'compassionate Davidic shepherd' . 109 This suggests a similar but slightly different
emphasis than my focus that Matthew sees Jesus as the 'righteous, royal shepherd'.
While one ofLaniak's goals is to address the shepherd metaphor as it applies to
biblical leadership, he does this through the use of historical-critical, linguistic and
literary methods. Since the focus ofLaniak's work significantly overlaps with my
thesis, his specific research will be considered in this thesis.
106
Laniak (2006) 24, n.3. He prefers the term 'tradition' because it can also emphasize a sense of
history.
107
Laniak (2006) 24-25. .
108
Lanlak (2006) 25, E.g. ~-Peter and Revelation: 'Leaders are challenged to follow the divine Stieplierd -
who became their sacrificial lamb'.
109
Laniak (2006) 182-194; 'Matthew: the compassionate Davidic shepherd'.
29
CHAPTER2
METHOD
2.1 Introduction
This chapter will address several issues, including (2.2) the relationship
between Matthew's Jewish-Christian perspective and the emerging Judaism of his day,
(2.3) Matthew's redaction and composition, (2.4) Matthew's use of sources and
literary techniques and (2.4) Matthew's intertextual use of biblical tradition, typology
and Shepherd texts.
2.2 Perspective regarding the Gospel
This thesis assumes that Matthew's Gospel was written by a Jew to Jews who
had come to believe in Jesus as the Messiah. This is the general consensus, based
upon, for example, Matthew's interest in Jewish legal matters and Jesus' statement
that he came to 'fulfill', not 'abolish the law'(5:17-18); Matthew's concern that Jesus'
mission was to Israel (10:6-7; 15:24); his extensive use ofthe biblical traditions,
especially his distinctive 'formula quotations' used to show that Jesus 'fulfilled' the
words of the prophets (e.g. 1:22-23 etc.); his preference for the use of the phrase
'kingdom of heaven' rather than 'the kingdom of God'; and his explanation ofthe
Jewish claims about what happened to the body of Jesus (28:11-15). These and other
characteristics of the Gospel support this consensus. 1 Also the majority of scholars
argue that Matthew is writing after the traumatic events of the fall of Jerusalem,
sometime in the last quarter of the first century C.E. 2 He therefore writes at a time
when formative Judaism is in its earliest stages. The Gospel responds in a number of
1
Cf. J.P. Meier (1991) 17-25 and Meier (1992) 3:622-41 who continues to argue Matthew was Gentile.
2
Cf. Nolland (2005) 14-17, who contends for the 60s. He argues, along with other observations, that
be,caus~ &ft!l~J~ck qf a 'heightened,Jewish nationalism, ,Matthew is to be dated before the beginnings
ofthe Jewish war'.
30
ways to that emerging situation. While there is consensus concerning the foregoing
general assertions, there is less agreement concerning details.
2.2.1 Matthew's Jewish-Christian Setting
A major topic of discussion in Matthean research has been to understand the
relationship/conflict between Matthew's Jewish-Christian stance and the emerging
Judaism of his day. To state the differing questions: Was the conflict represented in
the Gospel between the Jewish-Christian community/communities and Judaism? Or,
was the conflict between two Jewish groups, a Judaism that did not recognize Jesus as
Messiah over against a Christian Judaism holding that Jesus was Messiah?
On the one hand, some scholars hold that Matthew's Jewish-Christian
community/communities, consisting mainly of Jews, have parted with Judaism. These
Jewish-Christian group(s) may also be in the process of beginning to include
Gentiles. 3 Concerning the details of how this relationship is understood are varying
descriptions of how these Jewish-Christians are relating to their non-believing Jewish
brothers and sisters. 4 With this view the Gospel can be understood, 'at least in part, as
an apology-.a defense of Christianity over against non-Christian Judaism' .5
On the other hand, some scholars are more radical than others. 6 They take the
position that the Matthean community is still part of Judaism7 As a result, scholars of
this type reject the notion of a Jewish-Christian community and propose to view
3
E.g. Stanton ( 1992) 124-131, 139-42, 151-152, 156-168, cf. also ( 1995). Also holding this position are
Garland ( 1979) & (200 1); Hare ( 1967) & (2000); Luz ( 1989); Senior ( 1999); and Strecker ( 1966).
4
So e.g. Luz I :88-89, who states, 'The Matthean community, whose mission in Israel had come to an
end, no longer belongs to the Jewish synagogue system. The fissure between community and synagogue
is final. Any attempt to situate the Matthean community within the Jewish synagogue system must be
considered a failure ... There is no hint of discussions held between the community and the synagogue'.
5
Stanton (1992) 124.
6
So e.g. Sim (1995) 39, argues that Matthew's 'community was critical of the surrounding Gentile
society and adopted a policy of avoiding and shunning it'. Also, his more extensive discussion that the
Gospel is anti-Gentile in (1998) 236-4 7.
7
So Deutsch (1966kHarrington-O 99l); Overman {I 990} & (1996); Saldami (1992a) & ( 1994) and Sim J,
(1995), (1998) & (2003).

31
Matthew's communities as a form of Christian-Judaism, one sect among many in first
century Judaism. 8
When the two extreme approaches are set side by side, as illustrated in Luz and
Sim, it seems to be an either/or choice. After all, one position claims there is no
cordial relationship between the Matthean communities and 'the synagogue' 9 and the
other position says there is no inclusion of Gentiles. 10 Is there a way out of this cui-de-
sac? The way out requires a mediating perspective.
The first approach is represented by Davies and Allison 11 who are inclined 'to
believe that despite its positive association with Gentile Christians, Matthew's
community was still a deviant Jewish association', 12 but also had 'differentiated' itself
from the larger Jewish community in a number ofways. 13 It is this 'differentiation'
that marks the Matthean community and gives it a unique position in regard to the
larger Jewish community. This approach is supported first by Matthew's consistent
use of'their synagogues' (e.g. 4:23; 9:35; 10:17; 13:54) and 'your synagogues' in
23:34. Second, it is supported by his negative view of the Jewish leadership (e.g. the
polemic of Chapter 23). Matthew will contrast Jesus as the righteous/royal shepherd
sent to the 'lost sheep of the house of Israel' with this crisis in Jewish leadership. This
is also supported by his disparaging comments concerning the term 'rabbi' (23:8 and
26:25, 49) used by Judas. The scribes are deemed inferior to Jesus who had unique
authority in comparison to 'their scribes' (7:29). Matthew's most important concern is
8
Sim (1998, 2003 ).
9
So Luz ( 1989).
10
So Sim (1998).
11
Davies and Allison 3:692-704.
12
Davies and Allison 3: 695. They also hold that 'Matthew's community still followed the Mosaic law,
[therefore] they could not but have thought of themselves as Jews and have been thought Jews by
others'.
13
32
christological, the proclamation of who Jesus is and the exaltation of Jesus throughout
the Gospel. If the community does continue to 'follow the Mosaic law', it will do so in
light of Matthew's understanding of Jesus' interpretation and actualization ofit. 14
Matthew and these Jewish-Christian communities are no longer Torah centered. The
Torah was the historic center oflsrael's identity, along with the Temple and its
supporting symbols. But that center is now located in Jesus the Messiah, who is the
fulfillment oflsrael's hopes and who is to be the focus of faith and commitment. 15
This radical shift to the person of Jesus is what defines obedience to Torah because
now Jesus is the authoritative interpreter of the law, even 'Torah incarnate, animate
law', 16 with his unique authority as the Son of God, Messiah. 17
D. A. Hagner deals with many of the same details, only from another position:
Matthew's Jewish-Christian community had 'broken with their unbelieving brothers
and sisters'. Hagner disagrees with the position that Matthew's community is a
Christian form of Judaism. 18 First, he questions the centrality of law in Matthew and
takes exception with Sim who states, 'The Mosaic law occupies a central place in the
Gospel ofMatthew'. 19 Hagner responds, 'On the contrary, it is Jesus the Messiah, not
the law, who is at the center ofMatthew ... The unparalleled authority of Jesus is
14
Davies and Allison 3:710. 'The substance of Matthew's faith was neither a dogmatic system nor a
legal code but a human being, whose life was, in outline and in detail, uniquely significant and therefore
demanding of record'.
15
Davies and Allison 3:709. 'The distinctiveness of Matthew's thinking over against that of his non-
Christian Jewish contemporaries was the acceptance of Jesus as the centre of his religion: it was around
him as a person that his theological thinking revolved. The fact is crucial. For Matthew, revelation
belonged supremely to one life, the life ofthe Son of God'.
16
Davies and Allison 3:711.
17
Snodgrass (1996) 126. 'Jesus is the authoritative interpreter of the law, but Matthew does not now
suggest that we merely follow Rabbi Jesus. The law is no longer the center of gravity; Jesus is. The Son
of God is the one to whom the scriptures point and who lives in conformity with God's will and law and
who teaches others to do so as well'.
18
Hagner(2004)264. He,dialogues with Overman-and Saldarini but takes special exception with Sim.
19
Sim (1998) 123. Hagner (2004) 267, n. 11, notes Sim's heading 'The Centrality ofthe Law'.
33
apparent wherever the meaning of the law i~ in question'. 20 He acknowledges that
faithful obedience to the law in Matthew is consistent with and important in Jewish-
Christianity, but it is no longer obedience to the law itself because the 'focus
constantly shifts to Jesus'.Z 1 So, while Hagner argues firmly throughout against a
Christian-Judaism, he comes very close to Davies and Allison at some points, 22 yet
from the opposing position. In earlier comments Hagner says:
The evangelist's community thus shared in two worlds, the Jewish and the
Christian. Although the members of this community saw their Christianity as
the true fulfillment of Judaism, they were also very conscious that they had
broken with their unbelieving brothers and sisters. They were struggling to
define and defend a Jewish Christianity to the Jews, on the one hand, and to
realize their identity with Gentile Christians, on the other. This twofold
challenge explains the basic tensions encountered in the Gospel. 23
This thesis recognizes this tension and acknowledges that the polemic in the
Gospel suggests some kind of ongoing conflict and debate. Also, if the Matthean
community has not 'formally' separated from the synagogue at the time Matthew
24
writes his Gospel, it appears that he understands such a separation is inevitable. He
argues throughout the Gospel that the shift oflsrael's center has occurred and is now
located in the person of Jesus-in his words and works and in his death and
resurrection.
20
Hagner (2004) 267.
21
Hagner (2004) 268.
22
See article on: Christology, Mission, the Gentiles, the Jews; 'The Break with the Synagogue' and the
'newness' ofthe Jewish-Christian community.
23
Hagner l:lxxi. The phrase 'they had broken with their unbelieving brothers and sisters' indicates his
commitment in the direction of the first position but his tone in the overall discussion, I :lxviii-lxxi,
reflects a mediating position.
24
Hagner (2004) 278. 'My argument is that for all its Jewishness, Matthew indicates in a variety of
ways that its community of necessity has had to break with the synagogue. The new things that the
community affirmed were so incompatible with Judaism's orientation that its members could not have
remained within Judaism, even in its formative state with the wide tolerance of diversity'.
34
2.2.2 Matthew's Sources
Concerning Matthew's sources, this thesis assumes the 'two-source' theory. It
is assumed that Matthew knows Mark's Gospel (and if not the canonical Mark,
something close to it) and is willing to use it as one of his primary sources for his
Gospel. The debate over the relationship of these two Gospels is beyond the scope of
the thesis. However, it is worth noting there are good reasons for assuming Markan
priority, including the following: Matthew seems to take over approximately ninety
percent of Mark. Using this material, Matthew edits out 'unnecessary' words resulting
in a more concise description of Mark's material. He almost always improves Mark's
syntax and also improves his Greek at many points. Matthew includes many literary
techniques as he redacts Mark, along with vocabulary that can be discerned as
Matthean and becomes part ofhis redactional intentions. Matthew's redaction of Mark
is consistent throughout and proves to be much easier to account for than if Mark were
using Matthew. The overall sequence of Mark seems to shape both Matthew and Luke.
However, whereas Luke departs from Mark's sequence, Matthew follows it. When
Matthew departs from Mark, Luke follows it. Matthew and Luke never contradict
Mark together. Matthew shapes the sequence of the first ten chapters according to his
own purposes, but from 11 : 1 he follows the sequence of Mark closely to the end of his
Gospel. Mark has his own style of straightforwardness, with vividness of detail and
fast-paced emphasis on the activities and movements of Jesus. According to the 'two-
source' theory, these and other reasons are basic to purporting Markan priority in the
interrelationship between the Synoptic Gospels.
The Evangelist not only used Mark, but also edited earlier source materials
(both Of,fil ang writt~A) IfMark'\.!tPriQrityj~.a~mme_d,, then a second source is,.needed.

35
to account for material shared in common between Matthew and Luke. For example, a
text related to the shepherd motif, Mt 9:37b-38, is verbally identical to Lk 10:2b. This
common material is frequently referred to as Q. Whether Q was a written document or
an oral tradition is debated, a discussion of which is beyond the scope of the thesis.
This source in whatever form(s) it takes, helps explain the common material between
Matthew and Luke.
Along with these two main sources, Matthew also has incorporated material
that is unique to his Gospel alone. This in all likelihood is oral tradition and commonly
referred to as M. Again, the relation of this material to Q, whether it is related to a
larger tradition overlapping with Q or related to an Aramaic tradition that informs the
Gospel is beyond the scope of the thesis. What is assumed by the thesis is that Mark is
the primary source, along with Matthew's own use and application ofQ and M. To
quote F. C. Burkitt's famous phrase, 'Matthew is a fresh edition of Mark; revised,
rearranged, and enriched with new material. .. ' 25
Matthew deals with his sources faithfully, but not slavishly. He exercises some
literary creativity. But, 'on the whole, Matthew was a tradent, a man who edited a
tradition. Like the tannaim, he was a "repeater"' .26 As a 'redactor' he was 'an exegete
and commentator' in regard to the OT, Mark, Q, and M. 27 The way in which Matthew
deals with his sources is 'creative but not innovative: he is committed to the traditions
at his disposal, but he endeavors to elucidate them for his own community' .28 Matthew
deals with his sources as an 'exegete' and 'insists that the words of Jesus are to be
25
Quoted in Stanton ( 1992) 52.
26
27
Oavies and Allison 3:705.
28
Stanton (I 992) 344.
36
carefully treasured. They are elucidated by the evangelist so that they can be
appropriated by his community and used in its proclamation (28: 18-20)' .29
2.3 Procedure regarding the Gospel
This thesis utilizes a redaction and composition critical approach. As such, it is
concerned with the literary techniques of Matthew's Gospel. As noted above, Matthew's
redaction is often evident. This opens the possibilities of relating the text under
consideration to other texts within the Gospel. It is assumed that Matthew uses his
sources and his own material with a certain consistency. Even when there seems to be
conflicting concerns, for example, with Jesus' mission for 'lost sheep of the house of
Israel' and his commission to 'go into all the world', the assumption is, until proven
otherwise, that Matthew's own perspective is reasonably consistent. 30 The thesis, while
working from a redaction-critical and composition-critical perspective, recognizes the

31
'cautions' and critique of G. N. Stanton and others regarding redaction criticism.
In addition, special attention is paid to Matthew's literary techniques and
distinctive stylistic features: 32 1) his repetition of favorite words, phrases, formulas and
whole sentences; 2) his utilization of inclusion and chiasmus; 3) his use of framing, not
just with formulas or the inclusio, but by making use of whole pericopes or narrative
events in order to establish a theological theme; 4) his collecting together like material,
for example, miracle stories, sayings of Jesus and parables; 5) his application of triads in
various ways; 6) his drawing upon 'Matthean vocabulary' to cross reference to other
passages in the Gospel by echoing similar themes through verbal allusion; and 7) his use
29
Stanton (1992) 345.
30
This specific issue is dealt with below.
31
Stanton (1992) 23-53. Cf. Davies and Allison 1:115 n. 68. Talbert (1978) and more recently Dunn
(2001)8'145: ~""U > .. - ,_ ""'"-
32 See especially Davies and Allison I :72-96; Luz I :36-41, 52-73 and Nolland (2005) 23-29.
37
of literary techniques to create structural markers. These are only some of the ways
Matthew displays his literary genius in the composition of his Gospel.
Finally, it is ultimately the concern of the thesis to understand Matthew's
Gospel in the socio-historical setting of the original audience in order to come to an
historical-contextual interpretation ofthe shepherd/sheep metaphor in Matthew. 33
Along with Stanton however,
I take it for granted that their responses [the original audience] offer invaluable
guidance to modem readers, but I do not accept that the meaning of a text for
modem readers is determined either by the author's original intention or by the
response of the original audience. 34 [his emphasis]
The understanding of the text will be accomplished through a socio-historical review
of the shepherd/sheep metaphor in the Ancient Near East, the Greco-Roman world and
the Jewish world of the biblical tradition and Second Temple Judaism down to the first
century. This strategy is not a new one but it is the conviction of the thesis that 'there
are no grounds for abandoning a method which has been very fruitful'. 35 We will
begin with Matthew's use ofthe biblical tradition.
2.4 Matthew's use of Biblical Tradition, Intertextuality and the Shepherd Texts
In this review of how Matthew has used the biblical tradition in his Gospel, we
will include questions concerning the exegetical presuppositions of the early church
and how these presuppositions relate to Matthew's use of the biblical tradition. Also
included is a discussion of the criteria used for distinguishing between quotations and
allusions in regard to Matthean intertextuality. Finally, this section concludes with a
definition of typology in light of Matthew's use of scriptural motifs.
33
Again Stanton ( 1992) 54-74.
34 Sta!l!Q~.02nLZ~;
35
Stanton (1992) 51.
38
2.4.1 Matthew's Use of the Biblical Tradition36
In order to appreciate Matthew's perspective of Jesus as Messiah and
specifically his use of the shepherd motif in regard to Jesus, it is important to
understand his use of the OT. Matthew's use of the biblical tradition has been a
primary area of Matthean research in recent scholarship. Matthew uses some sixty-one
quotes from the biblical tradition in his Gospel. According to NA 2ih edition, forty of
these are explicit citations and twenty-one are direct quotations but without explicit
citation. When the allusions (which approach nearly 300) are taken into account, it
becomes evident that Matthew's use of the OTis important in understanding his use of
the shepherd metaphor. 37
2.4.1.1 A Review of research of Matthew's use of the OT
Until recently, when scholars focused on Matthew's use of the scriptural
tradition it was limited to the formula quotations. 38 The formula quotations reflect one
more way Matthew establishes his own theological concern in regard to Christology.
The evangelist has a christological agenda, and it is expressed in his formula
quotations, namely that Jesus is the Son of God and. the one who fulfills Israel's
Scriptures. The fulfillment in Jesus testifies to the authenticity of Matthew's claims
about Jesus. Scholars generally agree that Matthew uses the biblical material--whether
36
Ellis (1991) 53-74, Evans (2004) 130-145; HUbner (1992) 1096-1I04; Penner (1999) 540-543;
Moyise (2000) 14-41; (2001) 1-20; Knowles (2006) 59-82 and Wold (2005) 43-79.
37
Senior (1997) 89. 'The exact statistics will differ among scholars, e.g. Davies and Allison I :29-58,
3:573-577.
38
Stanton (1992) 346. 'They [the formula quotations] have dominated discussion of Matthew's use of
the OT and have frequently been appealed to in attempts to elucidate the origin and purpose ofthe
gospel'. This was generally the case, an exception being Gundry (1967). Mt's general use of the OT,
not just the formula quotations, has received more attention in recent scholarship; for example, the very
helpful and detailed discussion in Davis and Allison I :29-58. They identify, classify and discuss
between 290-300 OT quotes and allusions in Matthew. Their results led them to the implied conclusion
that Matthew was Jewish, that he knew and used the Hebrew Scriptures, as well as the Greek LXX.
Also, that he does not limit his use to only the LXX, apart from the formula quotes, but uses Hebrew
sources even outside the formula quotations.
39
formula quotations, implicit citations, or allusions--to underscore and emphasize his
Christology which is intent on highlighting Jesus' messianic authority and uniqueness
in the context of formative Judaism.
The 'formula quotations' refer to ten explicit quotations (some argue for as
many as fourteen 39 ) given by Matthew and introduced by some version of the
redactional formula: 'lva (om.uc;;) 1TAT]pw9iJ to pT]9Ev imo Kup(ou cSux tau Tipa<f>~tou
A.Eyov-roc;; (in order [so that] to fulfill what had been spoken by the Lord through the
prophet). The ten texts identified are: 1:22-23, 2:15, 2:17-18, 2:23, 4:14-16, 8:17,
12:17-21, 13:35, 21:4-5, 27:9-10. 40 Texts also considered are 2:6, 3:3, 26:54 and 56.
But, as we shall see, the last four do not meet the criteria of the previous ten. The
formula quotations are also referred to as 'reflection quotations' (Rejlexionszitate is
meant to point to redaction and Kontextzitate is meant to emphasize that the quote is
41
part of the narrative) and 'fulfillment/formula quotations' (Erfullungsforme/). The
discussion has tended to be split concerning whether the source of the formula
quotations: 1) comes to Matthew as tradition (a source that he uses) or 2) are
Matthew's own redaction. Recently, because ofthe influence ofStendahl 42 and
39
E.g. Brown (1994) 648. In Brown (1977) 98 he notes 4 citations (2:5b-6; 3:3; 13: I4-I5; 26:56) are in
question because 'Imperfections in the formula create uncertainty as to whether this passage should be
classified as a formula citation'.
40
Davies and Allison 3:574. They break down the formula quotations as follows: '1.22-3: general
agreement with LXX, lsa 7.14 [vol1:213-2I4]; 2.15: non-LXX translation ofMT, Hos II. I [vol
I :262]; 2.I7-I8: citation of Jer 3I.I5 closer to MT that LXX but influence from the latter is possible
[vo1I:267-270]; 2.23: non-LXX translation ofMT, Isa 4.3 modified by a wordplay involving nazir [vol
I :275-28I ]; 4.I4-16: translation ofMT, Isa 9.1-2 with LXX influence [vol I :379-386]; 8.17: non- LXX
translation ofMT, lsa 53.4 [vol2:37-38]; 12.17-21: translation ofMT, Isa 42.I-4,9 with influence from
the LXX and contact with targum, OT Peshitta, and Theodotion [vol2:323-327]; 13.35: citation ofPs
78.2; the first six words= LXX, the rest render the MT [vol2:425-426]; 21.5: conflation of LXX, Isa
62.Il + LXX Zech 9.9 + MT Zech 9.9 [vol 3:118-121 ]; 27.9-I 0: loose rendering ofMT, Zech Il.l3
with LXX influence; the quotation is prefaced with 'Jeremiah' and is to be read in the light of Jeremiah
I8-19 and 32 [vol3:567-571].'
41
Cf. Rothfuchs (1969) 27ff. He uses the expression 'fulfillment quotations' (Erfu/lungsformel) in an
attemptto emphasize the most important point of Matthew himself, TTATJp6w.
42
Stendahl ( 1968).
40
Strecker43 the tendency is to argue that Matthew drew from traditional materials. Luz
follows and states that 'formula quotations come from pre-Matthean Christian
44
tradition' .
Stendahl argued that the formula quotations were the product of a Matthean
'school' and different from the other OT citations which reflect a Septuagintal form.
The argument insists formula quotations reflect a Matthean 'school' which had its own
unique way of interpreting and adapting the biblical materials in regard to Jesus. Using
the Dead Sea Scrolls, Stendahl argued that the Matthean school used an approach that
was originally not unlike the pesher technique of the Qumran community in regard to
their understanding ofthe Teacher of Righteousness as interpreted according to the
book of Habakkuk. However, more recently, Stendahl qualified his thesis that the
mixed text form ofthe formula quotations is a unique creation ofMatthew's 'school'.
He also acknowledged the fluidity of both the Greek and Hebrew texts. 45 Neither his
appeal for a 'school' nor for the Pesher technique as an explanation for the formula
quotations have received overwhelming scholarly support. What has received wider
acceptance is his appeal for a 'mixed' text in the formula quotations. Stendahl argued
that while the formula quotations were mixed in character, Matthew used them
substantially as he received them. He asserts this on the basis of Matthew's tendency
not to significantly alter Mark or Q. Stendahl also argued that Matthew's Bible
quotations outside the formula quotes were from the LXX. Stendahl's arguments in
43
Strecker (1966).
44
Luz I : 160.
45
Stendahl (1968) iv-v. 'It strengthens the suggestion that Hebrew texts continued to cause revision of
Greek texts. And we are increasingly informed that the O.T. text-Greek and Hebrew-was not yet
standar~ized. In manuscripts like I Qls" we have examples of alternative readings given in the
manuscript itself.
41
regard to the formula quotations gained general acceptance, but his arguments
concerning Matthew's use of the LXX were questioned.
Rather than Stendahl's Matthean 'school', Strecker built the case that Matthew
had 'a collection of prophecies, which had reached Matthew in written form' (along
with Mk and Q) that was not unlike the testimonia found at Qumran. 46 Arguing earlier
along similar lines, but taking issue with the work of both Stendahl and Strecker, was
Gartner. On the basis of his work with Habakkuk from Qumran, he argued that
Matthew's quotations were derived from the missionary preaching of the early
church. 47 Luz continued this position, arguing that because Matthew was careful to
change very little in Mark and Q, he would not have changed his source regarding the
formula quotations. 48 Yet he does agree with the emerging consensus that both Mark
and Q follow the LXX, and that the Matthew formula quotations are mixed and not
derived solely from the LXX. Matthew is faithful to reproduce the quotations as he
substantially receives them: 'the conservative evangelist did not want radically to alter
their wording' .49

50
At the same time, the opposite position has also continued to find defenders.
These defenders have appealed for Matthean redaction rather than some traditional
source. Or, if Matthew has received the tradition, he shapes it so that it reflects his
46
Strecker (1966) 83. Cf.Vermes (1997) 495.
47
Giirtner (1954).
48
Luz 1:156-164.
49
Luz I: 157-161. Luz says: 'Once again we see the evangelist as a conservative tradent and interpreter
who is obligated to the tradition. He treated the wording of the quotation available to him with the same
care as he treated the text of the Gospel of Mark or ofQ'.
5
For our purposes they are Gundry ( 1967), Roth fuchs ( 1969), McConnell ( 1969), Soares Prabhu
(1976), Brown (1977, updated 1988), Stanton (1992), and Davies and Allison ( 1988, 1997).
42
own theological perspective. 5 1 Even earlier, prior to these, W. D. Davies had taken
issue with Stendahl. 52 Davies argued that Matthew was closer to his Hebrew roots than
most were willing to give him credit. Stendahl continued to disagree and replied, 'But
the influence of Palestinian Judaism on the Gospel of Matthew can hardly be as direct
as Davies' study presupposes. Matthew's principal sources were in Greek, with
primarily Greek traditions: Mark, Q, and others'. 53 Along with Davies, Gundry
furthered the argument through a re-examination of the OT quotations in Matthew by
including allusive quotations along with the formula quotations. He defended his
thesis based on the fact that the Dead Sea Scrolls indicated that allusive quotation of
the OT was a conscious literary practice. 54
Gundry challenged Stendahl' s approach and noted that only when Matthew is
following Mark or Q does he stay very close to the LXX wording. 55 'The really big
fault in Stendahl's treatment of the Matthaean [sic] quotations is that he does not take
seriously non-Septuagintal quotations outside the formula-quotations ... The
overwhelmingly mixed text-form in all groups of synoptic quotations, demolishes the
very foundation of the school-hypothesis, viz., the distinctiveness of the formula-
citations.' 56 He came to the conclusion that 'although Stendahl's discussion ofthe
text-form in the Matthaean [sic] quotations is often admirable, we must write non
51
The positions have been rather 'either/or,' 'all or nothing' with little appeal for the possibility that
some of the quotations come from pre-Matthean tradition and others originating from Matthew and are
his attempt to add to the existing tradition through reflection on and application of the biblical tradition.
52
Davies (1964) 208fT.
53
Stendahl (1968) xii.
54
Gundry (1967).
55
Gungry 0,9~7} .1~ ~:!.?9 ..
s6 Gundry {1967) 157-158.
43
sequitur over his thesis as a whole' .57 That is, Gundry disagrees that there was a
Matthean 'school' as Stendahl had proposed.
Gundry claimed that the allusions to the OT in Matthew should also be
examined because they were of a mixed form. He contended that all other non-Markan
quotations should be examined. Gundry was criticized at this point because of the
difficulty of determining text type from the allusions, which were often only a few
words or phrases. He also argued for a targumic approach to the various forms of the
Hebrew text in circulation rather than the pesher technique of the Qumran
community. 58 In fact, Gundry became known for the phrase: 'Matthew was a
targumist'. 59 Although Gundry's work was not appreciated at the time, more recently
scholars, such as Stanton, have built on it.
Strecker argued that the formula quotations derived from a source somewhat
like the testimonia found at Qumran. On this basis, he claimed that the formula
citations were of secondary importance for the theology of the Gospel. This argument
was supported, for example, on the observation that the formula quotations were not
crucial to the narrative of the Gospel, especially in the infancy narratives. Both
Rothfuchs and McConnell argue against Strecker concerning the theological
contributions of the quotations, 60 though with varying degrees of disagreement.
Contrary to Strecker, both Rothfuchs and McConnell say that the formula quotations
and Matthew's use of the OT generally supported Matthew's theological tendencies.
57
Gundry (1967) 159.
58
Gundry (1967) 172-174.
59
Gundry (1967) 172. 'Mt was his own targumist and drew on a knowledge ofthe Hebrew, Aramaic,
and Greek textual traditions of the OT'.
60
So e.g. Davies and Allison I: 191 'As most scholars now recognize, the redactor has added the five
so-called 'formula quotations'. 1.22-3; 2.5b-6, 15b-c, 17-18, and 23b are 'parasitic'. [Quoting Soares
Prabhu, passim.] ... They [the narratives] run as smoothly or even more smoothly without them. When
one adds that the forniula quotations are in harmony with Marlnew's special interests, no doubt about
their derivation should remain'.
44
Rothfuchs argued for a traditional source but strongly emphasized that Matthew
himself was responsible for the material in both its language61 and its Christological
emphasis. 62 Working on the infancy narrative in Matthew, both G. M. Soares Prabhu63
and R. Brown 64 contend for Matthean redaction and the mixed nature and fluidity of
the Hebrew and Greek in the textual tradition. More recently, G. N. Stanton65 and
Davies and Allison 66 re-examine Matthew's use of the OT beyond the formula
quotations.
Stanton emphasizes the contribution of Gundry's work and challenged the
prevailing opinions of Stendahl, Strecker and Luz. He argued for the redactional
nature of Matthew's use of the quotations, rather than of some traditional source. He
claimed, as others had done, that Matthew follows his sources rather than the LXX
alone: 'Matthew's primary allegiance is to the textual form of the quotations in his
sources rather than to the LXX as such' .67 Stanton argument included: l) The original
source of Matthew's redactional activity could have been inspired by the last part of
Mark 14:49. 2) Matthew shapes his quotations to fit the surrounding narrative context.
3) 'There is no obvious answer' to why the quotations are distributed the way they are.
61
Roth fuchs ( 1969) 110-121.
62
Rothfuchs (1969) 121-133.
63
Soares Prabhu ( 1976).
64
Brown (1988) 104. Brown summarizes his results: 1) 'It is Matthew himself who added the formula
citations to the Gospel tradition'. 2) 'In many instances, he was the one who first recognized the
applicability of a particular text to a particular incident in Jesus' career.' 3) 'In such cases he seems to
have chosen the OT text tradition that best illustrated this applicability or even to have made his own
translation into Greek to heighten the applicability'. 4) 'In fewer instances, the applicability of a text
was detected in a pre-Matthean stage of tradition, and Matthew was satisfied to reproduce the citation as
it was already known'. 5) For Matthew, these citations did more than highlight incidental agreements
between the OT and Jesus. He introduced them because they fit his general theology of the oneness of
God's plan (a oneness already implicitly recognized by the appeal to the OT in early Christian
preaching) and, especially, because they served some of his own particular theological and pastoral
interests in dealing with a mixed Christian community of Jews and Gentiles'.
65
Stanton (1992) was first published in 1987.
66
Davies and Allisop I :29-58; 3:573-577.
67
Stanton (1992) 359.
45
4) Finally, the purpose of the quotations is primarily Christological. This
Christological emphasis is shown, for example, in the infancy narrative: Jesus is
Emmanuel, God with us (1 :23). This theme is echoed again at 18:20 and 28:20. At 2:6,
Jesus is the one who will shepherd God's people Israel. In 2:15, Jesus is God's son.
Even though the final two quotations have challenged exegetes historically, in 2:17-18
at the least, Matthew links Jesus' story with the story oflsrael in regard to Exodus and
Exile. Jesus is called Na(wpa'io<; in 2:23, and 'the most likely explanation of this
apparently odd designation is that Jesus is seen as the messianic neser or "branch" and
the nazir or "holy one" of God'. 68
One of Stanton's points is especially interesting for understanding Matthew's
use of his sources from the biblical traditions. This point is number one above: the
original source of Matthew's redactional activity could have been inspired by the last
part of Mark 14:49, 'But let the scriptures be fulfilled' (a)..A' 'Lva 1TAT)pw8wow at
ypa!j>a(). Stanton does not develop this but it is worth exploring this observation. The
context is the betrayal and arrest of Jesus and his response to his would-be assailants.
It has the fulfillment theme and is a comment by Jesus, not the writer. Mk 14:48-50
reads:
But one of those who stood near drew his sword and struck the slave of the
high priest, cutting off his ear. Then Jesus said to them, 'Have you come out
with swords and clubs to arrest me as though I were a bandit? Day after day I
was with you in the temple teaching, and you did not arrest me. But let the
scriptures be fulfilled.' All ofthem deserted him and fled.
Matthew's redaction in 26:52-54 and 56 emphasizes Jesus' authority, again
highlighting his Christological agenda. He doubles the emphasis on the fulfillment
68
Stanton (1992) 359-361. The final quote is from 361.
46
theme by introducing it twice with considerable development. The italicized text
emphasizes Matthew's redaction. Matthew 26:51-56 reads:
Suddenly, one of those with Jesus put his hand on his sword, drew it, and
struck the slave ofthe high priest, cutting off his ear. Then Jesus said to him,
Put your sword back into its place; for all who take the sword will perish by
the sword. Do you think I cannot appeal to my Father, and he will at once send
me more than twelve legions ofangels? But how then would the scriptures be
fulfilled, which say it must happen in this way? " At that hour Jesus said to the
crowds, "Have you come out with swords and clubs to arrest me as though I
were a bandit? Day after day I sat in the temple teaching, and you did not arrest
me. But all this has taken place, so that the scriptures of the prophets may be
fulfilled". Then all the disciples deserted him and fled.
Stanton's observations prove to be exceptionally helpful in understanding Matthew's
approach to the biblical tradition. Matthew uses this source in Mark as a pattern for the
way he uses the biblical tradition, especially the 'formula quotations.' This text would
seem to support the observation of Dodd, and those who followed his lead, that Jesus'
use of the biblical tradition, according to Matthew, shaped the way the early church
would appropriate and use the biblical tradition. 69
Finally, Davies and Allison70 have thoroughly examined the textual evidence
and claim that 'if Matthew cited a text that was already part of the Christian tradition,
we might expect him to reproduce the familiar wording and so (especially in Markan
and Q material) often follow the LXX. But when Matthew himself was the first to
quote an OT passage we might expect him to offer a wording suitable to his purposes.
In other words, it was the evangelist's wont to bring out from the storehouse of
69
Dodd (1952) 109-110.
70
Davies and Allison 1:29-58; 3:573-577,
47
Scripture things both old and new'. 71 They affirm Gundry's work and would agree
with his well-known formula, 'Matthew the targumist' .72
2.4.1.2 Matthew's Use of Typology
A further point regarding Matthew's use of the biblical tradition has to do with
his use oftypology. 73 Typology has been defined as 'Incidents or entire episodes
within the narrative that appear to be inspired in whole or part by OT passages, events
or personages'. 74 While this approach is sometimes difficult to define, it is a basic
dimension of Matthew's style for accomplishing his fulfillment theme. Matthew
utilizes this promise-and-fulfillment strategy to indicate correspondences in history in
relation to God's activity in the past and his present actions in Jesus. He not only uses
the specific 'fulfillment' formula quotations to alert the reader to these
correspondences but also uses explicit references and allusions to events and persons
connected with Jesus. Matthew calls attention toOT persons and events to show that
what God did in the past God is doing again in the present in the birth, death and
resurrection of Jesus.
71
72
Davies and Allison 3:575-576, '[That] Matthew washis own targumist, is supported by several
observations. (i) The quotations are now assimilated to their Matthean contexts. (ii) Several quotations
are hard to imagine as isolated proof texts. (iii) Outside the formula quotations Matthew both conflates
texts and shows knowledge of more than the LXX ... Against Stendahl, we follow Gundry ... (iv) 8.17;
12.18-21; 13.35; and 21.4-5 are insertions into Markan material; so at least the placement of these is
due to the redactor. (v) Most of the OT verses quoted in the formula citations are not otherwise cited in
first-century Christian literature, which is consistent with Matthean production'.
73 Aune (2003) 479. 'Typology, a modem term based on the Greek word 1t'moc;; ("pattern, symbol,
model") ... A "type" is usually reserved for what occurred earlier in history, which corresponds to that
which occurs later, called an "antitype" (av[mrrc;;, "that which corresponds to something else, copy,
representation") .... The promise-and-fulfillment schema is essential for typology: the OTis a book of
prophetic promise that foretold an age of salvation that was to come, and for early Christians this age,
the period of fulfillment,. had arrived with Jesus of Nazareth and the early church'.
74
Senior (1997) I 07.
48
So, for example, the infancy narrative evokes a Moses typology. 75 The extent
to which Matthew does this may be debated, but few scholars deny that a Moses
typology is at work in Matthew's narrative. This is true also of the events in the
infancy narrative in regard to an Israel typology. 76 For Matthew 'it is the place where
the OT and the Gospel meet'. 77
.Typology is a presupposition of Matthew rather than a methodology per se.
Hays calls Matthew's use of typology a 'narrative device, with or without explicit
citation, through which the reader is encouraged to see Jesus as the fulfillment of OT
precursors, particularly Moses, David, and Isaiah's servant figure' .78 Matthew works
out of the belief that the story of God's people in the past is relevant and has a bearing
on the present. Or, to put it another way, the present is fulfilling the past. Typology is
not the same as allegory because it is related to history; the present history is patterned
in the sacred history of Israel and therefore the present is made holy by the typological
parallels with the past. 79 In regard to the shepherd motif, there are a number of
typological connections assumed by Matthew. Examples of this might be the Moses-
Jesus typology (i.e. Messiah, deliverer, etc.) the David-Jesus typology (Son of David,
royal heir of David's dynasty) and the Abraham-Jesus typology (Son of Abraham and
the inclusion of the Gentiles in the plan of redemption). Typology connects, in a
sacred fashion, the past with the present and the future in order to provide continuity
of God's salvation story in the past with the present experience of God's activity.
75
Allison (1993). .
76
Hays (2006) 66. 'Matthew also posits a typological identification of Jesus with Israel, so that Jesus
becomes the one in whom the fate of Israel is embodied and enacted'.
77
Brown (1988) 231.
78
Hays (2006) 74.
79
Woollcombe (1957) 39, further defines typology as 'linkages between events, persons, or things
within the historical framework ofrevelation', and allegorical interpretation as 'the search for
secondary and hidden meaning undetlying the primary'and oovious 'rneanlng of a'tYartative': '40 (italics
his).
49
A second example, Mt 9:36, is intertextually related to Num 27:17. The
typological correspondence argued below relates to Moses the shepherd who prays
and appoints a successor, Joshua, in order that Israel will not be shepherdless. Jesus,
the shepherd, also appeals for prayer (Mt 9:37-38) and appoints successors, the
disciples, in order that the people of God will not be without a shepherd. As in the case
ofintertextuality, criteria for discerning typological correspondences will be
necessary. Allison's 'broad guidelines' 80 will be utilized in this regard.
2.4.1.3 Relevance of this research for the shepherd texts
The review of Matthew's use of the OT and typology is relevant to the
examination of the shepherd texts because the shepherd motif is drawn from the
biblical tradition, either explicitly or implicitly. Also, even as the metaphor presents a
constellation of ideas to the reader/hearer, the intertextuality of the biblical tradition
will inform the reader/hearer concerning the shepherd texts. In light of the foregoing
discussion it will be helpful to keep in mind what has been said about Matthew's use
of the tradition especially in regard to those shepherd texts unique to him (so 2:6,
15:24 and 25:31-32). Matthew has five shepherd texts that describe Jesus in his birth,
ministry and death. He employs the shepherd metaphor more than either Mark or
Luke. Matthew shares Luke's one reference, the lost sheep parable from Q (Mt 18:12-
80
Allison (1993) 21-23. 'A few broad guidelines for our task do exist ... l. One text can only allude to or
intentionally recall another prior to it in time. (Although not a problem for evaluating the New
Testament's use of the Jewish Bible, the Jewish Bible's use of its own traditions is another matter:
chronological relationships are all too often disputed.) 2. Probability will be enhanced if it can be shown
(on other grounds) that a passage's proposed subtext belongs to a book or tradition which held some
significance for its author .... 3. In the absence of explicit citation or clear unacknowledged borrowing, a
typology will not be credible without some combination of devices (3)- (6); [He is referring to 3
through 6 identified in note 12 above.] Without similar circumstances, for example, similar vocabulary
will not suffice, and vice versa .... 4. A type should be prominent. A proposed typology based on Moses
and the exodus owns an initial plausibility .... 5. An alleged typology has a better chance of gaining our
confidence if its constituent elements have been used for typological construction in more that one
writing .... 6. Unusu~Limagery and uncommon motifs: Two texts are more plausibly related if what they
share is out of the ordinary'.
50
14//Lk 15:3-7), though Matthew applies the parable differently. With Mark, Matthew
shares two references, both from the Old Testament: the phrase 'sheep without a
shepherd' inMk 6:34//Mt 9:36 81 and Mk 14:27//Mt 26:31 where the shepherd is
'struck' and the sheep are scattered which is a quote from Zech 13:7. Matthew has two
shepherd texts from his own source(s) and alone uses the verb, noq.ta(vw, in the
compound OT quote;; 2 in 2:6, 'a ruler shall shepherd my people'. In 25:31-32 the son
of Man' is described as the shepherd who 'separates the sheep from the goats.'
Matthew alone implies that Jesus is the shepherd in the encounter with the 'Canaanite'
woman when Jesus says that his mission is 'only to the lost sheep of the house of
Israel' (Mk 7:24-30//Mt 15:21-28; cf. Mt 10:6). Matthew ~lso associates the shepherd
motif with other Christo logical phrases like Son of David and the Son of Man, and
themes like the new Moses and the new David, the Messiah. Matthew's intertextual
use of the OT is therefore of primary importance in regard to the shepherd texts.
2.4.2 Intertextuality and the use of the Biblical Tradition in the NT
A clarification is needed concerning Matthew's use of the biblical tradition and
the perspective of this thesis. First, I will clarify the use of the term 'intertextuality'.
Second, I will sort out the meaning and definition of 'quotation' and 'allusion' as used
in this thesis. Third, I will elucidate the relationship between Matthew's quotations
(and illusions) and their original contexts in the biblical tradition. For example, is
Matthew primarily 'proof-texting' the biblical materials, oblivious to their context? Or
does he assume the surrounding context in the biblical tradition as a 'backdrop' to the
quote/allusion in his Gospel and therefore assume the reader/hearer will also be aware
of the potential intertextual connections?
81
Intertextually
relatedtoNum 27: 1'7:
82
Cf. The two texts are Mic 5:2(1) and II Sam 5:2.
51
2.4.2.1 Intertextuality: Quotations and Allusions
First, the term intertextua/ity is used as an umbrella term that describes the
relation between previous texts (subtexts) and their use and influence on the current
text that quotes or alludes to the previous textual tradition. The meaning of
intertextuallity varies when used by different authors, but in its most comprehensive
understanding it may include all potential relationships between texts. The focus here
is concerned with 'only one species of intertextuality, namely, deliberate literary
borrowing, the sort of borrowing that a text encourages its audience to discover, and
recognition of which enlarges meaning' .83 From the standpoint of this thesis,
intertextuality in Matthew primarily involves the Jewish Scriptures, in both their
Hebrew and Greek forms. The Matthean shepherd texts exist as part of a larger Jewish
literary tradition. 84 The emphasis here is in regard to the intertextuality of the textual
tradition. 85 A guiding concept in regard to intertextuality is that both author and
reader/hearer share this common literary tradition of earlier texts. The more the
reader/hearer is immersed in the textual tradition of the author and there is a shared
textual worldview, the greater the capacity of the reader/hearer to appreciate the
subtexts in quotations, allusion and typological pattern in regard to the tradition.
Specifically, they are part of a web of relationships. Assuming that the earlier texts
83
Allison (2000) ix. Cf. Moyise (2000) 41, '[Intertextuality] is best used as an "umbrella" term for the
complex interactions that exist between ''texts" (in the broadest sense).'
84
While intertextuality has to do primarily with texts, this does not exclude the historical and
cultural/social setting of the texts, with their history, and therefore, with their sources. This also
includes the literary forms and the final literary and canonical shape of the text and the understanding of
the shepherd metaphor in light of this.
85
The literature is vast: representative for our purposes is Moyise (2000) 14-41, who provides a helpful
discussion of intertextuality and the differences between quotation, allusion, and echo. His own
approach discusses three influences between 'text and subtext' I7 -IS: I) lntertextual Echo-the
influence of the old upon the new; 2) Dialogical Intertextuality-the influence ofthe old and the new
upon each other; and 3) Postmodem lntertextuality-the influence of all other texts, especially those
known to the reader. It is in the sense of number one (I) above that the term intertextuality is being used
in this thesis: i.e. the intertextual use of the bibli<;al tradition by Matthew throughout his gospel and
especiallfhow it relates to the shepherd metaphor.
52
and traditions are known, this intertextuality allows the reader/hearer to understand
and appreciate the Matthean use of the biblical tradition as a whole and the shepherd
metaphor specifically. 86
If intertextuality is ,the comprehensive or umbrella term used to describe
Matthew's use ofthe biblical tradition generally, there are two main subcategories: 1)
quotation and 2) allusion. 87 Because these two terms, along with other terms that come
into the discussion, can have fluid meanings in NT research, it is important to define
how they are understood. Stanley Porter has noted that, interestingly, there has not
emerged a distinct consensus concerning the way terms referring to the use of the OT
in the NT are defined. 88 The following definitions will clarify how this thesis intends
to proceed concerning the use of quotation and allusion and also the much discussed
term echo. 89
86
While the methodological approach of Hays (1989) 23 is not the primary method of this thesis, it has
been influential among NT scholars and is informative in many ways.
87
Moyise (2000) 17, 'However, if intertextuality is best used as an "umbrella" term then it requires
subcategories to indicate the individual scholar's particular interest or focus'.
88
Porter (1997) 79-96. Cf. more recently Wold (2005) 43-80 for an excellent discussion of the issues
and the helpful criteria he develops.
89
Porter (1997) 79-96 laments the lack of consensus or consistent definitions in regard to the
descriptive terminology concerning the use of the OT in the NT, especially quotation, allusion, and
echo. He gives little help in proposing definitions for the terms and therefore, by his silence, only points
out the difficulty in determining direct, explicit or formal quotations and even more, the difficulty of
identifYing allusions or echoes. It should be noted that a number of scholars have attempted to clarity
their use of quotation and allusion, to note only a few: Cf. Davies and Allison I :29-57; Gundry ( 1967)
1-5, 9; R.T. France (1971) 259-263. Hays (1989) 29-33 developed seven criteria for 'Hearing Echoes'
in an influential study primarily focused on Paul's use of the OT. Some NT scholars have used, adapted
or critiqued his criteria and applied them to the rest of the NT: I) Availability: Did the source precede
the echo? 2) Volume: Are there explicit words or syntactical patterns repeated? 3) Recurrence: Is the
source cited or alluded to elsewhere in the same work? 4) Thematic Coherence: Does the proposed echo
fit the line of argument? 5) Historical Plausibility: Could the author have intended the meaning? Could
his readers have understood it? 6) History of Interpretation: Have readers through the centuries, both
critical and pre-critical, heard the same echoes? 7) Satisfaction: Does the proposed reading make sense?
Does it illuminate the surrounding discourse? Does it produce for the reader a satisfYing account of the
effect of the intertextual relation?'
See also Paulien (1988) 37-53; Luz I: 156-164; Allison (1993) 19-21; Schaefer (1995) 66-91. Among
the previous scholars Porter only interacts with Hays (1989) and does not interact or acknowledge the
criteria, categories and/or definitions used by any of these scholars; others besides these could be cited
as well. Since Porter's lament, scholarship has not reached any consensus oh'the terminology ana that is
highly unlikely to happen in the near future, given the diverse literary approaches that are being used in
53
1) Quotation: 'Quotations occur when an author reproduces the words or
formulation of a literary source which is traceable from his choice of words or of turns
of phrase. This involves the deliberate borrowing of significant and sufficient wording
and phrasing "in a form in which one would not have used them had it not been for
knowledge of their occurrence in this particular form in another source"' .90 More
succinctly, quotation may be defined as 'the reproduction of several consecutive
words from another text'. Further, quotations may be identified as 'marked' or
'unmarked' .91 Matthew has a number of ways he 'marks' a quotation. A quotation is
considered 'marked' if it has some sort of an introductory formulaic reference to the
subtext. So Matthew, for example, uses a word or a phrase: yEypamat': 'it is written';
the Matthean 'formula quotations,' as they are called, are marked off by some form of
the introductory formula: TIAT)pw9'fl -r:o pT)9Ev, 'fulfilled what was spoken'. Jesus' use
of the phrase, ouK/ouMno-r:E &vEyvw-r:E; 'have you never read?' would also fit this
designation. For example, Mt 2:6, while not one of Matthew's 'formula' quotations, is
a 'marked' quotation because of y&p yEypamat oux -r:ou npo!fl~-r:ou, 'for through the
prophet it is written'.
'Unmarked' quotations are those quotes that have no such designation. Though
this is not always the case, a quote can sometimes be discerned as standing apart from
the narrative. This is best illustrated in Matthew by some of his formula quotations.
Further, a quote may be identified as either a 'single' quote, coming from one subtext
or a 'compound' quote, a combination of subtexts. So, for example, the 'single' quote
from Zechariah 13:7 in Matthew 26:31 or the 'compound' quote from Micah 5: 1(2)
biblical studies. Also, since Porter, helpful for our purposes are: Senior ( 1997) 89-115; Allison (2000)
ix-xi; Moyise (2000) 14-41; Wold (2005) 43-80.
90
Schaefer (1995) 68~
91
Allison (2000) x.
54
and II Sam 5:2 in Matthew 2:6. As noted earlier, this is not the same as a 'mixed'
quote, which refers to the mixed nature of the quote in regard to the use of the Hebrew
and Greek sources of the quotation. Synonymous, in our usage, with quotation are
explicit reference, direct quote, citation, specific or explicit citation. Any of these can
be further identified as a 'single' or a 'compound' reference, depending on whether
one or more subtexts are being referred to in any given quote.
In Matthean studies there is general agreement that the 'formula quotations'
are unique to Matthew; they reflect his christological and broader theological purposes
and are identifiable by the introductory formula noted earlier. 92 Thi~ would appear to
be one of the centralfunctions of the citation, marked or unmarked, single or
compound, to lend authority and validity to the Gospel story. The diversity of the way
Matthew uses the quotation; his formula quotes, quotations on the lips of Jesus and
even the quotations by his opponents all strengthen his conviction concerning his
intentions in writing the Gospel and declaring that Jesus is the Messiah.
2) Allusion: 'An "allusion" exists when one text shares enough with another
text, even without reproducing several consecutive words from it, to establish the
latter as a subtext to which an audience is being implicitly directed' .93 Allusions can
also be understood as being of two kinds, the intentional or direct allusion and the
echo. The conscious allusion is the direct or intentional use of a phrase by the author,
probably at least two or more words, to allude to a previous text.
An allusion is not a marked text. The allusion is simply embedded in the text
with no particular attention drawn to it. Yet, it appears to be an intentional intertextual
92
Again, the debate concerning the number, anywhere from ten to fourteen.
93
Allison (2000) x. 'For instance, Jesus' declaration in Q II :20, "If I by the finger of God cast out
d(lmons, the kingdom of God has,come upon-you," evokes-Exod 8:19, where Moses' miracles move the
Egyptian magicians to exclaim: "This is the finger of God.'"
55
reference to a text in the tradition. 94 This is illustrated, for example, in the use ~fthe
phrase 'sheep without a shepherd', drawn from Numbers 27:17 and alluded to in
Matthew 9:36. It is not a marked quotation but a phrase alluding to the earlier biblical
tradition. 95
The other kind of allusion is the echo. The echo is a single word or possibly a
series of words that reminds the reader/hearer of another text, usually from scripture.
The distinction between the allusion and the echo is difficult. Each case must be
evaluated on its own merit. So for example, it will be argued that there is an echo of
Jeremiah 50:6, and possiblyothers, 96 in Matthew 15:24 (cf. Mt 10:6). In an echo,
authorial intention may or may not be involved. Again, each case must be looked at
individually. Second, Matthew seems at times to echo different texts through the use
of key words that have special importance in his overall narrative, for example,
auv&yw: 'to gather' .97 Here authorial intention is usually assumed. Third, the use of
stock biblical language can also be an echo. For example, Matthew 2: 1-the
94
Wold (2005) 43-80. A recent attempt to develop some criteria to answer, 'what basis may there be for
making a claim that one text is alluding to another'? He evaluates Hays (1989); Allison (1993);
Williams (200 I); Dimant (1988); Holm-Nielsen (1960); and Kittel (1981) and he develops his own
synthesis and proposes these criteria-' Categories for Identification:' The following are slightly edited:
'(I) Accessibility. The author(s) had access to the source both in terms of the practical and
chronological.
(2) Vocabulary and Syntax. The suspect non-explicit tradition shares specific and significant
vocabulary or syntactical patterns with the proposed referent. (3) Imagery and Motifs. The more
distinctive the imagery/motif of a suspect not-explicit tradition, when similar but not precise vocabulary
or syntax occurs, and similarly unique imagery/motif occurs in a biblical source the likelihood
increases. (4) Literary Context. Proven significance of a tradition established elsewhere in a document
lends credibility to less pronounced occurrences that may be employing imagery without specific
vocabulary shared with the referent. This is both a criterion of recurrence and volume. (5) Similar
Tradition(s). The occurrence of similar but more conclusive occurrences(s) in (an)other document(s)
establishes a greater likelihood of the occurrence of a non-explicit tradition. Precedence elsewhere
enhances probability here'.
95
This is discussed when Mt 9:36 is considered.
96
E.g. Is 53:4; Ezek 34. ,.;;
97
For Matthew's special vocabulary cf. Davies and Allison I :74-80; Gundry (1994) 674-682; Luz I :54-
72.
56
expression 'in the days of Herod the king' does not point to any specific text but is
stock language of the biblical tradition. 98
For different NT scholars there are different approaches concerning authorial
intent and echo. Hays and Allison assume authorial intent may or may not be argued. 99
Others find the category of the echo as basically unhelpful or even obfuscating the
issue. 100 In this thesis, authorial intent may or may not be the cause of the echo: each
case must be evaluated on its own merit. When echo is understood as a way to nuance
allusion, echo may be a helpful category. For all its subtleties it can have the capacity
to further elucidate the primary text in light of the biblical tradition.
The function of the allusion is different from the quotation. Allusion engages .
the reader/hearer and is intended to cause the reader/hearer to bring to mind the
biblical tradition, not only in a textual sense, but in a full contextual sense. Allusion is
meant to broaden the horizons of understanding of the reader/hearer in order to
explore the implications and possible significance of Jesus the Messiah. It is this
process that potentially leads to the possibility that the unintentional echo is heard in
the biblical tradition.
One final aspect of intertextuality should be noted--an 'intertextual chain'.
What is meant by this is that a text has a history and emerges in different texts
throughout the Biblical tradition. There are instances when a text is part of a larger
98
Allison (1993) 6, 'We thus have here not an allusion to a particular text but-assuming the idiom was
not dead-the utilization of what we may call biblical-sounding language. Readers familiar with the
Greek Bible-and Matthew wrote with such in mind-would presumably have intuited a continuity
between the story oflsrael's sacred history and Jesus' story and hence would have read with solemnity,
in anticipation of profound significance'.
99
Hays (1989) 29, defines allusion and echo: 'Allusion is an obvious intertextual reference and depends
on authorial intention; echo is more subtle and does not depend on conscious intention; yet no
systematic distinction can be made between the terms'.
100
Wold (2005) 78-79, 'Less helpful may be an attempt to delineate between the terms "allusion" and
"echo". The use ofthe terms represents intertextualoccurrences that range fromexplic.it ("quotation")
to increasingly less explicit ("allusion" and "echo").'
57
complex of texts, rather than just one specific quote or allusion. Ail example of this
related to Matthew's use of the biblical tradition is Mt 9:36 which is part of an
intertextual chain with at least four links: Num 27: 17 ~ I Kgs 22: 17IIII Chr 18: 16 ~
Jdt 11:19 ~ Mk 6:34 ~ Mt 9:36 (some might argue that there could be another link in
the chain, Zech 10:2; this will be discussed further below).
To summarize: intertextuality is used as a comprehensive term describing the
whole of Matthew's use of the biblical tradition. Matthew quotes from that tradition,
both indicating his quotes through verbal markers or phrases and also utilizing the
tradition without introductory formula. The fundamental language of intertextuality in
this discussion will be that of 'marked' or 'unmarked' quotations, which are
considered to be explicit reference(s) to predecessor text(s). Allusions, like quotations,
are of two types. Matthew alludes to texts from the OT through direct and/or
intentional use and the more subtle echo. The purpose of both the quotations and the
allusions is to expand the horizon ofthe reader/hearer to the larger context of the
biblical background.
2.4.2.2 Intertextuality: Text, Sub-text and Context
This section concerns how Matthew's OT quotes and allusions and their
relationship to their original contexts shape my interpretation of Matthew's shepherd
texts. It will be argued throughout that Matthew assumes that the reader/hearer knows
the surrounding context of the text(s). Matthew assumes that he shares the same
cultural and religious environment as his readers/hearers, especially a common
acquaintance with Israel's scripture. As a consequence, the way Matthew uses
scripture to help tell the story of Jesus will expand his readers/hearers' 'horizons for
58
comprehension'. 101 For example, it will be argued when Psalm 72:10-11, 15 is alluded
to in Matthew 2:11 the whole of Psalm 72 is brought to mind for the reader/hearer. As
a result, the reader/hearer sees Jesus as the righteous-royal shepherd in light of the
implied intertextual connection with the royal psalm and themes occurring in the
psalm.
It was C. H. Dodd, 102 from a generation ago, who noted that NT quotations
from the OT tended to come from certain areas of the OT. He argued that the
quotations and allusions from the OT evoked the whole passage from which it had
been selected. The texts were not to be understood as isolated 'proof-texts,' separated
from their scriptural contexts. In 1952, he took issue with Harris, who argued for a
primitive Testimony book comprised of independent proof-texts, a sort of anthology
of quotations. 103 Harris had proposed that the original Book of Testimonies was one of
the earliest written documents of the early church, if not the earliest. Matthew the
Apostle was the compiler and this was th; document Papias had referred to when he
said that 'Matthew composed the Logia' . 104 Harris' arguments were, at least in Great
Britain, the starting point of the modem study of the use of the Old Testament in the
New. 105 Regarding Dodd's work, Barnabas Lindars wrote,
This convincing study has struck the death-blow against the theory of a
Testimony Book put forward by Rendel Harris ... The importance of Professor
Dodd's work can hardly be over-estimated. He has ascertained the passages
which form "the sub-structure of all Christian theology", and has also shown
the method which was used by the first Christians in formulating it. 106
101
Schaefer (1995) 68.
102
Dodd (1952).
103
Harris ( 1916-1920).
104
Eusebius, Hist. eccl. 3.39.16. Cf. Moule (1962) 83-84, contra Dodd and supportive ofLindars.
105
Dodd (1952) 25.
106
Lindars (1961) 14-17.
59
Lindars argued there was reason to connect the OT quotations with the apologetic
concerns of the early church, because of challenges and conflicts that arose from their
proclamation of the kerygma. These apologetic concerns, according to Lindars,
resulted in further exegetical reflection on and mining of, favorite blocks of OT
material. Yet, the argument has been made, since Lindars, that the apologetic concerns
followed the more immediate need of the early Christians to understand the passion,
death and resurrection of Jesus. 107
Granted the fact that Dodd's book was written prior to the publication of two
testimonia documents found at Qumran-4Q174 has three primary passages and
4Q175 has five texts- 108 it is somewhat amazing that his thesis was not just thrown
out and forgotten because if the testimonia are understood as a proof-text approach to
the use of the biblical tradition it speaks against Dodd's thesis. However, his thesis
retained credibility not because the testimonia were not important but because his
overall argument continued to be sound, as Lindars pointed out. 109
In response to the phrase, 'according to the scriptures' (I Cor 15:3), Dodd
asked, 'What scriptures, in particular?' inform the events of Jesus' life? Dodd studied
the NT use of the Old and identified four categories: 1) Apocalyptic-Eschatological
Scriptures; 2) The New Israel Scriptures; 3) Scriptures of the Servant of the Lord and the
Righteous Sufferer; 4) Unclassified Scriptures. 110 He did not 'pretend that this [was] an
107
Moo (1983) 392ff. If Moo is right, then he confirms Dodd's argument. Moo argues that the actual
history and teaching of Jesus shaped the earliest church's understanding of how to approach the OT
texts, in particular the passion narrative texts: 'as the early Christians began to think and preach about
the significance of Jesus' death, they must have utilized categories provided by the OT-sacrifices, the
atoning death of the Servant, the innocent sufferer.' 394.
108
Vermes (1997) 493-496, 4Ql74 contains II Sam 7:6-14 (Ex 15: 17-18; Amos 9: 11); Ps 1:1 (Isa 8:11;
Ez 44: 10) and Ps 2:1-2 with pesher comments and the supporting texts listed. 4Q175 contains Deut
5:28-29, 18:18-19, Num 24: 15-17; Deut 33:8-11; and Josh 6:16. Fitzmyer (1957) 59-89.
109
Lindars (1961) 14-17. .
110
Dodd (1952).
60
exhaustive list of scriptures in which the early Church found testimonies to the facts
declared in the kerygma', but it was sufficient to make his point. 111 From this he noted
that there were blocks of OT material that the early church used. He identified
extended passages from the OT and classified these sections as 'wholes, from which
the NT quoted particular verses or sentences as pointers to the whole.' 112 In response
to their experiences of the pre- and post-resurrection Jesus, the early Christians turn to
the biblical tradition to help explain and proclaim the meaning of the recent events. 113
This was 'not a static achievement, but a process, and one which continued well
through the New Testament period and beyond' . 114
In reflecting on the question, 'Who was responsible for it [this 'original,
coherent and flexible method of biblical exegesis']?' 115 Dodd noted that we are
accustomed to say the early church. But in his now famous response, he pushed the
answer further and noted, 'creative thinking is rarely done by committees' but it is
'individual minds that originate. Whose was this originating mind?' 116 His answer,
'the New Testament itself avers that it was Jesus Christ Himselfwho first directed the
minds of His followers to certain parts of the scriptures as those in which they might
find illumination upon the meaning of His mission and destiny' . 117 It was his way of
giving an 'account for the beginning of rethinking the Old Testament by early
Christians, which had its origin in their teacher, Jesus himself. Whatever one's
111
Dodd (1952) 108. .
112
Dodd (1952) 126; Hunter ( 1961) 132-134, argues that his own research confirms Dodd. ' ... we
discover that Dodd's hypothesis survives the test. The early Christians dealt not in single, isolated OT
proof-texts chosen at random, regardless of the context, but in whole psalms or prophetic sections
which must have been used before Paul's day as sources for testimonia.'
113
Dodd (1952) 126-127.
114
Dodd (1952) 108.
115
Dodd (1952) 108-109.
116
Doad(l952} ro9~11o.
117
Dodd (1952) 110.
61
assessment is of Dodd's 'not by committee approach' and the need for a 'creative
mind' behind the whole process, it is important to point out that Dodd himself was not
proposing some systematic or 'comprehensive scheme ofbiblical interpretation, after
the manner ofLk. xxiv. 25-27, 44-45 ... ' 118 His arguments, while maybe needing to be
adjusted in light of continued research, are very judicious and genuinely provocative.
Knowles' recent evaluation ofMatthean exegesis supports Dodd's contention: 'for
Matthew, messianic exegesis-the interpretation of Scripture with reference to the
Messiah-is ultimately based on interpretation of Scripture by the Messiah. Jesus, it
would appear, is his own best exegete'. 119 Matthew's use ofMk 14:49, as suggested
above, would also support this.
Dodd's work was done over half a century ago and scholarship has not been
120
idle. Dodd's work, of course, has also been critiqued and evaluated in many ways.
Dodd's thesis has generally been endorsed and stood the test oftime. Taking into
account the wider OT context, in light of the exegetical presuppositions and practices
of the early church, has generally been regarded as helping to explain the NT writer's
use of the OT. 121 Also considering the partial nature of his work, it is now presumed
that while there may have been initial blocks of the OT where the earliest Christians
turned to explain their faith in the earliest years (e.g. in the first few months and years
after Jesus' death and resurrection) it was not long before they extended their search
118
Dodd (1952) 110.
119
Knowles (2006) 69-70, 'To underscore the point once more, the most important observation to be
adduced from such evidence is that, whatever use of Scripture Matthew himself will make as editor and
expositor of Gospel tradition, it claims to be based in the first instance on the practice and authority of the
Messiah himself, both as to method and as to substance.'
120
Marshall (1988) l-18, deals with a number of Dodd's critics, so e.g. Sundberg (1959); Kasemann
(1969) 82-l 07 and more recently Wilson (1979) 231-243; Black (1986) l-17. Marshall does, with some
understandable qualifications, maintain that Dodd's overall propos~ls have stood the
121
test of time:
Beale (1994) provides perspectives from both sides of the discussion and reprints classic articles.
62
into 'all the Scriptures' (Lk 24:27). 122 This does not deny that it is possible that
testimonia collections existed, perhaps like those found at Qumran containing certain
proof-texts with specific purposes or topics, but the testimonia emerged from the
context of this exegetical endeavor. What Dodd wanted to show was that the use of the
OT in the NT was not just proof-textingper se. For our purposes, Dodd helps us to see
that Matthew's use of the shepherd tests from the OT are not isol~ted proof-texts, but
was intended to exploit the whole context from which the shepherd texts originated. 123
Following the general method set out by Dodd, I assume that the early
Christian's quotation or allusion represents the wider narrative from which the
quotation/allusion is derived. It is assumed that the audience knows the wider literary
context from which the testimony has been drawn. 124 When considering Matthew's
intertextual activity, it will be important to explore the different contexts from which
the quote/allusion has been derived to see how it enriches our understanding of the
shepherd metaphor.
2.5 Summary
In this chapter, I have examined various perspectives, assumptions, and
methodological issues that will impact the remainder of this thesis.
First, I believe it is cogent to assume that Matthew's Jewish-Christian setting is
post 70 C.E. and that Matthew is a Jew writing predominantly for Jews, but not to the
122
Dodd (1952) 108-109.
123
Dodd (1952) 132. Lindars (1961) 16-19 is supportive ofDodd at this point, 'By drawing attention to
the blocks of material from which the testimonies have been drawn, Professor Dodd has shown that the
primary meaning must be ascertained by reference to the whole passage. Generally quotations in the
New Testament have not been selected with complete disregard of the original context. Their meaning
has been already fixed by the process of working over whole passages which seem most relevant to the
Church's fundamental doctrines'. Lindars argues that the early Church used the OT for apologetic
reasons but wants to identify himself with Dodd's proposals and emphasize, 'this is no arbitrary digging
out of proof-texts, without taking the context into account. On the contrary, the context with its
Christian interpretatiol} has already defined the meaning of them.'
124
Dodd (1952) 126-127.
63
exclusion of Gentiles, who are a part of the Christian mission (28: 18-20). For
Matthew, Jesus as Son of God and Messiah is the center ofhis Jewish-Christian faith.
Jesus is now the authoritative interpreter of the law and the fulfillment oflsrael's
hope. It is likely that there is still some ongoing debate between Jews and the Jewish-
Christian communities regarding the significance of Jesus. Matthew is hopeful that
Jews will recognize the unique status of Jesus and follow him. His intense polemic
against the Jewish leadership confirms that there is a crisis of leadership among the
Jewish people. Matthew responds to that crisis by presenting Jesus as the righteous
125
and royal Shepherd anticipated in Israel's scripture.
Furthermore, the position assumed here is that Matthew is a conservative
redactor, utilizing his own literary techniques and distinctive stylistic features.
Matthew uses Mark, or something like canonical Mark, and a source commonly
referred to as Q, whether written or oral, and also material that was unique to him,
known as M. With these sources he embeds biblical tradition as a primary source of
authority confirming his understanding of who Jesus is. The extensive review of
Matthean scholarship concerning Matthew's use of the OTis important because of the
influence of the biblical tradition upon the five primary shepherd texts (2:6; 9:36;
15:24; 25:32; 26:31) and the shepherd metaphor generally. The analysis ofhow these
texts will be given in Chapter Seven.
Third, Matthew's use oftypology and intertextuality significantly influences
how we interpret the shepherd texts. Matthew uses typology as a literary device to
argue how the present fulfills the past, creating a new future for the people of God.
125
The use of the shepherd metaphor in response to the crises of leadership in Israel at least goes back
to Num 27:17 where Moses prays that the people will not be leaderless or 'sheep without a shepherd'
and is developed by the exilic and postexilic prophets. This theme is assumed here but will be
developed later in the thesis.
64
The shepherd motif is connected to a number of the Matthean typologies, including
the Moses-Jesus, and David-Jesus typologies.
Fourth, Matthew quotes and alludes to the biblical tradition extensively.
Regarding quotations, Matthew utilizes introductory phrases and formulas to mark his
use of the OT (e.g. 26:31 ), but he also offers quotes that are unmarked, those without
any formulaic introductions (e.g. 9:36). He also uses mixed quotes, as in Matthew 2:6,
where he quotes Micah 5:2 and II Samuel 5:2. We also noted how difficult it was to
distinguish 'allusions' from 'echoes'. For our purposes, when this thesis talks about
scriptural 'allusions' we assume the author intended it, but with 'echoes' of scripture,
authorial intent may or may not be the cause.
Finally, we noted the importance of intertextuality. The recent scholarship
consensus is that Matthew and the NT writers in general were not only aware of the
larger context from which their OT quotations derived, but were also banking on the
fact that their readers/hearers knew that context. They were not proof-texting', but
pointing to 'whole' texts within biblical tradition. Therefore, one of the tasks in the
thesis is to consider how the original contexts of the quotations or allusions may
further inform the reader concerning the shepherd metaphor.
Along with these perspectives, assumptions, and methodological
considerations, this thesis recognizes that the shepherd motif is used metaphorically.
Hence, it will be the focus of the next chapter to review theories of metaphor--what a
metaphor is, how it functions and how a theory of metaphor helps us to appreciate the
shepherd image.
65
CHAPTER3
METAPHOR
3.1 Metaphor: Definitions, Theories and Approaches
Since the shepherd/sheep metaphor is central to this thesis, it is important to
explore the issues ofthe use of literal and non-literal language. To clarify our
understanding of metaphor is important for at least two reasons. The first reason is that
the subject matter has to do with God. When we say, 'The Lord is my shepherd,' we
are using language to attempt to describe who or what God is in relation to humanity.
Metaphorical ways of speaking are a human way of saying something that cannot be
adequately expressed through literal description. Since the subject matter is God,
metaphorical language is essential because metaphor can 'be reality depicting without
pretending to be directly descriptive.' 1 Metaphorical language in regard to God
reminds us that God cannot be fully comprehended and helps us avoid the idolatry of
limiting descriptions of God. Metaphorical language helps humankind to articulate
differing perceptions of God.
The second reason for clarifying our understanding of metaphor is to explore
how metaphor conveys meaning in general so that we can better understand
metaphorical language about God. The academic study of figurative speech and the
special attention devoted to the nature of metaphor, especially during the last half of
the twentieth-century, makes it impossible to consider all the issues? It is important to
note that this section relies heavily on the work of Janet Martin Soskice. 3 In what
1
Soskice (1985) 145.
2
The literature is va:st. Ortony (1993a) xiii, notes that a bibliography of metaphor publications from
1985-1990 contained 'some three and a half thousand references.'
3
Soskice (1985).
66
follows 1) I will give a brief overview concerning the relationship between the literal
and non-literal/metaphorical use of language. 2) I will offer a working definition of
metaphor through a discussion of what metaphorical language is. 3) A brief review
will be given of some of the main theories of metaphor in order to appreciate how
metaphor functions. 4) Finally, I will clarify the approach taken in this thesis regarding
the shepherd/sheep metaphor.
Linguistic discussions about the relationship between the literal and the
metaphorical have been long and complex. The attempt here is to explore only a few
highly important issues in relation to the discussion. 4 The literal senses of words can
5
be identified apart from context or local use as reported in a dictionary or lexicon.
The literal word has both a sense and denotation. The sense corresponds to the
dictionary definition and the denotation is the relation between the lexeme and the
particular persons, situation, place, things or state of affairs that it designates. 6 So
sheep can denote not only an individual animal but also a class of animal. It is,
therefore, important to note that the literal sense of a word can have a clear sense
independent of context. Yet, it is in the context of usage and at the level of complete
utterance that both the literal and metaphorical uses of language become meaningful in
terms of denotation. Soskice's shorthand on the relationship between the literal and the
metaphorical is helpful for our purposes: 'we shall say that literal speech is
4
E.g. Some of the issues are: 1) Distinctions between literal (empirically respectable) language and
metaphorical (emotive/decorative/devaluation) language. 2) Questions concerning established or
conventional uses. 3) Distinctions between 'literal meaning' and 'metaphorical meaning'. 4) What are
the distinctions between 'metaphorical truth' and 'literal truth'? 5) Does metaphor have both a literal
meaning and a metaphorical meaning? 6) For a metaphor to have cognitive significance, should it be
reducible to a literal statement without diminishing loss of significance? For fuller treatments cf. esp.
Soskice (1985) Chapter 5; Caird (1980) 131-133; Kittay (1987) 19-22, 40-55; Macky (1990) 32-39.
5
Tlie c6gnitivist tHeorists would argue against tnis distinction and that their approach 'has destroyed the
traditional literal-figurative distinction ... ' Cf. Lakoff (1993) 204-205.
6
Soskice (1985) 52.
67
accustomed speech.' 7 So, when an utterance is literal, the terms are being used in a
convincing manner. Metaphor is not the same as the literal, in that the metaphorical
sense is only possible in the context of a complete utterance. Put another way,
metaphor is not a single word or idea, but occurs in relation to something else. Again,
Soskice: 'We also speak, for brevity's sake, of "metaphors" or "metaphorical
utterances" where the reader should understand that we mean these utterances as they
occur in complete contexts of speech.' 8 For example, the phrase, 'sheep without a
shepherd' is context dependent. We therefore have to know the concrete context in
order to determine whether a word/phrase must be taken literally or metaphorically.
3.1.1 What Metaphor Is
For our purposes we will attempt to clarify the nature of metaphor by
discussing what a metaphor is and then discuss the function of metaphor according to
the different theories. 9 Put simply, a metaphor is a figure of speech. In literary
criticism, the metaphor is considered a kind of trope, 10 one of a number of figures of
speech. According to the ancient rhetorician Quintilian, metaphor is the most common
trope. It is often referred to as the 'chief amongst the tropes.' 11 Other tropes he
identifies are metonymy, autonomasia, metalepsis, synecdoche, catachresis, allegory,
hyperbole, and periphrasis. 12 Probably the most discussed trope in relation to
metaphor is 'simile,' generally identified by the use of like or as, which makes it a
\
trope of comparison. Yet while some theorists want to make a clear distinction
7
Soskice (1985) 69.
8
Soskice (1985) 69.
9
For a helpful overview (up to 1981). Cf. Johnson (1981a).
10
Aune (2003) 478, 'from the Latin word tropus ('figure of speech'), derived from the Greek word
tp6nov ("tum, turning"), refers to a word that has been "turned" from its normal meaning and hence is a
'figure of speech.' Quintilian (ca. 35-95) defines tropus as 'the artistic alteration of a word or phrase
from its proper meaning to another.' (lnstituto aratoria 8.6.1 )'.
11
Soskice (1985) ix, 10.
12
Jnst. 8.6.4 and on other tropes, Inst. 9.1.5-6. For modem discussions oftropology cf. Soskice ( 1985)
Chapter4, Caird (1980) 133-143, Macky (1990)40-42.
68
between the two, others, while making a distinction, contend that the two can be
closely related. 13 Soskice clarifies her understanding of this issue by noting that in
many cases a metaphor and simile are 'textually different' but 'functionally the
same.' 14
We will take our initial working definition of metaphor from Soskice,
'metaphor is that figure ofspeech whereby we speak about one thing in terms which
are seen to be suggestive of another'. 15 The nature of metaphor is a mode oflanguage
use and so must be considered first in its linguistic setting as a figure of speech. 16 This
nominal definition intentionally avoids a full functional description of metaphor. The
reason for this is to attempt to describe what a metaphor is and to avoid the possible
confusion arising from using terms often associated with different theories of
metaphor, for example, 'substitution,' 'comparison,' or 'interaction'. While it will be
pointed out later that a good metaphor will encourage non-linguistic associations and a
network of implications, both in terms of ideas and things, it is important to emphasize
here that it is fundamentally a figure of speech and linguistic in nature. 17
13
Soskice (1985) 59, 'can say that metaphor and simile share the same function and differ primarily in
their grammatical form.' Black ( 1979a) 31-32, wants to make a strong and clear distinction between
simile and metaphor because I) simile lacks the impact of metaphor and 2) cannot rival the richer
interactive meaning of metaphor. On the other hand, Caird (1980) 144, 'If a comparison is explicit we
call it a simile, and it is meant to be taken literally. If it is implicit we call it a metaphor, and it is non-
literal. This distinction does not exhaust the difference between simile and metaphor, which we must
explore further at a later stage; but for our immediate purpose it is useful to regard them as
interchangeable'.
14
Soskice ( 1985) 59.
15
Soskice ( 1985) 15, her emphasis.
16
This is one of the basic presuppositions that is challenged by the 'cognitive' view of metaphor and
will be explored further below. Cf. Kovecses (2002); Lakoff(l992); Lakoffand Johnson {1981).
17
Soskice (1985) 17-18, 'But our reason for denying that metaphor is a non-linguistic mental event is
not that we cannot make sense of such a notion (since clearly we have non-linguistic thoughts), but
simply that, as a figure of speech, metaphor is linguistic'.
69
Further, it is also the case that no one syntactic form identifies or defines a
metaphor. 18 Soskice and others argue that it is not accurate to place the emphasis only
on the individual word as if the individual word is the metaphor and the primary
bearer ofmeaning. 19 No words stand alone as metaphors, but words can, in a linguistic
setting, be used as a metaphor. For example, the phrase 'sheep without a shepherd' is
understood according to its linguistic setting, as either literal speech or non-literal
(metaphorical) speech based on the linguistic context of the utterance. So, a metaphor
becomes apparent as it is established in a wider context and should not be limited to a
word or even a sentence. 20
A further observation concerning the nature of metaphor is that once a
metaphor has been established in a given context it may then be extended. We can
make a distinction between establishing a simple metaphor and developing an
extended metaphor. A metaphor is established as soon as the reader/listener is able to
recognize that one thing is being spoken of in terms suggestive of another. An
extended metaphor appears when the established metaphor is developed and expanded
for as long as the writer/speaker wants to extend the metaphor. Psalm 23 can illustrate
both the established metaphor and an extended metaphor. The 'Lord is my shepherd'
(v. 1) is the established metaphor and then it is extended in the following verses (vv.
2-4). In the case of Psalm 23, a question arises for the reader as to whether or not the
shepherd metaphor continues to the end of the psalm. Does the metaphor change after
verse 4? The answer one gives depends on how much one knows about nomadic
18
Soskice (1985) 18-19.
19
Soskice (1985) 16 'metaphor is a mode of language use and the study of metaphor should begin in a
linguistic setting.' Richards (1936) and others following him; e.g. Ricoeur (1977) 65, 'Hence, we will
speak from now on of the metaphorical statement'. His emphasis.
20
Soskice (1985) 21, responding to Ricoeur's emphasis on the sentence, 'We need not, however,
replace the hegemony of the word with hegemony of the sentence'.
70
shepherds and their traditions concerning hospitality and generosity in ancient
cultures. 21
This last example from Psalm 23 highlights another point concerning
metaphor: in order for a metaphor to be fully understood as metaphor, there must be a
shared understanding both of language and conceptual content. This aspect of
metaphor will be developed further below. The summary of Soskice is helpful:
[T]he minimal unit in which a metaphor is established is semantic rather

