B.F. Skinner's Contributions To Applied Behavior Analysis PDF
B.F. Skinner's Contributions To Applied Behavior Analysis PDF
B.F. Skinner's Contributions To Applied Behavior Analysis PDF
2 (Fall)
B. F. Skinner's Contributions to
Applied Behavior Analysis
Edward K. Morris and Nathaniel G. Smith
University of Kansas
Deborah E. Altus
Washburn University
Our paper reviews and analyzes B. F Skinner's contributions to applied behavior analysis in order
to assess his role as the field's originator and founder. We found, first, that his contributions fall
into five categorizes: the style and content of his science, his interpretations of typical and atypical
human behavior, the implications he drew from his science for application, his descriptions of
possible applications, and his own applications to nonhuman and human behavior. Second, we found
that he explicitly or implicitly addressed all seven dimensions of applied behavior analysis. These
contributions and the dimensions notwithstanding, he neither incorporated the field's scientific (e.g.,
analytic) and social dimensions (e.g., applied) into any program of published research such that he
was its originator, nor did he systematically integrate, advance, and promote the dimensions so to
have been its founder. As the founder of behavior analysis, however, he was the father of applied
behavior analysis.
Key words: B. F Skinner, behavior analysis, applied behavior analysis, history
Having made contributions that fected both people's view of life and also their
were both profound and practical, B. F beer, wine, and medical treatment. Skinner's dis-
coveries in the field of the transaction of a high-
Skinner (1904-1990) was arguably the er organism with its environment will have a
most eminent psychologist of the 20th greater and more enduring effect on man's view
century (Haggbloom et al., 2002). In of himself than the views of Freud. Meanwhile,
1970, the behavioral pharmacologist slowly but increasingly, education is being influ-
Peter Dews described Skinner's contri- enced by Skinner's findings, and perhaps some
day they may influence broadly how men dis-
butions this way: pense justice and punishment, raise children,
Massive advances in science can affect society handle neuroses, organize an economic system
either by changing man's views of himself or by and conduct international relations. (Dews,
leading to substantive changes in his environ- 1970, pp. ix-x)
ment. The contributions of Copernicus and Dar-
win profoundly affected society through their Dews was prescient. In his research,
philosophical implications, though they have Skinner established a science of behav-
made little difference to the contents of one's ior-the experimental analysis of be-
house or how one does things. Dalton's Atomic havior (Skinner, 1938, 1956a, 1966c).
Theory and Faraday's Electromagnetism had lit-
tle influence on the nineteenth century Estab- In applying his empiricist tenets and
lishment, although they led, through chemistry selectionist principles to this science,
and electricity, to profound changes in man's he formulated its philosophy-radical
surroundings. The work of a few people has af- behaviorism (Skinner, 1945b, 1950,
fected society both ways; Pasteur's germs af- 1957c). Skinner was the originator of
both (Schneider & Morris, 1987; Var-
Earlier versions of this article were presented gas, 2001, 2004). By integrating, ad-
at the 2004 meetings of the Association for Be- vancing, and promoting them (Skinner,
havior Analysis and the Mid-American Associ-
ation for Behavior Analysis and the 2005 meet- 1938, 1953a, 1974), he also founded a
ing of the California Association for Behavior new system of psychology, if not a
Analysis. We thank Todd R. Risley for his com- new discipline-behavior analysis (see
ments and suggestions. Michael, 1985). Whether he was also
Correspondence may be sent to the first au- the originator and founder of applied
thor, Department of Applied Behavioral Science,
University of Kansas, 1000 Sunnyside Avenue, behavior analysis is, as yet, undeter-
Lawrence, Kansas 66045 (e-mail: [email protected]). mined. Our purpose is to reach some
99
100 EDWARD K. MORRIS et al.
conclusions about these matters (on the useful in further analyzing his contri-
originator-founder distinction, see butions, but they are not our present
Schultz & Schultz, 1987, p. 55). concern.
What we find in the literature, to
date, is varied. Some texts mention APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS
none of Skinner's applied contributions
(e.g., Chance, 1998; Kazdin, 2001), Before beginning, we need a defini-
whereas others offer assessments that tion of applied behavior analysis at the
range from the circumspect to the cer- time the field was founded so that
tain. Here are some examples: (a) His Skinner's contributions can be fairly
writings "contain insightful examples assessed against those standards, not
from everyday life, and they interested later ones. For this, we find the follow-
many people from many disciplines in ing on the inside front cover of JABA's
applying behavior principles to a broad first issue: "[JABA] is primarily for the
range of topics" (Baldwin & Baldwin, original publication of reports of ex-
2001, p. vii); (b) "Skinner's writings perimental work involving applications
have been most influential ... in ex- of the analysis of behavior to problems
tending the application of his princi- of social importance." Later in that is-
ples of behavior to new areas" (Coo- sue, Baer, Wolf, and Risley (1968) ex-
per, Heron, & Heward, 1987, p. 10); panded on this in their article, "Some
(c) "His many books and papers on ap- Current Dimensions of Applied Behav-
plied technology led to the field of ap- ior Analysis." Applied behavior anal-
plied behavior analysis" (Pierce & ysis, they wrote, "must be applied, be-
Cheney, 2004, p. 10); (d) "B. F Skin- havioral, and analytic; in addition, it
ner (1904-1990) was a pioneer and should be technological, conceptually
founder of behavior modification" systematic, and effective, and it should
(Sarafino, 2001, p. 2); and (e) "Skin- display some generality" (p. 92). This
ner's work is the foundation of behav- definition excludes later refinements
ior modification" (Miltenberger, 1997, and advances regarding, for instance,
p. 10; see also Krasner, 2001, p. 213). social validity (e.g., Wolf, 1978), pro-
Although applied behavior analysis gram integrity and treatment fidelity
and behavior modification should not (e.g., L. Peterson, Homer, & Wonder-
be conflated (see J. M. Johnston, 1996; lich, 1982), and the concept of context
J. Moore & Cooper, 2003; Vollmer, (e.g., Baer, Wolf, & Risley, 1987). We
2001), we doubt that the authors of are not dismissing their importance in
these comments meant to distinguish the evolution of applied behavior anal-
between them in this context. They ysis, just restricting our review of
were, presumably, writing in general Skinner's contributions to the field to
about Skinner's contributions. What- the time it was founded.
