Sales & Distribution Management

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Sales and Distribution Management

Subject: SALES AND DISTRIBUTION MANAGEMENT Credits: 4
SYLLABUS
An Introduction to Sales Management

Objectives and Scope of Personal Selling, Buyer Seller Dyad and Personal Selling Situation,
Theories of Personal Selling, Personal Selling Process, Mistakes in Sales
Sales Forecasting
Prospecting, Sales Resistance, Closing Sales, Types of Personal- Selling Objectives, Analyzing
Market Potential, Sales Forecasting Methods: Qualitative Methods, Quantitative Methods
Organization and Management of Sales Force

Functions of Salesperson, Qualities of Effective Sales Executive, Purpose of Sales Organization,
Setting up a Sales Organization, Types of Sales Organization Structure, Centralization Versus
Decentralization in Sales Force Management
Controlling the Sales Effort

Purpose of Sales Budget, Objective in Using Quotas, Procedure of Setting Quota, Limitations of
Quota System, Concept of Sales Territory, Need for Establishment and Revision, of Sales
Territory, Assignment of Sales Personnel to Territories, Importance of Customer Feedback By
Sales Personnel
Channels of Distribution and Strategy

Marketing Channel, Types of Intermediaries, Contemporary Channel Scenario in India,
Objective of Marketing Intermediaries, Function of Marketing Channel
Channel Design
Steps in Channel Design, Selection of Appropriate Channel, Channel Management, Channel
Motivation
Physical Distribution
Physical Distribution concepts and objective, Components of Physical Distribution,
Transportation, Warehousing, Impact of IT on Physical Distribution, Implication of Supply chain
Management in Physical Distribution
Suggested Reading:
1. Sales Management, Richant.R.Still, Edward.W .Gundiff and Norman.A.P.Govoni

Prentice Hall of India.
2. Sales Management: Analysis and Decision Making, Ingram, Cengage Learning.
3. Sales & Distribution Management, Krishna K.Havaldar and Vasant. M. Cavall, TMH.
4. Fundamentals of Sales Management, Ramneek Kapoor, Macmillan.
5. Management of a Sales Force, Spiro, Stanton and Rich, TMH.
6. Sales Management: In the Indian Perspective, Vaswar DasGupta, PHI.
SALES AND DISTRIBUTION MANAGEMENT
SALES AND DISTRIBUTION MANAGEMENT (MBA)
COURSE OVERVIEW
This course pack is designed to help students learn about sales

and distribution management concepts and how to apply them
to solve business problems.
Sales Management focuses on the activities of first line field
sales managers.
Modern Sales Management is a complex and disciplined mix of:
professional selling and negotiation skills, people and Manage-
ment skills ( including selection, motivation, Communicating
and training). The coverage of the course pack deals with these
topics in practical way. The importance of personal selling task
and feedback system has been discussed. Companies are facing
increasing competition, with threats to many traditional markets
and customer bases, as supply and purchase points in many
market segments become more concentrated. To tackle the
threats and capitalize on opportunities the modern sales
manager needs a far broader range of selling and managerial
skills and experience than in past decades.
In Distribution Management the channel design is discussed,
the different components of distribution like transportation,
Inventory, Warehousing has been covered.
Course pack will enable students to understand Supply chain
Management which has improved the efficiency in distribution.
i

CONTENT
Lesson No. Topic age No.
Lesson 1 Objective and Scope of Personal Selling 1

Lesson 2 Buyer Seller Dyad and Personal Selling Situations 5
Lesson 3 Theories of Personal Selling 9
Lesson 4 Personal Selling Process 15
Lesson 5 Prospecting, Objection Handling and Closing 19
Lesson 6 Sales Forecasting-I 23
Lesson 7 Sales Forecasting-II 29
Lesson 8 Functions of Salesperson 34

Lesson 9 Purpose of sales Organisation 40
Lesson 10 Types of Sales Organisation Structure 44
Lesson 11 Recruitment Process 51
Lesson 12 Selection Process 57

Lesson 13 Training Objective Training methods 65
Lesson 14 Theories of Motivation 74
Lesson 15 Devising Compensation 81
Lesson 16 Types of Compensation Plans, Fringe Benefits 87
Lesspn 17 Standards of Performance Qualitative, Quantitative 93
Lesson 19 Evaluation and Control Through Action and Supervision 105

Lesson 20 Purpose of Sales Budget 109
Lesson 21 Objective in Using Quotas 114
Lesson 22 Procedure of Setting Quota, Limitations of Quota System 120
Lesson 23 Concept of Sales Territory 125
Lesson 24 Need for Establishment and Revision of Sales Territory 129
Lesson 25 Assignment of Sales Personnel to Territories 136
Lesson 26 Importance of Customer Feedback by Sales Personnel 142
iv Lesson 18 Recording of Actual Performance 99

RBS SALES AND DISTRIBUTION MANAGEMENT 11.672.1
CONTENT
Unit No. Lesson No. Topic Page No.
Lesson 28 Robjective of Marketing Intermediaries 152
Lesson 29 Function of Marketing Channel 152
Lesson 30 Channel Design 158
Lesson 31 Selection of Appropriate Channels 166
Lesson 32 Channel Management 173
Lesson 33 Channel Motivation 179
Lesson 34 Physical Distribution concepts and objective 186

Lesson 35 Components of Physical Distribution 190
Lesson 36 Transportation 194
Lesson 37 Warehousing 197
Lesson 38 Impact of IT on Physical Distribution 200
Lesson 39 Implication of Supply Chain Management in Physical Distribution 204
v
UNIT 1
INTRODUCTION TO SALES MANAGEMENT
LESSON 1 UNIT 1
OBJECTIVE AND SCOPE OF
PERSONAL SELLING
Learning Objectives services backed up by supporting activities (help in doing

To know the broad objectives of sales management training dealer salesforce, local advertising, credit) and assurance
that products and services are wise investments in competitive
Definition of sales management
market place.
How a Sales executive acts as a coordinator
Society looks to them to assure delivery of goods & services
To know about personal selling
that final buyers want at price
In this lesson we will study about an overview of Sales
of increasing importance
Management.
Sales Managers today must develop an integrative manage- to market products whose potential for damaging the
ment style using adaptive, problem solving, extensive environment is minimal.
information, in many cases is an ever changing market place. If goods and services made and sold are needed and accepted
The overwhelming majority of business environment workers by buying public and if this products are socially responsible,
are service providers such as investment bankers, consultants, then it is likely that managements objectives will have been
and information technology specialists. Sales Mangers in the achieved. Ultimately, a businesss earnings depend upon, how
current business environment must have the ability to add well the interest of the firm, the final buyers and society are
value, which means functional expertise in sales and marketing blended. To the extent that these interests are in harmony, the
along with knowledge of industry. However managers must firm experiences Sales Volume, Net Profits and Business
also have the skills to lead, communicate, use changing tech- Growth.
nologies, build teams, motivate sales people, form strategic Sales Management as defined by
alliance with customers.
American Marketing Association is Planning, direction and
These are times of drastic corporate downsizing in which control of Personal selling including recruiting, selecting,
sales orgranisations are expected to do more with less. Many equipping assigning, routing,
internal and external changes in organizations have dictated the
Supervising, paying and motivating as these task apply to
need to conduct business differently.
personal Salesforce.
External business environment has experienced changing
Sales Managers are responsible for organizing the sales effort,
technology, globalization, more competition and more
both within and outside their Companies. Within the Com-
demanding and sophisticated customers.
pany the Sales Manager builds formal and informal
Internal changes have included greater emphasis on quality organizational structures that ensure effective communication
levels in product and service output, faster communication not only inside the sales department but in its relations with
channels and more educated, skilled employee base. other organizational units.
The relationship between sales people and customer is changing Outside the Company, Sales Manager serves as a key contact
faster than sales orders can be processed. Most remarkable is the with customers and other external publics and is responsible for
fact that it is customers who are driving change. They are asking building and maintaining an effective distribution network.
for, if not demanding better service from vendors. The shift
Sales Managers have still other responsibilities. They are
has radically changed the way selling is done. Companies are
responsible for participating in preparation of information
building relationships, improving technologies, processes and
critical to the making of key marketing decisions, such as those
systems along the way.
on budgeting quotas and territories. Sales Management helps
Sales Executive are professionals. The professional approach to respond proactively and effectively to customers, the key to
requires thorough analysis, market efficient personal selling winning business and processing orders during the pre-sales,
objectives, appropriate sales policies and personal selling order management and post shipment phases.
strategy.
Objectives of Sales Management
Sales Executives have responsibilities to their Organization, From the Company View point, there are three general objec-
Customer and Society. tives of Sales Management
Top Management holds them responsible for Sales Volume
1. Obtaining Sales Volume Contribution To Profits
2. Providing Profit Contribution Continuing growth
3. Continuing Business Growth Sales Executives, of course do not carry the full burden in the
Customers (most often, wholesalers, retailers or industrial effort to reach these objectives, but they make major contribu-
user) expect them to supply easily resalable products and
1
tions. Top Management has the final responsibility, because it is should have knowledge about production schedule. They
accountable for the success a failure of entire enterprise. should be able to provide the market with precise delivery of
Top Management delegates to Marketing Management, which materials. Further sales personnel should be aware of changes
then delegates to Sales in product features, quality styles so as to update the market
about the product.They in turn provide information about
Management, sufficient authority to achieve the tree general
customers want and demand to the production department .
objectives. In the process objectives are translated into more
This is because they are in direct contact with the customers.
specific goals.
Organisations need to add features to their product or con-
Top Management stantly improve quality in order to survive in the market.
Co-ordination with Human Resource
Marketing Management Sales Department works under lot of pressure. They experience
rapid changes due to constant development in market place.
They have to keep the objectives in mind and there are targets to
Sales Management be achieved. It is essential that there is constant motivation in
the department. Human Resource department need to provide
Objectives are broken down an restated as definite goals that the necessary facilities to the Sales Personnel. Adequate compen-
Company has chance of achieving. sation package keeping the interest of Sales Personnel is
prepared. Sales Personnel should be aware of these benefits.
Before goat setting Sales Executives provide estimate on market
and Sales potentials, the capabilities of sales force and middle- What is personal selling?
men. Once goals are finalized it is the Sales Executives who Personal selling involves oral conversations, either by telephone
guide and lead Sales Personnel and middlemen who play critical or face-to-face, between salespersons and prospective customers.
role in implementing selling plans. Contribution of personal selling
Sales Executives as Coordinator Salespeople generate revenue
Why is it necessary to coordinate sales activities with other Salespeople provide market research and customer feedback
departments ? Salespeople provide solutions to problems
Sales Executives have responsibilities to co-ordinate sales Salespeople provide expertise and serve as information
activities with other departments in the organization. This is resources
essential as the product/service which is the final output of any
Salespeople serve as advocates for the customer when
organization is to be ultimately sold by the Sales Personnel.
dealing with the selling organization
Higher ranking Sales Executives are those most concerned with
obtaining effective co-ordination, but Sales Executives at all The Four Sales Channels
organizational levels have some responsibility for coordinating. Over-the-counter selling: personal selling conducted in
Production Department retail and some wholesale locations in which customers
come to the seller place of business
Advertising Department Sales Department Field selling: sales presentations made at prospective
Human Resource Department
customers homes or businesses on a face-to-face basis
Telemarketing: promotional presentation involving the
Coordinating with Advertising use of the telephone on an outbound basis by salespeople
Synchronizing personal selling with advertising is important. or on an inbound basis by customers who initiate calls to
Advertising may prove uneconomic unless the sales force obtain information and place orders
capitalizes upon interest aroused. Personal Selling effort is Inside selling: performing the functions of field selling
wasted in explaining details that might be explained by but avoiding travel-related expenses by relying on phone,
advertising, but when sales personal and advertising use the mail, and electronic commerce to provide sales and product
same appeals, promotional impact is magnified. The timing service for customers on a continuing basis
and sequence with which different phases of personal selling
and advertising efforts are executed affect firms chances for Sales Management in the 21st Century
marketing success. Building long-term relationships with customers
Marketing Creating sales organizational structures that are more
nimble and adaptable
Gaining greater job ownership and commitment from
salespeople by removing functional barriers within the
Advertising Sales
organization
Co-ordination with Production Moving sales management style from commanding to
Selling should be coordinated with production. There should coaching
be stocks available to be sold in the market. Sales Personnel Leveraging available technology for sales success
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Better integrating salesperson performance evaluation to The core responsibilities