than syntactic; a metaphor is established as soon as it is clear that one
thing is being spoken of in terms that are suggestive of another and can
be extended until this is no longer the case. It can be extended, that is,
until the length of our speaking "of one thing in terms su~gestive of
another" makes us forget the "thing" of which we speak. 2
Recapitulating, therefore, in this initial section we have attempted to clarify what
metaphor is. First, metaphor as a unit is defined semantically rather that
syntactically. 23 To put it another way, metaphor is a trope in a linguistic context. It is
in the linguistic context that the nature of metaphor is established, as soon as the
reader/listener is able to recognize that one thing is being spoken of in terms
suggestive of another. 24 Once a metaphor is established in a given linguistic context, it
may or may not be extended. Finally, before readers or listeners can recognize a
metaphor, they must have a shared understanding of language and conceptual
understanding of the metaphor.
21
The question as to whether we are still dealing with the shepherd metaphor at the end of the Psalm,
e.g. vv. 5-6, is discussed below.
22
Soskice (1985) 23.
23
I agree with the way Soskice has argued this point, supporting her argument with I. A. Richards and
Paul Ricouer on p 21. But this point has been disputed, e.g. by Sue Patterson in a review of Soskice 's
book: 'However I do not see that it is possible to make a clear distinction between semantic and
syntactic: if the meaning of an utterance depends on a certain grammatical structure such as predication,
how is it possible to distinguish the syntactical form of the utterance from the semantical content? Both
are brought together and interact (see Wittgenstein's dictum of meaning as use in his Philosophical
Investigations ... ). It is our use of words in our everyday lives which connects our language with the
physical world. This connection relies on our social conventions regarding language use' (l99n2,J}. 3.
The relation between the semantic and the syntactiC is discussed further in the-section considering the
'Incrementalist Approaches'.
24
Soskice (1985) 21-22.
71
3.1.2 How Metaphor Functions
For a reader to understand either a word or a figure of speech in its context,
they must understand how it functions. Various authors have emphasized differing
ways and degrees of function and differing impact or richness of meaning according to
their specific theories of metaphor. One ofthe issues concerning 'How metaphor
functions' involves how metaphors should be categorized--either fundamentally as a
linguistic phenomenon, or more generally as a communication phenomenon, or as a
phenomenon of thought, cognition or mental representation.
It is possible to identify four categories of approaches to metaphor: 1) Classical
Approaches, 2) Pragmatic Approaches, 3) Interactionist or Incrementalist Approaches,
and 4) Cognitive Approaches. A brief survey of each approach will clarify the
differences.
3.1.2.1 Classical Approaches
The Classical approach to metaphor is represented by Aristotle and
Quintilian.Z 5 Aristotle's comments on metaphor have been traditionally understood as
proposing a theory of 'substitution' or 'ornamentation'. Recently, this interpretation of
Aristotle has been questioned.Z 6 Chapter 21 of Aristotle's Poetics is one of the primary
texts considered:
Metaphor is the application of a strange term either transferred from the genus
and applied to the species or from the species and applied to the genus, or from
one species to another or else by analogy, an example of a term transferred
from genus to species is 'Here stands my ship'. Riding at anchor is a species of
standing ... An example of transference from one species to another is
'Drawing off his life with the bronze' and 'Severing with the tireless bronze',
25
Quintilian, lnstituio Oratoria 8.1-19, on Quintilian cf. Soskice (1985) 6-10.
26
E.g. by both Soskice (1985) and Ricoeur (1977).
72
where 'drawing off is used for 'severing' and 'severing' for 'drawing off,
both being species of 'removing'. Metaphor by analogy means this: when 8 is
to A as Dis to C, then instead ofB the poet will say D and 8 instead ofD.' 27
A detailed discussion of this passage and other passages from Aristotle is not
necessary but several points may be noted. 28 The traditional interpretation of metaphor
makes six points from Aristotle's comments: 29 1) Aristotle seems to refer to metaphor
as primarily an individual word, a property of the word and a linguistic phenomenon,
rather than a sentence or cognitive idea. 30 2) Aristotle seems to understand metaphor
to include other types of transfers with other figures of speech, e.g. in the quote above,
synecdoche and hyperbole. 3) The primary focus in the quotation above is on the
terms 'metaphor' (~Etcx<j>ap&., to carry across) and 'transferred' (E:mcpop&., to carry over).
This seems to be the reason that most have understood Aristotle (and Quintilian with
him) to have a theory of substitution. 4) Metaphor is based on a resemblance between
the two entities that are compared and identified. For example, Achilles must share
some features with lions in order for us to be able to use the word lion as a metaphor
for Achilles. 5) Metaphor is a conscious and deliberate use of words, and one must
have a special talent to be able to do it and do it well. 6) Metaphor is a figure of speech

31
that one can do without; it is a kind of ornament or an embellishment of language.
27
Aristotle, Poetics 21.7-13 (Fyfe, LCL).
28
The common sources drawn upon for Aristotle's views on metaphor are here in the Poetics and book
3 of the Rhetorica where he treats 'style' (AE~Lc;;), and in 3.10-11 where he treats the source of popular
and witty sayings, and his four types of metaphor.
29
The following points are how Aristotle has traditionally been interpreted. Soskice, and others, take
issue with the traditional interpretation and the implications drawn; e.g. that he sets forth primarily a
theory of substitution and/or an omamentalist view. Cf. Soskice ( 1985) 8-14. Ricoeur ( 1977) 16-24 also
takes exception.
30
Soskice (1985) 5, 'In any case, whether as noun or name or word in general, Aristotle tends to speak
of metaphor as a phenomenon of the individual word rather than of any wider locus of meaning such as
the sentence ... '
31
This perspective of ornamentation possibly anticipates some of the pragmatic approaches considered
below.
73
These elements of the classical approach are now commonplace, but as
Soskice emphasizes, it is unsatisfactory to view metaphor as simple substitution of a
decorative word or phrase for an ordinary one. 32 Metaphor is active in the extension of
our understanding and has the capacity to fill what linguists now refer to as lexical
gaps. Paul Ricoeur also rejects the notion that Aristotle implies a substitution theory of
metaphor. He says: '[T]he fact that the metaphorical term is borrowed from an alien
domain does not imply that it substitutes for an ordinary word which one could have
found in the same place. ' 33 Thus, Aristotle is taken to favor the idea of linguistic
interaction. Still, the contention remains among many that Aristotle implies a
substitution theory of metaphor. 'Metaphor is defined in terms of movement. ' It is 'the
notion of epiphora (the transposition from one pole to another)' that Ricoeur
emphasizes. 34 He thus concludes: 'The modem authors who say that to make a
metaphor is to see two things in one are faithful to this feature'. 35
If Aristotle did not primarily view metaphor as substitution of an ornamented
term for the literal one, then what is the origin of the substitution view? In attempting
to answer this question, some modem critics charge Aristotle's description of
metaphor as being 'full of ambiguities when regarded as a definition' 36 or else that
'Aristotle himself was confused on this point and thus provided grounds for the
modem critiques' that have ensued. 37 Yet, in spite of the ambiguities and confusion,
32
Soskice ( 1985) 8.
33
Ricoeur (1977) 19. On Ricoeur cf. Thiselton (1992) 351-358.
34
Ricoeur ( 1977) 17, 19; his emphasis.
35
Ricoeur (1977) 24.
36
Soskice (1985) 5.
37
Ricoeur (1977) 19.
74
two observations are identified that lead to the substitution view: 1) the history of
rhetoric and rhetorical methods and 2) the interpretation and critique of the rationalists
and empiricists. 38 It is partially correct that classical rhetoric did emphasize metaphor
as primarily substitution, because of its importance as chief among the tropes. But
Soskice qualifies this perspective by pointing out that it was not so much the
rhetoricians who created the substitution view but their empiricist critics. The
empiricists were suspicious of rhetorical methods and therefore interpreted
rhetoricians as having the substitution view. Specifically she identifies the critique of
Hobbes and Locke concerning rhetoric and figurative speech as a primary source of
the substitution view. In Essay Concerning Human Understanding Locke argues that
the use of' figures of speeches and allusion in language' should be avoided by any
clear-thinking person. 39 It is in this modem critique of the use and abuse of rhetoric
that Locke identifies Aristotle (and also Quintilian) with the substitution view. This
leads to the ornamentation view, which holds that metaphor is nothing more than an
ornament of language, and at best, unnecessary and problematic, or at worst,
'deceiving' .40 In the discussion of the differing theories, the comparison theory is
simply a more nuanced consideration of the substitution view. 41 The comparison
approach is still essentially ornamental in that two like things are simply compared but
the metaphor might be replaced by a literal equivalent. 42
38
Soskice (1985) 10-12.
39
Soskice (1985) 12-13.
40
Soskice (1985) 13, Locke concludes his attack on figurative language, 'Eloquence, like the fair sex,
has too prevailing beauties in it to suffer itself ever to be spoken against. And it is in vain to find fault
with those arts of deceiving, wherein men find pleasure to be deceived'.
41
Soskice (1985) 12-14,24-26.
42
Soskice (1985) 26.
75
3.1.2.2 Pragmatic Approaches
The perspective that metaphor is basically ornamentation leads to the
contemporary pragmatic approaches. Two approaches can be classified here: 1)
emotive theory, 43 and 2) reinterpretation theory. 44
The emotive theory in regard to metaphor is much like an emotive
understanding of religious language or ethics. The impact or importance of metaphor
is basically affective only. This view of metaphor often assumes a theory of meaning
associated with the logical positivists of the mid-twentieth century. One basic idea of
positivism was that reality could be precisely described through the use of language
that was clear, unambiguous, and literally descriptive. Other uses of language were
meaningless, for they violated the empiricist criterion of meaning. During the heyday
of logical positivism, literal language reigned supreme. Therefore, the use of metaphor
was a deviant use of language and a detriment to cognitive content. While emotivists
argued that the cognitive content was lost, the use of metaphor gave language an
unspecified emotional impact.
Donald Davidson argues against any theory of metaphor that has any specific
interactive or cognitive perspective on metaphor. 45 For Davidson, 'metaphors mean

46
what the words, in their most literal interpretation, mean, and nothing more. ' He
does not want to be associated with the emotivist view described above but, from his
perspective, sets forth a more nuanced approach. 47 Yet, as will become clear, his
43
Soskice (1985) 26-31; Davidson (1979). Davidson is not a 'pure emotivist.' Soskice, 27-31, discusses
his theory in regard to its similarities and differences with emotivism.
44
Boeve and Feyaerts (1999) 8; Swinebume (1999); Maier (1999); Pires de Oliveira (1999).
45
Davidson ( 1979).
46
Davidson (1979) 30.
47
Davidson (1979) 30-31.
76
position is that metaphor has no cognitive meaning because it is not literal language.
He argues that the important distinction to be made is 'between what words mean and
what they are used to do. ' 48 His position is that metaphor has no special cognitive
meaning, but its efficacy, if there is any, is from its pragmatic force. The only
cognitive meaning is from the literal meanings of its various parts. 49 The meaning of
language is free from context, and when language has a context, the concern is not
with meaning but with use. 50 He agrees that a metaphor is only a metaphor in context,
but the question is not one of meaning but of use. Any cognitive content as metaphor
may have is determined by the literal meanings of the words. 51
Basic to Davidson's view is his argument concerning 'meaning' and his
contention that 'meaning' is context-free. Eve Kittay develops a helpful argument in
regard to Davidson's position and the specific contention that meaning is context-free
by arguing that 'literal language is no more context-free than metaphor is, each
revealing different aspects of the context-dependence of both literal and metaphorical
language.' 52 Kittay develops her argument along three lines. 53 Her first two lines of
48
Davidson (1979) 31, 'I think metaphor belongs exclusively to the domain of use. It is something
brought offby the imaginative employment of words and sentences and depends entirely on the
ordinary meanings of those words and hence on the ordinary meanings of the sentences they comprise'.
49
Davidson (1979) 43, 'We must give up the idea that a metaphor carries a message, that it has a
content or meaning (except, of course, its literal meaning).
50
Davidson (1979) 31, 'Literal meaning and literal truth conditions can be assigned to words and
sentences apart from particular contexts of use'.
51
Davidson (1979) 39. 'The argument so far has led to the conclusion that as much of metaphor as can
be explained in terms of meaning may, and indeed must, be explained by appeal to the literal meanings
of words'.
52
Kittay (1987) 100. Kittay offers an extended refutation and thorough critique of Davidson's position;
she also includes Searl (1979) in her discussion: 96-123.
53
Kittay (1987) 100. 'The first emerges directly from tlle<study 6frrietaphor itself; the second concerns
the implicit background assumptions against which all language is understood; the third involves the
profound ambiguity inherent in most terms of a natural language'.
77
argument concern the context independence of sentence meaning and the last concerns
word meaning. 54 Kittay offers the following illustration:
[A] challenge to the contextual independence of literal language is posed when

we consider how we come to recognize that an utterance is metaphorical ....
3.1 Smith is a plumber and 3.2 The rock is becoming brittle with age,
may be interpreted literally or metaphorically. 3.1 is metaphorical if we know
that Smith is not a plumber but a surgeon; 3.2 is metaphorical if we are
speaking of an ageing professor emeritus. 55
Kittay's point is much the same as the earlier illustration concerning, 'sheep without a
shepherd.' Context determines whether the meaning concerns animals left unattended
or a metaphor descriptive of people left leaderless.
Davidson's approach to meaning does not give genuine recognition to the fact
that metaphors actually do something, and if they do something it must be because
they say something. 56 He comes close to acknowledging this when he says, 'This is
not to deny that there is such as thing as metaphorical truth, only to deny it of
sentences. Metaphor does lead us to notice what might not otherwise be noticed, and
there is no reason, I suppose, not to say these visions, thought, and feelings inspired by
the metaphor, are true or false.' 57 Yet, in the very next sentence he states, 'If a
sentence used metaphorically is true or false in the ordinary sense, then it is clear that
it is usually false. ' 58 Earlier he noted that metaphor 'nudges us into noting. ' 59 But in
the end his solution to what metaphors mean is simply to deny that they mean
anything at all. 60
54
Kittay (1987) 'Considerations from metaphor.' 100-106; 'Contextual background assumptions'. 104-
106; Context-dependence based on systematic ambiguity'. 106-113.
55
Kittay (1987) 100.
56
Soskice (1985) 30.
57
Davidson (1979) 39.
58
Davidson ( 1979} 39.
59
Davidson (1979) 36.
60
Soskice ( 1985) 28, Cf. the detailed response of Max Black ( 1979) 181-192 to Davidson.
78
Another version of the pragmatic approach came to the fore with the
development of the speech act theory associated with John R. Searle. 61 In this
approach a clear
distinction is made between (literal) sentence meaning (semantics) and utterance
meaning (pragmatics), which is described as the meaning intended by the speaker.
When a speaker uses metaphorical language, the only real meaning in the statement is
the literal interpretation that is made by the hearer. As a result, metaphor is placed
outside 'normal' speech acts and is referred to as an 'indirect' speech act. An
acceptable interpretation of a metaphorical utterance can only be arrived at by the
reinterpretation of the utterance by the hearer into the literal interpretation. A
metaphorical utterance is an incorrect interpretation attempt by the speaker of the
literal meaning, hence the name reinterpretation theory. Soskice summarizes it well:
Searle, unlike Davidson, freely speaks of the meaning of metaphor, but does
so by using 'meaning' in two ways: 'what the sentence means literally' and
what 'the speaker means metaphorically'. It is important to note that both
Searle and Davidson would say that what the sentence means is what it means
literally, and so would disagree with the suggestion that the same sentence
62
has both a literal meaning and metaphorical meaning.
Searle and Davidson might reply to Soskice that they are only interested in the
truth and falsity of the sentences and what they mean, not what the speaker means or is
trying to do when using sentences. Yet, part of the reality of everyday language and
the process of communication involves an attempt to understand what a speaker means
and hopes to do in the act of communication. Their approach distances them from the
very everyday language they hope to describe.
61
Searle (1979). Searle's article remains the same in the rev. ed. ofOrtony (1993).
62
Soskice (1985) 91-92.
79
3.1.2.3 Interactionist or Incrementalist Approacbes 63
We have seen that the classical theories are often associated with some type of
substitution or ornamentation theory. The content or meaning of a metaphor is
superfluous and could be expressed, just as well, without using a metaphor, hence the
idea of metaphor as ornamentation. In pragmatic approaches metaphor is simply
affective (emotivism) and has no meaning or must be reinterpreted literally to have
any real meaning: metaphor becomes irrelevant. The incrementalist approaches
disagree with both of the above. The incrementalist approach, sometimes referred to
more generally as the interactionist theory or as interactionism, emerged in the
twentieth century in response to the classical and pragmatic approaches. As a generic
theory it is associated with people like I. A. Richards 64 and later Max Black65 and
other diverse applications of the theory by Monroe Beardsley, 66 Paul Ricoeur, 67 Eva
Kittay 68 and others. 69 Generally the incrementalists propose that what is said by way
63
Soskice (1985) 31-51. Incrementalist is Soskice's word and her category heading for the different
interactionist approaches. While not as well known it has the advantage of being a broader tenn than
interactionist; the word interactionism is often specifically associated specifically with Max Black.
Again, Soskice is a dominant influence in the following discussion.
64
Richards (1936). Richards' work is basic to the modem exploration of metaphor and continues to
play an important role in any discussion concerning the theory of metaphor.
65
Black (1962), (l979a), (l979b). Black is known for the 'interaction' theory and borrowed heavily
from Richards. From Black's perspective Richards' tenninology was too 'psychological' and he
attempted to change this but he has been criticized for some of the tenninology he has used to describe
metaphor. Cf. Soskice (1985) 41-43 and esp. 45, n 55.
66
Beardsley (1958), (1967); Cf. Soskice (1985) 32-38, who discusses at length Beardsley's
'controversion' theory.
67
Ricoeur (1976), (ET 1977), (1979). (1976) 52-53, 'Within a tension theory of metaphor, ... a new
signification emerges, which embraces the whole sentence .... Tension metaphors are not translatable
because they create their meaning. This is not to say that they cannot be paraphrased, just that such a
paraphrase is infinite and incapable of exhausting the innovative meaning .... [metaphor] has more than
an emotive value because it offers new infonnation. A metaphor, in short, tells us something new about
reality'.
68
Kittay (1987). Kittay's contribution attempts to bridge the gap between the interactionists and the
cognitivists. Her 'perspectival stance' will be briefly reviewed below as a transition from the
'interactionist' theorje~sto the 'cognivitists'.
69
Johnson (1981); Macky (1990); McFague (1982); Masson (2001); Nielsen (1992); Ortony (1979, rev.
ed. 1993); Porter (1983); Sacks (1979).
80
of metaphor is unique and cannot be said in any other way and that the dynamic at
work in the parts of a metaphor produces new cognitive meanings. How metaphors
function to do this is what is debated. For the purposes of this thesis, the focus will be
to consider generally the interactionist theories, 70 and specifically the interanimation
theory of Soskice. 71
Interactionism is initially associated with I. A. Richards and then developed by
Max Black. Richards' theory is referred to as the tensive view because he emphasizes
the conceptual incompatibility or tension between the two terms in the metaphor. He
proposed a set of terms for talking about metaphors: the topic or tenor and the vehicle
or ground. So, in the metaphor 'The Lord is my shepherd,' the word 'Lord' is the
tenor (the metaphor's underlying subject) and the vehicle is 'shepherd' (the mode in
which it is expressed). Metaphoric meaning is created when the two different
meanings (tenor and vehicle) come together in a single form. Richards says,
when we use a metaphor we have two thoughts of different things active

together and supported by a single word, or phrase, whose meaning is
resultant of their interaction ... fundamentally it [metaphor] is a borrowing
between and intercourse of thoughts, a transaction between contexts.
Thought is metaphoric, and proceeds by comparison, and the metaphors
of language derive therefrom. 72
Black acknowledged his indebtedness to the work of Richards but took issue
with him in some significant ways and identified his theory of metaphor as the
interactive view. In an attempt to try to further clarify and understand metaphor, Black
introduced a different terminology from Richards':focus andframe. Metaphor is an
'expression in which some words are used metaphorically while the remainder are
70
Soskice ( 19851) 38-43.
71
Sock ice (1985) 43-5 I. The 'interanimation' theory is Soskice's theory of metaphor.
72
Richards (1936) 93-94, his emphasis.
81
used non-metaphorically. ' 73 The words that are used metaphorically belong to the
focus and they occur in the literal.frame, which is the rest ofthe sentence. These two
subjects create an interactive dimension between focus and frame that results in a new
meaning. In Black's understanding of metaphor, two themes surface again and again:
1) something new is created when a metaphor is understood, and 2) metaphors give us
different ways of viewing the world. For Black the emergence of 'something new' is
pivotal in his understanding of metaphor. Soskice notes,
... while the interaction view of metaphor has met with considerable
general acceptance, and 'Metaphor' [the article in Black (1979)] has indeed
come to be regarded as a seminal article, the terminology that Black uses there
to describe metaphor has attracted criticism. The notion of 'interaction'
is after all itself metaphorical and requires some explication, as does talk
of the metaphorical 'focus' and 'frame', and also the notion that metaphor,
like a 'piece ofheavily smoked glass on which certain lines have been left
clear' acts as a 'filter' or 'screen'. 74
Besides these issues the real problem, according to Soskice, is Black's insistence on
the fact that each metaphor has two distinct subjects. For Soskice, the two subjects
result not in an interaction theory but simply in another comparison theory. 75
The theory presented by Soskice is the interanimation theory. 76 Her thesis is
that metaphor is a linguistic phenomenon, an interanimation of terms, clarified by
context and should be fully cognitive. 'Metaphor is a speaking of one thing in terms
which are seen as suggestive ofanother.' 77 Also, metaphor should be capable of
saying that which may be said in no other way than by metaphor. She does not claim
that her own theory of 'interanimation' will meet all that an ideal theory of metaphor
should encompass, but she identifies the different elements a theory of metaphor might
73
Black (1979) 27, his emphasis.
74
Soskice (1985) 41.
Soskice (I ~ 85). 4.3.
75
76
Sockice (1985) 43-51.
77
Sockice ( 1985) 49.
82
include: 78 1) Metaphor is neither a simple substitution for literal speech nor is it
strictly emotive but should be capable of saying that which could not be said in any
other way. 2) Metaphor should be fully cognitive and able to give us 'two ideas for
one,' and yet at the same time not just become a simple comparison theory. These first
two points are basic. 3) If possible, metaphor theory should discuss the speaker's
intention and the hearer's reception of it. As alluded to above, the hearer should be
able to discern and recognize that the speaker is speaking metaphorically. 4) Finally, a
discussion of metaphor would involve the consideration not only of what is said, but
also of the context, linguistically and otherwise, in which it is said. This would involve
an understanding ofthe beliefs and patterns of inference on the part ofboth the hearer
and speaker. As Soskice says, 'In particular, we wish to show how metaphors can be
cognitively unique, that is, how without being mere comparison they can give us "two
ideas for one'". 79
Soskice also finds the work of I.A. Richards seminal. The term she uses to
describe her own position, interanimation, is a term used by Richards in his discussion
of metaphor. Soskice believes that Richards' account of metaphor continues to provide
the most satisfactory way forward. While his approach needs some terminological
refinements, which she provides, she suggests that we 'allow by a principle of
historical charity' that, with the terminological adjustments, his argument has merit
and should be taken seriously. 80
78
Soskice (t 985) 44.
79
Soskice ( 1985) 44.
80
Soskice (1985) 44-45.
83
Richards also establishes that meaning is determined by complete utterances
and contexts rather than by individual words in isolation. His next move is then to
emphasize that metaphor is 'two thoughts of different things active together' 81 and this
assures that his theory of metaphor is not a mere shifting of words or a substitution of
terms, which is often a dilemma in any theory of metaphor. The way he explains this
is in his use of tenor, which is the underlying subject of the metaphor and vehicle, that
which presents the tenor. Richards' illustration of this is very helpful:
A stubborn and unconquerable flame

Creeps in his veins and drinks the streams of life.
The tenor is the idea of the fever from which the man is suffering, and the vehicle for
it is the description of the flame. Soskice's comment on this illustration emphasizes
that she thinks it is important that metaphor is more than just two terms, 'Note that in
this passage the fever is never explicitly mentioned, hence Richards' suggestion that it
is thoughts and not words which are active together, although the thoughts are of
course bound up with the words. ' 82 This last point should be emphasized because it
illustrates one of the basic arguments of the interanimation view concerning the
cognitive nature qf metaphor.
This allows Richards to speak of two parts of the metaphor, tenor and vehicle,
without introducing the idea of two distinct subjects. 83 The advantage of Richards'
view, from Soskice's perspective, is that a metaphor has only one subject, which tenor
and vehicle together can describe and picture; hence, Richards is able to concentrate
on the words and the interanimation of words. Yet, as the illustration above clarifies,
81
Richards (1936) 93.
82
Soskice ( 1985) 45-46, her emphasis.
83
As noted above, the idea that a metaphor has two subjects is one ofSoskice's primary criticisms of
Black's interactive theory. Black's insistence that a metaphor has two distinct subjects is according to
Soskice 'responsible for mosto~the serious inconsistencies'ofBiack's theory.' Also; according to~
Soskice, this allows Black's theory to be vulnerable to drifting toward a 'comparison' view that he
himselfhad criticized earlier. Soskice (1985) 47. Cf. also 41, 45, 49.
84
Richards' even more subtle point is that tenor and vehicle do not need to be two terms,
metaphor is the interanimation of words and thoughts. 'The content, the full meaning
of the metaphor, results from the complete unit of tenor and vehicle ... The metaphor
and its meaning (it is artificial to separate them) are the unique product of the
whole ... [Therefore], a metaphor is genuinely creative and says something that can be
said adequately in no other way, not as an ornament to what we already know but as
an embodiment of a new insight. ' 84
Soskice has defined metaphor 'as a speaking about one thing in terms
suggestive of another' ,85 and she maintains that metaphor, properly speaking is a
linguistic phenomenon, 'an interanimation of terms', but she also maintains an
interactive dimension, since metaphor involves at least two different networks of
associations. This she does through employing Richards' categories of tenor and
vehicle. 86 Soskice's explanation of Richards' terminology and its ramifications for her
theory of metaphor is very helpful. It is helpful because metaphor as a linguistic
phenomenon is not to be interpreted in isolation but as a complete utterance in light of
the surrounding contexts. Metaphor has the capacity to say something genuinely
creative that cannot be said adequately in any other way. It is more than mere
description or comparison but in its cognitive capacity can facilitate new insight. This
will be explored further below as it applies to appreciation and interpretation of
biblical metaphors.
As a transition to the cognitive approaches, the contribution of Eva Kittal 7
will help to further clarify both the basic features of the interactionist position and also
84
Soskice ( 1985) 48.
85
Soskice (1985) 15, 49.
86
Soskice (I 985) 49.
87
Kittay ( 1987).
85
illustrate one more nuanced approach among the interactionists. Kittay will also
emphasize metaphor's cognitive force as well as its linguistic structure. 88 She begins
by identifying six eleme~ts of the interactionism. They are summarized as follows: 89
(1) That metaphors are sentences, not isolated words.

(2) That a metaphor consists of two components.
(3) That there is a tension between these two components.
(4) That these components need to be understood as systems.
(5) That the meaning of a metaphor arises from an interplay of these components.
(6) That the meaning of metaphor is irreducible and cognitive.
She notes that the first four statements point to the structure of metaphor (the
linguistic). The last two pertain to the interpretation of metaphor (the cognitive).
Kittay discusses and elaborates each of these statements90 in order to describe her
position, which she calls the perspectival theory.
Since perspectival implies a subject who observes from a stance, we can say
that metaphor provides the linguistic realization for the cognitive activity by
which a language speaker makes use of one linguistically articulated domain to
gain an understanding of another experiential or conceptual domain, and
similarly, by which a hearer grasps such an understanding. 91
Kittay uses the term perspective to argue her position: 1) Perspective clarifies the first
point above, that metaphors are understood in a certain context and not as isolated
words. She notes, with others that, 'metaphors involve some sort of rule-breaking' in
the sense that metaphor breaks certain ordinary semantic rules of language by
combining incongruous concepts and terms, not in an arbitrary way but in ways that
are specifiable rather than mistakes. 92 2) Perspective is a more precise way, according
88
Kittay (1987) 15. 'Concepts, as I understand them, are not free-floating, but emerge from the
articulation of a domain by a set of contrasts and affinities available in an expressive medium. Without
an expressive medium we most likely should not be able to form metaphors or even think
metaphorically'.
89
Kittay (1987) 22-23.
9
91
Kittay (1987) 23-39.
Kittay (1987) 14.
92
Kittay ("1987) 24. Her way of speaking about the literal and the metaphorical is to make a 'distinction
between first-order meaning, that is, the literal and conventional senses of an utterance' ... and 'second-
order meaning which is metaphorical meaning'.
86
to her theory, to understand the interaction that occurs between what Richards called
tenor and vehicle. Kittay chooses to 'retain vehicle with its suggestion of transport, to
denote the focal term-that is, the label itself and the content that label conveys
literally.' 93 The second content is called topic. 'Topic suggests not an expression in a
text, but rather what a text is speaking about. ' 94 It is important to note that it is not the
topic alone that is the meaning of the metaphor but it is both the vehicle and topic
together, though incongruous, in a given context that creates a conceptual and
contextual discourse. This brings into view the 'double semantic relationship' of
metaphor. 95 3) Perspective helps explicate this double semantic content of the tension
that exists between the two components of vehicle and topic. The perspectival nature
of metaphor shows 'that one component of the metaphor can be used as a way of
organizing or conceptualizing the other. The meaning of the metaphor is the result of
the perspectival juxtaposing of two ideas.' 96 4) Kittay modifies Black's understanding
of how the components are understood as systems in two ways: 'first, the systems are
not "associated commonplaces" but semantic fields; secondly, both the vehicle and the
topic belong to systems, not only the vehicle (the subsidiary subject). ' 97 5) The
perspectival theory says that the meaning of a metaphor results from the interplay of
the meaning between the field of the vehicle and the field of the topic. 'More
precisely, in metaphor what is transferred are the relations which pertain within one
semantic field to a second, distinct content domain. That, in short, is how I
characterize metaphor. ' 98 6) Kittay assumes with other theorists99 that metaphor is
93
Kittay (1987) 26. Her emphasis .
94
. Kittay (1987) 26. Her emphasis.
95
Kittay (1987) 26. The phrase, 'double semantic relationship' is from Henle (1981 ).
96
Kittay (1987) 29.
97
Kittay(l987):30. This is Kittay's modification ofB1ack's 'two distinct subjects.'
98
Kittay (1987) 36.
99
Kittay (1987) 14. As she says, 'From Richards to Lakoffand Johnson (1980)'.
87
conceptual and that many of our actions are based on metaphorical conceptions. One
of the significant aspects of metaphor is not only its capacity to provide new
information, but rather to (re)conceptualize the information that is already available to
us. 'Information which is not articulated and conceptualized is of little cognitive
importance. Metaphor is a primary way in which we accomntodate and assimilate
information and experience to our conceptual organization of the world.' 100
3.1.2.4 Cognitive Approaches
The fourth approach to metaphor is the cognitive approach. This approach says
that metaphor is first and foremost a phenomenon of thought and mental
representation rather than a linguistic expression. It was developed in the early
nineteen-eighties and is associated with George Lakoff, Mark Johnson, and others. 101
Lakoff and Johnson's theorizing is basic to any discussion of the cognitive theory of
metaphor. 102 One of the fundamental tenets of the cognitive theory is that metaphor is
not a figure of speech, but rather a figure of thought. Some theorists have classified the
cognitive theory as one more approach to be included among the interactionist
theories. 103 But it is argued by those holding this position 104 that while the cognitive
view shares some basic ideas with interactionism, the emphasis is on the
characterization of metaphor as a conceptual phenomenon. Thus, it is understood to
be a new and fourth approach to metaphor theory.
100
Kittay ( 1987) 39.
101
Boeve and Feyaerts (1999) ehs 10-14. Feyaerts (2002); Johnson (1981); Koveeses (2002); Lakoff
(1993) Lakoffand Johnson (1981); MaeConnae (1985); Ortony (1979, rev. ed. 1993); Reddy (1993); Van
Heeke (2000, 200 I).
102
Lakoff ( 1993) 203-204. .
103
E.g. Maier ( 1999); Koveeses (2002); Lakoff ( 1993).
104
Boeve and Feyaerts (1999); Koveeses (2002); Lakoff(1993); Van Heeke (2000, 2001).
88
Initially, three claims can be emphasized in regard to metaphor's cognitive
functionality. 105 The first claim is 'the explanatory force of metaphor, meaning that
some parts of our conceptual system can only be understood and structured (disclosed)
through projection of coherent patterns of reasoning out of other knowledge
domains . .to6 This is considered prominent by cognitivists. Metaphor is understood to
be indispensable and unavoidable in the process of any form of dynamic reasoning.
Second, metaphor has 'an enormous creative power' . 107 This has similarities with the
interactionist theory in that the cognitive approach also upholds the theory that new
meanings and models of thought are created in the use of metaphors. 108 The third
claim of cognitive functionality has to do with 'the observation that a single event,
action, state or property can be construed in many different (metaphoric) ways, thus
equally highlighting different aspects of the explanadum (focusing function).' 109
Again, while not exactly the same, this also mimics Black'sfocus(frame description of
the function of metaphor. Black'sframe, usually the sentence in which the metaphor is
found, becomes for the cognitivists the larger and more general conceptual domain.
As indicated above, I have chosen to respect the arguments of the cognitive
theorists who argue that their approach to metaphor be considered a separate theory
from interactionism. Consequently it will be discussed on its own terms. 110 The basic
claims of this theory are as follows. 111 First, metaphor is a property of concepts, and
not of words. Metaphor is not in the first place a figure of speech, but rather a figure of
105
Boeve and Feyaerts (1999) 9.
106
Boeve and Feyaerts ( 1999) 9, their emphasis.
107
Boeve and Feyaerts ( 1999) 9, their emphasis.
108
Cf. The remark above about Soskice's use of Richards. Also, Cf. Ricoeur (1976), 53, 'Tension
metaphors are not translatable because they create their meaning .... A metaphor, in short, tells us
something new about reality'.
109
Boeve and Feylierts (1999) 10, their emphasis. Cf:'-Kovecses (2002) 32-36.
110
Boeve and Feyaerts (1999) 9.
111
Lakeoff and Johnson (198 1); Lakoff (1993) 202-204; Kovecses (2002) 2-6.
89
thought. To quote Lakoff and Johnson, 'Metaphors as linguistic expressions are
possible because there are metaphors in a person's conceptual system.' 112 A linguistic
metaphor like 'The Lord is my shepherd' is only possible because people were and are
able to conceptualize or mentally structure God as a shepherd. 'In short, the locus of
metaphor is not in language at all, but in the way we conceptualize one mental domain
in terms of another. The general theory of metaphor is given by characterizing such

. . ,!13
cross- d omam mappmgs.
Second, in contrast to the classical understanding of metaphor as mere
ornamentation or a simple comparison, Lakoff and Johnson say, 'The essence of
metaphor is understanding and experiencing one kind of thing in terms ofanother. '114
Concepts are understood metaphorically and experienced metaphorically and then
language is metaphorically structured to communicate these concepts in a richer and
more complex fashion. They are more than mere ornamentation or simple comparison.
As the definition of metaphor above indicates, metaphor is not a single word or
thought, but the interaction between at least two elements. The word interaction is
often used, but it is used in relation to concepts, understanding, actions and
. experiences that are metaphorically structured. Lakoff uses the conceptual metaphor of
'Love is a Journey' . 115 Two domains are identified in the conceptual metaphor, the
experience of love and the very different domain, the experience of journeys. 'More
technically, the metaphor can be understood as a mapping (in the mathematical sense)
from a source domain (in this case, journeys) to a target domain (in this case, love).' 116
112
LakeoffandJohnson (1981) 6.
113
Lakof (1993) 203.
114
Lakoff and Johnson ( 1981) 5. Their emphasis.
115
J_.akoff ( 1993)206.e.g.Look how far we've come. It's been a long, bumpy road. We can't turn back
now.
116
Lakoff(l993) 206-207.
90
As a linguist and a cognitive scientist, I ask two commonplace

questions: Is there a general principle governing how these linguistic
expressions about journeys are used to characterize love? Is there a general
principle governing how our patterns of inference about journeys are used to
reason about love when expressions such as these are used?
The answer to both is yes. Indeed, there is a single general principle
that answers both questions, but it is a general principle that is neither part of
the grammar of English, nor the English lexicon. Rather, it is part of the
conceptual system underlying English. It is a princiRle for understanding the
domain of love in terms ofthe domain ofjourneys. 17
Typically the form is 'Target-Domain is Source-Domain' or 'Target-Domain as
Source-Domain.' The word shepherd--or its corresponding concept--in itself does not
constitute a metaphor; it is only in the interaction between two domains (e.g. the Lord
and shepherd) that a metaphor arises.
The cognitive theorists also point to the work of I. A. Richards as a precursor
to their view. They note for example Richards' comment, 'In the simplest formulation,
when we use metaphor we have two thoughts of different things active together and
supported by a single word, or phrase, whose meaning is the resultant of their
interaction.' 118 They emphasize the 'two thoughts of different things active together.'
Third, ordinary people, in everyday speech, use metaphor. It is not used only
by such special, talented people as Aristotle and Quintillian as the classical approach
seemed to imply. '[M]etaphor is pervasive in everyday life, not just in language but in
thought and action. Our ordinary conceptual system, in terms of which we both think
and act, is fundamentally metaphorical in nature.' 119 The illustration used is the
conceptual metaphor 'Argument is War.'
ARGUMENT IS WAR
Your claims are indefensible.
He attacked every weak point in my argument.
His criticisms were right on target.
117
Lakoff(1993) 206.
118
Richards (1936) 93.
119
Lakoff and Johnson (1981) 3.
91
I demolished his argument.

I've never won an argument with him.
You disagree? Okay, shoot!
If you use that strategy, he'll wipe you out.
He shot down all my arguments. 120
Argument is here discussed in light ofthe concept of war. Note too that this is a very
ordinary way of speaking about different aspects of an argument, at least in North
American culture in 1980. They propose that some of the conventional ways people
speak about arguments presuppose an underlying cognitive metaphor that normally
most people are not even consciously aware of. Ordinary life is lived, experienced and
even shaped by cognitive metaphors.
This leads to a fourth observation: metaphor is culturally conditioned. In
regard to the illustration above, note that 'the ARGUMENT IS WAR metaphor is one
that we live by in this culture; it structures the action we perform in arguing.' 121
Imagine, by way of contrast, a culture where argument is viewed not as war but as a
dance. The goal is then not 'winning' but performing the dance in such a way that
there is balance and cooperation leading to a kind of harmony that is aesthetically
pleasing. 122 The fundamental values of a culture will be consistent with the
metaphorical structure of a culture's most fundamental concepts. 123 'In general, which
values are given priority is partly a matter of the subculture one lives in and partly a
120
Lakoff and Johnson (1981) 4.
121
Lakoff and Johnson ( 1981) 4.
122
Lakoffand Johnson (1981) 5-9. They also use the metaphorical concept of 'Time is Money.' A few
illustrations: 'You're wasting my time. How do you spend your time? I've invested a lot of time in her.
You need to budget your time ... Time in our culture is a valuable commodity.' But this is a culturally
(and we might add historically) conditioned way to conceptualize time, 'This isn't a necessary way for
human b(;!ings to conceptualize time; it is tied to our culture. There are cultures where time is none of
these things'.
123
Lakoff and Johnson (1981 ).
92
matter of personal values. The various subcultures of a mainstream culture share basic
values but give them different priorities.' 124
Fifth, the cognitive approach understands the relationship between the
linguistic expression of a metaphor and its conceptual basis by proposing that the
meaning of a word can only be understood against the background of a complete set of
knowledge, beliefs, and intuitions. Metaphor always has a context. This background
set is generally termed a conceptual domain in the cognitive theory. 125 The word
shepherd, for example, can only be understood by someone who has at least a certain
amount of knowledge of the conceptual domain of shepherds and sheep and/or
pastoralism. The meaning of the word is established by its ability to designate one
particular element in this domain, for example, that of the person who takes care of the
animals. Therefore, each element of a linguistic metaphor is related to one or more
conceptual domains. As noted above metaphor always consists of an interaction
between two elements. Hence, a conceptual metaphor may now be defined as the
interaction between two conceptual domains, Target-Domain and Source-Domain, an
interaction in which one conceptual domain is restructured on the basis of what we
know about another conceptual domain. In the metaphor, 'The Lord is my shepherd,'
the domain of relations between God and humans is structured on the basis of what we
know of the domain of pastoralism.
3.1.3 The Approach to Metaphor in this Thesis
The basic approach of this thesis is the interanimationlperspectival approach.
The primary reason for this is to locate metaphor in the world of semantics. But
metaphor, as the review shows, is a rich and complex idea. It will be argued that while
124
Lakoff and Johnson ( 1981) 23.
125
Lakoff (1993) 231.
93
metaphors are semantic, they have cognitive force or significance. The tendency to
isolate a theory of metaphor--whether from the domain of semantics as a linguistic
phenomenon or exclusively from the perspective of pragmatics and language use or
exclusively as a phenomenon of thought--seems to restrict the potential of metaphor.
The following is an attempt to appropriate a number of points using the general
interactionistlincrementalist theory, specifically the interanimation and the
perspectival approaches.
3.1.3.1 An Interanimation/Perspectival Approach
The Richards/Soskice approach (interanimation) and Kittay's approach
(perspectival) attempt legitimately to take into account the differing concerns of a
theory of metaphor without mutually excluding or dismissing the importance of either
the linguistic or the cognitive dimension. This is the approach adopted in the thesis.
Granted, from a purely cognitivist position, the priority given by Richards/Soskice to
the linguistic dimension is not acceptable. 126 Yet, Kittay's contributions can be helpful
in bridging the gap between the linguistic importance of metaphor and its cognitive
force.
Often, it seems, metaphor has been approached in biblical studies as only a
means to an end: the only thing really important about metaphor is how it can be
translated into the literal truth it teaches. Approached in this way, metaphor is again
reduced to pragmatics, substitution, comparison or simply to ornamentation. The
potential dynamic and creative possibilities of metaphor have often been overlooked.
An appreciation of Richards/Soskice's interanimation and Kittay's perspectival
approach to metaphor as it applies to biblical studies has the possibility of opening up
126
It shpuld be recalled that the cognitivists appeal to Richards in support of their position and the
interactionist/incrementalists discuss the cognitive dimension of metaphor. Cf. above and Soskice
{1985) 53, 'The metaphor is cognhively unique'.
94
new insights into biblical metaphor and its implications. This is the primary
understanding of metaphor used in this thesis, and how it will be employed will now
be explored. 127
The first major observation of an interanimationlperspectival theory of
metaphor is that metaphor is not the thing itself. Metaphor depicts and potentially
creates new meaning, but it does not define. Instead, remaining open-ended, it is
'figurative speech which is reality depicting without claiming to be directly
descriptive.' 128 It was noted at the beginning of this chapter that metaphorical ways of
speaking of God are a human way of saying something that cannot be adequately
expressed through literal description alone. It was assumed that since the subject
matter is God, metaphorical language is essential. This is because God cannot be fully
comprehended and so metaphor helps to comprehend God and to avoid the idolatry of
limiting descriptions of God. Metaphorical language is a tool which allows humankind
to articulate differing perceptions of God.
At this point a further clarification concerning metaphorical language and
literal statements about God is in order. Two approaches currently dominate biblical
scholarship in regard to this question. One is based on subject matter and the other is
based on language usage. 129
127
Though somewhat clumsy terminology, this will be referred to as an interanimationlperspectival
theory.
128
Soskice (1985) 144, 148 'Our concern is with conceptual possibility rather than proof, and with a
demonstration that we may justly claim to speak of God without claiming to define him, and to do so by
means of metaphor.'
129
These two are not the only ways to deal with this issue but they are probably two of the most
common. The reality is that many biblical scholars give little or no systematic thought to what metaphor
is or how metaphor functions. Also, I do not want to dichotomize these two approaches too much
because it seems to me that each has something to offer.
95
The subject-matter approach would seem to be the more common of the two
and has a long history. 130 It argues that metaphor is basic to any attempt to speak of
God because literal expressions could not describe the Divine in a direct manner. 131
This perspective could be identified with interanimation/perspectival theory. Many
would argue that if it were not for metaphorical language, very little could be said of
GodY 2 Walter Brueggemann has an extended discussion on this topic and he writes,
The images and metaphors used to speak about Yahweh will be regularly
misunderstood and distorted into idolatry unless it is endlessly remembered
that the claim of the noun is always held loosely, in light of the metaphorical
character of the noun and the elusive quality of the Subject. 133
Brueggemann, among many, focuses on the 'elusive quality ofthe Subject' pointing
out that metaphorical expressions are part of 'the durable testimony' learned from
biblical literature.
Much earlier, Ian Ramsey argued that metaphorical language about God could
134
be clustered under three identifiable categories. The three categories are: 1) Phrases
which spread from a family model: father, mother, husband and friend. 135 2) Terms of
men's work, crafts and professions: shepherd, farmer, dairymaid, fuller or laundress,
130
E.g. Ramsey ( 1971) 15-18. He gives a sampling of quotations from Clement of Alexandria to John
of Damascus. He concludes the chapter, 'The language, therefore, that we have been quoting, is not that
of intellectual agnosticism, but of religious awe-awe intensified not by the thought of God's
remoteness, but by the conviction and experience of His intimate nearness to men'.
131
To note only a few: von Rad (1962) I :215; McFague (1982, 1987); Banks ( 1992); Brueggemann
( 1997) 70-71' 230ff.
132
0ne example is Junge!, (1989) esp. 58-71, 'The language of faith is metaphorical through and
through. "God" is a meaningful word only in the context of metaphorical speech, and immediately
becomes meaningless ifthe connexio verborum (combination of words) is not understood
metaphorically.'
133
Brueggemann (1997) 232-233. Cf. esp. Chapter 6. He identifies Yahweh as Judge, King, Warrior,
Father calling these 'Metaphors of Governance' and Yahweh as Artist, Healer, Gardener-Vinedresser,
Mother and Shepherd as 'Metaphors of Sustenance'.
134
Ramsey (1974a) 120-140. Ramsey prefers the word 'model' rather than image or metaphor 'because,
by virtue of its wider use in contemporary philosophical discussion, it carries with it natural logical
overtones and takes us at once into a logical context.' 120. Cf. Ramsey (1964) Ch. 3 for the relation
between model' and metaphor. For Ramsey's discussion of, among others, Richards and Black cf.
Ramsey (1971) 168-190.
135
Ramsey (1974a) 121.
96
builder, potter, fisherman, tradesman, physician, teacher and scribe, nurse and metal
worker. 136 3) Pictures from a national setting: king, warrior and judge. 137 The
question of whether Ramsey is accurate in identifying the major categories of
metaphors for God is not the primary point for us. The point under consideration is
how this forms the empirical basis for descriptions of God. For Ramsey, because God
is the subject-matter: 'here is theological language directly related, ... "to the world of
experience"; here are religious situations linked with "secular" situations; here is talk
about God which has plain links with the discourse of ordinary life.' 138 The purpose
in using Brueggemann and Ramsey is not to argue for or against their respective
positions but simply to use them as representatives of the long history of the subject-
matter approach concerning the necessity of metaphorical language when speaking of