ever their assessments, they seemingly We also restrict our review to
did not base them on systematic re- JABA's main focus at the time it was
views of his work. In deciding on the founded-operant behavioral process-
nature of Skinner's contributions, we es analyzed within individuals (Agras,
offer one such review and organize it Kazdin, & Wilson, 1979; Martin &
chronologically, starting with among Pear, 1996, p. 390; Willis & Giles,
his first publications in 1930 and end- 1976, pp. 15-19). At the time, the jour-
ing in 1968, when the Journal of Ap- nal did not often address respondent
plied Behavior Analysis (JABA) began behavioral relations (e.g., desensitiza-
publication. After that, no one can be tion; Wolpe, 1958; but see Leitenberg,
said to have founded the field; it was Agras, Thompson, & Wright, 1968) or
founded. Our exercise is inductive. We applied psychology based on between-
neither propose nor test any theories subject analyses (e.g., cognitive defi-
about Skinner's contributions. Theories cits; Fisher & Lerner, 1994; but see
may follow from our review and be Guess, Sailor, Rutherford, & Baer,
SKINNER AND APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS 101
1968) or public health research that 1950, 1956a, 1966c). First, knowledge
employed population-based measures was defined as effective action, not
and methods (e.g., underage tobacco contemplation. Effective action includ-
use; Biglan et al., 1995; but see Bush- ed reliable description, accurate predic-
ell, Wrobel, & Michaelis, 1968). Thus, tion, and experimental control, with an
we mainly restrict Skinner's contribu- emphasis on the last two-prediction
tions to JABA's main focus. In doing and control. Second, prediction and
so, though, we do not mean to diminish control were not based on correlations
the importance of other processes and between independent and dependent
problems, and methods and levels of variables but on the discovery and
analysis. To the contrary, we encour- demonstration of functional relations
age them. They were just not that between them-functional analysis.
much present at JABA's founding. Third, the discovery and demonstration
To forecast our findings somewhat, of these relations were, respectively,
Skinner's applied contributions fall the process and product, not of statis-
into five categories: (a) the style and tical analyses of between-group com-
content of his science, (b) his interpre- parisons but of direct experimental
tations of typical and atypical behavior, control of the subject matter-within-
(c) implications he drew from his sci- individual research designs. Fourth,
ence for application, (d) his descrip- functional relations that had broad gen-
tions of possible applications, and (e) erality described basic principles
his own applications to human and principles of behavior. And fifth, when
nonhuman behavior. In making these those principles were integrated with
contributions, he also addressed the one another, they constituted a theo-
seven dimensions of applied behavior ry-a theory or system of behavior.
analysis. As for whether he was the These characteristics were not, in-
field's founder or played another role- dividually, unique to Skinner. He ac-
for instance, that of its father-the an- quired them from a number of sources:
swer depends on how and where he in- the empiricist philosopher Francis Ba-
corporated the dimensions into his con (1620/1960; Smith, 1996); Claude
work, as we shall see. Bernard, the father of experimental
medicine (1865/1949; see Thompson,
THE BEHAVIOR OF ORGANISMS 1984); the Nobel laureate physiologist
(1938) Ivan P. Pavlov (1927; see Catania &
Skinner's most fundamental contri- Laties, 1999); the philosophical prag-
bution to applied behavior analysis was matist C. S. Peirce (1878; see Moxley,
the style and content of his science. By 2002); Ernst Mach, the physicist-phi-
his style, we mean his methodology, losopher of science (1883/1942; see
which ranges from his empirical epis- Marr, 1985); the experimental biologist
temology to his experimental practices. Jacques Loeb (1916; see Hackenberg,
By the content of his science, we mean 1995); and the general physiologist and
what he discovered with this method- Skinner's mentor W. J. Crozier (1928;
ology-the basic principles of operant see Kazdin, 1978, pp. 91-93). In the
behavior. Both the style and content of aggregate, however, these characteris-
his science were nascent in his first tics were an original synthesis of mod-
publications (e.g., 1930a), afterwards ern advances in science and philosophy
maturing into the behavioral system he that Skinner uniquely extended to be-
described in his first book, The Behav- havior as a subject matter in its own
ior of Organisms (1938). right (J. M. Johnston & Pennypacker,
1993; Sidman, 1960; see Lattal &
Scientific Style: Behavioral, Chase, 2003; Smith, 1986, pp. 257-
Analytic, and Technological 297).