Some senior managers feel
include full range of activities and outcomes of senior management
there is no time to analyze
Personal selling which forms part of sales management will be a and understand the factors are to set strategy and
way to reach out to customers. affecting profitability. objectives, secure
resources, and maxi-
Questions mize profitability. It is
Q1. How do you define sales management? imperative that top managers have a deep enough knowledge
Q2. What are objectives of sales management? of profitability management to be able to communicate that
Q3. How a sales executive acts as a coordinator? wisdom to the sales force. It is futile to simply instruct the sales
force to produce the most profitable results.
Q4. What is personal selling?
Translate into business objectives: All companies have
business plans, but often these plans, which feature mainly
Annexure 1 company and market analysis, sets of programs, and numbers,
Jonathan Byrnes is a senior lecturer at MIT and president of are not adequate to guide a sales force.
Jonathan Byrnes & Co., a focused consulting company. He earned a The core questions that must be addressed every day by the
doctorate from Harvard Business School in 1980 sales reps and sales managers are who to call on and what each
by Jonathan Byrnes call needs to accomplish. A sales rep can accomplish a limited
You are what you sell. Sales is the front-wheel drive that pulls a number of things, such as increasing sales in an existing
company forward in the marketplace. But in many companies, account, changing a customers product mix, up-selling, cross-
top managers are frustrated because the sales process seems selling, obtaining a new customer, minimizing discounts,
disconnected from corporate objectives. This presents a serious minimizing returns, etc. Effective business plans must give
impediment to managements efforts to manage profitability guidance to the sales force about which objectives they should
effectively. pursue in given situations in order to produce the highest
payoffs. The sales reps cannot maximize everything.
Why does this occur so often, and what can managers do about
it? Effective business plans have three essential roles: first, to state
clearly the companys objectives; second, to specify new initia-
The process of transforming top managements goals into
tives, required resources, and expected results; and third, to
concrete sales typically breaks down for one or more of the
guide the day-to-day activities of the company toward maxi-
following reasons:
mum profitability. In most companies, the first objective is
Lack of top management clarity about objectives. usually met, the second is sometimes met, and the third is
Difficulty translating objectives into an operational often neglected. When this occurs, it causes the sales force to
business plan. become disconnected from profitability.
Vagueness communicating objectives and business plan to Communicate the business objectives: In some companies,
the sales force. business objectives and plans are simply not communicated to
Failure to align compensation with the objectives. the sales force. They are created by department heads or staff,
and shared only with upper- and middle-level managers.
Problematic individual sales plans and managerial coaching.
Sometimes business plans are considered confidential. This
Each of these can be remedied through thoughtful manage- causes the sales force to be disconnected.
ment.
There is a parable about three bricklayers who are asked what
A Five-step Remedy they are doing: the first replies, laying bricks, the second
In order to reconnect sales management to profitability, address replies, building a wall, and the third replies, building a
each of the points of breakdown. Managers can do this cathedral. In the absence of an understanding of business
through a five-step process. objectives that guide profitability maximization, the sales force
Understand profitability: A surprisingly frequent underlying is simply laying bricks. They never see the cathedral, and the
reason why the sales force does not succeed in maximizing company loses the inspired performance.
company profitability is that the senior managers themselves do In effective companies, the top managers communicate the
not have a clear understanding of the companys key profitabil- companys objectives to the sales force. If the objectives have
ity drivers. This makes it impossible for them to communicate changed, they explain the decision and why the new objectives
to the sales force clear, implementable objectives and systematic are good for the company, the customers, and the sales force.
procedures to accomplish them. They do not hand off to the head of sales the responsibility for
Some senior managers feel there is no time to analyze and this vital communication.
understand the factors affecting profitability, and to devise This direct communication creates two important benefits.
concrete measures to guide managers in their efforts to maxi- First, because most top managers have a deeper understanding
mize profits. This is a major error. of the factors that create profitability across the company, they
are able to communicate the nuances of how to maximize the
companys profitability in the everyday decision-making that is
3
the heart of the sales process, and they can communicate why get sales? How will I get sales? How will I meet my objectives
this is important to the sales force and the company. Second, and the companys objectives? How will I make money? Well-
the mere fact that the top managers personally communicate the specified account plans provide the basis for management
objectives to the sales force strongly underlines their commit- coaching. They also protect the company against losing sales in
ment to accomplishing these goals. By demonstrating that they the event of rep turnover.
have taken the time to understand and explain how to maxi- Heres an example of the power of effective account plans. The
mize profitability, these top managers display the body top management of a company had looked carefully at its
language that motivates the sales force. profitability and sales force productivity. It determined that the
Translate into a compensation plan: In some companies, highest-payoff sales objective was to turn around high
objectives are changed each year, or more frequently, with little or potential, under penetrated accounts that were clustered in areas
no change in the that minimized installation costs. However, the reps were
compensation plan. focused on increasing revenues in a vague way, and consequently
Every aspect of the account
There is an old spent inordinate amounts of time with easy or friendly
plans should be
saying that a person accounts, many of which were only marginally profitable to
measurable.
can understand a serve.
vision and can buy In order to increase
into the vision, but in the end will do what you pay him to do. A sales rep is most sales force productiv-
Conversely, if a person does not understand how to accomplish productive when focused ity, top management
the vision, it does not do a lot of good to tie her compensation on accomplishing the few devised a clear set of
things that really matter in
to its realization. The difficulty with tailoring an effective sales each sales call.
business plans to
compensation plan is that it requires a set of well-thought-out guide the reps in
business objectives that are specific enough to guide the sales account selection and
force every day. The sales force should be driven by the compen- managing their time. They helped the sales managers work with
sation plan. Work your pay plan is one of the central tenets the reps to identify the highest-potential underperforming
of sales management. Simply telling the sales reps to maximize accounts in each territory, and to create step-by-step account
profitability without giving them an understanding of how to plans to map the buying center and systematically position the
do this, and compensating them to do this, will render the company for the sale. Management understood that turning
compensation plan largely ineffective. around an account could be a three-month process, and set up
Sometimes, the sales force is asked to maximize many objec- milestones to monitor progress with compensation tied to
tives, or a set of objectives that cannot be simultaneously achieving specific milestones. Sales managers coached the reps
maximized. In these cases, the sales force defaults to the account-by-account, milestone-by-milestone.
simplest way to maximize their compensation. Sales compensa- The initiative was extremely effective, with sales increasing by
tion is so critical to a companys success that top management more than 30 percent in a number of target accounts within a
should directly review the plan. month. Top management had succeeded in reconnecting the
Create individual sales plans: In many companies, sales plans sales force to profitability.
for individual sales reps do not exist or are too vague. This is Top Gun Sales Managers
like writing a paper without taking the time to develop an Several years ago, the U.S. military developed Top Gun
effective outline. For example, a rep may simply plan to increase training programs to increase the effectiveness of fighter pilots.
revenues by a certain percent for a cluster of accounts. This is a These programs were based on the finding that, although
hope, not a plan. By contrast, an effective individual sales plan technology had improved considerably, many pilots were
must be specified at the account/product level, so the rep and becoming less effective. The problem was that these pilots were
sales manager can track progress and continuously improve the having difficulty with information overload. The best pilots had
reps performance. learned to focus on the few things that mattered most. Once
The building blocks for a tightly-connected sales force are three- the other pilots were taught what to focus on in specific
fold: 1) clear business plans, which include guidance on what to situations, their effectiveness skyrocketed.
do to maximize profitability in particular types of situations, In a similar way, top managers can reconnect their sales manage-
and which reflect top management clarity and commitment; 2) ment to profitability. A sales rep is most productive when
compensation that has been tailored to direct the sales reps to focused on accomplishing the few things that really matter in
meet the companys objectives; and 3) well-specified account each sales call. It is managements responsibility to identify
plans that will enable the reps to fulfill the business objectives those few things, and to tie compensation specifically to their
and allow the sales managers to monitor and coach the reps accomplishment. It is the reps responsibility to get the job
progress. These plans must be developed by the individual sales done.
reps, and include step-by-step, account-specific initiatives to
The biggest problem in sales force productivity is often that
obtain new accounts, to increase penetration in existing
management has not given the reps the necessary goal clarity
accounts, and to increase account profitability.
and focused compensation. This five-step process will ensure
Every aspect of the account plans should be measurable. They that top managers give the sales force what it needs to succeed,
should provide specific answers to the questions: Where will I in the process ensuring the success of the whole company.
4
LESSON 2
BUYER SELLER DYAD AND PERSONAL SELLING SITUATIONS
Learning objectives customers perception of what that behavior should be is a

To know about buyer seller dyads necessary condition for the continuation of dyadic interaction.4
know about the different personal selling situations. Another factor influencing buyer-seller dyadic interactions is the
buyers initial conditioning with respect to selling. Salespeople
To know the recent trends in selling.
have been maligned and the butt of nasty stories for genera-
Buyer Seller Dyad tions. People are taught from childhood to beware of the tricky
Let us Understand what is Buyer Seller Dyad? salesperson.
Fundamental to understanding salesmanship is recognition There are indications that salespeople, not as stereotyped, but as
that it involves buyer-seller interactions. Sociologists use the they actually perform, leave much to be desired in the impact
term dyad to describe a situation in which two people they make on customers. Studies of the attitudes of buyers and
interact. The salesperson and the prospect, interacting with each purchasing agents reveal that many are critical of the
other, constitute one example of a buyer-seller dyad. Another salespersons lack of product knowledge, failure to follow up,
is the interaction of a seller using advertising with a particular general unreliability, slavish adherence to canned presenta-
prospect in the reading, listening, or viewing audience. In both tions, blatant use of flattery, bad manners, commercial
advertising and personal selling, the seller seeks to motivate the dishonesty, and so forth.
prospective buyer to behave favorably toward the seller. The Buyer-Seller Dyad
Whether or not the buyer reacts as the seller desires depends
Good communication is a key to successful marketing, and it is
upon the nature of the interaction. The opportunity for
particularly important for positive personal selling results. The
interaction is less in the advertising case than in personal selling.
buyer-seller dyad is flexible and efficient, closes sales, and
However, advertising and personal selling often supplement or
provides feedback.
support each other, and the buyer reacts to their combined
impact. 1. Salesperson determines consumer needs.
Franklin Evans researched buyer-seller dyads in the life insurance

2. Salesperson presents information Consumer
business. Prospects who bought insurance knew more about Salesperson
and answers consumer questions.
salespersons and their companies, and felt more positively 3. Salesperson and consumer
toward them, than did prospects who did not buy, Further- conclude transactions.
more, the more alike salespersons and their prospects were, the
greater was the likelihood that a sale would result. This was true Salesperson-customer
Relationship
for physical characteristics (age, height), other objective factors
(income, religion, education), and variables that relate to Salesperson
Customer
personality factors (politics, smoking). 3

Evans findings have significance for sales management. Role Requirements Personal Personal Role Requirements
& characteristics Characteristics Characteristics & characteristics
Whenever possible, sales personnel should be assigned to Personal affiliation
prospects whose characteristics are similar to their own, thus
improving the chance of successful dyadic relationships. Pairing
salespersons with customers of similar backgrounds is more
easily accomplished in industrial selling, where there are fewer
prospects about whom information is needed, than in con- Needs and Expectations Adjustment Needs and Expectations
sumer-goods selling, where the number of prospects and

customers per salesperson is much larger.
Choice of Strategy Choice of Strategy
Henry Tosi studied dyads of wholesale drug salespeople and
retail pharmacists who made buying decisions. When the buyer
Negotiation
perceived the salespersons performance to be similar to his or
her concept of ideal performance, the number of sources Adapt Adapt
from which purchases were made was low. Although this did
not necessarily result in a larger percentage of purchases from Exchange
the salesperson, customer satisfaction with the salespersons
behavior did at least allow the salesperson to get into the store.
Tosi concluded that, in addition to the physical characteristics Stop
and personality and objective factors cited by Evans, the

Conceptual model of Salesperson Buyer Dyadic Relationship
5
Figure in the last page is a conceptual model of salesperson- 4. Missionary aims only to build goodwill or to educate the
buyer dyadic relationships. This model, developed after an actual or potential user, and is not expected to take an
extensive literature search, views the sales process as being order; for example, the distillers missionary and the
influenced by both salesperson and buyer, each a focal person pharmaceutical companys detail person.
influenced by personal characteristics and role requirements. 5. Technical Salesperson emphasizes technical knowledge;
Personal characteristic include personality, values, attitudes, past for example the engineering salesperson, who is primarily a
experiences, and the like. Role set requirements (for example, consultant to client companies.
formal authority and organizational autonomy) interact with
personal characteristic to shape needs and expectations. Focal Group B (developmental Selling)
persons perceptions of each others needs may lead to adjust- 6. Creative Salesperson of Tangibles for example,
ments of their own (see the feedback mechanism represented salespersons selling vacuum cleaners, automobiles, siding,
by the broken lines in Figure 2.1). and encyclopedia.
Based on individual needs and expectations, each focal person 7. Creative Salesperson of Intangibles for example.
develops a strategy aimed to negotiate a favorable exchange. Salespersons selling insurance, advertising services, and
That strategy may embrace persuasion, ingratiation, communi- educational programs.
cation of facts or offers, friendship, and other elements. If the The more developmental selling required in a particular sales job
strategies are compatible, an exchange takes place. Otherwise, the and the more complex it is, the harder it is to make sales. The
salesperson and the buyer may stop interacting, or based on amount and kind of developmental selling depends upon the
feedback from the unsuccessful negotiation, either or both may natures of prospects and customers, on the one hand, and the
adapt by altering strategy, attempting to adjust needs and nature of products, on the other hand. The easiest sales are self-
expectations, or modifying role requirements. Role require- service sales: customers know their needs, know the products
ments, as well as needs and expectations, often are determined capable of satisfying these needs, sell themselves, and go
by forces beyond the focal persons control, so one or both may through the checkout line. The most difficult sales require
find it impossible to adapt. For instance, to meet a buyers developmental selling and creativity where sometimes the
expectations, a salesperson may need to set prices, yet this may sales must be made on something other than the products
be against company policy and beyond the salespersons control. merit, or multiple sales are necessary to get the order, and
When the particular round of negotiations is terminated where continual effort is required to keep the account.
regardless of its outcome, the experience becomes input into
Recent Trends In Selling
future interactions of the salesperson
Let us see what are the recent trends in selling to understand
Diversity of Personal-selling Situations selling in present environment.
Considerable diversity exists among personal-selling situations,
Relationship selling
and it is helpful to distinguish between service and develop-
Regular contacts over an extended period to establish a sus-
mental selling. Service selling aims to obtain sales from existing
tained seller-buyer relationship. The success of tomorrows
customers whose habits and patterns of thought are already
marketers depends on the relationships that they build today
conducive to such sales. Developmental selling aims to convert
Relationships are built upon trust.
prospects into customers. Developmental selling, in other
words, seeks to create customers out of people who do not According to Stephen X. Doyle and George Thomas Roth
currently view the salespersons company favorably, and who (Selling and Sales Management in Action: The Use of insight
likely are resistant to changing present sources of supply. & Coaching to improve Relationship Selling, Journal of
Personal Selling & Sales Management, Winter 1992, p. 62) there
Different sales positions require difference amounts and kinds
are five characteristics of trust-building in salespeople.
of service and developmental selling. McMurry and Arnold
classify positions on a spectrum ranging from the very simple to Customer Orientation means that the salesperson places as
the highly complex. They categorize sales positions into three much emphasis on the customers interests as on the
mutually exclusive groups each containing subgroups, a total of salespersons interests. Presentations balance the pros and cons.
nine subgroups in all: The salesperson doesnt push a product that the buyer doesnt
need.
Group A (service Selling)
Competence includes the salespersons ability, knowledge, and
1. Inside Order Taker waits on customers; for example, resources to meet customer expectations. The salesperson
the sales clerk behind the neckwear counter in a mens store. displays technical command of products and applications.
These jobs are known as technical support staff, sales
assistants, telemarketers, and telesales professionals. Dependability is the predictability of the salespersons actions.
His or her words and actions are consistent with a professional
2. Delivery Salesperson mainly engages in delivering the image.
product; for example, persons delivering milk, bread, or
fuel oil. Candor is the honesty of the spoken word. The proof used to
support claims is credible. Subsequent events prove the
3. Route or Merchandising Salesperson operates as an order
salespersons statements to be true.
taker but works in the field the soap or spice salesperson
calling on retailers is typical.
6
Likability is rooted in each partys perception of having personal interests, competition, etc. Online access to the

something in common with the other. This is an emotional companys customer and prospect database gives the salesper-
factor, yet a powerful force in buyer and seller relationships. son the ability (and the responsibility) to update files from the
field. In some cases, it makes sense to create a dedicated (and
Consultative Selling
more manageable) sales database for a special initiative, product,
Meeting customer needs by listing to them, understanding
or region. Salespeople become intelligence agents in the field
and caring about their problems, paying attention to details,
when they feed that information directly into the data resources
and following through after the sale
shared by the rest of the sales force and the company at large.
Team Selling
Combination of salespeople with specialists from other
Conclusion
We here studied that buyer seller dyad is face to face conversa-
functional areas to promote a product. Team selling is the use
tion between a buyer and a seller. Understanding the
of teams made up of people from different functional areas to
importance is important as it helps in selling process. We also
service large accounts.. Increasingly, sales representatives who
studied that there are different types of personal selling
lack technical expertise work as a team with a technical expert. In
situations. The personal selling in todays business environment
this arrangement, the duties of a sales representative are to
is taking a new shape with emphasis on team selling, sales force
make the preliminary contact with customers, introduce the
automation, relationship selling.
companys product, and close the sale. The technical expert will
attend the sales presentation to explain and answer questions Questions
and concerns. In this way, the sales representative is able to Q1. Why is it necessary to understand buyer seller dyad?
spend more time maintaining and soliciting accounts and less
Q2. What are the different personal selling situations?
time acquiring technical knowledge. After the sale, sales repre-
sentatives may make frequent follow-up visits to ensure the Q3. What do you mean by Team selling?
equipment is functioning properly and may even help train Q4. Why is relationship selling important?
customers employees to operate and maintain new equipment. Q5. What do you mean by sales force automation?
Useful in sales situations that call for detailed knowledge of
new, complex, and ever-changing technologies
Sales Force Automation (SFA)
Applications of computer and other technologies to make the
sales function more efficient and competitive
Many salespeople need to go to the prospective customer in
order to demonstrate or illustrate the particulars about the
product. Technology makes salespeople more effective and
productive because it allows them to provide accurate and
current information to customers during sales presentations.
Sales automation (also known as customer asset management
and total customer management) implies that technology can
be used to speed up previously inefficient operations. The
Internet and related technology have affected the personal
selling process. Product information on Web sites is available to
customers and prospects. In the past, salespeople delivered this
information to the customer. The Internet frees salespeople to
focus on the most important aspects of their job (such as
building long-term relationships with customers and focusing
on new accounts). Information is shared among users in every
department that touches the customer. Also, information
sharing promotes more effective channel partnership.
Salespeople use computers (with communications devices,
contact management programs, and email) to connect them
(over the Internet) to their own companys databases when they
are out on sales calls. This gives them with the ability to provide
the customer with extensive, relevant information almost
immediately. Salespeople have access to current, relevant
marketing materials, including data sheets, brochures, multime-
dia presentations, and proposal templates, online or via
CD-ROM.
Salespeople have access to dossiers on prospects, customer and
prospect companies, perceptions, loyalties and buying histories,
7
Points to Ponder
The Buyer -Seller Dyad