139
God.
The second approach concerning metaphorical language and literal statements
about God in biblical studies is based on language usage. It is associated with the
cognitive theory of metaphor and its proponents. 140 As noted in the discussion above,
metaphor arises from our cognitive structure, that is, we think metaphorically
regardless of language, culture or context. Thus, we speak of God metaphorically
because we are built to think metaphorically. The cognitive theory when understood in
this way sounds deterministic. With this theory in place we should expect to find
metaphors everywhere and might even be surprised should they be absent.
136
Ramsey (1974a) 121-122.
137
Ramsey (1974a) 122-123.
138
Ramsey (1974a) 123.
139
Qn Rafl1sey Cf. Soskice (1985) 103ff, 145-148, 153 and McFague (1982) 122-125, 131132. ~
140
In regard to biblical studies cf. esp. Boeve and Feyaerts (1999); Feyaerts (2002); Van Heeke (2000,
2001).
97
The primary perspective of the thesis concerning metaphorical language about
God is the 'subject-matter' approach. Both approaches ('subject-matter' or 'language
usage') share the common conviction that God metaphors are necessary. In the case of
'subject-matter', it is the nature of the subject matter, namely God, who lies beyond
full description and thus metaphorical language is necessary. With the 'language
usage' approach, it is because of the way we think that metaphorical language is
necessary. According to this approach, it is our cognitive condition that necessitates
speech via metaphorical images. The overlap of both approaches is that God cannot be
spoken about or understood directly. Therefore, we must speak of God indirectly and
with metaphors.
Before leaving this first point it is important to reiterate that metaphor brings
together two normally incompatible or incongruous ideas. Metaphor has the character
of is and is not because while an assertion is made, it is not a definition. 141 So for
example in the phrase, 'Yahweh is a shepherd,' the noun is the metaphor. Yet, at the
same time, the noun is not the metaphor, 'Yahweh is not a shepherd.' One can say that
the metaphor is and is not. The literal reference to the shepherd is suspended and the
metaphorical reference is a way of relating to and living with Yahweh in the world and
this way is available to us through the metaphor of shepherding. Therefore, what is
said is kept open-ended in the awareness that the noun, in this case Yahweh, resists
comprehensive evocative and associative description. At the same time, the metaphor
creates the association of the qualities of a shepherd with Yahweh.
141
This is the language of Ricoeur ( 1977) 255, 'The paradox consists in the fact that there is no other
way to do justice to the notion of metaphorical truth than to include the critical incision of the (literal)
'is not' within the ontological vehemence of the (metaphorical) 'is'. In doing so, the thesis merely
dra.ws the most extreme consequence of the theory of tension'.
98
I conclude this first point in regard to an interanimationlperspectival approach
to metaphor by noting that metaphor as a figure of speech attempts to depict the
subject matter (God) in a reality-depicting fashion but does not claim to be definitive
or overly descriptive and thereby remains open-ended.
A second point concerning the interanimationlperspectival approach
emphasizes that metaphor originates in language use and not some 'sort of mental
event.' 142 This divides the cognitive theorists from the more general interactional
theorists. The one places metaphor in the world of ideas, the latter in the world of
language. The debate concerning whether metaphor is essentially conceptual or
linguistic will undoubtedly continue, but both understandings of metaphor can be
helpful. With Soskice, a figure of speech metaphor is used to express meaning. With
the cognitive approach, metaphor is the device that enables people to perceive their
experience and how they think about the world.
It is only through some representational system that the structure of metaphor
can be understood and language is one of the most elaborate and basic representational
systems we have as human beings. It therefore seems best to approach the explanation
of metaphor first linguistically. This proposal will do most to advance our
understanding of the conceptual and cognitive significance of metaphor. 143 Language
expresses ideas. Metaphor 'prompts us' into cognitive associations, recognitions and
144
comparisons, but it also prompts us in regard to linguistic associations as well.
142
Soskice (1985) 18; Kittay ( 1987) 15. This is the basic presupposition that distinguishes it from the
cognitive approaches.
143
Kittay ( l91J7) 15, 'I aim to understand the cognitive force of metaphor through the elucidation of
metaphoric meaning.'
144
Soskice (1985) 18.
99
In the third point I want to combine several points of the interanimationl
perspectival approach because they relate to each other in regard to the way metaphor
functions. 1) Metaphor is identified by its function, not its form. 'Metaphor displays
no one syntactic form because the criteria by which it is distinguished are not merely
syntactic, but semantic and pragmatic as well.' 145 2) Metaphor is not limited to a term
or phrase but becomes apparent in the wider context in which it occurs. 146 The
meaning of the metaphor is not determined because the terms are in some way being
'used metaphorically' or have special 'metaphorical meanings,' but rather as the
meaning of the complete utterance is construed in its context of uttering. 147
Richards/Sokice describe this as the interanimation between the tenor, the underlying
subject of the metaphor, and the vehicle of the metaphor. As noted above, Kittay
chooses to change the language, so the tenor becomes the topic. But both emphasize
(and the thesis will do the same) that it is in the tension, interaction, and
interanimation between both tenor/topic and vehicle that the metaphor is created. 148
Kittay describes the context of the metaphor by generalizing the language offocus and
frame. 149 The focus is the two components of tenor/topic and vehicle and theframe is
the larger context of the metaphor.
The combination of these points in the interanimationlperspectival approach
emphasizes that metaphors are contextually conditioned; that context includes at least
the semantic and cultural contexts; and that conditioning impacts the construction,
reception, and interpretation of metaphor.
145
Soskice (1985) 19.
146
Ricoeur ( 1977) 44, 48-51 speaks of the 'tyranny of the word.' The primacy of the sentence is a
constant theme for Ricoeur but Soskice's theory encourages an even wider look at the context and to
avoid even the 'tyranny of the sentence'.
147
Soskice (1985) 53.
148
Soskice (1985) 47-48. Kittay (1987) 25-26.
149
Black limited the 'focus and frame' to the sentence. Cf. Kittay (1987) 65, n.21, 'In keeping with my
rejection of the sentence as the metaphorical unit, I am generalizing the notion of focus and frame'.
100
This then leads to the fourth point. Metaphor is cognitive and creates new
meaning. It says something that cannot be said any other way. It gives us 'two ideas
for one.' 150 Metaphor creates a plurality of associative networks. The associative
network of ideas that is created is contextually conditioned, sometimes producing a
greater constellation of connections, sometimes fewer. This creative capacity is related
to how dynamic or vital the metaphor is, so we speak of living metaphors or dead
metaphors. When a metaphor has become commonplace, its initial constellation of
connections becomes either almost completely lost or difficult to recall. 151 An
originally vital metaphor draws upon an underlying model or models that the
hearer/reader is familiar with from experience; this then potentially creates a network
of ideas that enables them to 'go on' to the richness of metaphorical description. 152
What I have attempted to do in the preceding is to clarify how the thesis
approaches the theory of metaphor. I have chosen an interanimation/pespectival
approach and have described how Richards/Soskice and Kittay have been helpful in
clarifying a working theory of metaphor. In thinking of metaphor, it is important to
keep the four major points in mind. Now, we turn to explore metaphor analysis.
150
Soskice (1985) 44, 48.
151
The tension between the two components, to use Kittay's way of describing it, ceases to exist in a
dead metaphor and the metaphor is easily paraphrased; e.g. 'the heart of the matter' is readily
~araphrased as 'the center of the issue.' Cf. Soskice ( 1985) 71-83.
52
Soskice ( 1985) 50-51, 55. 'Talk based on models will be metaphorical, so model and metaphor,
though different categories are not to be-as frequently they are by theologians-equated; the latter is
what we have when we speak on the basis ofthe former.' Cf. McFague (1982) 23. 'In the continuum of
religious language from primary, imagistic to secondary, conceptual, a form emerges which is a mixed
type: the model. The simplest way to define a model is as a dominant metaphor, a metaphor with
staying power .... For our preliminary purposes, however, the main point is that models are a further
step along the route from metaphorical to conceptual language'. McFague ( 1987) 194 says her view is
close to Ricoeur. Cf. Ricoeur ( 1977) 239-246.
101
3.1.3.2 Metaphor Analysis
A brief summary of metaphor analysis begins by recognizing the use of the
incongruous terms identified as the tenor/topic and vehicle, for example, 'The Lord
(tenor/topic) is my shepherd (vehicle).' The focus is both topic and vehicle together
and the frame is the context of the metaphor. The scope of the frame of a metaphor is
considered by distinguishing between what may be called established metaphor and
extended metaphor. 153 The distinction between how these two ways of metaphor
function will now be explored.
3.1.3.2.1 'Established' Metaphor
The metaphor is established as soon as the hearer/reader understands that one
thing is being spoken of in terms suggestive of another. This may be as brief as a
simple phrase or several phrases that relate to each other to establish a metaphor.
Initially, the question is whether there are sufficient semantic criteria to enable one to
recognize the metaphor without artificially imposing some syntactic form on the
phrase or sentence. An important point that will be taken into account here is to
initially consider the metaphor as is. Rather than immediately stripping the metaphor
of its metaphorical language and only looking for the literal meaning or the underlying
truth, each metaphor will be considered for its potentiality and what it might be saying
that can only be said by metaphor. Then the full context of the metaphorical utterance
will be considered. While syntax and form will be considered in due fashion, the
semantic function and potential richness of the metaphor will also be taken into
account.
This is related to appreciating the close connection between metaphor and models
154
in the interanimation!perspectival theory. Soskice describes the close linkage between
153
Soskice (1985) 22-23. Kittay (1987) speaks of'isolated' and 'extended' metaphors.
102
the two in this way: 'when we use a model, we regard one thing or state of affairs in
terms of another, and when we use a metaphor, we speak of one thing or state of affairs
in language suggestive ofanother.' 155
It is assumed in this thesis that metaphor is used to clarify and create potential
meaning by engaging the hearer/reader in understanding the meaning of a text and not
used to obscure or confuse the meaning. We take as a basic presupposition that the
biblical writers generally and Matthew specifically want their hearers/readers to
appreciate and embrace any metaphorical uses or allusions.
Questions that could be posed might include: How dominant is this metaphor
for the writer? How important is this metaphor for the community to which it is meant
to speak? That is, is the shepherd/sheep metaphor a dominant metaphor for the author
and/or the community or is it a 'marginal' metaphor? What possible cognitive
associations are made? For example the shepherd metaphor might include such
associations as care, guidance, protection, physical nurture, healing, feeding, help,
provision, deliverance. Are the associations likely to be positive or negative in light of
the tradition (the diachronic issues)? 156 Are the associations likely to be positive or
negative in light of the contemporary setting (synchronic issues)? 157 In regard to the
shepherd/sheep metaphor the intertextuality of the text will also be explored and, when
relevant, the network of texts to which it belongs will be analyzed. Is the metaphor
154
Soskice (1985) 50, 'at a secondary level metaphorical construal is characterized by its reliance on an
underlying model, or even on a number of such models, and that metaphor and model are
indeed, ... closely linked'.
155
Soskice ( 1985) 50-51.
156
Diachronic: Lit. "through time," denoting a historical perspective that focuses on underlying and
interrelated processes governing a sequence of events over time. Elliott (1993) 128. The diachronic
concern tracks the movement of the metaphor through the tradition and looks to evaluate the status or
changes of the metaphor through time.
157
Synchronic: Lit. "at the same time," denoting a holistic perspective on a (social) system and the
interrelations of its several sectors (ecological, economic, social, political, cultural). Elliott (193) 135,
The synchronic concern is to attempt to define specifically how the metaphor is currently understood or
valued.
103
being re-interpreted or given new meaning? Is it a dominant metaphor, or is it being
diminished in some way? Has the metaphor even become negative or pejorative in its
usage? There may be times whea the metaphor would be expected to be used but it is
absent. Is it possible to discern why? Is it still a vital or living metaphor? These
questimis may not have a definitive answer and are not all relevant in every context.
But, to keep them in mind will be helpful in allowing the metaphor its full cognitive
force.
The above questions will also be asked in an attempt to answer the very basic
question concerning metaphor, 'Is this a root metaphor?' I am using 'root metaphor' to
describe a metaphor that is basic, fundamental or central within the linguistic
community, usually one among a possible handful of other metaphors that dominate
and are central to the life/identity of the community. 158 It is a metaphor that because of
its cognitive force and significance, the community has embraced the image as a 'root-
metaphor' descriptive of the community? To use the subtitle ofKittay's book, the goal
will be to discern the 'cognitive force and the linguistic structure' of the
shepherd/sheep metaphor.
3.1.3.2.2 'Extended' Metaphor
Once a metaphor is established (that is, when the hearer/reader detects that one
thing is being spoken of in terms suggestive of another), the metaphor may be
extended until the length of our speaking makes us forget the 'thing' of which we
speak. I 59
158
McFague (1982) 28, 'a root-metaphor is the most basic assumption about the nature of the world or
experience that we can make when we try to give a description of it. Each root-metaphor is a way of
seeing "all that is" through, a particular key concept. It is also thinking by models and, as is evident,
even these root-metaphors are still metaphors .... '
159
Soskice (1985) 22-23.
104
Psalm 23 was alluded to as an illustration of the extended metaphor. One
question in the psalm becomes, 'After the metaphor is established--'The Lord is my
shepherd'--how far does the psalm extend the metaphor?' The Psalmist depicts
relationship with YHWHby means of the common activities of the shepherd: provision
of food and water (v 2), restoration and guidance (v 3), presence and protection (v 4).
The shepherd metaphor extends to at least to this point in the psalm. The model of
shepherding is supported by other metaphors in the psalm which are not to be taken
literally. In addition, an is not dimension of the metaphor is also present: the Lord is
not a shepherd and life with God is not really like being a sheep, and yet, this is the
description of YHWH and his relation to the psalmist. The literal reference to the
model ofthe shepherd is acknowledged and then suspended. The supporting
metaphors function in the same fashion. Of course, at one level the supporting
metaphors are also concrete and literal: green pastures, water, paths, walking, valley,
rod and staff. But the established metaphor of the Lord as shepherd is extended
through the supporting metaphors and together they create new meaning that is
'cognitively unique.' 160 Other relevant shepherd texts represent the extended metaphor
and will be considered, for example: Jer 23, Ez 34, Zech 10-13.
In addition, there is also the use of extended metaphor through 'quotation,
allusion and echo' in Matthew. To discern this, one might ask, Does Matthew want the
reader/hearer not only to focus on the actual quote but also on the larger context where
the quotation comes from?--does the use of the shepherd metaphor then encourage
possible reflection on the person of Jesus that can only be accomplished by the use of
the metaphor? An example ofthis is in Mt 2:6 in the story ofthe coming of the Magi,
which is a quote, with some Matthean redaction, from Micah 5:2(1) and II Sam. 5:2.
160
Soskice (1985) 53.
105
That it is a compound quote is generally agreed upon. But, it has often been asked
why Matthew did not go on to quote the shepherd text in Micah 5:3-4, 'he shall stand
and feed [shepherd: i!V~] his flock in the strength ofthe LORD.' 161 In this case the
primary text, Mt 2:6, offers the metaphor and then through intertextuality extends the
metaphor through a constellation of ideas and connotations associated with the
shepherd metaphor and derived from the texts quoted. 162
3.2 Summary
My argument is that through the awareness of how metaphor functions and
through the employment of metaphorical analysis, the semantic potential of the
shepherd/sheep motif will be appreciated more fully. In sum, first metaphor is
established by the larger context and is not limited to a word, phrase or sentence. The
example, 'sheep without a shepherd' illustrates this, there is the need for a context to
determine if it is a literal or metaphorical statement. Second, once a metaphor is
established it may be a simple metaphor or it may be extended as in Psalm 23. Third,
among the diverse approaches to how metaphors function, the
interanimationlperspectival approach is the approach of the thesis. This approach
locates metaphor in the world of semantics but at the same time recognizes that
metaphor also has cognitive force and significance. In particular, several points
concerning this approach are: 1) Metaphor is not the thing itself but it depicts reality
without asserting that it is a comprehensive description and therefore potentially
creates the possibility for new meaning. Metaphorical language allows us to speak of
161
Davies and Allison I :244 ask, 'Why does the evangelist not go on to quote the rest ofMic 5:2?
Mention of one "whose origin is from of old, from ancient days" would have admirably suited the
purposes reflected by the genealogy; and 5:3 ("until the time when she who is in travail has brought _;,.;!
forth") would have been to the point coming after I: lS-25. Maybe~ the readers are supposed to till in for
themselves'.
162
Kittay (1987) 90.
106
God and helps us avoid the idolatry of limiting descriptions of God. 2) Metaphor
brings together two normally incompatible ideas, creating a tension between the is and
the is not of the metaphor but again avoiding definition per se while allowing for an
assertion. The example used was 'The Lord is my shepherd'. 3) While metaphor
originates in language 1 it is identified by its function not its form. Metaphor is not
determined because the terms are in some way 'metaphorical' or have special
'metaphorical meanings,' rather metaphor has meaning in the context of the complete
utterance. 4) Finally, metaphor is understandable only when there is shared language
and conceptual content. This indicates the need to do the linguistic and socio-historical
exegetical work to appreciate the shepherd/sheep image. 163 This task of exegetical and
socio-historical work will begin in Chapter Four.
163
A word about the terminology used in this thesis. While it is acknowledged that there are important
subtle, and sometimes not so subtle, distinctions between terms like metaphor, image, motif, theme, and
idea, all these terms will be used generally as synonyms of each other throughout the thesis. This is
purely a practical decision, because the redundant use of the term metaphor exclusively would become
tedious and tiresome. It is recognized that along with the term 'model,' which I will distinguish from
metaphor, there are other terms that are common to a discussion on metaphor. Two terms, for example,
are symbol and analogy. 'Symbol' can be understood as a 'mixed' term as well, more like model; so,
for example, the symbol of the cross is a physical (iconic) as well as linguistic symbol for Christianity.
'Analogy' is a form of argument or a type of relation, so e.g. the model train is an analogy of structure
to full-scale train. These terms, along with 'model' we want to distinguish from metaphor and will not
use them synonymously with metaphor. Yet, 'image' can also be distinguished from metaphor,
especially when being used to specify mental events or visual representations. This term will be. used ..
more generally and wi Ilbecused synonymously 'with metaphor oec'au'se"imageois~at~'(;"'i{g~li~tlit'fffil*'''~ -~
used for figures of speech. So, throughout this thesis we will use the term image along with those terms
noted above as synonyms for metaphor. Cf. Soskice ( 1985) 55.
107
CHAPTER4
SHEPHERDS AND SHEEP IN HISTORICAL CONTEXT
4.1 Ancient Near Eastern Background
One of the earliest occupations of humanity was the herding and shepherding of
flocks. There is evidence that sheep were domesticated as early as 9000 B.C.E. in the
area of northern Iraq. 1 It is out of the daily routine and rhythm of this life that the wide-
ranging and multifaceted imagery of shepherd and flock emerged. In this chapter
consideration will be given to this larger context of the shepherd/sheep metaphor by
examining the ANE and Greece as well as the biblical tradition. 2
4.1.1 The Realities that Inform the Shepherd/Sheep Metaphor
In order to understand and appreciate the meaning of the shepherd/sheep
metaphor, it is important to consider first some of the realities of the nomadic
shepherd and the animals they herded. 3
In the biblical tradition, the shepherd is most often pictured as a man or a
group of men responsible for the care and safety of sheep and goats. However, in a
sense, every person in a biblical nomadic family was a shepherd, because all
1
Kohler-Rollefson (I 985) 937.
2
This review will include only selected texts from Mesopotamia and Egypt. Yet, in regard to the
biblical tradition, some attempt at thoroughness has been made towards appreciation of the literal
understanding of the shepherd/sheep image.
3
The following information concerning shepherd, sheep and goats is drawn from Beyreuther ( 1978)
3:564-569; Hopkins (1993) 200-211; Jeremias (1966) 6:485-502; Kohler-Rollefson (1985) 350,937-
938; Matthews and Benjamin (I 993) 52-66; Mattingly (I 985) 941-942; Morrison (1981) 257-296,
(1983) 155-164; and Vancil ABD 5:1187-1190. Generally the terminology of social anthropology will
be used. Cf. Galaty and Johnson (1990) 1-31; Bar-Yosef and Khazanov (1992) 1-6. Pastoralism is the
general term describing the work ofthose people-groups who lived by herding animals of all types, e.g.
cattle, donkeys, pigs, sheep and goats; also, known as pastoral nomadism. Transhumance reflects a
group's movement of herds from one location to another, usually for seasonal reasons, usually
following consistent patterns in a given area. The stories of the patriarchs are an example of
transhumance in the biblical tradition. The pastoralist often tended a number of different kinds of
animals in the biblical tradition; for example, Abraham and Lot are depicted as having herded camels
and donkeys, along with sheep and goats: Gen 24:34 (cf. Gen 13:7). But for our purposes, shepherding,
unless otherwise indicated, generally refers to the tending of sheep and goats. This is usually the
intended meanirigin the biblical tradition-because both were herded together and at times are together
in the biblical images of shepherding.
108
participated to one degree or another in the tending and guarding of the flocks/herds.
Thus, in the biblical tradition shepherding was also entrusted to girls and women at
least for the task of the watering of the flocks. In Genesis 29:6-1 0, Rachel is found
watering the herd and in Exodus 2:16-18, Ruel's daughters are doing the same. Yet,
the reality is that most of the time the shepherd is seen as a man or a group of men.
This is especially true when grazing away from the nomadic camp or the village. The
transhumance of herds and flocks from one area to another could often be many miles
apart. 4 Gradually, this early nomadic pastoralism would give way to the village
shepherd and a symbiotic relationship developed between shepherd and farmer.
Transhumance continued with the village shepherds with the moving of the
flocks/herds from one grazing area to another. This primarily involved moving from
one altitude to another due to changes of seasons. 5
The shepherd's clothing reflected the vocation: leather sandals, a girdle, and a
cloak or mantle, sometimes made of leather but more often made of camel's hair.
They carried a water bag and a kind of knapsack (I Sam 17:40---KacS(~ tQ TIOLI!EVtKw)
which contained food and a reed pipe (Jgs 5: 16). Music was a way to calm the flock,
6
and while other instruments were also played, the pipe was the most common. A
shepherd also carried with him three implements or weapons: a sling shot, a wooden
club and a staff with a crooked handle. The sling shot and short club were used for
protection. The sling was used to keep predators at bay. But when that failed, the club
which was studded with sharp pieces of metal was used in close quarters. The staff
with crooked handle, which could be used as a weapon, was more useful in rescuing
4
Matthews and Benjamin (1993) 52-54; Wallis TDOT 13:545.
5
Matthews and Benjamin ( 1993) 54.
6
Wallis TDOT 13:546. It is a common assumption that David developed his skill as a musician while
being 'with the sheep' (I Sam 16:18-19, 23).
109
sheep that had strayed. It also was used for guiding the sheep into the sheepfold and
for counting them (Lev 27:32). 7 As the sheep entered the sheepfold for the night, they
would be counted by laying the staff gently on their backs. 8 At night the shepherd's
'watching the flock' consisted mostly of listening; listening rather than watching
played the greater part of protecting the flock. By listening, the shepherd would try to
sort out the night sounds for cries, howls and roars of possible threats from natural
predators.
The responsibilities of the shepherd consisted of not only protection from
natural predators and theft from robbers and weather, but also provision of food, water
and shelter. In regard to food and water the shepherd had to make the right decisions
in order to know where to find sufficient provision for the flock. Also, the shepherd
was responsible for setting the pace in leading the flock during transhumance so that
they would not be overdriven. This was especially crucial when the ewes were
pregnant or nursing the lambs, which could be too small to keep up the pace of the rest
ofthe flock (Gen 33:13-14). The shepherd was usually stationed in the front and the
flock led (Ps 23 :2) rather than driven from behind. Thus, he kept them following him
by the recognition of his voice. If the flock was large, it was not uncommon for there
to be under-shepherds who followed to assure that none went astray (II Sam 7:81/I Chr
17:7, where David was taken from 'following the sheep'; cf. Am 7:15). 9
The shelter of the sheepfold would vary in light of the area where the shepherd
was grazing the sheep. For example, some shelters were permanent enclosures with a
roof and stone walls, as possibly could be the case ofthe 'sheepfolds' that were
located in or near a cave (I Sam 24:3). In flat regions, the shelter was possibly more
7
Wallis TDOT 13:546.
8
Cf. Jer 33:13, ' ... flocks shall again pass under the hands of the one who counts them, says the Lord'.
9
Vancil ABD 5:1187.
110
temporary, consisting simply of an open pen with thorn bush sides. The responsibility
of the shepherd for provision also included counting the herd at the end of each day to
assure that none had been lost. Also at this time, each animal was checked for injury
or any indication of disease.
In addition to the responsibility to provide food, water and shelter, the
shepherd was also to provide healing and protection. The shepherd would protect the
flock from natural predators, thieves, and weather. 10 These basic realities of the
shepherd's existence become the grist for the metaphor.
It is fair to say that the description of the shepherd above in regard to tools of
the trade and responsibilities did not change much down through the biblical tradition
and beyond, but the nature of shepherding did change. The nomadic shepherd of the
patriarchal period would become a village shepherd when Israel settled in the land.
Shepherding would also become an occupation so that shepherds were employed by
owners as hired hands to care for their flock. Different types of shepherds may be
distinguished: first, the nomadic shepherds who had no permanent home or village.
They were economically self-sufficient and supplemented what they needed through
trade. 11 Second, there were the semi-nomadic shepherds who functioned as full-time
herders having a home or village they were connected to without being economically
independent. These continued to move the flocks from place to place, sometimes at
great distances, according to the seasons and the availability of pasture, thus living
away from their villages for days or weeks at a time. 12 Third, there were part-time
herders who mixed both farming and shepherding and were normally self-employed.
Typically, they owned their own stock. They also seldom stayed away from the village
10
Mattingly ( 1985) 941.
11
Matthews and Benjamin (1993) 52.
12
Matthews and Benjamin (1993) 53-54.
111
for any length of time, thus remaining local. 13 Along with those mentioned so far,
there were also the hired shepherds. As animals began to be raised commercially, this
need increased and so owners entrusted the care of the flocks to these hired
shepherds. 14 These different types of shepherds are working categories, and the
metaphor may be informed more by one than another. When it is possible to determine
which type relates to the metaphor, the distinctive dimensions are significant and
impact the understanding of the metaphor. For example, the hired hand, whereas he
could be a covenant-partner with the owner of either the sheep or the land, is often
depicted as not caring for the sheep and therefore morally untrustworthy.
The sheep referred to in the biblical tradition is a cloven-hoofed mammal
ruminant with spiral, hollow-horns. It is closely related to the goat. The dominant type
of sheep in Palestine was probably the fat-tailed sheep which was named for its tail
15
that was considered a delicacy, but also was used in sacrifices (Ex 29:22-25). These
sheep were usually off-white or cream-colored but could also be black. There were
also spotted sheep, with some various shadings of brown and red. They had a very
deep wool coat. The male is a ram, the female is a ewe, and the young are lambs. The
'wether' was a male sheep (or goat) that had been castrated prior to becoming sexually
mature. Sheep mate in the fall and approximately one-hundred and fifty days
(basically five months) later the 'spring' lambs were born. Lambs were weaned at
about four and a half to six months. Lambs were mature by twenty-four months but
might not have grown their full wool coat until three to five years. Normally they were
13
14
Wallis TDOT 13:546, 'As a consequence, there was now a difference between good and wicked
shepherds (Zech 11 :4-17; Jn 10: II, 14; Heb 13:20). At the very least, the repute of shepherds differed
widely ... The prestige of shepherds was undermined further by the suspicion that they were generally
dishonest'.
15
Kohler-Rollefson (1985) 937.
112
sheared once a year in the late springtime. This time of shearing was chosen to avoid
the severe cold; otherwise sheep could die from exposure to the weather. Their life
span was typically from seven to ten years.
The fat-tailed sheep was raised primarily for its wool. Wool was used mainly
for clothing but also for rugs. However, when one was slaughtered every part of the
animal was used. The hide or 'sheepskin' is light-weight leather and could be used to
make sandals, curtains and leather pouches used for wine-skins, water-skins or milk-
skins. From the sheep's bones were made needles, scrapers, lances, and arrowheads.
The ram's horns could serve as an oil container (I Sam 16:1). 16 The ram's horn could
also be made into a trumpet called a 'shofar' used for a battle cry and also as a call to
worship (Josh 6:4). Sheep, of course, were used in the sacrificial system (Lev 1:1 0;
4:32; 5:15; 22:21) and on rare occasions were slaughtered for a guest as a sign of
generous hospitality (II Sam 12:4; Nathan's parable to David speaks of this and
portrays it as a costly act).
Since sheep are cud-chewing, they graze in the morning and during the
afternoon they lie down to regurgitate their food. This rhythm shapes the shepherd's
day. Sheep by nature are timid and helpless animals. They have no defenses, speed, or
strength to naturally protect themselves from their predators. Therefore they are
frightened easily, reacting with panic, which can lead to self-destruction. If the sheep
is alone and a predator approaches, it becomes petrified with fear and simply lies
down. Or if sheep are in a group when a predator approaches, they scatter. Sheep
naturally group and feed together, but they are also susceptible to wandering from the
flock while eating. These characteristics have stereotyped sheep as dumb animals, but
16
Kohler-Rollefson (1985) 937.
113
they also show other traits that reflect a kind of instinctual cleverness and intelligence.
They understand how to recognize good pasture and can sense a water source. They
. also have a good sense of the weather; in the heat they naturally seek shade, and in bad
weather they naturally seek shelter. Most evident is their capacity to recognize the
voice of the shepherd who is responsible for them. The shepherd can control a flock
by his/her own distinctive voice. Sheep learn and distinguish the unique call of the
shepherd and will quickly respond to it.
The goat is also a hollow-homed ruminant, but the sheep and the goat have
many differing characteristics and habits. The goats of Palestine are mostly black
rather than off-white but on occasion they can be spotted, hence Jacob's request in
Gen 30:32. The goat was used primarily for its milk. Curdled goat's milk, which seems
comparable to modem day yogurt, was basic to the diet of the shepherd. Most of the
milk would have been used to make cheese. The meat of the goat is more tender and
flavorful than the meat of the sheep so it was a delicacy (Gen 27:9; Jgs IS:l)Y
Generally, the ratio of sheep to goats is about two sheep for every goat. 18 Even
though they both are herbivores they can be herded together because they eat different
things; sheep eat grass and goats eat primarily from brush and twigs. Also, when goats
do eat grass, they eat only the leaves or tops of the grass and leave the rest of the plant
undamaged. This allows the pasture to recover after grazing. Sheep, on the other hand,
consume the whole plant. Therefore, if allowed to overgraze an area, they can destroy
a pasture in one season. When sheep are mixed together with browsing goats, the
goats keep the sheep moving through the pasture so that they do not overgraze an
-~
17
Ktlhler-Rollefson ( t 985) 350.
18
Morrison (1981) 274.
114
area. 19 The problem with goats is that they have insatiable appetites and so for that
reason can also overgraze an area. They are much more aggressive than the fat-tailed
sheep and can harm the sheep if not watched. Thus, at the end of the day, the shepherd
separates the sheep from the goats. The goats are given the warmer accommodations
because goat hair is finer and provides less protection against the elements than the
thick wool coat of the sheep.
4.1.1.1 Biblical Beginnings
Genesis and early biblical beginnings testify that the herding of flocks of animals
is one of humanity's most ancient occupations. According to Genesis 4:2, 'Abel was a
keeper of sheep,' and the patriarchs and matriarchs of ancient Israel would be described
as shepherds and herders: 'Pharaoh said to his brothers [of Joseph], "What is your
occupation?" And they said to Pharaoh, "Your servants are shepherds, as our ancestors
were"'. 20
As might be expected, the size and kind of herds one owns indicates wealth and
prestige. When the oldest servant of Abraham21 describes himself to Laban in regard to
Rebekah, he says, 'I am Abraham's servant. The LORD has greatly blessed my master,
22
and he has become wealthy; he has given him flocks and herds ... camels and donkeys'.
Genesis indicates that the shepherd may or may not be the owner of the
flock/herd. 23 The shepherd might be the owner or simply be delegated to provide for and
protect the flock. There is evidence throughout Genesis that the patriarchs and matriarchs
of ancient Israel had to deal with the challenges and difficulty of finding sufficient
pasture and water for the flocks. This often involved negotiating and contracting with the
19
Morrison (1981) 173, n. 125.
20
Gen 47:3.
21
Gen 24:2.
22
Gen 24:3435.
23
The shepherdess Rachel takes care of her father's sheep and later Jacob will do the same (Gen 29:6).
115
local inhabitants to take care of their flocks? 4 The patriarchs and matriarchs of ancient
Israel, like many traditional peoples, treated land and animals the same way they cared
for themselves? 5 Herding and shepherding were basic to these early household
structures, giving them a livelihood and a sense of purpose as a community and thus
informing the metaphor for describing their world? 6
Before exploring the 'shepherding contracts' of the ANE, it is important tore-
emphasize that while the nature of sheep and goats did not change much down through
the centuries, shepherding in the biblical tradition did change and evolve. As noted
above, changes occurred in the reality ofhow shepherds functioned in Israel, thus
causing changes in perceptions about shepherds and the vocation. Early on, the Hebrews
were a nomadic people. But, after the conquest of Canaan and the occupation of towns
and villages, Israel became a settled society. The occupation ofland and the creating of
homes led to an agricultural setting where shepherding was just one aspect of the larger
society. Shepherding also evolved from a whole community affair involving the whole
family to a more specialized dimension of the community. The task of shepherding
became an occupation which was done by others: the hired shepherds. By the time of the
exile and after, throughout the Second Temple period, shepherding as a profession, while
27
a necessity in society and therefore important, was often depicted as morally suspect.
24
Cf. e.g. Gen 13:5-12; 21:25-34; 29:1~10; 37:12-17.
25
26
Galaty and Johnson (1990) 18; Tapper (1979) 48-49.
27
In a rather classic depiction of this cf. Beyreuther (1978) 3:566, 'Late Judaism drew a distinction
between shepherds. After the exile the Pharisaic rabbis brought about a striking devaluation of the
occupation of shepherd in Palestinian Judaism. In a time of poor pay, shepherds were suspected,
perhaps often rightly, of dishonesty. The pious were forbidden to buy wool, milk or meat from
shepherds. Civic privileges (the functions of judge and witness) were withdrawn from them as from the
tax collectors. "No position in the world is as despised as that of the shepherd" (Midrash on Psalm 23)'.
116
This has traditionally been the way shepherding has been viewed in the first century as
well. Yet, while this will appear to often be the case, it was not a hard and fast rule.2 8
4.1.1.2 Ancient Near Eastern 'herding contracts'
Whereas nomadic pastoralists were self-sufficient in many ways by living off the
land and from the produce of the herds, they also needed the villages. Much has been
written on the nature of this symbiotic or mutually dependent relationship between the
village and the farmer. 29 One way this relationship is illustrated is through archaeological
evidence of' herding contracts' represented throughout the Fertile Crescent. The
illustrations here are drawn from Larsa and Nuzi.30 These contracts were developed
between owners and contract shepherds as covenant partners. 31
Within these contracts, the expectation of the shepherd was for the owner of the
flock to provide about thirty-eight animals: about two-thirds sheep, one-third goats and
two breed animals. This number was economic because it allowed for a fifteen percent
loss of adult sheep and fourteen percent loss of goats to weather, predators and disease,
which was the acceptable loss rate? 2 At the time of the annual shearing owners
negotiated with the shepherds to pay either a flat fee or more commonly a commission
for their labor. The contract was made annually. The shepherd would share in the
profits of the flock and be held accountable if the contract was not fulfilled. The
tablet/contract was sealed with the shepherd's seal which served as the 'signature'.
This sealed contract served as the basis for sorting out the accounts at the end of the
28
E.g. the 'Overseer' of the Camp at Qumran was still imaged in a positive light as a shepherd, CD
13:9.
29
Bar-Yosefand Khazanov (1992) 5; Galaty and Johnson (1990) 23; Mohammed (1973) 97-112;
Morrison (1981) 258-261.
30
Larsa (2030 and 1763 BCE) is in southern Mesopotamia; Nuzi ( 1500-1250 BCE) in the north. -~
31
32
117
year, having taken into consideration both losses and growth to the flock. 33 The
shepherd's payment for the season, if a flat fee, might be a certain number of young
animals or a certain amount of wool along with milk/cheese from the flock, clothing or
34
grain. The approach toward paying by commission could be done in one of two
ways. The records in Larsa indicate that the owners expected eighty percent of the
ewes to produce lambs along with the loss rate mentioned above. As a result, they
would either pay the shepherds with all lambs born beyond the agreed upon eighty
percent or with any animals that survived the expected fifteen percent loss. 35 The
shepherds described here are 'covenant partners' with the local farmers and owners of the
herds because a 'covenant' was made between the two, creating this mutually dependent
relationship. In Genesis 21:22-34 is the story of Abraham the 'alien' (v 23: i1~ I
Tia.p~KTJOO:<;, cf. 34) making a 'covenant' (v 27: n"!f I 5ta.9~KTJV) with Abimelech (cf.
26:26-33). This gave some assurance to the locals that the movements and activities of
the foreign herders were controlled. 36 In the Larsa records the foreign shepherds are
clearly free citizens and not slaves; they are involved in village life and appear as
witnesses in the local assembly.
The herders in the contracts from Larsa are clearly not slaves, but free
citizens with full legal rights. They are paid for their work, and they
settle disputes with their employers before the village or city assembly
(Morrison 1981 :261). 37
The Code ofHammurabi (ca. 1795-17 50 BCE) proposes legislation concerning
shepherds and their accountability to society:
33
Postgate (1975) 2.
34
Cf. law no. 261 in the Code of Hammurabi below.
35
36
Mohammed (1973) 106-107.
37
118
261: If [anyone] hired a shepherd to pasture cattle or sheep, he shall give him
eight kur 38of grain per year.
262: If [anyone] ... and ox or a sheep to ...
263: lfhe has lost [the ox] or sheep which was committed to him, he shall make
good ox for [ox], sheep for [sheep] to their owner.
264: lf[a shepherd], to whom cattle or sheep were given to pasture, being in
receipt of his wages in full, to his satisfaction, has then let the cattle decrease, has
let the sheep decrease, thus lessening the birth rate, he shall give increase and
profit in accordance with the terms of his contract.
265: If a shepherd, to whom cattle or sheep were given to pasture, became
unfaithful and hence has altered the cattle mark or has sold (them), they shall
prove it against him and he shall make good in cattle and sheep to their owner
tenfold what he stole.
266: If a visitation of god has occurred in a sheepfold or a lion has made a kill,
the shepherd shall prove himself innocent in the presence of god, but the owner
of the sheepfold shall receive from him the animal stricken in the fold.
267: If the shepherd was careless and has let lameness develop in the fold, the
shepherd shall make good in cattle and sheep the loss through the lameness which
he let develop in the fold and give (them) to their owner. 39
The Code seems to focus more on protecting the rights of the owner rather than
the shepherd. The 'herding contracts' balance this by clarifying that both parties may
benefit from the agreements. A shepherd might work alone, or ifhe accepted more sheep
than he could pasture himself, he might employ 'under-shepherds' (Akkadian kaparrum)
to help look after the flocks. The owner of the sheep might be a private individual, but
the owner could also be a temple or the palace (i.e. the state administration). These
various possibilities led to variations in the details of the agreement, but the underlying
principle was unchanged: the shepherd accepted personal liability for the flocks and was
remunerated in proportion to the growth of the flock and the amount of its produce. If an
animal was lost and the shepherd was unable to produce its skin, he was obliged to
40
replace it, either by another animal or in some fashion agreed to in the contract. Under
38
Pritchard (1969) 168a; footnote 60, 'A measure equal to little more than 7 bushels, divided into 300
~u~ritchard (1969) 177a.

40
Postgate (1975) 6.
119
such an arrangement the shepherd had as strong an incentive as the owner himself to
promote the welfare of the animals. 41
Shepherds and farmers from the same community usually worked together in a
symbiotic relation since both profited from the other, each providing different
resources for the community. Foreign herders were viewed with much more suspicion
because of their use of the land and water. 42 The independence of the foreign nomadic
shepherd created suspicion on the part of the local farmers, shepherds, and villagers
unless a covenant was cut. Without the herding contracts the common attitude toward
the foreign herder was that they were tricksters or spies.
Herders in strange lands compensated for their lack of power by an

ability to manipulate the power of others. Like all marginalized people,
they admired the clever who improved themselves at the expense of the
local farmers and herders. Foreign herders were not outlaws, but they
knew how to work the system to their advantage. 43
Without the herding contracts these foreign herders were seen as a threat to the local
land and water supplies.
The Code ofHammurabi sec. 57-58 has further legislation concerning the
relationship between the foreign shepherd and the local landowner:
57: If a shepherd has not come to an agreement with the owner of a field to
pasture sheep on the grass, but has pastured sheep on the field without the
consent of the owner of the field, when the owner of the field harvests his field,
the shepherd who pastured the sheep on the field without the consent of the
owner of the field shall have in addition twenty kur of grain per eighteen iku to
the owner of the field.
58: If after the sheep have gone up from the meadow, when the whole flock
has been shut up within the city-gate, the shepherd drove the sheep into a field
and has then pastured the sheep on the field, the shepherd shall look after the
field on which he pastured and at harvest-time he shall measure out sixty kur
of grain per eighteen iku to the owner of the field. 44
41
Postgate (1975) 2.
42
43
44
Prichard (1969) 168b-169a.
120
Generally, the dynamic between the 'locals' and the foreign shepherd seemed
to have always been strained. The shepherds often felt exploited, and the villagers felt
threatened. Herders regarded villagers with suspicion, and villagers considered herders
as possible spies and/or tricksters. In the ancient stories oflsrael's ancestors, this same
attitude is reflected toward the foreign herders contracted by local villages to manage
their livestock (Gen 26:17-22; Ex 17:8-13). 45
The realities of shepherds and sheep in the ANE inform the metaphor and the
use of the image in regard to the gods of Mesopotamia and Egypt and their rulers. The
image of the shepherd is used in descriptors of both the divine and human leaders. The
metaphor is often used to emphasize the role of compassionate provider, commanding
protector and one who rules justly. It is also not uncommon for the images of the
people to be likened to the flock.
4.1.2 The Shepherds of Mesopotamia
Since the third millennium BCE, the title of shepherd was the prerogative of
the gods and kings. Many of the different deities of Mesopotamia are generally
referred to as a shepherd with a focus often on compassionate concern for humanity.
The pastoral god Dumuzi was worshiped in Babylonia from the third to first
millennium BCE. He was linked to the fertility of the flocks and the pasture that
sustained them. Dumuzi becomes Tammuz in Assyro-Babylonian Empire and is
referred to in Ezekiel 8:14. Dumuzi, the shepherd-god, wants to marry the goddess
Inanna but is rejected in favor of the farmer-god Enkimdu. Dumuzi then gives all the
reasons why he is superior. Utu, the sun-god, appeals to his sister to marry Dumuzi:
45
121
The shepherd, everything his hand touches is bright,

0 Inanna, let the shepherd Dumuzi m~ thee,
0 thou who ... , why art thou unwilling? 6
The dispute does not end in murder but an agreement to peaceful co-existence.
As for me, who am a shepherd, at my marria~e,

0 farmer, may you be counted as a friend ... 4
The gods reflect the ongoing rivalry and interdependence between shepherd and farmer.
It is common to find the image of shepherd used in ANE creation stories. In
the classic Akkadian myth of creation Enuma elish, Marduk is the shepherd of the
people:
Most exalted be the Son, our avenger;

Let his sovereignty be surpassing, having no rival.
May he shepherd the black-headed ones, 48 his creatures. 49
Marduk, who has vanquished Tiamat, his mother, is also the shepherd of the gods.
Marduk provides for the fertility of the land:
May he shepherd all the gods like sheep ...

Tiamat; may her life be strait and short!
Let the ears of shepherd and the herdsman be opened.
Let him rejoice in Marduk ...
That his land may be fertile and that he may prosper. 50
Another god from the pantheon of Mesopotamian gods was Enlil who was
depicted as the faithful shepherd, worshipped as a source of fertility and order, by both
farmer and shepherd:
Faithful Shepherd, faithful Shepherd,

God Enlil, faithful Shepherd,
Master of all countries, [faithful] Shepherd,
Lord ofthe ... , faithful Shepherd,
The lord who drew the outline of his hand ... 51
46
Pritchard ( 1969) 41 b.
47
Pritchard (I 969) 42b.
48
An Akkadian metaphor for 'the human race'.
49
Pritchard ( 1969) 69a.
50
Pritchard ( 1969) 72b.
51
Pritchard (1969) 337.
122
Many of the Mesopotamian epic heroes and kings were given the title of
shepherd. The following list of gods date from the early third millennium till the time of
Hammurabi:
Etana, a shepherd, he who ascended to heaven (and) who consolidated all

countries, became king and ruled I ,560 (var.: I ,500) years. 52 Etana, a shepherd,
the one who to heaven ascended. 53
In Lipit-Ishtar's Law code (ca. I934-1924 BCE) he is: 'Lipit-Ishtar, the wise
shepherd whose name had been pronounced by Nunamnir'. 54
When the primary city of the Sumerians, Ur, was destroyed, one of the metaphors
used to describe the distress was the shepherd/sheep metaphor and one of the main
images is that of the sheepfold. The 'stable' and 'his sheepfold' become a refrain
throughout the lament: 55
He has abandoned hi[ s] stable, his sheepfold ...

0 my city, like an innocent ewe thy lamb has been tom away from thee; ...
0 Ur, like an innocent goat thy kid has perished ....
Like the sheepfold of a shepherd verily has been tom down;
The imagery is graphic and full of pathos, youth, innocence and devastation; the image
of the city destroyed is described in this way: 'an innocent ewe whose lamb is tom
away'. When it was time to lament, the shepherd/sheep metaphor was at hand.
Finally, in this short review of Mesopotamian deities and kings, the famous
Hammurabi identifies himself as 'the shepherd' both in the preamble and the epilogue
ofhis law code. The characteristics that are emphasized to describe Hammurabi are
similar to those ofYHWH. The preamble utilizes images similar to Psalm 23:
'affluence and plenty abound' and 'provides in abundance' may be compared to 'shall
52
53
54
55
Pritchard (1969) 455-461.
123
not want' of Psalm 23:1-3. The divinely commissioned shepherd ofthe people guides
them withjustice.
The Preamble:
Hammurabi, the shepherd, called by Enlil, am I;

The one who makes affluence and plenty abound;
Who provides in abundance all sorts of things for Nippur-Duranki; ...
The efficient king, who restored Eridu to its place .
. . . who makes the name of Babylon great ... who made Ur prosper. ..
. . . the shepherd of the people, whose deeds are pleasing to Ishtar ...
When Marduk commissioned me to guide the people aright, ... '. 56
The Epilogue:
I, Hammurabi, the perfect king,

Was not careless (or) neglectful ofthe black-headed (people),
Whom Enlil has presented to me,
(and) whose shepherding Marduk had committed to me;
I sought out peaceful regions for them; ...
The great gods called me,
So I became the beneficent shepherd whose scepter is righteous;
My benign shadow is spread over my city.
In my bosom I carried the peoples ofthe land ofSumer and Akkad;
They prospered under my protection;
I always governed them in peace;
I sheltered them in my wisdom.
In order that the strong might not oppress the weak,
That justice might be dealt the owhan (and) the widow, ...
To give justice to the oppressed.
The epilogue's reference to 'peaceful regions' sounds like the 'still waters' of Psalm
23. The protection, peace and shelter are all consistent with the shepherd metaphor.
Another shepherd image 'In my bosom I carried the peoples,' sounds similar to the
language of Isaiah 40:11. The point of highlighting these writings is to show that the
shepherd motif in other historical settings utilized similar images from the metaphor as
are found in the biblical tradition. The image remains one of authority and providential
care. There is a compassionate dimension, but the kindness is a functional duty of the
56
57
Pritchard (1969)177-178.
124
sovereign and not a sentimental pastoral quality. The characteristics of benevolence and
providential care appear simply to be taken for granted as involved in faithfulness to the
kingly calling and so become quite impersonal attributes of the ruler, whether human or
divine. The shepherd god/king is to be able and willing to give both provision and
protection. He is vigilant and should not be found to be 'unfaithful' through inattention
or indifference.
4.1.3 The Shepherds of Egypt
In comparison with Mesopotamia, the terminology of the shepherd is not as
widespread in regard to the gods and kings in Egyptian myth and epic. Ipu-wer uses
the image in his indictment against the current administration of Egyptian kings. It
comes possibly during the decline between the Old and the Middle Kingdoms (2300-
2050): 58
Behold, it has befallen that the land has been deptived of the kingship by a few
lawless men ... 59 .. Behold, no offices are in their right place, like a herd
running at random without a herdsman. Behold, cattle stray and there is none
to collect them, but everyone fetches for himself those that are branded with
his name. 60
The use of the herding metaphor in the context of a crisis of leadership anticipates how
the biblical tradition will also use the motif. Ipu-wer depicts the situation as a
leaderless herd, 'running at random ... cattle stray and there is none to collect them'.
The image is similar to 'sheep without a shepherd' in the biblical tradition. In I Kings
22:17. The prophet Micaiah confronts the King oflsrael, by using the phrase to
indicate that the people are leaderless (cf. Num 27: 17; Mt 9:37). Ipu-wer continues the
metaphor in the hope that better leadership will come. At one point during his
complaint he says:
58
Pritchard ( 1969) 441 a.
59
Pritchard (1969) 442b.
60
Pritchard ( 1969) 443a.
125
Men shall say: 'He is the herdsman of all men. Evil is not in his heart.
Though his herds may be small, still he has spent the day caring for
[collecting] them ... 61
Other Egyptian gods were described as herdsman/shepherds, for example, the
hymn of praise to the god Amon-Re-Har-akhti: 'Praise to thee, Amon-Re-Atum-Har-
akhti, .... Thy ears are open, hearing them and taking care of them, ... a herdsman who
loves his herds'. 62 The primary god in Middle Kingdom Egypt was the sun god Amun-
Re who is referred to implicitly as the herder of his people: 'chief of all gods, the good
god, the beloved, who gives life to all that is warm and to all good cattle (people)' .63
The emphasis in these few samples from Egyptian sources also indicates a desire
for the king/leader to be benevolent and provide for the needs of those under his care.
4.1.4 Summary
The shepherd metaphor was a universal metaphor for leadership in the ANE. The
rulers understand that they are accountable to the gods in the way in which they rule.
Both the deities and the kings of the ANE were depicted as shepherds and the people as
the flock or herd. Just as a shepherd looks after the sheep by provision and protection, so
the rulers/leaders were to be committed to a similar task. Also, while it is not a personal
or sentimental compassion, the shepherds/rulers were to exercise benevolence in the
midst of justice. This image of shepherding illustrated how authority was expected to be
demonstrated. When rulership failed, it was critiqued according to the image of the
shepherd. When there was tragedy, as in the case of the destruction ofUr, the national
lamentation called upon the shepherd/sheep metaphor to articulate the loss. In the biblical
tradition because of the uniqueness of YHWH, the leaders and kings in Israel were
identified as shepherds as a group but not as individuals as we see among the

61
Pritchard (1969) 443a.
62
Pritchard(1969) 371b-372a.
63
Prichard (1969) 365a.
126
Mesopotamian kings. 64 By the time of the NT the shepherd image was an established
image used to describe leaders, whether good or bad. Matthew uses the image to address
the crises ofleadership in his own day much as Ipu-wer did two millennia before him. 65
But before concentrating on the shepherd/sheep metaphor in the biblical tradition, the
remainder of this chapter will review the shepherd/sheep motif in the Greco-Roman
tradition.
4.2 Shepherd/Sheep Metaphor in Greco-Roman Tradition
In the following section some of the practices and traditions associated with the
task of shepherding in the Greco-Roinan world will be compared and contrasted with the
ANE. 66 The way the metaphor develops theologically and philosophically in the Greco-
Roman context is different than the ANE. Some of the similarities and differences will
be noted. Finally the shepherd gods will be referred to and Pan specifically will be
considered. As a starting point, 'What was shepherding/herding like in the Greco-Roman
world?'
4.2.1 The Literal Usage
Herding in early Greece, like the ANE, was a primary way of life involving semi-
nomadic herders in which a pastoralist moved from location to location in search of
grazing lands. Transhumance was also common in the Greco-Roman world, moving
flocks or herds to different grazing grounds, often over long distances, especially
between the summer and the winter months. 67 The domestication of sheep, goats, and
cattle was practiced in Greece from the early Neolithic Period.68 While livestock
64
This will be discussed in Chapter 5 below.
65
I am not contending, of course, that Matthew had any knowledge of Ipu-wer, only that the metaphor
has had a long history and he will draw upon that history by way ofthe biblical tradition.
66
Wallis TDOT 13:549.
67
Isager and Skydsgaard ( 1992) 99-10 I.
68
Ryder ( 1983) 57-58 for the prehistoric period. cf. Whittaker (1988).
127
provided meat it was a luxury; usually the slaughter of an animal was related to offering
sacrifices to the gods, which resulted in meat, rather than a matter of killing an animal for
eating only. Cattle, sheep and goats were used more for their capacity to provide the
ongoing domestic needs. Cattle were used in the field as a beast of burden and in some
cases for their milk. Sheep provided wool and milk. Goats were used for their milk only.
All would have provided hides and other ingredients for differing needs of the
community.
Each of these animals needed land for grazing and this involved society in the
task of defining how to sustain the resources for the local community.
Even if the quality of pasture in many places did not permit the keeping of cattle
and horses over and above the essential minimum, every community was rich in
sheep and goats. Yet there were limits set on individual holdings: whereas
Euboulus ofElatea could consider keeping 1,000 sheep and goats, Athenians
seem to have owned considerably smaller flocks - Panaetius had 84 sheep and 67
goats, numbers closely matched by other well-to-do property owners ... 69
As in many of the records of the ANE, we have evidence of disputes over grazing rights
in the Greco-Roman traditions as well. A dialogue in Sophocles' tragedy, Oedipus
Tyrannus (ca. 430 BCE), illustrates a dispute between two neighbors over rights to a
summer pasture. 70 It was not uncommon for a city to control the use of grazing lands and
to limit their use to its own citizens. In such cases the use of these grazing sites by
foreigners was considered an honor. There are some instances when the city-states would
71
impose pasture taxes when the grazing grounds were limited.
There is an interesting tradition concerning foreign shepherds who 'steal to make
friends'. 72 The foreign shepherd, in order to create an alliance with the local herders, first
makes them his victim. When the one whose sheep that has been stolen comes making
69
Burford {1993) 151.
70
Sophocles, Oedipus Tyrannus, 1117-1140.
71
Burford (1993) 152.
72
Gutzwiller ( 1991) 41.
128
the accusation against the thief, a third party is called in who mediates the situation and is
allowed to accomplish the return of the stolen sheep to the original owner. But the
mediator encourages a commitment on the part of both parties to work together in the
future. So an alliance is established and the foreign shepherd has accomplished his
original goal, which was friendship with the local shepherds who now help protect him
73
from the retaliatory actions of others. So, in a very different way, similar results are
accomplished as was the case with the 'herding contracts' and covenant shepherds of
ANE.
The duties of the shepherd in the Greco-Roman world are much the same as in
the ANE. The Roman writer Columella gives an account of how the herdsman/shepherd
is to be 'observant and vigilant' (circumspectus ac vigilans):
He should neither recline nor sit; for if he is not walking he ought to stand, since
the task of the herdsman calls for a lofty and commanding elevation from which
his eyes may observe as from a watchtower, ... lest a thief or predator cheat the
shepherd while he is daydreaming (7.3.26). 74
The herder's duty is to exercise vigilance in guarding the flock, and this is contrasted
with the shepherd's susceptibility to boredom and sleep. This image of the shepherd who
guards (qmA.&oow) 75 the flock becomes in Homer and Hesiod, and others, a metaphor to
'guard their thought or teaching'. 'Hesiod uses the verb frequently to admonish his reader
to remember his teachings, so that "guarding" becomes a virtual synonym for the poet's
&A.~9ua' .76 So, in the Greco-Roman tradition the emphasis is upon the shepherd's
integrity and vigilance rather than the compassionate benevolence and justice that are
73
Gutzwiller (1991) 41.
74
Quoted in Gutzwiller (1991) 31.
75
LSJ:4472lljluJ..&.oow-3. metaph. to keep, maintain, cherish, XOAOV, opKLa ljl. EnD<; to observe a
command; no,mon Soph.; ljl. oKaLOouvav to cling to it,foster it; Pass., ljluA&.nE09aL 11ap.&. 1WL to be
fostere(J In or by.
76
129
emphasized in Mesopotamian and Egyptian literature. 77 Consequently, the negative
characteristics depicted in the literature are untruthfulness, absorption in music to the
neglect of duty, 78 laziness and distraction, and theft of flocks belonging to kinsmen or
neighbors.
4.2.2 The Metaphorical Usage
The metaphorical use of the shepherd image is widespread. Aeschylus calls a
storm at sea an 'evil shepherd', and even captains are spoken of as 'shepherds of
ships' .79 Most often it refers to leadership as exercised, for example, by rulers and
army commanders. The image is used in the Iliad and Odyssey which would suggest
that it had already acquired an accepted and customary meaning in very early times.
Agamemnon is TIOLf.l.~V A.awv 'shepherd of the people', 80 a common phrase in the Iliad
and the Odyssey often used to describe various individuals in both the Greek and
Trojan military. 81 The military shepherd is a theme in Hesiod; Jason is a military
shepherd in Theogony 1000.

82
In Homer the shepherd/herder is compared to the (military) hero. The
shepherd brings stability and/or restores order in a situation where confusion and
chaos dominate. The shepherd metaphor emphasizes bringing order out of confusion
rather than protection from the predator as in the classic ANE sense. Iliad 2.474-477
uses the image of the goat herder who separates and orders the flock as a hero-king.
Just as goatherds sort out/separate roue; o we; t o:L Tioho: TIAatE o:L ywv
with ease the wandering beasts, o:LTIDAOL avllpEc; pE'itx OLa.KpLVWOOLV,
' I .,.. I I t' \
all mixed up in the pasture, so through all ETIEL KE VOf.J.cp f.l.L YEWOLV W; touc;
the army, the leaders organized the troops ~YEf.l.OVEc; llLEKOOf.J.EOV EV9tx KO:L EV9tx
77
78
Note how these themes are consistent with the ANE and will emerge in the biblical tradition as well.
79
Agamemnon, 65. 7, The Suppliant Maidens, 767.
80
E.g. Agamemnon, et. al. in, Iliad, 2.75-109,243-254, Odyssey3.156,14,497.
81
Vancil ABD 5:1189;
82
The following material is based upon the work of Gutzwiller (1991) 24-29.
130
I for battle. I OOfltV'llVO LEV(Xl
The shepherd separating and organizing his goats/sheep becomes a metaphor for
military leaders organizing troops for battle. In Hesiod's Theogony (85-86) a similar
passage describes the good king as one who 'portions out judgments with straight
decisions' (6tcxKp(vov-rcx 0Eflto'tcx~ led1Jat DLK1JOLV). The leader is to provide 'straight
decisions' in lieu of crooked judgments that allow for chaos. When good leadership is
not given, it allows for confusion and disorder that lead to the injustices and violations
of people and property. 83
The semantic domain of words related to the basic stem 'vEil' also reflects the
order of the pastoral nature of shepherding and the ordering of human relationships
according, to Homer. 84 In Homer the essential meaning ofVEflW is to dispense in an
orderly fashion, 'to deal out, distribute, dispense'. 85 For the shepherd the places of
ordering are the grazing areas and the fold.
The shepherd lives with the flock, with the realities of the weather and
predators, but in the face of these is called upon to exercise integrity and vigilance and
provision and protection. In Homer the 'pasture' is called VOflD<;, the herder of any kind
is called a VOIJ.Et><;, and the place that the animals are provided for is the VEflOV'tcxt
(pasture). This Homeric language and usage will influence the way Plato articulates
and uses the herder/shepherd image when he speaks of the way the gods both care for
and create order and the way the true 'philosopher-king' is to implement his
. I atton.
Iegts . s6
83
84 Beyreuther (1978) 564; rrm~o:lvw becomes the alternative to the more archaic vo~Eu~, because even
by the time of Plato he has to define the term as meaning 'the one who distributes' (6 ouxvE~wv).
85
LSJ:28486 VE~w .......A. to deal out, distribute, dispense, ofmeat and drltlk, Hom.
86
131
Related to this theme of the hero are the stories of how they are 'called' by the
gods or commissioned by the gods. This was evident in the ANE sources as well.
Hesiod is 'called' by the Muses while he is shepherding his flock:
And one day they taught Hesiod a glorious song while he was shepherding his
lambs under holy Helicon, and this word first the goddesses said to me-- the
Muses of Olympus, daughters of Zeus who holds the aegis: 'Shepherds ofthe
wilderness, wretched things of shame, mere bellies, we know how to speak
many false things as though they were true; but we know, when we will, to
utter true things.' So said the ready-voiced daughters of great Zeus, and they
plucked and gave me a rod, a shoot of sturdy laurel, a marvelous thing, and
breathed into me a divine voice to celebrate things that shall be and things
there were aforetime; and they bade me sing of the race of the blessed gods
that are eternal, but ever to sing of themselves both first and last. 87
The shepherd learns to become a leader after being a shepherd, which is seen as a kind of
preparation for leadership. This rather universal theme occurs throughout the ancient
world, whether the ANE, the Hebrew tradition, the later Hellenistic tradition (for
example Philo) or here in the ancient Greco-Roman tradition: leadership is learned by
being a shepherd.
In the later Greco-Roman period the philosopher (king/ruler) who becomes the
statesman is to be like a shepherd. This is developed by Plato in the Republic. Socrates
was once asked about Agamemnon and why he was always referred to as TIOL~-t~v A.awv
'shepherd of the people'. Xenophon records this response:
Isn't it because a shepherd must see to it that his sheep are safe and have food,
and that the object for which they are raised is obtained; while a general too
must see to it that his soldiers are safe and have supplies, and that the goal for
which they are in the army will be attained? ... A king is chosen not to take
good care of himself, but so that the men who chose him may prosper. It is not
easy to find anything finer than this goal or anything more disgraceful than it's
opposite. 88
87
Theogony 20-25.
88
Memorabilia 2: 1-4
132
Xenophon himself says, 'the duties of a good shepherd and of a good king were very
much alike; a good shepherd ought, while deriving benefit from his flocks, to make
them happy (so far as sheep can be said to have happiness), and in the same way a
king ought to make his people and his cities happy, if he would derive benefits from
them.' 89 It is at this point that the Greco-Roman use of metaphor differs from the ANE
usage. The shepherd image in the ANE emphasizes a solidarity binding shepherd and
people together in relationship whereas in Greece the philosopher-ruler relates to the
people simply in govemance. 90 Thus, the motif is 'applied to the philosophers, who as
statesmen are expected to serve the best interests of those entrusted to their care, with
whom, they have nothing in common'. 91
In contrast to this military shepherd, the Greeks also develop their own pastoral
literature. The bucolic poetry from the fifth century and following will idealize the
pastoral. But even this idealization of summer days and pastoral delights were poetic
attempts to explore the deeper issues of life. 92 Additionally, in contrast to these
pastoral delights, the shepherd metaphor occurs in the tragic poets as well.
The Greek dramas, illustrated in Sophocles and Euripides, endeavor to delve
into the contradictions of the shepherd. They present the irreconcilable split between
the character that is both culturally inferior, the shepherd, and yet at times morally and
intellectually superior to those in a higher class. Or, they will present a herder
character who is more than he initially appears to be and who later emerges as the
noble individual (the hero) who is the focal point ofthe drama. The opposite is present
as well; the shepherd who is the rough, unrefined lout of the stereotypical elitist
89
Cyropaedia, 8.2,14.
90
Vancil ABD 5:1189.
' wallis inor 13:549.
9
92
Vancil ABD 5:1189. Cf. the Bucolic poetic tradition: E.g. Theocritus, The Bucolic Poets; Virgil,
Eclogues.
133
imagination. These antitheses create the dual images of the shepherd metaphor in the
Greco-Roman period. 93
Plato made full use of the shepherd/sheep metaphor as a way of clarifying and
defining justice. In The Republic, he uses it in relation to both the political and the
psychological dynamics of the relationship between ruler and subject. 94 Again, in The
Statesman, the image is used to show how the leader, the philosopher-king, serves
only for the interest of the people he govems. 95
Yet the reality of shepherding as a vocation was looked down upon;
recognized as dirty and smelly since the real shepherd lived with the sheep. Aristotle
described the vocation of the shepherd:
... laziest are shepherds, who lead an idle life, and get their subsistence without
trouble from tame animals; their flocks having to wander from place to place in
search of pasture, they are compelled to follow them, cultivating a sort of
living farm. 96
In order to reveal as blatantly as possible the tension that existed between the
reality and the ideal, we bring to conclusion this brief overview with another quote
from Aristotle that illustrates the tension:
93
Gutzwiller (1991) 45-65.
94
Republic 1.343b, 1.345cd, 3. 416a. 4.440d. [345c]'But, as it is, you see, Thrasymachus--let us return
to the previous examples-you see that while you began by taking the physician in the true sense of the
word, you did not think fit afterwards to be consistent and maintain with precision the notion of the true
shepherd, but you apparently think that what is best for the sheep but as if he were a banqueter about to
be feasted with regard to the good cheer or again with a view to the sale ofthem[345d] as if he were a
money-maker and not a shepherd. But the art of the shepherd surely is concerned with nothing else than
how to provide what is best for that over which is set, since its own affairs, its own best estate, are
entirely sufficiently provided for so long as it in nowise fails of being the shepherd's art. And in like
manner I supposed that we just now were constrained to acknowledge that every form of rule in so far
as it is rule considers what is best for nothing else than that which is governed and cared for by
it,[345e] alike in political and private rule. Why, do you think that the rulers and holders of office in our
cities--the true rulers --willingly hold office and rule?" "I don't think," he said, "I know right well they
do." "But what of other forms of rule, Thrasymachus? Do you not perceive that no one chooses of his
own will to hold the office of rule, but they demand pay, which implies that not to them will benefit
accrue from their holding office but to those whom they rule?"' Cf. Gutzwiller (1991) 66-69.
95
The Statesman, 266-272b.
%Politics 1.8.
134
The friendship of a king for his subjects is one of superiority in beneficence;

for a king does good to his subjects, inasmuch as being good he studies to
promote their welfare, as a shepherd studies the welfare of his sheep; hence
Homer called Agamemnon 'shepherd of the people. 97
Thus, though few wanted to be shepherds with real sheep, the metaphor persisted
through antiquity among persons leading others and in the descriptions of the gods.
Next, we turn to consider Pan the Grec6-Roman deity ofherders and shepherds.
4.2.3 Pan: The god of the herders and shepherds98
Similar to the ANE, the Greco-Roman world linked a number of the gods with
the shepherd image-there were a pantheon of shepherd deities available to Greek and
later to Roman individuals. So, for example, Hermes carries the lamb or ram over his
shoulders. Apollo, a popular god in the pantheon and traditionally the son of Zeus, was
associated with prophecy (at Delphi), healing, music and archery. He was also the
protector of herds. But it is Pan the god of herds and shepherds--sometimes the son of
Hermes, Zeus or some other god--that deserves careful consideration. Pan was attributed
with inventing the shepherd's pipe. Though originally simply the god of herdsmen, later
(toward the later part of the first century BCE and the first century CE) he became
increasingly popular and had a universal appeal as deity beyond that of the herdsman.
Especially significant is that in Christian legend Pan's death was associated with the
death and resurrection of Christ.
Pan was the fertility god for the flocks of shepherds and herders. Although he is
one of the oldest creations of Greek folklore, he does not play a significant role in the
'higher mythology' of Homer and Hesiod. The original home of Pan was Arcadia in
Greece. He is described as having a human torso and arms but with the legs, ears, and the
97
Nicomachean Ethics 5.15.
98
LSJ: 31193 Pan, gen. ITav6<;;, o
Pan, god of Arcadia, son of Hermes, 11 Hom.; represented with goat's _io-;
feet, horns, and shaggy hair. At Athens his worship began after the battle of Marathon, Hdt.:-pl. ITavE~
in Ar., Theocr.
135
horns of a goat. The tradition of the shepherd-god is featured in one of the later Homeric
hymns, often dated around the time ofPindar, c.522/518-442/438 BCE. The hymn
celebrates his birth and claims he is 'the dear son ofHermes', who takes him to Zeus and
shows him off to the rest of the gods. In their delight they named him Pan, 'because he
delighted all their hearts'. In spite of the lack of his importance in the 'higher mythology'
it would appear that Pan played an important role in the daily life of shepherds and
herders. Although not associated with the epic myths, Pan is associated with a story
relating how he invented a musical pipe with seven reeds. Pan is also a lover of lonely
places like caves and mountains.
Pan's popularity as a god began in the early fifth century BCE. A story, told by
Herodotus explains how Pan came to have the cave shrine on the Acropolis. In 490 BCE
Pan appeared to the Athenian runner Pheidippides and promised help against the
Persians:
Before they left the city, the Athenian generals sent off a message to Sparta.
The messenger was an Athenian named Pheidippides, a professional long-
distance runner. Pheidippides met the god Pan on Mount Parthenium, above
Tegea. Pan, he said, called him by name and told him to ask the Athenians why
they paid him no attention, in spite of his friendliness towards them and the
fact that he had often been useful to them in the past, and would be so again in
the future. The Athenians believed Pheidippides's story, and when their affairs
were once more in a prosperous state, they built a shrine to Pan under the
Acropolis, and from the time his message was received they held an annual
ceremony, with a torch-race and sacrifices, to court his protection.99
It was the help of Pan at the battle of Marathon (490) that gave them the victory. In
later times, during the first and second centuries BCE, Pan becomes a kind of universal
god as a result of his name: IT&~; or Il&v: 'the guardian of all'.
99
Histories 6.105. The appearance of Pan was probably on his way to Sparta, not on his run back to
Athens with news of the victory as is sometimes claimed. Herodotus was writing about fifty years after
the event so it is reasonable to think Pheidippides was a historical figure, he just never mentions the
famous mflrathon run from Marathon to Athens. That run, in all likelihood is a legend and is first told
by Plutarch naming a different runner in On the Glory ofAthens.
136
Finally, there is a famous story from Plutarch's Moralia, in the essay, 'The
Obsolescence of Oracles' concerning the death of Pan. This story provides a fitting
conclusion to this section on the Greco-Roman tradition. 100 According to Plutarch, 101
during the reign ofTiberius (AD 14-37), the passengers and crew of a boat offwestern
Greece were startled to hear a voice reporting the news that the Great Pan was dead. The
story provoked amazement and fear. It eventually reached Rome. When Plutarch retold
the story less than a century later, he intended it as proof that even the gods die.
As for death among such beings, I have heard the words of a man who was not a
a fool nor an imposter ... Epitherses, .... He said that once upon a time in making a
voyage to Italy he embarked on a ship carrying freight and many passengers. It
was already evening when, near the Echinades Islands, the wind dropped, and the
ship drifted near Paxin ... Suddenly from the island ofPaxin was heard the voice
of someone loudly calling Thamus ... Twice he was called and made no reply, but
the third time he answered: and the caller, raising his voice, said, "When you
come opposite to Palodes, announce that Great Pan is dead." On hearing this,
all ... were astounded and reasoned among themselves whether it was better to
carry out the order or to refuse to meddle and let the matter go. Under the
circumstances Thamus made up his mind that if there should be a breeze, he
would sail past and keep quiet, but with no wind and smooth sea ... he would
announce what he had heard ... looking toward the land, [he] said the words as he
had heard them: 'Great Pan is dead.' ... 102
Pan the shepherd-god had died. Even if Plutarch was indicating symbolically a death of
the pantheon of the gods generally, the pantheon would continue for many years.
Whatever the real reason for Plutarch's remembering the story, it became for many
Christians in subsequent generations a prophetic story. 103 In Christian legend this story
was associated with the death and resurrection of Christ. In the time of Tiberi us a new
shepherd was born. It was the beginning of a new age with the fulfillment of the ancient
Hebrew prophet's promise 'from you [Bethlehem] shall come a ruler who is to shepherd
my people Israel'.
100
Plutarch (1935) 5:401.
101
Lamberton (2001)46-120.
102
Plufarch, Mor.418:419.
103
E.g. Eusebius ofCaesarea, The Preparation ofthe Gospe/5.17.
137
4.3 Summary
The shepherd metaphor is as widespread in the Greco-Roman tradition as in the
ANE tradition. In common with ANE, the shepherd metaphor is a metaphor for the
leader, but in the Greco-Roman tradition it is sometimes the military commander and in
the later tradition the philosopher-king/statesman. As in ANE, there is often an
association with being 'called' or some sense of having a divine mandate or destiny when
the image is applied to the leader. We will also see this in the Biblical tradition in the
next chapter.
The role of a shepherd can also illustrate a leader trained in obscurity, in order to
emerge as competent and just. There is at least one dimension within the Greco-Roman
tradition that would put more emphasis on integrity and justice rather than compassion.
The shepherd is not the model itself but is the role of preparation for becoming a king,
warrior, poet, seer, or even a god.
There would appear to be two streams of thought in the tradition leading to a
third more centrist model: 1) the military shepherd and 2) the ideal shepherd and 3) the
philosopher-king who while different than those who follow is to have their best interest
as the priority. The military shepherd who leads and makes the 'straight decisions' as a
military person orders his troops in the field and leads with efficiency and effectiveness.
The other image is a shepherd who cares for and provides for the safety of the sheep in a
more ideal situation of quiet and calm, the bucolic tradition. The philosophic tradition
represented by Socrates, Plato and others is that the shepherd metaphor is useful to
describe the leader. But, in reality, the philosopher-king is different from those he leads
and so an elitist distinction remains. As we tum to examine the biblical tradition, we will
see many similarities of the shepherd, but also distinctive characteristics.