Skinner's style had five characteris- Skinner's style of science allowed
tics (see Sidman, 1960; Skinner, 1947a, him to describe and even make appli-
102 EDWARD K. MORRIS et al.
cations that were unlikely to have aris- tions of its procedures are not only pre-
en in the research programs of his neo- cisely technological, but also strive for
behaviorist colleagues (e.g., Hull, relevance to principle" (p. 96). The ex-
1943; Tolman, 1932). In fact, his style amples they provided were operant: re-
made applied behavior analysis almost inforcement, fading, and errorless dis-
inevitable. It only need be extended to crimination. Baer et al. continued: Re-
behavior of relatively immediate social lating technological descriptions to a
importance, as sometimes seen in the conceptual system shows how "pro-
early volumes of the Journal of the Ex- cedures may be derived from basic
perimental Analysis of Behavior principles. This can have the effect of
(JEAB, established in 1958; e.g., Ayl- making a body of technology into a
lon & Michael, 1959). His style was, discipline rather than a collection of
moreover, foundational to the three di- tricks" (p. 96). This point is conveyed
mensions of applied behavior analysis by the Chinese proverb, "Give a man
a fish and you feed him for a day.
that made the field scientific. It was be-
havioral, employing precise, quantifi- Teach a man to fish and you feed him
able, and accurate measurements (Baer for a lifetime." Recast in our context,
et al., 1968, p. 93). It was analytic, we have, "Give students a behavioral
demonstrating direct and reliable ex- technology, and they can solve today's
perimental control (pp. 93-95). And, it problems. Teach them behavioral prin-
was technological, thoroughly describ- ciples, and they can solve tomor-
ing its experimental preparations, pro- row's."
cedures, and materials (pp. 95-96; see In any event, by 1938, Skinner had
Iversen & Lattal, 1991; Lattal & Per- established a science of behavior
one, 1998; Skinner, 1966c). whose style and content were founda-
tional to four of the seven dimensions
Scientific Content: Conceptually of applied behavior analysis. Its style
Systematic was behavioral, analytic, and techno-
logical. Its content was conceptually
As already noted, the content of systematic.
Skinner's science was the principles of
behavior. In The Behavior of Organ- BEFORE THE BEHAVIOR OF
isms (1938), he addressed these in ORGANISMS: 1930-1938
chapters on what we know of today as
operant reinforcement and extinction, Toward the end of The Behavior of
response differentiation, schedules of Organisms, Skinner (1938) forecasted
reinforcement, stimulus control, and the emergence of applied behavior
establishing operations. In these and analysis in the following statement:
other chapters, he addressed respon- The reader will have noticed that almost no ex-
dent conditioning and extinction, aver- tension to human behavior is made or suggested.
sive control, conditioned reinforce- This does not mean that he is expected to be
ment, chaining, stimulus generaliza- interested in the behavior of the rat for its own
tion, and response induction. Although sake. The importance of a science of behavior
the content of Skinner's science natu- derives largely from the possibility of an even-
tual extension to human affairs. (p. 441)
rally evolved after 1938 (see Mazur,
2002; Pear, 2001), the principles he de- Although he warned that applications
scribed in his book are found in every should not be overly emphasized in the
modern textbook on applied behavior early stage of this science, he contin-
analysis (e.g., Miltenberger, 1997). ued,
These principles were also the basis
of the field's conceptually systematic It would, of course ...... have been possible to
in a limited way at each
suggest applications
dimension. As Baer et al. (1968) re- step. This would probably have made for easier
marked, "The field ... will probably reading, but it would have unreasonably length-
advance best if the published descrip- ened the book. Besides, the careful reader should
SKINNER AND APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS 103
be as able to make applications as the writer.... in card-guessing tasks. Turning to per-
Let him extrapolate who will. (pp. 441-442) ception, he described how, under low
Skinner himself "was soon extrapolat- illumination, white circles appeared to
ing" (Skinner, 1989a, p. 131). What he be tinted when set against a black
meant by extrapolation, extension, and background (Skinner, 1932). In ex-
application, however, was broader than plaining this, he offered a physiologi-
what applied meant when applied be- cal "functional-element theory of color
havior analysis was founded. They en- vision" that, he urged, needed testing.
compassed the remaining four catego- Skinner's other applications at this time
ries of his contributions: his interpre- fell into three areas to which he would
tations of typical and atypical behavior, contribute more substantively through-
implications he drew from his science out his career: verbal behavior, behav-
for application, his descriptions of pos- ioral pharmacology, and behavioral en-
sible applications, and his own appli- gineering.
cations.
Verbal Behavior
Earliest Applications In 1934, Skinner began working on
At first, at Harvard University Verbal Behavior (1957c). In the first of
(1928-1936), Skinner's applications his related publications-"Has Ger-
were not as closely aligned with the trude Stein a Secret?" (Skinner,
eventual style and content of his sci- 1934)-he pointed out that Stein's
ence as we might expect, but this is not prose style was the result of "automat-
unusual in a young science. Research ic writing." This is writing in which
methods are often, at first, exploratory, reading and writing occur simulta-
and the subject matter is not always neously yet independently of one an-
well defined. A distinctive program of other, with the content of the writing
research may take a while to evolve. being often unconscious. This was
As a result, early applications may be Skinner's first publication in the pop-
little more than exercises in critical ular press (the Atlantic Monthly). Af-
thinking, not extensions of established terward, most of his popular press pub-
methods and content. This was true for lications addressed applications, and
Skinner as well (see Coleman, 1984). many of his applied publications ap-
For example, one of his earliest con- peared in the popular press (see Ruth-
tributions-"On the Inheritance of erford, 2004).