RECENT TRENDS IN SELLING
Good communication is a key to successful marketing, and it is p articularly important for positive
personal selling results. The buyer
buyer--seller dyadis
dyad flexible and efficient, closes sales, and provides
feedback.
Relationship selling
Team selling
Sales force automation
1. Salesperson determines consumer needs.
2. Salesperson presents information

and answers consumer questions. Consumer
S alesperson
3. Salesperson and consumer

conclude transactions.
Ehical Dilemma
You are a sales manager of a highly successful firm that
produces bricks for home and office builders . The territorys
top seller , Mr. singh is leaving for a month on a Vacation .You
know that for the past three weeks Mr. Singh has worked
relentlessly with one particular home builder Raheja s in an
attempt t sell bricks for building purpose. Such a sale would
DIVERSITY OF PERSONAL- have netted Mr. Singh a healthy Rs.20,000 commission
SELLING SITUATIONS Despite Mr. singhs successful closing of more than 40 sales last
month he was never able to close this particular sale even after
meeting and negotiating with Rahejas several time , who kept
Inside Order Taker insisting of better deal.
Delivery Salesperson Yesterday Mr. Singh left on his vacation . Early this morning
Route or Merchandising Salesperson one of your newest hires , Vinod received a call from Rahejas
wanting to purchase the bricks at the price Mr. Singh had
Missionary selling negotiated before his departure.Since Mr. Singh cannot be
Technical Salesperson accessed Vinod was forced to handle the one hour of paper
Creative Salesperson of Tangibles work in order to finalise the deal.
Later that afternoon while reviewing the papers Vinod had
Creative Salesperson of Intangibles
completed and kept on your desk you notice that in the blank
marked salesperson Vinod had written his own name. The
name of the individual who is in this blank will receive Rs.
20,000 check. Thinking that Vinod has simply made a mistake
you call him in your office to correct the error. However you
soon find out that Vinod had purposely written his own name.
He explained I made the sale . I wrote up the client , placed
the order and used my own selling time to do it. In fact he was
never actually able to make the sale when he was here. He was
not even in the town when customers finally decided to place
the order. He did not work with the customer at all todayhe
is on vacation ! I did. I deserve the credit for sale. You know
Mr. singh is struggling to make his sales quota.
What do you do?
8
LESSON 3
THEORIES OF PERSONAL SELLING
Learning Objectives there is little doubt that the construct is based upon experiential
To learn about the different theories of selling : knowledge and, in fact, was in existence as early as 1898. During
AIDAS theory of personal selling the successful selling interview, according to this theory, the
prospects mind passes through five successive mental states:
Right Set Of Circumstances Theory Of Selling
attention, interest, desire, action, and satisfaction. Implicit in
Buying Formula Theory Of Selling this theory is the notion that the prospect goes through these
Behavioral Equation Theory five stages consciously, so the sales presentation must lead the
Is selling An Art or a Science? prospect through them in the right sequence if a sale is to
result.
Let us see what is it
Is selling a science with easily taught basic concepts or an art Securing Attention
learned through experience? In a survey of 173 marketing The goal is to put the prospect into a receptive state of mind.
executives, 46 percent perceived selling as an art, 8 percent as a The first few minutes of the interview are crucial. The salesper-
science, and 46 percent as an art evolving into a science.9 The fact son has to have a reason, or an excuse, for conducting the
that selling is considered an art by some and a science by others interview. If the salesperson previously has made an appoint-
has produced two contrasting approaches to the theory of ment, this phase presents no problem, but experienced sales
selling. personnel say that even with an appointment, as salesperson
must possess considerable mental alertness, and be a skilled
The first approach distilled the experiences of successful
conversationalist, to survive the start of the interview. The
salespeople and, to a lesser extent, advertising professionals.
prospects guard is naturally up, since he or she realizes that the
Many such persons, of course, succeeded because of their grasp
caller is bent on selling something. The salesperson must
of practical, or learned-through-experience psychology and their
establish good rapport at once. The salesperson needs an ample
ability to apply it in sales situations. It is not too surprising that
supply of conversation openers. Favorable first impressions
these selling theories emphasize the what to do and how to
are assured by, among other things, proper attire, neatness,
do rather than the why. These theories, based on experien-
friendliness, and a genuine smile. Skilled sales personnel often
tial knowledge accumulated from years of living in the market
decide upon conversation openers just before the interview so
rather than on a systematic, fundamental body of knowledge,
that those chosen are as timely as possible. Generally it is
are subject to Howards dictum, Experiential knowledge can be
advantageous if the openings remarks are about the prospect
unreliable.10
(people like to talk and hear about themselves) or if they are
The second approach borrowed findings from the behavioral favorable comments about the prospects business. A good
sciences. The late E.K. Strong, Jr. professor of psychology at conversation opener causes the prospect to relax and sets the
the Stanford Graduate School of Business, was a pioneer in this stage for the total presentation. Conversation openers that
effort, and his buying formula theory is presented later in this cannot be readily tied in with the remainder of the presentation
section. John A. Howard of the Columbia Graduate School of should be avoided, for once the conversation starts to wander,
Business was in the forefront of those who adapted the great skill is required to return to the main theme.
findings of behavioral science to analysis of buying behavior;
his behavioral equation, discussed later in this section, Gaining Interest
attempts to develop a unified theory of buying and selling. The second goal is to intensify the prospects attention so that it
evolves into strong interest. Many techniques are used to gain
Theories of Selling 8
interest. Some salespeople develop a contagious enthusiasm for
In this section we examine four theories. The first two, the the product or a sample. When the product is bulky or technical,
AIDAS theory and the right set of circumstances theory, sales portfolios, flipcharts, or other visual aids serve the same
are seller oriented. The third, the buying-formula theory of purpose.
selling, is buyer oriented. The fourth, the behavioral equation,
Throughout the interest phase, the hope is to search out the
emphasizes the buyers decision process but also takes the
selling appeal that is most likely to be effective. Sometimes, the
salespersons influence process into account.
prospect drops hints, which the salesperson then uses in
AIDAS Theory of Selling selecting the best approach. To encourage hints by the prospect,
This theory popularly known as the AIDAS theory, after the some salesperson devise stratagems to elicit revealing questions.
initials of the five words used to express it (attention, interest, Others ask the prospect questions designed to clarify attitudes
desire, action, and satisfaction) is the basis for many sales and and feelings toward the product. The more experienced the
advertising texts and is the skeleton around which many sales salesperson, the more he or she has learned from interviews
training programs are organized. Some support for this theory with similar prospects. But even experienced sales personnel do
is found in the psychological writings of William James, but considerable probing, usually of the question-and-answer
9
variety, before identifying the strongest appeal. In additional, had its psychological origin in experiments with animals and
prospects interests are affected by basic motivations, closeness holds that the particular circumstances prevailing in a given
of the interview subject to current problems, its timeliness, and selling situation cause the prospect to respond in a predictable
their mood receptive, skeptical, or hostile and the salesper- way. If the salesperson succeeds in securing the attention and
son must take all these into account in selecting the appeal to gaining the interest of the prospect, and if the salesperson
emphasize. presents the proper stimuli or appeals, the desired response
(that is, the sale) will result.
Kindling Desire
The third goal is to kindle the prospects desire to ready-to-buy The set of circumstances, included factors external and internal
point. The salesperson must keep the conversation running to the prospect. To use a simplified example, suppose that the
along the main line toward the sale. The development of sales salesperson says to the prospect, Lets go out for a cup of
obstacles, the prospects objections, external interruptions, and coffee. The salesperson and the remark are external factors. But
digressive remarks can sidetrack the presentation during this at least four factors internal to the prospect affect the response.
phase. Obstacles must be faced and ways found to get around These are the presence or absence of desires: (1) to have a cup
them. Objections need answering to the prospects satisfaction. of coffee, (2) to have it now, (3) to go out, and (4) to go out
Time is saved, and the chances of making a sale improved if with the salesperson.
objections are anticipated and answered before the prospect Proponents of this theory tend to stress external factors and at
raises them. External interruptions cause breaks in the presenta- the expense of internal factors. They seek selling appeals that
tion, and when conversation resumes, good salespeople evoke desired responses. Sales personnel who try to apply the
summarize what has been said earlier before continuing. theory experience difficulties traceable to internal factors in many
Digressive remarks generally should be disposed of tactfully, selling situations, but the internal factors are not readily
with finesse, but sometimes distracting digression is best manipulated. This is a seller-oriented theory: it stresses the
handled bluntly, for example, Well, thats all very interesting, importance of the salesperson controlling the situation, does
but to get back to the subject not handle the problem of influencing factors internal to the
SATISFACTION project, and fails to assign appropriate weight to the response
side of the situation-response interaction.
ACTIONS
DESIRE
Buying Formula Theory of Selling
In contrast to the two previous theories, the third emphasizes
INTEREST
the buyers side of the buyer-seller dyad. The buyers needs or
ATTENTION problems receive major attention, and the salespersons role is
to help the buyer find solutions. This theory purports to
Inducing Actions
answer the question: What thinking process goes on in the
If the presentation has been perfect, the prospect is ready to act-
prospects mind that causes the decision to buy or not to buy?
that is, to buy. However, buying is not automatic and, as a rule,
must be induced. Experienced sales personnel rarely try for a The buying formula is schematic representation of a group of
close until they are positive that the prospect is fully convinced responses, arranged in psychological sequence. The buying
of the merits of the proposition. Thus, it is up to the salesper- formula theory emphasizes the prospects responses (which, of
son to sense when the time is right. The trial close, the close on course, are strongly influenced by internal factors) and
a minor point, and the trick close are used to test the prospects deemphasizes the external factors, on the assumption that the
reactions. Some sales personnel never ask for a definite yes or salesperson, being naturally conscious of the external factors,
no for fear of getting a no, from which they think there is will not overlook them. Since the salespersons normal inclina-
no retreat. But it is better to ask for the order straightforwardly. tion is to neglect the internal factors, the formula is a convenient
Most prospects find it is easier to slide away from hints than way to help the salesperson remember.
from frank requests for an order. The origin of this theory is obscure, but recognizable versions
appear in a number of early books on advertising and selling by
Building Satisfaction
authors who had experiential knowledge of salesmanship. 13
After the customer has given the order, the salesperson should
Several psychologists also advanced explanations similar to the
reassure the customer that the decision was correct. The
buying formula.14 The name buying formula was given to this
customer should be left with the impression that the salesper-
theory by the late E.K. Strong, Jr., and the following step-by-
son merely helped in deciding. Building satisfaction means
step explanation is adapted from his teaching and writings.15
thanking the customer for the order, and attending to such
matters as making certain that the order is filled as written, and Reduced to their simples elements, the mental processes
following up on promises made. The order is the climax of the involved in a purchase are
selling situation, so the possibility of an anticlimax should be need (or problem) solution purchase
avoided customers sometimes unsell themselves and the Because the outcome of a purchase effects the chance that a
salesperson should not linger too long. continuing relationship will develop between the buyer and the
Right Set of Circumstances Theory Of Selling seller, and because nearly all sales organizations are interested in
Everything was right for that sale sums up the second theory. continuing relationships, it is necessary to add a fourth element.
This theory, sometimes called the situation-response theory, The four elements then, are
10
need (or problem) solution purchase satisfaction The answer to each selling problem is implied in the buying

Whenever a need is felt, or a problem recognized, the individual formula, and differences among answers are differences in
is conscious of a deficiency of satisfaction. In the world of emphasis upon the elements in the formula.
selling and buying, the solution will always be a product or Where the emphasis should be placed depends upon a variety
service or both, and they will belong to a potential seller. of circumstances. Without going into detail, it may be said that
In purchasing, then, the element solution involves two parts: 1. If the prospect does not feel a need or recognize a problem
(1) product (and/or service) and (2) trade name (name of that can be satisfied by the product or service, the need or
manufacturer, company, or sales-person). problem should be emphasized.
In buying anything, the purchaser proceeds mentally from need 2. If the prospect does not think of the product or service
or problem to product or service, to trade name, to purchase, when he or she feels the need or recognizes the problem,
and, upon using the product or service, he or she experiences the association between need or problem and product or
has been established, the buying formula is: service should be emphasized.
need or product and/or trade name purchase satisfaction/ 3. If the prospect does not think of the trade name when he
problem service dissatisfaction or she thinks of the product or service, the association
between product or service and trade name should be
To ensure purchase, the product or service and the trade name
emphasized.
(that is, the source of supply) must be considered adequate, and
the buyer must experience a (pleasant) feeling of anticipated 4. If need or problem, product or service, and trade name are
satisfaction when thinking of the product and/or service and well associated, emphasis should be put upon facilitating
the trade name. in many cases, an item viewed as adequate is purchase and use.
also liked, and vice versa, but this is not always so. Some 5. If competition is felt, emphasis should be put upon
products and services that are quite adequate are not liked, and establishing in the prospects minds the adequacy of the
some things are liked and bought that are admittedly not as trade-named product or service, and pleasant feelings
good as competing items. Similar reasoning applier trade toward it.
names. Some sources of supply are both adequate and liked, 6. If sales to new prospects are desired, every element in the
others are adequate but not liked, still others are liked but formula should be presented.
patronized even though they are inadequate compared to
7. If more sales to old customers are desired, the latter
competing sources.
should be reminded. (Developing new uses is comparable
With adequately and pleasant feelings included, the buying to selling to new customers.)
formula becomes
Behavioral Equation Theory
Adequacy Adequacy Using a stimulus-response model (a sophisticated version of
the right set of circumstances theory), and incorporating
need or product and/or trade name purchase satisfaction findings from behavioral research, J.A. Howard explains buying
problem service
behavior in term of the purchasing decision process, viewed as
Pleasant feelings Pleasant feelings
phase of the learning process.
Four essential elements of the learning process included in the
When a buying habit is being established, the buyer must know stimulus-response model are drive, cue, response, and reinforce-
why the product or service is an adequate solution to need or ment, described as follows:
problem, and why the trade name is the best one to buy. The
buyers also must have a pleasant feeling toward the product or 1. Drives are strong internal stimuli that impel the buyers
service and the trade name. response. There are two kinds:
Then, whenever the buyers buying habit is challenged by a a. Innate drives stem from the physiological needs, such
friends remark, a competing salespersons presentation, or a as hunger, thirst, pain, cold, and sex.
competitors advertisement, the buyer needs reasons to defend b. Learned drives, such as striving for status or social
the purchase, and, in addition, he or she needs a pleasant feeling approval, are acquired when paired with the satisfying
toward both the product or service and the trade name. All this of innate drives. They are elaborations of the innate
is represented by the dashed lines in the formula. drives, serving as a faade behind which the functioning
of the innate drives is hidden. Insofar as marketing is
The primary elements in a well-established buying habit are
concerned, the learned drives are dominant in
those connected by solid lines, on the central line of the
economically advanced societies.
formula. Most purchases are made with scarcely a thought as to
why, and with a minimum of feeling. And it should be the 2. Cues are weak stimuli that determine when the buyer will
constant aim of the salesperson and advertiser to form such respond.
direct associations. Reasons (adequacy of solution) and pleasant a. Triggering cues activate the decision process for any
feelings constitute the elements of defense in the buying habit. given purchase.
As long as they are present, repeat buying occurs. b. Nontriggering cues influence the decision process but
do not active it, and may operate at any time even
11
though the buyer is not contemplating a purchase. wishes to sell a product and the buyer wishes to buy itthese
There are two kinds: are the economic features. Each participant also places a value
i. Product cues are external stimuli received from the and cost upon the social features. Behavior concerning these
product directly, for example, color of the package, features of the relationship consist of sentiments, or expres-
weight, or price. sions of different degrees of liking or social approval.
Salesperson attempt to receive rewards (reinforcements) either in
ii. Informational cues are external stimuli that provide
sentiment or economic by changing their own behavior or
information of a symbolic nature about the product.
getting buyers to change theirs.
Such stimuli may come from advertising, conversations
with other people (including sales personnel), and so Salespersons influence process: The process by which the
on. salesperson influence the buyer is explainable in terms of the
equation B = P x D x K x V. The salesperson influences P
c. Specific product and information cues may also
(predisposition) directly, for example, through interacting with
function as triggering cues. This may happen when
the buyer in ways rewarding to the buyer. The greatest effect on
price triggers the buyers decision.
P, however, comes from using the product. The salesperson
3. Response is what the buyer does. exerts influence through D (amount of motivation), this
4. A reinforcement is any even that strengthness the buyers influence being strong when the buyer seeks information in
tendency to make a particular response. terms of international cues. If the ends to be served are not
Howard incorporates these four elements into an equation: clearly defined, by helping to clarify these, the buyers goals, the
salesperson again exerts influence through D. When the buyer
B=PxDxKxV
has stopped learningwhen the buyers buying behavior
where becomes automaticthe salesperson influence D by providing
B = response or the internal response tendency, that is, the act triggering cues. When the buyer has narrowed down the choices
of purchasing a brand or patrionizing a supplier to a few sellers, the salesperson, by communicating the merits
P = predisposition or the inward response tendency, that is, of the company brand, can cause it to appear relatively better,
force of habit and thus affect K (its potential satisfaction for the buyer).
Finally, the salesperson can vary the intensity of his or her effort,
D =present drive level (amounts of motivation)
so making the difference in V (the intensity of all cues).
K =incentive potential that is, the value of the product or its
Salespersons role in reducing buyer dissonance: According
potential satisfaction to the buyer
to Festingers theory of congnitive dissonance, when individuals
V = intensity of all cues: triggering, product, or informational choose between two or more alternatives, anxiety or dissonance
The relation among the variables is multiplicative. Thus, if any will almost always occur because the decisions, people expose
independent variable has a zero value, B will also be zero and themselves to information that they perceive as likely to support
there is no response. No matter how much P there may be, for their choices, and to avoid information likely to favor rejected
example, if the individual is unmotivated (D = 0), there is no alternatives.
response. Although Festinger evidently meant his theory to apply only to
Each time there is a responsea purchasein which satisfac- postdecision anxiety, it seems reasonable that it should hold for
tion (K) is sufficient to yield a reward, predisposition (P) predecision anxiety. Hauk, for instance, writes that a buyer may
increases in value. In other words, when the satisfaction yields a panic on reaching the point of decision and rush into the
reward, reinforcement occurs, and, technically, what is reinforced purchase as an escape from the problem or put it off because of
is the tendency to make a response in the future to the cue that the difficulty of deciding. It seems, then, that a buyer can
immediately preceded the rewarded response. After reinforce- experience either predecision or postdecision dissonnsce, or
ment, the probability increases that the buyer will buy the both.
product (or patronize the supplier) the next time the cue Reducing pre- and predecision anxiety or dissonance is an
appearsin other words, the buyer has learned. important function of the salesperson. Recognizing that the
Buyer-seller dyad and reinforcement: In the interactions of a buyers dissonance varies both according to whether the product
salesperson and a buyer, each can display a type of behavior that is an established or a new one, and whether the salesperson-
is rewarding, that is reinforcing, to the other. The salesperson client relationship is ongoing or new, these are four types of
provides the buyer with a product (and the necessary informa- cases involving the salespersons role.
tion about it and its uses) that the buyer needs; this satisfaction 1. An established productan ongoing salesperson-client
of the need is rewarding to the buyer, who, in turn, can reward relationship. Unless the market is unstable, the buyer tends
the salesperson by buying the product. Each can also reward the toward automatic response behavior, in which no learning is
other by another type of behavior, that of providing social involved and thus experiences little, if any, dissonance; but
approval. The salesperson gives social approval to a buyer by insofar as it does occur, the salesperson is effective because the
displaying high regard with friendly greetings, warm conversa- salesperson is trusted by the buyer.
tion, praise, and the like.
2. An established producta new salesperson-client
In understanding the salesperson-client relation, it is helpful to relationship. The salesperson, being new, is less effective in
separate economic aspects from social features. The salesperson reducing dissonance.
12
3. A new productan ongoing salesperson-client relation- Points to Ponder