138
CHAPTERS
YHWH: THE SHEPHERD OF ISRAEL
AND THE UNDER-SHEPHERDS OF HIS PEOPLE
5.1 YHWH: The Shepherd of Israel
In this chapter, the shepherd/sheep metaphor will be explored as it applies to
YHWH, the Shepherd of Israel and the people of Israel, the 'flock' of God. Also
considered are the leaders of Israel who are the under-shepherds of the shepherd
YHWH The metaphor is used both positively and negatively. It is used to illustrate
the good shepherd but also describes an evil or anti-shepherd which emerges in the
prophets. The term under-shepherd is not a biblical term but is used here to emphasize
that the leaders of Israel are defined, whether positively or negatively, by their
relationship to YHWH, the shepherd of Israel. The way the leaders choose to shepherd
the people of God was always evaluated and critiqued on the basis ofthe character of
YHWH To the extent that the character of the leaders oflsrael reflects the character of
YHWH they are good shepherds and vice-versa. In the OT there are two primary
1
traditions that inform the shepherd/sheep metaphor: 1) The Moses/exodus tradition
concerning YHWH's deliverance oflsrael from Egyptian bondage including the
wilderness wanderings and the conquest culminating in the fulfillment of God's
promise to provide a place for the people oflsrael. 2) The second major influence
upon the shepherd/sheep motif is the royal Davidic tradition. 2 Since rulers were
'shepherds' in the ANE, it made the influence of David, a shepherd by vocation, a
natural one. These two traditions inform the shepherd/sheep image throughout the
biblical tradition. Another development introduced through the prophetic tradition is
the theme of the evil or unfaithful shepherd. This aspect of the shepherd/sheep motif
1
The Moses/exodus tradition will alternately be called the exodus/wilderness/conquest tradition.
2
The royal Davidic tradition will alternately be called the Davidic tradition.
139
arises in times of crisis or contested leadership. We will see this as we explore the
biblical tradition.
5.1.1 Introduction
In the Hebrew Bible, only YHWH is the shepherd oflsrael. In the biblical
tradition oflsrael there is no indication that the nominative title of 'shepherd' was ever
applied to a reigning king ofisrael. 3 There is no specific explanation given for this but
it may be an attempt to acknowledge and establish YHWH as the unique shepherd of
Israel, even during the monarchy. It may also be that since the shepherd metaphor was
used in the wider ANE, there was a certain restraint in Israel as referring to kings by
the title 'shepherd'. 4 However, the verb 'to shepherd or to pasture', used
metaphorically, was used of leadership. Though not in a titular fashion, it was used in
regard to function: the shepherd shepherds the people as a shepherd shepherds the
flock. So, for example, when David was anointed king in II Sam 5:2 the promise is:
'The LORD said to you: It is you who shall be shepherd (i!lJi, noqJ.a.(vw) of my people
Israel, you who shall be ruler (1,:1~7, ~ym)llEvov) 5 over Israel.'
"~n~,-n~ ,~~-n~ i!lJin i!J;1~

Israel my people pasture/tend shall you
noL!la.vEI.c; tov A.a.6v !lou tov Iopa.T)A.
This reference to David is the closest reference to an individual being called the
shepherd of Israel. In contrast to this, the eschatological David is referred to as the
shepherd (e.g. Jer 23:5-6; Ez 34:24-25; 37:24) who will shepherd Israel like YHWH,
the shepherd of Israel. More often the metaphor is applied to Israel's leadership as a
whole; it may refer to shepherds as a group, for example in Jeremiah and Ezekiel. The
3
Wallis TDOT 13:550.
4
Wallis TDOT 13:550
5
HALOT5357 1'~~: chief, leader, sovereign, prince. LEH4129: ~YOIJilEvoc;: ruler, commander; leader
over, head of, chief of.
140
historical example of shepherding contracts possibly provides a background for the
image of the under-shepherds of Israel who were to be covenant partners with YHWH.
It is during the time of the latter prophetic literature that the metaphor of
shepherd/sheep is most prominent in the biblical tradition concerning the leaders of
Israel.
The verb n~71 (qal) means primarily 'to cause to graze', or 'to tend', also 'to
pasture, to guard' and occurs 167/8 times. The substantive (mt.,, c~"l) shepherd, occurs
approximately 83 times (n~"l: shepherdess, Gn 29:9, once). The verb may be used
intransitively of flocks and herds (e.g. Is 5:17; 11 :7; 14:30; 27:10; 30:23; 65:25; Jon
3:7; Zeph 2:7; 3: 13; Job 1:14) and is often a metaphor symbolizing the peaceful life of
both animals and humans in some future time. Transitively used, the verb describes
the area or place being 'grazed'. The normal or majority usage of the transitive verb
occurs in regard to the work of the shepherd, emphasizing function, as the one who
normally tends sheep and goats. 'The qal active participal ro'eh, [n~"l] "shepherd,"
generally retains its verbal force, being used with an accusative object'. 6
The shepherd/sheep motif is widespread in the biblical tradition. In the OT,
there are two passages where the metaphor is used in a concentrated fashion, Ezekiel
34 and Zechariah 11. Ezekiel 34 uses the metaphor thirty-one out of thirty-two times
in Ezekiel. Otherwise, it is only found in Ezekiel 37:24. Zechariah 11 contains ten
out of a total of fourteen uses in Zechariah 10-13. In contrast to these two concentrated
uses of the metaphor are the more typical distribution: Genesis twenty-three times
(almost always the literal usage); 7 I Samuel, seven times; II Samuel twice, (5:2 and
7:7); Song of Solomon, seven times; the Psalms, eight times; Isaiah, seventeen times
6
Wallis TDOT 13:545.
7
The two exceptions being Genesis 48: 15 and 49:24.
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(nine from chapters 40-66); in the prophet Jeremiah, twenty-seven times; and Micah,
five times. 8 This chapter will not endeavor to examine every biblical reference to the
metaphor. It will consider passages that will help to provide a basis for understanding
the use of the shepherd metaphor and will take special note of those shepherd/sheep
texts that are either quoted or alluded to by Matthew.
The two metaphorical uses in Genesis are both when Jacob speaks of God as
his shepherd, the first is in Genesis 48:15, (nl1,, the LXX reads o 9Eo~ o tpE<jlwv9 llE,
tpE<jlw rather than TIOLil~v). Also of note is the use of the personal pronoun which is
normally applied to the community. Jacob uses the metaphor again in Genesis 49:24
when he prays to the 'Mighty One ... the Shepherd, the Rock of Israel.' In light of
Jacob's vocation as a shepherd it is understandable that the image would be used in
regard to God. This description of YHWH as shepherd is also found in Psalm 80: I, '0
shepherd (n.p"1, TIOtlln:tvwv) oflsrael hearken, '0 Guide ofthe flock (lt(~, Tipo~cx.tn:) of
Joseph', and in Psalm 95:7, 'For He is our God and we are the people he
pastures/provides a grazing place (n~-v~, voll~), the flock (lt(~, 1rp6~tcx.) he guides'.
Finally, the metaphor is extended in Psalm 23 by the psalmist in order to explore the
meaning of 'The Lord is my shepherd' ('.\7"1 n~n~, Kupw~ TIOLilCX.LVEL llE). The use of the
personal pronoun in Genesis 48 and Psalm 23 would appear to be unique in the
biblical tradition. This will be examined further below.
8
These statistics generally follow Soggin TLOT3:1246 and Wallis TDOT 13:544-545.
9
LEH8965 -rpE<flw Gn 6:19-20; 48:15; Num 6:5; Dt 32:18 A: to feed, to nourish; Gn 48:15; (metaph.)
Bar4:11; to rear, to bringup, to educate (an anhiL) Is 7:21; to lei grow Nm 6:5 M: to grow up Is 33:18.
BDAG: I. to care for by providing food or nourishment,feed, nourish, support. Cf. Mt 6:26, 25:37.
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5.1.2 YHWH as the Shepherd of Israel
While there are only four shepherd texts that directly give God the title
Shepherd, 10 the metaphor was a primary image for God throughout Israelite history.
By association the people of God were the sheep of his pasture. God is depicted as
'feeding' (i!l:t"l=?,), 'gathering' (p.j?, auvayw) the young lambs (i!~~. &pvac;) into his arms
and carrying them next to his bosom (po, yaarpt) 11 , while he gently leads the ewes to
provision and protection in Isaiah 40: I 0. This description is bracketed by the
description of a God who 'comes with might, and his arm rules (Ptr:t~. KupLEtac; 12)'
(40:10) and one 'who has measured the waters in the hollow ofhis hand' (40:12). The
tender compassion and the concern for the well being of the flock are bracketed by the
sovereign power of YHWH. The prophet illustrates with the shepherd metaphor that
God is provider of all the necessities in life and that the Lord will give guidance and
protection to the small and the vulnerable. The image of the shepherd leading and
protecting the ewes is illustrated by Jacob's comments to Esau when he is concerned
that the nursing ewes not be 'overdriven' in Genesis 33:13. YHWH as shepherd
protects the young and the old alike in order to 'save [his] people, to bless his heritage;
to be their shepherd, and carry them forever' (Ps 28:9).
This image of God, leading, guiding and providing, is also associated with the
Exodus of Israel from Egypt. The shepherd metaphor is implied in the Song of Moses
when God as a shepherd leads the people out of danger into safe pasture (Exodus
15:13, 17). The Psalmist, also in the context of exodus/wilderness/conquest, depicts
10
Gen. 48:15, 49:24; Ps. 23:1; 80:1.
11
HALOT2837, po I. lower, outer front of the body where loved ones (infants and animals) are
pressed closely, lap, Num 11:12; I Ki 3:20; 17:19; Is 40:11.
12
HALO'fl2458 P!r,t 2. God comes P!':'~ be)).iizaq as the strong one Is 40:10. LEI-15409: KupLELa,-a!;,
authority, power.
143
God as a shepherd who makes room for his own flock and drives others out in order to
provide for his own (78:52-55). The provision extends beyond the Exodus into the
time of David whom God 'chose' (,0~, qal; (xA.E:yof.LaL, aor. mid.) and took from the
'sheepfolds' (ll't~ l-t'{=?o) in order to make him 'the shepherd of his people Jacob, of
Israel, his inheritance' (78:70-72). Note here that the Lord may be imaged as the
shepherd owner and David his under-shepherd. YHWH owns the sheep, they are 'his
inheritance', and David is chosen by God to be his covenant partner.
When the eclipse of God is the psalmist's plight, the shepherd/sheep metaphor
provides an image to describe the people's distress and disappointment at God's
absence. In Psalm 44 the flock has been sold for a trifle in order to be butchered and
forgotten (Psalm 44:11-12, 20, 22; cf. Isaiah 56:10-11 ). Towards the end of the lament
the Divine shepherd is imaged as being asleep (v 22). This is the epitome of a
shepherd's neglect or abandonment.
In contrast to this apparent divine absence is God's covenant commitment as
the shepherd of Israel and the covenant partnership with his under-shepherds. This is
portrayed in the classic shepherd psalm, Psalm 23. Normally the image of
shepherd/sheep is one of a shepherd with his flock, so it reflects the community of
Israel, the whole people of God. One of the distinctive characteristics of Psalm 23 is
the use of the personal pronoun my (cf. Gen 48:15) rather than the more frequent
plural usage. The shepherd metaphor, traditionally interpreted communally as 'flock'
(Ps 80:1) or the 'sheep of his pasture' (e.g. Ps 95, 100) is more typical. The use ofthe
personal pronoun in regard to the shepherd motif 'is here given its most personal
interpretation in the entire biblical tradition' . 13
13
Craigie (1983) 206, 'Even if the use of"l/my" was intended, orlater interpreted, in a communal
144
The extended metaphor in Psalm 23 emphasizes the fundamental aspects of the
shepherd. Not least is the fact that the shepherd lives with the flock, no matter what the
circumstances, and becomes everything to the sheep: guide, physician/healer, protector,
and provider. The shepherd knows the pastoral territory; its green meadows, its dangers
and its treacherous terrain. The shepherd knows the sheep and how best to care for them
according to their needs and according to the seasons of the year. Earlier in the biblical
tradition this was emphasized in the Jacob story when he becomes angry at Laban and
describes his faithfulness to him and his flocks as a shepherd: 'These twenty years I have
been with you: your ewes and your female goats have not miscarried, and I have not
eaten the rams or your flocks ... by day the heat consumed me, and cold by night, and
sleep fled from my eyes.' (Gen 31 :36-42). Psalm 23 classically describes YHWH as the
shepherd and his peoples as the sheep ofhis pasture. We will explore this shepherd
psalm in more detail in the following analysis.
5.1.3 Psalm 23
A primary question concerning the structure of Psalm 23 on has to do with
whether the shepherd metaphor is extended throughout the psalm or concludes at verse
4. Traditionally, the most common approach is to understand an abrupt division of the
psalm between God as shepherd and God as host by the change of imagery between vv
1-4 and vv 5-6. 14 When approaching the structure ofthe psalm with this division in
mind, interpreters understand verses 5-6 as a liturgical sacrificial banquet of
thanksgiving. 15 Others, who understand the shepherd metaphor to extend through the
sense, the implications of a personal association with the shepherd remain'.

14
For a discussion of the different approaches to structure and setting cf. Craigie (1983) 204-205, 207-
208 and Kraus (1988) I :304306.
15
Johnson ( 1970) 269-271; Vogt (1953) 195-211.
145
16
psalm, choose to amend the text in order to make it pertain to the shepherd image.
Alternatively to both of these approaches, is a third option of recognizing a larger
more encompassing theme which provides clarification to the way the shepherd
metaphor is used throughout the psalm. One such approach has been to propose an
exilic or post-exilic remembrance of the exodus as providing hope in the context of
distress. The exodus/wilderness/conquest tradition allows the shepherd metaphor to be
maintained from beginning to end. 17 Yet, another perspective is to emphasize the
kingly dimension of the shepherd metaphor and identify the psalm as a 'royal psalm'
describing the characteristics and celebration of the shepherd king. 18 Others have
argued that the 'host' image continues throughout vv. 5-6 but as the 'shepherd-host'
19
and by this contend that the shepherd metaphor is maintained throughout the psalm.
The approach taken in this thesis will be to argue that the shepherd metaphor
extends to the end of the psalm and is integrated throughout in its various aspects by
the underlying and more encompassing theme of the exodus; including the wilderness
wanderings and the final entrance into and habitation in the Promised Land or the
'domain of God' .2
YHWH 's shepherding of Israel during the Exodus and the wilderness years are
the basis of the psalmist's own confidence and assurance in YHWH as shepherd. The
psalmist's use of the Exodus theme enriches the meaning of the psalm. Thus, the
metaphors are not simplistic comparisons between sheep and shepherd but are linked
16
Morgenstern (1946) 13-24. Morgenstern changes 'a table before my enemies' to 'arms for my
defense against my enemies'.
17
Freedman (1976) 139-166; Milne (1974) 237-247.
18
Tappy ( 1995) 255, n 60 ... 'Ps 23 constitutes a fine royal psalm, tit for recital in a coronation day
festival. The leader publicly acknowledges the duties of kingship (vv 2-3); in them, he is to emulate the
treatment which he himself receives from YHWH (v 5); the covenant of kingship is confirmed in the
meal (v 6); the king becomes the adopted son of YHWH (v 7; cf. II Sam 7:14; Ps 2:7)'.
19
Cf. e.g. Anderson (2000) 180-184; Broyles (1999) 124-125; Freedman (1976) 159-165; Knight
(1904) 19-46; Milne (1974) 245-247; Paterson (1950) 108-115; Smith (1980) 5-23; Terrien (2003) 239.
2
Freedman (1976) 139-140.
146
linguistically to God's provision and protection in the wilderness sojourn and his
faithfulness to keep his covenant with Israel to bring Israel into a place/domain of
plenty, a land 'overflowing'. The psalmist links his personal and individual experience
with the central event in Israel's story, the exodus/wilderness/conquest. 21 God is both
personal as 'my shepherd' but also the God who is communally present with his
people when they must pass through a national and historic 'shadow of death' like the
exodus.
Some of the intertextuallinks between the exodus motif and the psalm will be
compared in the table on the next page and be discussed in the following section. 22
As we examine Psalm 23, a proposed outline in light of the assumption of the
extended metaphor taken in this thesis is? 3
I Prologue: YHWH the Shepherd-1

II The Shepherd as Herder-2-3a
III The Shepherd as Guide-3b-4
IV The Shepherd as Host-5
V Epilogue: With YHWH 'all of my days'-6
21
Craigie (1983) 207. The Exodus theme and Ps 23 is informed by Craigie, Freedman (1976) 139-166
and Milne (1974) 237-247.
22
The table is an adaptation of and expansion of Broyles (1999) 124-125.
23
This outline reflects the decision to understand the shepherd metaphor to be extended throughout the
psalm, including verses 5-6; and that the name YHWH fUnctions as an inc/usio providing introduction (v
1) and conclusion (v 6).
147
Ps 23:1 The LORD is my shepherd, Ps 80:1 Give ear, 0 Shepherd oflsrael,

you who lead Joseph like a flock! (cf. 8-11
for the exodus/wilderness/conquest motif)
Deut 2:7 ... These forty years the LORD
your God has been with you; you have
24
I shall lack nothing (,Q':'T ) lacked nothing (,Q':'T)
23:2 He makes me lie down in green Ex 15:13 ... you guided them by your
25
pastures (i11l); strength to your holy abode (i1n).
Num 10:33 ... with the ark ofthe covenant
he leads (',m 'to guide') me beside still ofthe LORD going before them ... , to
seek out a resting (i1':'11)~ i place for
6
(i1ni)~) waters;
T
them,
23:3 he restores my soul. He leads (i1nJ) Ex 15:13 In your steadfast love you led
me in right paths (i1mi 7 the people whom you redeemed;
you guided (',mi 8 them ....
for his name's sake. Ps 106:8 At the Red Sea YHWH 'saved
[Israel] for his name's sake'.
23:4 Even though I walk through the Jer 2:6 Where is the LORD who brought
darkest (nVt'?~) valley, us up from the land of Egypt, who led us
in the wilderness ... in a land of drought
and deep darkness (M1f?~~i
9
I fear no evil; for you are with (i~,P) me;
your rod and your staff-- they comfort Deut 2:7 ... These forty years the LORD
me. your God has been with (l~~)you;
23:5 You prepare a table (1':'T~W) before
me in the presence of my enemies; you Ps 78:19 They spoke against God, saying,
anoint my head with oil; my cup 'Can God spread a table (1':'1~~) in the
overflows. wilderness?'
23:6 Surely goodness and mercy shall
follow me all the days of my life, and I Ps 23:1, ,~, i11i1\ YHWHmy shepherd;
shall dwell in the house of the LORD the Divine name works as an inclusio.
(i11i1:-n,~:;~) my whole life long.
24
HALOT2139,on I. diminish, 2. do without, lack Deut 2:7; Ps 23:1.
25
HALOT5419it;~~ destination of (semi-)nomadic tribe> pasturage > camping place > place of
residence, home: 1. pasturage 2S 7:8, for camels Ez 25:5; 2. abode, residence: a) haunt (of animals) Is
34:13; b)= house Jb 5:3; c) Palestine is nliweh for Jacob/lsr. Jer 10:25, 50: 19; nweh slilom Is 32: 18; d)
Palestine is nliweh for Yahweh. 2S 15:15. In Jer 23:3 the Lord will gather scattered Israel back to the
'fold' iiH, 'dwelling place, habitation, abode'.
26
HALOT4738nr:mo: rest: I. spatial: a) resting-place Gn 49:15, me mm11_lii beside the water Ps 23:2,
sar mnul_la quarter-master Je 51 :51; b) place of quiet, tranquility Is 28: 12, home Ru 1:9; c) Canaan as
residence for lsr. 1K 8:56; d) God's abode Is 66: 1; bet mnfil_la for the ark 1C 28:2. 2. psychological:
quieting, calming 2S 14:17.
27
itnJ: 'leads' is also used in Ps 78:14,53, 72; along with the early poetry ofNum 23:7 and Deut. 32:12.
Used 18 times in the Pss, cf. esp. Ps 77:20, 'led your people like a flock, by the hand of Moses and
Aaron'.
28
HALOT5396"i!J: guide, help along, lead carefully; Ex 15: 13; Is 40: 11, 'gently lead the mother
sheep'.
29
HALOT7206n1f?'?: darkness; Ps 23:4 and Jer2:6; cf. Pss 44:20, 107:10, 14; Is 9:1; Jer 3:16.
148
I Introduction: YHWH the Shepherd-1
The name of YHWH works as an inclusio: after the initial, A Psalm of David.
The opening words of the psalm are YHWH is my shepherd c~.u'"l :"TV"!~, KUpLO<;
TIOLf.LULVEL f.LE). The divine name also occurs again in the final phrase ofthe final verse
verses will identify what the psalmist means when he refers to God as his shepherd.
Along with this focus on the divine name of God and who God is for the psalmist is
also the distinctive word 'my'. In the majority of texts referring to God the shepherd,
he is shepherd of his people (e.g. Ps 80:1, 'oflsrael'). 30 The tone of the psalm is very
personal throughout; first-person pronominal subjects appear in every line except 3c,
'for his name's sake'. Yet, this personal dimension never shifts the central focus away
from YHWH 's character as shepherd.
The attitude of the Psalmist from the beginning of the Psalm is one of
confident trust and assurance, 'I shall not want' (,on). This reflects the psalmist's
confidence in the character of God and may allude to particular historical
circumstances of provision and care. For example, the same verb is associated with
God's provision in the wilderness in Deuteronomy 2:7; 'these forty years the Lord
your God has been with you: you have lacked nothing' (,on, cf. also Psalm 78:52-53).
While this is a very personal reference, the confidence expressed is voiced in the
context oflsrael's historical relationship with YHWH So, the psalmist's experience is
not only a personal story but is also part of the history of Israel. YHWH has been
faithful in the larger context of his people; yet the psalmist identifies this faithfulness
30
As noted in the table above, God as shepherd in Psalm 80 is also associated with the
exodus/wilderness/conquest in verses 8-11.
149
to the group as faithfulness to himself as an individual. Here, I propose that verse 1 is
a heading or title for the whole psalm rather than an introduction to the first four
verses. With the use of both 'my' and 'I' the focus for the psalmist is 'present in tense
and personal in nature'. 31
II The Shepherd as Herder-2-3a
The divine herder understands the experience of the daily rhythm of the
shepherd and that understanding is reflected here in the imagery of the psalm. After
the sheep and goats have grazed through the morning and are now satisfied, they must
also have water and shade to protect them from the noon and afternoon heat. A water
supply needs to be relatively 'still' or placid, as sheep do not like a swift current or a
rushing brook, they will only drink from 'still' water.
Along with the focus on the role of the shepherd as provider and guide are the
possible allusions to the exodus/wilderness/conquest tradition: the guidance C"m)
given in 23:2 is also given in Exodus 15:13 and the 'placid/still waters'
(i!r;mf?/&v&rra.uat~) of 23:2 may also allude to a 'placid/resting-place' (i!r;mo/&vcbra.uat~)
in the wilderness, referred to in Numbers 10:33. God provides and guides in the life of
the psalmist as he did with the people of God in the wilderness.
III The Shepherd as Guide-3b-4
There is a connection between the 'right paths' (p:r~/otKa.Loauvn) in v. 3b and
the theme of righteousness. The shepherd knows the right choices to make. Despite
weather and seasonal change, beast or thief, or difficulty of any other kind the
shepherd guide knows how to lead the flock. The phrase 'for his name's sake' is a
31
Tappy ( 1995) 261. Cf. Miller ( 1986) 94, who notes, 'The lead verse often sets up the primary subject
matter as, e.g. , in Psalms I: I; 8: I; 23: I; 42: I; 46: I; ... '.
150
metonym for God's character; it is because of God's integrity that the psalmist claims
32
that God, his shepherd, is his sure guide.
The difficulty of the Palestinian terrain is the context for the next phrase in v 4.
The 'flock' (and individual members of it) have assurance in the midst of 'the valley
of death's shadows'(n1f;'l7~ K'J.f/E=v f.LEO~ OKLii<; Gav&-rou) because of their confidence in
the wise leadership of the shepherd. Kraus reminds us that 'in the interpretation of
these wanderings of the flock we must without question think of the long distances of
the transhumance ... ' 33 Similar language is used by Jeremiah to describe YHWH's
faithfulness in the wilderness experience during which God 'led us ... in a land of
drought and deep darkness' (n~t?S~). 34 In vs 4, the confession of trust is made and shifts
in vs 4b from the first person to the second person 'you' with a double address in v 4b.
Presence again emerges to the forefront, 'you are with me'. The tools of the
shepherd's trade (rod and staff) are metaphors of comfort and protection.
IV The Shepherd as Host-5
For most commentators, at this point in the psalm, the metaphor changes and a
shift made so that the remainder of the poem is taken literally such that it speaks of
literal 'tables', 'enemies', 'anointing oil', 'cups' and 'house of God'. YHWHbecomes
the host and provides for one who is pursued or tormented by enemies in the safety of
his temple in the setting of a sacrificial meal. For these interpreters God provides
refuge and a thanksgiving banquet, usually in a sanctuary or temple. Thus, verses 1-4
speak of YHWH as shepherd while verses 5-6 present YHWH as the host who offers
hospitality in safety from all enemies.
32
Terrien (2003) 240.
33
Kraus ( 1988) I :308.
HALOT7206 ~9':!~: darkness, gloom (deeper than 'W1M), an impenetrable gloom, pitch darkness: Ps
34
23:4, 44:20; 107: I 0, 14; Is 9: I; Jer 2:6, 3:16.

151
Yet, if the unifying theme is not the shepherd image alone, but the shepherd
image as understood in light of the exodus/wilderness/conquest tradition, then verses 5-6
can be explained in a more consistent and satisfactory manner. I propose that if the
exodus/ wilderness/conquest tradition is the larger unifying theme that depicts YHWH as
shepherd, then a shepherd-host motif can continue the metaphor throughout the psalm.
Thus, the images in w 5-6 continue the shepherd motif rather than shifting to a literal,
cultic setting.
To begin with one might ask, 'What does the shepherd host have to do with a host?
He is protector of the sheep as they wander in search of grazing land. Yet he is

also the protector of the traveler who finds hospitality in his tent from the dangers
and enemies of the desert .... In Psalm 23, Yahweh is portrayed as the Shepherd in
both aspects of the shepherd's life: as the Leader of the flock, and as the
hospitable Host. 35
In this sense, YHWH as shepherd then cares for his sheep as 'Leader of the flock'-
provider, healer, guide, protector but also as the 'hospitable shepherd host', inviting
his people into the security and sufficiency of his covenant love (19r;t). This is
especially true when the shepherd is being portrayed as a host in the wilderness.
If understanding vs 5 in this way, the 'table' imagery then can be related toPs
78: 19 where, in the context of wilderness rebellion where God is challenged and the
people speak against God saying, 'Can God spread a table in the wilderness?' The
verses that follow reveal that God did provide but the people still did not believe (78:32).
So, if the tradition behind Psalm 23 is the exodus/wilderness/conquest, the assertion in v
Sa is not as odd as it may first appear. There is the further possibility that the model
behind the shepherd host's 'table in the wilderness' is the 'shepherd's table', which
35
Anderson (2000) 181.
152
was an animal skin that would be thrown on the ground, becoming a 'table' (cf. Is
21:5)? 6
While it is not the majority position to understand the 'anointing' and the
'overflowing' cup as metaphorical, there is no historical or textual reason to
automatically assume that the imagery in the psalm has shifted from the metaphorical
to the literal interpretation. If table is taken to be metaphorical along with the imagery
of anointing, cup, and overflowing, used together they express the extravagance of
God's provision. The root terms for anointing (1Wi, fatness 37 ) and overflowing (it~~i,
saturation38) are not often found together39 but in Jeremiah 31:14 the two terms are
found together in relation to the shepherd image in Jer 31:10-14. Here, in an oracle of
restoration and redemption, YHWH guards Israel like a flock and protects them from
those who are stronger (vv 10-11). The goodness of the Lord provides for them in
abundance; turning morning into joy, bringing fatness (1Wi) and satisfaction (it~p) (vv
12-14). When Ps 23:5 is approached in this way, the shepherd metaphor can be
continued in light of the exodus/wilderness/conquest tradition.
The 'cup' when used metaphorically40 in the psalms may indicate allegiance
(16:5 'my chosen and portion') and blessing (116:13) or God's judgment (e.g. 11 :6;
17:14; 75:8). So here the cup represents the provision of God. Here, in v 5b, the
36
HALOT8639V;t'?!!l table I. secular use: perh. animal skin laid on the ground for a meal. Note also that
in Is 21:5 the context is amidst enemies and hostility.
37
TWOT(457b)l';1 (dashen) fat: Since fat animals were considered the healthiest and the fat was
regarded as the best part of sacrificial animals (cf. Ps 20:3( 4)), the metaphorical usage of 'fat' becomes
'prosperous' or 'rich'. Ps 23:5, the head 'anointed (made fat) with oil' describes the blessing of God.
38
TWOT(2130c)ii:1~ (rewayii) saturation: superabundance, overflowing.
39
Only Prov 11 :25; Is 34:7 and Jer 31:14.
40
When the shepherd image is attempted without the metaphorical dimension applied to the cup,
interpreters refer to the literal use of cup inn Samuel 12:1-4, where Nathan uses it in the parable of the
poor man whose beloved lal1lb drinks from his own cup. This approach H unnecessary in our
interpretation.
153
emphasis is not on the cup itself but its contents, which are 'full' or 'overflowing'. 41
God's presence as the shepherd host is contrasted with 'presence ofmy enemies'. The
extravagance of God's protection is expressed in the steadfast love (,t::>n.) that will
pursue the psalmist (v 6) rather than his enemies. This use of,t::ln. again calls to mind
Exodus 15:13, 'In steadfast love you led the people whom you redeemed; you guided
them by your strength to your holy abode' .42 God's intention is to guide them to a
place of safety and goodness set apart for his people.
V Epilogue: With YHWH 'all of my days'--()
'The house of YHWH' is typically taken literally as referring in some way to
sanctuary or Temple. In contrast to this typical approach, Milne and Freedman, along
with F. M. Cross argue that it can be understood as referring to Jerusalem and/or Judea
the holy land rather than the sanctuary or temple. 43 Thus, in Hosea 8: 1, the phrase is
used to refer to the land (Cf. Hos 9:15, Jer 12:7 and Zech 9:8 that use 'my house' to
refer to the land). To further explore 'house of the LORD' in Hosea, Hosea 9:3 reads:
9:3 i'11i'1~ f'ltt~ ,~~,. ~"

They shall not remain in the land of the LORD;
This is parallel to 9:4 which reads:
9:4 i'l,i'l, n,::~ K,~, l(';l

[they] shall ..not c~me to the house of the LORD. 44
41
The significance of cup is often in the contents rather than the cup itself: good, life sustaining,
satisfYing, encouraging fellowship or the opposite, drunkenness, sickness or even death.
42
Milne (1974) 244, 'Thus tov wa-chesed [,9r11 ::li~] may be attributes of Yahweh, particularly
symbolic of his activity of redeeming his people, used in Psalm 23:6 to recall the exodus event, and
linked by parallel structuring to other terms which are also used figuratively of Yahweh's activity of
liberating his people in the exodus experience'. Cf. Ps 62:11-12.
43
Milne (1974) 245. 'The poem in Exodus 15 does not use bet yhwh but it does close with a threefold
reference to the place ofYahweh: the mountain ofhis inheritance, his abode, and his sanctuary (v 17)'.
Citing Cross (1978) 247 she notes 'that in Exodus 15:17 the phrase designates the hill country of
Canaan as the special heritage of Yahweh'. Also, v 17 uses 'your abode, the sanctuary (lli';li'~) ... ' to
refer to the land.
44
Freedman (1975) 164. 'It has long been recognized that the expression byt yhwh in Hosea 8:1 and 9:4
does not refer to the temple in Jerusalem, .. :but rather to the whole land of Ephraim(= Israel, the
northern kingdom or what was left of it in Hosea's time), regarded as Yahweh's territory'.
154
In this approach, what is being affirmed by the psalmist is that he will dwell in the
domain of YHWH, God's holy land for the rest of his days. 45 The conclusion of the
poem focuses on the intent and desire of the psalmist to remain always in God's
presence.
Alternatively, Johnson approaches the phrase somewhat differently but his
appeal here is that 'house' means the 'household' of YHWH All who call upon and
put their trust in him belong to the 'household' of YHWH, the people of God. 46 It is
not the physical place, though that is not excluded, but it is heritage enjoyed whether
celebrated in the literal temple or celebrated in the whole of existence. So, Johnson
translates the final verse: 'Yea, I shall be pursued by unfailing kindness everyday of
my life, finding a home in the Household of Yahweh for many a long year'. 47
This interpretation of Psalm 23 shows that the shepherd metaphor is given a
context and informed by the exodus/wilderness/conquest tradition. Interpreting Ps 23
in light of this tradition allows the imagery of the shepherd to be extended throughout
the psalm. Thus, the shepherd metaphor is not abandoned for a literal interpretation of
sanctuary or Temple nor is the shepherd metaphor forced in verses vs 5-6. The
exodus/wilderness/conquest tradition simply provides a context in which the shepherd
psalm is a personal expression of the confidence placed in YHWH in light of Israel's
historical relationship with YHWH 48
45
Cf. Psalm 78:52-55, where e.g. the LXX has ayuioJ..Lato<; .trtou opoc;, for 'his holy hill' (itDli? i1r,i:t)
in 78:54 Cf. LEH54ayL.OJ..La,-awc;: Ex 15: 17; 25:8; 28:36; 29:6, 34: sanctuary Ex 15:17; holy object Ez
20:40. Kraus (1993) 129, 'In v. 54 the exodus tradition immediately changes to the Zion tradition. This
sudden transition, in which the settlement concentrates exclusively on Zion, is also to be established in
Exod. 15:17. The chosen mountain stands for the embodiment of the holy land; the land is "holy"
because Yahweh is enthroned in its midst, on Zion'.
46
Johnson (1983) 264. Unfortunately he does not deal with the imagery in verse 5, he discusses verse 4
and then jumps to verse 6.
47
Johnson (1983) 264271 for his arguments and numerous references.
48
Milne (1974) 244-245.
155
5.1.4 Israel as 'the sheep' of YHWH's pasture
It was as shepherd in the Moses/exodus tradition that YHWH 'led out his
49
people like sheep (1N~ ), and guided them in the wilderness like a flock (i'Jl,1 50)' (Ps
78:52). Also, in Micah 7:14 the people of God are called the 'the flock (1N~) that
belongs to you (inheritance)' and are associated with the miracles of the exodus (Mic
7:15). This understanding of the sheep/flock metaphor identifies Israel as belonging to
God. On the basis of this, the psalmist will appeal for the worship of YHWH and for
listening 'to his voice' (Ps 95 :6-7). Metaphorically, the motif of Israel as a flock was
used throughout the biblical tradition to describe Israel. Israel is described as a flock in
distress (Jer 3:17). Or, conversely, in a positive image, as a flock under YHWH's care
in Is 40:11. The covenant relationship between YHWH as shepherd and Israel as 'the
sheep of his pasture' is emphasized throughout the OT. In the Psalms, this covenant
relationship is described in Ps 74:1; 77:21(20); 78:52; 79:13; 80:1; 95:7; 100:3. 51
In Ps 95, the discussion of flock also includes a warning against the rebellious
and hardened heart. This warning is also couched in the Moses/exodus tradition 'as on
the day at Messiah in the wilderness,' the ancestors rebelled (Ps 95:8-11).
Traditionally, the depiction of YHWH as the shepherd has implied a
comparison between the people of God and sheep. It may well be an anachronism to
assume that in antiquity this comparison was meant to be derogatory (for example,
implying the stupidity of humans). The OT does not necessarily imply this. The
psalmist, for example, uses the metaphor to expresses confidence and trust in the God
who is his shepherd. It is from this image of YHWH as shepherd that Israel understands,
HALOT70491~~ (273 x): small cattle, i.e. sheep & goats. Cf. Zech 10:3
49
50
HALOT6109 i)l1 :flock, herd (belonging to an individual) (i.e. of sheep, goats, or cattle) Gen 29:2;
ha'eder of king= people Jer 13:20.
51
Laniak (2006) 109.
156
'It is he who made us, and we are his; we are his people, the sheep of his pasture' (Ps
100:3). YHWH created Israel (cf. Is 43:1, 21; 44:2; Deut. 32:6, 15) therefore the psalmist
understands that Israel is God's possession (Ex 19:5; Ps 78:55). The people are then
described as 'sheep of his pasture'. He is the 'livestock owner'. YHWH as shepherd is
Lord and leader of those who belong to him. The psalms celebrate this image as much or
more than any other part of the biblical tradition. 52
5.1.5 Summary
I have highlighted the connection between the shepherd/sheep metaphor and
the exodus/wilderness/conquest tradition to emphasize the way in which that tradition
shapes the understanding of the metaphor in the biblical tradition. The prophets will
extend the metaphor to include the future Shepherd-Messiah who will promise a
'second exodus'. They will also complement the Mosus/exodus tradition with the
royal Davidic Messiah who will gather the scattered flock of Israel.
While the texts referring directly to YHWH as shepherd are relatively few in
number, the image itself dominates the biblical tradition along with other shepherd
related metaphors for God. As noted above, the motif of God leading and providing are
often related to the metaphor. It becomes a primary way that Israel reflects on the
character of YHWH and also on its own identity as a people. The anachronistic tendency
to associate the image with demeaning or pejorative ideas, for example, sheep are stupid
or shepherds are dirty, is not found in the biblical tradition. The metaphor is appreciated
in both its corporate dimension and the personal, individual dimensions. Finally, YHWH
is the only ultimate shepherd oflsrael. All uses of the metaphor in regard to leaders or
rulers in Israel are shepherds only in relationship to the true shepherd of Israel, YHWH.
52
E.g. people as 'sheep' in Psalms 44:11, 22; 49:14; 74:1; 78:52, 70-71; 79:13; 95:7; 100:3; 119:176;
144:13. Cf. Sohn (1991) 84-88, 164-168.
157
5.2 The Under-Shepherds of His People
Next we will tum our discussion from YHWH, the Shepherd of Israel to the
individuals that provided leadership for the people of Israel. These leaders were to lead
the Israelites consistent with the character of God, thus they are considered the under-
shepherds of God's people.
5.2.1 The Patriarchs: The Shepherd Heritage
Throughout Genesis the patriarchs are shown to be engaged in various types of
occupational activity-both pastoral and non-pastoral. The biblical tradition describes
them as shepherds of small livestock, i.e. sheep and goats (1xl 53 ii~"1). It is as
pastoralists that the tradition casts them when they go down to Egypt in Genesis 46:32
and 47:3. As an occupation this became a natural way for them to speak about God.
Early in Genesis all the patriarchs are portrayed as shepherds. Abel in 4:2 is
called the first 'keeper of sheep' (1Xl iil1"1, TTOLIJ.~V TTpo~a-rwv) in the Bible. Abraham in
21:28 gives seven ewe lambs (ii~~:;l 54 , ETTta &1J.vaoac; 55 TTpo~chwv) to Abimelech, 'in
order that you may be a witness for me that I dug this well'. Here, Abraham is re-
establishing his water rights at Beersheba. Jacob is depicted as shepherd throughout
the Jacob-Laban cycle and Judah after him in 38.17.
The first time in the biblical tradition God is spoken of as shepherd is by Jacob
who uses the personal pronoun. The personal pronoun is the exception rather than the
normal plural: 'my shepherd (iilli, o -rpE<flwv IJ.E) all my life to this day'. This is also the
first metaphorical use in Genesis. It has been noted that a herding cycle similar to the
53
HALOT7049 1Xl (273 x): f.: small cattle, i.e. sheep & goats Gn 4:2; sheep only IS 25:2; males only
(thus m.) Gn 30:40; individual animals Ps 114:4; metaph. = lsr. 2S 24:17.
HALOT3689 i1~1!~: young ewe-lamb Gn 21 :28-30; Lv 14:40; Nu 6: 14; 2S 12:3f.
54
55
LEH atJ.Va<;,..<&o<; (ewe)lamb Gn 21 :28
158
Old Babylonian period and ofNuzi is reflected in the Jacob and Laban narrative. 56 The
time when the shepherd gave an accounting to the owner for the season's labors and
new contracts were established was at the annual shearing the sheep. This is possibly
reflected in Genesis 29:21-27 and again in Genesis 30:25-36. Jacob also emphasized
the hardship and challenges of the shepherding task 'by day the heat consumed me,
and the cold by night, and my sleep fled from my eyes'. 57 While herding was only one
part of the patriarchal economy 58 it is shown throughout Genesis that it certainly was a
key part. The shepherding occupation was a basic part of the patriarchal tradition and
when the patriarchs were described by their vocation, they were described as
shepherds (Gen 47:3).
5.2.2 Moses: The Shepherd Lawgiver59
Moses' life and legacy shape the biblical tradition. Early in the narrative he is
described as 'keeping the flock' (l~~-n~ il.)t"l; TIOLf..LOCLvwv -ra Tip6j3<X-roc) ofhis father-in-law
Jethro. The biblical tradition fundamentally presents Moses as a shepherd. In Israel's
history the biblical writers understand the exodus/wilderness/conquest tradition accounts
as revealing YHWH as the deliverer, defender, provider and guide of the people oflsrael
and Moses as God's under-shepherd.
In Numbers 27:17 Moses prays that God will not leave Israel shepherdless but
will provide a shepherd for them who will 'lead them in(c~~~;) ... and .. .lead them out'
(c~~:;;i,). Moses uses the shepherd metaphor as a primary image of leadership, as a
shepherd provides 'leadership' for a flock so the shepherd is to lead God's people:
56
Morrison (1983) 158-160; Matthews and Mims (1985) 185-195.
57
58
Matthews ( 1981) 215, emphasizes that by Genesis 19: I herding was only part of their economic
livelihood and through their contact with settled communities 'they thereby became an integrated part
of the total society, in_lu(,iing at least an outward acceptance of legal and social customs'.
59
Jeremias TDNT6:848-S73.
159
n~~ c;;t7T~ ,rp~6o 1l't~~ il1il~ M'1~6I

a shepherd without may not be so that like sheep LORD of the congregation
ouK EOtiXL ~ auvaywy~ Kup(ou woE!. Tip6Pata ot<; ouK Eanv 1TOLIJ.~V
There is also a charismatic aspect related to those chosen by YHWH for leadership in
Israel (Num 27:16-21; cf. Is 11:1-9; 44:28-45:1). Moses is commanded to take Joshua
'a man in whom is the spirit' (i:~ 11~,-,w~ d'l(, tov 'I11aouv ulov Nau11 &v8pw1Tov &; EXEL
1TVEUIJ.1X) and through the laying on of a hand is to commission him in the presence of
the priest and the people of Israel. This text concerning the need for leadership, that
the sheep be not shepherdless, will re-emerge a number of times in the biblical
tradition. Matthew will quote this text to describe the situation in his own day and the
need for true leadership in Israel (Mt 9:36). The context here in Numbers has Moses
praying to the Lord that he will provide the needed leadership. He prays that God will
choose and commission someone to succeed him and asks that the same authority be
given to the one who is to lead after he passes from the scene. In a similar fashion the
Matthean context has Jesus appealing for prayer (cSE~8T]tE aor. pass. imp. from cSEOIJ.IXL
ask, pray or beg) and passing on his leadership to those God has given him, the twelve.
Long after the role of shepherd has been passed on, the psalmist remembered
Moses, 'you led your people like a flock (11?~ 1N~:;l ~r:t~, wcS~yT]OIX<; W<; 1Tp6pata tOV
A.a6v aou) by the hand of Moses and Aaron'. Isaiah also recalled Moses as shepherd
deliverer and charismatic leader of Israel,
the days of old, of Moses his servant. Where is the one who brought them up
out of the sea with the shepherds of his flock? (1TOLIJ.EVIX twv 1Tpopatwv) Where
is the one who put within them his holy spirit (to 1TVEUIJ.IX to aywv), who
caused his glorious arm to march at the right hand of Moses ... (Is 63:11 ).
60
HALOTI874 ,W~. II d) giving consequence, so that.
61
HALOTI6075 ;i':l~ 14. congregation (oflsr) IK 8:5 & oft.
160
Moses, as shepherd, was the under-shepherd who was used by God to be the deliverer
oflsrael and the law-giver oflsrael. For Matthew, Jesus will also be depicted as the
shepherd deliverer (e.g. Mt 2:6 quoting Mic 5:2 and II Sam 5:2) and the authoritative
interpreter ofthe law oflsrael (e.g. Mt 5:18-20; 7:28-29).
We have looked at the Moses/exodus tradition and how it influenced the
shepherd/sheep metaphor. Another tradition that informs the shepherd/sheep motif is
the royal Davidic tradition, the righteous ruler, and ultimately of God's Messiah. We
now focus on the importance of David in regard to the shepherd image.
5.2.3 David: The Shepherd King62
David is remembered in many ways: shepherd,63 musician - the Psalmist of
Israel, 64 warrior,65 and King. 66 But the legacy ofDavid as a 'genuine shepherd' continued
to abide in the memory oflsrael. In a long recital oflsrael's story (Psalm 78), the people
of God are reminded to learn from their past, not repeat the same mistakes and bring to
remembrance the great promises given to David in Psalm 78:70-72:
He chose his servant David and took him from the sheepfolds; from tending the
nursing ewes he brought him to be the shepherd of his people Jacob, oflsrael his
inheritance. With upright heart he tended them and guided them with skillful
hands.
This 'upright heart' is basic to the memory of David. We learn more about David, the
under-shepherd of YHWH in portions of I Samuel:
But David said to Saul, "Your servant has been keeping his father's sheep. When
a lion or a bear came and carried off a sheep from the flock, I went after it,
struck it and rescued the sheep from its mouth. When it turned on me, I seized it
by its hair, struck it and killed it. Your servant has killed both the lion and the
62
E.g. I Sam 16:11-13; 17:34-37; II Sam 5:1-2; 7:7; 24:17; Ps. 78:70-72.
63
I Sam 16:1-13, 17:34-37.
64
I Sam 16:14-23; 19:9. I Chr 16:4,37.
65
I Sam 18:13-16,30.
66
In II Sam 5:2 comes in anticipation oftheword ofthe Lord through the prophet Nathan to David that
he would 'shepherd my people Israel', 7:4ff(vv 7, 9).
161
bear; this uncircumcised Philistine will be like one of them, because he has defied
the armies ofthe living God". (I Sam. 17:20-24, 26, 32-40, 45)
There are two points in the narrative that feature David the shepherd. First, he does not
leave the flock without providing for its proper care, 'David left the flock with a
shepherd' (v 20). Second, as a faithful shepherd he protects the sheep from the dangers
and enemies ofthe flock, 'Your servant has been keeping his father's sheep. When a lion
or bear came and carried off a sheep from the flock, I went after it, struck it and rescued
the sheep from its mouth' (v 35).
This kind of memory was nurtured among the people of God primarily because
of the promise given to David by Nathan, the prophet, in II Sam. 7:5-17.
Now then, tell my servant David, "This is what the LORD Almighty says: I took
you from the pasture and from following the flock to be ruler over my people
Israel. I have been with you wherever you have gone, and I have cut off all your
enemies from before you. Now I will make your name great, like the names of
the greatest men of the earth."
In II Samuel, this is repeated 'You will shepherd my people Israel, and you will become
their ruler' (5:2) and 'I took you from the pasture and from following the flock to be ruler
over my people Israel' (7:8).
In Matthew's Gospel, II Sam 5:2b and Micah 5:2 will be referenced in the
compound quotation of Matthew 2:6 in the story of the magi. Jesus as the Son of David,
the Messiah according to his Davidic linage will also be the true shepherd of Israel. As
the Davidic shepherd of Israel he will demonstrate his royal status with integrity and
righteousness as a shepherd after God's own heart. II Sam 5:2 is the nearest verbal
reference in the biblical tradition that gives the title of shepherd to a human leader of
Israel. This title, as noted, is reserved for YHWH:

162
au TIOLIJ.O:VEL<; tOV A.aov IJ.OU tOV IapO:l)A KO:l au EaEL Etc; ~YOUIJ.EVOV ETIL tOV Iapal)A
David was remembered, in spite of his shortcomings, as doing 'what was right in
the eyes of the Lord, and had not failed to keep any of the Lord's commands all the days
ofhis life--except in the case of Uriah the Hittite' (I Kgs. 15:5). This is consistent with
David's epitaph as a 'man after God's own heart' .68
Related to this royal Davidic tradition is Psalm 72. 69 Psalm 72 is alluded to by
Matthew in the story of the magi and will have a number of intertextual possibilities
when Matthew 2: 1-11 is examined in chapter 7. The royal psalms70 honor the king but
always in the context of YHWH as the ultimate king oflsrael. Just as YHWH is the
ultimate shepherd so also YHWH has ultimate kingship. 71 An important theme in Psalm
72, which is also emphasized by the prophets (cf. e.g. Ez 34:16), 72 are the qualities of
righteousness ~.,il, vv 1-3, 7) and justice c~~ip~, vv 1-2). The royal tradition will
emphasize that the Messiah will restore justice and righteousness. These characteristics
are celebrated as qualities that will characterize the Shepherd Messiah whom God will
send. 73
67
HALOT5357 ,.)r chief, leader, sovereign, prince. Cf. GlUck (1963) 144-150, who argues that 'the
words nagid ,.)~ and noqed,p~ are etymologically related and that nagid means "shepherd". However,
through a natural transfiguration, "shepherd" became first, an attribute of the title of the ruler and later,
synonym for the title itself.... we can claim that ngd and nqd are variants of one expression ... The
primary root meant shepherd or shepherding in the broader sense, i.e. it embraces all the functions of
his work. Gradually, as the language developed, the different aspects of the shepherd's work lent
secondary meanings ... Oversee, guide, go in front, feed, mark (from marking the sheep) etc.' 144-145.
68
Cf. I Sam 13:14. In Jer 3: 15 David is not explicitly mentioned but 'shepherds after my own heart, who
will lead you with knowledge and understanding'. Cf. N.T. Acts 13:22, 'After removing Saul, he made
David their king. He testified concerning him: 'I have found David son of Jesse a man after my own heart;
he will do everything I want him to do'.
69
Broyles (1999) 23-40; Kraus (1993) 2:74-81; Laniak (2006) 108-110.
70
E.g.Ps2; 18;20;21;45;72; 101; 110; 144.
71
Laniak (2006) 109.
n E.g; Ez 34:16, 'I [YHWH] will'feed them with justice (~~t.;l~)'.
73
Cf. Jer 23:5-6; Ez 34:23-24; 37:24-26.
163
These Davidic traditions along with the Moses/exodus tradition will be expanded
in the prophets. Thus, we will now turn out attention to the prophetic tradition's use of
the shepherd/sheep metaphor.
5.2.4 The Shepherd-Messiah and the False Shepherds of Israel
The most developed use of the shepherd/sheep metaphor occurs in later
prophets: the pre-exilic prophet Jeremiah, the exilic prophet Ezekiel and the post-
exilic prophet Zechariah. They represent both some of the most exalted images of the
shepherd and in contrast illustrate the darkest side of the anti-shepherds oflsrael's
tradition. The crisis in leadership created by the destruction of Jerusalem in 587/6
B.C.E. and its aftermath was the context from which the prophetic tradition
concerning the evil shepherd emerged. It is in this period when the shepherd metaphor
also becomes a negative image describing unfaithful and abusive leadership in Israel.
Jeremiah's prophecies influence and inform Ezekiel, then Jeremiah and Ezekiel
influence Zechariah who in turn, along with them, influence the tradition of early
Judaism during the Second Temple period. Before looking at these later prophets we
want to briefly look at the shepherd metaphor in Micah with especial attention to the
Shepherd text in 5: 1-4.
5.2.4.1 Micah
The eighth century prophet Micah develops the shepherd/sheep metaphor in two
principal references: Micah 5: 1-4 and Micah 7: 14. 74 Micah 7: 14-17 is a prayer to YHWH
asking for him to provide and protect for 'the flock that belongs to you'. The petitionary
prayer begins by focusing on the need for pasture and a place to feed (v 14) and then
turns to request protection against the nations (v 16). The shepherd metaphor is
74
Mays (1976) 21-33 on dating and formation ofthe book.
164
associated with the Moses/exodus tradition when he prays, 'As in the days when you
came out of the land of Egypt show us marvelous things' (v 15). The appeal is a
characteristic appeal to YHWH, as shepherd.
In the royal Davidic tradition, Micah 5:1-4 refers to the eschatological
shepherd/ruler who will come. The oracle moves from distress (v 1) to the hope that a
ruler will coll)e with authority to rule 'whose origin is from of old' (v 2). In his coming,
the ruler will provide both strength and provision (v 4). His power will allow the people
to 'live secure, for now he shall be great to the ends of the earth (v 4b); and 'he shall be
the one of peace' (v 5).
In the larger context, this oracle changes the focuses onto this royal figure.
Earlier, the focus has been upon the people and Zion (4:8f). There is now a shift from
place to a person. The royal Davidic tradition expressed here is similar to what we saw
above with David as the prototypical royal leader and the royal psalms with their
description of his qualities of rule. Fulfillment of the prescribed qualities of rule or failure
of the king's rule directly affects the people's existence. Confidence in the shepherd-ruler
indicates confidence in the reign of YHWH the shepherd of Israel. The crises of the
situation, illustrated in the lament of v 1, calls for a new day and a new ruler.
In these two examples, the Moses/exodus and the royal Davidic traditions
continue to influence the shepherd/sheep metaphor. A portion of Micah 5:2, 'But you,
0 Bethlehem ofEphrathah, who are one of the little clans of Judah, from you shall
come forth for me one who is to rule in Israel,' will be quoted by Matthew in 2:6. The
royal Davidic background of this oracle will be assumed by Matthew in order to
further substantiate Jesus' royal linage.

165
As we consider the later prophets, Jeremiah, Ezekiel and Zechariah, these two
traditions continue. But the prophetic tradition also illustrates a further dimension to
the shepherd/sheep metaphor: the unfaithful or evil shepherd. To that image, we will
tum.
5.2.4.2 Jeremiah
Jeremiah uses the shepherd/sheep metaphor throughout his prophetic work. It
is with Jeremiah that the motif has not only a positive use but also is used as a
negative expression. YHWH remains the true shepherd and under-shepherds with his
character (after my own heart, Jer 3: 15) will be raised up. They will replace the evil
shepherds that have led the people astray and have not tended to the peoples needs
(e.g. 2:8; 10:21; 23: 1-2a; 25 :34-36). There are two longer prophetic words (23: 1-8;
25:34-38) along with a number of other references that utilize this image. In Jeremiah
25:34-38, the prophet holds out no hope for the evil shepherds, 'for the days of your
slaughter have come'. Sheep who have been led away to the slaughter (cf. Is 53:7) are
no longer considered the victims. Instead, judgment has come upon the abusive anti-
shepherds. 75 Also in Jeremiah 23:1-6, the evil shepherds are judged (23: 1-2b). But in
contrast, YHWH 'will attend' to the evil shepherds (23 :23) but will then 'gather ... bring
them back ... and will raise up shepherds (plural) over them who will shepherd them ... '
(23:4). However, the promise ofhelp and restoration does not stop there. The promise
includes a Davidic Messiah. The Lord promises, 'I will raise up for David a righteous
Branch, he shall reign ... deal wisely ... execute justice and righteousness ... in his
days ... will be saved ... will live in safety'. The Messiah will be called 'The Lord is our
righteousness' (23:5-7).
75
Cf. Is 15:1,3.
166
The character of this individual becomes by the time of Matthew the messiah
who is characterized by a royal righteousness. The Messiah will be from the Davidic
lineage, a king who will wisely and justly dispense righteousness in order that peace and
safety will result. This is the kind of royal righteous status that Matthew claims for Jesus
according to the shepherd metaphor. For example, in Matthew 2:6, the newborn king of
the Jews is presented as coming from the royal lineage of David and it is anticipated that
he will rule in righteousness. In Matthew 9:36, Jesus observes the crowds with
compassion and says they are 'like sheep without a shepherd' or those without righteous
leadership ('harrased and helpless'). In 9:36, compassion and justice will come together
to characterize the shepherd. It will be argued that Jeremiah 3:15 and 23:4 (shepherds,
plural, after the YHWH's heart will be raised up) are being alluded to in Matthew 9:36-
10:1ff, where Jesus begins to 'raise up or give shepherds' to take the same message and
76
ministry of the kingdom to the 'lost sheep of the house of Israel' (Mt 10:6).
Jeremiah uses the image to include religious and political leaders of differing
kinds, exercising different levels of religious and secular influence and authority. By
Jeremiah's time the shepherd image was a well-established metaphor for leadership
and could describe different kinds of leaders. The normal use of the metaphor was
applied to secular rulers/leaders, as is illustrated in Jer 2:8. Even the commanders of
an enemy from the north are described as shepherds (cf. 6:3; 12:10; cf. 13:20). In
Israel this secular/religious distinction should not be strictly dichotomized because the
kings/rulers/leaders were expected to rule as YHWH would rule; the rule of the under-
shepherds was to reflect the rule of the shepherd of Israel, YHWH.
76
So, the message of Jesus in Mt 4: 17b and the message of the disciples in Mt I 0:7b are to be the same.
Also, the ministry of Jesus as described in 4:23 and 9:35, and illustrated in chapters 57 (words) and
chapters 8-9 (works) becomes the same ministry commission of Jesus to the disciples in 10:1 and 10:8.
167
In Jeremiah 2:5-8 three or four groups ofleaders are described. The pericope
begins with a rhetorical question that asks 'what wrong did your ancestors find in me
[God] ... ?' allowing the prophet to assert the fault of the people and maintain the
blamelessness of God. The exodus/wilderness/conquest motif is introduced in vv 6-7
to emphasize the loss of spiritual memory (Deut 8:2, 11-20) and to stress the fact that
the question they should have been asking, 'Where is the Lord?' (vv 6, 8) was no
longer being considered by people, priest, shepherd (ruler) or prophet. While the
people are at fault, Jeremiah 2:8 highlights the fact that the leaders of the people,
religious and secular, were ultimately responsible for the current situation.
2:8: The priests (V-:t:;,, lEpEuc;) did not say, "Where is the LORD?"
Those who handle the law (priests or another group, scribes?) did not know
me;
the rulers (i1l1,, TIOLf!~v) transgressed against me;
the prophets (K,~;, Tipoljl~'tTJc;) prophesied by Baal,
and went after things that do not profit. 77
The question is how many groups are being described in 2:8; three or four?
Also, does the final colon refer back to the groups described or to the people
generally? Linguistically it may be argued that since the verb follows each of the four
subjects, the verse points to four groups. The final phrase in v 8 refers back to the
three/four preceding groups and not to the people. 78 Jeremiah does seem to make a
distinction between the priests who, 'are the cultic mediators between Yahweh and the
community,' 79 and a scribal group (among the Levites?) whose function it is to
interpret the law in 8:8. 80 Jeremiah will condemn this group when he speaks of'the
77
Cf. Holladay 1:88 on the structure of the verse who proposes five cola as opposed to six.
78
So Holladay I :88. He discusses five possible interpretations for the relation of the different groups
and the people. He argues for four groups and that the final colon refers back to the four groups rather
than to the people.
79
Holladay I :88.
8
Craigie (1991)28-29 refers to them as the 'scholars' along with the priest, pastors and prophets when
discussing 2:8; he later says they 'were probably Levites, some of whom were entrusted with the
168
81
false pen of the scribes (1DO, ypa.jljliXtEU;)'. The 'shepherds' or 'rulers' in this text
were not primarily religious, as the other groups, but were the national leaders who
were responsible for the people's security and welfare.
Jeremiah uses the shepherd motif to speak of those evil leaders who have
rebelled and/or neglected to tum and trust in the Lord (2:8, (cf. v 26); 10:21; 23:1-3;
25:34-38; 50:6); in contrast were the good 'shepherds', again in the plural, who are the
new shepherds that YHWH will raise up in order to give leadership to God's flock (Jer
3:15 (two times); 23:4 (two times); 43:12). This positive image ofthe shepherd is
developed further in 23:5-6 using the David typology to point to a future single
individual who will rule as a just and righteous shepherd king. Under this righteous
shepherd king the people of God will live in secure pasture. This image is extended
again in 33:12-17; vv 15-16 are dependent on 23:5-6. 82 The metaphor points to the
function of God's shepherd. He will gather the people who have been scattered (Jer
31 :10) and will then extend his work through these 'shepherds after my own heart'
(Jer 3:15, 23:4). Through these shepherds, YHWHwill provide and care for the people
throughout the land, the place ofthe Lord's pasture (Jer 31:10-14, 33:12-16).
In addition to the shepherd texts mentioned above, there are others that could
be discussed. 83 However, for the purpose of this thesis, I will focus on three remaining
passages that are of particular interest: Jeremiah 3:15,23:1-6 and 50:6.
business of religious education'.

81
Holladay I :89.
82
Holladay 2:228-229, notes that while 33:14-26 is not found in the LXX, he argues on the basis of
content and Hebrew style that the passage should be assigned to the postexilic period.
83
For example, in 17: 16a Jeremiah may refer to himself as a shepherd, but the text is difficult and
awkward to translate:
But I have not run away from being a shepherd in your service
E.yw ol.= ouK EKon(ocooc Koc-rocKoA.ouewv on(o<tl oou
i'i.t)~ :-r~'"l~ n~~-~" 'J~1
Yet, the meaning is understandable if Jeremiah is saying he has not 'tun away' from God's call, even
though he feels it has been difficult. Jer 17:14-18 is a confession of Jeremiah and has his characteristic
169
The importance of Jeremiah 3:15 and 50:6 for this study has to do with the
promise that YHWH will raise up 'shepherds' (3: 15, plural) to replace the evil
shepherds who have 'led astray' the people (50:6). It will be argued in Chapter 7 that
these two verses are alluded to in regard to Matthew 9:36. The promise in Jeremiah
3: 15 is that YHWH will raise up new shepherds who will replace the evil shepherds
(50:6), those who have not tended to and have even led astray God's people. The
context of Matthew 9:36 is Jesus 'raising up' and sending out his disciples to the 'lost
sheep ofthe house oflsrael' (Mt 10:6) in response to the crowds who are 'harassed
and helpless' because of the current Jewish leadership.
Jeremiah 23:1-6 is important in the development ofthe shepherd/sheep
metaphor in the exilic and post-exilic prophets. It will be argued below that Ezekiel 34
is shaped by this passage. The chiastic structure of the first oracle, verses 1-4,
emphasize YHWH's judgment on the evil shepherds and his deliverance of the
people/flock. 84 The evil shepherds have not 'tended to' (qal stem, ,pEl) the people but
now God will 'tend to' them (qal stem, ,pEl) in judgment and then will raise up
shepherds who will 'tend to' (niphal stem, ,pEl) the flock of God.
A You (shepherds) scattered my flock (vI)

B and thrust out them, and did not attend to them (v 2a)
C I (YHWH) will attend to you (v 2b)
B' I myself will gather, bring back my flock to their fold (v 3)
A' I will raise up shepherds who will tend to/shepherd the flock (v 4)
The triple use of the verb 'tend' (,pEl) in vs 2 (2 times) and vs 4 show what the
shepherds have done and what YHWH will do. To 'tend' (ipEl) is the verb that holds
the oracle together. The verb has a wide usage, but in I Sam 11 :8 it means to 'number'
therefore implying here that YHWH's way of 'tending' the sheep is 'to look after them
p,hrases of personal lament. For a full discussion and alternative readings cf. Holladay 1:505-506.
4
Cragie (1991) 325.
170
one by one, and this the kings have not done with their people'. 85 The last occurrence
implies that under the new shepherd's attention the flock will not be missing or
lacking (niphal stem, ip::l).
The 'fold' metaphor (i1~{' lit. 'grazing place') can be, on the one hand, used in a
judgment oracle-for example, the evil or foreign shepherds come and destroy Judah
(Jer 6:2). On the other hand, this usage describes how the sheep will be restored to
their pasture. The final two words ofvs 3, 'be fruitful and multiply' (,::lll ,,~,),refer
back to both creation (Gen 1:22, 28; ,N7~, ,::l"'],) and to the exodus (Ex 1:7, N~~nj ikf?
ikf?~). So, with this language Jeremiah is proleptically appealing for a new creation
and a new exodus when YHWH will initiate a new beginning and raise up new
leadership to shepherd his people.
The peri cope begins in judgment but ends in salvation and restoration. Under
the new shepherds there will no longer be any fear (N,,, cf. Ps 23:24 ). In the presence
of YHWHthere is no fear. 86
The second oracle is different than the first in that it emphasizes the royal
figure rather than the deliverance of the people/flock. Jeremiah may have been
inspired by Isaiah 11: 1-9; there are a number of similar themes. The connections are
noteworthy in light of the way the royal messianic theme is developed. 87 In both
passages: 1) David is the source of this promised righteous and royal individual (Is
11:1;Jer23:5);
85
Holladay 1:614.
86
Craigie (1991) 327.
87
The following connections between this passage and Is 11:1-9 are developed from Craigie ( 1991)
329.
171
2) His royal reign will be characterized by a special awareness of God (Is 11 :2; Jer
23:5); 3) The wise and righteous rule of this royal individual will be a just rule (Is
11 :2-5; Jer 23:5); 4) There is deliverance of the people and the promise of the
return/restoration of the people (Is 11 :6-9; Jer 23 :6); 5) A descriptive 'naming' is
introduced by the prophets (Is 9:6; Jer 23:6) and 6)The royal-righteousness ofthis
promised deliverer is a shared theme between both prophets.
This passage, 23:5-6, also has a chiastic structure:
A God will raise up a legitimate/righteous ruler (v Sa-c)

B This king will reign with success/prosperity and righteousness (v 5d)
C He will bring justice and righteousness (v 5e-f)
B' Judah/lsrael will be delivered and safe (v 6a-b)
A' God will call him' YHWH our righteousness' (v 6c-d) 88
Similar to the previous oracle, there is a triple reference with reference to
righteousness (pi~). Referred to three times (23:5a, 23:5b, and 23:6b) righteousness is
the theme that holds this oracle together. The use of pi~ in this passage may be used
by Jeremiah to indicate different dimensions of this one whom God will raise up from
David's line. The implication of a double meaning, a 'rightful and/or righteous
branch/sprout' would be typical of Jeremiah. 89 He will be the rightful descendent of
David and the righteous ruler on behalf of YHWH This emphasis continues the theme
that this future Davidic Messiah will rule with justice and righteousness. Many
consider the 'righteous branch' (P"'1~ n~:::c) to be a technical term referring to the
rightful heir of an established dynastic line-in Israel, a future Davidic king who
would restore the monarchy with a future individual who will bring hope to the
88
Craigie (1991) 329.
89
So Craigie (1991) 330; Holladay 1:617-618; Laniak (2006) 137-138.
172
circumstances of Jeremiah. 90 Specifically, relating to this study, for Matthew Jesus
will fulfill this quality of rightness and righteousness.
In sum, Jeremiah in his prophecies brings together the two traditions of
exodus/wilderness/conquest and the royal Davidic Messiah as they relate to the
shepherd/sheep metaphor. What Jeremiah has also contributed to the tradition is the
reality of the evil shepherds who by their behavior abuse and scatter the flock of God's
people. The added dimension of the problem of evil shepherds is overcome by
Jeremiah in the promises of God. YHWHwill raise up good shepherds 'after his own
heart' (3:15, 23:4) but he will himself shepherd his people again through a promised
Shepherd-Messiah. The Shepherd-Messiah will deliver (23:5-6, lHzi\ to save or
deliver) 91 and 'will be called: "The Lord is our righteousness."'. The influence of
Jeremiah was considerable. 92 The emergence of the evil shepherd metaphor would
influence many who follow Jeremiah. Not least the prophet of the exile Ezekiel. It is to
Ezekiel 34 that we now tum our attention.
5.2.4.3 Ezekiel
Ezekiel uses the exodus/wilderness/conquest motif to explore the meaning of the
exile but will also include the ultimate expression of hope in the Davidic Messiah (e.g.
Ez 34: 23-24). Promises for the future only emerge after the judgment of the present and
the present judgment is directed at Judah's rulers in Ezekiel34. 93 The hinge in the
structure of Ezekiel's book is chapter 33, which includes both a recapitulation of his
message and anticipation of his prophecies to be given in 34-48. Ezekiel 34 introduces
these prophecies which are characterized by hope in the midst of the exile because in a
90
Bright (1965) 143; Craigie (1991) 331; Holladay 1:618; Laniak (2006) 137-138.
91
LXX; owe~oE'tOCl, fut. ind. pass.
92
Cf. Holladay 2:70-98 1 on the impact of Jeremiah on his own and later generations.
93
Laniak (2006) 145-146, 150.
173
new time there will be new leadership. The evil shepherds and their behavior will be
judged by YHWH and he himself will shepherd his people (34:11-16) and will 'set up
over them one shepherd, my servant David' (34:23-24).
It is generally acknowledged that Ezekiel utilizes and often expands the images
and themes of former prophets. 94 Ezekiel reveals that Jeremiah has influenced Ezekiel in
at least twenty-five or more ways. 95 In Ezekiel34, the prophet appropriates for his own
purposes the inspiration of Jeremiah 23 and extends the metaphor of the shepherd/sheep.
Again there is a common consensus that this is Ezekiel's practice. Regarding the question
as to whether Jeremiah 23 has influenced Ezekiel 34, the consensus is that the one text
has influenced the other. The real question and debate has to do with the extent to which
Ezekiel is directly dependent upon Jeremiah. It is generally agreed that Jeremiah 23
intertextually shapes Ezekiel 34. Both prophets utilize and develop the tradition of
both the royal Davidic tradition and the exodus/wilderness/conquest tradition. My
approach to the relationship between the two texts has been influenced by the work of
the scholars listed below, especially J. Lust and W. Zimmerli. 96
Ezekiel34 may be divided into four pericopes with parallels to Jeremiah 23.
The denunciation ofthe evil shepherds in Jeremiah 23:1-2 parallels the expanded
indictment of the corrupt shepherds in Ezekiel 34:1-10. In response, God will
shepherd his people as described in Jeremiah 23:3 and extended in Ezekiel34:11-
15(16). Ezekiel 34:16(17)-24 may be paralleled by Jeremiah 23:4-5 where ultimately
94
Cf. Zimmerli 1:42-46 for the influence of the prophetic tradition; for Deut and Lev 46-52. The
metallurgical imagery of Ez 22:17-22 may well have been inspired by Is 1:22, 25, while the sexual
allegory of23:2-27 may well be a further development of Jer 3:6-ll.
95
Holladay 2:81-84, without trying to be comprehensive identifies twenty-five references to Jeremiah
alone in Ezekiel. Jer 23:1-2(3-8) may well be the source of the shepherd metaphor in Ezekiel34 who
would often embellish and develop according to his own purposes. Whether he uses the whole of the
peri cope in Jer 23 or only parts of it he continues his practice of developing themes that he has received
in the biblical tradition.
96
Cf. Allan ( 1990) 154-165; Holladay I :81-84; Lust ( 1981) 119-142; Zimmerli 2:214.
174
God will provide the people one shepherd, 'my servant David' who 'shall be prince
among them'. Finally, Jeremiah 23:7-8 may be associated with Ezekiel34:26-31
where there are no direct verbal linkages but where the exodus/wilderness/conquest
tradition may be discerned. 97 The point of the possible intertextuality between the two
passages points out connections to the shepherd/sheep metaphor. Jeremiah influences
Ezekiel and Ezekiel will influence others. Thus, through the prophetic tradition of
Jeremiah and Ezekiel, in spite of the evil shepherds, God promises to do a new thing
by rising up good shepherds and by sending a Shepherd-Messiah to care for his
people. This biblical tradition was utilized by Matthew who considers the
shepherd/sheep metaphor to inform and substantiate his understanding of Jesus. So,
along with Jeremiah, Matthew 9:36 will allude to Ezekiel34:4-8 (Cf. Mt 15:24).
Matthew 25:32 draws upon Ezekiel 34:17, 20-24. Matthew 26:31-32, while quoting
Zechariah 13:7, is intertextually related to Ezekiel34:11-13.
Ezekiel 34 is one of the most extended, if not the most extended, use of the
shepherd/sheep metaphor. The description of the failure of the bad shepherds is
detailed by noting what they have selfishly taken (milk, wool, and meat) and then
what they should have given as faithful shepherds of the flock. The prophet goes
beyond the normal images of protection and provision by indicating a number of ways
they have neglected the sheep: 1) they have not fed the flock, 2) they have not
strengthened the weak 3) nor have they tended to the hurt, 4) they have not sought the
strays 5) nor have they tried to find the lost. Amidst this neglect, 6) they have treated
97
Lust (1981) 139-142.
175
the sheep with 'force' (i1i?~r:' 98 ) and 'harshness' (11El