Maze Behavior" (Skinner, 1930b)- Skinner's (1936) next relevant pub-
was a critique. He criticized (a) the lication was "The Verbal Summator
methods used in a study of the relation and a Method for the Study of Latent
between genetic strains of mice and re- Speech." Through accident and inge-
action times and learning, and (b) the nuity, he invented a recording of vowel
conclusions drawn from the resulting sounds (e.g., "uh-oh-ah-uh") that, with
data (see Vicari, 1929). Skinner's cri- instructions to listeners to report what
tique was socially important and thus they heard, often yielded responses that
"applied" in that, at the time, genetics were "significant," for instance, about
had dark implications for cultural prac- a listener's work and worries. The sum-
tices, among them, eugenics (Garth, mator was soon adopted and adapted
1930; see Gould, 1981; Leahey, 2004, in clinical psychology as a projective
pp. 460-468). Skinner was also critical technique, an auditory version of the
of research on extrasensory perception. Rorschach test (Shakow & Rosen-
For instance, in a review of J. B. zweig, 1940), but it eventually fell out
Rhine's (1937) New Frontiers of the of favor for practical and methodolog-
Mind (Skinner, 1937b), he pointed out ical reasons (e.g., efficiency; see Ruth-
methodological flaws and biases in the erford, 2003a). Finally, in "The Distri-
studies of clairvoyance and telepathy bution of Associated Words," Skinner
104 EDWARD K. MORRIS et al.
(see Millenson & Leslie, 1979, pp. Only in a lighter moment in Project
413-433). Pigeon did Skinner discover shaping as
we know it today. He and his col-
Project Pigeon: 1940-1944 leagues sought to train a pigeon to
bowl by having it swipe its beak at a
During World War II, Skinner un- ball. Although they set up the requisite
dertook a program of applied research physical environment, the pigeon did
in which he trained pigeons to guide not swipe at the ball before they grew
simulated bombs to precise destina- tired of waiting. Skinner thus rein-
tions. Funded by the General Mills forced the pigeon's first approximation
Company and the United States Office of a swipe and then others that succes-
of Scientific Research and Develop- sively approached its final form. The
ment (OSRD) and called "Project Pi- results "amazed" him (Skinner, 1958a,
geon" (Skinner, 1960b), this was Skin- p. 94). He had never previously ob-
ner's first sustained program of behav- served such rapid, effective, and di-
ioral engineering. Although he could rected change in behavior. On the basis
not overcome differences between his of this discovery, he reformulated his
style of science and his disciplinary account of verbal behavior to empha-
outlook and those of the OSRD engi- size the role of reciprocal social con-
neers (Capshew, 1996), Skinner and tingencies and began more resolutely
his colleagues (Estes, Norm Guttman, to extend his science to human behav-
and Keller and Marian Breland) con- ior (G. B. Peterson, 2004). Although
ducted significant use-inspired basic he did not use the term shaping until
research over the course of the project 1951 (Skinner, 1951b), it has become
on schedules of reinforcement, stimu-
lus control, and establishing operations a technical term for an indispensable
(e.g., food deprivation, oxygen pres- procedure for establishing new behav-
sure, and temperature). ior (Kazdin, 2001, pp. 43-46, 274-
In the course of the project, Skinner, 276; Martin & Pear, 1996, pp. 64-76),
Guttman, and Keller Breland discov- and applications in behaviorally based
ered shaping (Skinner, 1958a, 1972d; robotics (Savage, 2001).
see G. B. Peterson, 2004). Although Project Pigeon was Skinner's first
Skinner had used lever pressing in rats application of his science beyond his
as a dependent variable since 1930, ap- own teaching and research. As he later
parently he had never directly shaped related, "The research that I described
it. He simply placed his rats in their in The Behavior of Organisms ap-
chambers and waited for lever pressing peared in a new light. It was no longer
to occur, sometimes putting food on merely an experimental analysis. It had
the lever to induce it. He also did not given rise to a technology" (Skinner,
directly shape the feats of Pliny the El- 1979, p. 274). In later turning to edu-
der. Instead, he modified Pliny's phys- cation, he noted the "direct genetic
ical environment (e.g., drop-off edges), connection between teaching machines
waited for an appropriate response to and Project Pigeon" (Skinner, 1960b,
occur, reinforced it to strength, and pp. 36-37), that is, the engineering of
then modified the physical environ- behavior. A more extended application
ment again. Similarly, in the research of Skinner's science was the Brelands'
reported in The Behavior of Organisms (1951) founding of Animal Behavior
(1938) on the differentiation of re- Enterprises in 1947 to train animals for
sponse intensity and duration, he en- entertainment and commercial purpos-
gineered the physics of the response re- es (e.g., circuses, advertising). Perhaps
quirements (e.g., the force required to the ultimate test, though, was the Na-
press the lever), waited for a response tional Aeronautics and Space Admin-
that met those requirements, and rein- istration's use of Skinner's science to
forced it. train chimpanzees for its Project Mer-
SKINNER AND APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS 107
cury flights in the late 1950s and early Montana. Deborah Skinner Buzan af-
1960s (see Rohles, 1966, 1992). terward cogently refuted this story in a
letter to the editor of The Guardian
Baby in a Box (Buzan, 2004).