ship. Unless the buyer generalizes from personal experience
with an established similar product, the buyer experiences
dissonance, especially if it is an important product. Because of AIDAS theory of selling
the established relationship with the buyer, the salesperson can
reduce dissonance. Securing attention
4. A new producta new salesperson-client relationship. Gaining interest
The buyer needs dissonance reduction, and the sales, and the Kindling desire
salesperson is less capable of providing it.
Inducing actions
How can a salesperson facilitate the buyers dissonance reduc-
tion? Two ways are (1) to emphasize the advantages of the Building satisfaction
product purchased, while stressing the disadvantages of the
forgone alternatives, and (2) to show that many characteristics
of the chosen item are similar to products the buyer has
forgone, but which are approved by the reference groups. In
other words, the buyer experiencing cognitive dissonance needs
reassuring that the decision is or was a wise one; the salesperson
provides information that permits the buyer to rationalize the
decision
Notes -
Right set of circumstances

theory of selling
13
Question
Q1 What is AIDAS theory of selling?

Q2 How important is AIDAS theory in personal selling?
Buying formula Q3 What is Buying formula of theory of selling ?
theory of selling Q4 When you are a customer do you experience a similar

process as given in Buying fformula theory?
Behavioral Equation Theory
B=PxDxKxV
14
LESSON 4
PERSONAL SELLING PROCESS
Learning Objectives 2. Pre approach: once the prospect has been identified and
To understand about the steps in personal selling process. qualified the next step in selling process is pre approach.
During pre approach the sales person is gathering information
To know the mistakes that can be done in sales.
to use in the attempt to make the sale. Salesperson investigates
Personal Selling Process the prospect in greater depth and plans the sales call. Pre
Certainly no magical formula exists for making a sales. Many approach is planning the sales presentation to meet the
different factors may influence a purchase decision.Yet most customers wants or to solve the customers problem. It
sales trainers believe logical , sequential steps do exists that , if involves gathering research about the prospect. The salesperson
followed can greatly improve the chance of making a sale. This must determine where the specific target market consumer is in
is called a sales process. This sequential series of actions by sales the purchasing process. In the approach, the salesperson meets
person leads to customer taking a desired action and ends with and greets the buyer and puts the buyer at ease. At this
a follow up to ensure purchase satisfaction. meeting, the salesperson asks some key questions to get some
There is a certain way in which sales person needs to attend his essential information before getting the buyers attention and
function. It involves few steps. A sales person need not follow launching into the presentation.
all steps .Depending on his nature of job he goes about the Sales persons should carefully plan their sales call . Although
personal selling process. numerous reasons exists for planning the sales call , four of the
Steps in Personal Selling Process most frequently mentioned are
The personal selling process consists of creating new customers Helps build a salesperson confidence
and maintaining existing customers. Salespeople follow a series Develop an atmosphere of goodwill and trust with the
of steps in identifying prospects and turning them into buyer
customers.
Help create an image of professionalism
1. Prospecting: is identifying potential qualified customers. It is
Increase sales because people are prepared.
the first step in personal selling process. A prospect is a person
or business that needs the product a salesperson is selling and 3. Presentation: the sales opener , or approach , is the first
has the ability to buy it.A sales person constantly looks for new major part of sales presentation If done correctly , it greatly
prospects for two reasons. One is to increase sales. The other is improves the chances of a sales persons chances of getting the
to replace the customers who will be lost over time. sale. Purpose of presentation is to provide knowledge about
the features , advantages and benefits of the product . Telling
Prospects may come as referrals from existing customers, from
the product story to the prospect, showing how the product
suppliers, dealers, etc. Sometimes they come from analysis of
will solve a problem for the product. The salesperson must
public sources such as directories, newspapers, or public
build a case for how the product can serve the needs of the
activities of the firm. Once prospects have been identified, they
buyer. A need-satisfaction approach involves carefully listening
need to be qualified or screened to see if they are good pros-
to the buyers needs and then clearly explaining how the product
pects.
can satisfy those needs. Questioning and listening are more
important than talking. Presentations using Microsofts
The Sales Cycle PowerPoint significantly enhance the professionalism of the
presentation.
Appointment
To do an adequate job in planning a presentation, salespeople
Prospecting making must understand the concepts of features, potential benefits,
and confirmed benefits. Extensive research by Learning
Compensation International, a major sales training and consulting firm,
Pre approach concludes that stating features and potential benefits may result
in successful sales calls, or at least may lead to a continuation of
Follow up the sales dialogue on the next sales call. This same research,
however, concluded that a far more promising way to achieve
sales call success is to seek customer confirmation of potential
Presentation
Closing the Sale benefits. According to Learning International, successful sales
calls have approximately five times as many confirmed benefit
statements than for unsuccessful sales calls.
Negotiating & handling A feature is a factual statement about a characteristic of the
objectives
product or service being sold.
15
Examples of features: Sales person should recognize these comments as signs of
Bell-shaped nozzle on vacuum cleaner interest and shift to closing techniques. These we will discuss in
detail in next lesson.
Daily delivery of Frito-Lay potato chips
7. Follow-up: is essential to building a relationship between
Technical support personnel for a computer system
the seller and the buyer. The sales person follows-up to ensure
A potential benefit describes how the product or service may that the buyer received the right products in the right condition
meet a customer need that is assumed to be important by the at the right time. Any problems or concerns on the part of the
salesperson. When a customer acknowledges the importance of buyer after the sale are addressed immediately. The salesperson
a benefit to his or her buying situation, it is a confirmed demonstrates continued interest in the account and a desire to
benefit. In selecting specific benefits to be stressed, salespeople satisfy the buyers needs on an ongoing basis.
should focus on any unique benefits not offered by competi-
It is a must that sales should end in follow up, determine if the
tion, as long as the benefits are of interest to the prospect.
order was delivered on time, installation OK etc. Also helps
These might include product benefits, along with non-product
determine the prospects future needs. Accomplishes four
related benefits such as delivery, extraordinary customer service,
objectives:
or additional sales support available to the customer.
customer gain short term satisfaction
Examples of corresponding benefits:
referrals are stimulated
Optimum airflow improves cleaning ability
in the long run, repurchase
Retailer can reduce inventory costs
prevent cognitive dissonance
Assistance in installation, maintenance, and expansion
Follow up activities are critical to the success of salespeople and
5. Handling Objections: theoretically salesperson presenta-
sales managers . Customers expect after-sale service and it is
tion should show the prospect that the product is required by
frequently the job of sales people to make sure these activities
him and it should be bought. Very few presentations end that
are carried out.
successfully and very few prospects are that easily convinced
Usually prospect will raise objections .Objections raised by the As a general rule when an order is not obtained on the initial call
prospect takes a great deal of skill and training. Experienced the sales person should express appreciation for the time made
sales person welcome objections . The salesperson must be available and suggests a later visit . In this way a sales person
able to identify the real reasons for an objection, respond to the show continued interest in helping the prospect and in getting
objection, and overcome it. Objections provide the salesperson the order. When leaving a sales person should inquire if there
with the opportunity to learn more about the customers needs are any brochures , samples or othew information that the
and provide information about the product to satisfy those prospects needs before they meet again.
needs. The most difficult prospect is one who does not say Whenever a sales person leaves without an order they should
anything during the presentation , refuse to buy and gives no immediately write down what they have learned about the
reason for the decision. The best way to deal with objections is prospect for example What were prospects chief objections ,
to avoid them by building answers to common questions in to who makes the decision and what are the prospects primary
the formal sales presentation. needs. If the sales person made any critical mistake during
6. Closing: closing follows once the objection have been presentation they should be noted so that they are not repeated
handled . It is at this point that the sales person should ask for in the next visit.
order. Unfortunately , many sales persons are to reluctant to Old school, sell and leave!!Quickly before customer changes
close : in fact one study revealed that 50% of salespeople failed her mind!!
to directly ask for the order. The major reason the salespeople Now:
are so resistant to close seems to be is fear of rejection . If sales Stay a few minutes after salereinforce, make them feel
people do not ask for an order they cannot be turned down and good, made wise choice, leave small gift (with co. name on
thereby they avoid embarrassment or disappointment . it!!), call office at any time etc!!
However all professional purchasing agents expect a sales
Follow up, reinforce, know birthdays, new year etc, friendly
representatives to attempt a close. Closing the sale is asking the
correspondence...relationship building!!
prospect for an order. The salesperson must be able to
recognize the signals that indicate the prospect is ready to close. Salespeople who do not follow up on sales are unlikely to
Successful salespeople learn to time their closing remarks on the establish long term relationship with customers or secure repeat
basis of signals given by the buyer . These cues can take the business. Purchasing agents expects post sale service and it is
form of a gestures ( Customer nods in agreement , picks up the sales persons responsibility to see that they remain satisfied.
product and examines it closely ) or they can be verbal com- Compensation
ments . When prospect makes comments like Compensation plans include (1) straight wages or salary, (2)
Shipment must be completed in five months? straight commission, (3) wages or salary plus bonus, and (4)
We like the speed control feature? wages or salary plus commission. Salespeople receive hourly
wages, a salary, commissions, or a combination of wages or
Do you have custom model in stock?
salary and commissions. Commissions are usually based on the
16
amount of sales, whereas bonuses may depend on individual uses these signs to help understand when to close a sale.

performance, on the performance of all salespeople in the Knowing when to close is an important element in sales (p.
group or district, or on the companys performance. Commis- 313).
sions offer salespeople the opportunity to significantly increase
2. Not Knowing How to Close the Sale
their earnings, but they may find their earnings depend on their
One must ask a question that moves the prospect into a
ability to sell their product and the ups and downs of the
position of having to make an ownership decision. An
economy. Employers may use incentive programs such as
example would be: If I have the red one, do you want to take
awards, banquets, and profit-sharing plans to promote
it with you today, or shall I ship it? (p. 314)
teamwork among the sales staff.
3. Lack of Sincerity
Mistakes in Sales Be sincere and mean it. Do not let greed get in the way, or you
1. Not Understanding Selling may not get anywhere. Make sure you are selling to benefit the
The purpose of salespeople is to sell a service or a product. customer and not yourself. A salesperson needs to be selling a
One should have knowledge of ones companys current style product that they believe in and believe that it is good. If one
of selling and how it is analyzed so that it can be improved. does not believe in ones product, a customer will recognize
One should know who the ideal customer is, and what he or the insincerity and want nothing to do with the salesperson and
she wants. One should know why some people buy his or her the product. They will also tell their friends about it as well.
product and why they do not. One must gain knowledge of Another effect is that one convincing them of something that
the service provided and the customers needs. Selling is not one does not believe in, can make one seem like a con artist. As
about being pushy and being aggressive, some regard that as a salesperson, selling or persuading others must be your
incompetent. Companies must train their employees to be sincere desire to serve others and help them get involved in
professional salespeople or persuaders are low-key, service- something that is truly beneficial for them. Honesty and
oriented, and relationship-builders (Hopkins, 2001, p. 311). integrity are the key elements to every successful selling career
(p. 314).
2. Expecting Things to Improve by Themselves
If someone is unskilled and incompetent in sales, one cannot 4. Not Paying Enough Attention to Details
expect that he or she will improve by themselves. Sales skills Not being prepared, by not paying attention to detail, can cause
are not a gift of birth. It is something that can be mastered loss in sales. Not paying enough attention to a sales letter when
with study and work. Watching people from personal experi- there are grammatical errors, not being prepared for a presenta-
ence will help you identify what makes people good and bad tion, or not knowing ones product can result in a decline in
persuaders. Training salespeople is very important to having sales. These are all signs of not doing ones best. If one cannot
the difference between competent and incompetent sales do this someone else will, and get the sale (p. 315).
people. For most salespeople sales do not come naturally.
5. Letting yourself Slump
Even though they may be naturally comfortable talking with
Are you a bull sometimes and a bear other times? When being
others, the actual skill of persuading must be learned just as the
a bear, or in a slump, it takes a lot to get out of it. Try to be
ins and outs of the product or service must be learned in order
consistent with sales, in order to do so be a bull all of the time
to succeed (p. 312).
(p. 315).
3. Talking Too Much and Not Listening Enough
6. Not Keeping in Touch
A salesperson does not just talk, they listen too. A salesperson
People do business with people who give them attention. All it
should think of himself or herself as a detective. One must
takes is a couple of phone calls to keep customers. Call
ask the right questions, take good notes, and intently listen to
customers every so often to see how the product is doing, and
what the customer says as well as their body language. It is not
if there is room for improvement. It shows that a company
about the talking, it is about asking the right questions that
cares about the customer by keeping in touch (p. 315).
lead down the path and toward a sale (p. 312-313).
Lack of training is a large contributing factor of poor communi-
4. Using Words that Kill Sales cation in sales; it is hazardous to a companys health. Poor
One tries to paint a picture with words when making a communication can result in a bad relationship between
presentation in sales. A few wrong word pictures can ruin the mangers and sales people; manufactures and sales people; or
entire portrait one is trying to paint. Sales people can use salespeople and customers. In the end it means a lack of sales
specific words that create negative thoughts in customers and profit, which will lead to the inevitable, demise of a
minds, which could mean the difference between a successful company.
sale or an unsuccessful sale. Avoid using negative words. One
can rephrase negative words into positive words (p. 313). Conclusion
In this lesson we learnt about the selling process. It is a
1. Not Knowing When to Close the Sale continuous process. There are different steps in the process. A
Customers who leave a place of business without purchasing salesperson should proceed in the similar steps to make sales.
something are lost sales. A sales person must look for buying Then we have also discussed that there may be some common
signs. These signs might be when they say will instead of mistakes that can occur in sales. In the next lesson we will learn
might. For example, Is it in stock? or Is there delivery?, about prospecting, Objection handling and closing in detail.
are other signs that a customer is going to say yes to a sale. One
17
Points to ponder
Questions
Q1. Why do salesperson spend part of their time in
The Sales Cycle prospecting?
Q2. What is the importance of preapproach?
Prospecting
Appointment
making
Q3. Why should form the part of presentation?
Q4. Why is follow up necessary for a sales person?
Compensation
Pre approach
Follo w up
Presentation
C losing the Sale
Negotiating & handling