99
) (v 4). These actions result in the
flock being scattered and vulnerable to becoming food for wild animals with none to
care or protect them (34:2-6).
In response to this situation YHWH will personally intervene (34: 10-16). In
Ezekiel 34:15-16, YHWH will do for the sheep all the things that the evil shepherds
have neglected: feed, provide good pasture, seek the lost, bring back the stray, bind up
the injured, and strengthen the weak. This promise of hope is introduced because
YHWH will shepherd his people. Many of the metaphorical themes and images in these
verses are similar to and consistent with those of Psalm 23. Along with the pastoral
images is God's promise that by his presence he will rescue them from 'a day of... deep
darkness' (vs. 12). YHWH as Shepherd is present here even as his presence is promised
in Ps. 23: 4.
In the remainder of the chapter, the focus shifts away from the shepherds/leaders
to the sheep/people (34: 17-22). In 34:23-24, the focus shifts away from YHWH as
Shepherd to the Messiah who will be 'placed over' the sheep as the good shepherd who
'will tend' God's flock 'in safety'. The task of shepherding the people is committed to
'one shepherd, my servant David'. In Ezekiel34:23-24 and the parallel passage in.37:24-
25, the prophet brings together a number of images to highlight this individual: 1) king
(l',~); 2) shepherd (i1l11); 3) servant (i::ll1) and 4) prince (~,ip~). Prince (~,tp~) is a
preferred way Ezekiel likes to speak ofleaders, 100 but it also harkens back to the
98
HALOT2785:-Ti?t':f: strength, by force. The tenn is used in the I Sam 2:16 concerning the actions of
Eli's two sons whose sin 'was very great in the sight of the Lord, for they treated the offerings of the
Lord with contempt'. 2:17.
99
Used in Ex 1:13 of how ruthless the Egyptians treated the children of Israel.
100
HALOT 37 times.
176
wilderness and to Numbers where pre-monarchical leaders are described. 101 The chapter
concludes with the attending blessings of 'a covenant of peace' (34:25-31 ). The
background to this covenantofpeace 102 is Leviticus 26:5-6. The passage echoes the
blessings ofthe Sinai covenant which will be provided by YHWH Finally, vs 31
concludes 'You are my sheep, the sheep of my pasture, and I am your God which is an
allusion to Jeremiah 23:1 (,n,~l~ ltotl) 'the sheep that I tend/the sheep ofmy pasture'.
Through this extension of the shepherd/sheep metaphor in Ezekiel 34, the
function of the shepherd is more fully detailed both by describing the negligence of
the evil shepherds and by describing the ways God will shepherd his people. The focus
for Ezekiel is less on new shepherds being raised up, as in Jeremiah. Rather, the focus
for Ezekiel is on how YHWH will shepherd and on his promise to shepherd through
the eschatological David. The visions of both Jeremiah and of Ezekiel will set the
stage for prophecies of Zechariah. Like his predecessors, Zechariah will also focus on
leadership. In Zechariah 9-14 the shepherd/sheep metaphor is a primary way he
communicates his prophecy. To those chapters we now tum.
5.2.4.4 Zechariah 103
Zechariah 9: 1 and 12: 1 both introduce the two oracles that make up chapters 9-
14. The shepherd/sheep metaphor occurs throughout these six chapters. Israel is referred
to as 'the flock ofhis people' in 9:16. Additionally, the shepherd/sheep metaphor occurs
in Zechariah 10:2-3 and 13:7 but the major concentration of shepherd texts are in chapter
11. In chapter 11, the metaphor is developed or extended in yet another way where the
prophet is told by God to 'Be a shepherd ofthe flock doomed to slaughter' (11:4). He is
101
HALOT 62 times. Laniak (2006) 159-160.
102
Found only in Num 25:12; Is 54:10; Ez 37:26 and here.
103
Myers & Myers (1993) 42; 195; 290; 385 note Zechariah is intertextualy related to, among other
texts, I Kgs 22: 17; Jer 23:1-4; 25:34-38; Ez 34: 1-23; 37:25-27; pace Holladay 2:89 who does not see
any influence of Jeremiah on Zechariah 9-14.
177
to be a good shepherd in contrast to the existing shepherds who exploit the people. The
prophet obeys by tending the sheep with his two staffs, Favor and Unity (11 :7). He
removes the three evil shepherds but the sheep are not appreciative of his efforts (11 :8-9)
and so he becomes frustrated and breaks his staffs and asks to be paid (11: I 0-11 ). He is
paid the amount a slave owner would pay for a slave who had been gored to death by a
neighbor's ox. 104 The postexilic prophet presents a 'good' shepherd, in contrast to the
wicked shepherds, who are to be judged. Then he is rejected by the people and the
rejection of the shepherd prophet is also a rejection of YHWH. God then puts over them
another evil shepherd to judge them (11: 15-17). 105
The good shepherd is both pierced (12:10) and then in Zechariah 13:7 he is
struck a fatal blow with the sword. There is a contrast with the shepherd here and the
'worthless shepherd' in 11:17 where the sword does not inflict a mortal injury, just the
arm and the right eye. 106 In chapter 11, the shepherd prophet is not able to tum the
people to YHWH and the judgment falls on evil shepherds and people as well through
the reestablishment of the evil shepherd. Yet the judgment does not stop with the
shepherds (10:2-3; 11:15-17) but will also rest upon YHWH's shepherd ('my shepherd'
in Zech 13:7ft). 107 Through his representative and willing death, the people of God's
future are transformed and the Lord's salvation is brought about (13:1-9). The
shepherd is willing to pay the ultimate price in providing the salvation and deliverance
of the sheep. In these opening verses of Zechariah 13:1-9, the promise is that God will
provide cleansing for 'the house of David'. Earlier in the oracle the Davidic tradition
104
Cf. Ex 21 :23
105
Duguid (1995) 270-275.
106
Meyers & Meyers (1993) 384; 291, 'These two body parts together symbolize the shepherd's
autonomy, that is,his ability to d() whatever itis that,he does in the world'. Therefore, the shepherd has
neitherstreiigtlrtorulenor anyc;p~Ciiy 'to see' or to know in any kind of discerning way, and
especially to see 'rightly'.
107
Baldwin (197 5) 197.
178
has emerged in Zechariah 12:7, 8, 10, 12 and now in 13:1. Commentators wonder
about the nature of the shepherd here: is he royal(?) priestly(?) prophetic(?) or
leadership generally (?). 108 The reality is that in these chapters leadership has been
criticized in both civic and religious spheres. 109 The usage of Zechariah blurs the
usage of the shepherd metaphor further. In Jeremiah it was the kings of Israel,
especially the kings who led them into exile. In Ezekiel this is also the predominate
perspective. Yet by the time of Zechariah the shepherd metaphor, while still
portraying kings and civic rulers, also portrays those in 'semi-religious' leadership
roles, those depicted as spiritual leaders such as prophets. 110
In light of the focus of the shepherd metaphor in Matthew there are two primary
texts of interest in Zechariah, 10:2-3 and 13:7. The latter text is quoted in the passion
narrative in Matthew 26:31 anticipating the death of Jesus. Zechariah 10:2 is to be
considered in relation to Matthew 9:36. 10:2 is probably not a direct allusion in 9:36 but
it is related to the intertextuallinks starting with Numbers 27: 17. While not intertextually
related, it may be that Jesus understood his own ministry to be like the shepherd prophet
of Zechariah 11. 111
108
Meyers & Meyers (1993) 290, 'Throughout the narrative of 11 :4-16, "shepherd" may represent
"prophet" as well as other leaders, inasmuch as Second Zechariah is called upon to act the shepherd
role. Second Zechariah is the good shepherd, i.e., true prophet, of verses 4-14; and the "foolish
shepherd" of verses 15 and 16 is the "worthless shepherd", who is presented in language that echoes the
story of the deceitful prophet of I Kings'.
109
Laniak (2006) 169.
110
Meyers & Meyers (1993) 290. Jeremiah may identify himself as a shepherd: Jer 17: II, 'But I have
not run away from being a shepherd (1'"11JI:t :"!~"!~ 'nl>~:t-x':l, E:yw 5 ouK EKo'!T(aaa KataKoA.ouewv (m[aw
aou) in your service ... '. He b. 'I have not been quick to depart from shepherding behind you ... '. While
the Hebrew is vague, it does use :"Tlli. But note the LXX translation of the Heb. 'I have not become
weary of following behind you ... ' yet, 'following behind' (LXX, KataKoA.ouewv) may have shepherd
implicatiorts:-ManY',oftne'transhitionstryto~inclicatetliifsheptierd'pos'sibility:NRSV;"NASB;'NIV"'l:JK;
KJV. Pace Holladay 1:504-507 who understands it to be a wedding metaphor concerning the best man.
111
Cf. Jeremias TDNT6:492-493; Tooley (1964) 18-19; Bruce (1968) 105-106; Baldwin (1975) 198;
France (1971) 103, 107.
179
5.3 Summary
In Chapter 5, we have reviewed the different traditions in the OT that inform and
shape the development of the shepherd/sheep metaphor. Throughout the tradition, YHWH
alone is the ultimate shepherd of Israel. By extension of the metaphor, the people are the
sheep of his pasture. The shepherd image is a natural one for Israel due to the heritage of
the patriarchs who themselves were shepherds. Springing from the background of
Genesis are two primary traditions that inform the shepherd/sheep metaphor
throughout the biblical tradition. The first is the Moses/exodus tradition, which
emphasizes the exodus/wilderness/conquest. This tradition functions to show how
YHWH is a shepherd to his people Israel and Moses is the prototype leader within this
tradition. The second important tradition that informs the metaphor is the royal
Davidic tradition of the Monarchy with David as the prototype. Emerging from the
royal tradition will be the hope of an eschatological David who will be God's
Messiah-Shepherd. The under-shepherds of Israel are to reflect the shepherd qualities
of YHWH in their leadership. We conclude this review of the OT by noting that along
with the Moses/exodus and royal David traditions, a third tradition emerged as a result
of the later prophets; that of the unfaithful or evil shepherd. The negative use of the
metaphor is used by the prophetic tradition to denounce unfaithful and evil leadership.
This theme will continue through Second Temple Judaism into the NT. Finally, in
Matthew 2 the Evangelist will contrast Jesus the royal-righteous shepherd who is born
king of the Jews with the evil king Herod. Before we consider Matthew, we well
examine some ofthe texts of Second Temple Judaism and the first century C.E.
180
CHAPTER6
SHEPHERD/SHEEP METAPHOR IN EARLY JEWISH LITERATURE
6.1 Early Judaism
During the period of Second Temple Judaism the shepherd/sheep metaphor is
less dominant in the biblical tradition, especially when compared to the later prophets
Jeremiah, Ezekiel and Zechariah. During this period, the use of the metaphor generally
follows the OT pattern. 1 The task of this chapter will be to examine the use of the
metaphor during this period in light of the two primary traditions: the Moses/exodus
tradition and the royal Davidic tradition. Also, attention will be given to the negative
use of the metaphor in this period. It was noted in Chapter 5 that the negative use of
the shepherd/sheep image is often associated with times of crisis and contested
leadership. During the beginning of the period the shepherd/sheep metaphor was used
with more reserve. 2 Possibly because shepherds were kings and the failure of the kings
had played a large role in the exile. This stage in Israel's history was a tumultuous
time and so the metaphor would re-emerge from about 200 B.C.E. and after. 3 In one
sense, Israel was a people without a shepherd, looking for a good shepherd to come
and deliver Israel from its oppressors and difficult circumstances. The influence of the
Moses/exodus tradition and royal Davidic tradition would continue to give the people
hope at different times during this period.
The anti-shepherd metaphor was also employed at times to describe the
foreign occupation and the ruling 'shepherds'/leaders. The common theme that literal
shepherds were not to be trusted may well have cast a suspicious light on all
leadership during this period. By the time ofthe NT, the trade of shepherding has lost
1
Vancil ABD 5:1190.
2
Collins {1995UJ ,, 'We have very little, evidence of messianism in Judaism- in the period 500-200
B.C.E'.
181
most (if not all) of any prestige that might be associated with Israel's heritage among
the patriarchs, Moses and David. The documentation shows that the occupation of the
shepherd, not long after the NT period, was considered one of the 'despised trades' 4
and shepherds were known to be 'dishonest, [and] outside the Law'. 5 The extent to
which this is the case in the first century will be considered below by examining some
rabbinic materials.
Our analysis will involve noting the general time frame and the context of each
shepherd/sheep reference, plus examining how the text is related to the biblical
tradition. The significance of the author's use of the shepherd/sheep image will be
investigated. In some cases, implications for Matthew's use of the metaphor will be
considered.
6.1.1 Judith 11:19
11:19 Then I will lead you through Judea, Kat li~w oE ota f.lEOou tfic; Iouoatac; Ewe;
until you come to Jerusalem; there I will tou E.A.8E'iv UTIEvavn IEpouoaAT)f.l Kat
set your throne. You will drive them like e~ow tOV 0 (cppov oou EV f.lEOC autfic; Kat
&~Etc; autouc; we; iTpOpata ole; OUK EOttV
sheep that have no shepherd, and no dog
TIOtf.l~v Kat ou ypu~EL Kuwv t'fl yA.woou
will so much as growl at you.
autou aTIEvavn oou
' ,.., ' I I
The reference in Judith 11: 19b, 'You [Holofemes] will drive (&yw, lead) them
[Israel] like sheep that have no shepherd (we; Tip6pata ole; ouK Eonv TIOtf.l~v)', and no
dog will so much as growl at you', is intertextually related to Num 27:17 and Is 56:11.
These two OT passages also refer to shepherd and sheep (Num) and shepherd and
dogs (Is).
3
E.g. Sirach 18:13 (ca. 180 BCE); Psalms of Solomon 17:43-46 (ca. 50 BCE). Jeremias TDNT6:489.
4
Cf. m. Qidd. 4:/4, ' ... A man should not teach his son to be an ass-driver or a camel-driver, or a barber
or a sailor, or a herdsman or a shopkeeper, for their craft is the craft of robbers'.
Brown (1988) 420-424, 427-431. J3e~!'!u~e the s~t)P.h~rd qftell w,o.r~tld ~lone, questions arose about
5
'.honesty in regar1fto numbers"ofi~unbs'bom,'how much wool had been sheared and other possible ways
a shepherd might defraud the owner of the sheep.
182
The Judith narrative is often compared to the Esther story in terms of the role
Judith plays as God's instrument of deliverance from foreign oppression. Judith is also
compared with (her namesake), Judas Maccabeus. Whether the story is historical or to
be 'regarded as a folktale' affects little the moral of the story of a devout Jewish
woman whom, by her trust in God, defeats Israel's enemy and delivers her people. 6
The book is generally dated as early as 140 B.C.E., right after the time of Judas, to as
late as 107 B.C.E. when it is assumed to have taken its final form.
In sum, Judith has gone into the enemy camp and by playing the role of
prophetess promises (falsely) Holofemes, the Assyrian general, that he will be
victorious. The story of Judith ends not with the fulfillment of the prophecy, but with
Holofemes hoping to seduce Judith. Instead, he drinks too much wine and the heroine
decapitates him. With the head of Holofemes publicly displayed, the Assyrians flee in
defeat and the Israelites are led to victory by Judith's courage and trust in God.
The phrase, we; np6Pata ole; OUK EO'tLV 1TOLfl~V, is part of an intertextuallinkage
that is important for this study. The comparison shows the linguistic similarities and
discrepancies:
Num 27:17, waE1. npOpata ole; ouK Eanv TIOLfl~V

I Kings 22:17' we; 1TOLflVLOV c.il OUK EO'tLV 1TOLfl~V
IIChron 18:16,wc; np6Pata ole; ouK Eanv notf.L~V
Zech 10 :2 , ' npopata
we; 'A Kat' EKaKw
' '8Tlaav uton
J: ' ouK
' TlV
.,. "taatc; 7
Jdt 11:19, we; np6pata otc; OUK EO'tLV 1TOLfl~V

Mt 9:36, WaEL npOpata fl~ EXOVta TIOLf.LEVa
The comparison shows that, while having some variation in vocabulary, the phrase has
become a 'stock phrase' or proverbial phrase 8 indicating that Israel lacked leadership
(e.g. deliverance, guidance, protection).
6
Moore ABD 1121.
183
Within the Moses/exodus tradition the prophets declare that God guides,
provides and promises a way through the wilderness and ultimately saves Israel (e.g.
Is. 40:3-4; 42: 16; 51:11 ). Strikingly, the 'oracle of salvation' (Jud 11: 19) in the
context of the Judith story is somewhat ironic in that she makes this declaration
intentionally deceiving Holofemes. She further promises that the Lord 'will set your
throne' in Jerusalem, continuing the deception with the imagery of the prophets
concerning the favored kings oflsrael (Cf. David in 2 Sam 7: 13; Ps 89:4). Judith also
mixes metaphors likening the shepherd to watchdogs that will not even growl, which
is reminiscent of the phrase 'silent dogs that cannot bark' in Is. 56: 10-11:
Israel's sentinels are blind ... they are all silent dogs that cannot bark; dreaming,
lying down, loving to slumber. The dogs have a mighty appetite; they never
have enough. The shepherds also have no understanding ....
Note that both texts mix the metaphors of sheepdogs and shepherds. Israel's leaders
are not only bad shepherds but bad sheepdogs that cannot bark' and warn ot danger.
The negligence of the leaders is also emphasized by a shepherd who is asleep. The
negative association oflsrael's leaders with shepherds is further heightened by calling
them dogs. Dogs, like pigs, lived as scavengers in antiquity and in the biblical tradition
are almost always spoken of with contempt. It is rare in the biblical tradition for
sheepdogs to be associated with shepherds. Only here and Job 30:1 where it is also
pejorative.
Judith 11:19 relies upon the Moses/exodus tradition to depict the need for
leadership and on the prophetic tradition to speak of the shepherd pejoratively. The
7
Zech I 0:2 has the same motif, but shows the most difference in vocabulary: we; npoj3aroc Kal
EKUKW9T)OctV Olott ouK ~v 'laalc; ('suffer for lack of a shepherd'). The sheep are injured/harmed because
they are without healing (implying ther~)s no she~herd). . . . . , "'
8
Cf. Prichard ANET 443a. A 'sifuilarimage already used of fa-iling leadership by lpu-wer (ca 2,200
BCE) 'like a herd running at random without a herdsman. Behold, cattle stray and there is none to
collect them ... '
184
use of the image is associated with a crisis or vacuum ofleadership and Judith
becomes God's leader (under-shepherdess).
6.1.2 Sirach (lEcclesiasticus) 18:13
The compassion of human beings is for EAEO<; &vepwnou Em tOV TIAT)OI.OV au-rou
their neighbors, but the compassion of the EAEO<; OE KUplOU ETIL naaav aapKa
Lord is for every living thing. He rebukes Uf.YXwv Kat natoEuwv Kat otMaKwv mt
and trains and teaches them, and turns E:mo-rpf.cj>wv w<; notf.L~V -ro llo(fivtov
them back, as a shepherd his flock.
' -
au-rou
In context (18: 1-14), Ben Sira has been contrasting the strength and greatness
of the Lord with humanity's frailty and weakness. This human frailty is 'why the Lord
is patient with them and pours out his mercy upon them'(18:11). God's compassion
(EAEO<;) is illustrated by utilizing the shepherd metaphor. Four functions of the
shepherd are highlighted9 1) rebuking (EAEyxw, correction); 2) training (natOEuw,
discipline); 3) teaching (otMoKw) and 4) turning back (E:mo-rpf.cj>w).
Wisdom literature often uses the two verbs 'rebuking' and 'training' together
in relation to fatherly correction or discipline (e.g., Prov 9:7f.; 3:11). Discipline is also
associated with exodus and wilderness wanderings. So, the shepherd/sheep metaphor
is again associated with the Moses/Exodus tradition (Lv 26:18,23, 28; Dt 4:36; 8:5).
The four actions are an expression of the shepherd's compassion for his flock and are
to be understood as positive in contrast to the exercise of his punishment on those who
refuse to follow him.
To summarize Sirach 18:13, the Lord 'turns them back' (lit. turns them around,
E:mo-rpf.cj>w) as a shepherd turns back the sheep. He does this for those who are willing
to follow Him as the compassionate shepherd and those who are willing to 'accept his
discipline and are eager for his precepts' (v 14).
9
Each of the verbs are participles and are descriptive of the shepherds function/role.
185
6.1.3 LXX: Psalm 151 (llQPsa 10 :151A)
The textual relationship between the LXX versions (the Greek and Syriac) and
the Hebrew version (11QPS 8 ) ofPsalm 151 has received much attention since its
publication. 11 James A. Sanders assumed that the Hebrew version (11 QPS5) was the
original and that the LXX version 'was made from a truncated amalgamation of the two
Hebrew psalms' .12 After closer evaluation, the shorter text of the LXX is now taken to be
earlier and the Hebrew version is the expanded version. 13 This conclusion is also
consistent with text critical studies that generally indicate that a scribe is more prone to
add, rather than omit, a text.
In 1988, Menaham Haran took issue with the assumption that the Hebrew version
was the original and put forward an argument to establish the LXX as the 'priority'
text. 14 He makes his argument on the basis of 'late (Hebrew)' and also what he argues is
'forced and artificial language'. He also identifies 'corrupt forms' of the language which
made their way into the psalm's text. 15 In addressing the extra lines in 11 QPs8 , he noted
that 'these "extra" parts include the passage comprising lines 5-8, over the interpretation
of which scholars have been at odds, some thinking that Orphic motifs are discemable
here, testifying to Hellenistic influence' .16 His explanation for the 'extra' material is that
it was a later addition, rather than being part of the original psalm. We will look primarily
at the LXX keeping in mind the textual issues and ongoing discussion about Psalm 151.
10
Charlesworth,ed. (1983-1985) 2:609-616. Flint (1996) 65-83; Haran (1988) 171-182; Sanders
( 1967) 10-14, 93-103; (1974) 79-99; Smith (1997) 182-208; Storfjell (1987) 97-1 06; Strugnell (1965)
207-216; Wilson (1985) 63-92; and now more recently (1997) 448-464.
11
Sanders (1963) 73-86; Sanders (1965); Sanders (1967).
IZ Sanders (1967) 95; Following his lead Schurer (1973) 3:188-189; Charlesworth and Sanders (1985)
2:609-616; Evans (1992) 36.
IJ This is the general consensus but Cf. esp. Menahem ( 1988) and Smith ( 1997). The following
observations are made in light of their perspective.
I M~nallam (128.~)
4
n 1-182. "'
Is Menaham (1988) i75.
6
I Menaham (1988) 176-177. In regard to the Orphic allusions he notes that F. M. Cross 'is one of those
who deny the existence of such motifs here' n 15, 177.
186
Psalm 151 continues the biblical tradition of David as the shepherd/king. As
noted, the general scholarly consensus recognizes I Sam 15-18 to be the main biblical
background for Psalm 151. Smith has identified fourteen items that Psalm 151 shares
with I Sam 15-18, with other items coming from I Sam 8, 10, 13; II Sam 6, 7; Ben Sira
47 and the Psalms (e.g., 45:2, 78:71, 89:21). Using a simpler division ofthe LXX
version, Psalm 151 highlights the shepherd/sheep metaphor in the Davidic tradition in a
two-fold midrash 17 as follows:
I. V s. 1-4 = David the shepherd, a midrash on I Sam 16: 1-13. These verses
emphasize David's humility and unlikely choice, along with his faithfulness and devotion
to shepherd his father's sheep. This indicates why God was pleased with him and
rewards him in verses 5-7. By extension, the community, in its own humility and
obscurity, can trust that God will also reward them as David continues to be their
example.
ll. Vs. 5-7= David the King, a midrash on I Samuel17:17-54. The anointing by
Samuel and the Goliath story give witness and credibility to his kingship and to his
authority to be the shepherd oflsrael. His victory over Goliath is really the victory of
God through David.
11 QPsa 151 is a poetic expression of themes from I Samuel 16: 1-13 in which the
young shepherd, David, relates how he was chosen and anointed to be the ruler of his
people. The Superscriptions are also suitably re-edited. 18 The box of material shown on
the following page helps to clarify the difference in content between the LXX, Psalm 151
and 11QPsa 151.
17
Smith ( 1997) 199-200.
18
The Hebrewtitle is ~Hallelujah. OfDavid,s~~.c9fJ~~e' for 15IA and 'The beginning of David's
power after God's prophet had anointed him' for 1518. Tfi(;'septUagillt"has, 'TiiifPsillm is agenuine
one of David, though supernumerary, composed when he fought in single combat with Goliath'. The
Syriac has either 'Of David. When he alone fought with Goliath'; or simply 'Thanksgiving of David'.
187
Psalm 151 NRSV LXX llQPs 8 Smith's

translation 19
This psalm is ascribed to oirro~ 6 ljlaA.IJ.o~ towypao~ A Halleluyah
David as his own Et~ AaULO KaI. E~w9Ev tou Of David, son of Jesse
composition, (though it is &pL91J.OU OtE Ef.LOVOIJ.UXT}OEV
outside the number), after he t<\) roA.LaO
had fought in single combat
with Goliath. [1] I was the least of my
f.LLKpo~ ~f.Lllv (:v to'i~
cXOEA<jlo'i~ f.LOU KaL VEC..ltEpO~ brothers, And smallest of
1 I was small among my EV tQ o'LK4J tou natp6~ f.LOU my father's sons. And he
brothers, and the youngest in E7TOLIJ.aLvov t& np6pata tou made me shepherd to his
my father's house: I tended 7Tatp&; IJ.OU
my father's sheep. sheep, And ruler over his
goats
[2] And my hands made a

at XE'ipE:~ f.LOU E7TOLT}Oav pipe, And my fingers a lyre.
2 My hands made a harp, my opyavov OL OUKtuA.o( f.LOU And I gave honour to
fingers fashioned a lyre. ~pf.Loaav ljlaA.t~ptov Yahweh, I truly said to
myself:
'The mountains do not
witness to Him, Nor do the
hills tell ofHim, Nor the
trees, my words, Nor the
sheep, my compositions'.
Kal. t(~ &vayyEA.E'i t<\) Kup(4J [3] For who can tell and who
3 And who will tell my Lord?
f.LOU auto~ KUpLO~ auto~ can express and who can
The Lord himself; it is he ELOaKOUEL
who hears. relate the deeds of the Lord
of All? The God of All has
seen. He has heard and he has
auto~ E~a7TEOtHAEV tOV
4 It was he who sent his listened.
&yyEA.ov autou Kat DPEV IJ.E
messenger, and took me from EK twv npoptltwv tou natp6~
my father's sheep, and f.LOU Kat xpwE:v IJ.E EV t<\>
[4] He sent His prophet to
anointed me with his EAaL4J t~~ XPLOE~ autou anoint me, Samuel to raise
anointing oil. me.
5 My brothers were OL cXOEA.<jlo( f.LOU KaAOL KaL

handsome and tall; but the IJ.EyaA.oL Kal. ouK EUOOKT}OEV [5]My brothers came out to
Lord was not pleased with EV auto'i~ KUpLO~ meet him, Handsome of form
them. and handsome of appearance.
~~t..eov Et~ auvavtT}atv t<\> (Though) tall in their height,
&UouA.41 Kat EmKatT}paaat6 Handsome in their hair, The
6 I went out to meet the IJ.E EV to'i~ ELOWAOL~ autou
Philistine; and he cursed me Lord God Chose them not.
by his idols. And he sent for and took me
yw OE anaaaiJ.EVO~ t~V nap' from after the sheep, And he
autou fl.UXatpav cX7TEKE<jlUALOa
7 But I drew his own sword; anointed me with the holy oil.
autov Kal DPa OVHOO~ E~
I beheaded him, and took And he made me leader for
utwv IapaT}A.
away disgrace from the His people And ruler over all
peo_ple of Israel. the sons of His covenant.
19
Smith (1997) 187-189.
188
Smith observes 'ten expressions [that] do not occur in the Greek and Syriac versions, but
only in the expanded Hebrew version, rightly emphasized by Haran' _2 From these
expressions he identifies 'four strategies for completing lines' .21 These observations are
very helpful in understanding the material at the center of the poem above: lines 6-8.
These lines are identified as the 'Orphic' lines (v 2). In these verses, trees and flocks of
sheep are said to have enjoyed David's music, a possible adoption and adaptation of the
Orpheus myth. 22
Whatever one makes of these additional lines and whether they are "Orphic" or
not, this view has met with strong criticism and is being questioned. 23 The observations
and approach of M.S. Smith above are helpful in identifying which sources of the writer
influence the OT. The beginning and the end of the poem have been strongly influenced
4
by I Sam, while the center section of the poem shows no comparable borrowings? M.S.
Smith summarizes his observations this way:
In summary, Psalm 151 idealizes David as the shepherd/leader. He is 'chosen' by
YHWH not because of his stature but because he trusts God. Here David's youth is
remembered and I Samuel is the external 'plot' informing the internal 'passion' he has
for God reflected in the psalm. These external and internal dimensions together
communicate to the reader/hearer ofthe poem that God will take care of his people if
they trust him David is portrayed as the ideal Israelite and the ideal shepherd/leader of
20
Smith (1997) 197, and Haran (1988) 176.
21
Smith (1997) 197, 'First, the author-redactor extends usage from material in the older version of the
poem ... Second, the poet used traditional biblical wordings ... Third, the poet used non-biblical and
current religious language ... Fourth, the poet ventured new parallel expressions to match material
borrowed from I Samuel'.
22
Cf. Sanders (1965) 61-63. Cf. further Sanders (1967), pp. 98-100; Rabinowitz (1964) 193-200; Smith
(1980) 247-253; Cross
23 ,... . . . . . . . .. '
(1978)

~-71.
..
..
Smith ( 1997) 198. Those who are still inclined toward an Orphic background for the verses Cf.
Sanders (1967) 53-64,98. Charlesworth and Sanders (1985) 2:609-616. For criticism, Rabinowitz
(1964); Cross, (1978) 71; Smith (1997) Skehan (1976) 143-58.
24
Smith (1997) 197.
189
Israel. The royal Davidic tradition is not overtly expressed in the psalm as is often the
case when David is remembered.
Moreover, David is a model for the community; in the words of I. Rabinowitz:

'This psalm is a homily with David as exemplum: David, though an
insignificant stripling, glorified the Lord, and so came himself to glory; we,
too, then humble though we may be, may expect future glory if now we honour
God'? 5
6.1.4 I Enoch 89:10-90:4226
The context for The Book of the Dream Visions, chapters 83-90 of I Enoch,
comes from the time ofthe Maccabaean revolt of 169-164. Chapters 85-90, called The
Animal Apocalypse (hereafter, An. Apoc.) are generally dated from ca. 165 to 160.27
For these chapters, we will look generally at the context and content of the apocalypse,
with special reference to the author's use of the metaphors 'the Lord of the sheep' and
'the seventy shepherds'.
During this post-exilic period, the kings/shepherds had not proven to be the
valued leaders that the people had hoped for. The controversy over kingship generally
had been in the tradition from the beginning. 28 After the exile, the monarchy
diminished and the religious leadership of priest and scribe emerged. Priests began to
replace kings and scribe replaced prophet. 29 It is in this setting that we review I
Enoch.
25
Smith (1997) 199-200.
26
The English translation throughout is that of E. Isaac, in Charlesworth (1983) 63-72.
27
This date is accepted by most commentators. Since the death of Judas in the spring of 160 B.C. E. is
not mentioned, it is thought that the original form was written before this time. E.g. Tiller (1993) 78,
'The original An. Apoc. would then have been written some time before the battle of Beth-zur (spring
164 B.C.E.) and after Judas's initial victories over Apollonius and Seron (166 BCE)'. Nickelsburg
(2001')'36l;dates it'between 165:..1'63 B.C.E.'. ' ,
28
Cf. the conflicting traditions in I Sam 8-12.
29
Cohen (1987) 23-24 notes the importance of this shift from king to priest and from prophet to scribe.
190
I Enoch is a composite book and the following schematic is helpful, for our
purposes, to put the An. Apoc. in the context of the book and the Second Temple
period. 30
The Book of the Watchers, 1-36 c. third century

The Book ofthe Similitudes, 37-71 c. 105-64 B.C.
The Book of the Astronomical Writings, 72-82 c. 110 B.C.
The Book of Dream Visions, 83-90 c. 165-161 B.C.
The Book of the Epistle of Enoch, 91-1 07 c. 105-104 B.C.
The author of the An. Apoe. uses an apocalyptic allegorical approach that
traces human history from Adam to the eschaton. There are three different periods
within the structure ofthe allegory: 1) From Adam to the flood, 85:1-89:9, 2) From
Noah to the eschaton, 89:10-90:36 and 3) The New Age ofthe White Bull, 90:37-42.
The author depicts human beings as animals and angels as human beings, a veritable
'zoomorphic history' 31 of humanity. The patriarchs through Isaac are portrayed as
bulls. Jacob and his descendants are pictured as sheep and are continually victimized
by different wild beasts of prey and scavengers that represent hostile forces against the
'Lord of the sheep' (89:16). 32 As punishment for the sheep's waywardness, sin and
rebellion, the Lord of the sheep commits his flock to seventy shepherds (89:59), who
are to rule for four periods. 33 Patrick Tiller understands these four periods and the
number of shepherds as follows:
b. The sheep under the shepherds

i. The Babylonian period ( 12 shepherds)
u. The Persian period (23 shepherds)
m The Ptolemaic period (23 shepherds)
1v The Seleucid period (12 shepherds)
3
For our purposes the general dates given in this schematic are followed. Cf. the thorough
considerations of Tiller (1993) 61 ff. Isaac (1983) I :6-7 and Nickelsburg (2001) 360-36land 391-393.
These general dates do not take into account the different fragments which may be in a section; e.g. cbs.
6-.11 in the llgQ~ of_t/l_e Watchw:s, which is used by the author of the An. Apoc.
31
Schurer (1986) 255.
32
The first ref. to 'Lord of the sheep' is 89: 16.
33
The first ref. to the 'seventy shepherds' is 89:59.
191
c. The eschatological period of the restored sheep34
The seventy shepherds abuse their responsibility by allowing more of the sheep
to be destroyed than was permitted by the Lord of the sheep. Authority is given to the
seventy to rule but accountability of these seventy is to be exercised by another group
of shepherds (angels?) who are to 'write down every destruction that each and every
shepherd causes' (89:62). 'Each and every one of them [the seventy shepherds] kills
and destroys in excess of their order' (89:69). Therefore the 'seventy shepherds were
judged and found guilty; and they were cast into that fiery abyss' (90:25-26).
The final eschaton is depicted in a section of the tradition (90:9-19) that has
engendered much debate. But in its current form, the great homed ram (90:9-19)
probably represents Judas Maccabeus, 35 who wages war against the nations. The Lord
of the sheep brings about the final judgment of the rebel watchers, the angelic
shepherds, and the apostate Jews of the End time (90:20-27). Then a New Jerusalem
and Temple are 'transformed ... greater and loftier than the first one' (90:28-29). The
section continues: 'Also I noticed that the house was large, wide, and exceedingly full'
(90:36).
Finally, in the final division oftheAn. Apoc., a snow-white cow/bull is born,
this the new Adam and Messiah. As a result of the Messiah's coming the sheep and
other animals are transformed into white cows/bulls, thus bringing about the
eschatological unity of the whole of humanity that has now returned to its original
purity.
We have discovered, in considering the characteristics and/or qualities of 'the
Lord of the sheep' that these characteristics are consistent with the functional
34
Tiller (1993) 55. For the background context of this discussion, this schematic will be followed.
35
Tiller (1993) 62-79, 355ff; for textual/redactional issues in 90:9-19.
192
metaphor of the shepherd in the OT. The biblical background for An. Apoc., while
debated in detail, is certainly passages such as Jeremiah 23 & 25, Ezekiel34,
Zechariah 11, and certain Psalms which speak of God as Shepherd ofisrael. 36 But the
writer of the An. Apoe. may have had a more nuanced and complex approach in the
way he has adopted the shepherd/sheep metaphor. There may be the actual desire to
avoid directly or overtly using the term 'shepherd' in a positive way. YHWH is not the
shepherd of his people, but throughout the allegory, he is 'the Lord of the sheep'. We
might understand this as simply an alternative literary device if the term 'shepherd'
were actually ever used, but the consistent use of 'Lord of the sheep' and absence of
the term 'shepherd' in regard to God suggests there is an intentional avoidance of the
use of the term 'shepherd'.
Jeremias has illustrated how God fulfills the role of shepherd but also observes
that YHWH is not called shepherd at any point in the An. Apoc. He does not mention
any possible significance to the fact that the shepherd term is not used. Yet, he argues
that the function of a shepherd is evident.
Though shepherds were despised in everyday life, nevertheless even in later

Judaism, on the basis of the statements of the OT, God was described as the
Shepherd oflsrael who led His flock out of Egypt (Eth. En. 89:22, 24, 28),
guides them in present, will one day gather again the scattered flock, and will
feed them on the holy mountain. Moreover the leaders and teachers of Israel
are also called shepherds; in particular Moses and David are extolled as
faithful shepherds. In the vision of the shepherds in Eth. En. 85-90, however,
the term is restricted to 70 Gentile rulers (or the angel princes of the peoples)
which have dominion over Israel up to the establishment of the Messianic
kingdom, Eth. En. 89:59; 90:22. 37
My issue with Jeremias here is that he makes it sound like 'God was described as the
Shepherd oflsrael who led His flock out of Egypt' and then quotes the An. Apoc. 'Lord
of the sheep' is descriptive but it is not the same as identifying God as the shepherd of
36
Tiller ( 1993) 58-59; Nickelsburg (200 1) 391; for biblical sources regarding 'Negligent Shepherds'.
193
Israel which the author of An. Apoc. never does. I think he does not do this because the
metaphor is a negative one in light of the evil kings oflsrael that led to exile and the
crises of leadership and contested leadership as well. In the An. Apoc. it is not a royal
Davidic shepherd who is either anticipated or who is presented as coming in Jeremiah
23:4-6 or in Ezekiel34:23-24 and 37:24-25. In contrast are the wicked seventy who do
not rule in righteousness but abuse the flock and are judged and banished. The shepherd
motif in the hands of the writer of the An. Apoc. is a negative image and is seemingly
beyond redeeming even in regard to YHWH
The function of a 'shepherd' image may be in the background in regard to the
allegory through the use of 'Lord of the sheep' but I think there is a stronger anti-
shepherd motif being put forward by the author. Again, except for the 'Lord of the
sheep', the only shepherds in the allegory have become abusive and malevolent.
When the 'Lord of the sheep' phrase is analyzed from its first appearance in
89: 16 through chapter 90 (28 times), a number of different characteristics can be
identified that are consistent with the function of the shepherd metaphor in the biblical
tradition. God is regularly identified as 'egzi 'a abage, in Ethiopic, is literally 'the owner,
master, lord ofthe sheep'. 38 The term 'egzi', like /curios, carries the different nuances of
meaning as well. 39 Tiller consistently translates the phrase in his commentary as 'the
40
owner of the sheep,' but both Nicklesburg and Isaac use 'the Lord of the sheep' . When
the phrase is considered text by text the following seven characteristics of the 'Lord of
the sheep' can be identified: 1) He initiates with mercy and compassion and 'visits' them,
is 'with' them and ultimately delivers the sheep from distress/captivity (89: 16; 89:22;
37
Jeremias TDNT 489.
38
Tiller{l993)280.
39
Tiller (1993) 280-281.
4
Cf. Tiller (1993) 278-287; Nickelsburg (2001) 365; Isaac (1983) I :65.
194
89:52; 90:38). 41 2) He inspires awe and fear by his majesty and is marvelous to behold
(89:22-23; 89:26; 89:30). 3) He provides pasture and sustenance (89:28). 4) He provides
human leadership (89:29; 89:37 Moses; in 89:42, 45 Judas Maccabeaus; Cf. 89:45;
90:14, 20-21). 5) He provides a place and his presence is in that place (89:50 twice;
90:29). 6) He protects and warns sheep (89:25, 51). 7) He holds everyone to account
(89:33; 89:54; 89:75-76). a) first the rebellious sheep b) then the seventy shepherds
(89:71-72; 90: 15-70).
The review of these texts illustrate beyond doubt that the 'Lord of the sheep' has
the qualities and functions as a shepherd throughout. Yet, and this is my point, the writer
refuses to use the term 'shepherd' in an extended allegory concerning sheep and rams
and lambs and goats. I propose the reason is that he reserves the shepherd image for one
purpose, to emphasize his anti-shepherd theme which will be developed in relation to the
seventy shepherds. He is deeply distressed over the evil leadership that has subjected the
people of God to such abuse.
In focusing on the seventy shepherds, I will first make a few observations
concerning their role and the writer's use of them in regard to defending God's justice.
Israel deserves punishment because she has broken covenant and so God has 'handed
those sheep over' (89:60) to the seventy shepherds for punishment. However, God
applies restrictions and limits to the seventy (cf. Job). These restrictions are established
by God and then 'another' is summoned to monitor them: 'Observe and see everything
that the shepherds do against these sheep' (89:61). According to the author's
understanding, Israel suffers intensely because the seventy shepherds go beyond the
limits set by God. Israel has sinned and God punishes Israel, but the amount of suffering
~ -
41
ln 90:38 a snow-white cow was born (Messiah) and transforms all the cows and animals in the
allegory and 'The Lord ofthe sheep rejoiced over it and over all the cows'.
195
is beyond what God desires. Something else is at work. Someone else is to blame. The
seventy shepherds themselves, appointed by God, have over-stepped their bounds. This is
typical in the anti-shepherd tradition. Those appointed by God go beyond God-given
authority, abusing divine authority and, in tum, abusing the sheep. The prophetic
condemnation of the negligent, abusive, and disobedient shepherds oflsrael is the
backdrop to this tradition (e.g. Jer 23, 25; Ez 34; Is 56:9-11). It is this prophetic
condemnation that the author ofi Enoch uses to develop the anti-shepherd tradition in
his own time and circumstances.
Consistent with the allegorical genre of the author, the seventy 'shepherds' are
angelic beings of some sort, something other than 'human' .42 The author emphasizes two
points about the seventy: 1) their function as leaders ofthe sheep and 2) the biblical
traditions that speak of the anti-shepherds from Ezekiel34 and Zechariah 11.43
When the twenty-five references to the seventy-shepherds are analyzed a brief
summary of the following characteristics may be identified: 1) God gives the sheep to
the oversight and pasture of the seventy; 44 2) The seventy are divided into groups and
are given different time periods to shepherd the flock; 45 3) The seventy have limited
authority to destroy and slaughter some of the sheep; 46 4) God anticipates they will
abuse this authority 'of their own accord'; 47 5) They will abandon the sheep to wild
42
Nickelsburg (200 1) 390. 'That the seventy shepherds are angels has been disputed, mainly because
they are described in terms that the Bible attributes to human leaders called "shepherds." ... Their
heavenly nature seems certain, however'.
43
Nickelsburg (2001) 391.
44
89:59; God 'surrendered those sheep to them that they might pasture them'.
45
89:64, 72; 90:5.
46
89:60-62.
47
89:62 (2 times) 'excess and destruction' is anticipated and the 'destruction' will be by 'shepherd
causes'.
196
animals; 48 and 6) The seventy shepherds will be held to account for how they
shepherd. 49
The seventy shepherds are always meant to be understood in a negative light.
The author of the An. Apoe. can be understood to emphasize in the allegory that the
shepherd metaphor is a negative image because of the history of the abuse and
negligence of the leaders.
Thus, the proposal of this thesis is that the author of I Enoch emphasizes only the
negative tradition of the anti-shepherd rather than the more traditional prophetic approach
that contrasts both good and bad shepherds. In other words, I Enoch, especially the An.
Apoc. characterizes the leadership of Israel as having no good shepherds.
Earlier, the question concerning the identification of the 'other' in 89:61 was
introduced. In an attempt to understand who this 'other' is, Isaac makes an interpretive
judgment in his translation at this point. He translates this 'another' with the editorial
comment as follows:
He [the Lord] then summoned seventy shepherds and surrendered 50 those

sheep to them so that they might pasture them. He spoke to the shepherds and
their colleagues, 'From now on, let each and every one of you graze the sheep;
and do everything which I command you. I shall hand them over to you duly
counted and tell you which among them are to be destroyed; and you shall
destroy them!' So he handed over those sheep to them. Then calling another
(group ofshepherds), he told them, 'Take notice and see everything which the
shepherds will do to those sheep, for they will destroy from among them a
greater number than those which I have commanded them'.
This editorial comment by Isaac to define the 'other/another' as a group of shepherds,
who 'take notice' of the other shepherds, might indicate this is a good group of
shepherds and the shepherd metaphor is then used in a positive way. On the other
48
89:66 and 'they abandoned those sheep' 90:4.
49
89:60-62; 90:22, 25.
50
Lit. 'cast off; threw away'. Tiller (1993) 325. 'One might expectthat the owner would entrust the
sheep to the shepherds to tend them. The owner's action regarding the sheep is even more emphatically
negative than his abandoning them in 89:55-56'.
197
hand, both Tiller and Nickelsburg argue that the 'other' is an individual, a 'heavenly
scribe'. 51 Tiller says, 'Surely he is not another shepherd. Apparently the allegory has
faded and what is meant is another angel'. 52 Tiller emphasizes that the heavenly scribe
is a kind of 'angelic auditor, to observe, correct, and record discrepancies' of the
seventy shepherds. 53
In my judgment, the editorial comment of Isaac is less persuasive than Tiller
and Nickelsburg. This 'other' is probably best understood, not as another shepherd (or
group of shepherds), but as an angelic scribe with the task of writing down the specific
actions of the seventy shepherds, including their abuses. This commission is not
without analogy in regard to other angelic scribes. Earlier in I Enoch 9, Michael,
Sariel, Raphael, and Gabriel have similar roles. There is also a parallel in Ezekiel 9
where the angelic scribe is commissioned to record the events surrounding the events
of the slaughter of those in Jerusalem. My conclusion is that this 'other' is not a
shepherd, but the angelic scribe/writer who oversees all the activities of the seventy
shepherds.
In contrast to the anti-shepherd motif, the writer of the An. Apoc. uses the
sheep/lamb/ram metaphor in positive ways. In the An. Apoc. it is not a shepherd or
shepherds, but three sheep who bring renewal by 'returning, arriving; entering, and
beginning to build all (the parts) of that house which had fallen down' (89:72). The three
sheep are identified as Zerubabel, Joshua, and Nehemiah. 54
sJ Nickelsburg (2001) 390.

52
Tiller (1993) 326.
53
Tiller (1993) 326. For the function of this 'other', cf. 89:70-71, 76-77; 90:14, 17, 22. According to
90:22 this heavenly auditor is also one of the seven holy ones who are witnesses for God.
s4 Begg (1988) J,52::-J56 ..Hexeviews the,history ofthe discussion very well'and opts for these three. Cf.
Tiller (1993) 337-340 who agrees as well, if the proper reading is 'three' and not 'two', there is a
textual variant, but the majority reading is three'.
198
While the sheep/lambs/rams are all the same species, and so there is an
equality of kind, distinctions are made concerning strength, power and differences of
role and importance. On the other hand, the author communicates that shepherds often
think of themselves as unique, even exercising God-given authority beyond its divine
intention.Hence, the shepherding metaphor is again used in a negative way. The
shepherds oflsrael have failed God and his 'lambs' (90:9) and the author no longer
can appropriate the shepherd metaphor in light of this disillusionment. The writer,
seemingly, does not want Judas Maccabeus, who is his hero (savior?) to be understood
or seen as being a shepherd of Israel. 55 It would seem this might be because of the
negligence and abuse ofthe shepherds of Israel. Even Judas Maccabeus, as noted
earlier, is not a new faithful shepherd, but a 'great homed ram'. Further, the Messiah is
not depicted as a shepherd but as a 'white bull'. It would almost seem that never in an
allegory about sheep is the positive use of the term 'shepherd' so carefully avoided.
During this post-exilic period, there was an anti-shepherd attitude, which had
continued from the prophets of the exile. The anti-shepherd image was introduced in
the biblical tradition due to problems with kings, false prophets and religious
leadership who were abusive, evil-shepherds in contrast to the true shepherds of
Israel. 56 The emphasis concerning this anti-shepherd metaphor in the prophets ofthe
exile and beyond is also related to the reluctance after the exile to return to a strong
form of monarchy. Ironically, this will happen to a degree with Hasmonean dynasty.
One wonders what the writer of the An. Apoe. might have thought as he saw the
developments of the coming years. We now tum to the Qumran materials to see the
shepherd metaphor is much more hopeful.
ss Judas isprobably ref.'to again in 90:9, 'a gre~t hom sprout~d on on~ of those sh~ep'. Nickelsburg
(2001) 400; Tiller (1993) 354 and 62-63.
199
6.1.5 Qumran: Selected Texts
The use of the shepherd/sheep terminology in the Qumran community is
somewhat infrequent in light ofthe overall amount of material. There are numerous
references to the literal usage indicating the awareness of the shepherd vocation among
the Patriarchs and Israel's early history. 57 In the 'Words ofthe Luminaries' (4Q504
Frags. 1 - 2 col. N) reference is made to the covenant established with David who 'like
a shepherd, is a 'prince' over Israel. 58 This royal Davidic tradition that had been
relatively dormant in early Judaism59 now resurfaces in Qumran. It may have been a
result of contested leadership because of the rise of a non-Davidic kingship in the
Hasmonean period. This may well have been part of what sets the stage for Davidic
messianic hopes to re-emerge. The crisis in Israel during this period caused Qumran, and
others,60 to reject both the priesthood in Jerusalem and the Hasmonean dynasty. The
promises of old were recovered from Isaiah 11:1-9, Jeremiah 23:5-6, Ezekiel 34:23-24,
36:24-25, and other messianic texts were drawn upon resulting with the referral of the
61
'Branch of David' several times at Qumran to describe an anointed eschatological king.
The community condemned the Jerusalem leadership's interpretation of the Pentateuchal
laws of purity. Along with the Temple Scroll, many of the pesharim condemrt or criticize
the priests ofJerusalem (e.g. 1Q14 11.1; 1QpHab 9:9-1 0; 11 :4-7; 12:2-6). Not only did
they contest the current leadership, but they also understood that one day 'the branch of
56
E.g. Num 27:17 and parallels: Jer 23, 25:30-38; Ez 34; Is 56:9-12.
57
E.g. IQapGn 21.5-6; lQapGn 22.1-2, Martinez and Tigchelaar (1997) 45-47. Cf. 11 Q19 LII 7-21,
Martinez and Tigchelaar ( 1997) 1273.
58
'And you chose the tribe of 6 Judah, and established your covenant with David so that he would be 7
like a shepherd, a prince over your people, ... '. 4Q504 Frags. 1 -2 col. IV (Puech col. XV) in Martinez
& Tigchelaar (1997) 2;1015.
59
Collins (I 995) 31-34. He contends, 'In all, then, we have very little evidence of messianism in
Judaism in the period 500-200 BCE, ... We have much fuller documentation for the period 200-150
BCE'. 33.
60
E.g. The writer of the Psalms ofSolomon, writes in response to the Roman occupation and interprets
Pompey's defeat of the Hasmoneans as God's judgment upon them. But Roman is no better so the
longed for hope of a Davidic Messiah.
200
David', according to the pesher on II Samuel 7: 12-14, would emerge with the 'Interpreter
of the Law who [will rise up] in Zi[on in] the last days' and bring a legitimate kingship
and interpretation of the law (Florilegium, 4Q174 1-3.10-12; cf. Rule ofthe Community
(JQ28a 2:11-17). 62
This royal tradition at Qumran referred to the Messiah as 'prince' .63 The shepherd
image is associated with the prince. So, once again the shepherd metaphor is connected
with royal David tradition. Other selected uses that illustrate this are from the Damascus
Document: CD13:7-10; 19:6-11; 4Q266, fragments 11 and 4; Commentary on Ps. 37:
4Q171, III 53 -8; and from JQFestival Prayers: 1Q34 + 1Q34bis (lQlitPr).
Probably the most celebrated text is from the Damascus Document, CD 13:7-13,
of which Jeremias could say, 'This comparison of the leader of the community with the
shepherd is the closest analogy to the similar statements in the NT' .64 In the Damascus
Document the leader of the community (called mevaqqer, the 'Examiner,'
'Overseer/Guardian') will gather all the scattered sheep as a shepherd. The broader
context, 13:7-21, describes the character and role ofthis leader in the community. This
section occurs with a group of texts that begin with the phrase, 'This is the Rule for ... '
the community. 65 CD 13:7-21 is grouped with these texts. The metaphor of shepherd is
used along with the image of the compassionate father to clarify the attitude of the
mevaqqer and the way the mevagger is to function. 'The Rule for the Examiner'
(CD13:7-21) identifies the obligations and authority ofthis Overseer/Guardian to: 1)
instruct the congregation in the ways/works of God, 2) determine who may enter the
congregation and assign him his rank within the Community, 3) monitor the
61
E.g. 4QI6I; 4QI74; 4Q252; 4Q285.
62
Murphy-O'Connor EDSS I :402-404.
63
Cf. Collins (1995) 60-63; Evans(2090) I :540.-~41.
64 J. Jeremia!rtDNt6:4s9:
201
commercial activities and relations of the members, 4) approve the marriage and
divorce of members, and 5) teach their sons and daughters. 66 Along with these tasks
the text also describes the "spirit" in which the Guardian is to exercise his authority.
9 He shall have pity on them like a father on his sons, and will heal all the
<afflicted among them> like a shepherd his flock. 10 He will undo all the
chains which bind them, so that there will be neither harassed nor oppressed in
. . 67
h1s congregatiOn.
What is clear is that the Examiner is to lead with the compassion of a father
and bring the care and healing of a shepherd to the community. The qualities of the
Overseer/Guardian are drawn from the best elements of the biblical tradition. The
compassion/pity is described like that of 'a father on his sons'. The leader 'examines'
and 'guards' as a shepherd examines and protects the sheep. Under the guidance and
care of this one, like a shepherd, the community will be healed. So the language, while
positive and hopeful for the Qumran members, may point to their opposition to the
shepherd/leaders of their time. This may well have been part of the appeal of the
community. It held out the offer of a 'counter-culture' alternative to the religious
status quo and the abuses, whether real or perceived, of the religious leaders in
Jerusalem. 68
The relationship of the CD to the Rule ofthe Community has been debated;69 CD
is essentially a document clarifying the historical vision and purpose of a community
with the understanding that it was the true Israel, those chosen by God as his unique
remnant. They understood themselves as the true alternative to the apostate Judaism
lodged in Jerusalem. They understood themselves to be 'a deviant separatist movement'
65
Alexander (EDSS) 2:799-803. 'Serekh, the word for "rule" in the Dead Sea Scrolls, like yahad
("community") is probably part of the distinctive religious vocabulary of the Dead Sea sect'.
66
Alexander (EDSS) 2:801.
67
MartinezandTigchelaar (1997) 1:573; CD A XIII-XIV Col (4Q266 9 Ill; 4Q267 9 IV, V).
68
Stanton (1992) 85-107. .
69
Vermes, (1999) 42-43.
202
in opposition to the dominant Jewish culture. 70 The appeal of the community was to offer
a 'more genuine' alternative and this was to be modeled by the mevaqqer. 71 Leadership
described as 'like a shepherd' is both positive and challenging to the current leadership
in Jerusalem.
Another relevant text is the quotation of Zechariah 13:7 in CD 19:6-11, which is
also a text quoted in Matthew 26:31. In Matthew, Jesus is identified as the shepherd of
this text, but in this quotation in CD 19:6-11 72 the 'shepherd' that is struck is not
identified specifically (thus the italic):
when God visits the earth, 7 when there comes the word which is written by
the hand ofthe prophet Zechariah: Zech 13:7 <<Wake up, sword, against 8 my
shepherd, and against the male who is my companion - oracle of God - strike
the shepherd, and the flock may scatter, 9 and I shall tum my hand against the
little ones>>. Those who revere him are Zech 11:11 <<the poor ones ofthe
flock>>. 10 These shall escape in the age ofthe visitation; but those that
remain shall be delivered up to the sword when there comes the Messiah 11 of
Aaron and Israel. 73
The shepherd of Zechariah's prophecy, 'my companion' that is being struck by God
would seem to be the king. 74 When this shepherd-king is struck, the sheep will be
scattered. This is consistent with the tradition because when the sheep have no
shepherd they will be 'scattered on the mountains' (I Kings 22: 17). The Lord's
judgment not only comes upon the shepherd and the members of the flock who
'despise the precepts and the ordinances' (non-members of the community; leaders in
Jerusalem), but also on the 'little ones' (the members of the community). Those who
will be delivered will be the humble, those 'who revere' the Lord. There are also
70
Stanton ( 1992) 90.
71
Knibb EDSS 1:137.
72
M:a.rtinez"aili:l Tigch1miat(1997)T:57'7.
73
Baumgarten (1999)1 :169; Cf. Evans EDSS I :537-542.
74
Wright (1996) 587; Bruce (1968) 100-114.
203
examples from the biblical tradition that show the community understood itself to be
'the people ofyour redemption and the sheep ofyour pasture'. 75
In the tradition of Jeremiah 23:5 and Ezekiel 34:23-34 (36:24-25) the
community hoped for 'one shepherd' in 4Q266, fragment 4 (Parallels: CD XX 33-34):
11. God [will set up one shep]herd who will feed them in [the pasture
12. and will be [ ] and will choose unto himself [
13. mercy ( 6
Vermes notes that the lines 11-12 were badly preserved in fragment 4 of 4Q266, but
considered them to be an allusion to the Messiah. He suggests the following
translation: 'God [will set up] a shep[herd for His people] and he will feed [them] in
[pasture] ... ' 77
In summary, the community at Qumran, in the context of contested leadership
in Jerusalem, recovered the biblical tradition of the royal Davidic tradition in order to
establish hope for their community. This royal tradition was referred to, among other
titles, by the 'Branch of David' and 'prince,' who are at times associated with the
shepherd metaphor. They understood the shepherd/leadership in Jerusalem to not be
legitimate and as a result were oppressive through their opposition to the community.
The shepherd/sheep metaphor continued to provide a way of self-understanding in
times of crises and contested leadership; they were the sheep ofGod's 'redemption'.
Also, through the prophetic tradition, they challenged the unfaithful or evil leadership
of their day. 78 Thus, they present themselves as an alternative community to the evil
establishment in Jerusalem.
75
Baumgarten (1996) 76-78; 4Q266,fragment 11 (Parallels:4Q270jr. 7i-ii).
76
Baumgarten (1996) 46-47. Line 11 'was restored by Milik on the basis ofEz 34:23; cf. Ez 34: 14; Ps
78:72.' This fragment was omitted by Martinez & Tigchelaar.
77
Vermes (1998) 136 n 9.
78
Evans EDSS 1:540-541.
204
6.1.6 Psalms of Solomon 17:21-46 79
The Psalms of Solomon is generally dated in the middle of the first century
B.C.E. The internal evidence points to a time of crisis when the psalmist is deeply
distressed about the state of the nation in light of a foreign conqueror. Charlesworth
writes, 'Identification of the conqueror with Antiochus Epiphanes, Herod the Great,
Pompey, and Titus shows each had its supporters. But the allusions best match
Pompey ... who took Jerusalem in 63 B.C.' 80 The promised king, the son of David, is
described at 17:21. The text explicitly connects the Davidic Messiah and the shepherd
metaphor in 17:40-42:
faithfully and righteously shepherding the Lord's flock, he will not let
any of them stumble in their pasture. He will lead them in holiness and there
will be no arrogance among them, that any should be oppressed. This is the
beauty of the king oflsrael which God knew, to raise him over the house of
Israel to discipline it.
These Psalms reflect the struggle and distress of the psalmist concerning the conflict
between the Jews being ruled by a foreign conqueror, probably Rome, and the belief
that Israel was God's chosen people. This situation of pagan rule has been caused,
according to the writer, by the sin of the people (1 :7-8; 2: 11-13; 8:9-14, 22; 17:5-8;
19-20). But, he argues, God has not abandoned Israel; he is siinply exercising his
divine discipline and will one day have mercy again (7:3-10; 9:9-11). This hope is
expressed in the prophecy of the Davidic Messiah, who like David will be God's
shepherd for his people. The psalmist looks forward to the day when the Messiah, the
son of David, will come and rid the nations of its enemies and restore Jerusalem to its
proper place (17:21-25, 45). Yet, this Messiah is not primarily depicted as a military
79
Cf. The introductions in Isaac (1983) 2:639-650, and Trafton (1992).
Charlesworth ( 1983) 2:640-641.
8
205
81
figure, because his reliance will be in God, not in horse or rider or bow (17:33-34).
The writer describes the Messiah in a number of ways including: king (17:21, 32, 42),
judge (17:26-29), shepherd (17:40-41) and Lord Messiah (17:32). InPs. Sol. 17:32 the
psalmist says, 'their king shall be the Lord Messiah.' The translation of this phrase has
often been amended to read 'the Lord's Messiah.' 82 Wright argues that, 'The term is
preserved here with the MS evidence as a current messianic title combining the
concepts of lordship and anointed agent.' 83 In light of this evidence it is
understandable why these explicit and detailed messianic expectations have influenced
the understanding of much pre-Christian Jewish messianic hope and have been
important to NT eschatology and to Jesus' owrJ use of these images in regard to his
ministry. This is one of the clearest references in this time period to the combination
of the Davidic Messiah and the shepherd metaphor.
6.2 Philo
Philo is a contemporary of Jesus, possibly born around 20 B.C.E. 84 He was from
a wealthy Jewish family and able to devote his full attention to exploring the Hebrew
Scriptures in the tradition of Jewish Alexandrian exegesis. He was comfortable with both
worlds of Greek and Jewish culture; there was no hint of struggle within him to reconcile
the two worlds. 85 Yet, it was as a Jewish philosopher and exegete that 'Philo counts
himself"in the school ofMoses"'(Mut. 223). 86
81
Traditional texts informing these prophecies might be e.g. Psalm 2 and Isaiah 11.
82
Charlesworth (1983-85) 2:667-668 R. B. Wright argues for retaining 'the Lord Messiah' in footnote
'z' rather than changing it to 'the Lord's Messiah'. He argues it is 'A title for the expected apocalyptic
king'. This translation is also followed by VanderKam (2000) 220.
83
Cf. N. T. Wright (1996) 533-534; After quoting Ps. Sol. 17:21, 39-42 says, "Jesus' use of 'shepherd'
imagery, therefore, is comprehensible within this Jewish setting as an evocation of messianic roles and
expectation, even while the style he adopted set him apart from other would~be Messiah-figures of the .;2..
r4e~~~:l~y (1996) 1-~9. - .

206
6.2.1 Introduction
Philo loves the Pentateuch and he often uses the stories of the patriarchs in order
to apply his allegorical method of exegesis in his use of the shepherd metaphor. For him,
shepherding is part of the sacred story of the patriarchs and carries full dignity and
respect. So in De agricultura 1:41 he says,
the occupationofa shepherd (Tioq.ux(vnv) has come to be considered a

respectable and profitable employment, so that the race of poets has been
accustomed to call kings the shepherds of the people (TIDtj..I.Eva:c;; A.awv); but the
law giver gives this title to the wise, who are the only real kings, for he
represents them as rulers of all men of irrational passions, as of a flock of
sheep.
For Philo the positive merits of shepherding do not arise so much from the vocation itself
(cf. Agr. 61 ), but from how the vouc;; (mind) shepherds the soul, and controls its irrational
powers. This theme is discussed at different points throughout Philo, but in one extended
passage he develops the theme extensively, where 'All the nuances ofPhilonic usage are
to be found in the connected passage Agr. 26-66'. 87
6.2.2 De agricultura 1:26-66.
In this passage Philo begins by identifying two types ofherders. '[B]y
resorting to allegory' he finds there is a difference between 'shepherd' (TIOtj..I.EVa:) and
'keeper of sheep' (Kt11VOtp6<flov). He understands that many see these as the same.
However, those who understand that reason (A.oytojloc;;) is the superintendent of the
flock ofthe soul and the person who is an indifferent manager is a 'keeper of sheep,'
will see that the good and faithful one is the 'shepherd'. He then contrasts the mind
with the irrational powers of the soul (Agr. 30). Those who live unrestrained lives are
like scattered sheep but reason collects the flock like a shepherd (Agr. 30-39). He
85
Barclay ( 1996) 161.
86
Barclay (1996) 163.
87
207
describes these irrational distractions in some detail and then turns to describe the
shepherds who supply first the necessities of life, but do not indulge the senses. In
addition, the shepherd (mind, vou~) guards the flock against disease and prevents the
flock from scattering (39-41 ). Next, Philo draws on Numbers 27:17 and says of
Moses, the all-wise (nava6<f>C ): 88
[he] prays that the flock may not be left without a shepherd, meaning by the
flock the whole multitude of the parts of the soul; but that they may meet with
a good shepherd, who will lead them away from the nets of folly, and injustice,
and all wickedness, and conduct them to the doctrines of learning and all other
virtue; ... he adds, 'And the assembly ofthe Lord shall not be like sheep who
have no shepherd'. 89
Consistent with the Greco-Roman tradition, for Philo, Moses is 'shepherd of the
people' like Agamemnon.
At this point, Philo shifts his discussion of the shepherd to society. The wise
shepherd does not allow anarchy to rule. But he warns against the other extreme as
well, a wise shepherd is not weak or as he says, 'men who are too good and gentle'
(46-47). These two kinds of 'herders' are simply 'keepers of herds' (K"tTJVO-rp6!f>wv)90
and not really true shepherds at all. He continues to use pastoral language even to
describe the negative traits of the undisciplined. He proceeds to describe that the mind
should govern all conduct (48):
that our mind should govern all our conduct, like a goatherd (a l n6A.ov ), or a
cowherd (~ouK6A.ov), or a shepherd (noq..tf:va), or, in short, like any herdsman
(KOLVW~ VOjlEa) of any kind.
In light of these descriptions Philo explains the good shepherd (&ya.8ou 1TOLjlEVo~). For
the good shepherd the 'mind ought to rule' (&pxELv vouv). Because the good shepherd
prefers what is 'advantagous,' rather than what is 'agreeable' or pleasant (48).
88
Agr. 43.
89
Agr. 44.
9
KtT}vo-rp6>o<;, ov, (rp>w) keeping cattle, pastoral
208
How does one attain to this? Philo argues that this only happens by the care
and oversight of God, who is the genuine shepherd as provider, guide and overseer.
Basing his argument on Psalm 23, that God himself is this kind of shepherd, Philo
continues to praise the role.
Thus, indeed, being a shepherd is a good thing, so that it is justly attributed,

not only to kings, and to wise men, and to souls who are perfectly purified, but
also to God, the ruler of all things; ... for he speaks thus, "The Lord is my
shepherd, and he shall cause me to lack nothing;" ... For God, like a shepherd
and a king, governs (as if they were a flock of sheep) the earth, .... 91
The justification for the praise of the shepherd, in contrast to the later rabbis, is God
who is the shepherd. The biblical tradition conditions his praise of the shepherd
metaphor.
Even Philo's use of God's 'logos and first-born son' appointed to be the
shepherd makes its way into the passage:
appointing, as their immediate superintendent, his own right reason, his first-
born son (A.6yov Kat 1Tpw-r6yovov ui.6v), who is to receive the charge of this
sacred company, as the lieutenant of the great king; for it is said somewhere,
"Behold, I am he! I will send my messenger before thy face, who shall keep
thee in the road" (Ex 23 :20).
God, according to Philo, by means ofthe 'logos,' represents himself in the world and
provides so that nothing should be lacking. These texts are representative of Philo's
use of the shepherd motif. He uses it allegorically in regard to the mind (6Lavo(ac;)
which is the shepherd of the body and able to control its conduct (49).
Yet for all his praise of the shepherd metaphor, according to Philo the actual
shepherd status was very low:
'such occupations are accounted inglorious and mean (&6o~a yap Kat taTinv&;
of no account) among those who are loaded with great prosperity, without
being at the same time endowed with prudence, and especially among kings' .92
91
Agr. 50-5/.
92 Agr. 6 I.
209
This is a typical way in which the shepherd occupation is often presented in antiquity.
There is a tension between the work of a shepherd depicted as inglorious and the use
of the shepherd metaphor to describe kings. This tension continues in Philo. It
continues to be one of the unresolved tensions in the extant materials.
In summary, we have tried to appreciate Philo's unique gifts and contributions.
Philo has his own unique way of treating the biblical tradition. He esteems the image
because it is a biblical metaphor and the heroes of his faith were shepherds (Abraham,
Jacob, Joseph, Moses, Agr. 42-43). He relates it to his philosophy of the Hebrew
Scriptures. As a philosophical and an allegorical principle, it serves him well. The
virtues of his Jewish faith are supported and the vices of paganism may be identified
and shunned. God himself is associated with the image and therefore, in light of his
understanding of reason (A.Oyo<;) (51) God as a shepherd puts life in order. So, in light
of De agricutura, Philo has a very positive view of the shepherd metaphor in spite of
the reality of the social status of real shepherds.
6.3 Some Rabbinic References
In this final section, I will consider how the shepherd vocation was viewed. Also
considered will be whether the attitude toward the shepherd vocation influenced the way
the metaphor was understood. These two questions are very difficult to answer with any
kind of certainty. The 'stereotypical' understanding of these two issues, based upon two
clear references, was to describe the shepherd occupation as a 'despised trade'. Therefore
it was seen negatively by all in the first century. The two references, one from the
Mishnah the other from the Babylonian Talmud have led to this conclusion. The problem
with these two references is that they are much later than the first century. The Mishnah
is not written down until ca. 200 C.E. and the Babylonian Talmud is 'finally completed
210
around the middle of the sixth century' .93 It is commonly recognized that concerns about
the dating of material in the Mishnah and the later Jewish materials is a real issue in
using these texts to tell us anything about the first century C.E. Therefore trying to
understand the status of the shepherd/sheep metaphor in the first century is also difficult.
But having acknowledged the historical problems it may still be beneficial to explore this
issue further. To clarify what the rabbis understood by the 'despised trades' it will be
helpful to list them here.
6.3.1 Shepherd as a 'despised trade'
The 'despised trades' can be noted in lists of occupations in the Mishnah and the
Talmuds. Ranked among those despised trades is the herdsman/shepherd 94
The lists are as follows:
m Qidd 4:14 b. Sanh. 25b

1. Ass-driver 1. Gambler with Dice
2. Camel-driver 2. Usurer
3. Sailor 3. Pigeon-trainer
4. Carter [pottery merchant] 4. Dealer in produce of sabbatical
5. Herdsman [shepherd] year
6. Shopkeeper 5. Herdsman [shepherd]
7. Physician 6. Tax collector
8. Butcher 7. Publican95
Along with these lists, there is the comment in the Midrash on Psalm 23:2, 'R.
Jose bar Hanina taught: In the whole work you find no occupationmore despised than
96
that of the shepherd, all his days he walks about with his staff and his pouch' . This
kind of material has been used to foster the image in the first century that the shepherd
was despised and a disenfranchised member of society. However, one of the
dilemmas, as noted above, has to do with the late date of such sources. Typically,
Strack ~ St~I11~~;Jrg~r ,0 991) 194.