Skinner's next application-referred WALDEN TWO
to as the "air crib," "baby tender,"
and "heir conditioner"-was actually We now come to Skinner's (1948d)
not much of a behavioral application. novel, Walden Two, written in 1945
As described in his 1945 article, and published in 1948. The book was
"Baby in a Box" (Skinner, 1945a), the patterned, in part, after Bacon's (1624/
air crib was a self-contained, sound-at- 1942) utopian work, New Atlantis, in
tenuating living space with a full front which the physical and biological sci-
window, air filters, controls for heat ences were used to improve the human
and humidity, and a continuous roll of condition. In Walden Two, behavioral
sheeting for changing the bed. Skinner science was applied to the same end.
constructed it in 1944 for his wife, The impetus for Skinner's book was, in
Eve, and their second daughter, Debo- part, both social and personal. First, in
rah, to enhance Deborah's comfort, the course of a dinner conversation
health, and development, and make in- with a friend whose son-in-law was
fant and child care more enjoyable stationed in the South Pacific, Skinner
(e.g., increasing the opportunities for mused about what young people would
joint play by reducing the time spent do when World War II ended. "What
washing clothes; see Benjamin & Niel- a shame," he said, "that they would
sen-Gammon, 1999; Jordan, 1996). abandon their crusading spirit" (Skin-
Although a contribution to domestic ner, 1979, p. 292). When asked what
engineering, as well as another of they should do, he responded, "They
Skinner's inventions, the air crib should experiment: They should ex-
served biological functions as much as plore new ways of living, as people
behavioral ones, and was equally a test had done in the communities of the
of materials science in the mid-1940s nineteenth century." Although many
as a test of behavioral science. In fact, of those communities had failed, Skin-
Skinner conducted no experiments ner was optimistic: "Young people to-
with Deborah beyond adjusting the day might have better luck. They could
crib's heat and humidity so that she build a culture that would come closer
would play and sleep comfortably. to satisfying human needs than the
"Baby in a Box" was, at best, a case American way of life" (1979, p. 292).
study of the air crib's contributions to The personal impetus for writing the
Deborah's and Eve's health and hap- book lay in dissatisfactions with Skin-
piness. Today, the application that most ner's own life:
closely resembles the air crib is medi- I had seen my wife and her friends struggling to
cal-isolettes used in neonatal infant save themselves from domesticity, wincing as
care units. they printed "housewife" in those blanks asking
The air crib, of course, is the subject for occupation. Our older daughter had just fin-
of urban legends, a recent one appear- ished first grade, and there is nothing like a first
ing in Slater's (2004) Opening Skin- child's first year in school to turn one's thoughts
to education. (Skinner, 1976, p. v)
ner's Box: Great Psychological Exper-
iments of the Twentieth Century. Here, Applications: Cultural Practices
Skinner had allegedly confined Debo-
rah to the air crib for 2 years and meted Given Skinner's interest in extend-
out rewards and "mean punishments," ing his science to human behavior, his
making her psychotic, which led her to optimism about cultural design, and his
commit suicide by gunshot at the age dissatisfaction with the status quo, we
of 31 in a bowling alley in Billings, would expect him to have described
108 EDWARD K. MORRIS et al.
ing personal and group control; and in a more easily understood form in Keller and
cultural practices, among them psycho- Schoenfeld [1950], the development of the be-
havior modification movement needed Skinner's
therapy and education. Other chapters own bold extrapolation to all aspects of human
contained sections explicitly titled "the behavior. Most experimental psychologists are
practical use of . .. ," for instance, of inherently conservative in describing the rele-
drives, emotion, aversive stimuli, and vance of their work to practical situations, but
multiple causation. not Skinner. In Science and Human Behavior,
using only the basic concepts of behavior anal-
Given Skinner's treatment of these ysis that appeared in The Behavior of Organ-
topics, his book has been viewed as isms, some results of his subsequent work with
foundational to applied behavior anal- pigeons, and the material which ultimately went
ysis. Twenty-five years ago, for in- into Verbal Behavior, he managed to deal with
stance, Wilson and O'Leary (1980) de- a wide variety of human situations from a com-
pletely behavioral point of view, and very con-
scribed it as "particularly significant vincingly at that. It was this extension to all as-
[in] the extension of operant principles pects of human activity that, I think, provided
to human problems," especially in its behaviorists with the encouragement necessary
critique of psychoanalysis and the for them to begin contributing to the areas of
''conceptualization of psychotherapy mental illness, mental retardation, and other ap-
in behavioral terms" (p. 11). More re- plied fields. (pp. 3-4; see also Michael, 1984, p.
364)
cent assessments also support this view
(Pilgrim, 2003): (a) "Skinner's (1953) As an aside, Baer et al. (1968) included
book ... was the first to provide ex- just three references in their paper on
tensive examples of behavior princi- the dimensions of applied behavior
ples in everyday life" (Baldwin & analysis: Sidman's (1960) Tactics of
Baldwin, 2001, p. 10); (b) its "inter- Scientific Research, JEAB, and Science
pretations influenced others to begin and Human Behavior. Sidman's book
examining the effects of reinforcement described the style of Skinner's sci-
variables on human behavior in a num- ence, JEAB its content, and Science
ber of experimental and applied set- and Human Behavior his system. Baer
tings" (Martin & Pear, 1996, p. 383); et al. thus apparently viewed the book
(c) it "contains early expressions of as one of the field's three most impor-
much that was to come: ... the entire tant foundations.