objectives
The Sales Cycle
Appointment
Prospecting making
Compensation
Pre approach
Follo w up
Presentation
Closing the Sale
N egotiating & handling

objectives
18
LESSON 5 UNIT - 2
PROSPECTING, OBJECTION HANDLING AND CLOSING
Learning Objectives and able to pay for it, but a particular salesperson may have no
To understand about prospecting way to make the contact.
To know how objections can be handled. In addition to meeting the stated requirements, there are other
requirements unique to each companys customers. Starting the
To know closing techniques.
data on the profitability of present accounts, any characteristics
Prospecting typical of profitable accounts but not shared by unprofitable
In the last lesson we studied about the sales cycle. Now let us accounts should be detected. These identifying characteristics
study the prospecting step in detail. ideally should be ones recognizable from information appearing
Efficient organization of time and thorough planning of work in directories or lists. Prospects in many businesses and
are earmarks of above-average salespersons. They look for ways professions, for instance, are readily identified from classified
to stretch productive selling time. They arrange travel and call listing in telephone and city directories. Key characteristics that
schedules to economize on time spent enroute and distance identify profitable accounts are assembled into descriptions of
traveled. They make appointments to avoid prolonged waiting the various classes of customers, and these are the prospect
for callbacks. They do not waste time trying to sell to people definitions.
who cannot buy or are not likely to do so. The planning work, Searching out Potential Accounts
which is essential in eliminating calls on non buyers , is called Using the prospect definitions, the salesperson combs different
prospecting. sources for the names of probable prospects, or suspects, as
Improvement in prospecting is one way to stretch productive they are called. Sources of prospect information include
selling time. Many sales personnel devote too little time to Directories of all kind
prospecting and, as a consequence, too much to calling on non
News and notes in trade papers and business magazines
prospects . Salespersons who are proficient in prospecting apply
their selling efforts productively; they do not call on Credit reports, membership lists of chambers of
nonprospects and can devote their full attention to those likely commerce and trade and
to buy. Manufacturers associations
Some companies use specialized personnel for prospecting, but Records of service requests.
most regard it as one of the salespersons responsibilities. Even Other sources are
though salespersons may not to all the prospecting, they
Responses to company advertising
often have access to information on likely prospects that is not
available to central office personnel. Sales personnel of noncompeting firms calling on the same
general classes of trade
Steps in Prospecting
Conventions and meetings bankers and other centers of
Let us see what are steps in prospecting which will help in
influence, and the salespersons own observations.
understanding it better
Salespeople selling services, insurance, for example, uncover
The steps in prospecting are
prospects among their acquaintances; members of their
1. formulating prospect definitions, professional, religious and social organizations; and the referrals
2. searching out potential accounts, of friends. Another source of prospects is the endless chain
3. qualifying prospects and determining probable satisfied customers suggest, voluntarily or on request, other
requirements, and leads to the salesperson who served them.
4. relating company products to each prospects requirements. Qualifying Prospects and Determining Probable
Requirements
Formulating Prospect Definitions
As information is assembled on each tentative prospect it is
Prospective customers must have the willingness, the financial
easier to estimate the probable requirements of each for the
capacity, and the authority to buy, and they must be available to
types of products sold by the company. Prospects with
the salesperson. Salespersons waste time when they attempt to
requirements too small to represent profitable business are
sell individuals who have neither need for the product or
removed from further consideration, unless their growth
money to pay for it. Salespersons waste time if they try to sell to
possibilities show promise. Even after tapping all readily
the wrong persons; so it is important to ascertain which
available information sources, additional information often is
persons in each firm have the authority to buy. Although
required to qualify certain prospects, and personal visits by
individuals may qualify as prospects in other respects, they may
salespersons may be the only way to obtain it. These visits may
be inaccessible to the salesperson. The president of a large
corporation, for example, may need insurance and be willing
19
not bring in sales, but they save time, as prospects are separated (a real obstacle, not an objection), sincere objections are
from nonprospects . overcome by patience and thorough explanations.

Relating Company Products to Each Prospects Prospectsraiseinsincere objections to discourage salesper-
Requirements sons, to get rid of them, to test their competence, and as false
The final step is to plan the strategy for approaching each excuses for not buying. When salespersons sense that an
prospect. From the information assembled, it is usually objection is insincere, they seek to regain the offensive as soon
possible to determine each prospects probable needs. From as possible. They do not permit an insincere objection to
what the salesperson knows about the companys products, provoke an argument one of the surest ways to lose a sale.
their uses, and applications, he or she selects those that seem Some sales executives say that every objection, no matter how
most appropriate for a particular prospect. insincere, should be treated with the utmost courtesy. Others
The salespersons presentation is now easy to construct, and it is say that insincere objections should be ignored. The best
tailored to fit the prospect. The salesperson should have clear defensive strategy often is the strong counterattack, and the
ideas about specific objections the prospect may raise and other salesperson should seek to regain the initiative as soon as he or
obstacles to the sale that may be encountered. The salesperson she can gracefully do so.
is ready to contact the prospect, the only tasks remaining are Closing Sales
making an appointment, deciding how to open the presenta- It is important to understand closing techniques and when it
tion, and determining how to persuade the prospect to become should be initiated .
a customer.
The selling tactics followed affect the ease of closing the sale.
Sales Resistance Low-pressure sales are closed more easily than are high-pressure
Let us study about sales resistance. ones. In low-pressure sales, prospects feel that they are reaching
Prospects show sales resistance by pointing out real or imagined the buying decisions themselves, and primarily through rational
obstacles, and by voicing objections, sincere or insincere. In processes of thought, so there is no need for extra push just
analyzing sales resistance, the sales-persons needs to skill in the before the sales are consummated. In high-pressure sales, the
accurate and rapid appraisal of people and their motivations. A main thrust is to the prospects emotions, so salespersons
prospects expressed sales resistance is either an obstacle or an attempt to propel prospects into buying decisions. Often, the
objection. An obstacle is real or unreal; an objection is sincere or prospect regains normal perspective as the sale nears its climax,
insincere. and, if this happens, the salesperson needs unusually effective
persuasion to close the sale.
Obstacles to Sales
Every salesperson approaches certain closings with apprehen-
Obstacles are real or apparent reasons that the prospect has for
sion. At closing time, either the salesperson sells the prospect an
not buying.
order or the prospect sells the salesperson on a no sale.
If the obstacle is real, it precludes the consummation of the Closing time provides an opportunity to register
sale. But if it is apparent, there are ways to circumvent it. A
tangible proof of selling skill. Occasionally even the best
prospect says a temporary shortage of cash prevents buying
salesperson must rely upon closing skill to make the sale.
and obstacle, not an objection and the salesperson helps the
prospect to circumvent it by explaining a method for financing Prospecting, if well done, puts the salesperson in the proper
the purchase. Some obstacles can be circumvented, others frame of mind for the close. The salesperson feels that a real
cannot. When an obstacle arises, the salesperson determines service is being performed for the prospect, not that a bill of
whether or not there is a way to get around it. If the salesper- goods is being sold. There is no doubt that the product is the
son recognizes the specific obstacle and knows a way to best solution to the prospects problems.
circumvent it, the next move is to present the solution to the When the sales presentation is complete and clear, no difficulty
prospect. is met in closing the sale. All obstacles to the sale and all
objections have been removed, to the prospects entire satisfac-
Sales Objections
tion. Basic agreement has been reached, and the prospect is
Objections are never good reasons for failing to complete the
ready to accept the proposal.
sale, but they nearly always divert the salespersons presentation
from its main course. At best, an objection requires a satisfac- But even after an excellent presentation, and in spite of
tory answer; at worst, it blocks the sale. Adroitness in handling thorough prospecting, some prospects refrain from positive
objections is a difference between effective and ineffective commitments. The natural tendency of many people is to let
salespeople. inertia guide their reactions many are happy to leave things as
they are, and salespersons leave empty-handed unless they jolt
Sincere Objections these prospect into buying. The skilled closer gives the extra
Trace to incompleteness, inaccuracy, or vagueness in the sales
push that tiggers a buying response. But failures to get an order
presentation. Prospects may not recognize the nature of their
result as much from poor prospecting and inept presentations
needs, or they may have doubts about the appropriateness of
as from ineffective closing.
the product to fulfill those needs. Prospect may be confused in
some respect, or may react unfavourably to the salesperons When an attempted close fails, the salesperson should normally
personality. Except when personality conflict cannot be resolved try another. The refusal does not necessarily imply an unwilling-
20
ness to buy; it may indicate the prospects need for additional Points to Ponder

information or for clarification of some point. Some executives
recommend that sales personnel attempt as many as five closes
before giving up. Early closing attempts should be so expressed
that a refusal will not cut off the presentation. A salesperson
judges the sincerity of a prospects refusal, surrendering Prospecting
gracefully when it is clear that no sale will be made.
The salesperson first uses an indirect close, that is, attempts Formulating prospect
to get the order without actually asking for it definition
The salesperson may ask the prospect to state a preference Searching out
from among a limited number of choice (as to models, potential accounts
delivery dates, order size, or the like), so phrasing the Qualifying prospects
question that all possible responses are in the salespersons Relating companys
favor except for one: None at all. product to prospects
Or the salesperson may summarize, emphasizing features requirements
that visibly impress the prospect, showing how the reasons
for the purchase outweigh those opposed to it. Then the
salesperson pauses for the prospects response, which is
expected to be, Go ahead and write the order.
Sometimes, the extra push may be a concession that makes
the purchase sufficiently more attractive to make the sale.
Or the salesperson may assume that the sale is made, write
out the order, and hand it to the prospect for approval if
the prospect balks, the issue is clearer. Perhaps one last
objection is voiced, but after it is answered, the sale is
made.
When one or more attempts at an indirect close fail, the
salesperson uses the direct approach. Few prospects respond
negatively to a frank request for the order. In fact, many people,
especially those who are themselves engaged in selling, do not
buy unless the order is asked for outright.
Objection
10 Traits of Effective Salespeople
Obstacles
objections
1. Ego strength: a healthy self-esteem that allows one to bounce back
from rejection.
2. A sens e of urgency: wanting to get it done now.
3. Ego drive: a combination of competitiveness and self esteem.
4. Ass ertiveness: the ability to be firm, lead the sales process, and get
one s point across confidently.
5. Willingness to take risk: willing to innovate and take a chance.
6. Sociable : outgoing, friendly, talkative, and interested in others.
7. Abstract reasoning: ability to understand concepts and ideas.
8. Skepticism: a slight lack of trust and suspicion of others.
9. Creativity: the ability to think differently.
10. Empathy: the ability to place oneself in someone elses shoes.
Conclusion
In this lesson we discussed the the steps in prospecting. There
are various ways to gather information about prospects. The
objections are of different types and salespeople are trained to
deal with them. Closing of sales can be direct or indirect.
21
Questions
Q1. What is involved in the process of qualifying prospects?

Closing Q2. How should a salesperson handle an excuse?
Q3. When should salesperson attempt to close the sale?
Indirect closing Q4. Describe the different types of closes?
Direct closing Q5. What are the qualities of an effective sales person?
Notes -
22
LESSON 6
SALES FORECASTING-I
Learning Objectives management sets as the target for the promotional period is
What are qualitative and quantitative personal selling the key quantitative objective. All other quantitative personal-
objectives selling objectives derive from or are related to the sales volume
objective. Thus, discussion here focuses upon the setting of
To know about market potential, sales potential and sales
sales volume objectives. Setting the sales volume objective
forecast.
influences the setting of other quantitative personal selling
There are different ways or forecasting objectives, among them the following:
Qualitative methods 1. To capture and retain a certain market share.
Quantitative methods 2. To obtain sales volume in ways that contribute to
Types of Personal-Selling Objectives. profitability (for example, by selling the optimum mix
of company products).
Let us see how objectives are set?
3. To obtain some number of new accounts of given types.
The qualitative personal-selling objectives are long term and
concern the contributions management expects personal selling 4. To keep personal-selling expenses within set limits.
to make in achieving long-term company objectives. These 5. To secure targeted percentages of certain accounts
objectives generally are carried over from one periods promo- business.
tional program to the next. Depending upon company
Some Important Terms
objectives and the promotional mix, personal selling may be
Before examining the planning and analytical work involved in
assigned such qualitative objectives as
setting sales volume objectives, it is important to define three
1. To do the entire selling job (as when there are no other terms: market potential, sales potential, and sales forecast. Some
elements in the promotional mix). executives use these terms synonymously, but, as the following
2. To service existing accounts (that is, to maintain contacts discussion indicates, there are good reasons for distinguishing
with present customers, take orders, and so forth). among them.
3. To search out and obtain new customers. Market Potential
4. To secure and maintain customers cooperation in stocking A market potential is an estimate of the maximum possible
and promoting the product line. sales opportunities present in a particular market segment and
5. To keep customers informed on changes in the product open to all sellers of a good or service during a stated future
line and other aspects of marketing strategy. period. Thus, an estimate of the maximum number of low-
priced pocket cameras that might be sold in San Mateo County,
6. To assist customers in selling the product line (as through
California, during the calendar year 1987 by all sellers competing
missionary selling).
for this market would represent the 1987 San Mateo County
7. To provide technical advice and assistance to customers (as market potential for low-priced pocket cameras. A market
with complicated products and where products are potential indicates how much of a particular product can be
especially designed to fit buyers specifications). sold to a particular market segment over some future period,
8. To assist with (or handle) the training of middlemens assuming the application of appropriate marketing methods.
sales personnel. Sales Potential
9. To provide advice and assistance to middlemen on A sales potential is an estimate of the maximum possible sales
management problems. opportunities present in a particular market segment open to a
10. To collect and report market information of interest and specified company selling a good or service during a stated
use to company management. future period. To illustrate, and estimate of the number of
The basic considerations in setting qualitative personal-selling low-priced pocket cameras that might be sold in San Mateo
objectives are decisions on sales policies and personal-selling County, California, during the calendar year 1987 by the
strategies and their role in the total promotional program. After Eastman Kodak Company would be the 1987 San Mateo
this role is defined, qualitative long-term personal-selling County sales potential for Eastman Kodak low-price pocket
objectives are set. In turn, the qualitative personal-selling cameras. A sales potential represents sales opportunities
objectives become the major determinants of the quantitative available to a particular manufacturer, such as to Eastman
personal-selling objectives. Kodak Company, while a market potential indicates sales
opportunities available to an entire industry.
The quantitative objectives assigned to personal selling are short
term and are adjusted from one promotional period to another.
The sales volume objective the dollar or unit sales volume
23
Sales Forecast interpretations of special materials presented by the researcher.
A sales forecast is an estimate of sales, in dollars or physical Analysis of results by trained specialists lays bare what goes on
units, in a future period under a particular marketing program in buyers minds, including, importantly, the real reasons for
and an assumed set of economic and other factors outside the buying or not buying the product. Most motivation studies are
unit for which the forecast is made. A sales forecast may be for a directed towards explaining the buying behavior of ultimate
single product or for an entire product line. It may be for a consumers rather than industrial users. Information from
manufacturers entire marketing area, or for any subdivision of motivation studies helps not only in estimating a products
it. Such forecasts are short-term, or operating, sales forecasts market potential but assists in deciding.
rather than long-range sales forecasts, which are used for 1. How best to present the product in sales talks.
planning production capacity and for long-run financial
2. The relative effectiveness of different selling appeals.
planning. Long-range sales forecasts, although of interest, are so
tentative that sales planners give them only passing attention. It 3. The relative appropriateness of various promotional
is the short-term, or operating, sales forecast that it important methods.
to the sales executive. Keep in mind, then, that an operating Analysis of Market Potential
sales forecast is a prediction of how much of a companys Having identified the potential buyers and their buying
particular product (or product line) can be sold during a future behavior, the third step is to analyze the market potential.
period under a given marketing program and an assumed set of Generally, market potential cannot be analyzed directly, so
outside factors. analysis makes use of market factors (a market factor is a market
Analyzing Market Potential feature or characteristic related to the products demand). For
instance, the number of males reaching shaving age each year is
Market Identification one market factor influencing the demand for mens electric
The first step in analyzing a products market potential is to shavers. But not every male reaching shaving age is a prospective
identify its market. Market identification requires finding out buyer of an electric shaver some will be late in starting to
1. Who buys the product? shave, others will adopt other shaving methods, some will not
2. Who uses it? have the money to buy a shaver or will prefer to use that money
for something else, and still others will use borrowed shavers
3. Who are the prospective buyers and/or users?
or, perhaps, will grow beards. Thus, using market factors for
Some companies find answers to these questions in their analyzing market potential is a two-step process:
internal records, but most companies, especially those that use
1. Select the market factor(s) associated with the products
long marketing channels, must use field research to obtain
demand.
meaningful answers. In consumer-goods marketing, buyers,
users, and prospects are identified and classified according to 2. Eliminate those market segments that do not contain
such characteristics as age, sex, education, income, and social prospective buyers of the product.
class. In industrial-goods marketing, buyers, users, and Market Indexes
prospects are identified and classified by size of firm, geographi- A market index is a numerical expression indicating the degree
cal location, type of industry, and the like. to which one or more market factors associated with a given
Market identification studies reveal the characteristics that products demand is present in a given market segment
differentiate the market segments making up the products usually a given geographical market segment. Market indexes are
market potential. Frequently they uncover unexploited market expressed in relative terms, such as in percentages, rather than in
segments whose patronage might be obtained through absolute numbers. In analyzing the market for furniture, for
redirecting personal-selling effort or changing promotional example, a market index might contain three factors: popula-
strategy. Sometimes, market identification studies provide, as a tion, effective buying income, and number of marriages. In the
side result, customer data on such factors as purchase frequency, United States, the most widely used single-factor market
searching time expended, unit of purchase, and seasonal buying indexes are population as a percentage of U.S. total and effective
habits. When assembled and analyzed, these data help in buying income as a percentage of U.S. total. Many companies
estimating market potential. refine these indexes further by breaking them down into greater
detail: for example, the population index is divided into
Market Motivation
subindexes covering different age groups and the income index
The second step in analyzing market potential is to detect the
into subindexes for different income groups.
reasons why customers buy the product and the reasons why
potential customers might buy it. Market motivation studies Other marketers construct their own market indexes, including
answer twin questions: Why do people buy? Why dont people different market factors and using different weighting systems.
buy? The answers help not only in estimating market potential One producer of lighting fixtures includes data on new
but assist the sales executive seeking to increase the effectiveness housing starts, and a maker of auto seat covers includes motor
of promotional programs. vehicle registrations. Other market factors frequently used in
constructing consumer-goods market indexes are registrations
Motivation research techniques vary, but the most widely used
of new automobiles, home ownership, marriage licenses issued,
are the projective techniques, in which respondents project
births, and deaths. Marketers of industrial products construct
themselves, their attitudes, interests, and opinions into
market indexes using such market factors as value added by
24
manufacture, number of employees engaged in certain kinds of Survey of customers buying plan