9
:
9
Jeremias (1969) 303-3 I 2.
95
Jeremias (1969) 304.
211
rabbinic materials are dated according to the names of rabbis attributed with the saying
or tradition. Sternberger thinks that the Tannaitic attributions are generally reliable. 97
If that approach is taken then Abba Saul who quotes the first list in the Mishnah is
dated about 150 and the R Jose bar Hannina is from the third century. It is outside of
the scope of the thesis to pursue these second and third century issues but they are
noted in addition to the pejorative quote by Philo above. 98 There is definitely a
negative attitude toward the shepherd vocation. Among the rabbis one of the reasons
stated is that shepherds cannot be trusted because they steal, to one degree or another,
from the owners of the sheep or use grazing land and water that does not belong to
them. That having been said, the cautions of Horsley are also worth considering. 99 The
literary statements made about shepherds are mostly made by the elite of society.
Though they saw the occupation as 'inglorious and of no account', it may be because
shepherds were economically on the margins of society. We will consider this from
another perspective in the next section.
6.3.2 Shepherds as ordinary peasants
To further pursue the negative attitude toward the shepherd vocation, we will
ask the questions a bit differently. Granted shepherds were among the lowly of the
society, they were peasants after all, but the question is 'How lowly?' and "According
to whom?' Who perceived them that way? Everyone? Or only the more elite parts of
the society? There may be differing perceptions according to who was speaking about
96
Braude (1959) I :327.
97
Strack & Sternberger (1991) 57-58. Sternberger claims to discern five generations of Tannaim and
seven of Amoraim. He dates only the second generation (c. 90-130 C. E.) and the third generation (c.
130-160 C.E.) ofTannaites. Similarly, Danby (1933) 799-800 lists six generations of the Tanniam: c. I 0
to 240 CE. Sanders (1977) 60 accepts the Tannaitic literature as an accurate account of rabbinic
materials from 70-200 C.E. Pace Neusner (1994) 651-658, who is pessimistic about any dating and has
~iven up dati_qg aQytbing other than the final written.document;
8
Agr. 61.
99
Horsley (1995) l 02-103.
212
the shepherd. Is it appropriate to say Philo is an intellectual Jewish elitist? He is
among the wealthy by any standards of the ancient world. Do the Rabbis have other
more religious concerns? Generally, most of the references to shepherds we have
come from the more elite stratification of the society. Does that affect the way we
now view them? The fact that shepherds were of a low status among the more
powerful of society may (but may not) indicate their low status in the rest of society in
the first century. There is little direct evidence concerning how the common peasant
associated with and perceived the shepherd of the day. It may be that they were simply
'ordinary' peasants among other peasants and not in some way singled out any more
than any other occupation and trade may be singled out for its abuses. Could both of
these perspectives be held together, by simply acknowledging the witness of the texts
(even though they are sometimes late) and that shepherds were ordinary people? It
may well be that Horsley is right to this extent that in Luke 2 the shepherds are 'the
obvious local representatives' of the ordinary people. 100
The reality that shepherds had, or could have had, a suspicious reputation is
warranted. The laws concerning herding point in this direction. Due to the nature of
the occupation there were opportunities for them to 'cheat' and 'rob' the owner of the
sheep through their use of the wool and milk or even engage in inaccurate reporting of
the annual offspring. This is indicated in the laws and regulations related to shepherds.
This is confirmed by the later rabbinic materials. But their status may not have been
any lower than other peasant groups in the first century.
100
Horsley (1995) 104.
213
6.3.3 Shepherd as a 'would be' Messiah
In a passage from the Ant. and the J. W, Josephus refers to a specific occurrence
that may illustrate that it was possible for the common people to be willing to
acknowledge leadership in a shepherd, even though they were a lowly part of society. He
reports one individual who set himself up as king during the time of Herod the Great and
received a following for 'a great while':
Athronges, a person neither eminent by the dignity of his progenitors, nor for
any great wealth he was possessed of, but one that had in all respects been a
shepherd only, and was not known by anyone; yet because he was a tall man,
and excelled others in the strength of his hands, he was so bold as to set up
himself for king. 101
According to Josephus he had four brothers and, 'Each of these ruled over a band of men
of their own; for those who got together to them were very numerous. 102 This passage
may well illustrate that while the elite in society may have 'despised' the shepherd, the
'ordinary' people may have seen them as common people who could gather a following.
In summary, the social status of the shepherd in the first century was low and
probably did not have a good reputation as the later documents attest and the few
contemporary witnesses would seem to confirm. But their status as ordinary peasants
may not have been any lowlier than other peasant groups. They may well have made 'the
lists' oflater generations for reasons having to do with the moral 'hazards' of the job as
much as any reason. Technically, to be a shepherd of sheep and goats was not a violation
of the Jewish law, even though the occupation would later become suspect and be
considered outside the Law.
101
Josephus t~lls the story twice: Ant. 17:278-281 and J. W 2:60-62.
102
Ant. 17:279
214
6.4 Summary
There are two observations from the material considered in this chapter. When
the shepherd metaphor is considered in light of the biblical tradition there are two
streams of tradition. First, there is a positive evaluation of the shepherd metaphor
when characterized by the patriarchs, Moses, David and the Davidic Messiah. Qumran
would emphasize the 'branch of David' and 'the prince' as well as positive uses ofthe
shepherd metaphor. The Psalms of Solomon would use the shepherd image as an
image of hope in the face of the Roman occupation oflsrael in 63 B.C.E.
Second, there is the anti-shepherd motif in the prophetic tradition of Jeremiah,
Ezekiel and Zechariah. Second Temple Judaism would also know this tradition.
During times of national crises and contested leadership the shepherd image may have
been avoided as in the case ofl Enoch because 'shepherds' as leaders of whatever
kind were mostly evil. What Matthew will do with these two streams within the
tradition will be to bring the two together and present them as in tension with each
other illustrating Jesus as Shepherd-Messiah and Herod and the Jewish leadership of
his day as the anti-shepherds. In the final chapter of this study we now tum our
attention to a close look at Jesus as shepherd in the Gospel of Matthew.

215
CHAPTER7
JESUS AS SHEPHERD IN MATTHEW
7.1 Introduction
In preparation for looking closely at Matthew's use of the shepherd metaphor, I
have attempted to give the background to his use of the metaphor. Thus, we have
reviewed the biblical tradition, selected texts from the ANE, the OT and Second
Temple Judaism. In this final chapter we will analyze Matthew's use of the shepherd
metaphor. Matthew uses noqJ.~v, the noun for shepherd, 1 three times in his Gospel and
the verb noq.ux(vw once? Matthew only uses these terms metaphorically. never
literally. Through these four uses Matthew establishes Jesus as the messianic
shepherd. This chapter will show how Matthew accomplishes this. These four
Matthean texts will be examined: 2:6; 9:36; 25:31-32; 26:31 along with Matthew
15:24.
The procedure for examining each of these five Matthean texts will involve a
textual analysis, an intertextual analysis, a contextual analysis and a metaphor
analysis. It is important to note that the first two texts (Mt 2:6 and 9:35-10:1) will
receive longer and more thorough treatment than the other three texts. The reason for
this is that I will introduce and explore major Matthean themes relevant to the
shepherd metaphor, Matthean literary techniques and special linguistic characteristics
in the first two that then need not be repeated in the remaining three.
7.2 Mt. 2:6-Introduction and Structure ofMt 2:1-11
The first shepherd text for consideration is Matthew 2:6. The context of 2: 1-11
is the Matthean infancy narrative of chapters 1 and 2. It has often been pointed out that
1
o
no~IJ.~V, E\J~, shepherd~fig. Mt 9:36 II Mk6:34; Mt 25:32; Mt 26:ll/! Mk 14:27.
2 noq.J.a(vw herd, tend, (lead to) pasture-tig.-a. in the sense 'lead,' 'guide,' 'rule' Mt 2:6; J 21: 16; Ac
20:28; I Pt 5:2; Rv 2; 27; 12:5; 19:15.-b. care for, look after Jd 12; Rv 7:17.
216
many ofthe theological themes and motifs of Matthew's Gospel generally are
introduced in these opening two chapters. 3 These theological motifs are introduced by
Matthew's explicit scriptural comment by way of the formula quotations, also by
explicit narrative description and implicit narrative devices. 4
Matthew 1:1 introduces Jesus as 'Messiah (Xpwto~), the son of David, the son
of Abraham,' and with these descriptions Matthew immediately introduces the reader
to his christological focus. 5 The identification of Jesus as Messiah (1: 1, 16) is
supported later in the chapter when he is called Emmanuel, God with us (1 :23) and the
significance of his name given because he will save his people from their sins ( 1:21 ).
3
Stanton (1992) 360, 'Nearly all the evangelist's distinctive themes are found in chapters I and 2: the
infancy narratives form a theological prologue to the Gospel as a whole.' Luz 1:162 also notes the way
Mt introduces important theological themes in these chapters as well: 'The formula quotations are
notably frequent in the prologue, because here the evangelist introduces those viewpoints and accents
which are important for the whole Gospel and which the reader must keep in mind while perusing the
entire Gospel. The formula quotations which are scattered in the rest ofthe Gospel are then reminders'.
4
Stanton (2002) 64-67. Senior (1997) 94 ... 'in these opening chapters the main themes of Jesus' mission
are sounded and by means of the formula quotations the evangelist immediately asserts that all of Jesus'
mission is a fulfillment of the Old Testament.' A recent narrative approach to Matthean Christology is
represented by Donaldson (2005) 100-122. Some of these narrative themes will be pointed out in the
discussion below and an exhaustive list is not necessary here but just to clarity what is meant concerning
Matthew's explicit and implicit narrative approach. I) Explicit Narrative Description: Christo/o~
Christ/Messiah (I :I, 16, 18; 2:4; 16:16, 20; 22:42; 24:5, 23; 26:63, 68) Son of David/King (I :1; I :20; 2:2;
9:27; 12:23; 15:22; 20:30-31; 21:9, 15; 27:37) Son of God (1:21-23; 2: 15; 3:17; 4:3, 6; 8:29; II :27; 16: 16;
17:5; 21 :4-5; 26:63; 27:54; 28:19) Fulfillment-the formula quotations (I :22-23; 2:15; 2:17-18; 2:23; 4:14-
16; 8: 17; 12:17-21; 13:35; 21 :4-5; 27:9- 10). Specific phrases that occur at crucial points in the narrative:
e.g. 'God with us. '(I :23; 18:20; 28:20). 2) Implicit Narrative Devices: The evangelist often uses the device
of comparison (e.g. Jesus is compared to Moses) and/or contrast (e.g. 'King' Herod and 'King' Jesus). He
uses many allusions from the biblical tradition, beyond the use of the quotation, in his development of the
numerous christological themes. So, the explicit use of Son of Abraham in I: I implies that Jesus is the true
Israelite (e.g. chapter 2) and by Jesus 'the nations will be blessed' through his birth, baptism, temptations,
ministry, death and resurrection. The Gentiles are meant to participate in this promise (28: 18-20). Differing
motifs and theological themes, e.g. Righteousness/Discipleship-Joseph in the infancy narrative is a true
disciple who is described as righteous (I: 19), and he obeys throughout the narrative in his actions with
Mary (I: 18-25), in fleeing to Egypt (2: 13-15}, in returning (2: 19-23). The theme of righteous/righteousness
runs through the Gospel (I :19; 3:15; 5:6, 10, 20, 45; 6: I, 33; 21 :32; 25:37, 46). Acceptance/Rejection
motif-Herod's response versus that of the Magi to Jesus: 2: 11-worship/homage, npooKuvEw (Mt 2:2, 8,
11, 13-23). The theme will continue through the Gospel, e.g. 8:2; 9:18; 14:33; 20:20; 15:25; 28:9, 17.
Matthew used these kinds of literary techniques, and others, to communicate the Gospel story.
5
Davis and Allison I: 159-160 ... the phrase 'Son of David' represents Jesus as the king oflsrael, the rightful
heir to the Davidic promises. This too pertains to eschatology: the Messiah has coine. Lastly, 'Sori of
Abraham' probably implied not only that Jesus is a true Israelite but also ... that with his appearance God's
promise to the patriarch has been realized: all the nations of the earth (cf. 28.19) have been blessed'.
217
'In Matthew 2 the emphasis shifts from the identity of Jesus to a series of places.
If the major concern of chapter 1 was "Who?" the major concern of chapter 2 is
"Where?"' 6 The question 'where?' (nou, 2:2, 4) is implicitly asked three times and
Scripture is used in each case to answer the question: where was the King of the Jews
born? Bethlehem of Judea (2:5-6); where did the Messiah go after his birth? Egypt and
back again to Israel (2:13-15); and where did the Messiah finally live? He lived in
Nazareth of Galilee (2: 19-23). 'Where' is also emphasized by the place names in
chapter two: Bethlehem and Jerusalem (v 1, 3, 8), Egypt, Ramah and Nazareth (2: 13-
23). Along with Matthew's concern for the questions of 'who' and 'where' of Jesus,
there are character contrasts, reactions and responses throughout the narrative.
Through these narrative devices, the reader encounters the character of Jesus
according to Matthew. Therefore, whether by description or by the events of the
narrative, the primary concern of the evangelist is christological. Jesus is the one born
king of the Jews (2:2) and is portrayed as the ruler who will shepherd God's people
(2:6).
Matthew 2 has frequently been divided into five sections structured around the
biblical quotations. 7 The challenge to this division is that the biblical allusions in 2: 11 8
are not as explicit as the quotations in 2:6, 15, 18 and 23, and 2:11 has no place name.
Also, the general consensus is that any division of the chapter that does not recognize
6
Stendahl (1983) 57-58, 'Matt. 2 is dominated by geographical names. This is the more striking in
contrast to chap. I, which has not a single one [note 10: 'Except for the phrase "the deportation to
Babylon" in 1:11, 12, 17, where it serves as a temporal designation.') not even where we would expect
them, i.e. in 1: 18f... Cf. Brown (1988) 178-183; Harrington (1991) 46.
7
E.g. Hengel and Merkel (1973); Fenton (1964). The four place names are associated with four of the
five quotations: 1) vv 1-6: v 6 (Mic 5:1, 3) Bethlehem. 2} vv 7-J2: v 11 (Ps 72:10-11; Is 60:6) No"place
name. J)VV JJ-1.): vt.) tHOS 1"1: I) t.gypt. 4) VV.iO-llS: V J 1S tJer j t: D) Kama. ~) VV J ~-L.J: V L.J tiS
11:1 ?) Nazareth.
8
Ps 72:10-11 and possibly v 15 and Is 60:6.
218
the major break between 2:1-12 and 2:13-23 is considered questionable. 9 Yet, the
scriptural quotations are crucial to the chapter and 'have as their foundation

christological convictions-they are, indeed, christocentric' . 1 Christology is
paramount; the focus is on the contrasts of the responses to the child by the magi, the
people of Jerusalem, 'the chief priests and scribes of the people,' and by Herod. The
chapter is unified by the two contrasting stories of2:1-12 and 2:13-23. The first is a
story of acceptance, the other one of rejection. 11
Mt 2:1-12 has been summarized and analyzed in a number of ways. Luz and
Hagner propose a structure that is much simpler. After the introductory question of
magi (vv 1-2), Luz identifies two parts: (1) the encounter with Herod, the false king of
the Jews (vv 2-9a) and (2) the encounter with the child of Bethlehem, the true king (vv
9b-12). The two parts correspond to the narrative's central conflict between the
strategy of Herod and the strategy ofGod. 12 Hagner suggests an "a-b-a" structure: (a)
the magi's arrival and message (vv 1-2), (b) Herod's troubled reaction (vv 3-8), and
(a) the magi's worship ofthe child (vv 9-12). 13
These are in contrast to the more detailed analysis of Davies and Allison, who
envision 2:1-12 as the second of three acts (act one, 1:18-25; act three, 2:13-23) in the
14
'infancy drama' and divide it into six short scenes:
A. The magi come to Judea, to look for the king of the Jews. (2: 1-2). B. Herod
learns from the priests and scribes where the Messiah is to be born. (2:3-6).
C. Herod asks for the magi's cooperation (2:7-8).
D. The magi follow a star to Bethlehem. (2:9-10).
E. The magi pay homage to the child. (2:11).
F. The magi, being warned in a dream not to return to Herod, leave Bethlehem.
(2:12).
9
Davies and Allison 1:224. Cf. Brown (1988) 178-179; Hagner I :24; Luz 1:129.
10
Hagner 1:!vi.
11
Luz I :129. 'Without 2:1-12, the section 2:13-23 would not be understandable'.
0
12
Luz 1:129.
13
Hagner 1:24.
14
Davies and Allison I :224, who seem to follow Lohmeyer (1967) 19.
219
Matthew's use of the biblical traditions in this passage is different than in the
formula quotations of chapters 1 and 2. The compound quote in Mt 2:6 from Mic 5:1-
2 and II Sam 5:2 is an integral part of the narrative. 15 There are other possible related
biblical allusions in Matthew 2:9 (cf. Num 23:7 LXX, 'out of the east'; 16 Num 24:17-
19 LXX) 17 and Mt 2:11 (cf. Ps 72:10-11, 15; Is 60: 1-6). 18 The narrative is filled with
comparisons and contrasts as we can see in the following chiastic pattern: 19
A 2:1-2 The magi search for the newborn King ofthe Jews
B 2:3-4 Herod the King and the ruling religious leaders inquire about the Christ
C 2:5-6 The religious leaders tell King Herod the Shepherd King will rule
BB' 2:7-8 Herod the King responds to the King of the Jews
AA' 2:9-12 The magi respond to the King ofthe Jews
This structure highlights one of the main themes in the section, the
'acceptance/rejection' motif. 20 It also recognizes the integral functioning of the OT
quote in the narrative. In this way, Matthew's OT quote differs from the other formula
quotes of the infancy narrative. The response of the religious leaders in2:5 and
biblical quotation in 2:6 are central to the narrative and are important in the overall
story. It is part of the irony of the narrative that the quotation comes from the religious
15
It is often noted that the 'formula quotations' of Matthew are not an integral part of the narrative; that
is, if they are removed, the narrative flow is not effected. That is not the case of the quotation in 2:6; it
is integral to the narrative o2:1-12. I would propose that 2:6 is not a formula quotation but one ofthe
other 21 independent quotations peculiar to Matthew.
16
Gundry (1994) 27, 'Like the Gentile prophet Balaam they have come "from the east" (cf.... Philo's
calling Balaam a magus in Mos./.50.276)'.
17
Gundry {1994) 27, 'The star ... derives from the royal star seen to rise by Balaam (Num 24:17-19
LXX) and interpreted messianically in late Judaism ( ... cf. Bar Cochba, "son of a star", acclaimed as the
Messiah by some Jews during the Second Jewish War of A.D. 132-135)'.
18
Gundry {1994) 27, 'It would be a mistake to think that because Matthew fails to quote Num 23:7;
24:17-19 explicitly he has little or no interest in them. Throughout his Gospel he subtly conforms
phraseology to the OT. Since Jesus has already been introduced as David's son, Matthew expects his
readers to catch such allusions; or he takes private delight in them'.
19
The contrasting and comparing main characters and events was an ancient rhetorical strategy
ouyKplOL<;, 'comparison.' Stanton {1993) 77-84. This literary device will be used below to appreciate
Matthew's narrative approach of contrasting and comparing characters and events. Cf. Luz I: 129, 'But
not only the kings Herod and Jesus but also the Magi and Herod are contrasted with each other: The
narrator Matthew quite deliberately parallels the twodirectdi,~coyrses in vv. 2 and 8: Both begin with
the question about the new king and end with the desire to worship him (npooKuvEw)'.
20
Stanton (2002) 65-66, 'These twin themes [acceptance/rejection] are prominent in the infancy
narrative'.
220
leaders, who do not follow-up or search for the possible newborn king. The authority
of the quote is its source in Scripture, not the religious leaders. 21 The outline gives a
framework for the explicit and the implicit narrative comparisons and contrasts in the
passage. A narrative tension is created between the one born 'king of the Jews' and
King Herod's response and the positive response of the Gentile magi.
7.2.1 Textual Analysis ofMt 2:6
The shepherd text at Mt 2:6 is a compound or double quotation22 combining
Mic 5: 1(2) and II Sam 5:2. There is no clear indication that Matthew is following the
LXX or the MT in Mic 5: 1(2). 23 On the other hand, II Sam 5:2 is very close to the
LXX. Matthew's use of texts cannot be reduced to a simplified formula. Some texts
apparently are his own redaction, some are from the LXX, and some from something
close to the MT. The sources of the texts must be understood in light ofthe fluidity of
first-century circumstances, rather than the relatively fixed understanding of the
biblical tradition today.
Matthew uses his sources with authority to accomplish his purposes. As noted
above, when following Mark or Q Matthew traditionally follows the LXX, but when
using his own sources he seems willing to 'mix' the text according to his own
intentions and theological concerns. The position in this thesis concerning Matthew's
21
Davies and Allison 3:577, 'The assumption of the formula quotations is the authority of the Jewish
Bible: The Scriptures measure truth.' .... This is of course true for all of Matthew's uses of the OT, both
quotes and allusions.
22
The language at this point can be confusing. I will use 'compound quotation', the phrase used by
Brown (1988) 175, or 'double quotation' when referring to more than one scripture text in any given
citation and 'mixed quotation' when referring to the combination of LXX and MT textual traditions in a
citation. So, e.g. Luz I: 130 calls 2:6 a 'mixed quotation' when referring to the combination of the two
citations.
23
Stanton ( 1992) 260. Stanton is of the conviction that Matthew does not use a standard text of the
LXX or the MT when quoting texts that are unique to him; in other words Matthew seems freer to
redact his own sources than those traditions he ll!l~S_res~iy~g, fut~'-"ample, from Mark or Q. 'Given the-
evangelist's penchailt'foftlfe textform used by his sources, the fluidity of textual traditions in the first
century, and the possibility that some passages have been quoted from memory or adapted to fit the
context, perhaps this [the Mt 2:6 quote] is not surprising'.
221
use ofthe OTis in the tradition of Gundry, Rothfuchs, McConnell, Soares Prabhu,
Brown, Stanton, and Davies and Allison.
Matthew's intent is to use the biblical traditions in such a way as to give a
particular shape and emphasis to his Christology and ecclesiology. For Matthew, Jesus
is the Messiah and Son of David, and, according to the biblical tradition, he is the
shepherd of God's people. Matthew presents Jesus as the righteous and royal
shepherd. Jesus is righteous because he comes from God, according to the prophecy of
Mic 5:1-3. He is royal because he is born ofthe royal lineage and comes fromthe
house of David following II Sam 5:2.
Matthew uses Micah and II Samuel to clarify the identity of Jesus of Nazareth
and to announce how he fulfills biblical tradition in his own day. Through the
combination of the two texts, Mic 5: 1 and II Sam 5:2, he intends to identify the child
as both in the line ofDavid and the Jewish Messiah. 24
Line 1)25 Mt 2:6,. K{(L au BT]8AEEIJ., yf} 'Iouoa,

LXX Mic 5:2, K{(L au BT]8AEEIJ. oiKo<; tOU Ecppa8a
MTMic5:2,
Matthew 2:6 is a mixed quotation (LXX and MT) which is confirmed by the
change from 'house ofEphrathah' in the LXX and 'Ephrathah' in the MT with his
own: yf} 'Iouoa, 'land of Judah'. The language is typically Matthean and is expressed
in his use of the vocative, yf} 'Iouoa (0 land of Judah) rather than the expected
genitive, yf}c; 'Iouoa (0 land of Judah). The use of the vocative ( yf} ) is more
awkward, but it is a favorite of the redactor (Mt: 43 times; Mk: 19 times and Lk: 25
times). In chapter 2, Matthew always refers to 'the land' (2:6, 20, 21), again
24
Gf. Brown (1988) 184-1'87. Davies and Allison I :242, 'The differences are in fact sufficient to tempt
one to speak of an "interpretation" instead of a "quotation" of Scripture'. Cf. Lust (1997) 65-88.
25
Brown (1988) 185.
222
emphasizing the territorial aspect of Matthew 2. The references to Judah (twice in vs.
6) are probably meant to connect Jesus with the patriarch Judah (Mt 1:2-3) in the mind
of the reader. 26 This is relevant because Messiah was to come from the tribe of Judah.
So, the royal tradition of King David and the Davidic lineage are recalled from chapter
one concerning the 'newborn king ofthe Jews'. The reference to Judah in vs. 6
connects with the earlier references in 2:1, 5 in the immediate context and anticipates
2:22. So, lineage and land are used to establish Jesus' credibility as the newborn king
of the Jews. Matthew also utilizes the long royal Davidic tradition in relation to the
shepherd metaphor.
Matthew's use of the OT in the current passage demonstrates how he uses a
compound text and illustrates how he does not strictly follow either the LXX or the
MT.
. 2)27 Mt 2 :6, ouua~wc;

L me 's: - E11.<XXtatT)
'1 ' ... EV
EL ' toLe;
- T)YE~oaw
' ' 'I ouua
's:
LXX Mic 5:2, oA.Lyoatoc; EL tou ELVaL E:v XLA.uxaw Iouoa
MT Mic 5:2, i1.:m,, DSI(::! 'nii1S ,.l1~
T : J'' ; - : :I' T
The first difference is ou6a~wc;, 'by no means, 28 which replaces the LXX,
29
o.h yoatoc;, one out ofa few. This change is significant because the point in both the
LXX and MT is that Bethlehem is small (Uax(otl)) among the thousands, but after
Matthew's change, Bethlehem is, with emphasis, 'by no means least among the leaders
ofJudah'. Hagner makes an interesting proposal in an attempt to understand the
change, 'If in the MT the initial ', were read as the negative particle totS, (lo') that is with
26
Davies and Allison I :242, "'Ephrathah" (cf. Gen 35.19; 48.7) would likely have meant little to
Matthew's audience. "Judah", by way of contrast, is full of meaning. It emphasizes the connexion [sic]
between Jesus and the patriarch Judah (cf. 1.2-3)---.,---so important because the Davidic Messiah was
expected to come from the tribe of Judah ... .'
27
Brown (1988) 185.
28
BDAG: 'a marker of emphatic negation.' A NT hapax legomenon; only here in 2:6, rare in the LXX A
as well, only in 2, J, 4 Maccabees.

29
LSJ: 'ol'iycxn:~, ~. 6v, (oA.(yoc;) one out of a few, opp. to nolloooc;, ~. ov,
(rroU6c;, noA.uc;) one of
many.'
223
the slight change of ,.,,i!? (ljhyo!) to ,.,,;;tt6, (lo'hyo!) a reading is produced that
coincides with Matthew's Greek rendering of the passage' .30 If Hagner is correct in his
proposal, then the change may or may not have been introduced by the evangelist.
Whatever the explanation, the change is significant because Matthew has made
Bethlehem great because of its association with the Messiah. Yet, this is the very kind
of change that Matthew has become known for in his dealing with OT. May it be that
according to Matthew, 'because the Messiah has come into the world at Bethlehem, he
has brought the city greatness'?31 Does the reversal also contrast the place of apparent
power and influence, Jerusalem, with the apparently small and insignificant
Bethlehem as now having great importance because of God's choice and initiative?
Next, the LXX has xtA.taow, 'thousands', which Matthew changes to 'prince or
ruler', ~YE!J.Ootv. 32 Here also, an explanation for the change may be a result of the
Hebrew. Most commentators think if the Hebrew consonants are pointed differently
there is a potential understanding for the change. On the one hand, 'alpe, .~'?~ means
'thousands/clans' ,33 but, on the other hand, the Hebrew consonants could be pointed
'allupe, a'(~ or ~p"~ meaning 'chief/leaders/princes' .34 Matthew, by all indications,
30
Hagner I :29, 'This reading, given its appropriateness in a reference to the birth of the coming ruler,
could possibly already have been circulating in Matthew's time'.
31
So Davies and Allison I :242-243. They also note that in 5: I9; 25:40 and 25:45 'other things qualified
as "the least" become important'.
32
BDAG: '~YEf.uJv, 6voc;;, 6: I. one who rules, esp. in a preeminent position, ruler E=v ro'ic; ~YEflOOLV
'Iou&x among the rulers ofJudah Mt 2:6 (after Mi 5: I; the rendering E=v to ~YEflOOLV instead of the LXX
E=v XL.l..uioLv, following rabbinic methods of interpretation, is suggested by ~YOUflEVov in 2 Sam 5:2,
cited in the last part of Mt 2:6)'
0
Or '1?~ ('elt'lP) 'ti)oJ,Jsand'

33
0
34
Or .,~s~ ('alh1p) 'chief.' This helps clarifY what potentially lies behind the reading in Mt 2:6 where
'princes' of Judah reflects a pointing 'alh1p in the Hebrew ofMic 5:I.
224
has access to Hebrew textual traditions as well as the LXX and the MT; this may
explain the change. 35
Line 3)36 Mt 2:6, E'K aou yap E~EAEUOE't!Xl ~YOUflEVoc;;,

LXX Mic 5:2, EK aou f..I.Ol E~EAEUOEt!Xl tOU ELV!Xl ELc;; &pxovta EV tQ Iapa,t..
MT Mic 5:2, ~~lt;l':;t ',yM ni~;;r,t, N~~ ,', ';rp~
Matthew introduces the conjunctive (yap) 'for' because it helps clarify the
preceding emphatic negation (oUcsaf!wc;;) 'by no means the least'. Matthew then uses the
present middle participle, 'ruler' (~youf!Evoc;;), which replaces the LXX: &pxovta. 37
Matthew chooses ~youf..LEVoc;; probably because of its similarity to ~YEflWV in line 2
above. 38 ~youf!Evoc;; is sometimes used to refer to a Roman governor or one 'of princely
authority' .39 In the next line is Matthew's description of the nature or kind of 'rule'
that will be exercised by Messiah. Matthew's single use of the verb, 'you shall
shepherd, 1TOLfl!XVE1c;;, 40 my people Israel' gives this description. According to the
Micah prophecy, the Messiah will come from the now significant hamlet of
Bethlehem, the town of David, and he will be the rightful ruler of the people of Israel.
Lest his rule be confused with any other, it is now confirmed that he will rule as a
shepherd, as a shepherd shepherds his flock.
Line 4)41 Mt 2:6, oanc;; 1TOlfl!XVE1 tOV !..a6v flOU tOV 'Japa~/...
LXX II Sam 5:2, au 1TOI.f..L!XVE1c;; tOV t..a6v f..LOU tOV Iapa,t..
MT II Sam 5:2//I Chron 11:2, :',~lip'""~ ,;J~', ~'.i!l1 :"1};'1~' ',~l~-n~ 'rp~-n~ i!l?i!} :-r~~
35
So Davies and Allison 1:242-43; Hagner 1:29; Luz 1:130 and others. Davies and Allison even
propose that this change not only explains Matthew's reading, but that '[h]e is working with the
Hebrew'. 243.
36
Brown (1988) 186.
37
Ps 68:27(LXX 28) EKEL BEvLaf.LLV vECSrEpo<;; l=v (xatocoEL &pxovtE<;; Iou5a ~YEflOVEc; cdm.3v &pxovtEc;
ZaJ3ouA.wv &pxovnc; NEcfl8aAL. 'There is Benjamin, the least of them, in the lead, the princes of Judah in
a body, the Zebulun, the princes ofNaphtali.',
38
So Davies and Allison 1:242-43; Hagner 1:29; Luz I: 130 and others.
39
B_DAG: 'TJYEOI1CU fut. i}y~aof.LIXI: LXX; /:to He ina supervisory capacity, lead, guide'.
40
BDAG: '1TOLj.LLVw: herd, tend, (lead to) pasture'.
41
Brown (1988) 186.
225
While it should be noted that line 4 in Mt 2:6 is similar to Mic 5:3 and it shares
the language of the shepherd,42 the general consensus is that line 4 is from II Sam 5:2. It
might well have been the larger context of the Micah passage that brought to mind the
shepherd metaphor, but it is significant that the II Samuel text was chosen. With its
obvious connections to David, it causes the prophecy to bring to mind the promised
dynasty of the house of David. Again, intertextually Matthew identifies the shepherd
metaphor with the royal Davidic tradition. The fmalline shifts from Micah to II Sam
5 :2//I Chron 11 :2, hence the compound nature of the quotation. That it is II Sam 5:2 that
is being quoted is confirmed by the close verbal parallel with the LXX and the MT. The
primary difference is Matthew's introduction of the relative pronoun (oon<;) 'who will
shepherd/rule' which replaces the personal pronoun (ou) 'you will shepherd/rule.' So,
Matthew surprises the reader again. Just when the expectation might be for a mixed
text, he returns to the LXX and the MT. Matthew probably wants the reader to keep in
mind the larger context of Micah 5, but by introducing II Sam 5 he emphasizes the
Davidic Christology that has been a theme throughout the infancy narrative. 43 In this
way the II Samuel quote repeats a Matthean theme that has already been introduced,
A.a&;, the 'people' of Israel.
Matthew leaves little doubt about the status of this 'newborn king of the Jews'.
The combination ofMic 5:2 with its Davidic characteristics and the passage from II Sam
42
M'IC 5 : 3a (LXX) : KIU' O'rllOE't!U
' ' O'I'E'r!XL
K!XL " 1 ' 7TOLJ.l!XVEL
K!XL ' 1"0
' 7TOLJ.LVLOV
' ' ' EV
!XU'tOU ' ' '
LOXUL '
KUpLOU... 54
: ,
And he shall stand and feed his flock in the strength ofthe LORD, ... Davies and Allison 1:244 ask,
'Why does the evangelist not go on to quote the rest of Mic 5:2? Mention of one "whose origin is from
of old, from ancient days" would have admirably suited the purposes reflected by the genealogy; and
5:3 ("until thetime when she who is in travail has brought forth") would have been to the point coming
after 1:18-25. Maybe the readers are supposed to fill in for themselves.' Also Mic 5:4. Cf. Gundry's
comment above that Matthew expects the reader/hearer to appreciate the OT allusions and larger OT
background. Also cf. the position of C. H. Dodd and B. Lindars from a generation ago.
43
Hagner 1:29, 'It was rabbinic practice to combine quotations re(~rring tQ the same. thing, particularly
when linked by a key word or common concept, in the present instance "ruling" and "shepherding."
The messianic king, the Son of David, would shepherd his people. The special appropriateness of a
Davidic context for Matthew is obvious'.
226
5:2 (an OT promise that is addressed directly to David) affirm and anticipate Matthew's
Son of David Christology.
The application of the quotation, unlike the formula quotations of the first two
chapters, is straightforward, involving no dimension of sensus plenior or deeper
fulfillment. Its meaning is obvious: the Messiah (the verse was understood as
messianic by the Jews) is to be born in Bethlehem, the very place where Jesus'
birth had already occurred. The Messiah is to "shepherd my people Israel," which
recalls the statement in 1:21 that "he will save his people." The people of the
Lord are thus the people of the Messiah. 44
What has been pointed out in the examination of Matthew's use of the OT in
regard to the formula quotations has now been given fresh application in this non-
formula quote in Mt 2:6. Matthew utilizes mixed textual traditions, with strong evidence
that part of that tradition includes Hebrew traditions beyond the MT, along with his use
of Greek and the LXX.
In summary, 1) Ephrathah becomes 'the land of Judah'; 2) 'princes' and 'ruler'
replace 'thousands/clans' and 'ruler' 3) Bethlehem is no longer 'the least', but
emphatically 'by no means the least' and 4) the promise made to David is now applied to
the 'shepherd' who is from the lineage of David and who will 'shepherd my people
Israel'.
7.2.2 Intertextual Analysis ofMt 2:6 and Mt 2:11
In light of the discussion concerning intertextuality in Chapter 3, the specific
application here will be to (1) identify the nature of the quotation(s) in 2:6 and (2)
identify the nature of the allusion(s) in 2:11. Next, any implications concerning the
broader context from which the quotation(s) or allusion(s) come will be considered.
Therefore, in relation to 2:6 the larger contexts of Mic 5 and II Sam 5 will be explored.
Concerning 2:11, the whole ofPsalm 72 will be examined and the broader context of
Is 60 will be analyzed. Finally, in both casesthe question of textual echoes will be
44
Hagner 1:29-30.
227
examined, taking into account that the echo of a sub-text may or may not have been
intended by the author. In most cases, questions of intention are left open, even ifthere
are reasons to speculate.
7.2.2.1 Mt 2:6 and Mic 5:2(1); II Sam 5:2/11 Chr 11:2
Mt 2:6 is a compound/composite quotation ofMic 5:2(1) and II Sam 5:2111 Chr
11:2.45
Mic 5:2(1), KtXl au B1l9AEE~. yfJ 'IouOtX, OUOtX~W<; EAtXXLO'tT) EI EV to1c; TtYE~OOLV
'IouOtX' EK oou yap E~EAEOOEttXL TJYOlJ~Evoc;, II Sam 5:2, oonc; lTOL~tXVEL tOV
A.tX6v ~ou tov 'IoptX~A..
It has been debated as to whether this quotation should be in the list of formula
46
quotations. There are three good reasons not to include 2:6 in the list and to
understand it as one of the twenty-one unique, Matthean quotations. 47
First, Mt 2:6 does not contain some variation of the characteristic formula, 'it
was to fulfill' ( TikrJp6w ), which is one of the defining elements of the formula
quotations. 48 Besides the ten formula quotations, the use of the verb lTA1lp6w in regard
to scripture fulfillment, only occurs four other times in Matthew: 3: 15; 5: 17; 26:54 and
26:56. 49 It is interesting to note that these references are from the lips of Jesus.
Otherwise, the formula quotes are all Matthean commentary. If, Matthew took his lead
45
Since I Chr is textually identical to the LXX of II Sam 5:2, the II Sam text will be the focus.
46
It even appears that some scholars go back and forth as to whether to include it. E.g. Davies and
Allison I: 19I do list it as one of 'the five so-called "formula quotations'" in the first two chapters of
Matthew. But they exclude it from their list of 10 in (1997) 3:573-574. This only illustrates the
difficulty of classifying the quote, Stanton (1993) 360. Luz seems to classify it as a formula quotation
but acknowledges that it does not contain the typical TTA.T]p6w. (I988) I: 130; Soares Prabhu (I976)
Preface, and more recently Menken (2004) 255 do not consider it a formula quotation.
47
Cf. the chart of scriptural references in Davies and Allison I :34-57. If Matthew 2:6 is ruled out as a
formula quotation, none ofthe shepherd texts are among the 'formula quotations'.
48
Davies and Allison 3:574 give the different variations on the redactional formula.
49
Mark only uses it once as a fulfillment saying, I4:49; cf I: 15 for th.e other Ma~:kan use. Luke uses it 9
times, but only 3 times in"afulfillmennontext 1:20; 4:21; '24:44:'A.cts 3 times: I: 16; 3: 18; 13:27. John
8 times: 12:38; 13:18; 15:25; I7:12; I8:9, 32; I9:24, 36. The only other occurrence, when used in a
fulfillment sense in the NT seems to be Jam 2:23.
228
from Jesus in Mark 14:49 (cf. the Matthean redaction ofMt 26:56 and the TIA.11p6w
texts), he has developed the fulfillment theme about as much as one could have hoped.
Another argument against 2:6 being a formula quote is that in the narrative it is
offered by the Jewish leaders rather than by Matthew. Again, the formula quotations
are characteristically Matthean commentary with the exception of the four quotes
mentioned above. This does not affect the importance of the quotation in the narrative
because the quote is an integral part of the story. But if it is to be considered a formula
quote, then 2:6 is inconsistent with this pattern of functioning as a commentary on the
text rather than as an integral part of the story. 5 The consensus is, with 1:22-23 being
the possible exception, all ten formula quotes are offered by Matthew only. This
means that the formula quotations offer Matthew's unique perspective on Jesus as
seen in light of Israel's scripture.
Third, Mt 2:6, as an integral part of the narrative, is basic to the plot. Mt 2:6 is
the answer to the question concerning 'where' does the Messiah come from. Again,
the formula quotes can be lifted from the narrative and the story line is not affected. In
contrast, Mt 2:6 is given in direct response to the two questions, the first by the Magi,
'Where (11ou) is the child who has been born king of the Jews?' (2:2) and the second
by King Herod, 'he inquired ofthem [the chief priests and scribes ofthe people]
where (11ou) the Messiah was to be born.' (2:4). An astute reader/hearer recognizes that
the two questions, while similar in content, are quite different in intent and motive.
This becomes evident in light of the earlier response of Herod and 'all Jerusalem with
him' to the 'troubling' (hapax811) 51 news of the magi. The questions contrast the
.~
50
Who offers the quote affects little the authority. The significance is in the authority of the biblic;al
tradition, Davies .an~l,AIIison. 3:577 point out.
31
BDACho:paoow-1. lit. stir u~2. fig. stir up, disturb, trouble, throw into confusion. Matthew's only
other usage of this term is the account in 14:26 when the disciples are 'troubled' (ho:paxSTJoav) by the
229
sincere seeking of the Magi with the deceptive, untrustworthy and unpredictable
character of the current king.
For these three reasons, Mt 2:6 is not a 'formula quotation', but it is still a
quotation. More specifically, it is a compound or composite quote from Micah 5:2(1)
and II Samuel 5:2.
As noted, the quotation in 2:6 is a compound or composite quote from Micah
5:2(1) and II Samuel5:2. Matthew's wording ofMic 5:2(1) does not follow any
known text form, Hebrew or Greek. Apparently Matthew 'targumizes' Mic 5:2(1) for
his own purposes and understands what he is doing as a valid exegetical approach. The
traditional targum does understand Mic 5 :2( 1)52 as messianic and by mentioning
Bethlehem, Matthew reminds the reader/hearer of David. In order to remove all doubt
that this is a messianic quote and the Messiah is David's son, Matthew by quoting II
Samuel 5:2, follows almost verbatim the LXX:
Mt2:6, oan<; 1TOL!..liXVEL tOV AIXOV f.l.OU tOV 'Iapa~A..

LXX II Sam 5:2, au 1TOlf.l.UVEtc; tOV A.a6v f.l.OU tOV IapUT}A
LXX II Chr 11 :2, 53
au 1TOlf.l.IXVEtc; tOV A.a6v f.l.OU tOV Iapa,A.
For those who recognized the compound quote from Mic 5:2(1) and II Sam
5:2, the language of a ruler who will 'shepherd my people Israel' would have conjured
up Messianic and eschatological expectations. 54 It may also have been significant for
Matthew that the Samuel quotation makes a reference to 'My people, Israel' (tov A.a6v
storm. Herod and 'all' Jerusalem are troubled by the magi's report and possibly sense another kind of
'storm' is coming as a result of this news.
52
Tg. Mic. 5:1 refers to the coming Messiah. Cf. also Tg. Ps. -J. on Gen 35:21.
53
As noted earlier the parallel text in I Chr 11 :2 is identical with II Sam 5:2, so is only mentioned here
for the sake of completeness.
54
Davies and Allison I :243. 'To a first-century Jew, reference to a ruler come forth to "shepherd my
people Israel" would. have conjured up the eschatological expectation of the ingathering ofthe twelve
tribes oflsrael (cf. Ezek 34.4-16; Mic 5:1-9; Ps. Sol. 17; 4 Ezra 13. 34-50; 2 Bar. 77-86; m. Sanh.
10.3), an expectation apparently shared by Matthew (19:28)'.
230
I-LOU -rov IopaTJA.), an important theme throughout his gospel. 55 In the context ofthe
narrative, the quote also calls into question the lineage of Herod who is an Edomite,
thereby challenging the legitimacy of the current king of the Jews.
As to the immediate context of Micah one might ask, 'Why does the evangelist
not go on to quote the rest of Mic 5:2 and even 5:4 which continues to the shepherd
theme?' In light of Matthew's genealogy of Jesus, Micah's reference to one whose
'origin is from of old' and one from the 'ancient days' (Mic 5:2) would have fit in
nicely. Even Micah's statements about 'the time when she who is in labour has
brought forth' and 'his kindred shall return,' (Mic 5:3) might have been made to relate
to Mt 1:18-25. Furthermore, Mic 5:4 portrays the shepherd who 'assertively'
(lit. 'stands,' o-r~oHaL) provides security and peace for the flock as they are shepherded
in the strength of the Lord. If the surrounding context of Micah is considered, in light
of the special Matthean vocabulary, 56 what emerges is an image of the shepherd:
who is to rule (apxov-ra) in Israel,

whose origin is from of old,
from ancient days. (Kat ai. E~OOOL auwu aTI' &:pxf)c; E~ ~1-LEPWV aLWVO<;) ...
... the rest of his kindred shall return (-rwv aoEA.<Pwv av-rwv ElTLO'tpEljJOUOLV)
to the people of Israel.
... And he shall stand and feed his flock in the strength of the LORD, (Kat
O't~OE'taL Kat O~E'taL Kat 1TOL!-LaVE1 'tO 1TOL!-LVLOV au-rou EV LOXUL Kup(ou)
... he shall be great to the ends ofthe earth; and he shall be the one of peace.
Why does Matthew not quote more of Micah 5? Of course there is no definitive
answer. Matthew does not tell us. But maybe the reader/hearer is supposed to
57
remember and explore the broader context and 'fill in for themselves. ' This is only to
reflect upon the immediate verses in the context of Micah 5 but the prophet uses the
55
.l..a6c;: 14 times and seems to always refer to Israel as the people of God, Cf. Luz I: 130; in contrast to:
ra E9VTJ. Cf. Davies and Allison 1:81.
56
For the sources of 'favorite or special expressions' ofMatthew: Cf. Davies and Allison 1:74-85; -"
Gundry (1994) 641-649; Luz ]:35-53. When a term isidentified'as important to Matthew the statistics
are given in'orae'fofthe.synoptic Gospels: Mt; Mk; Lk.
57
Davies and Allison I :244 also agree.
231
shepherd/sheep/flock metaphor throughout his book (cf. Mic 5:1-5; 7:14 and also 2:12-
13; 4:8).
Alas, this is not the direction Matthew takes. He stops short and introduces II
Sam 5:2. By so doing, he focuses directly on Matthew's Davidic Christology and
encompasses another theme as well, rov A.a6v f.LOU tov 'Iapa~A.. 58 Davidic Christiology
may be primary, but both themes are important from a Matthean point of view.
Another possible connection, though not often noted in the commentaries, is the last
part of II Sam 5:2,
which Matthew does not quote but may assume the reader/hearer will connect.
El<; ~YOUf.LEVov
59
' .... you who shall be ruler over Israel., (al. au EOEl E'TTL tOV IapaTJA.).
David is the ruler (~youf.LEVov) that comes from Bethlehem according to Micah in order
to rule (~youf.LEVo<;) as shepherd according to II Samuel 5:2. So again, though not
quoted, there is an obvious linguistic linkage in II Sam 5:2.
The broader context of II Samuel 5 includes the narrative describing how
David emerged as King over 'all oflsrael and Judah' (5:5). It culminates with the
messianic promise given to David and his descendents in II Samuel 7. The Lord
through the prophet Nathan establishes David as 'prince (~youwvov) over my people
Israel' (ETIL rov A.a6v f.LOU ETIL rov IapaTJA.) and his descendents an everlasting dynasty:
But I will not take my steadfast love from him, ... Your house and your
kingdom shall be made sure for ever before me; your throne shall be
established for ever. (II Sam 7:15-16)
58
So Roth fuchs ( 1969) 61 and Luz 1: 130 emphasize this aspect of the quote. Soares Prabhu ( 1976) 266
disagrees in favor of the Davidic Christology: 'Matthew has added 2 Sam 5,2 to Mic 5,1 not because it
speaks about 6 Aao~ but because it is a text about David, and so explicitly identifies Jesus as the "son of
David" in whom the promises made to D(lvid are to be fulfilled. It is explicitly as the ison of David"
(1: 1) that Jesus is born inDavid'S'Cit)', Bethlehem'.
59
Mt terms: 10; 1; 2. ~YE~wv/~yEol-uu-1. lead, guide pres. participle 6 ~YDIJ~Evo<; ruler, leader Mt 2:6.
232
Among a number of possible intertextual echoes, 60 two from the prophet
Ezekiel may be noted. Ez. 34:23-24 reads:
I will set up over them one shepherd, my servant David, and he shall feed
them: he shall feed them and be their shepherd. And I, the LORD, will be their
God, and my servant David shall be prince among them; I, the LORD, have
spoken.
LXX: Ko:l &vo:m:~aw h' o:utou~ TIOLf.J.EVo: EVa: Ko:l TIOLf.J.O:VE1 o:utou~ tov 6ouA.6v
f.LOU ~o:uL<S Ko:l Eato:L o:utwv 1TOLf.1~v. Ko:l E:yw KUPLO~ E:aof.Lo:L o:utot~ Et~ eE6v
Ko:l ~o:uL6 E:v f.LEOty o:utwv &pxwv E:yw KupLO~ E:M.A,ao:.
Similar to this reference is Ez 37:24-25 where the Davidic Messiah 'shall be
king/prince (apxwv) ... and they shall have one shepherd (TIOLf.L~V Et~)'. The exilic
prophet Ezekiel refers to the Davidic dynasty promised in II Sam 7 when he speaks
twice in chapter 34 and twice in 3 7 of 'my servant David.' In both instances, David is
God's shepherd and shall be 'prince' (the LXX here uses &pxwv 61 throughout rather
than ~youf.1EVov 62 ) among God's people. Why Matthew does not use &pxwv may be that
it can be used or understood negatively, which Matthew does of evil spirits (e.g. 9:34;
12:24), but ~youf.J.EVov is not so used.
7.2.2.2 Mt 2:11 and Ps 72:10-11, 15
The intent and attitude of the magi in their seeking the king ofthe Jews (2:2)
finds fulfillment in 2:11 and for Matthew fulfills allusions found in Psalm 72. The
biblical tradition that the Gentile nations would in the latter days ultimately recognize
God's rule is depicted in the magi story. 63 The magi symbolize the Gentiles who,
60
Jer 23:5-6; Ezek 34.4-16; Ps. Sol. 17; 4 Ezra 13. 34-50; 2 Bar. 77-86.
61
BDAG&pxwv, ovwc;, 6 ruler, lord, prince Mt 20:25; Ac 4:26; Rv I :5. Of authorities, officials gener.,
both Jewish Mt 9:18; Lk 8:41; 14:1; 18:18; J J:l; Ac 3:17 and Gentile Ac 16:19. Of evil spirits Mt 9:34;
12:24;Lk 11:15;J 12:31; 14:30;Eph2:2.
62
BDAG~yEoj.un-1. ruler, leader Mt 2:6. . ..
63
to
E.g. the two texts alludeCl here: Ps 72 and Isa 60. Cf. e.g. Isa 2: 1-4; 43:5- I 0; Mic 4: 1-4; Ps. Sol.
17:31.
233
unlike the Jewish leaders depicted here in the narrative, show themselves receptive
and responsive to God's salvation. 64 Matthew 2:11 reads:
On entering the house, they saw the child with Mary his mother; and they knelt
down and paid him homage. Then, opening their treasure chests, they offered
him gifts of gold, frankincense, and myrrh.
Ktxl U96v-rE<; EL<; -r~v oi.dav ELcSov -ro nm6Lov llHCt Mapttx<; -r~<; llTJ'tpo<;
auwu, Kal nEo6v-rE<; npooEKUVTJOtxv aim\) Kal &vo(~av-rE<; -rou<; 9TJoaupou<;
!XU'tWV npoa~VEYK!XV auni) cSwpa, xpuaov K!XL Upavov KIXL OllUPV!XV.
In regard to the biblical allusion concerning the magi, of particular interest is
Mt 2:11b, which alludes to two texts: LXX Ps 72(71):10-11,15 and LXX Isa 60:6-7.
According to Gundry, 'the general nature ofMatthean allusions are a "mixed text-
form" much like the Matthean quotations. The allusive quotations peculiar to Matthew
will display the same mixed text-form that is prominent in all the other groups of
quotations except the formal citations in common with Mk' .65
Similar to the compound quote above from Micah and Samuel, a composite
allusion occurs in Ps 72 and Isa 60. These texts offer further insight into Matthew's
understanding ofthe significance of the Magi story and the birth of Jesus.
Psalm 72 is a royal Psalm and in Judaism is understood to be messianic. 66
Linguistically, the allusions offer a number of links. In this regard, Gundry notes,
'Except for nEo6v-rE<;, which Matthew likes to add to npooKuvEw, and allupvav, all of
64
Gundry (1967) 129-130, 'This OT allusion buttresses Matthew's purpose of showing that the
Messiah, rejected by his own nation, has been received by the Gentiles. Sheba, mentioned in both OT
passages, was a region of Arabia and noted for its gold and spices. (cf Ps 72: 15; I Kings I 0:1 ff; Ex
27:22; Herodotus iii. I 07; Strabo XVI. iv. 25) The earliest tradition traces the Magi to Arabia. (cf. Tert.,
Adv. Marc., iii. 13. 8)'. Cf Davies and Allison 1:228, who seem to lean toward Arabia, but between the
three options of Arabia, Babylon and Persia acknowledge that 'A choice among these three alternatives
is impossible, although if 2.11 does allude to Isa 60:6, one would be inclined to opt for Arabia, for that
OT text speaks of Mid ian and Sheba (cf. also Ps 72.I 0)'. 228.
65
Gundry (1967) 127.
66
Cf. Davies and Allison I :250 and also n. 61, 'The targum makes the psalm messianic'. Cf. The
Aramaic Bible, vol. 16, Tg. Ps. 139-I40. E.g~ v_ I, 'BycSolomon, it was said in prophecy: 0 God, give
the,halakhoth of your justiCe to the anointed (n'(lil')) king, and your righteousness to the son of King
David'.
234
Matthew's words are paralleled in the LXX'. 67 Among a number of possible
connections, Ps 72: 10-11 and 72: 15 stand out because they describe Gentile kings
bringing tribute and gifts and offering prayer and blessing to the Messiah.
10
May the kings ofTarshish and of the isles
render him tribute (6wpa npooo(oouow 68 ),
may the kings ofSheba and Seba
bring gifts. Q3cxoLAE'i<; 'Ap&pwv Kat ~apex cSwpcx npoo&~ouotv)
11
May all kings fall down before him (KCXL npoOKUV~oouow 69 aut~ lTcXVtE<; ol
paotAEt<;),
all nations give him service (n&vta ta E9VTJ cSouAEUOOUOLV aut~).
15
Long may he live!
May gold (xpuo(ou) ofSheba (tfi<; 'Apap(ac;) be given to him.
May prayer (npooEu~ovtcxt) be made for him continually,
and blessings (EuA.oy~oouotv) invoked for him all day long.
In these allusions (as confirmed by Is 60), Matthew communicates that this newborn
child is not only king of the Jews but king of the whole human race. The most fitting
response is npooKuv~oouow by n&vta ta 9v~, which is contrasted with the hostile
response of Herod and the lack of response on the part oflsrael's leaders. 70
When the broader context of the whole Psalm is considered, a number of
Matthean themes may be discerned:
1) Righteousness is a major theme that Matthew shares in common with Ps 72
(see t~v 6tKCXLOOUVTJV in LXX Ps 72: 1,2,3) 71 The 'king's son' (<.1> ui.~ tou paotAEwc;)
will exercise righteous judgment and defend the poor and those who need an advocate.
67
Gundry (1967) 130.
68
Mt term: I4; 3; 4. rrpoarpEpw-1. act. and pass. bring (to) e.g. Mt 4:24; 9:2, 32; I7:I6; I9:I3;
25:20;-2. bring, offer, present-a. lit. Mt 2: II; 5:23f.
69
Mt term: 13; 2; 3. rrpooKuvEw (fall down and) worship, do obeisance to, prostrate oneselfbefore, do
reverence to, welcome respectfully depending on the object-1. to human beings Mt 18:26; Ac 10:25;
Rv 3:9.-2. to God Mt 4:10; J 4:20f, 23f; 12:20; Ac 24:II; I Cor 14:25; Hb 11:21; Rv 4:10; 14:7;
19:4.-2. to foreign deities Ac 7:43.-3. to the Devil and Satanic beings Mt 4:9; Lk 4:7; Rv 9:20; 13 :4;
I4:9, ll.-4. to angels Rv 22:8.-5. to Christ Mt 2:2, 8, II; 8:2; 9: 18; 14:33; 15:25; 20:20; 28:9, 17;
Mk 5:6; 15:19; Lk 24:52. .
70
Hagner 3 I.
71
Mt terms: OLKIXLO~ I7; 2; II. 6tKatoouvfj 7; 0;' t.'&tK:ino~u;;~, TJc;, ~ righteousness, uprightness Mt 5:6;
Ac 24:25; Ro 9:30; Phil 3:6; Tit 3:5; religious requirement Mt 3:15. Mercy, charitableness Mt 6: I.
235
Note how the Psalmist links righteousness and justice (which in v 2 Matthew also
links):
'May he judge (KptvELv 72) your people with righteousness (rov A.IXov oou E:v
6tKIXLOOUVTJ), and your poor ('roue; Tirwxouc;) withjustice (KptoEL)'. Also, note the theme
of justice and judgment (v2) that will later be a characteristic of the shepherd in Mt 25:
31-32.
In the first seven verses ofPs 72, the 'king's son' is characterized as a
righteous king who will provide the 'prosperity' of a noble king and 'defend' and
'deliver' the 'poor' and 'needy' from those who, under less 'just' rule, have been
'oppressed.' This quality of the true 'righteousness' that 'exceeds' a pretended display
of religious behavior (5:20) is an important Matthean theme in regard to Jesus and his
kingdom (6:33). 73
2) There is also the contrast between the strong and the weak, the powerful and
the oppressed, in the last part ofPs 72:12-14. V 12a:'For he delivers the needy when
they call (E:ppuo1Xto74 mwxov)'. V 14:'From oppression and violence he redeems (EK
't'OKOU KIXL E~ aOLKLIXc; A.utpWOE't'IXl) their life; and precious is their blood (MT: Ct?1 =
blood= LXX: to ovo~IX) in his sight (KIXL Evn~ov to ovo~IX IXUtwv E:vwmov IXUtou)'.
One might imagine, in the aftermath of the slaughter of the holy innocents (2:13-23),
that even these verses took on special meaning.
72
Mt term: I2; 0; 4. KpLOL~, Ew~. fr-I.judging,judgment Mt IO:I5; Lk IO:I4; J 5:30; 2 Th I :5; Hb
9:27; 2 Pt 2:9; Jd 6. Kptalv lTOlE'iv act as judge J 5:27. Condemnation, punishment Mt 23:33; J 5:24, 29;
Hb I 0:27; Js 5: 12; R v I8: I 0; 19:2.-2. board ofjudges, local court Mt 5:21 f.-3. right in the sense of
justice, righteousness Mt I2: I8, 20; 23:23; Lk II :42. This meaning is also possible for J 7:24; I2:31;
Ac 8:33 and others. KPLIJ.IX, no<;, -r6 Judging, judgment Mt 7:2. ""''
73
OLKaw~: just, righteous (I: 19; 5:45; 13:49; 27:19, :24); OLKatOauvTJ: righteousness (3: 15; 5:6; 5: I 0;
5:20; 6: l;.6:33;.Zk32).
,,. UOIJ.IXl save, rescue, deliver Mt 6: 13; 27:43.
236
3) Another theme is the time ofthe Messiah is one of abundance (LXX Ps
72:5-7, 16-17). The time of the Messiah is a 'greater' time of blessing than any other
time. This theme is highlighted in Mt 12:40ff, where Messiah is greater than Jonah,
greater than Solomon; or to put it another way, the Messiah is 'superlative' in terms of
time and in terms of individuals.
4) Blessing is another theme shared by Matthew and Ps 72. Notice Ps 72:
17b:'May all nations be blessed in him (Kat EuA.oy'll9~aovmL E:v a.im;l niiaa.L a.l
cj>uA.a.L)', which connects to the Abrahamic theme in Matthew's first chapter.
Following 72:15 is a description ofblessings ofthe messianic age in 16-17 and
then (18-20) the doxology for the second book (Psalms 42-72) 75 of the Psalms as a
whole.
(5) Lastly, both Matthew and Ps 72 share an eschatological vision. Both
envision the nations coming in response to the Messiah's righteous and just rule. The
coming ofthe Gentiles is never conceived of as judgment upon Israel or those in the
land, but rather as a kind of vindication and exaltation oflsrael (cf Mt 8: 11-12).
So, with these five themes in view, there are at least two things Matthew wants
his reader/hearer to bring to mind from Psalm 72:
(1) The Magi play the role of the nations coming to the Messiah. In their
witness to the Davidic messianic king of the Jews, they fulfill the biblical promises,
being 'those from Sheba who will come', who will bring to Jerusalem the wealth of
the nations, gold and silver, as the glory of the Lord rises upon her (Isa 60.3-6; cf. Ps,
72.10-11, 15; cf. vs 11). 76
75
According to Wilson (1986; 1993) the editors of the Psalms intentionally framed the first three books
ofthe Psalms with royal Psalms: 1-2 & 41;.42 &72; 73& 89. Psalm 72 being one ofthese royal
Psalms.
76
237
(2) More importantly, the whole Ps speaks to the character and concerns of the
Messiah which include righteousness, the poor, justice, abundance, etc. and also
exercising mercy and justice with righteous judgment.
7.2.2.3 Mt 2:11 and Isa 60:6-7 77
This is an explicitly eschatological passage with its emphasis on the nations
coming to the 'light' (lsa 60: 1-3) and kings coming to the 'light' (star). Starting with
Isaiah 60:9, the Gentile nations are in focus (cf. also 10-12). The people ofthe nations
come offering adoration and homage. The glory of the messianic age is alluded to in
v.l3 and following. 78 The emphasis of these allusions and their implications remind us
again of the message of Matthew 1: I. Jesus the Christ is not only the Son of David but
also the son of Abraham or the one who fulfills the Abrahamic promise that through
him all the nations will be blessed. The theme of both Psalm 72 and Isa 60 is of all the
nations coming and participating in the righteous and just rule ofthe Davidic king
which is in fulfillment ofthe Abrahamic promise in Gen. 12:1-3.
Isaiah 60: 1-2

Arise, shine; for your light has come, (~KEL yap aou to Q>wc;)
and the glory of the LORD has risen upon you.(Krxl ~ M~rx Kup(ou En-I. aE:
&vrxthrxA.KEv 79) but the LORD will arise upon you (6E: aE: Q>rxv~aEtrxt 8 KUpLDc;)
77
Gundry (1967) 206. 'Mt 2:1 1 alludes to Is 60:6. But allusions to the last chapters ofls (outside the
boundaries of Dodd's text-plots) are very numerous throughout the NT'.
78
Cf. Ps. 1 10:3 cf. Davies and Allison I :251. Also Song of Sol. 3 :6; cf 4:6 Goulder ( 1976) 236,
proposes the myrrh is drawn from the Song of Sol., 'Who is this that comes up from the wilderness,
sensed with myrrh and frankincense? (oJ.Lupvav ml H~avov) Behold Solomon's bed'.
79
Cf. Mt term: &.vatoA.1l, 5; 0; 2. Cf. 2:1, 2, 9; but in direct relation to the magi story is this comment
about Abraham, sons of the kingdom etc. 8: 11-12; Cf. also 4: 16; 5:45; 13:16 and 24:27. Mt term: (8; I;
2). &.vatEUw-1. cause to rise Mt 5:45.-2. intrans. spring up, rise Mt 13:6; Mk 16:2; 2 Pt 1:1 9; dawn
Mt 4:16. Come up Lk 12:54. Be descendedHb 7:14. cf. &.vato!..1l, ilc;, ~-1. rising of a star: EV tti
&.vatol..ij in its rising, when it rose Mt 2:2.-2. rising of.th~ ~un, East, Orient Mt-2: 1; 8:1 1; Rv 7:2;
21:13. Fig; a. ~ utjJOuc; 'thfrdawn Jrtfif(heaven, i.e. the Messiah Lk 1:78. A natalia. Cf. O:vatEUw.
80
Mt term: 13; I; 2. <j>a[voJ.LaL-to become visible, appear, pass. <j>a[voJ.LaL w. act./intr. Sense.
238
In light of the unique use of &:vcrrhcx.AKEV ('has risen') and in light of the important
way in which Matthew uses this term in the story of Magi, it is obvious that this sets
the tone for the rest ofthe passage. 81
LXX Isa 60:3-4, 6b