field of applied behavior analysis" Although the foregoing quotations
(Marr, 2003, p. 311); and (d) "as we speak strongly to the book's influence
survey the contemporary scene, we can on applied behavior analysis, beyond
point to many applications traceable in these testimonials the evidence could
one way or another to Science and Hu- be stronger. Historiography needs to be
man Behavior" (Catania, 2003, p. 319;
see also Cooper et al., 1987, p. 11; prospective from the past about the
Miltenberger, 1997, p. 10). past, not retrospective from the present
Michael (1980) has been especially (Stocking, 1965). The validity of the
outspoken in this regard. As for the ef- foregoing quotations about the book's
fect of the book on him personally, he influence, for instance, might be as-
has noted, "I came at the applied area sessed by analyzing references to it in
primarily from extensive study of ... the first volume of JABA, as well as in
Science and Human Behavior; not the important pre-1968 applied publi-
from the rat lab" (Michael & Malott, cations (e.g., Ayllon & Michael, 1959;
2003, p. 1 15). As for the book's broad- Wolf, Risley, & Mees, 1964). Another
er influence, he has observed, approach would be to analyze citations
to the book in today's applied text-
Skinner's Science and Human Behavior ap- books and those that address the field's
peared in 1953 and was, it seems to me, the history. For example, although Kazdin
main factor responsible for the development of (1978) commented on the book a num-
the area called behavior modification. Though
all the basic principles had been available in The ber of times in History of Behavior
Behavior of Organisms, and were later available Modification (e.g., pp. 146, 175, 180,
SKINNER AND APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS 113
cent survey, three quarters of the re- Nonetheless, he at first urged caution
spondents listed the book as one of the about pharmacological applications. In
"'essential readings for students who "Animal Research in the Pharmaco-
are being trained in the experimental therapy of Mental Disease," he argued
analysis of behavior, applied behavior that, although drugs might be "impor-
analysis, and related disciplines" (Sa- tant in the management and treatment
ville, Beal, & Buskist, 2002, p. 30). of mental disease" (Skinner, 1959a, p.
The JEAB board members ranked it 224), pharmacology first has to be
first, and the JABA board members grounded on principles derived from
ranked it second only to Baer et al. the experimental analysis of human be-
(1968). It is also steadily and highly cit- havior. These principles assured that
ed in citation indexes (Pilgrim, 2003). explanations of a drug's "mode of ac-
The book's importance is obvious, even tion" were based not just on the drug
if its direct influence on applied behav- itself, but also on behavior, that is, on
ior analysis requires further support. behavioral history and prevailing con-
tingencies (e.g., appetitive vs. aversive
APPLICATIONS AND APPLIED control). The principles also provide
RESEARCH: 1953-1959 explanations of behavior based not on
Applications mental processes and personality traits
but on naturalistic accounts of human
After publishing Science and Hu- behavior, that is, on biology, environ-
man Behavior, Skinner turned even ment, and history. Grounding applied
more toward application. He extended behavior analysis on Skinner's science
his animal model of superstition to a had similar effects. It provided an ac-
second type (Morse & Skinner, count of atypical behavior based on
1957)-responding under adventitious historical and current contingencies in
stimulus control. In writing about the biological and environmental context,
experimental analysis of behavior, he not on mind, personality, or pure phys-
addressed such topics as attention, mo- iology.
tivation, gambling, social relations, Verbal behavior. In psychology,
psychotic behavior, psychotherapy, Skinner's most famous extension of his
school discipline, education, and in- science to human behavior was Verbal
dustry (e.g., Skinner, 1953b, 1956a, Behavior (1957c), which he believed
1957a, 1958b, 1959d). However, he fo- was his "most important work" (1977,
cused most directly on (a) behavioral p. 379). The book was also more ap-
pharmacology; (b) verbal behavior; (c) plied than is typically appreciated. As
psychoanalysis, psychotherapy, and Skinner put it, "The formulation is in-
mental disease; and (d) ethics in the herently practical and suggests imme-
control of human behavior. diate technological applications at al-
Behavioral pharmacology. Through- most every step" (1957c, p. 12). Tech-
out the 1950s, Skinner actively pro- nological applications were, in turn, an
moted the use of operant methods in arbiter of how well the book explained
pharmacology, drawing on examples verbal behavior:
from J. V. Brady (1956) and Dews
(1956; Dews & Skinner, 1956) and his The extent to which we understand verbal be-
own work with Ferster (e.g., Ferster & havior in a "causal" analysis is to be assessed
from the extent to which we can predict the oc-
Skinner, 1957, pp. 83-85, 385-390, currence of specific instances and, eventually,
413-414, 596-597, 627-629, 695, from the extent to which we can produce or con-
716-718; Skinner, 1957a; see Berg- trol such behavior by altering the conditions un-
man, Katz, & Miczek, 2002; Laties, der which it occurs. In representing such a goal
2003; Skinner, 1983b, pp. 99-101). it is helpful to keep certain engineering tasks in
mind. How can the teacher establish the specific
Over time, his style of science-in par- verbal repertoires which are the principal end-
ticular, his steady-state methods-be- products of education? How can the therapist
came fundamental to the field. uncover latent verbal behavior in a therapeutic
SKINNER AND APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS 115
interview? How can the writer evoke his own Shortly afterward, he published three
verbal behavior in the act of composition? How papers more directly relevant to the
can the scientist, mathematician, or logician ma-
nipulate his verbal behavior in productive think- process of therapy. In the first, "Cri-
ing? Practical problems of this sort are, of tique of Psychoanalytic Concepts and
course, endless. To solve them is not the im- Theories" (1954a), he pointed out that
mediate goal of a scientific analysis, but they Freud's independent variables were hy-
underline the kinds of processes and relation- pothetical representations of the prod-
ships which such an analysis must consider. (p.