manufacturing, number of manufacturing establishments, Quantitave Methods
person-hours worked, total value of shipments of particular
Projection of Past Sales
items, and capital expenditures for new plant and equipment.
Time series Analysis Moving Average Method
Sales Potential and Sales Forecasting
Exponential smoothening
Sales potentials, are defined earlier, are quantitative estimates of
the maximum possible sales opportunities present in particular Regression Analysis
market segments open to a specified company selling a good or Econometric model building and simulation
service during a stated future period. They are derived from
market potentials after analyses of historical market share
Forecasting Methods
relationships and adjustments for changes in companies and
competitors selling strategies and practices.
A firms sales potential and its sales forecast are not usually
identical in most instances, the sales potential is larger than Qualitative Quantitative
the sales forecast. There are several reasons for this: Methods Methods
Some companies do not have sufficient production capacity
to capitalize on the full sales potential; Jury of Executive opinion
Time series Analysis Moving
The Delphi Technique
Other firms have not yet developed distributive networks Poll of Sales force opinion
Average Method
Exponential smoothening
capable of reaching every potential customer; Survey of customers
Regression Analysis
buying plan
Others do not attempt to realize their total sales potentials Econometric model building
because of limited financial resources; and
Still others, being more profit oriented than sales oriented, Let us study Qualitative Methods in this lesson .Quantitative
seek to maximize profitable sales and not possible sales. Methods are discussed in Next Lesson
The estimate for sales potential indicates how much a company Qualitative Forecasting Methods
could sell if it had all the necessary resources and desired to use
Jury of Executive Opinion
them. The sales forecast is a related but different estimate it
indicates how much a company with a given amount of There are two steps in this method:
resources can sell if it implements a particular marketing 1. high-ranking executives estimate probable sales, and
program. 2. an average estimate is calculated.
Sales Forecasting Methods The assumption is that the executives are well informed about
A sales forecasting method is a procedure for estimating how the industry outlook and the companys market position,
much of a given product (or product line) can be sold if a given capabilities, and marketing program. All should support their
marketing program is implemented. No sales forecasting estimates with factual material and explain their rationales.
method is foolproof each is subject to some error. Some Companies using the jury of executive opinion method do so
methods are unsophisticated, such as the jury of executive for one or more of four reasons:
opinion or the poll of sales force opinion. Others involve the
1. This is a quick and easy way to turn out a forecast.
application of sophisticated statistical techniques, such as
regression analysis or econometric model building and simula- 2. This is a way to pool the experience and judgment of well-
tion. Two sales forecasting methods may be either sophisticated informed people.
or unsophisticated, depending upon how they are used the 3. This may be the only feasible approach if the company is
projection of past sales and the survey of customers buying so young that it has not yet accumulated the experience to
plans. use other forecasting methods.
Well-managed companies do not rely upon a single sales 4. This method may be used when adequate sales and market
forecasting method but use several. If different methods statistics are missing, or when these figures have not yet
produce roughly the same sales forecasts, then more confidence been put into the form required for more sophisticated
is placed in the results. But if different methods produce greatly forecasting methods.
different sales forecasts, then the sales situation merits further The jury of executive opinion method has weakness.
study.
Its findings are based primarily on opinion, and factual
The forecasting methods can be broadly classified as qualitative evidence to support the forecast is often sketchy.
and quantitative .
This approach adds to the work load of key executives,
Qualitative methods are: requiring them to spend time that they would otherwise
Jury of Executive opinion devote to their areas of main responsibility.
The Delphi Technique And a forecast made by this method is difficult to break
Poll of Sales force opinion down into estimates of probable sales by products, by time
intervals, by markets, by customers, and so on.
25
The Delphi Technique method of getting an alternative estimate for use as a check on a
Several years ago researchers at the he Rand Corporation sales forecast obtained through some other approach.
developed a technique for predicting the future that is called the
Survey of Customers Buying Plans
Delphi technique. This is a version of the jury of executive
What more sensible way to forecast than to ask customers
opinion method in which those giving opinions are selected for
about their future buying plans? Industrial marketers use this
their expertise. The panel of experts responds to a sequence
approach more than consumer-goods marketers, because it is
of questionnaires in which the responses to one questionnaire
easiest to use where the potential market consists of small
are used to produce the next questionnaire. Thus, information
numbers of customers and prospects, substantial sales are
available to some and not to other experts is disseminated to
made to individual accounts, the manufacturer sells direct to
all, enabling all to base their final forecasts on all available
users, and customers are concentrated in a few geographical areas
information. Some contend that this technique eliminates the
(all more typical of industrial than consumer marketing). In
bandwagon effect of majority opinion.
such instances, it is relatively inexpensive to survey a sample of
Poll of Sales Force Opinion customers and prospects to obtain their estimated requirements
In the poll of sales force opinion method, often tagged the for the product, and to project the results to obtain a sales
grass-roots approach, individual sales personnel forecast sales forecast. Survey results, however, need tempering by manage-
for their territories; then individual forecasts are combined and ment specialized knowledge and by contemplated changes in
modified, as management thinks necessary, to form the marketing programs. Few companies base forecasts exclusively
company sales forecast. on a survey of customers buying plans. The main reason lies in
This approach appeals to practical sales managers because : the inherent assumptions that customers know what they are
going to do and that buyers plans, once made, will not change.
forecasting responsibility is assigned to those who produce
the results. Even though the survey of customers buying plans is generally
an unsophisticated forecasting method, it can be rather sophisti-
Furthermore, there is merit in utilizing the specialized
cated that is, if it is a true survey (in the marketing research
knowledge of those in closet touch with market
sense) and if the selection of respondents is by probability
conditions. Because the salespeople help to develop the
sampling. However, since it gathers opinions rather than
forecast, they should have greater confidence in quotas
measures actions, substantial nonsampling error is present.
based upon it.
Respondents do not always have well-formulated buying plans,
Another attractive feature is that forecasts developed by this and, even if they do, they are not always willing to relate them.
method are easy to break down according to products, In practice, most companies using this approach appear to pay
territories, customers, middlemen, and sales force. little attention to the composition of the sample and devote
But the poll of sales force opinion approach has weaknesses. minimum effort to measuring sampling and nonsampling
Not generally trained to do forecasting, and influenced by errors.
current business conditions in their territories, salespersons Conclusion
tend to be overly optimistic or overly pessimistic about In this lesson we studied the about the personal selling
sales prospects. objectives which can be qualitative and quantitative. Then we
They are too near the trees to see the forest they often discussed about market potential which is sales opportunities
are unaware of broad changes taking place in the economy present for all sellers of a good or service. Sales potential which
and of trends in business conditions outside their own is the maximum sales opportunity for a company selling a good
territories. or service. We have also discussed the qualitative forecasting
Furthermore, if the forecasts of the sales staff are used methods.
in setting quotas, some sales personnel deliberately
underestimate so that quotas are reached more easily.
To some extent, the weakness of this method can be
overcome through training the sales force in forecasting
techniques, by orienting them to factors influencing
company sales, and by adjusting for consistent biases in
individual salespersons forecasts.
For most companies, however, implementing corrective actions
is an endless task, because sales personnel turnover is constantly
going on, and new staff members (whose biases are unknown
at the start) submit their forecasts along with those of veteran
sales personnel with known biases. In short, this method is
based to such a large extent on judgment that it is not appropri-
ate for most companies to use it as the only forecasting
method. The poll of sales force opinion serves best as a
26
Points to Ponder

Qualitative personal selling
objectives
To do the entire selling job (as when there are no other elements in the

promotional mix).
To service existing accounts (that is, to maintain contacts with present
Qualitative m ethods are:

customers, take orders, and so forth).
To search out and obtain new customers. Jury of Executive opinion
To secure and maintain customers cooperation in stocking and promoting the
product line. The Delphi Technique
To keep customers informed on changes in the product line and other aspects of

marketing strategy.
To assist customers in selling the product line (as through missionary selling).
Poll of Sales force opinion
To provide technical advice and assistance to customers (as with complicated
products and where products are especially designed to fit buyers specifications).
Survey of customers buying plan
To assist with (or handle) the training of middlemens sales per sonnel.
To provide advice and assistance to middlemen on management problems.
To collect and report market information of interest and use to company
management.
ANALYZING MARKET
POTENTIAL Qualitative methods are:
Market identification Jury of Executive opinion
Market Motivation The Delphi Technique
Analysis of Market Potential Poll of Sales force opinion
Survey of customers buying plan
27
Questions
Q1. What is the difference between sales potential and sales

forecast?
Q2. Why is jury of executive opinion method of forecasting so
popular?
Q3. What is Delphi method of forecasting?
Q4. What is poll of sales force opinion ?
Q5. What are the weaknesses of poll of sales force opinion
method?
28
LESSON 7
SALES FORECASTING-II
Learning Objectives: One drawback of time-series analysis is that it is difficult to call

To learn about the quantitative sales forecasting methods the turns. Trend and cycle analysis helps in explaining why a
trend, once under way, continues, but predicting the turns often
is more important. When turns for the better are called correctly,
Time-series analysis management can capitalize upon sales opportunities; when
Moving Average method turns for the worst are called correctly, management can cut
Exponential smoothing losses.
Regression Analysis Moving Average Method
Econometric Model Building and Simulation Are used to allow for market place factor changing at different
rates and at different times . With this method both distant
Quantitative Forecasting Methods past and distant future have little value in forecasting . The
In This lesson we will learn about Quantitative forecasting moving average is a technique that attempts to smooth out
Methods. Let us discuss each one by one.
The different rates of change for the immediate past , usually
Projection of Past Sales past three to five years. The forecast is the mean of these past
The projection of past sales method of sales forecasting takes a periods and is only valid for one period in future. The forecast
variety to forms. The simplest is to set the sales forecast for the is updated by eliminating the data for the earliest period and
coming year at the same figure as the current years actual sales, adding the most recent data.
or the forecast may be made by adding a set percentage to last Take for Example in the following table 7.1 .The sales volumes
years sales, or to a moving average of the sales figure for several for periods 3 , 4, 5 are totaled and divided by 3 to derive the
past years. For instance, if it is assumed that there will be the mean of 366.6 which is the period 6 forecast.If the company
same percentage sales increase next year as this year, the fore- operates in the stable environment a short 2 or 3 years average
caster might utilize a nave model projection such as will be most useful . For a firm in an industry with cyclical
this years sales variation , the moving average should use data equal to length
next years sales = this years sales x
last years sales of cycle.
This years sales are inevitably related to last years. Similarly, next
years sales are related to this years and to those of all preceding Table 7.1
years. Period Sales volume Sales for three Three year moving
Projecting present sales levels is a simple and inexpensive Year period Average
forecasting method and may be appropriate for companies in 1 200
more or less stable or mature industries it is rare in such 2 250
industries for a companys sales to vary more than 15 percent 3 300 750
plus or minus from the preceding year. 4 350 900 300
Time-Series Analysis 5 450 1100 / 3 = 366.6
Not greatly different in principle from the simple projection of
6 ?
past sales in time-series analysis, a statistical procedure for
Period 6 forecast = 366.6
studying historical sales data. This procedure involves isolating
and measuring four chief types of sales variations: long-term Exponential smoothing
trends, cyclical changes, seasonal variations, and irregular One statistical technique for short-range sales forecasting,
fluctuations. Then a mathematical model describing the past exponential smoothing, is a type of moving average that
behavior of the series is selected, assumed values for each type represents a weighted sum of all past numbers in a time series,
of sales variation are inserted, and the sales forecast is cranked with the heaviest weight placed on the most recent data. To
out. illustrate, consider this simple but widely used form of
For most companies, time-series analysis finds practical exponential smoothing a weighted average of this years
application mainly in making long-range forecasts. Predictions sales is combined with the forecast of this years sales to arrive at
on a year-to-year basis, such as are necessary for an operating the forecast for next years sales. The forecasting equation, in
sales forecast, generally are little more than approximations. other words, is
Only where sales patterns are clearly defined and relatively stable next years sales = a (this years sales) + (1-a)(this years forecast)
from year to year is time-series analysis appropriately used for
The a in the equation is called the smoothing constant and is
short-term operating sales forecasts.
set between 0.0 and 1.0. If, for example, actual sales for this year
29
came to 320 units of product, the sales forecast for this year was product and its own sales, but the correlation coefficient was
350 units, and the smoothing constant was 0.3, the forecast for too low to use in forecasting company sales. The same was true
next years sales is of personal disposable income and retail sales; their correlation
(0.30)(320) + (0.7)(350) = 341 units of products coefficients with company sales were too low to use in forecast-
ing company sales.
Determining the value of a is the main problem. If the series
of sales data changes slowly, a should be small to retain the
effect of earlier observations. If the series changes rapidly, a
should be large so that the forecasts respond to these changes.
In practice, a is estimated by trying several values and making
retrospective tests of the associated forecast error is then chosen
for future smoothing.
Evaluation of past sales projection methods. The key limitation
of all past sales projection methods lies in the assumption that
past sales history is the sole factor influencing future sales. No
allowance is made for significant changes made by the company
in its marketing program or by its competitors in theirs. Nor is
allowance made for sharp and rapid upswings or downturns in
business activity, nor is it usual to correct for poor sales
performance extending over previous periods.
The accuracy of the forecast arrived at through projecting past
sales depends largely upon how close the company is to the
market saturation point. If the market is nearly 100 percent
saturated, some argue that it is defensible to predict sales by
applying certain percentage figure to cumulative past sales of
the product still in the hands of users to determine annual Automobile sales (millions of units)
replacement demand. However, most often the company whose The tyre manufacturer measured the relationship between its
product has achieved nearly 100 percent market saturation finds, own dollar sales and unit sales of automobiles and found a
since most companies of this sort market durables or semi much higher degree of correlation . The dots on this scatter
durables, that its prospective customers can postpone or diagram cluster closely around the straight line that is the result
accelerate their purchases to a considerable degree. of the mathematical computation between the two series of
Past sales projection methods are most appropriately used for data. If the correlation had been perfect, all the dots would have
obtaining check forecasts against which forecasts secured fallen on the line.
through other means are compared. Most companies make Where sales are influenced by two or more independent
some use of past sales projections in their sales forecasting variables acting together multiple regression techniques are used.
procedures. The availability of numerous computer programs Evaluation of regression analysis for sales forecasting.
for time-series analysis and exponential smoothing has If high coefficients of correlation exist between company sales
accelerated this practice. and independent variables, the forecasting problem is simpli-
Regression Analysis fied, especially if the variables lead company sales. The
Regression analysis is a statistical process and, as used in sales probable course of sales may then be charted, and the forecaster
forecasting, determines and measures the association between can concentrate on factors that might cause deviations. But it is
company sales and other variables. It involves fitting an necessary to examine other circumstances that might upset past
equation to explain sales fluctuations in terms of related and relationships. A forecast made through regression analysis
presumably causal variables, substituting for these variables assumes that past relations will continue. A lead-lag associa-
values considered likely during the period to be forecasted, and tion in which deviations regularly occur in related independent
solving for sales. In other words, there are three major steps in variable(s) prior to a change in company sales is a near-ideal
forecasting sales through regression analysis: situation, but it rarely holds except over short periods. Lead-lag
1. Identify variables causally related to company sales. relationships are common, but associations between the lead
variables and sales in which the intervening time intervals
2. Determine or estimate the values of these variables related
remain stable are uncommon. Periods not only contract or
to sales.
expand erratically; they vary greatly during different phases of
3. Derive the sales forecast from these estimates. the business cycle.
Computers make it easy to use regression analysis for sales If close associations exist between company sales and a reliable
forecasting. One tyre manufacturer, for instance, used simple barometer, estimates are improved by experts predictions of
regression analysis to determine the association between probable changes in the barometer. However, one danger in
economic variables and its own sales. This company discovered using regression analysis is that forecasters may put too much
that a positive correlation existed between gross national faith in the statistical output. They may abandon independent
30
appraisals of future events because of a statistically developed in service, and ten years later, 54. For this batch of 10,000