Nations shall come to your light, (ml. TiopEuoovtcxt pcxotA.Ei~ t<.\) <Pwn)
and kings to the brightness ofyour dawn. (oou KCXL E8VTJ tfl Acx1J.1TpOtT)tL oou)
Lift up your eyes and look around; they all gather together, (oUVTJYIJ.Evcx82) they
come to you; ( luOU
' J;: '8\J T)KCXOLV
" , ')
1TCXV'tE~ Ol ULOL .
They shall bring gold and frankincense (~~ouaw Q>EpovtE<;; xpua(ov KilL Hpavov
"
OLOOOOLV )
and shall proclaim the praise of the LORD.(Kcxl. to owt~ptov Kup(ou
EOOYYEALOUVtCXL)
Matthew's linguistic links with Psalm 72 and Isa 60 indicate that Matthew
views the coming of the magi as fulfillment oflsrael's Messianic hopes. Jesus, the Son
of David and the newborn king of the Jews, is the Shepherd King born in Bethlehem
in the lineage of David, something confirmed in the royal Psalm 72. The Psalm and
Isaiah 60 both point to a Messiah who is a Shepherd King/Leader of Israel and the
nations. The Messiah will bless and incorporate the nations by way of the promises
given to Abraham. He is a royal and righteous shepherd king that will set right the
injustices carried out by both the evil kings and leadership of Israel and the false kings
of Israel and the nations.
7.2.3 Contextual Analysis ofMt 2:1-11
The purpose of this section is to synthesize the previous material and propose
Matthew's perspective on the shepherd metaphor. In light of the textual (7.2.1) and
intertextual connections (7.2.2), the compound quote of2:6 and the allusions to Psalm
&vatoA.~, f}<;, t)--1. rising of a star: E:v ttl &vatoA.fl in its rising, when it rose Mt 2:2.-2. rising of the
81
sun, East, Orient Mt 2:I; 8:II; Rv 7:2; 2I:l3. Fig.&. E:~ uljiou<; the dawnfrom heaven, i.e. the Messiah
Lk I :78. Anatolia. Cf. &vatEHw.
82
Mt term: ouvayw 24; 5; 6. Cf. Mt use: auvaywy~l-a( ainwvlu~-Lwv 6; 2; I. auvayw-I. gather (in),
gather up Mt I3:47; 25:24, 26.-2. bring or call together, gather Mt 22: 10; 25:32;.-3. invite or
receive as a guestMt25:35; 38, 43.-4. advance, move Mt 20:28
83
Mt term: 62; 7; 57.
239
72 and Isaiah 60 demonstrate from Matthew's perspective that the newborn king of the
Jews is the royal-righteous shepherd, in the lineage ofthe son of David, the one who
brings to fulfillment the promise to Abraham that through him all the world will be
blessed. The use of2:6 functions for Matthew as one of the main arguments for Jesus'
right to be king of the Jews. His comparison between the response of the magi and the
responses of the other characters in the story, especially Herod, make it a story of both
acceptance and rejection84
7.2.3.1 Use of Comparison
One of the literary devices at work in the magi story is auyKpLGLc;
(comparison). 85 This standard rhetorical technique allows Matthew to challenge the
reader/hearer to make a decision by contrasting the main characters in the narrative.
His first century readers/hearers would have been aware of the strategy of auyKpLaLc;.
In Matthew's account they would have understood who were the greater and the lesser
characters in the narrative and would have felt a need to decide whose side they
represented. Matthew will also use auyKpwtc; in regard to other notable characters like
Moses, Solomon, Jonah and even John the Baptist. 86
The Gentile magi come seeking the newborn king of the Jews while the Jewish
leadership, who know about the prophecies do nothing in response to the news. The
current King of the Jews pretends to be sympathetic (Mt 2: 7) but the reader/hearer
senses all along the deception of his intentions. The searching leads to discovery, and
the magi respond with npoaKuv~aouaLV (worship) as the biblical tradition affirms they
should, while the current king responds by trying to destroy the newborn king.
84
Hagner 1:24; Davis and Allison 1:225 'In chapters 1-2 the evangelist is concerned with events
preceding and following the birth of Jesus; ... circumstances surrounding Jesus' conceptio11, and.gJtr,!mce_ ~ _,.
into the Davidic line (1: 1-25) and with pe.pple'~ responsecto-the advent of the child
8 ~ Stanton (1993} n-80, ~g3: .. -. , .
MecsslahTf i -23)' .
.. -.
86
Stanton (1993) 80-83.
240
Jesus and Herod are compared in at least two other ways. Herod, as the current
'king of the Jews', had no royal lineage and is contrasted with Jesus in light of his
royal genealogy and association with the house of David. Jesus is further described by
the genealogy in chapter one and the combined scriptural quotation concerning the
hoped for Messiah from Micah five and David as the shepherd of Israel who ruled
well (I Sam 5:2). Not only is the rule and kingdoms of the two contrasted but also their
character is subtly contrasted. Herod attempts deception of the magi and shows his
hypocrisy when he says he wants also to come and worship (TipoaKuv~aw at'rrc.i>, Mt
2:7) and the reader/hearer soon learns the evil intent of Herod, who will try to kill the
Davidic Shepherd-Messiah. This is similar to Pharaoh of Jewish tradition who tried to
kill God's first deliverer, Moses. At this point in Matthew's story, the character of
Jesus has not yet been demonstrated. But, as the newborn king, he is depicted as the
one who has received righteousness (Ps 72:1, t~v OLKawauv11v) as the 'king's son' in
the allusion to Psalm 72 and therefore worthy of gifts and homage by the magi (72:10-
11, 15). Further, for the reader/hearer who knows the end of the story, they are
reminded that the only other time the phrase 'King of the Jews' is used in Matthew is
in the passion narrative concerning the 'smitten shepherd-redeemer' who will deliver
his people with his life.
The second way Jesus and Herod are compared concerns typology. The
typological correspondence is that the coming one who will shepherd Israel is a
righteous shepherd like Moses. 87 In the typology, Herod is the anti-shepherd and
compared with Pharaoh. The evil response of the current king Herod is that he initiates
and is responsible for killing 'all the children in and around Bethlehem who were two
87
Allison ( 1993) 140-165. 'The existence of a Moses typology in Matt 1-2 has been affirmed by many
modern commentators, and rightly so'. Cf. his seven Appendices, 292-328 dealing with the scholarship
on the Moses typology in the infancy narratives.
241
years old or under' (2: 16). This occurs in the third act of the infancy narrative (2:13-
23) and is anticipated in the secrecy and dishonesty of Herod in 2:7-8, 12. The infancy
narrative's intertextual and typological connection of the one 'who is to shepherd my
people' with David and Moses makes perfect sense when we remember that both were
understood in the tradition as being shepherds whom God used to bring deliverance to
the people and to fulfill the promised eschatological hope. 88 The Moses/exodus
tradition is being introduced and will be developed in Matthew 2:13-23. I believe
Matthew wants the reader/hearer to recognize these connections between the
Moses/exodus tradition, the royal Davidic tradition and the prophetic traditions as they
relate to the shepherd metaphor.
The legitimacy of Jesus as the shepherd king has been part of the author's
intention since Mt 1:1 ('the genealogy of Jesus Christ, the son of David, the son of
Abraham') and will continue throughout the Gospel. Here in the infancy narrative,
Jesus as shepherd king is highlighted in the shepherd text ofMt 2:6. 89 It is well
documented that Matthew focuses on Jesus as king and son of David throughout the
Gospel, but the shepherd king motif has been neglected in comparison. The fulfillment
of Jesus' kingship as the true shepherd of God's people is given divine authority and
approval in use of the biblical tradition. Jesus is king by lineage and prophetic
approval and now by fulfillment. The magi story emphasizes the Davidic connection.
The next narrative (Mt 2: 13-23), based upon the 'fulfillment' formula quotations, will
illuminate further how Jesus is like the Moses of old. The Moses typology will come
to the fore again in Mt 9:36 and it will be argued that Jesus is a shepherd like Moses.
Herod, in Mt 2:7-8, is already introduced in the magi narrative as playing the role of
88
For examples of this tradition cf. Ps 77:20, 78:70-72.
89
As noted earlier; cf. ref. to Judah, 1:2-3 and land of Judah, 2: 1,5,6 2 times; 'David the King' 1:6 and
'king of the Jews' 2:2 Joseph, son of David 1:20; and Bethlehem 2:1, 5, 6, 8.
242
the ancient Egyptian Pharaoh who tries to destroy the infant savior and deliverer
(Moses). This ties together Mt 2:13-23 and Mt 1:18-25 through typological
correspondence. Herod becomes the anti-shepherd or false shepherd in the narrative
while the newborn king of the Jews is anticipated. The implication for our purposes, in
the biblical tradition, is that David is the royal shepherd king par excellence and
Moses is the righteous shepherd deliverer par excellence and Jesus now becomes the
righteous royal shepherd and, by God's design according to Matthew, he 'outshines'
them both.
Finally, the quotations from Mic 5 and II Sam 5 and the allusions from Ps 72
and Isa 60 affirm the observations made above. First, the compound-quote of2:6
points to the validity of Jesus as king of the Jews: the shepherd oflsrael in the lineage
of David who will take his rightful place as king and rule God's people as the true Son
of David. From Psalm 72 and Isaiah 60, the character and the universal nature of this
kingship are established. As David's son, the character of this rule is to be one of
righteousness and justice. It will provide prosperity and justice even for the poor and
needy. Those who have been previously taken advantage of will now be defended and
delivered. The eschatological dimension of this kingship is promised not only to the
people of God but this will also be extended to the Gentiles. So, according to the
intertextual quotations and allusions, Jesus is depicted in Matthean terms as the royal
and righteous shepherd king, son of David and Messiah of Israel and son of Abraham;
the one who will bless all the nations with salvation (Mt 1:1 ).
243
7.2.4 Metaphor Analysis of Mt 2:6
The metaphor analysis of each of the shepherd texts will generally proceed
along the same lines. 90 Each passage will be considered by identifying the tenor/topic,
vehicle and frame of the shepherd metaphor. 91 Second, there will be a discussion of
how the metaphor functions in Matthew specifically. 92 Along with this, how
Matthew's intertextual use ofthe biblical tradition may or may not extend the
implications of the shepherd metaphor will be discusssed. 93 Finally, how Jesus is
being depicted (vs. defined) by Matthew's use of the metaphor will be addressed.
It is Matthew 2:6b that is under consideration here:
... for from you shall come a ruler who is to shepherd my people Israel.
E.K aou yap E~EAEtJOEtiXL ~YO\Jf.LEVO~, OOtL~ iTOLfliXVEL tOV AIXOV f.LOU tOV 'Iapa~A..
The incongruous terms are 'ruler' (tenor/topic) and 'shepherd' (vehicle) and together
these create the focus ofthe metaphor, a shepherd-ruler. The frame, as has been argued
above, 94 includes a royal context contrasting righteous and unrighteous responses to
the shepherd image (cf. the 'troubled' and deceptive responses of2:3, 8, 11). Thus, the
focus of the metaphor may also be said to imply a shepherd-king.
The context of the biblical quotation in Matthew 2:6 comes in response to the
magi search for 'the King of the Jews' (Mt 2:2). There is a contrast between the child
who has been born King of the Jews with the current would be king, Herod. As argued
above95 Matthew 2:6 is a compound quote from Micah 5:2(1) and II Samuel5:2. The
combination of these two texts emphasizes the royal character of the shepherd
metaphor as applied to Jesus. Herod, an Edomite, is not from the royal line of David.
9
For the theory of metaphor used in this thesis cf. chapter 3.1.3 above.
91
Cf. chapter 3.1.3.2.
92
Cf. chapter 3.1.3.2.1.
93
Cf. chapter 3.1.3.2.2.
94
Cf. 7.2.1 above.
95
Cf. 7.2.2.1 above.
244
So, the Matthean narrative utilizes the shepherd metaphor to focus on the royal
implications.
Further, when the intertextual contexts of the compound quotation of Matthew
2:6 and the allusions to other biblical texts (for example, Psalm 72 and Isaiah 60) are
taken into account, Matthew extends and develops the royal shepherd metaphor even
further. 96 Again, in contrast to Herod in the narrative, the royal shepherd metaphor is
extended through the intertextual connections with Psalm 72 and Isaiah 60. The royal
aspect of the shepherd image is further characterized by righteousness, justice and
mercy to the poor and a rule of abundance and blessing. Both in the royal Psalm and in
Isaiah 60 this royal shepherd will rule not only over 'my people ('rov A.o:6v) Israel' (Mt
2:6) but also over 'all the nations' (r& E8VTJ) (Ps 72:11; Is 60:3). 97 What we have in
Matthew's intertextual use of the biblical tradition is the introduction of linguistic
associations that contribute to and inform the cognitive force of the shepherd
metaphor. For the gospel writer the specific intertextual references are also meant to
evoke these broader cognitive associations in order to establish a constellation of ideas
informing the basic shepherd metaphor. 98 Matthew's use of the shepherd metaphor
from the biblical tradition in this context is meant to challenge the reader/hearer to
compare and contrast and, in so doing, to persuade and convince the informed
reader/hearer that the child that was born is the Shepherd-Messiah of the biblical
tradition in contrast to the tradition of the evil shepherds.
96
Cf. chapter 2.4.2.2 for general methodology; 7.2.2.2 and 7.2.2.3 above for specific application.
97
Cf. the discussion above in 7.2.2.Jwhere it was noted that Mt uses tov A.a6v consistently to refer to
Israel (14 times) and ta E9VTJ for Gentiles (or some form ofE9vot;, 15 times).
98
Kittay (1987) 90, speaks 'of metaphor extended through a text-but the resources available can be
exploited for the expanded metaphors that are not confined to a single text. Whether we deal with
textual metaphors or language-pervasive metaphors, we encounter the significance of the me~aJ:lh2~iEa! _ --~
move. Metaphor is the linguistic re~li~t.iQ!l_.of~Jeap=of,thoughtofrom"onedcirruiin"to--afiother_:__:in which
the springboard' is a stfueture:.preserving mapping. The more we investigate metaphor, the more we
become aware of how basic the movement is in language and in thought'.
245
In this way the shepherd metaphor is used by Matthew to depict who he
believes Jesus to be. The interanimation between the ruler/king (tenor/topic) and the
shepherd (vehicle) is the tension between the 'is-is not' which creates the possibility
for Matthew to give his particular portrayal of whom Jesus is to be in his birth and as
the Gospel unfolds. The shepherd metaphor, which Matthew will explore at different
points until the passion narrative, is initially established through the direct quotation in
Matthew 2:6 and the image is then extended through the use ofintertextuality. By this
approach Matthew establishes a constellation of characteristics in order to depict what
kind of shepherd-ruler/king Jesus is in his birth. In light of this analysis Matthew
depicts Jesus as the messianic shepherd who is part of the royal linage of David, the
Son of David. Likewise, according to the tradition of the righteous ruler/king he will
shepherd Israel and the nations. As the Son of Abraham, Jesus who personifies the
shepherd metaphor also demonstrates justice and mercy for all the nations.
This first section has been lengthy but we have considered a number of
Matthean themes, literary techniques and unique linguistic usages that will also relate
to the rest of the other four Matthean texts. We now turn to the next shepherd text in
Mt 9:36.
7.3 Introduction and Structure of Mt 9:35-10:1
As we examine Matthew 9:36 and its context, we will continue to introduce
and address special Matthean concerns as they are relevant to this section and the
overall thesis. In regard to structure, the initial question to be addressed concerns the
relationship between 9:35-38 and 10:1-4(or 5a99). Are the two pericopes to be
understood as a unity or are they to be separated? Is 9:36-38 primarily a conclusion to
what proceeds? Are chapters 5-9, and 10: l-4(5a) then the introduction to the second
99
So Luz 2:60.
246
major discourse? Alternatively, are there reasons to understand the two to be a unity,
both functioning together as a transition from the preceding and introducing that
which is to come? The latter is the perspective that will be argued. This will be
discussed in light of the overall literary structure of the Gospel; further arguments will
be based on Matthean literary techniques.
In the literary structure of Matthew, the block ofteaching in the Sermon on the
Mount (5-7) and the healing narrative of chapters 8-9 make up a major section in the
first part of the Gospel. The missionary discourse in chapter 10 will be the second
major block of teaching. Structurally, the question is: How does Matthew move from
one major section to the next? This question involves the relationship between 9:35-38
and the first part of chapter 10. Some understand 9:35-38 to be primarily the
conclusion of the first section (chs. 5-9). Then, 10:1 ff becomes the introduction to the
missionary discourse of chapter 10. 100 Others argue that the two pericopes are a unity,
which are transitional from the previous section and introductory to the missionary
discourse. There are also differing opinions in regard to the beginning of the
missionary discourse in chapter 10. Does the introduction to the discourse only include
verses 1-4 or does it extend to verse 5a? 101 To rephrase the questions: are 9:35-38 only
transitional and 10:1ffthe beginning ofthe missionary discourse only? Or is 9:35-38,
while functioning as a transition, to be closely connected as a unit with the
introductory 10:1-4(5a)?
To consider these verses in light of the larger context of the Gospel may help
clarify their function and relationship to one another. First, there is an inclusio or
100
So, to varying degrees of separation, Carter (2000) 230-23I; Gundry (I994); I80-181; Keener
(1999); Bonhoeffer (2001) 183-185; all seem to propose the two pericopes of 9:35-38 and 10: I ffas
distinct from each other and are not concerned to address whether they might be a unity. . ,. . -'-"
101
Understanding the two pericopes to 1:>~ \l~IJT1it:J2ay_is and Allison"-2:14'3;"Hagnei' r::t59; Harrington
(199I) 137. Nolland(2il05)406. t'tlz~2: 60, understands the two pericopes to be a unity but the second
to extend to I 0:5a.
247
'framing' technique created by nearly identical summaries of Jesus ministry in 4:23
and 9:35. 102 Structurally, the inclusio created by 4:23 and 9:35 alerts the reader/hearer
to what has gone before and what lies ahead. 103 Davis and Allison use the analogy of a
door:
The explanation for the obvious resemblances with both 4:24-5:2 and 8:16-22
is this. 9:35-10:4 is a door that closes off one room and opens another.
Structurally the pericope belongs equally to what comes before and to what
comes after (just as one door belongs to two rooms)'. 104
The inclusio alerts the reader/hearer to relate 9:35ffto the earlier 'hinge' passage,
4:23-5:2. The narrative section was closed in chapters 3-4 at 4:23-5:2 and the first
major block of Jesus' teaching, the Sermon on the Mount was introduced. The healing
narrative of chapters 8-9 is closed off at 9:35ff and the reader/hearer is introduced to
the second block of instruction: the missionary discourse.
Along with these introductory indicators, there are also concluding formulaic
phrases at the end of each of the five discourses. The terminology is exact in each
instance. Each concludes with a reference to movement toward a geographical place
which connects the repetitious phrase with both a concluding aspect and a syntactical
element which functionally introduces the upcoming narrative: 'And it happened when
Jesus had finished ... '
7:28 Ka.t EYEVEtO OtE EtEA.E<JEV 0 11'JOO~ rou~ i..6youc;; Wtrrouc;;, ... then he 'entered Capernaum' 8:5.
102
4:23 and 9:35 are among a number of summaries that Matthew uses to further his purpose, the others
being 8:16-17; 9:35-38; 12:15-16; 14:13-14; 34-36; 15:30-31; 19:1-2:21:14-16. The summaries are a
Matthean literary technique intended to provide movement in the narrative flow: they create a sense of
narrative time; they also allow geographical allusions to be included, describing the extent and
influence of Jesus ministry, indicating Jesus' activity and movement among the people. They also
emphasize important Matthean theological distinctives by framing narratives and highlighting theme-
setting episodes, as in the case with 4:23 and 9:35. FinaJly, the summaries remind the reader/hearer that
Jesus did much more than is recorded in the Gospel and the reader/hearer is repeatedly reminded of the
authority of Jesus' message and ministry.
103
According to Gerhardson (1979) 20-21, Matthew's descriptions of Jesus' activity in 4:23-25 and
9:35 are meant to describe the whole of 'esus' ministry and outline 'the programme of Jesus' active
ministry'.
104
248
11: 1 Kal EYEVE'to o'tE hEAEOEV o 1T)oofic;; OLa1:r:foowv w'i~ owOEKIX !!IXBT)mt~ auwil, ... into 'cities'
11: 1.
13:53 Kal eyEvE'r:o &r:E hEAEOEVo 1TJooUc;; 1:&~ napiXj3oA&~ mum~ ... 'coming to his own country'
13:54.
19:1 Kal eyEvE'tO &r:E hEAEOEV o 1T)Oofic;; 1:oix; J..6you~ 1:ouwu~, ... 'entered the region of Judea' 19: I.
26: I Kal EYEVE'tO &r:E hEAEOEV 0 1T)OOfic;; nrfV't(X~ "CCU~ J..6you~ "CCU"CCU~, Er 1TEV "CCLC: !iiX9T)'tiXLC: auwu
... 'at Bethany' 26:6.
Davies and Allison argue that the structure of9:35-10:1-4 parallels 4:24-5:2. 105
First, both texts consist of two pericopes: the first has to do with Jesus and the
multitude, 4:23-25//9:35-38; the second deals with Jesus and the disciples, 5:1-2//10:1-
4. With understandable variations on the basis of Matthean vocabulary and redactional
characteristics this further illustrates another literary technique to introduce
intertextual connections even within his Gospel: 'the introduction to the Sermon on
the Mount [4:23-5:2] has its closest parallels in the introductions to chapters 10, 13,
18, and 24-25.' 106
There is another linguistic connection relating to 4:23 and 9:35. While forming
the inclusio, these two verses are also linguistically connected with 10: 1. This unites
the two peri copes and also relates 10: 1-4 to the larger context.
4:23- mt 9EpCX1TE'UWV miacxv v6aov KCXL miacxv f.LCXA.cxdcxv E=v t<{} A.cx<{).
9:35- Krxt 9EpCXTIEuwv miacxv v6aov KCXL miacxv f.LCXA.cxdcxv.
10:1- KCXL 9Epcx1TEUELV miacxv v6aov KCXL TiiXacxv f.LCXA.cxdcxv.
Structurally this Matthean redaction would seem to emphasize the close relation
between 9:35-38 and 10:1-4. In light ofthe previous comments it does seem that there
are valid reasons to think in terms ofthe unity ofthe two pericopes of9:35-38 and
10:1-4. Together they function as a 'hinge' between the teaching and the healing
narrative of chapters 5-9 and the second major discourse of chapter 10 anticipating the
105
Luz 2:60 does as well. Cf. Davis and Allison 2:143. Matthew uses literary devices like the inclusio
or repetition offormula phrases, the triad along with a number of other literary imd linguistic devices in
order to alert the reader/hearer to his interests, emphases and intentions. Cf. Nolland (2005) 23-29 for a
helpful summary. .
I 06 Davies and Allison I :410-411
249
narrative of chapters 11-12. In comparison with chapters 8-9, the emphasis of the
narrative of 11-12 is not on healing. (The account of the man with the withered hand
in 12:9-14 is the one exception to this).
When 9:35-10:4 is understood in light ofthe larger context of what Jesus
taught and did in the first major section (5-9) it now becomes clear that Jesus will
extend his ministry through the disciples in chapter 10. This is partly in response to the
need of the crowd, who are 'harassed and helpless' and leaderless plus the reality of
the large harvest and lack oflabors (9:37-38). 107 In response to this, the disciples are
conferred with authority to participate in the ministry of Jesus in 10:1 (ECWKEV auto1<;
E:~ouo(av) and are commissioned to proclaim the same message of the kingdom as
Jesus proclaimed in 4:17:
4:17-0 'lrJOOU<; KTJpOOOELV KCll. AEYHV" IJ.ETCWOEttE" ~YYLKEV yc1p fJ J3a<JLAELIX "tWV oupavwv.
10:7-rropEUOIJ.EVOL OE KTJPUOOE"tE A.E:yovtE<; Bn ~YYLKEV ,; J31loLAELil tWV ovpavwv.
Further, 9:36 echoes 5:1, again linking the two passages with the phase:
's:'
5: 1-LuWV s:'
' DXADU<;
tOU<;
uE" ,
9:36-l.cwv DE tou<; oxA.ou<;
This continues the framing process established by Matthew in 9:35. Jesus' response in
the first instance of seeing the crowds was to teach them. In this second reference, his
response is one of compassion for the shepherdless of Israel who are 'harassed and
helpless'. His command in light of this situation is petitionary prayer. 108
7.3.1 Textual Analysis of Mt 9:35-38
These verses will be analyzed first by examining Matthew's own redactional
uses of the two summary phrases from Mark 1:39 and 6:6b. 109 Matthean redaction will
107
The 'laborers' (Epya-rac;) prayed for in 9:37-38; become a reality in 10:10 where the laborer (o
Epya-rTJ<;) is sent forth to extend the message and ministry of)esus.
108
OE~9TjtE: an imperative aorist passive from I>EOf.LIXL-tO ask, pray or beg.
109
Hagner 1:258-259.
250
also include, for example, the inc/usia identified above, his fondness for the triad, the
use here of the three participles, and the compassionate statement of Jesus concerning
the crowds who are 'harassed and helpless'. Second, the textual analysis will involve
Matthew's use of Mark 6:34 and the biblical reference to Numbers 27:17 and
parallels. Finally, in tum, Matthew's use ofQ and the harvest image in the last part of
the pericope will be addressed.
There are differences between 4:23 and 9:35 but the similarities are greater.
Matthew changes E:v oA.u t't'J raA.LA.a(a, 'in the whole of Galilee', to t&<; TioA.w; TIIimx<;
Kal. t&<; KWf.La<;, 'all the cities and the villages'. Matthew also omits the last words of
4:23, E=v tQ A.aQ, 'among the people in 9:35.' Matthew's inc/usia highlights both the
teaching of Jesus (5-7) and the healing narrative (8-9) providing content and context to
Jesus' 'proclamation of the good news of the kingdom'. The verbatim repetition of the
two passages provides a formulaic summary of the ministry of Jesus. The highlighted
text reveals the inc/usia.
Mt 4:23 Kat TIEpLf)yEv E:v oA.u t'fl Mt 9:35 Kat 1TEpLf)yEv 6 'I11oouc; t&<;
raA.LA.at~ OLOclOKwv E=v -rat<; ouvaywyat<; 1TOAEL<; 1TcXoac; Kal. t&c; KWf.La<; OLOclOKWV EV
au-rwv Kat KTJpuoowv -ro Euayyehov -rfi~; -rat<; ouvaywyatc; au-rwv Kat KTJpuoowv -ro
PaatA.E(ac; Kat 9Epc:tTIEUwV Tiiiaav v6aov Eooyyehov -rfic; PaatA.Ea<; Kat 9EpaTIEuwv
Kat Tiiiaav IJ.aA.aK(av E=v tQ A.aQ. Tiiiaav v6aov Kat Tiiiaav IJ.aAaK(av.
Matthew's use of the triad is extensive both in terms of the structure ofhis
Gospel and in more subtle ways. 110 Here he introduces the three participles and several
words of description:
110
Luz I :38. 'The number three seems most important. .. One has to beware of interpreting it as to
content, e.g., as a number of perfection. It is only a literary systematizing principle, one which is
frequent in oral instruction.' Davies and Allison I :62-72 discuss the use of the triad as it relates to the
structure of the Gospel, concerning the five dicoyrse1i~On,62~66.and then his,use of the triaa in the
narrative material on 66~72. They note approximately forty-four more uses of the triad outside of the
discourses, 86-87, and this is still only a representative list.
251
otMaKwv E:v ta'i<; auva.ywya.'i<; a.{rrwv Ka.i.

Kllpuaawv -ro Eua.yyEJ..wv -rf)<; pa.mA.Eta.<; Ka.i.
0Epa.TIEUWV Tiiiaa.v v6aov Ka.i. Tiiiaa.v f.LIXMKLIXV.
The rhythm is fitting in light of the formulaic summary. Jesus' own message and
ministry will now become the message and ministry of the disciples. Basic to the
passage is Jesus passing on his authority and giving the commission to the disciples to
participate in the message and work of the kingdom. Further, the mission of the twelve
laid out in chapter 10 is to be characterized by Jesus' compassion for the crowds (v.
36). The task is too great for Jesus only, so his command for the disciples to 'go'
(TIOpEum8E present imperative from TiopEUOf.LIXL) to the lost sheep oflsrael (1 0:6). This
anticipates the 'going' (TiopEu8Ev-rE<; aorist participle from TiopEUOf.La.L) to make
disciples of all the nations (f.L1X81l!EUOIX!E (aorist imperative) mxv-ra. -ra E8V11) in 28: 19.
The disciples of Jesus are to do the ministry of teaching, preaching, and healing; to do
what Jesus did. 111
Matthew's use of the Synoptic tradition in 9:35-38 is multilayered. He uses and
redacts Mark's tradition in a number of ways. With his own introduction to Luke 10:2,
he quotes verbatim Q concerning prayer to the Lord of the harvest.
When Matthew 9:35-38 is analyzed in light of the Synoptic tradition, it seems
he generally draws from four pre-Matthean sources: three from Mark and one from
Q. Matthew draws on Mark's two summary statements in 1:39 and 6:6b. He expands
Mark's summary in 1:39-Ka.i. ~J..OEv Kllpuaawv El.<; -ra<; auva.ywya<; a.u-rwv EL<; oJ..11v
't~V ra.hJ..a.[a.v KIXL -r& OIXLf.LOVLIX E:KPaJ..J..wv. ('And he went throughout Galilee,
proclaiming the message in their synagogues and casting out demons'.) The use of the
Markan tradition both supports the summary of Jesus' ministry and anticipates the
111
On preaching, teaching and the gospel of the kingdom, cf. Luz I :206-208; Davies and Allison
1:414-16; Nolland (2006) 182-183.
252
missionary discourse. Matthew changes the aorist indicative active ~A.9Ev (from
EPXOilat) in Mk 1:39 to agree with the imperfect indicative active verb TIEptilYEV (from
TIEpt&yw) 'went about,' of6:6b in both 4:23 and in 9:35.
Mark 1:39 Kat ljA.9Ev Matthew 4:23 Kat Matthew 9:35 Kat
Kflpuaawv EL<; ta<;
I ' \
TIEPLilYEV EV OAU tfi TIEPLilyEv o 'I11oou<; ta<;
auvaywya<; !XUtWV El<; OAUV raA.tA.a(a OLO!iOKWV EV 1TOAEl<; Tiaaa<; Kat ta<;
, r a~~.t~~.atav
tnv , Kat, ta,
~ ~
talc; auvaywyalc; autwv KWilac; OLOMKWV evtalc;
6a tll6v ta lx~&A.A.wv. OUVaywyaLc; aUtWV KaL'
'
\ I \
KaL Kflpuaawv to "' "'
EuayyEA.tov tile; ~aaLA.E(ac; KTJpuaawv to EuayyEA.wv

Mark 6:6b ... Kat 1TEpLilYEV Kat 9Epa1TEUWV TiiiOIXV tile; ~aOLAELac; Kat
tac; Kw1-1ac; KuKA.c.p v6aov Kat Tiiiaav llaAaK(av 9Epa1TEUWV mxaav v6aov
OLMOKWV. EV tQ A.aQ. Kat Tiiiaav llaA.aK(av.
Second, he draws from Mark 6:6~Ka't TIEptilyEv tac; KWilac; KUKAtp
6t6&oKwv. ('Then he went about among the villages teaching'). 112 This second
summary comes just before the sending out ofthe twelve in Mark 6:7-13, so also
anticipates the missionary discourse in Matthew 10. Again, the highlighted text shows
some of the similarities in each telling of the twelve's missionary commissioning.
Mt 10:1 Kat TipoaKaA.Ea~Evoc; -roue; Mk 6:7 Kat TipooKaA.E'itaL touc; owoEKa

OWOEKa lla9TJtac; autou EDWKEV autolc; Kat np~ato autou<; aTIOOtEAAEtV ouo ouo
>J::
E'oOUOLaV 1TVEU!llltWV l.tl\aeaptWV WOtE
I I ] - I <1
Kat EOLDOU autolc; E~oua(av tWV
EK~lXAAEtV aut& KaL 9Epa1TEUEtV Tiiiaav 1TVEU~tWV tWV aKa9aptWV,
v6aov Kat Tiiiaav llaA.aK(av.
The whole ofMt 9:36, but not without Matthean redaction, is derived from
Mark 6:34. In Mark, the phrase 'sheep without a shepherd' (Mk 6:34) is in the context
of the feeding of the five thousand. In contrast, Matthew has moved the text and linked
the phrase to the overall mission concerning the crowds, specifically to Mt 10:6 and
the 'lost sheep of the house of Israel'.
Mt 9:36 i.&wv &E: touc; oxA.ouc; Mk 6:34 Kat E~EA9wv EtOEV 1TOAUV oxA.ov
E01TAaYXVL09T) 1TEpL autwv, ~av on Kat E01TAaYXVL09TJ E1T' autouc;, on ,;aav
EOKUAf.LEVOt KaL EpplfillEVOt wad 1TpO~ta we; 1Tpo~ata ll'h EXOVta 1TOLt.J.EVa, Kat
\ >I I , t: J:: J:: , ' ' ~ ~ ,
llfl EXOvta TIOLilEVa. T)p..,ato utuaOKElV autou<; 1T011.11.a.
112
Compare also Lk 4:40-1, 44; 8:1.
253
Matthew changes the beginning of the verse, leaving out Mark's Kat E~EA.8wv',
'and when he went out'. He replaces the aorist indicative EiliEv ('he saw') with the
aorist participle Ltiwv ('seeing'). Matthew also adjusts Mark's TTOAUV oxA.ov, 'large
crowd', to simply -wu~ oxA.ou~, 'the crowds'. Matthew likes the plural use of oxA.o~
which he uses 30 out of 51 times. The plural simply emphasizes the large response to
The 'crowds' are to be distinguished from the 'disciple' (!la.8rrr~~) or the

113
Jesus.
'follower' (&KoA.ou8Ew )-as a disciple-of Jesus. 114 The crowds follow Jesus in great
numbers because they are fascinated with him as a charismatic figure. Their reaction
to him is normally positive. They respond with: 1) awe filled fear and praise (9:8,
E:<j>op~8T]oa.v Kat E:M~a.oa.v -rov 8Eov), 2) amazement and questions (12:23, E=~(o-rav-w
'fT(XV'tE~ oL DXAOL) and 3) wonder and astonishment (15:31, Wo'tE 'tOV ox.A.ov 8a.U!lcXOIX.L
and 22:22, Kt:XL aKO\JOIX.VtE~ E8t:XU!lt:XOIX.V,). But in being drawn to Jesus in this way, they
are potential disciples of Jesus. The 'crowds' esteem him as he enters Jerusalem (21 :9)
and see him as a prophet (21 :11, 46). Matthew contrasts the 'crowds', who 'marveled'
(E:8a.ulla.oa.v) at his authority over the demonic, with the Pharisees who accuse him of
casting out demons by the 'prince of demons' (9:33-34). 115 It is this same crowd that
113
Matthew uses the plural oxA.oL much more frequently than Mark or Luke, (30, I, 13). Matthew uses
OXAOL 1TOAAOL seven times, again to emphasize the 'great crowds'.
114
Luz 1:206 blurs the distinction between the crowd and the disciple. 'The crowds and the disciples
who follow in vv. 18-22 must not be understood as two circles which have to be completely
distinguished; rather Matthew indicates by this method that discipleship will expand into the church.' It
would still seem from the textual evidence, in spite of the use of the term aKoA.ou9Ew at times with the
crowds, the crowds are not the same as the disciples. Also, the fact the crowds were the 'harassed and
helpless' they are also to be understood as different from the Jewish leadership. It was this abusive
leadership that has contributed to their being 'lost', like sheep without a shepherd. 'The crowds fall
somewhere in between. This is because they are thought of as being, above all, 'the lost sheep of the
house of Israel'. They have not yet found faith in the Messiah, but they are not uniformly opposed to
him'. Davies and Allison I :419.
115
Davies and Allison I :419. 'Generalizing from the data cited, the crowds are more than neutral
background, more than a Greek chorus. They are presented in a more or less positive light. To oesure,
the oxlot; are not true followers of Jesus; yet they are also not in the same league with Jesus' opponents,
the chief priests, the elders, the Pharisees'.
254
Jesus has compassion on (9:36; 14:14; 15:32-each ofthe texts uses oTIA.cxnv((own in
relation to Jesus' attitude toward the crowd).
However, there is one negative in regard to Matthew's depiction of the
'crowds': they are associated with Jesus' death. This is illustrated in 26:47, 55-
where an oxA.oc;; TioA.uc;; 'with swords and clubs' come out with Judas and in 27:20, 24
where the chief priests and the elders persuaded the crowds (ETIElOlXV touc;; oxA.ouc;;) to
ask for Barabbus and destroy/kill (aTioA.Eowow) Jesus. Even in the two negative cases,
the crowd is victimized by the Jewish leadership. Jesus rebukes the Pharisees and
scribes in response to their challenge in 15:1-20 and commands his disciples, 'Let
them alone, they are blind guides' (tXQJEtE cxutmk tu<flA.o( ElOLV OOTJYOL). Matthew is
116
not anti-Jewish. He is however opposed to the specific Jewish leadership of his day.
In 9:36, Matthew follows Mark in describing Jesus as compassionate
(EoTIA.cxyxv(o811) but adds two perfect passive participles, EOKUA~EVOL Ktxt EppL~~EvoL,
'harassed and helpless' to describe the crowds. Finally, he omits Mark's final phrase
after 'sheep without a shepherd', KlXL ~p~cxto 6LoaOKELV cxutouc;; TioA.A.ci ('and he began
to teach them many things').
In 9:37-38, Matthew utilizes Q:
Mt 9:37b-38, 0 ~EV 8EpLO~oc;; rroA.uc;;, oi. Lk 10:2b, 0 ~EV 8EpLO~oc;; rroA.uc;;, oi. 6E
Sf: Epy&.tcxL 6H yoL' 6E~81)tE ouv tou EpycitcxL 6H yoL' 6E~81)tE ouv tou Kup(ou
Kupl.ou tOU 8EpLO~OU orrwc;; EKPaA.u tou 8Epw~ou oTiwc;; E:py1hac;; E:Kp&A.u Etc;;
Epy&.tcxc;; EL<; tOV 8EpLO~OV lXUtoU. tov 8EpLo~ov cxutou.
This textual analysis has further clarified how Matthew uses his sources, both
Mark and Q, and it has illustrated how as a redactor he has shaped the material and
used it in light of his own redactional concerns. In the next section we will examine
116
Saldarini (2001) 166-184.
255
his use of the biblical tradition regarding an unmarked quote, illustrated in Matthew
9:36.
7.3.2 Intertextual Analysis ofMt 9:36
The metaphor 'sheep without a shepherd' (wa(E't) Tip6pa-m: ole; ouK Eanv
TIOtjl~V) is used relatively often in the biblical tradition including Num 27: 17; I Kgs
22:17//II Chr 18:16; Jdt 11:19. 117 Since Mt 9:36 is 'unmarked', some refer to it as an
allusion and thus not counted among the Matthean OT quotations. While brief, enough of
the text is there to make it an identifiable quote, though the specific source is arguable.
As noted above, Matthew follows Mark 6:34 but removes it from the context ofthe
feeding of the five thousand and places it here, possibly because 'sheep without a
shepherd' fits thematically with the mission in 10:6. Whether or not the metaphor had
become 'proverbial' and/or conventional, thereby loosing its vitality as a metaphor, is
debated. As noted earlier, the metaphor of herds/flocks running wild without a shepherd
can be traced back to the time oflpu-wer. 118 Whatever its origin, Matthew reasserts the
metaphor by intertextually associating it with the biblical tradition of Moses and the
kings. Now, he revitalizes it by connecting it with the current context concerning Jesus'
heart of compassion (EaTI.Aayxv[a9T)) for the harassed and helpless (EOKUAjlEVot Kat
EpptjljlEVOL) multitudes. The metaphor works both directions, referring to the leaderless
situation and to Jesus as the shepherd who will fill that void. The quotation may be
considered in light of at least two texts from the biblical tradition, Num 27:17 and I Kgs
22:17. The phrase implies a leaderless people and/or an army without a commander or
117
The Hebrew for Num 27:17 and II Chr 18:16 are almost identical:
i1~"1 c;,7-l't-t itp~ 1K~~//i1p"1 1v7Tt-t itp~ 1K~:l;
The phrase in I Kg 22:17 is the same as Num 27:17: i1l)'"l Ci17Tt-t ;~~ 1K~~
118
Cf. above chapter four on the ANE and the Egyptian examples.
256
king. Based on 2:6, Matthew asserts that Jesus is the shepherd who will remedy the
situation. 119
Probably implicit in 9.36 is the notion that Israel is waiting for her true
shepherd, Messiah Jesus. The evangelist has already asserted, on the basis of
OT texts, that the Messiah will 'shepherd' Israel (2.6), and there is some
evidence that 'shepherd' carried messianic connotations in Judaism (Jer 3.15;
23.4; Ezek 34.23-4; 37.24; Ps. Sol.l7.40; Midr. Ps. On 29.1). Is not Jesus the
messianic shepherd, whose responsibility it is to gather eschatological
Israel? 120
As argued below, texts like these inform the Matthean shepherd/sheep metaphor and
provide the backdrop to the specific quotes from Numbers and Kings.
7.3.2.1 Nom 27:17; I Kgs 22:17/111 Chr 18:16; Jdt 11:19
It may be that Matthew uses WOEL (Mt 9:36) to replace Mark's w<; (Mk 6:34),
in order to make it a bit closer to the LXX Num 27:17. But for whatever reason he
chooses to change the first word to woEI., while w<; is his custom, he makes this initial
change and then chooses to follow Mark faithfully. 121
Mk 6:3~<; np6pa:ro: ll~ EXOVto: TIOLIJ.E:Vo:,

'A
M t 9 :3u--wOEL
L ,<. '
1TpOpO:to: ll'll' "EXOVtiX 1TOLIJ.EVO:.
1
Num 27----hloEI. np6po:-ro: ot<; ouK Eonv TIOLIJ.~V
However, Num 27 is not the only possibility for the quotation. It seems
possible that the biblical tradition as a whole (i.e. Num, Kgs//Chr and Jdt and even
Zech 10:2) may be intended here to inform Matthew's readers/hearers. In spite of the
minor verbal/linguistic differences, there is clear intertextuallinkage. This usage by
Matthew is emphasized to illustrate the point that this is another of Matthew's literary
and intertextual techniques to support his Christology. There are at least four links:
119 Luz I: 64-65. 'On the basis of2:6 the most natural assumption is that Matthew is thinking of Jesus
himself as a shepherd'.
120 Davies and Allison 2:148.
121
Menken (2004) 205-26 argues 'that Matthew's preference for woEt is just a question of style (w~ and
woEt have the same meaning), that in 3, 16, he ch~J,!ge~ ~c;,_which"he.foundin"Mark 1,1 o;-intd"woEl, and
that in 14,21, he introducedwad In the sense of-,;about" in Mark 6,44. So there is no compelling
reason to assume that in the quotation in 9,36, Matthew created closer agreement with the LXX'.
257
Num 27:17-7 I Kgs 22:17//II Chr 18:16-7 Jdt 11:19-7 Mk 6:34. Also sometimes
included in this 'linkage' is a fifth from Zech 10:2. With intertextuallinkage, each of
the OT texts shapes the meaning of the Matthean text. In the case of Num 27:17,
Moses passes on leadership in order for a new 'exodus' or passage into a new phase of
God's activity and leading of the people of God. So also with Jesus, his death and
exodus has not yet come to the fore in the narrative of the Gospel. The mission is still
focused on the 'lost sheep of the house of Israel'. But, already a new phase is being
introduced; the disciples must share in the mission. The mission is too large and too
important for Jesus to try to meet the need without involving laborers to help. Jesus'
judgment is upon those who are the current shepherds, not because there are not
leaders, but because there is an absence of compassionate and righteous leadership.
Zechariah 'authorizes' the legitimacy of condemning the unfaithful leadership of his
day. He follows in the traditions of Jeremiah 23, 50:6-8 and Ezekiel 34, when he
pronounces judgment by his prophecy in 10:2.
Matthew's replacement of WOEL for Mark's we;, whether it is Matthean 'style' or
not, 122 does not take away from understanding Matthew's primary focus on the
Numbers 27. While Numbers' use of the 'sheep without a shepherd' metaphor may
include a military dimension, the broader leadership of Moses is also in view. Also,
the three following texts are more explicitly related to the military aspect of army and
commander. The first two deal with the prophet Micah's prophecy of judgment over
kings Ahab and Jehoshaphat in regard to going to battle at Ramoth-giliad. The Judith
text is her positive prophecy concerning Holofemes and his future leadership.
122
While it is acknowledged that he does make the substitution in the cases noted by Menken, at 3:16,
here 9:36 and 14:21, it is only on three occasions. Do three uses cq,nstitute style? While, numbers at
times may be helpful, by themselves they do not confirm literary style or intent. While Matthew uses we;
3 times, he will use WOEt over 40 times; Mk w~=22, WOEt=l; Lk wc;=51, WOEt=9.
258
< > "

I Kgs 22 : 17--we; I T
TIOL!lVLOV tp OUK EO'tLV TIOLI..LTJV
I
II Chr 18: 16-----Wc; Tipo~cx'tcx otc; ouK on v TIOLil ~v

Jd 11: 19------Wc; Tip~cx'tcx ole; ouK Eonv TIOLil~V
The Numbers passage has much to offer as a background text to Matthew 9:36.
For example, Moses was a shepherd and was God's deliverer of his people. 123
Matthew has argued on the basis of the biblical tradition in 2:6 that Jesus is the
messianic shepherd who will deliver and lead God's people. In Numbers, Moses is
passing on leadership and Jesus, in this context, is passing on leadership. Next, Moses
was concerned that the people not be left leaderless. Jesus' present concern for the
multitude is that there is a lack of leadership and the vacuum must be filled. Finally, in
both cases the context is one of prayer. Moses prays in 27:16-17; Jesus commands that
prayer be offered in 9:37-38.
When one also recalls that there are certainly places in Matthew where Jesus is
one like Moses and that some Jews no doubt expected the last redeemer
(Messiah) to be like the first redeemer (Moses), the reader should perhaps
think that Jesus the shepherd is takin~ up a Mosaic office when he seeks out
the lost sheep of the house of Israel. 1 4
Further, the Numbers text does not stand alone as a background for 9:36. There
are other texts that are relevant to the shepherd/sheep metaphor in this context.
Literarily, the Kings/Chronicles passage may illustrate negative leadership among the
kings of Israel. Now, this is to be replaced by the true royal shepherd, the Son of
David.
7.3.2.2 Jer 3:15, 23:1-6, 50:6; Ez 34:4-6; Zech 10:2
The allusions possible for this Matthew 9:36 are numerous. To begin, Jeremiah
23:1-6 develops an extended metaphor ofthe shepherd/sheep motif. This includes: (1)
Judgment (23: 1-2) on the shepherds who 'destroy and scatter the sheep'
123
Ex 3.1; Philo, Vii. Mos. 1.60-6: Josephus, Ant. 2.263-4.
124
259
(oto:oKopn((ovm; KO:L &noA.A.uov-rE~ -ra np6po:-ro:), (2) the promise (23:3-4) that God will
raise up 'shepherds' (plural) to shepherd the people of God without 'fear'
(cpopT)9~oov-ro:t) or 'dismay' (moT)8~oov-ro:t) in the authority and attitude ofthe Lord

125
and (3) the hope ofthe Davidic Messiah (23:5-6) who 'shall reign as king and deal
wisely' (po:otA.EUOEL po:otA.Eu~ Ko:l ouv~oEL) executing 'justice and righteousness in the
land' (not~oEL Kptjlo: Ko:l OLKO:LOOUVT)V E=nl -rf)~ yf)~). As in the allusion to Psalm 72 in
Matthew 2:11, so the character of righteousness is dominant in regard to this Davidic
ruler. His name will be called, 'The Lord is our righteousness.' (-ro ovoj.la o:u-rou o
KO:AEOEL o:u-rov Kupto~ IwoEDEK). In light of these promises Matthew understands that
the commissioning of the disciples to carry out Jesus' mission as his under-shepherds
is in line with the biblical tradition concerning the promise of God to raise up
shepherds along with sending the Shepherd-Messiah.
It might be argued that a similar outline is reflected in Mt 9:36ff. The current
leadership is indicted for their oppressive and abusive leadership, evident by the
condition of the crowd. Under-shepherds are being raised up. First, they are raised up
with the disciples and then, through their ministry, others will follow. For Matthew,
126
Jesus is the Davidic Messiah: 'David a righteous Branch' (Llo:ut6 &vo:wA.T,v OLKO:to:v)
whose mission it is to gather the lost sheep of Israel.
While the language ofEz 34:4-6 is not verbally the same as the Matthean
language of 'harassed and helpless' (EoKUAjlEVOL Ko:l E=pptjljlEVot), the imagery is
similar. Ezekiel's indictment against the shepherds was ruthless because 'with force
and harshness you have ruled them'(Ko:t -ro i.oxupov KO:'tHpyaoo:o8E ll6x9c.p). The result
125
Previous to this promise Jeremiah has in a much more abbreviated fashion give a similar word: Jer
3:15, here again 'shepherds (plural) after my own heart' (rroq.tEvo:~ Ko:ra r~v Ko:po(o:v iJ.ou) will be given
ra
to 'feed' (1TOLf..LavofJOLv) the people of God, who include 'a! I nations' (miv-ra E9VTJ) (3: 17) with
'knowledge and understanding' (1TOLJla(vov'l"E~ Jln' ~n~ort1JlTJ~).
126
Cf. Mt 2:1-2 and the discussion of this term there.
260
is similar to the time of Jesus: 'they were scattered, because there was no shepherd;
and scattered, they became food for all the wild animals' (Ez 34:5). This part of the
prophecy emphasizes the judgment upon the current shepherds and the distress of the
people. The prophecy continues to describe how God will gather his people and
provide a Davidic Messiah for his people. The Ezekiel passage follows in the tradition
of Jeremiah recognizing the deep distress of the current situation. Yet, the distress is
held in tension with the promise of renewed royal leadership (34:23-24) and a renewed
everlasting covenant, characterized by peace (37:24-26). The messianic hope is that
God's intervention will renew a sense of the divine presence and ultimately a second
deliverer will overcome the current oppression and distress.
In the second part of Zechariah (9-14), 127 Zech 10:2 is the first of a number of
references to the shepherd motif. It describes the people as sheep who suffer for lack
of shepherd or a healer (ouK ~v '(o:at<; 'they have no healing'), according to the LXX.
Linguistically, the text is only marginally related to the earlier texts. However, it
seems sure that it is conceptually related to the earlier texts. If Matthew wanted to use
it in light of the healings of Jesus, it would seem that he could have made a closer
connection. In light of the question as to its status, it is left open ended. 128
For Matthew, the leadership of the Judaism of the day had become similar to
the evil shepherds of an earlier time. Just as Ezekiel would challenge the leaders of his
own day in light of the tragedy of the first destruction of Jerusalem, so Matthew would
look around at his own situation and declare that the leadership of Israel had gone bad.
Rather than proposing a prophetic hope, he understands Jesus as God's royal-righteous
127
Fourteen times from 10:2-13:7 but the predominant number ofuses are in chapter 11. The metaphor
of sheep/shepherd/flock is one of the dominant iml.lges,pf Zech 9-14.
128
As a note CD XIII.9-10 aria Pss. "of Sol. 17:40 are similar in language and so are in the same biblical
frame of thinking but whether Matthew knew of either of these texts is up for debate.
261
shepherd who will, with compassion, provide leadership to the shepherdless people of
God. Initially, Jesus will provide the shepherd-leadership but will then extend it
through his under-shepherds (the disciples) who he will raise up and send out to
extend his mission (10:5-8).
In light of Mt 9:36, Jesus is the compassionate shepherd. It might be said that
in the infancy narrative and specifically in regard to the shepherd text of 2:6, Matthew
presents who Jesus is as shepherd, the royal-righteous shepherd. Now at 9:36,
following the teachings and healings of Jesus, Matthew emphasizes his compassion
and the extension of his mission through his under-shepherds.
Using the metaphor of the shepherd-less people, Matthew brings together both
Mosaic and Davidic motifs to define and inform what kind of shepherd Jesus is. The
unmarked quotation from Numbers 27 is the background for Jesus' appointment of the
twelve as under-shepherds consistent with the compassionate shepherd Jesus. The
Kings passage brought into view the monarchy and the need for ruler-ship that reflects
the character of the Lord with His compassion and justice. The intertextuallink from
Numbers to Kings brings into focus the lack of political leadership and the lack of
spiritual guidance.
The fact that the crowd is depicted as 'harassed and helpless' (both passive
participles) emphasizes for Matthew that their condition has been inflicted upon them.
Like Ez 34:4-5, the Jewish leadership is guilty of abusing the people. This is
consistent with Matthew's distinction between evil Jewish leaders and victimized
people elsewhere in the Gospel. Matthew sees the Jewish people as sheep, lacking the
provision, protection and guidance of a genuine shepherd. The current leadership has
moved in the Matthean narrative from being indifferent or passive (2:4-6) to positively
262
malicious. This theme will continue to become even more acute as the Gospel unfolds.
They have become the anti-shepherds in the tradition of Jeremiah, Ezekiel and
Zechariah.
Jesus' response to the people's circumstances is not condemnation toward the
crowds but compassion and mission. Consistent with prophetic tradition concerning
the evil shepherds, while not using shepherd language, Jesus will condemn the current
Jewish leadership in Matthew 23. But for the crowds oflsrael they are 'lost sheep'
'harassed and helpless' in need of a shepherd(s)lleader(s). For Jesus the mission to the
'lost sheep oflsrael' (10:5-6) begins in prayer and is to be carried out through the
disciples. Jesus as shepherd has declared the message and teaching of the kingdom
(4:23-7:29) and demonstrated the meaning and effects ofthe kingdom in his ministry
ofhealing and deliverance (8:1-9:35). The missionary work ofthe disciples is
introduced by describing the missionary work of Jesus. The summary of Jesus
ministry (4:17-25) now becomes a summary ofthe disciples' ministry (10:7-8a). The
disciples are to see the 'lost sheep oflsrael' as Jesus sees them, 'with compassion'.
They are also to do what Jesus did; bring the message and ministry of the kingdom. By
this, the disciples, as a result of Jesus' commissioning, become also shepherd-healers
and teachers. 129 Matthew pushes the shepherd metaphor to encompass as much as
possible. I think on the basis ofMatthew's Christology it is appropriate to associate
the shepherd metaphor with healing and teaching, even though it may be argued that it
is not central. Matthew understands Jesus to be a miracle-worker and healer and also
the teacher and preacher of the kingdom and gives that same authority to his disciples
(1 0:1' 5-8).
129
Moss (2002) 5 Iff; 68ff; Ham (2005) I I 7, n 54.
263
7.3.4 Metaphor Analysis ofMt 9:36
Matthew says that when Jesus saw the crowds, he had compassion for them
'because' (on) they were harassed and helpless. The metaphor used of the crowds is:
'like sheep without a shepherd'

WOEL np6po:-ro: l.l~ EXOVto: TIOLj.lEVIX.
The tenor/topic is the 'crowds' and the vehicle is 'shepherd-less sheep'. The
combination of these two together make up the focus of the metaphor. The context
frame indicates that the metaphor is aimed at a lack of positive leadership. Further,
130
Matthew's use of 'harassed and helpless' also implies that the leadership is abusive.
The context frame in Matthew implies Jesus is the compassionate shepherd,
particularly in view of his relation to the crowd. 131 It illustrates how an
interanimation/perspectival theory of metaphor is helpful in appreciating not only the
focus of the metaphor but also how the interaction of thoughts and words are active
together to imply that Jesus is the compassionate shepherd, even though the text does
not explicitly state it. The thought emerges in light of the specific metaphor of 'sheep
without a shepherd' . 132 Here is a case where the interanimation/perspectival approach
is especially helpful. In order to understand this metaphor the utterance must have a
contextframe. Without a contextframe it is impossible to know if the meaning of
'sheep without a shepherd' is a literal reference to sheep that are without the oversight
of a shepherd or if 'sheep without a shepherd' should be taken metaphorically to refer
to people who are leaderless.
Matthew's use of the biblical tradition will again extend and inform the
meaning of the shepherd metaphor concerning the shepherd-less crowds and Jesus as
13Cf. 7.3 .I above for Mt's use of 'the crowds' (oi oxJ..oL) and the two perf. pass. part. 'harassed and
helpless'.
131 Cf. 7.3.3 above.
132
Cf. 7.3 .2 above.
264
the compassionate shepherd. As 'sheep without a shepherd' the biblical tradition
speaks of the people being without leadership (e.g. Ez 34:4-6; Zech 10:2). The image
was used in regard to kings in times of a crisis in leadership (I Kings 22). The image
originates, at least in the biblical tradition, in the Moses story in Numbers 27. 133 The
metaphor not only connects Jesus with the Moses tradition but also with the prophetic
tradition that promises that God will not only raise up a shepherd messiah but also
'shepherds after my own heart' (Jer 3:15, 23:4). The metaphor establishes the need for
a compassionate shepherd and the need for under-shepherds that will embody the
qualities of the Shepherd-Messiah.
The metaphor is used by Matthew to depict the crowds as leaderless and
therefore in need ofleader(s). Jesus as the compassionate Shepherd-Messiah has
shown them authoritative teaching (Mt 7:28-29) and healing (Mt 8-9). Now, as the
compassionate one, Jesus extends that authoritative teaching and healing through his
'under-shepherds', the disciples, in Matthew 10:1,6-8. So, the metaphor depicts Jesus
as filling the leadership vacuum in his own ministry and extends that 'authority' to the
disciples to further the work of the kingdom.
7.4 Introduction and Structure ofMt 15:21-28
First, this text is different from the other Matthean shepherd texts considered in
this chapter. The primary difference is that it does not use the noun (iToL~~v) or the
verb (iTot~a(vw) in regard to Jesus. Also, there is no direct biblical quote as part of the
text, though some potential allusions will be discussed in regard to 15:24. Yet, it is
considered because it is similar to 9:36 where Jesus repeats his mission, 'I was sent
only to the lost sheep of the house of Israel'. He implies that he is the shepherd of the
lost sheep.
- -~ -- ~H 3 ~CCt32~1'"a-b~~ an-d for similar possible use of the image in the ANE cf. 4.1.3 above.
265
This text, like 8:5-13, shows Jesus accomplishing a healing from a distance on
behalf of a Gentile in response to exceptional faith. 134 For Matthew the christological
statement about Jesus' capacity to heal, from a distance with a word, is not the primary
focus. For him, the focus falls on two Gentiles who not only exercise faith but who
demonstrate exceptional faith. This impressive faith is contrasted with the general lack
of faith ofthe children oflsrael. Jesus' relationship with the Gentiles and his stated
mission that he 'was sent only to the lost sheep of the house of Israel' will be
discussed below (cf. 10:5-6). The miracle story ends up being a dialogue between
Jesus and the woman with the climax focusing on the woman's faith rather than the
actual healing of the daughter. After a brief introduction and transition ( 15:21) there is
the extended interchange between the woman and Jesus (15:22-27) and then a
conclusion (15:28). The flow ofthe dialogue might be outlined thus: 135
1) Introduction: transition to present pericope (v21)

2) The woman's appeal: EAET]aov f!E, KUpLE ... (v22)
o
3) Jesus' initial silence: cSE ouK &nEKpL9T] (v23a)
4) The disciples' complaint: &nOI..uaov <XV-r~v. on
Kpa(EL oma9EV ~f!WV. (v23b)
o
5) Jesus' mission stated: OE &noKpL9Etc; ... (v24)
6) The woman's determination:~ OE ... KupLE, po~en f!OL. (v25)
o
7) The objection of Jesus: cSE &noKpL9Etc; (v26)
8) The woman's assertive reply:~ BE dnEv val. KUpLE, (v27)
9) Jesus esteems of her faith: -ro-rE &noKpL9Etc; ... wyuva.L, f!EYaAT] aou ~ n(anc;
(v28a)
10) Conclusion: Jesus grants her request: YEVT]9~-rw OOL we; eEA.nc;. (v28b)
The rhythm and repetition within the pericope reflects Matthew's literary touch. The
woman speaks three times (15: 22, 25, 27); Jesus speaks three times (15: 24 ,26 ,28)
with the parenthetical protest of the disciples ( 15 :23b). Again, the dialogue focuses on
134
8: I 0, t:q.LT]V
' ' AEYW'' ' - nap ' ouuEVL
U[.Ltv, ' ' maautT]V
' '
manv ' ry- 'IapaT]A
EV '' Eupov.
' 'T ru Iy I t e II you, m
. no
one in Israel have I found such faith.'; 15:28, wyuvaL, [.I.Eya.i..T] aou ~ n(anc; '0 woman, great is your
faith!'
135
This outline is an adaptation from Hagner 2:441. Davies and Allison 2:541, divide the pericope in a
similar fashion, 'setting (vv2l-22a), extended conversation (vv22b-28c), conclusion (v28d).'
266
the woman's faith. Matthew has an alternate use of6 DE/~ DE throughout the dialogue
as personal pronouns. Matthew's fourfold response of Jesus includes Jesus' use of
&1ToKp(vof.LaL Three of the responses are preceded by 6 DE and the final response is
climaxed with tOtE; with the woman's threefold use ofKupLE in each of her appeals to
Jesus and her twofold cry for 'mercy' and 'help' before her final assertive reply.
Throughout, Matthew portrays this yuv~ Xavava[a, 'Canaanite woman' as
recognizing the status of Israel even though she is a Gentile. For example, her use of
uioc; .!lau(D as a messianic title, similar to the blind men in 9:27 and 20:30-31. 136
Second, Matthew's addition of val, emphasizes her agreement with Jesus and she
extends his metaphor of the 'children's bread' and the 'dogs'. Third, the Matthean
addition of yap to Kal yap, 'and yet' also strengthens her response and the extension
of Jesus' metaphor in 15:27. 137
Structurally, there are a number of interesting comparisons between this
pericope and the story of the centurion in Mt 8:5-13. 138 1) Both are stories of Jesus
being engaged by a Gentile (a military man and a Canaanite woman). 2) Both take the
initiative with Jesus and request his help. 3) Both are seeking help for a child: the
woman for her daughter and the centurion for his servant. Or possibly the help is for
the centurion's son rather than his servant (8:6, 6 1Ta1c;). If this is the case, then the
parallelism is even stronger. 4) Both children are in serious distress because of their
ailment; the daughter (KaKwc; DIXLf.LOVt(EtaL) and the servant/son (Duvwc;
136
An important messianic and christological motif for Matthew (Mt 9, Mk 3, Lk 4): cf. Mt 1:1; 9:27;
12:23; 15:22; 20:30-31; 21:9, 15; 22:42. Cf. e.g. Luz 2:59-61, Hagner I :253 and Nolan (1980) 158-
169;pace Davies and Allison 2:135-136 and 548 who argue that, while 'Son ofDavid' is a messianic
title (e.g. 1: I), Matthew is making a connection between Jesus and Solomon in this passage (and in
9:27; 12:23; 20:30-31 ), who was understood as a healer, exorcist, and magician in late Jewish tradition.
Nolland (2005) 635. [rap], 'following a linking Kal ('anq:),.~iiitr()Ql!Ces.what is to be seen as an
137
implication drawn ouHrom what has been affiilned('to

138
be sure, and [precisely because it is so]').'
Cf. Hagner 2:440; Davies and Allison 2:558.
267
paaavL(Of.LEvoc;). 5) In both, Jesus is addressed as Lord. 6) Jesus' initial response to the
request is reluctance; this is especially so if Jesus' response in 8:7 is understood as a
question. 7) Both demonstrate persistence in their request. 8) The actual healing in
both accounts is secondary, with Jesus praising both Gentiles for their faith (8:10;
15 :28). 9) In both stories, the demonstration of faith on the part of these Gentiles is put
in the context oflsrael's special status: a) in 15:24 (26) Jesus' unique mission to Israel
is emphasized plus b) Israel's failure to respond (8:10-12)~ 10) Finally, there are
linguistic similarities in both of Jesus' final responses made to the two Gentiles as he
grants their requests.
Mt 8:13b- we; E1TLOtEUOCX<;; YEVTJ91l'tw OOL. KCXL i.aa, 6 na1c; [autou] EV tfl wp~ EKELV!J.
Mt 15 :28b-yEVT)9~tW 001. we; 9EA.ELc;. K(XL i.aa, ~ 9uy&tT]p autft~ &no tft~ wpac;
' '
EKEI.VT)t;.
One final observation indicates that these two stories are the only two
occasions in the Gospel of Matthew that Jesus directly ministers to a Gentile. Both
situations cause Matthew to emphasize that, as Gentiles, it is their faith and nothing
else that brings about their salvation. Yet, they are set in the context of and in tension
with Jesus' primary mission to Israel and Israel's special status (cf. 10:6): While the
priority is always upon Israel, the two stories function proleptically in regard to the
Gentile mission which will be commanded by Jesus after the resurrection (28: 18-20).
7.4.1 Textual Analysis of Mt 15:24
This pericope, not found in Luke, is based upon the earlier material from Mark
7:24-30. But, as is his custom, Matthew shapes the material for his own purposes. The
Matthean redaction is 'extraordinarily heavy.' 139 Among the many changes, there are
two major ways that Matthew modifies the episode. First, he introduces direct
139
Luz 2:336, notes some thirtyto thirty-five ways Matthew has rewritten Mark and used his own
words, phrases or constructions to shape the passage.
268
dialogue between the woman and Jesus early on. From 15:22 to the end of the
pericope, Jesus and the woman are in conversation. Jesus is initially unresponsive to
the woman's appeal, which is irritating to the disciples who want him to simply send
her away. Second, Matthew's Jesus declares that his mission is only to the lost sheep
ofthe house oflsrael. This is linguistically almost identical with 10:6. Yet, the woman
is not intimidated. Thus, she is one of the few people in the Gospel to persuade Jesus
to do something he does not initially appear to want to do.
In many ways, Matthew rewrites the story. Notice how Matthew's redaction of
Mark displays Matthew's intentions. As is typical, Matthew uses his own transitional
vocabulary in v 21 and then adds Kal ~LcSwvoc; 'and Sidon,' to Mark's single Tupou,
'Tyre'.I4o
Mt 15:21-Kal E=~EA.9wv EKE19Ev 6 'IT)aouc; &:vEXWPTJOEv Etc; r& f.l.EPTJ Tupou ml