3) ucts of behavioral ontogeny (e.g., the
superego), and that Freud's proximal
And consider them, Skinner did. dependent variables were hypothetical
Verbal Behavior (1957c) is replete processes (e.g., repression), neither of
with interpretations, implications, and which was measurable or manipulable.
descriptions of applications. These in- On these accounts, behavior was a
clude (a) material on the reinforcement symptom of the representations and
and punishment of the basic verbal op- processes, not a subject matter unto it-
erants (e.g., mands, tacts, intraverbals), self. For Skinner, in contrast, the rep-
their stimulus controls (e.g., audience resentations and processes were but
effects), and their motivation (e.g., shorthand descriptions of the history
deprivation); (b) references to relevant and dynamics of public and private be-
research (e.g., the verbal summator); havior. Skinner's second publication-
and (c) material that addressed the "What Is Psychotic Behavior?"
"practical control" of speaker behav- (1956b)-extended this critique. He
ior through prompts and probes (pp. likened psychoanalytic explanations to
254-268), instructions (pp. 362-367), psychology's generally mentalistic and
self-strengthening (pp. 403-417), and reductionistic explanations. Psycholo-
its construction (pp. 422-431). He also gy had failed, he thought, to apply sci-
cited Greenspoon's (1955) research on ence to human behavior, which was for
the conditioning of adult verbal behav- him its "primary object" (p. 79).
ior with generalized social reinforce- In his third publication, "The Psy-
ment, which presaged the implications chological Point of View" (1957b),
of conditioning for conversations (see Skinner was more constructive. He ar-
Verplanck, 1955) and psychotherapy gued that the experimental analysis of
(Greenspoon, 1962; Truax, 1966; see behavior could be integrated with ge-
Glenn, 1983). netic and organic approaches to under-
According to Michael (1984), how- standing psychiatric illness. In partic-
ever, Verbal Behavior (1957c) was so ular, it could offer precise laboratory-
speculative that it was often an embar- based measures of, for instance,
rassment to "operant researchers" (p. sensory control, motor behavior, emo-
369) and of little value to those who tional behavior, motivation, and learn-
undertook the first empirically based ing. It could provide "a base-line upon
applications of Skinner's science. which the effect of genetic, organic,
Thus, the book probably had little in- and other variables may be observed"
fluence on the founding of applied be- (p. 132). And, it could "change the be-
havior analysis. Today, however, it havior of the mentally diseased" (p.
plays an increasing role in the treat- 132) through respondent and operant
ment of communication disorders in conditioning. Skinner concluded this
children with developmental disabili- way:
ties (Sundberg & Michael, 2001; Sund-
berg & Partington, 1998). That there are etiological facts lying beyond [ex-
Psychoanalysis, psychotherapy, and perimental psychology] is doubtless true.... A
mental disease. Although Skinner had certain practical hierarchy of causes may, how-
ever, be pointed out. Although genetic and or-
addressed psychotherapy in Science ganic factors can be efficiently evaluated only
and Human Behavior (1953a), he ad- by holding environmental factors constant, and
dressed it mainly as a cultural practice. although environmental factors can be correctly
116 EDWARD K. MORRIS et al.
evaluated only against a stable genetic and or- mote to the observable and manipulable.
ganic condition, it is probably a useful practice Though it is a painful step, it has far-reaching
to explore environmental factors first to see consequences, for it not only sets higher stan-
whether any behavioral manifestations remain to dards of human welfare but shows us how to
be attributed to genetic and organic causes. (p. meet them.... Possibly the noblest achievement
133) to which man can aspire ... is to accept himself
for what he is. (pp. 64-65)
This optimism about behavior's envi-
ronmental determinants was evident in Third, Skinner described how the
the founding of applied behavior anal- outworn conceptions of human behav-
ysis and remains so today. ior were harmful to personal relations,
Ethics in the control of human be- education, and government: because
havior. During this period, Skinner re- their modes of control were aversive
turned to ethical issues in three impor- (Rogers & Skinner, 1956). A scientifi-
tant articles: "The Control of Human cally based conception showed how
Behavior" (1955), "Freedom and the aversive control could and should be
Control of Men" (1955-1956), and his replaced with positive reinforcement.
symposium with Carl Rogers, "Some In response to Rogers' argument that
Issues Concerning the Control of Hu- values and free choice determined hu-
man Behavior" (Rogers & Skinner, man behavior, Skinner pointed out that
1956). He had touched on these themes values specify reinforcing events, con-
earlier, but as the applied implications ditions, and activities; that choice was
of his science became more apparent, not free, but also determined; and that
as the Cold War heightened, and as his we must overcome our fear of the con-
critics grew more vocal (e.g., Krutch, trol implicit in science. In overcoming
1954), he addressed these themes more it, he wrote, perhaps tongue-in-cheek,
frequently. "we shall become more mature and
First, Skinner (1955) noted that, better organized and shall, thus, more
whether we admit it or not, behavior is fully actualize ourselves as human be-
controlled on a daily basis through pro- ings" (p. 1065). Topics such as these
cesses and practices involving positive gained Skinner's further attention in
reinforcement, motivational control, the 1960s and 1970s, when he ad-
emotional conditioning, and "knowl- dressed freedom and dignity (Skinner,
edge of the individual" (e.g., govern- 1971b), humanism (e.g., Skinner,
ment databases). He was concerned 1972c), and the design of cultures
that the culture's "outworn conception (Skinner, 1973b).
of human nature" discouraged the
analysis of these factors, thus obscur- Applied Research
ing the need for their countercontrol. The same year Science and Human
Second, he defended the science of Behavior (1953a) was published, Skin-
behavior, its implications, and its ap- ner began his two most "noteworthy"
plication (Skinner, 1955-1956). In par- and "influential" extensions and appli-
ticular, he addressed pertinent issues in cations of his science to human behav-
the philosophy of science (e.g., deter- ior (Kazdin, 1978, pp. 177, 242). One
minism) and fears about the use of the was an experimental analysis of the be-
science in cultural design (e.g., despo- havior of patients in a psychiatric in-
tism). However, he concluded optimis- stitution; the other was a technology of
tically, teaching.