forecast. It is wrong to place blind faith in any forecasting products units, scrappage is 1,035 in the fifth year (that is, 1,379-
method. It is wise to check results with those of other forecasts. 344, the difference between the accumulated total scrappage at
the close of the fifth and fourth years, respectively). In the fifth
Econometric Model Building and
year, then, 1,035 replacement sales trace back to the batch of
Simulation
10,000 product units that entered service five years before.
Econometric model building and simulation is attractive as a
sales forecasting method for companies marketing durable New-owner demand is the net addition to users stocks of the
goods. This approach uses an equation or system of equations product that occurs during a given period. For instance, if
to represent a set of relationships among sales and different 2,000,000 units of some appliance were in service at the start of
demand-determining independent variables. Then, by plug- a period and 2,500,000 at the end, new-owner demand was
ging in values (or estimates) for each independent variable 500,000 during the period. Forecasting the number of sales to
(that is, by simulating the total situation), sales are forecast. new owners involves treating the stock of the product in the
An econometric model (unlike a regression model) is based hands of users as a population exhibiting birth and
upon an underlying theory about relationships among a set of death characteristics, that is, thinking of it as being analogous
variables, and parameters are estimated by statistical analysis of to a human population.
past data. An econometric sales forecasting model is an Constructing this sort of econometric model requires going
abstraction of a real-world situation, expressed in equation through three steps. First, study independent variables affecting
form and used to predict sales. For example, the sales equation Figure 7.2 Durable-Goods Survival Coefficients (Maxi-
for a durable good can be written. mum Service
S = R + N Year Survival/Coefficient
Where 1. 0000
S = total sales 0. 9995
R = replacement demand (purchases made to replace product 0. 9946
units going out of use, as measured by the scrappage of
old units) 0. 9656
N = new-owner demand (purchases made not to replace 0. 8621

existing product units, but to add to the total stock of the 0. 6406
product in users possession) 0. 3594
Total sales of a durable good, in other words, consist of 0. 1379
purchases made to replace units that have been scrapped and 0. 0344
purchases by new owners. Thus, a family that has a five-year-old
machine trades it in to a dealer as part payment for a new 0. 0054
machine and becomes part of the replacement demand 0. 0000
(although only effectively so when the five-year-old machine,
perhaps passing through several families hands in the process, each demand category (replacement and new owner) and choose
finally comes to be owned by a family that goes ahead and for correlation analysis those that bear some logical relationship
consigns its even-older machine to the scrap heap). to sales (the dependent variable). Second, detect that combina-
Replacement demand is measured by the scrappage of old units tion of independent variables that correlates best with sales.
of products, that it, by the percentage of the total stock of the Third, choose a suitable mathematical expression to show the
product in users hands that is taken out of service through quantitative relationships among the independent variable and
consignment to the trash pile, by sale to a junk dealer, or merely sales, the dependent variables. This expression becomes the
by being stowed away and never used again. Replacement econometric model.
demand in any one year does not include demand originating The procedure for building econometric models is simple, but
from the family that had a five-year-old machine that it traded finished models can take on formidable appearances. Consider,
to a dealer for a new machine, with the dealer reselling the old for example, this econometric model for forecasting sales of
machine to another family who buys it second-hand. Only washing machines.
when a particular machine goes completely out of service is it
regarded as scrapped, and, at that time (through a chain of { [
Stc = Yt yt+ Yt Ht (0.03 0.0157) ((It + 3Ct)/P1 )] - 0.0000283Y1 }
purchases and trade-ins), some family becomes a part of
replacement demand. Econometricians estimate replacement (100.01818t 33.1143 )
demand by using life expectancy of survival tables, which are where
similar to the life (or mortality) tables used by life insurance Stc = calculated value for forecasted sales of washing machines
actuaries. An example is shown in Figure 7.2 during some time period
If some durable good has a maximum service life of eleven Yt = level of consumers stock that would occur in the
years and 10,000 units of the good enter service in some year, following period
the table indicates that five years later, 8,621 will probably still be
31
(as of January 1) if no washing machines were sold and weaknesses (as well as marketing programs) against those of
scrappage rates competitors. The result is an estimate of expected market share

yt = level of consumers stock that would occur in the that (when applied to the industry sales forecast) results in a
following forecast of company sales. The poll of sales forece opinion
method leaves this appraisal up to the sales personnel they
period (as of January 1) if no washing machines were sold
focus on estimating how much the company can sell, not on
and scrappage rates remained the same
how much the industry can sell. Unsophisticated forms of the
Ht = number of wired (i.e., electrified) dwelling units, in past sales projection method implicitly assume that no changes
millions will occur in the companys strengths and weaknesses not in its
It = disposable personal income marketing programs vis-a-vis those of its competitors. In the
Ct = net credit extended (excluding credit extended for other four forecasting methods considered in this chapter,
automobiles) management makes this appraisal when it determines the
companys probable market share percentage. Moreover,
Pt = price index for house furnishings
although some companies check such appraisals with sales
100.01818t 33.1143 = trend of real purchasing power over time personnel, in most the main appraisal of competitive position
It + 3Ct/Pt = real purchasing power is made by executives better informed on the overall sales
Thus, new owner demand in this model is represented by Yt - outlook than any sales-person can be.
yt, determined by applying appropriated survival coefficients to Forecasting a companys market share varies in complexity from
previous years sales of washing machine and estimating one industry to another. In the steel industry, the number of
consumers total stocks of washing machines in each year. competitors is small and market share is stable, so determining
Replacement demand is represented by the other symbols in the a given companys market share is a simple task a matter of
equation and takes into account the number of wired dwelling projection past trends and adjusting for anticipated changes in
units (washing machines are not sold to people who live in the companys relative strengths and weaknesses. But in the
homes with no electricity) real purchasing power (disposable womens clothing industry, the number of competitors is large
personal income plus credit availability divided by a price index), and market shares fluctuate widely, so determination of market
and real purchasing power adjusted for the historical trend. share is difficult. The ability to evaluate a clothing styles
Regression analysis was used to derive the numerical values in salability is a key element in forecasting, and this requires both
this model. thorough knowledge of market trends and keen judgment.
Econometric model building seems a nearly ideal way to Most companies operate in industries that lie somewhere
forecast sales. Not only does it consider the interaction of between these two extremes, with market shares neither as
independent variables that bear logical and measurable relation- stable as in steel nor as volatile as in womens apparel. Forecast-
ships to sales, it uses regression analysis techniques to quantify ers in most companies need information on competitors plans
these relationships. Econometric models, however, are best to launch new and improved products, advertising and selling
used to forecast industry sales not the sales of individual plans, pricing strategies, and so on. When forecasters evaluate
companies. This is because the independent variables affecting this information in relation to their own companys proposed
an individual companys sales are more numerous and more marketing and selling plans, they are in a position to exercise
difficult to measure than are those determining the sales of an informed judgment in predicting the companys probable
entire industry. Many companies use an econometric model to market share. If, for example, a forecaster knows that a major
forecast industry sales, and then apply an estimate of the competitor plans a substantial price cut on a product that many
companys share-of the-market percentage to the industry buyers buy mainly on the basis of price, it will be necessary to
forecast to arrive at a first approximation for the companys lower the estimate of the companys market share unless
forecasted sales. management is willing to match the price cut. Forecasting a
companys market share is a matter both of examining past
Converting Industry Forecast to trends and of appraising impending changes in competitive
Company Sales Forecast relationships.
Many companies forecast both their own sales and sales of the
industry. Of those using multimethod forecasting procedures,
nearly all at one or more stages provide for the making of
an industry sales forecast. In fact, of the six sales forecasting
methods discussed in this chapter, only in two the poll of
sales force opinion and unsophisticated forms of projecting
past sales is to normal to skip the industry sales forecast and
forecast company sales directly. The general practice is to forecast
industry sales early in the procedure and from it derive a
company sales forecast for use as a check against forecasts arrived
at through other methods.
Deriving a company sales forecast from an industry sales
forecast requires an appraisal of company strengths and
32
Points to Ponder Questions

Q1. Describe advantages of using Regression Techniques?
Q2. What is Time Series analysis?
Quantitave Methods Q3. Using the information below develop a sales forecast for
Projection of Past Sales the next year for this firm using moving average method ,
Time series Analysis Moving Average Method Projection of past sales method. Do you think these
Exponential smoothining methods should give you the same estimate? Why or Why
Regression Analysis not?]
Econometric model building ans simulation ABC Corp.
Year Sales
1995 7,50,000
1996 8,25,000
1997 8,95,000
1998 9,75,000
1999 10,25,000
2000 11,00,000
Notes -
Quantitave Methods
Time series Analysis Moving Average Method
Exponential smoothining
Regression Analysis
Econometric model building ans simulation
33
UNIT 2
ORGANISATION AND MANAGEMENT
LESSON 8 UNIT 3
MANAG
FUNCTIONS OF SALESPERSON
Learning Objectives:
To learn about the functions of sales management Sales Management Functions

Functions of The Sales Executive Planning
Building a profitable customer
Qualities of Effective Sales Executives oriented sal e s team
Relations With Managers of Other Marketing Activities

The job of a sales people involves lot of creativity . Let us see Contro lling Staffing
what makes an effective sales executive. E valuating the past to Hi ring the right people to sell
guide the future and lead
The Effective Sales Executive

The sales executives job, like those of other line executives, is
to make deci-sions and to see to it that others carry them out.
Leading Train ing
However in marked contrast to the jobs of other marketing Guiding average people to Educating sales personnel s to
executives, the job of the sales executive is more action oriented perform at above average
level s
satisfy the customers
and less planning oriented. Not that sales executive are uncon-
cerned about planning, because they are. But their plans cover
rather short periods and concern near-term personal-selling
Nature of Sales Management Positions
objectives and how to at-tain them. It is not stretching things
The requirements of the sales executives job vary from
very much to say that the main concern of marketing manage-
company to company and from position to position within
ment is the future and the main concern of sales
companies. However, certain responsibili-ties are typically
management is the present-the here and now. Ultimately,
assigned to the same types of executives in different companies.
all marketing plans call for action in their implementation, and
It is possible, therefore, to generalize about the activities and
sales managements plans typically are near to the action point.
responsibilities of sales managers, district sales managers,
What qualifications must sales executives have to make product managers, and other sales or marketing executives.
decisions? They re-quire a base of experiential and other Some companies have formulated concise statements of duties
knowledge, much of which may not be very explicit; this base associated with various positions, known as job or position
provides a feel for problems and possible solutions. They descriptions. Typical job descriptions for the jobs of sales
need keen awareness of company and sales department goals- manager and district sales manager follow.
they must recognize the key features distinguishing the sort of
company that top manage-ment is trying to build, and they Position Guide-Sales Manager
must visualize the nature and type of contribu-tions the sales Reporting relationship
department can make toward realizing that future company The sales manager reports to the vice-president of marketing.
im-age. They need the ability to conceptualize problem
Job Objective
situations in areas where they have the main decision-making
The primary objective is to secure maximum volume of dollar
responsibility and in those where they con-tribute to decisions
sales through the effective development and execution of sales
that have implications in other marketing areas and/or in other
programs and sales policies for all products sold by the division.
parts of the business.
The decisions that the sales executives are involved in may affect Duties and Responsibilities
only the sales department, or they may have significant implica- In working toward achievement of the primary job objective,
tions elsewhere in the Or-ganization. Sales executives, in the sales manager is expected to be concerned with
performing their jobs, must know how to analyze information, I. Sales Program
how to combine its significance with their own experiential The sales manager takes the initiative in establishing short- and
knowl-edge and judgment (and their willingness to accept a long-range sales goals of the division and, in collaboration with
certain amount of risk), how to apply imagination in searching other marketing executives, sets sales, profit, growth, market
for alternative solutions to problems, how to predict the likely share, and other goals.
outcomes of different -alternatives, and how to choose that The sales manager arranges for the development of detailed
alternative with the highest payoff. sales programs designed to improve competitive positions,
reduce selling and other distribution expenses, and reach
established sales goals.
The sales manager reviews and approves sales policies, sales
strate-gies, and pricing policies (to the extent that they impact
34
upon sales goals) for all products to ensure that short-term The sales manager reviews and approves sales and expense bud-