~LcSwvoc;.
Mk 7:24-'EKE19Ev cS(: &vaar&c; &:1ri1A.8EV Etc; r& opLa Tupou.
Matthew leaves out completely Mark 24b and the reference to entering a house and
introduces the woman with his characteristic tcSou 141 (Mt 62; Mk 7; Lk 57) as a
Xavava(a, 'Canaanite', changing Mk's 'EA.A.Tjv(c;, ~upo<f>oLVLKLaaa rQ yE:vn 'a Greek,
Syrophoenician by race' (Mk 7:26). After introducing her, Matthew shows her making
her request: A.l:T]a6v f.J.E, KUpLE uloc; ~au(cS 'Have mercy on me, Lord, Son of David' (v
22). The dialogue has begun. 3) Matthew redefines the need of the daughter to~
9uycirTJp f.J.OU KaKwc; liaLf.J.OVt(EtaL 'my daughter is tormented by a demon.' (v 22),
changing Mark's description of an TIVEUf.J.a &:Ka9aprov, 'unclean spirit'. 4) Matthew
142
uses one of his favorite terms in regard to Gentile response. When the woman
140
Matthew always has the two names together, e.g. 11 :21-22.
141 -~
BDAG: loou: a demonstrative or presentative particle that dntws attention to what follows; prompter
of attention, behQ/d, look; see.
142
TTpooEKuvEw: recall Mt 2:2, 11.
269
comes to Jesus, she npooEKUVEL a(rrw 'began to worship him' (15: 25). 5) Again, the
dialogue is direct, and the woman requests, KUptE, po~9EL 1-J.OL, 'Lord, help me' (v 25)
contrasted with Mark's third-person request that the demon be banished npooETIEOEv
npo~ "t:ou~ nooa~ au't:Otl' (Mk 7:25). 6) Mark's natotwv, 'children', is changed to
Kup(wv 'masters' by Matthew (v 27) and he totally omits Mark's acpE~ TipW't:OV
xop'tao9f]vat "t:a 't:Exva 'allow the children to be fed first' (Mk 7:21). This, Matthew
chooses to for economy. 7) Mark's 6ta tou"t:ov tov A.6yov unayE, E~EA.~A.u9Ev EK 't:fl~
9uya"tp6~ oou 't:O DIXI.IJ.ovwv, 'on account of this word, go; the demon has departed
from your daughter' (Mk 7:29) is replaced with Matthew's culmination of the
pericope with, wyuval., 1-J.EYcXATJ oou ~ TILOn~ YEVTJ9~'t:W 001. w~ 9EAEL~, 'Woman,
great is your faith! Let it be done for you as you wish'. (v 28). In order to emphasize
the woman's faith, Matthew abbreviates Mark's conclusion to a considerable degree.
He does not mention the woman going home and finding her daughter well (Mk 7:30).
8) It is also noteworthy that Matthew's concluding verse (15: 28) is very much like
8:13. In these eight ways, Matthew both expands and abbreviates Mark according to
his own intensions and reformulates the story to emphasize the focus of Jesus' mission
to the lost sheep of the house of Israel. Yet, at the same time, he recognizes the faith of
a Gentile.
7.4.2 Intertextual Analysis ofMt 15:24
Within the Gospel, several verses relate to 15:24 including 10:6, 9:36 and
18:12. In the biblical tradition, Jeremiah 50:6 and Ezekiel24:23-25 (cf. also Psalm
119: 176; Isaiah 53 :6) could possibly be in the background of this peri cope. Along with
these texts, the metaphor oflsrael as 'lost sheep' in the biblical tradition is alluded to
or implied in Num 27:17, I Kgs 22:17, II Chron 18:16, Ez 34:5; Zech 13:7. Often the
270
tradition uses the image of the sheep being 'scattered' which implies they are without
protection and guidance. The image of' lostness' is more related to the lack of the
shepherd than the fault of the sheep.
7.4.2.1 Jer 50:6 (cf. Isa 53:6;Ez 34)
Matthew's repetition ofthe mission phrase from 10:6 in the context ofthe
Gentile woman continues the tension in the story concerning the woman's request and
Jesus' initial refusal. Intertextually the image of the 'lost sheep' comes potentially
from Jeremiah 50:6 which alludes to the specific theme ofthe people as 'lost sheep'.
Again, it is the 'shepherds' (rroq.J.EVE<;: pl) who have led the people astray. The
leadership is identified as the source of the people's 'lostness'.
Mt 10:6 nopEuEOOE oE 1-ui.AJ..ov npoc; -r& npopa-ra -r& &.nolw.W-ra o'LKou 'Iapa~l.
Mt 15:24 OUK &nEOtalrw EL fl.~ EL<; "tCt 1Tpopa-ra "t"Ct a1TOAWAOta OLKOU 'Iapa~l.
Jer 50:6 (LXX-27:6) 1Tpopa-ra a1TOAWAO"tOC EyEv~e'Tl 0 A.a6c; f!OU oi. 1TOLfl.EVE<; OCl.l'tWV
E~WOOCV
Through the use of the dialogue between the woman and Jesus, Matthew is
able to emphasize the woman's address to Jesus as 'son of David'. This introduces
another possible reference to the biblical tradition (Ezekiel 34:23-24). It is Ezekiel's
prophecy that declares the Lord will 'set up over them' one shepherd, who will be 'my
servant David' and he 'shall be prince among them'. Matthew reasserts that Jesus is
the royal shepherd in the lineage of David. The Davidic messianic tradition that
followed the promises made in II Samuel 7, had been firmly established in the biblical
tradition and Matthew continues to return to it again and again in his Gospel, thereby
143
emphasizing Jesus status as David's Messiah, Shepherd oflsrael.
143
Cf. I Chr 17:11, 14; Isa 9:6-7; II: 1; Jer 23:5, 30:9; Ez 34:23-24; 37:24-25; Hos 3 :5; Dan 9:25-26.
271
Without using the TIOLIJ.~V , in this text, Matthew nevertheless introduces
another dimension of the shepherding motif. The cry of the Canaanite woman, 'Have
mercy on me, Lord, Son of David', A.11o6v IJ.E, KUpLE uloc; ~aui.o (15: 22), appeals tor
mercy. 144 The initial reluctance by Jesus to respond heightens the narrative tension and
puts more focus on Jesus' mercy toward the woman. Jesus, along with the continuing
emphasis on the 'lost sheep of the house oflsrael' and being royal shepherd, the Son
of David, is shown to be the 'merciful' shepherd. He feels compassion for his people
(9:36), but he demonstrates mercy toward the Gentiles. This is a Matthean favorite
145
(EAEEw: Mt 9, Mk 3, Lk 4).
While Gentiles are introduced into the Gospel early in the magi story (2: 1-11 ),
Jesus takes the initiative to help a Gentile in only two occurrences in the Gospel: here
(Mt 15:21-28) and in the healing ofthe centurion's servant (Mt 8:5-13). The number
of similarities between 8:5-13 and 15:21-28 reflects Matthew's literary style in regard
to repetitions and parallelisms. The similarities between the two episodes were
compared above. Two themes that emerge are: 1) the faith of the two Gentiles in the
stories and 2) the importance and priority oflsrael in terms of Jesus' ministry.
These two accounts emphasize the faith of the Gentiles and that it is their faith
that accomplishes their petition. Jesus' response to their faith is also unique in the
Gospel:
8: 10----tl!J. ~v A.E.yw UIJ.L v, Tiap' ouoEvt toac:drr11v 1T (on v f:v tQ lopa~A. Eupov.
15:28----W yuvat, llEY&:A.11 oou ~ TI(onc;
144
Cf. The cry of the blind men in 9:27; 20:30, 31.
145
Matthew legitimizes and lends authority to the theme of mercy (EA.EEw) by appealing twice to the
biblical tradition, by marked-quotes 'G() and l~al]l.!.' and,o~i(you had known what this means' from
Hos 6:6 in 9:13 and 12:7. The oti1er references inClude the beatitude, 5:7; another cry for mercy, 17:15;
the exhortation to those who receive mercy should show mercy, 18:33.
272
Jesus is not impressed by the faith of any, except these two Gentiles in the whole of
Matthew's Gospel. Is this a subtle indictment against Matthew's intended Jewish
audience and their lack of response to Jesus as Messiah? Relevant to the textual
observations is the fact that this response in 15:28 is not in Matthew's source(s), so it
is likely from Matthew's own hand.
Second, Matthew states Jesus' mission clearly in 10:5 and then again here in
the narrative at 15:24. Even in the extension of Jesus' mercy to the Gentiles, Matthew
is careful to show that Israel's priority is not lost. The main concern of the mission is
to the 'lost sheep ofthe house oflsrael' (10:6; 15:24). But, the royal shepherd oflsrael
is also the merciful shepherd of the Gentiles. Matthew is not uncomfortable with the
tension, for him it is the historical reality of the ministry of Jesus and the reality ofhis
present situation in which the Gentiles are responding to the message of the Gospel
and his own kinsmen are not. When faith is demonstrated by the Gentiles, they will
also be included into the people of God. In this way, Matthew proleptically anticipates
the Gentile mission in 28:18-20. 146 At the same time he argues for Jesus' mission and
priority to his own people the Jews. There is a sense in which this tension may have
also been felt by Matthew in his own historical situation.
In light ofthis largeness of mercy, Matthew also presented Jesus the shepherd
as the judge exercising his justice at the eschatological end. To that, we will turn next.
The metaphor analysis will specifically consider the phrase:
'I was sent only to the lost sheep of the house of Israel'.
ouK U1TEataA.11v Ei. 1..1.~ Etc,; tO: 11p6~ata tO: aTioA.wA.6ta o'(Kou 'Iapa~A..
146
Davis and Allison 2:558-559.
273
The tenor/topic is the 'house oflsrael', and the vehicle is 'the lost sheep'.
While the shepherd metaphor is not stated explicitly it is implied in the 'lost sheep'
image. In order to generate this metaphor the focus is the interanimation of tenor/topic
and the vehicle. The frame shows the Canaanite woman in relation to Jesus as
shepherd, while the metaphor emphasizes his mission to 'the lost sheep ofthe house in
Israel'.
In the Matthean context, the frame highlights the seriousness of the condition
of the house of Israel, particularly as it is contrasted to the faith of a Gentile woman.
The metaphor serves to emphasize Matthew's focus on the Gentile's response to Jesus.
This theme of response began in the story of the magi who respond positively to the
new born king, even with gifts and worship (npooKuvE:w ). Then again in the story of
the centurion in Matthew 8:5-13, the centurion demonstrates great faith. The
Canaanite woman's story parallels the centurion story, in which these Gentile
believers express the kind of faith Matthew's Jesus yearns to see among 'the lost
147
sheep of the house of Israel'. In each case they are granted their requests. This
frame therefore connects the metaphor of'the lost sheep ofthe house of Israel' with
the people of God and their lack of belief in Jesus and heightens the seriousness of
Israel's 'lostness'. The narrative frame continues this contrast between the woman's
faith and the children oflsrael's lack of it through the way the woman addresses Jesus,
first with '0 Lord, Son of David' (15:22) and then twice again as 'Lord' (15:25, 27) as
she knelt (npooKuvE:w) before him. The woman is portrayed as the faithful one who
148
accepts the true identity of Jesus, while the house oflsrael remains lost.
147
Cf. 7.4 above.
148
Cf. 7 .4.1 above.
274
The intertextual influences are not as strong in this pericope, though Jeremiah 50:6
relates to the metaphor specifically, 'My people have been lost sheep; their shepherds
have led them astray'. Other texts might be cited 149 but as noted above, the strength of
the pericope is the contrast of the Gentile woman and 'the lost sheep of the house of
Israel'. The narrative frame between the Gentile woman whose faith is expressed and
whose 'desire' (8E.A.w) is granted is contrasted with the 'lostness' oflsrael, who
remains in ignorant unbelief and whose collective yearnings remain unfulfilled,
because they do not recognize the royal shepherd, the Son of David. For Matthew the
mission of Jesus was first to 'the house oflsrael' and therefore he depicts Jesus as the
royal shepherd, the Son of David (Ez 34:23-24). Matthew could only hope that the
kind of faith expressed by the Canaanite women would be expressed by Israel in
regard to Jesus the royal shepherd.
7.5 Introduction and Structure ofMt 25:31-46
This passage is unique to Matthew and probably comes from his special source
(M). 150 In the overall scheme of the Gospel, the pericope functions in two ways: 1) it
brings to conclusion the end of the immediate context which has been the
eschatological discourse of24:1-25:46. As the scene ofthe final judgment, it logically
fits here in the final block of teaching. What kind of text is it? This is not a trial but is
a sentencing. It is a judgment scene, pure and simple, where the Son of Man comes
and executes judgment (v 31). In spite ofthe fact that it is often referred to as a
parable, it is actually the description of a real, though future, event--the last judgment.
149
Cf. 7.4.2 and 7.4.2.1 above
150
Hagner 2:740. 'The only partial parallels are to its opening and close. Thus Mark 8:38b and Luke
9:26b both refer to the coming of the Son of Man in glory (Mark: of his Father; Luke: his and his
Father's) with his holy angels'. Yet, there are a number of unique vocabulary and unparalleled
expressions:.e.g. 'the kingdom fi'om the foundation of the world' (v 34); 'one of the least of these my
brothers' (v 40); 'the devil and his angels' (v 41),; ~ternaJ P!!uishm~nt',(v 46). These elements point to-~
the fact.that-while Matthew engages in-ltis typiCal redaction he also has a special source fi'om the
tradition. Cf. Davis and Allison 3:417-418.
275
It is not a parable, but a 'word picture for the final judgment' . 151 2) It functions to
bring to conclusion the formal teaching of Jesus that Matthew has gathered in the five
large blocks of teaching throughout the Gospel. 152
Matthew uses his standard phrase to conclude this section ofteaching in 26:1,
Ked. EyEvero O'I:E EtEAEOEV o 'IT)oou<; Tiavtac; tou<; A.6you<; toutouc:; ... Matthew does not
add any commentary to the scene. He adds neither exhortation nor appeal. The
pericope speaks for itself. Here again, Matthew shows his literary skill. The last
judgment scene is strategically placed prior to the passion narrative. As the story turns
to describe the 'smitten shepherd' (26:31) and one who will be led to the slaughter, the
reader/hearer is reminded in the present pericope that Jesus will have the final word in
regard to humanity's eternal destiny (25:45-46).
Within the passage itself, Matthew again capitalizes on his literary techniques
to accomplish his task. Some of the primary features of the peri cope are Matthew's
use of symmetry, repetition and parallelisms with internal cross-referencing to other
parts of the Gospel.
The following outline attempts to appreciate the symmetry of the passage by
allowing the repetitions and parallelisms to shape the whole. 153
Introduction: The Son of Man comes in his glory (v 31 );
1) The initial great separation (vv 32-33);

2) The reward of the righteous (34-40) subdivided into:
(a) the inheritance (v 34), (b) the explanation (vv 35-36),
(c) the questions (vv 37-39), (d) the justification (v 40);
3) The judgment of the wicked (41-45) subdivided into:
(a) the judgment (41), (b) the explanation (vv 42-43),
(c) the question(v 44), and (d) the justification (v 45)
4) The final great separation (v 46).
151
152
Stanton (1992) 210. . .~ _ _,
~5~Jlagner 2:740;T>his is, an adaptation-of Ha-gner's sfilictureand he notes it is constructed like this
'perhaps for ease in memorization'.
276
One of the main aspects of the repetitions is the list of six needs expressed four
times throughout the pericope. The list of needs is always the same: hungry, thirsty, a
stranger, naked, sick and in prison. The list is then followed by three questions by the
blessed (oi. EUAOYllllEVOL, v 34) and one by the cursed ([oi.] KCX.tllPCX.IlEVOL, v 41). The
questions by the blessed are consistently introduced by TTOtE aE E'(BollEV, 'when did we
see you?' Then, Jesus gives the justification for the judgment (vv 40, 45). Another
repetition is worthy of noting, the solemn statement in the declaration of the
justifications in verses 40 and 45: &:ll~v A.E=yw UllLV.
This whole structure is focused on the process of separation (&:<j>op toE L) of
sheep from the goats by the shepherd. Linguistically, this separation (&:<j>optaEL) echoes
Matthew 13:49 where at the end of the age the angels separate the evil from the
righteous. Another echo in regard to 25:31 is 13:41 where it is the Son of Man who
exercises judgment through his angels. A close parallel to Matthew 25:31 comes from
16:27, which refers to the coming of the Son of Man. Significant in regard to
Matthew's Christology is the difference noted between 16:27 where it is E:v tij BO~lJ
tou rratpo<;, 'in the glory ofhis Father' and here in 25:31 where the Son ofMan comes
E:v tij B0~1J autou, 'in his glory'. The two appear to be synonymous for Matthew.
That Matthew can alter this language so naturally is an indicator of his high
Christology. The remainder of 16:27 'then he will repay everyone for what has
been done', is, of course, the point of the present scene concerning the sheep
and the goats. 154
Finally, earlier in the eschatological discourse the Son of Man comes in glory
and the angels come with him to gather the elect and exercise judgment (24:30-31 ).
Matthew creates this internal cross referencing by echoing similar language in order to
, <-
154
Hagner 2:741.
277
call to mind the related materials. 155 Other internal cross references could include:
25:40 (E=vl. -rot'rrwv -rwv ciod.4Jwv ~ou twv Uax(atwv) with 25:45 (E=vl. toutwv twv
Uax(a-rwv 156) and with 10:40-42 (Eva twv ~LKpwv tou-rwv). It could also include
19:28; 24:9 (mxvtwv twv E:8vwv), v 14 (miaw tote; E8vEOw), and v 30 (miaaL ai 4JuA.al.
tf)c; yf)c;) with 25:32 and mxvta t& E8VT). These will be discussed briefly below.
7.5.1 Textual Analysis of Mt 25:32
The focus in this textual analysis will be primarily Matthew 25:32 as the
specific shepherd text. Also, to be discussed are the two phrases t& E8VT) from 25:32
and 'the least of these' (mutwv twv Uax(a-rwv) from 25:40, 45.
Matthew now associates the shepherd metaphor with the Son of Man (v 31) in
order to connect the image with one of the primary eschatological themes of the
Gospel. The Son of Man takes up the role of eschatological judge which is normally
the role of God alone. Matthew then employs the shepherd metaphor to depict the
judgment of mxv-ra t& E8VT) and the separating of the sheep from the goats. The
metaphor is apparently drawn from the image of the shepherd who at the end of the
day separates the flock. The goats are separated from sheep for the purposes of
warmth and safety.
Whatever Matthew's intention about the ultimate status of Jesus, he now
associates him with this exalted role of the Davidic shepherd who will rule beside God
(Dan 7: 13-14). 'The background to these verses and to this verse, 25:31 is Dan 7:13-
14. Jesus as the Son ofMan functions as judge-a role restricted to Yahweh in the
OT.' 157
155
Nolland (2005) I 024.
156
BDAG: EMXLOwc;, [on], ov used as superlative ofj.J.LKpo<;: smallest, least. Usually reduced in degree
very small, quite unimportant, instgnijicant Mt' 2:6; least important, of little importance Mt 25:40, 45.
157
Hagner 2:742.
278
Mt 25:32 All the nations will be gathered Mt 25:32 Ked. auva.xe~aovrat E!-11Tpoa9Ev
before him, and he will separate people a.t'nou mina. r& E9VTJ, KIXL &<f>op(an
one from another as a shepherd separates a.t'rrouc;; &n' &U~A.wv, wanEp 6 TIDLI-L~v
the sheep from the goats, 33 and he will &<f>op((n r& np6~a-ra &no rwv E:p(<f>wv,33
put the sheep at his right hand and the KIXL ar~aEL r& I-LEV np6~a.m EK 6E~twv
goats at the left. IXUTOU, TcX OE Ept<f>ttx E~ EUWVU!-1WV.
The 'nub of the exegetical dispute' in regard to this passage is described fairly
succinctly by G. N. Stanton:
Is this peri cope concerned with the attitude of the world in general to the
needy (the 'universalist' interpretation), or is it, rather, the world's attitude
to the church which is in view (the 'particularist' interpretation)? 158
On the basis of Matthean internal cross references alluded to above, the position of the
thesis is more that of the 'particularist' position rather than that of the 'universalist'
position. It would seem that in Matthew 24:30 (miaa.t a.l <f>uA.a.l. -rf)c;; yf)c;;) when he
speaks of 'all the tribes of the earth', he is referring to all non-Christian peoples.
Along with this, there is no indication that when Matthew speaks oft& E9VTJ that he
uses the term to refer to Christians. Instead, it always refers to Gentiles in contrast to
Jews and Christians. 159 This is also the case earlier in the eschatological discourse. Mt
24:9 (mxvrwv rwv E:9vwv) and v 14 (miaw ro'ic;; E9VEOLV) both must refer to non-
Christians. So, when 25:32 (mxna. -r& E9VTJ) is compared with these three internal
cross references, and other uses of-r& E9VTJ (cf. 28: 18-20), it does not refer to
Christians or Jews but to non-Christian Gentiles. 160 To make this claim concerning
Matthew is to attempt to understand the way Matthew understands the teaching of
158
Stanton (1992) 209. Cf. Gray (1989) 9.
159
Mt 15; Mk 6; Lk 13. E9vo~, ou~. 16-I. nation, people Mt 24:14; ... <oc E9Vl'J Gentiles, non-Jews as
contrasted with Jews Mt 6:32, etc. Cf. Mt 4: 15; 6:32; 10:5, 18; 12:18, 21; 20:19, 25; 21:43; 24:7 (2
times), 9, 14; 25:32; 28:19.
160
Stanton (1992) 214. It is interesting that Matthew the 'Jewish' Gospel reference!) more to the_~ __
Gentiles than either oft}le,Qther Synoptics. Cf. Mt-4:15; 6:32;,ro:5; 18; 12:18, 21; 20:19, 25; 21 :43;
24:7 (2 times), 9, 14; 25:32; 28:19.
279
Jesus and his understanding of the socio-historical setting of the first recipients. It is
not intended to relativize the truth of the NT concerning the marginalized or poor in
society. In a canonical perspective, other parts of the NT speak to this. For Matthew
'the non-Christian nations are to be judged by the Son of Man on the basis of actions
they have done (or not done) to the followers of Jesus' . 161
Equally controversial are the phrases in 25:40, 45 'one of the least of these my
brothers' (Evl. toll'rwv -rwv &6EA<jlwv IJ.OU -rwv Hax(a-rwv), and 'one of the least of
these' (Evl. tou-rwv -rwv Hax(o-rwv). This is generally understood in one of four
ways:l62
1) Everyone, i.e., particularly the needy among humankind

2) All Christians
3) Christian missionaries (or a group among Christians described as 'lowliest
brothers') 163
4) Jewish Christians
Number four is usually understood as interpreting the word 'brothers' too narrowly.
The differences between two and three is said to be too eccentric because all
Christians are to engage in witness ( cf. 10:32). 164 So, the preferred option is between
one and two; or to use Stanton's categories, the 'universalist' or 'particularist'
interpretations. 165
Again to investigate Matthew's possible intertextual cross references,
E=.Aax(a-ro<; 'least' is only used one other time in the Gospel in 5:19, and that is a
negative use. The general agreement is that the parallel image for Matthew is oi
161
Stanton (1992) 210-211 & 218.
162
Hagner 2:742 summarizes Gray (1989) 255-257, whose survey of nuanced options gives approx. 32
ogtions. The scholars and their works are then categorized on 257-272.
1 3
E.g. Luz 3:280ff, approaches the question in this way.
164
Cf. Stanton (1992) 214-218 and Hagner 2:744-45, for a full discussion and agreement with the
position taken here. Pace Davies and Allison 3:428-430 for the 'universalist' interpretation. Luz 3:279-
282, also seems to take a 'particularist' interpretation when he says, 'for Matthew the "lowliest"
[brothers] are mixed in with the others' [i.e. the whole Christian community not a special group among
Christians] 282. '
165
Stanton (1992) 208-209.
280
f.J.lKpo(, 'the little ones'. Also, when it is taken into account that E=A.ax(o-ro<; is the
superlative oflltKpo( then there is internal help from the Gospel in interpreting the
phrase. 166 ol lllKpot occurs in reference to the disciples generally in Matthew 18:6 and
functions as an inclusio in the parable of the lost sheep in vv 10 and 14. 167
But, probably most helpful is the comparison between 25:40 (E:v1. -rou-rwv -rwv
&oE1cpwv f.LOU -rwv Ua:x(o-rwv), and 45 (E:vl. -routwv twv Ua:x(o-rwv) with 10:40-42
(Eva: twv f.J.lKpwv toutwv). Not only is there a verbal link but the content is also
parallel. In the missionary discourse Jesus identifies the two as closely as is possible,
'He who receives you receives me'. This is parallel to the phrase 'when you have done
it to "one ofthe least ofthese" you have done it unto me'. Then 10:42 further
emphasizes that the simplest of kindness done to a follower of Jesus shall be rewarded.
The phrase 'I was thirsty and you gave me to drink' (EOL\j.rTJOlX Ka:1. E=no-r(oa:tE f.J.E,
25:35) is paralleled with the 'cup of cold water' (rrot(ou, 10:42). Finally, the ot
&oE1cpo( in Matthew is used consistently of Christian disciples (cf. 12:48-49; 28:10; cf.
also 28:8). 'Matthew uses ol &oE1cpo( 18 times to refer to a fellow member of the
Christian family; no fewer than 12 of the 18 are redactional'. 168
The arguments for the 'particularist' interpretation seem to be most internally
consistent with the Gospel. This position is understood as relating to the socio-
historical setting of Matthew's Gospel specifically. For Matthew the way the world,
those non-believing persons, treats the Christian community is the way the world is
treating Jesus. To receive the message of the kingdom or to have extended the slightest
166
BDAG:l:J..axwroc;, (on}, ov used as superlative of~tKpoc;: smallest, least. Usually reduced in degree
very small, quite unimportant, insignificant Mt 2:6; least important, of little importance Mt 25:40,45.
167
a,
~tKpoc;, 6v small Mt 13:32. Small or young Mk I 5:40. Little one, child, Mt I 8:6, 10, 14. Hum!Jje ...
o
M,k 9:42; ~tKporEpoc; the one of least importance Mt-1 EI I. 'Cf. aiso i 6~42; 26:39, 73.
168
Stanton (1992) 216.
281
kindness, even a cup of water, will be rewarded (10:40-42; 25:40, 45). It will be the
shepherd judge who exercises justice (25 :32-34, 46).
7.5.2 Intertextual Analysis of Mt 25:32
Two ideas emerge from Matthew's use of the biblical tradition. The first is that
Jesus is the Son of Man who comes in glory with the angels and then is enthroned to
exercise judgment (v 31 with Dan 7:13-14 and Zech 14:5). Second, metaphorically
Jesus is the shepherd who both gathers and separates the sheep from the goats and
pronounces judgment. These two themes inform the other. The shepherd metaphor is
informed by the Son of Man theme. But in light of the Son of David connection with
the messianic shepherd, the shepherd metaphor also informs the Son of Man theme.
The internal cross referencing of Matthew concerning the Son of Man has
developed the theme and it is now brought to a conclusion at this point in the
eschatological discourse. There is a close relationship between 25:31 and 24:30-31. In
many ways 24:30-31 is the goal of chapter 24 since the question of the disciples in v 3.
The disciples' question (24:3) concerned the 'when' ofthe Son of Man's coming. But
the emphasis of Jesus is not 'when' but is 'to be prepared' (cf. 24:27, 30, 39, 44).
Since 24:36 the focus has been on the judgment that will occur when the Son of Man
comes. Now, in the concluding pericope, the judgment is described. As noted above,
the fact that the Son of Man comes 'in his glory' puts the focus on his dominion and
authority (cf. 16:27, where it is 'in the glory ofhis father'). At this point it should be
remembered that the Son of Man who is the shepherd is also depicted as king in 25:34,
40.
This dominion and authority is supported by the intertextuallinkage with
Daniel 7:13-14 and Zechariah 14:5. 'The background to this reference to the coming
282
169
of the Son of Man is, as in the other references, primarily Dan 7: 13-14'. Linguistic
connections are not as close here as in 24:30 where the Son of Man is 'coming on the
clouds of heaven' (hi. tWV VE<j>EAWV tOU oupavou; and Dan 7:13 'EiTL tWV VE<j>EAWV
tau oupavou)'. The dominion and authority to rule over mxvta t& E8VTJ tfl~ yfl~ is the
focus and this will be one aspect that will inform the shepherd image. The other is the
Zechariah 14:5 reference where the language is concerning the Lord my God's corning
and 'all the angels with him'. Again, the 'glory' is emphasized with the attendance of
the angels: Matthew has navrE~ ot &yyEA.ot f!Et' autou and the LXX has n&vtE~ ot
170
cxytol f!Et' IXUtOU. The 'angels' is Matthew's interpretation of the 'holy ones' . There
is no further mention of the angels in 25:31, but their presence here connects this text
with earlier Matthean texts concerning the Son of Man's corning and they increase the
sense of divine authority. The Son of Man in this scene exercises the prerogatives of
God as the shepherd judge.
7.5.2.1 Isa 66:18 and Joel3:1-3 (LXX 4:1-3)
These two texts are considered together because they both allude to 'gathering
all the nations'. A view of the texts together follows:
LXX Is 66:18 EPXOfliXl auvayayE1v n&vra r& E8VTJ

Joel3:2 (LXX 4:2) auv&~w n&vta t& E8VTJ
Cf. Mt 25:32 KIXL auvax8~aovtat Ef.Lnpoa8Ev autou n&vm t& E8VTJ,
All the nations will be gathered before him,
In the two OT passages, God is the one who is doing the gathering. Isaiah depicts the
Lord as 'presently coming to gather' (EPXOf.LIXL auvayayE1v) the nations in order that
they may see his glory. Both auv&~w (fut. act.) and auvax8~aovtat (fut. pass.) are from
169
Hagner 2:732.
170
Gundry (1967) 142, ' ... Mt interpretatively (and correctly) renders c~'1p by ot &yyEA.ot'.
283
ouv&yw. 171 In Matthew, the Son of Man will come in glory and will act in the place of
172
God. 'I:uv&yw is a shepherd's term otherwise used in eschatological contexts' .
The distress of the circumstances of Matthew's own socio-historical setting is
countered by the eschatological discourse generally and in the judgment, the promise
that justice will be done, even to all the nations. 173
Among apocalyptic texts Joel3:1-3 (LXX 4:1-3) is a classic example ofhope
in the face of distress and near hopelessness that is so characteristic of apocalyptic
literature. Matthew 25 relates to this literature because of the historical setting of the
last quarter of the first century. This passage is a promise that one day God will bring
justice to the nations on behalf of his people.
Joel3:1 For then, in those days and at that time, when I restore the
fortunes of Judah and Jerusalem, 3:2 I will gather all the
nations ...
Joel3:2(LXX 4:2) 'r: TI!XV't(X
OUVlX<,U> , "e
, E VT]
't(X
Cf. Mt 25:32 K(XL auvaxe~aOV'tal E1-.I.TIP008EV (XU'tOU TitXV't(X 'tlX E8VT],
Further, note the final three lines of the remainder of the Joel3:2b-3 passage:
and I will enter into judgment with [the nations] ... ,

on account of my people and my heritage Israel,
because they have scattered them among the nations.
They have divided my land,
3:3 and cast lots for my people,
and traded boys for prostitutes,
and sold girls for wine, and drunk it down.
The final three lines do not linguistically match the Matthean passage. But, as Stanton
174
points out, one of the six concerns are listed in scene six; the plight of the prisoners.
171
A Matthean favorite-ouvciyw: Mt 24; Mk 5; Lk 6; auvaywy~/-a( a:un3v/uj.Lwv: Mt 6; Mk 2; Lk I.
172
Davies and Allison 3:422. Cf. 13:47; Mk 14:27; Jn II :52; 16:32; T. Benj. 9:2.
173
Stanton (1992) 223, 'Although I do not think that literary dependence between Matthew and any
apocalyptic writings can be established beyond doubt, the central theme of25:31-46 is also found in
several apocalyptic writings. Matthew's Gospel, 4 Ezra, 2 Baruch, and at least two sections of I Enoch
come from a broadly similar social setting. Their similar 'symbolic worlds' function as consolation to
hard-pressed groups of God's people. In these apocalyptic wri~ings th~,prophetic declaration that God -~
will judge the nation 'on the last da)" is a'resf:)onsno file complaint ofGod's people, or their
representative: 'Why do the nations prosper at our expense?' The response is meant to encourage'.
284
Here, the people of God, 'my heritage Israel', are the prisoners who are being abused
and violated rather than being 'visited'. Rather than doing mercy the nations abuse.
Judgment will therefore come.
7 .5.2.2 Ezek 34:17, 20-24
In Ezekiel 34, God himself becomes the shepherd in contrast to the anti-
shepherds who have abused and taken advantage of the sheep. Ezekiel describes how
he will shepherd the flock oflsrael (34: 1Ob-16) and then at 34:23 promises to delegate
the task of shepherd to 'my servant David, and he shall feed them' (cf. 37:24). The
image that connects Ezekiel34 and Matthew 25:32 is the shepherd separating the
sheep, either at the end of the day for the purposes of safety and warmth or for the
other purposes of caring for them (shearing, examining them for health reasons,
separating for milking). 175 The relationship of Ezekiel 34:17 to 25:32 is not so much
textual but in terms ofthe image. 'As for you, my flock, thus says the Lord GOD: I
shall judge between sheep and sheep, between rams and goats ... ' As God will judge
between sheep and sheep in Ezekiel 34 so will the Son of Man separate the sheep and
the goats 'as a shepherd separates' his sheep from the goats. Jeremias emphasizes that
while sheep were normally white and the goats normally black this was not the reason
for their separation but it was based on the needs of the animal. 176 However that may
be, the metaphor for separation in Matthew 25 is for the purposes of depicting the
reality of the last judgment.
174
Stanton (1992) 224.
175
Goats must be kept warmer at night since their coat is finer and cannot withstand the cold as well as
the heavy coated fat tailed sheep. For a general description of shepherds, sheep and goats cf. 4.1.1
above. Also Jeremias (1972) 206.
176
Jeremias TDNT6:499. Color probably had little to do with the separation or helping distinguish
between one animal and another. Even if sheep were p~ed()minanJ)y ~hite and goats black, sheep living
in the pasture lands of Israel surely would not stay white. flie separation had much more to do with the
needs of the animals.
285
It may be for Matthew that this passage where Jesus as the shepherd-king
brings judgment to the nations (as the Son ofMan and as God's vice-regent) is the
climax for the shepherd metaphor in the Gospel. Another text remains wherein the
shepherd is struck. But, the power and pathos of the Zechariah prophecy is meant to be
held in tension with this promise that one day the shepherd-king will judge the world
as the Son of Man. Thus, the final shepherd text ofthe Gospel is not the final word
concerning the shepherd. Beyond Zechariah 13:7 is 14:5 and Daniel 7. For Matthew
his passage proves to speak proleptically of the ultimate destiny of the shepherd which
is beyond the passion narrative.
In many ways Matthew has reinforced his high Christology. Jesus is the Son of
Man of Daniel 7 and the angels will attend him at his promised coming. The
dominion, authority and glory was associated with the exalted Danielic figure of
chapter seven. Matthew now believes Jesus is the fulfillment of these longstanding
Jewish hopes.
While the use of 'king' language may seem abrupt if the shepherd metaphor is
in focus, the implication is that the image can imply a king. So, for Matthew the
language of king and shepherd used both generally and specifically makes perfect
sense in light of the biblical tradition. Often kings are compared to shepherds.
Specifically, since chapter 2, Jesus has been the specific Davidic king whose destiny is
to 'shepherd my people Israel' (Mt 2:6 and esp. II Sam 5:2 along with Mic 5:2).
Matthew 25:34, 40 is not the first time the language of kingship has been or will be
used of Jesus in the Gospel. 177 The use of king language for Jesus in this pericope is
unique, especially since it is related to both the Son of Man of Daniel 7 and 'my
~aot.l..E~-Mt 22; Mk 12; Lk 11; in regard to Jesus Cf. 2:2; 21 :5; 27: II, 29, 37, 42.
177
286
servant David' (Ezekiel 34:23-24 and 37:24). In Daniel 7:14, one like a Son of Man
was given a kingdom (06811 aor. pass. of Mowf.u) and in Mt 25:4 the Son of Man
'inherit[s]' a kingdom. Earlier in 13:41, the angels are commissioned to attend to the
Son of Man's 'kingdom'. It is not difficult in light of these texts and others like them
to understand why Matthew associated in the same peri cope the Son of Man, the
shepherd and the king. Keeping in mind that shepherds and kings were closely
associated in the biblical tradition, it may also be that from a narrative point of view
Matthew has brought to fulfillment what began with the magi in their search for the
King of the Jews (2:2). For Matthew their response ofnpooEK'LlVllOcxv 178 may yet still be
part of his literary goal by the end of the Gospel (cf. 28: 17).
Before the eschatological end, the redemptive work of the Shepherd-Messiah
must come. The last shepherd text emphasizes the final act of Matthew's shepherd.
The sacrifice of the shepherd for the flock was often part of the metaphor. The image
becomes reality in the passion narrative. Mt 26:31 will bring development of the
shepherd metaphor to a conclusion but there is hope beyond the metaphor in the
promise of 26:32.
The metaphor of the shepherd who separates the sheep from the goats occurs in
the context of 'When the Son of Man comes in his glory'.
All the nations will be gathered before him, and he will separate people one from
another
KCXL ouvcxxe~aOV'tCXL Ef.LTipoo9Ev CXU'tOU TI(XV'tCX 'tft E9V11, KCXL &:cjlOpLOEL cxu-rouc; &:n'
&:A.A.~A.wv,
as a shepherd separates the sheep from the goats,

WOTIEp 6 iTOLf.L~V &:cjlop((EL 'tft np6pcx-rcx ano 'tWV p(cjlwv,
1Tpooi<uvw4fall down and) worship, do obeisan~e to, pr~st~ate ~neselfbefore, do reverence to,
178
welcome respectfully.
287
The tenor/topic is the 'nations' and the vehicle is 'a shepherd' who separates and so
judges the nations. The incongruous part of this metaphor is that a 'shepherd' would
be executing eschatological judgment on the 'nations' of the world. The narrative
frame is shaped most directly by Matthew 25:31 and the eschatological context of the
Son of Man coming in his glory with angels and taking his position of authority on
'his glorious throne'.
In the Matthean narrative frame the shepherd metaphor does not continue
specifically beyond 25:33. Yet, because ofthe close connections between 'shepherds'
as an image for 'kings', the shift to a king in 25:34 is not necessarily surprising but the
linguistic shift does refocus the image to more of a royal setting (a throne room?)
rather than a shepherd separating his sheep from his goats at the end of the day in the
sheep fold. What is consistent throughout the frame is the focus on the procedure and
basis of the separation of the sheep from the goats. 179
Even though there is a shift of terms and from shepherd to king this actually
may be an extension of the shepherd metaphor with the focus on the royal nature of
the shepherd. In light of the often close association of the two terms there may not be
as much of a disconnect for Matthew as it initially may appear. This is especially true
if Matthew intends a possible literary connection between the child born 'King of the
Jews' (Mt 2.2) who will shepherd his people (Mt 2:6) and now the eschatological
shepherd judge who will separate the righteous and the wicked at the end of time.
Therefore, the introduction ofthe king into the narrative frame may actually be
Matthew extending the shepherd metaphor rather than changing it. The shepherd
metaphor continues to evoke the many associations established in the biblical
tradition.
_. ___ ..
_,_ ,_ - -
' ~
179
Cf. 7.5 above.
288
A number of texts have been considered above 180 that inform the intertextuality
of this scene in the Gospel. Therefore it may be proposed that the textual backdrop
extends the shepherd-king metaphor to depict Jesus as the eschatological judge. The
exalted images, Son of Man and King, extend the shepherd metaphor in a lofty
direction even to the point that the shepherd king exercises the prerogatives of God as
the shepherd judge. As noted above 181 it may well be, that for Matthew, this scene
brings to fulfillment the first of the shepherd texts in Matthew 2:6. Matthew's exalted
depiction of Jesus as the eschatological shepherd judge, who exercises his authority in
justice and mercy, is in keeping with Jesus' destiny as God's Shepherd-Messiah.
7.6 Introduction and Structure of Mt 26:30-35
Early in chapter 1 I agreed with Jeremias' analysis that the final shepherd text
referred to the death of the Shepherd-Messiah. 182 We will now effectively explore
Matthew 26:31 and specifically Zech 13:7 but also the possibility that Matthew
believed that Jesus identified with the last chapters of Zechariah in a way that shaped
the end ofhis earthly ministry. At another level metaphorically Matthew 26:31
reminds us that the commitment of the faithful shepherd is to protect and redeem the
flock and if necessary to put his life in danger against predators, thieves or enemies on
behalf of the flock. This text indicates that the shepherd's mission, to protect and care
for the sheep, may come at a great cost.
Matthew has Mark as his primary source. He utilizes Mark 14:27 for the
biblical citation and utilizes the whole of 14:26-31 as the basis for the pericope.

18
Cf. 7.5.2; 7.5.2.1; 7.5.2.2 above where Dan 7: 13-14; Zech 14:5; Isa 66: 18; Joel 3:1-3 (LXX 4: 1-3)
and Ez 34:17, 20-24 are discussed. ~~ - ~
181
Cf. 7.5.3 above.-
182
Jeremias TDNT 6:492-493. Pace Tooley (1964) 19-20.
289
Matthew does not eliminate as much of Mark as he sometimes does but, for the length
of the peri cope, he actually adds a number of significant elements.
Structurally, the passage consists of the predictions of Jesus and the protests of
Peter and the disciples. In Mark, the disciples are silent and the dialogue is only
between Peter and Jesus. But Matthew includes the other disciples, even if only
slightly:
(1) Jesus' prediction that all will be scandalized (v 3la);

(2) Jesus' prediction that he will be struck down (v 32b)
(3) Jesus' promise that he will join them again (v 32);
(4) Peter's protest that he will never fail (v 33);
(4) Jesus' prediction that Peter will fail (v 34);
(6) Peter's protests again that he will never fail (v 35a).
(7) Disciples protest that all will never fail (v 35b).
The focus here, of course, is on the early part of the peri cope having to do with the
shepherd quotation from Zechariah 13:7 in Matthew 26:31 and Jesus promise to 'go
ahead' (npo&~w) of them to Galilee (26:32). Jesus promises that he will lead the way
and re-gather the disciples in Galilee after they have been scattered. He will meet them
again where many ofthem were first called. 183
7.6.1 Textual Analysis ofMt 26:31-32
The literary structure after the quotation is centered on the dialogue between
Jesus and Peter. Jesus will make two predictions: 1) the defection of all the disciples
(n&vtE; UIJ.E'ic; OKavoa.ho9~oEo9E; v 31). He notes that the cause is 'because ofhim'(E=v
EIJ.OL) that they will be scandalized/shocked by his 'being struck'. 2) the prediction of
his own outcome. After he is 'struck down' (na-r&~w fut. ind. act. ofna-r&aow) he will
be raised up (EyEp9f]Va( aor. pass. of EyEtpw) and will meet them again. Peter only
seems to hear the first prediction because he offers two protests. Note the Matthean
183 1Tpooyw: continues the shepherd metaphor (cf. Mic 2: 12-13) and also refers to leadership (cf. 2 Mace
I 0: I ).Cf. Davies and Allison 3:486.
290
symmetry, in verses 33: 'Though all fall because of you (rravtEc; oKav6aA.Lo8~oovtcn
E:v oo(,), I will never fall'(E:yw ou6EnotE oKavoaA.wO~oo!J.at). The following is a
comparison of the two texts according to the analysis being made here:
26:31 Tore AEYEL auto'ic; 0 'l'r,aouc; 14:27 Kai AEYEL auto1c; 0 'lllOOUc;
navtE~ U!J.E'ic; oKavoaA.toO~oEoOE on '!TaVtE~ OKo:VO!XAL08~oE09E,
EV EIJ.Ol EV t'{l VUK'tl t!X.Ut'{l,
' ' \. ' - \ I
/ I
yqpaTTrat yap
I 'C \ I \ , t:: ' , ' ' 'R.
'IT!Xta..,w 'ITOLIJ.EV!X, K!Xl
tOV 'IT!XtO:..,W tOV 'ITOLIJ.EVO:, K!Xl t!X '!Tpo..,ata
otaoKopmoO~oovtaL ta np6pata 0l!XOKOp'IT ta8~00Vta l.
- I
tTl~ 'ITOLIJ.Vllc;.
26:32 IJ.Eta oE: to EyEp8fjva( IJ.E npo&~w 14:28 &.A.A.& !J.Eta to E:yEp8fjva( IJ.E npo&~w
Uj..I.CXc; Etc; t~V rahA.a (av. Uj..l.iXc; Ei.c; t~V ro:A.LA.!Xlav.
14:29 0 OE llhpoc; Ecpll aut<i) EL K!XL

26:33 a'!ToKpL8ELc; OE 0 llhpoc; d'!TEV I , e I I,, 1 I I
'IT!XVtEc; OK!XVO!XALO 1100Vt!Xl, !XII./\. OUK fYW.
I
aut<i) EL 1TaVtEc; OK!XVO!XAta8~oovtaL

I I \ IS: I S: , e
EV OOL, EYW OUuE'ITOtE OK!X.Vu!XALO llOOIJ.!Xl.
I I
14:30 K!XL AEYEL aut<i) 0 'I,aouc;

26:34 Ecpll aut<i} 0 'lllOOUc; aj..I.~V AEYW OOL Ott OU O~!J.EpOV tO:Ut'{l tt'l
aj..I.~V A.f.yw OOL on EV t!XU't'{l tt'l VUK'tl VUK'tl
\
TipLV ~ ol.c; aA.EKtopa cpwvfjoo:L tp(c; IJ.E

TI,PLV aA.EKtopa cpwvfjoat tpl.c; anapv~a'{l I I
!X'IT!XpVTIO'{l.
IJ.E.
14:31 o
oE: EK'ITEpwowc; UaA.EL E:av of.11 IJ.E
OUV!X'!T08!XVELV OOL, OU IJ.~ OE
26:35 A.EyEL aut<i} 0 llhpoc; Kav OE'{l IJ.E
OUV OOL a'!To8aVELV, OU IJ.~ OE
' I t I \ I t
!X'IT!XpVTIOOIJ.!Xl. OIJ.OLWc; K!XL 'ITO:vtE~ OL
e \ ..
IJ.O: llt!Xl El 'IT!XV.
Matthew adds 'in this night' in the opening prediction in regard to all (TiavtEc;) the
disciples (v 31, E:v t'fl vuKtL taUt'{l,) and so creates a kind of inclusio with the phrase
(v 34). When Jesus predicts Peter's defection, it is with the added emphasis nptv. (E:v
taUt1J t'fl vuKtL npl.v). The phrase concerning the night is found in Mark only at the
end of the pericope (Mk 14:30). Mark does emphasize n&vtEc; (Mk 14:27 and 31) and
Matthew follows (Mt 26:31 and 35). But Matthew focuses the emphasis by adding tliat
291
the disciples also will be scandalized, not just Peter: Ka.l TiaV't'Et;; ol i.J.a.8rrra.l EI1ra.v.
Again what is demonstrated by a close comparison of the texts is Matthew's literary
approach and how he follows his sources but accomplishes his own redactional
purposes.
7.6.2 Intertextual Analysis of Mt 26:31-32
The final shepherd text, Matthew 26:31, is a marked quote (yEypa.ma.L) from
Zechariah 13:7. Zechariah 13:7 though marked is not a 'formula' quotation but uses
yEypa.TITa.L. Matthew follows Mark closely but does engage in his typical redactional
shaping of the quotation and the peri cope in order to emphasize his specific intentions.
Concerning the quotation from Zechariah 13:7 the most significant change
Matthew makes is the addition ofTf)~ 1TOLi.J.VT)~ 'ofthe flock' to the citation (highlighted
below). This addition, again, is Matthew's tendency to adjust Mark to be closer to the
LXX. In this case Matthew appears to be following the Alexandrinus text of the
LXX. 184 This shift toward the LXX usage emphasizes the relationship between the
flock and the shepherd. This makes sense in light of his consistent use of the shepherd
metaphor from the beginning of the Gospel till now. The table below (on the following
page) illustrates how the Gospel writers use Zechariah and where Matthew agrees or
departs from Mark.
184
Cf. Rahlfs (1935) 2:559, Joe. cit. textual apparatus.
292
Matthew 26:31 Zechariah 13:7 Mark 14:27

TotE AEYEL auto'ic; pof.Lcpa La E~EYEp8T)n
ETIL KO:L AEYEL auto'ic; 0 'lT)OOfJc;
<I I
o'JT)OOfJc; roue; TIOLf!EVac; f!OU KIXL ETI' Ott TIO:VtE<;
< -
TIO:VtE<; Uf!EL<; avbpa TIOAL'tT)V ~ou AEYEL
I
I I
KUp LOt; TIO:VtOKpatwp
oKav6aA.w9~oE09E E=v Ef!OL OKO:VbO:Ato9~0E09E, Otl
EV tfl VUKtL tiXU'tlJ, yEypamat
I I
yqpamat yap
TIO:tcX~O:tE
touc; TIOLf!EVO:t; TIO:tcX~W tov TIOLf!EVO:, KO:L
'"C \
TIO:ta..,w 'tOV
I
TIOL~EVO:, KO:L
\
KO:L EKOTIO:OO:tE
\ ' I
bLIXOKOpTIL08~00VtO:L
ra Tip6para Kal. ETia~w r~v tO: Tip6para
...
XELPO: f!OU ETILI ' \
b LO:OKOpTI to9~00V't!X L.
~
tT)<; '
TIOL~VT)<;.
The highlighted tflc; TIOLf!VT)c; in the table above shows where Matthew has
added 'of the flock'. This again brings him closer to the LXX-A. Matthew's re-
insertion of tflc; TIOL~VT)c; does in fact focus attention on the relations of flock with the
Jesus points to his own death through the word of the prophecy from Zechariah
concerning the shepherd being 'struck down'. The 'sheep of the flock' (tO: Tip6para
tflc; Tio(~vT)c;) being scattered alludes to the running away of the disciples. Matthew
follows his source, Mark, in regard to the 'scattering' (otaoKopmo9~oovtat) ofthe
disciples. The divine authority of the biblical citation is emphasized by the use of
yEypamat. This event is happening as it had been predicted according to Matthew: 'To
say that God strikes the shepherd is to affirm that the death of Jesus is paradoxically
the divine will (cf. esp. vv 24, 54)'. 185
The verb is first in the phrase 'Tiat&~w rov Tiot~Eva,' for emphasis. The
shepherd shall be 'struck down' and the sheep will flee in confusion. Matthew follows
Mark in changing the LXX-A mxr&~atE ('smite'-aor. imper. act.) to Tiat&~w ('I will
185
Hagner 2:777.
293
smite'-fut. ind. act.). Here it is God who acts against the shepherd. This will be a
cause for the disciples to 'stumble and fall' (oKavt5a.U( w). The context of Zechariah
13:7-9 speaks of a remnant that will be left and though the testing will be restored, 'I
will put this third in the fire, refine them as one refines silver, and test them as gold is
tested'. The remnant will come through and say, 'The Lord is our God' (v 9). This too
will be the outcome of the scattered and devastated disciples. Only the prediction of
26:32 softens the difficulty of the word in 26:31, but in the context of the peri cope it is
as though Peter and the disciples do not even hear v 32. npo&yw is 'to lead' or 'go
before' (26:32) and continues the shepherd imagery. The image ofthe shepherd
'leading' the flock to its destination possibly could indicate that Jesus' promise
imagines a new day and a new beginning after the time of trial and distress. The
common practice of the shepherd is to go before the flock and the sheep follow toward
the destination. Except at the end of the day when they are heading back to the
186
sheepfold then the shepherd follows behind to gather strays and protect the flock.
The promise of Matthew 26:32 is revisited in 28:7 and the disciples meet Jesus in
Galilee in 28:16-20.
In the context of Zechariah 9-14 Jesus may well have seen his own ministry
situation in light of these chapters. 187 It is also important to note that the quotation
from Zechariah 13:7 comes from the lips of Jesus and is not a 'formula' quotation or
'fulfillment' quotation by the Evangelist. Zechariah 11 while not intertextualy related
to this passage is part of the biblical tradition that was used to inform the passion
186
Jeremias TDNT 6:493 n 80.
187
Cf. Jeremias TDNT6:492-493; Pace Tooley (1964) 18-19; Bruce (1968) 105-106; Baldwin (1975)
198; France (1971) 103, 107.
294
narrative (e.g. Zech 11:13//Mt 27:9-10). 188 Jesus may well have interpreted his own
ministry in light of the prophet who gave himself to the service of YHWH but was
rejected by the people. God then gives the people the leadership they want. When they
have rejected the servant of YHWH they have effectively rejected YHWH. The struck
down shepherd in the final reference to the shepherd in Matthew's Gospel speaks after
all of the redemption and the sacrifice of the shepherd on behalf of the flock. Jesus'
predictions of his death will be substantiated by many texts from the biblical tradition
in the passion narrative. Just as the death of the shepherd has distressing effects on the
sheep in the original context of Zechariah's prophecy, so it will have a devastating
effect on the disciples. The rest of the peri cope indicates their unwillingness to accept
this fate for Jesus. Yet, Jesus the shepherd will be struck down by God and will die.
The final dimension of the shepherd metaphor has been put in place by Matthew; the
shepherd is sacrificed for the flock and becomes the shepherd redeemer.
7.6.4 Metaphor Analysis of Mt 26:31
The final shepherd metaphor is found in the passion narrative:
'I will strike the shepherd, and the sheep of the flock will be scattered'.
1TCX't~W -rov 1TOLI.J.Evcx, Kcxl bLCXOKopmo8~aov-rcxL -r& 1Tp6pcx-rcx -rfJ<; 1TOLI.J.VTJ<;.
The image is taken from Zechariah 13:7 and speaks of the smiting (1rcx-r&:~w) that the
shepherd will endure and the flock is scandalized and scattered as a result. The
tenor/topic is the 'I' of the text and may be identified as 'God' according to the
context, while the vehicle is the shepherd. The vehicle is further modified by the
scattering of 'the sheep of the flock' . 189
In Matthew the larger context frame is the passion narrative and Jesus
understands himselfto be the one who will be 'struck down'. The immediate frame
188
Cf. Ham (2005) 47~51; Limiak (2006) 192-194.
189
Cf. 3 .1.2.3 above. Soskice ( 1985) 46.
295
involves the issues of faithfulness and falling away in regard to the disciples. As noted
above, 190 Matthew's inclusion of tf)c; TIOLIJ.VT)c; in the quotation emphasizes the close
connection between the flock and the shepherd (TIOL!J.Eva). This final use of the
shepherd/sheep metaphor in Matthew's Gospel anticipates the death ofthe shepherd
and is only softened by 26:32; the promise that the shepherd will re-gather the
scattered flock and be reunited with them. Through the use of Zechariah 13:7 Jesus is
depicted as the shepherd who will be sacrificed for the flock and struck down by God.
But, as a result, a remnant will be re-gathered as in Zechariah 13:9, 'They will call on
my name, and I will answer them. I will say, "They are my people"; and they will say,
"The Lord is our God"'.
7.7 Summary
What I have tried to do in this chapter is indicate how the five shepherd texts
do in fact establish Jesus as the Shepherd-Messiah. One of Matthew's common literary
techniques is to introduce a theological theme early in his Gospel and then throughout
the narrative revisit that theme and in the process nuance and expound on the theme.
Matthew has done this with the shepherd metaphor in regard to Jesus. Beginning in the
infancy narrative and moving through the Gospel to the passion narrative. At specific
narrative points Matthew has introduced the shepherd motif in order to develop his
christological theme regarding Jesus as Shepherd-Messiah. In the infancy narrative
Jesus is introduced as the royal shepherd and the shepherd who like Moses will
become a deliver. The righteous shepherd is contrasted with the evil shepherd ruler,
Herod who wants to destroy God's Shepherd-Messiah. The tension between righteous
leadership and unfaithful/evil leadership is continued along with the Moses typology
in Matthew 9:36. Faithful under-shepherds, the disciples, are introdvced into the
Cf. 7.6.2 above.

19
296
narrative in order to extend Jesus' ministry. The story of a Canaanite woman is used
by Matthew to help explain Jesus' mission to 'the lost sheep of the house of Israel'
and the presence of Gentiles in early Christianity. The Shepherd-Messiah will become
the eschatological judge who will, like a shepherd, divide the sheep from the goats.
Finally, Matthew understands that God will 'smite' the shepherd in order to
accomplish redemption for the people of God. Through this narrative strategy
Matthew has developed the christological portrait of Jesus as Shepherd-Messiah.

297
CONCLUDING SUMMARY
It is my conviction that this thesis has provided evidence to substantiate and
support the primary aims and purposes of this study. I will now offer a summary
review of what this study has tried to argue.
First, I have argued that Matthew believed that Jesus was the Shepherd-
Messiah, specifically the righteous and royal Shepherd-Messiah, who comes to give
leadership to the people of God in the aftermath ofthe Jewish war. The last quarter of
the first century C.E. was a formative period for early Judaism. For Matthew, it was in
this context that he understood Jesus to be the defining figure for the future of the
people of God. I have argued that Matthew presents Jesus as fulfilling the biblical
tradition in regard to the hoped for Shepherd-Messiah. First, concerning his royal
lineage as part ofthe Davidic tradition, Matthew has introduced Jesus as 'king ofthe
Jews' in the infancy narrative (2:1-12) and based on the compound quote from II
Samuel 5:2 and Micah 5:2(1) has further indicated his royal heritage. 1 But also toward
the end of the Gospel, just prior to the passion narrative, Matthew has presented him
as the royal shepherd who will judge with a righteous justice between the sheep and
the goats at the eschatological end (25:3 1-46). Jesus the shepherd is associated with
the Son of Man (25:31; cf. Dan 7:13-14; Zech 14:5), but also is described as the ' king'
who will exercise just judgment (25:34, 40). So, Jesus is presented as fulfilling the role
of royal Shepherd-Messiah by fulfilling the role of David, his prototype. Second,
Jesus' royal status as the Shepherd-Messiah has been demonstrated in righteousness,
justice and compassion. This has already been alluded to in regard to the
eschatological judgment in Matthew 25. For Matthew this can be authoritatively
1
Matthew ' s opening (I: I) the genealogy (I :2-17) and his birth (2: 18-25) have already presented his
royal lineage as well.
298
demonstrated on the basis ofthe biblical tradition. Though he does not use any of his
' formula' quotations in regard to the shepherd metaphor, all of the shepherd texts are
strongly, if not directly supported by the biblical tradition. So, in the story ofthe magi
he not only gives the royal quotation at Mt 2:6 but also alludes to the royal Psalm 72,
which celebrates the righteous (72:2, 3, 7) and just rule ofthe king (72 :1-4). The
quality of compassion is directly associated with the shepherd metaphor in Mt 9:36.
Jesus has compassion on the crowds and in response extends his ministry to the
crowds through the commissioning of the twelve (10: 1, 5-8). The theme of
compassion and the crowds is further developed by Matthew as well (14:14; 15:32).
This, in part, is why Matthew believes Jesus to be the defining figure for Judaism in
his own time and for the future. As the Shepherd-Messiah, in fulfillment of the biblical
tradition, Matthew presents Jesus as the shepherd who is willing to lay down his life
for the flock and be 'struck down ' in order that the sheep will be redeemed (Mt
26:31 //Zech 13:7). The flock are initially scattered, but they will be gathered again
after he is 'raised up' (EyEp8fwcx() and 'goes ahead' (1Tpocf~w) of the sheep to Galilee
(Mt 26:32; cf. 28:7).
The shepherd metaphor is used by the Evangelist especially to expand and
extend his Christology. For Matthew the shepherd metaphor had wide-ranging
capabilities that allowed him to nuance his christological concerns. Regarding Jesus as
Shepherd-Messiah he was able to further explore characteristics of Jesus like the son
of David theme, righteousness and justice, compassion and care, judgment and
redemption. The son of Man as Shepherd-Messiah is the eschatological judge. The
miracle-worker and healer of Matthew' s Christology is related to the compassion of
the shepherd motif coming as it does in Mt 9:36 after the ' miracle' chapters 8-9. Yet,
299
the shepherd metaphor is not all inclusive because Matthew emphasizes other
christological motifs; for example, he emphasizes that Jesus is the authoritative
interpreter of the law, that his understanding and interpretation of the law should be
the way forward for Israel and the nations (e.g. Mt 5-7; 7:28-29).
The way Matthew establishes Jesus as the Shepherd-Messiah is based upon his
understanding and use of the biblical tradition. I have examined in this study
Matthew's use of the biblical tradition and have attempted to show Matthew's use of
the OT. I have noted that the shepherd texts themselves are closely connected to the
biblical tradition; for example, by the two marked quotations (e.g. 2:6; 26:31). While
these are not among Matthew's unique 'formula' quotations they none the less
continue his use of the biblical tradition to establish his conviction that Jesus has
fulfilled the OT promises concerning the Messiah. Also, by unmarked quotes (9:36)
and numerous allusions (Ps 72; Jer 3:15; 23:1-6; 50:6; Ez 34; 37:24-25; Zech 10:2; 11-
14 and others) Matthew has attempted to establish beyond doubt that Jesus is the
Shepherd-Messiah.
Along with that the thesis has examined how the shepherd metaphor was used
in the ANE and the Greco-Roman world generally. The image of the shepherd was
used of kings and leaders throughout the ancient world. The biblical tradition also
used the metaphor, but because of the uniqueness of YHWH, the image is primarily
reserved for YHWH as the shepherd oflsrael. While the OT would use the shepherd
motif for kings and leaders generally, as a way to emphasize that YHWH alone was the
unique shepherd of Israel, no king or leader was ever given the specific title 'Shepherd
of Israel'. The kings and leaders of Israel were under-shepherds of YHWH The
character and nature of their leadership was directly related to their relationship with
God, who was the true shepherd of Israel. In the biblical tradition the shepherd image
300
developed in two primary streams, the Moses/exodus tradition and the royal Davidic
tradition. These two were adopted and then extended through the prophetic tradition
who introduced the tradition of the unfaithful or evil shepherd. This study has
reviewed how these traditions developed in the OT and Second Temple Judaism and
then came to inform and influence Matthew. Matthew uses the Moses/exodus tradition
to argue that Jesus was a deliverer/redeemer, like Moses, who was leading the people
of God in a second exodus. The royal Davidic tradition was employed to establish that
Jesus was the Shepherd-Messiah who will rule with righteousness and compassion.
Both traditions contribute to Matthew's understanding of what the new leadership of
the people of God should look like. The prophetic tradition concerning the unfaithful
or evil shepherd is contrasted with this new vision of leadership in the kingdom. For
example, Jesus in the infancy narrative is the 'king of the Jews' but also the new
Moses who is contrasted with evil Herod the current evil 'shepherd/king', like the
pharaoh of Egypt. His kingship is genuine and will ultimately be vindicated. Jesus will
also appoint and raise up shepherds (as foretold in Jeremiah 3:15; 23:4) who will
extend his ministry and accomplish his mission.
The last quarter of the first century C.E. was a time of national crises following
the Jewish war that resulted in the fall of Jerusalem and the loss of the Temple. The
shepherd metaphor had been used before by the prophets in the context of national
crises and contested leadership. During the time of the exilic and post-exilic prophets
the motif had been used to describe the evil shepherds and their abuses. But it was also
used in contrast to offer hope for a better day. It is my conviction that Matthew
understood his own time to be similar, a time of national crisis and contested
leadership. For Matthew Jesus as the Shepherd-Messiah and the whole of his
christological understanding of Jesus-Immanuel, Son of God and Lord, authoritative

301
teacher and interpreter of the law, wisdom incarnate, healer and miracle-worker,
greater than Moses, Solomon, and Jonah, Son of Abraham, Son of David and
triumphant Son of Man-Jesus was to be the defining figure for Judaism. In
Matthew's own time he had argued strongly that Jesus came to his own people first
and foremost (1 0:5, 15:24). Jesus came first to the lost sheep of the house oflsrael in
order to establish a new covenant with them. They were his chosen people and Jesus'
ministry was to them. I think that Matthew wanted to convince his Jewish kinsmen
that Jesus' mission and message of the kingdom was to them first. Yet, this gospel of
the kingdom would not be refused to the nations if they would believe in him (8:5-13;
15:21-28). This fact, in spite of Jesus' priority during his earthly ministry, put the
Christian-Jewish community at odds with emerging Rabbinic Judaism. Whatever the
actual contact and relationship with other Jews, the realities and ultimate implications
of Matthew's Christology would, by necessity, lead to a decision: Is Jesus the Christ
or is he not? For Matthew the Shepherd-Messiah of the biblical tradition had come in
Jesus ofNazareth. That is the message ofhis Gospel.
Through the use of intertextuality and the use of metaphor Matthew is able to
create the possibility for the reader/hearer to make connections and associations that
enrich the shepherd image. In considering the different theories of metaphor I intended
to review the different ways metaphor has been understood to function. My own
proposal is that metaphor gives us a way of speaking about God and/or divine things
that is reality-depicting but does not claim to be definitive or overly descriptive and
thereby remains open-ended. Also, while metaphor originates in language use and not
some sort of mental event, language does express ideas and elicits cognitive
302
2
associations, recognitions, and comparisons. Following Soskice and Kittay, I argued
that an interanimation/perspectival approach emphasizes that metaphors are
understood in the context of discourse and are contextually conditioned. We have seen
this in the consideration of the shepherd metaphor in Matthew and the biblical
tradition. Metaphors draw upon underlying models, in the case of this study, shepherds
and sheep and the environment in which they live and work. These models create the
network of ideas and images that enable metaphorical description. The biblical writers
utilize the shepherd metaphor to give expression to what they believe to be revelation
and their faith in the God who makes himself known.
I have argued in this thesis that Matthew understands Jesus to be the Shepherd-
Messiah with all the possible attending images that the biblical tradition might allow
him to utilize. And yet, as wide-ranging and as effectively as Matthew has been in
employing the image, I do not intend to claim that the metaphor is the dominant
description of Jesus in his Gospel. For Matthew, Jesus is too amazing to be
categorized by one title or one metaphor or one typological correspondence. He will
accumulate and amass his material together by way of his many literary techniques in
order to present Jesus as fully as he can. He uses, what I have come to believe, his
literary genius to give his reader/hearer as full a portrait of Jesus as he is able. But
even given that and taking together the whole of his Gospel, Matthew seems to leave
his reader/hearer with the impression that Jesus can not be summed up even by all the
titles, typologies and metaphors available. For Matthew, Jesus is always being
revealed more fully to his church, because for Matthew Jesus is 'God with us', present
with his followers always, even to the end of the age (Mt 1:23; 18:20; 28:20).
2
Cf. Chapter 3.
303
BIBLIOGRAPHY: PRIMARY TEXTS CONSULTED

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Durham E-Theses

Jesus as shepherd in the gospel of Matthew

IN THE GOSPEL OF MATTHEW

Fr. Terry J. Hedrick

The copyright of this thesis rests with the

A Thesis Submitted for the Degree of

Department of Theology and Religion

JESUS AS SHEPHERD IN THE GOSPEL OF MATTHEW

been submitted for a degree in any other University or College.

Chapter 2. METHOD ........................................................................ 29

Chapter 3. METAPHOR ...................................................................... 65

Chapter 4. SHEPHERDS AND SHEEP IN HISTORICAL CONTEXT ............. . 107

Chapter 5. YHWH: THE SHEPHERD OF ISRAEL

Chapter 6.SHEPHERD/SHEEP METAPHOR IN EARLY JEWISH LITERATURE.. 180

6.3.3 Shepherd as a 'would be' Messiah ............................................ . 213

Chapter 7.JESUS AS SHEPHERD IN MATTHEW......................... 215

CONCLUDING SUMMARY .................................................................. 297

BIBLIOGRAHY ........................................................................ 303

ABD Anchor Bible Dictionary. Edited by D. N. Freedman. 6 vols. New

BDAG Bauer, W., F. W. Danker, W. F. Arndt, and F. W. Gingrich. Greek-

BDB Brown, F., S. R. Driver, and C. A. Briggs. A Hebrew and English

BDF Blass, F., A. Debrunner, and R. W. Funk. A Greek Grammar of the

EDNT Exegetical Dictionary of the New Testament. Edited by H. Balz, G.

HALOT Koehler, L., W. Baumgartner, and J. J. Stamm, The Hebrew and

LSJ Liddell, H. G., R. Scott, H. S. Jones, A Greek-English Lexicon. 9th ed.

TDNT Theological Dictionary of the New Testament. Edited by G. Kittel and

TDOT Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament. Edited by G. J.

TLNT Theological Lexicon of the New Testament. C. Spicq. Translated and

TLOT Theological Lexicon of the Old Testament. Edited by E. Jenni, with

TWOT Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament. Edited by R. L. Harris, G.

Major Commentaries Consulted (see the Bibliography for full citations):

Hagner 1, 2 Hagner, Donald A. World Biblical Commentary:

Holladay 1, 2 Holladay, William L. A Commentary on the Book ofthe

Lundborn 1, 2, 3 Lundbom, Jack. A New Translation with Introduction and

Luz 1, 2, 3 Luz, Ulrich. A Commentary ofthe Gospel ofMatthew.

Zimmerli 1, 2 Zimmerli, Walter. A Commentary of the Book of the

its connection to a biblical understanding ofleadership. This time of transition allowed

me to reflect on those years of pastoral leadership: How had my leadership been

shepherd metaphor in hopes that it might give me a fuller understanding of biblical

considerable skills as a communicator as illustrated by his literary techniques,

techniques I still find remarkable. I came to appreciate: 1) his repetition of favorite

parables; 5) his application of triads; 6) his drawing upon 'Matthean vocabulary' to

verbal allusion; 7) his application of these literary techniques whereby he creates

in light oftheir contemporary crisis of leadership. He provided the Jewish Christians

identity in relation to their Jewish heritage. In addition to this specific personal

guidance that Jesus the Shepherd-Messiah offers them.

apparent to me that the.'shepherd texts,' as trefer~to.them,-were larger and more

use of scriptural tradition.

In order to appreciate Matthew's perspective concerning Jesus as the

citations, or as I call them, 'marked quotations,' 2 and twenty-one of these direct

metaphorically, never literally. The shepherd image is implied in regards to Jesus in

unmarked quote 'sheep without a shepherd' in Mk 6:34//Mt 9:36, intertextually related

intertextual use of the biblical tradition is therefore of primary importance in regard to

the shepherd texts.

The term intertextuality is used as an umbrella term that describes the

is concerned with 'only one species of intertextuality, namely, deliberate literary

borrowing,, the sort of borrowingcthat a text encourages ,its audience, to"discoverrand

recognition of which enlarges meaning'. 7 From the standpoint of this thesis,

intertextuality in Matthew primarily involves the Jewish Scriptures, in both their