Far from being a threat to the tradition of West- The behavior ofpsychiatric patients.
em democracy, the growth of a science of man Skinner's extension of his science to
is a consistent and probably inevitable part of it. psychiatric patients was his 1953-1965
In tuming to the extemal conditions which shape collaboration with Ogden Lindsley
and maintain the behavior of men, while ques-
tioning the reality of the inner qualities and fac- (Lindsley & Skinner, 1954; see Linds-
ulties to which human achievements were once ley, 2001; Rutherford, 2003b). Al-
attributed, we turn from the ill-defined and re- though meant to be a systematic rep-
SKINNER AND APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS 117
from his science for application, de- able degree, most of the seven dimen-
scribed possible applications, and re- sions of applied behavior analysis.
ported successful applications in ani-
mal behavior and education. Some of Saskatchewan Hospital:
this work was a precursor to applied Ayllon et al. (1958-1961)
behavior analysis; other of it contrib- Between 1958 and 1961, Ayllon un-
uted to a zeitgeist that made applica- dertook one of the "most influential
tion almost inevitable. In the same de- extensions" of Skinner's science to
cade that Skinner extended his science clinical populations (Kazdin, 1978, p.
to psychotic patients and applied it to 256). These extensions yielded eight
education, two independent programs publications, the first of which has
of research were begun that yielded, been referred to as "the formal begin-
arguably, the first systematic applica- nings of applied behavior analysis"
tions of his science. One was Ayllon's (Cooper et al., 1987, p. 13; see also
work at Saskatchewan Hospital in Birnbrauer, 1979, p. 15). This was Ayl-
Weyburn, Saskatchewan, Canada; the lon's dissertation for the Department of
other was Wolf's at the University of Psychology at the University of Hous-
Washington in Seattle, Washington. ton, with Michael as his adviser. The
These were not the first applications, publication was titled "The Psychiatric
of course. We have already noted P. R. Nurse as a Behavioral Engineer" (Ayl-
Fuller's (1949) early demonstration of lon & Michael, 1959). In it, Ayllon and
operant conditioning in a "vegetative Michael described applications of the
human organism." Other applications style and content of Skinner's science
were being made concurrently to elim- by psychiatric nurses and attendants to
inate a child's tantrums (Williams, improve the behavior of their patients,
1959), reinstate verbal behavior in for example, to increase self-feeding
mute psychotics (Isaacs, Thomas, & and reduce psychotic talk. In Ayllon's
Goldiamond, 1960), and establish pro- other studies, he increased meal atten-
ductive classroom behavior (Zimmer- dance and eating (Ayllon, 1965; Ayl-
man & Zimmerman, 1962). In addi- lon & Haughton, 1962), decreased
tion, at Arizona State University food stealing and towel hoarding (Ayl-
(ASU), Staats (1957) was extending lon, 1963), decreased nonorganic phys-
ical complaints (Ayllon & Haughton,
his research to applied issues in read- 1964), and addressed other clinically
ing (e.g., Staats & Butterfield, 1965; relevant behavior (e.g., anorexia; see;
Staats, Minke, Goodwin, & Landeen, Ayllon, Haughton, & Hughes, 1965;
1967; see Staats, 1965, 1996). Wolf's Ayllon, Haughton, & Osmond, 1964;
work with Staats, when Michael was Haughton & Ayllon, 1965). This was
also at ASU, when ASU was known as "groundbreaking real-world field re-
"Fort Skinner in the Desert" (Goodall, search" (Risley, 2005, p. 279). When
1972), also likely influenced Wolf's Ayllon moved to Anna State Hospital
applications at Washington. Staats's in Illinois in 1961, he collaborated with
overall contribution to founding ap- Azrin in related research (e.g., Ayllon
plied behavior analysis is, however, & Azrin, 1964, 1965), the best known
difficult to gauge. Much of his research of which was on the token economy
was published after Ayllon's and (Ayllon & Azrin, 1968), now consid-
Wolf's, and was more analytic than in- ered "a landmark in the development
terventionist. As for whether Ayllon or of applied behavior analysis" (Kazdin,
Wolf may be said to have founded ap- 1978, p. 260; see Kazdin, 1977).
plied behavior analysis, the answer lies
beyond the scope of our paper. Their University of Washington:
contributions, though, serve as a base- Wolf et al. (1963-1967)
line against which to judge Skinner's Wolf's initial applications were
because they addressed, to a consider- made between 1962 and 1964 (see Bi-
SKINNER AND APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS 119
search meetings and professional con- havior analysis, applied behavior anal-
ferences (e.g., Laties, 2003; Mischel, ysis would not have emerged when it
2001). These influences notwithstand- did, in the form that it did, or perhaps
ing, Skinner's publications remain a be known by that name. What Skinner
standard basis for assessing his contri- provided was a style and content of a
butions and thus defensible as a basis science of behavior and its philosophy,
for our conclusion. some urging that they be applied, and
If Skinner did not originate or found likely the first applications. Through
applied behavior analysis, then we these contributions, his work was sem-
need to characterize his role different- inal to the field's founding.2
ly. For this, we draw on the distinction
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SKINNER AND APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS 123
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