operations are in accord with long-term profitability and do not gets and evaluates periodically the performance of all sales
jeopardize other phases of the companys operations. activities in relation to budget and sales goals and takes such
corrective actions as are required.
2. Organization
The sales manager establishes an effective plan of organi-zation, The sales manager delegates authority and develops control rec-
and methods of controlling the activities of members of the ords and performance standards to permit a proper balance of
sales organization, that will provide sufficient time for carrying time spent on the various activities in this job description.
out the full line of departmental responsibilities. Performance Criteria.
The sales manager provides leadership both to immediate The sales managers performance is considered satisfactory when
subor-dinates and all levels of the sales organization in The departments dollar and unit sales are equal to or exceed the
establishing a sound basis for each individuals self-develop- quantities budgeted.
ment, and in making certain that rewards are in line with The profit contribution of the sales departrnent is in line with
responsibilities and performance. plan.
3. Sales Force Management The details of sales plans are in writing and acceptable to
The sales manager identifies promising sources for the recruit- marketing management.
ment of new sales personnel and sets standards for selec-tion The turnover rate of sales personnel is maintained at a level
of the most promising recruits. regarded as satisfactory by marketing management.
The sales manager provides for the training of new personnel
Functions of the Sales Executive
so as to achieve high-level performance in the shortest possible
Many sales executives get promoted into their positions because
time. At the same time the sales manager provides for the
of their previ-ous performances as salespersons. In some
training of veteran sales personnel, so as to improve their
companies, outstanding salespersons have an inside track when
performance levels and to prepare them for possible promo-
sales executives jobs are being filled. The assumption is that
tion. The sales manager sees to it that there is an adequate
outstanding salespersons will be outstanding sales executives.
supply of sales executive talent for replacements up through
Nothing could be farther from the truth. The sales executives
and including the sales managers own position.
job demands administra-tive skills much beyond those required
The sales manager ensures that sales personnel are properly of salespeople. Personal-selling experi-ence is not unimportant,
moti-vated, so as to achieve optimum sales performance. as sales executives manage people who do personal selling. But
The sales manager establishes a system of sales supervision that .personal-selling experience and outstanding personal-selling
controls waste and inefficiency and points sales efforts into the perfor-mance are two different things-most companies can
most Profitable channels. recount instances where an outstanding salesperson failed in a
sales executives job.
4. Internal and External Relations
The sales manager develops effective work-ing relations with Basically, the sales executive has two sets of functions: operating
other department heads and the general manager so that and plan-ning.
significant sales developments can. be translated into appropri- The operating functions include sales force management,
ate courses of action. handling rela-tionships with personnel in other company
The sales manager develops and maintains relationships with departments and with the trade (middlemen and/or custom-
key accounts that provide maximum long-term participation in ers), communicating and coordinating with other marketing
their availa-ble business. executives, and reporting to some superior executive (such as
the marketing vice-president). In addition, in some companies
The sales manager develops and maintains effective working
and fairly commonly in lower-level sales executive positions, the
rela-tionships with sales, training, and other key personnel in
sales executive sells some accounts personally (to keep a hand
the employ of customers to ensure that cooperation is benefi-
in and to keep abreast of current selling problems and
cial to both parties.
conditions).
5. Communications
The sales executives planning functions include those
The sales manager keeps the vice-president of market-ing
connected with the sales program, the sales organization, and its
informed on sales results and future plans of operation.
control. The sales executive is re-sponsible for setting personal-
The sales manager establishes a system of communications selling goals, for developing sales programs de-signed to achieve
with other sales personnel that keeps them informed of overall these goals, for formulating sales policies and personal-selling
departmental sales objectives, results, and problems and keeps strategies, and for putting together plans for their implementa-
the sales manager in-formed of their needs and problems. tion. Sales programs are put into effect through the sales
6. Control organization, and the sales executive is responsible for design-
The sales manager consults with the production manager so ing and shaping the sales organization, for staffing it, for
that production rates and inventories are geared as closely as developing the skills of those who are part of it, and for
possible to actual sales needs. providing leadership to it. Achievement of sales departmental
goals require_ controls over selling ac-tivities, sales volume,
35
selling expenses, and the like. The sales executive is re-sponsible them to carry out assigned tasks with minimum
for these and related control activities. supervision. Ability to delegate authority is a must.
The relative emphasis that sales executives give to the operating Effective executives se-lect high-caliber subordinates and
and plan-ning functions varies with (1) the type of products, (2) provide them with authority to make decisions. Within
the-size of company, and (3) the type of supervisory organiza- existing policy limits, decisions are made by subordi-nates;
tion. Customarily, sales executives at all organizational levels when an exception falling outside these limits occurs, the
devote more time and attention to sales force management than supe-rior decides. The more capable the subordinates, the
they do to any other single activity. wider policy limits can be and the more the superiors time
is freed for planning.
The significance attached to operating and planning functions
varies with the product. 3. Ability to utilize time efficiently. The time of sales
executives is valuable, and they budget it and use it
If the product is a consumer good, sales executives attach the
carefully. They allocate working time to tasks yielding the
great-est importance to planning functions: development of
greatest return. They arrive at an optimum division be-
sales programs, coordination of personal selling with advertis-
tween office work and field supervision. Even the use of
ing, and building and maintaining relationships with dealers
off-duty hours is important. Excessive work time and too
and customers.
little leisure reduce effi-ciency. Successful sales executives
If the product is an industrial good, sales executives attach balance such leisure-time activities as community service
the greatest importance to the operating functions -managing and professional meetings against personal social ac-tivities,
and directing the sales force, making calls with salespeople, and recreation, and self-improvement.
sell-ing personal accounts. Consumer-goods sales managers, in
4. Ability to allocate sufficient time for thinking and
general, spend more time on planning and less on operating
planning. Able administra-tors make their contributions
than do their counterparts in industrial- goods companies.
through thinking and planning. They know how and are
The amount of the sales executives time devoted to planning willing to think. They recognize that reviewing past
and operat-ing functions is influenced by the size of the sales performances is a prerequisite to planning. They strive to
organization. Sales executives in small companies spend less gain new in-sight that will bring problems into better
time on planning and more on operating. As the size of the focus. Effective sales executives shield themselves from
company increases, the sales executive devotes more time to routine tasks and interruptions. Failing this, they retreat to
planning and less to operating. Shangri-Las where surroundings are conducive to think-ing
Exerting important influences on the way sales executives and planning.
distribute their time and effort, too, is the type of supervisory 5. Ability to exercise skilled leadership. Competent sales
organization. When the sales exec-utive supervises the field executives develop and improve their skills in dealing with
sales force directly, he or she spends most of the time on people. Although they rely to a cer-tain extent on an
operating functions. When the sales executive supervises the intuitive grasp of leadership skills, they depend far more
field sales force through subordinate sales executives, more on careful study of motivational factors and shrewd
attention is devoted to planning and less to operating. Sales analysis of the ever-changing patterns of unsatisfied needs
executives who have high-caliber subordinates generally are among those with whom they work. Skilled leadership is
more willing to delegate most of the performance of the important in dealing with subordinates and with everyone
operating functions to them and, consequently, have more time else.
left for planning.
Relations with Top Management
Qualities of Effective Sales Executives Effective sales executives are well above average in initiative and
What qualities should sales executives possess? It is difficult to personal drive. Realizing the sales executives potential, however,
list _success qualifications. Sales executives jobs cover a gamut depends largely upon rela-tions with top management. Sales
of products, markets, and marketing channels, and there would executives should want to get ahead, for per-sonal goals are as
seem to be few, if any, qualifications in common. Nevertheless, vital to them as the objectives they set for the sales department,
five qualities (or abilities) common to effective sales exec-utives, but if they are to achieve these goals, not only must they know-
whatever their fields, can be identified: where they are going, but top management must be kept
1. Ability to define the positions exact functions and abreast of their progress.
duties in relation to the goals the company should Effective sales executives plan and implement their own self-
expect to attain. Sales executives calculate what is en-tailed development programs, and setting definite career goals is
in their responsibilities. Whether or not the company essential. They harmonize their own goals with those of the
provides them with a job description, they draw up their organization, this being important for maximum progress of
own descriptions consis-tent with the responsibilities individual and company alike. Whenever the sales executive and
assigned by higher management. Revisions are necessary the company cease to move toward mutually compatible goals,
whenever changes occur in the assigned responsibilities or friction causes both to fall short. When this happens, either the
in company goals. two sets of goals must be reconciled, or the executive should
2. Ability to select and train capable subordinates and leave the firm. Sometimes, sales executives unilaterally reconcile
willingness to delegate sufficient authority to enable such goal conflicts (usually by adjusting personal goals to fit
36
those of the organization). More often, they reconcile them the common misconception that a sales manager sits behind

through interaction with company top management. the desk issuing orders. In reality a sales manager devote
Effective sales executives are highly qualified as problem solvers considerable time to field travel and to solving customers
and deci-sion makers.. Consequently, sales executives guard problems. In addition their calls are often designed to help train
against taking too many of their problems to top management. salespeople and to keep management informed about competi-
Asking for help in deciding problems is ask-ing for closer tive conditions.
supervision (and less authority). Competent sales executives do Relations with Managers of Other
not require a close watch over their activities. Marketing Activities
Effective sales executives keep top management informed on Sales executives spend most of their time on sales force
important decisions and the departments plans and accom- management; they also are concerned with other marketing
plishments. They transmit all ordinary reports promptly, and activities. The degree of responsibility over these activities, and
special reports when appropriate. They exercise restraint in the amount of time allocated to them, vary with the particu-lar
reporting their own activities, but they see that their superiors job, but sales executives are almost always concerned wid.!
have all the information needed to evaluate their personal Products, promo-tion, pricing, and distribution. They may also
effectiveness. Their re-ports ensure that top management have a role in achieving control over these activities and coordi-
knows in broad outline the problems encoun-tered in selling nation among them.
_he companys products, the ways they are handled, and the re- Relation with Product Management
sults accomplished. Product planning and the formulation of product policies
Effective sales executives pay attention to the manner in which require numerous decisions. Periodically each product needs
they com-municate with top management. They do not hesitate appraising in terms of its profitability and its ability to fulfill
to give their superiors the benefit of their thinking, but, unless buyers wants. Decisions are made on whether each should be
matters of high principle are involved, they are willing to retained, changed or improved, or dropped from the line. Other
modify preconceived ideas. deci-sions are made on adding new products and on changes in
When the sales executive has a great idea, is absolutely sure of it; product design and other features. Still other decisions concern
and top management is unconvinced, the sales executive must product quality, services rendered in connection with sales, and
play the role of super-salesperson and sell to those with the packaging.
authority to decide. When the facts do not speak for them- Product decisions are often the shared responsibility of
selves-when those in authority fail to grasp their full marketing, produc-tion, research and development, and
signifi-cancethe sales executive, like any competent executive, financial executives, operating as a product committee. Sales
should bring to bear his or her full powers of persuasion. executives provide inputs for these decisions. Their contact
Effective sales executives listen and learn. They keep a dated with the market through subordinates arid sales personnel
record of im-portant conversations. They refrain from voluntar- provide. them with feedback about product performance_ and
ily discussing the personal competence of fellow executives. acceptance generally not available from other sources.
They avoid relaying rumors. They control their executive Relations with-Promotion Management
contacts, never missing scheduled engagements without reason. Chief marketing executives are responsible for setting promo-
Sales executives following such rules of conduct experience little tional policies, but sales executives participate in their
difficulty in winning top managements confidence and respect. formulation. Their knowledge of the market and their control
over personal-selling activity make sales executives a key source
of information, and they occupy a strategic position in imple-
menting promo-tional plans. Sales personnel are responsible
How Salespeople and Sa les Managers Spend Their Time not only for transmitting sales messages to prospects but for
securing the use of point-of-purchase displays and for coordi-
nating dealer efforts with advertising programs. Sales executives,
be-cause of their key roles in making and implementing
promotional policies, must coordinate closely with other
executives in the formulation and implementation of the
promotional program.
Almost every product relies on personal selling as a promo-
tional method at one or more points in the marketing channel.
Personal sellings effectiveness traces to the use of personal
contact in conveying the sales message to prospec-tive buyers.
But personal selling is the most expensive promotional
method in terms of cost per sales message transmitted. The
proportion of personal selling in the promotional mix generally
must be limited, and it is the sales executives responsibility to
According to the given data it is seen that largest portion of keep selling costs down.
sales managers time is spend in selling . This finding dispels
37
The sales executive makes certain that salespeople keep abreast tive network-also influencing the size of the sales force, the
of current advertising campaigns. Sales personnel need briefing nature of the sales pet sons job, the need for sales supervision,
on specific advertising ap-peals, enabling them to adapt their and the like. Because of the impact of distribution policies
selling approaches in ways that enhance the total promotional upon the sales organization and its activities, sales executives
impact. The sales force should know which media are scheduled play key roles in providing information needed for their
to carry advertisements for which products and the timing of formulation, since they are responsible for implementation of
each ads ap-pearance. Advertising personnel need access to the these policies.
sales executive, since this ex-ecutive is an important source of
Conclusion
information about customers, their needs, behavior, and
Sales executives jobs vary from company to company and from
motives.
position to posi-tion within companies, but all are responsible
Sales executives play similar roles with respect to other promo- for making decisions and seeing to it that others carry them out.
tional meth-ods. Decisions regarding the usage of these All sales executives, from the top sales executive down, spend
methods in the promotional mix are normally made by the most of their time managing personal-selling activities. Lower-
chief marketing executive or by other specialists. Besides serving ranking sales executives, such as branch managers, devote nearly
as an important source of information, the sales executive all their time to direct supervision of salespersons. Thus, while
secures coordinative efforts by the sales force to ensure that each sales executives need qualifica-tions similar to those of effective
promotional activity obtains optimum results. executives in other fields, they must ,be adept at leading people.
Relations with Pricing Management The higher their positions are in the organizational hierarchy,
When major decisions on pricing policy are required, both the the more sales executives must work with decision makers in
chief marketing executive and the sales executive occupy other marketing areas, since all marketing decisions impact on
influential positions in top management councils. Relative to the personal-selling situation
other executives, they generally have much clearer ideas of the
prices final buyers are willing to pay, the sales executive because
Notes -
of close and continuing contacts with the market and the
marketing executive because of ac-cess to pricing information
gathered and interpreted by the marketing research staff.
In spite of the fact that these two executives are well qualified to
speak with authority on pricing matters, price policies should be
formulated and prices should be set by a group of executives.
Each department affected should be rep-resented, for pricing
policymaking is, by nature, an interdepartmental activity.
Included in the policy making group should be representatives
not only of the marketing department but also of such
departments as production, cost account-ing, credit, advertising,
legal, and public relations. Pricing, policies should result from
the cooperative action of the group rather than from compro-
mises among its members.
Once pricing policy is established, its implementation is the
responsibility of the sales executive. For example, the pricing
committee might adopt sug-gested list prices, but the sales
executive is the one responsible for informing dis-tributors and
dealers and obtaining their conformance. Responsibility for ad-
ministering prices should be assigned to the sales executive,
because the sales department has the closest relationship with
the market.
Relations with Distribution Management
Distribution policies are major determinants of the breadth and
complexity of the sales departments organization and func-
tions. Selection of a marketing channel, or channels, sets the
pattern for sales force operations, both geograph-ically and as to
the classes of customers. It is also necessary to determine the
number of outlets for the product at each distribution level,
and this affects the size and nature of the manufacturers sales
organization and the scope of its ac-tivities. Furthermore,
marketing management determines policies on the amount and
extent of cooperation it desires with members of the distribu-
38
Points to Ponder

Questions
Q1. What type of activities are included in the job of a sales
Sales Management manager?
Q2. Which activity of sales manager takes up the most time?
Ov er v i ew
Sales
Q3. What are thr operating and planning functions of a sales
Environment
executive?
Supervising
Pla nning
P ersonal
Sales S al es Reps
Manager
Motivating
s Recruiting
Train ing
Managing a sales force involves recruiting, hiring, training, supervising,

compensati ng s ales people, motivating them to become problem solvers, and
providing the proper planning and bac kup support so they can perform t heir
jobs properly.
Sales Management
Overview
Sales
E n vironment
Supervising
Planning
P ersonal
Sales S al es Reps
Manager
Motivating
s Recruiting
Train ing
Managing a sales force involves recruiting, hiring, training, supervising,

compensati ng salespeople, motivating t h em to become problem solvers, and
providing the proper planning and backup support so they can perform their
jobs properly.
39
LESSON 9
PURPOSE OF SALES ORGANISATION
Learning Objectives organization. The ideal sales organization has a built-in

To understand the purpose of sales organization adaptability allowing it to respond appropriately in fluid and
diverse marketing environments.
To know the steps in setting up a sales organization
structure So what is the Purposes of Sales
Organlzation ?
The Sales Organization
In this lesson we will study about the sales organization In the ideally organized sales department, wasted motion
and duplication of ef-fort would be eliminated, friction
Effective sales executives insist upon sound organization. They
would be minimized, and cooperation maxi-mized.
recognize that the sales organization must achieve both
Dynamic characteristics inherent in marketing preclude the
qualitative and quantitative personal-selling objectives. Over the
achievement of such perfection. But when sufficient
long haul, it must achieve qualitative objec-tives-those concern-
attention is given to sales organization, the ideal is
ing personal-sellings expected contributions to achieve-ment of
approached, if not attained, and personal-selling efforts
overall company objectives. In the short run, it must attain the
increase in productivity.
quantita-tive personal-selling objectives-not only sales volume
but other objectives related to profit (such as keeping selling How an organization works is more important than how it
expenses within certain limits) and to competitive position is supposed to function. Sales management should direct
(such as attaining given market shares). Achieving short- run its main organizational efforts toward the informal
quantitative personal-selling objectives precedes attainment of organization. Through intelligent leadership and related
the long-run qualitative personal-selling objectives. The effective hu-man relations talents, the skilled manager moves
sales executive looks upon the sales organization both with both individuals and informal groups along lines that
respect to the here and now and to the fu-ture. But the facilitate achievement of the purposes of formal organi-
sales organization makes its major contribution in the present zation.
and the near term-recognizing this, the effective sales executive To Permit the Development of Specialists
builds both sales -mindedness and profit-mindedness into the As a business expands, marketing and selling activities multiply
sales organization. and become in-creasingly complex. It is difficult to fix responsi-
Existence of a sales organization implies the existence of bility for performance of all nec-essary activities, particularly
patterns of relationships among subgroups and individuals when executives are reluctant to delegate authority.
established for purposes of facil-itating accomplishment of the One purpose of reorganizing the sales department is to
groups aims. facilitate assignment of responsibility and delegation of
Organizational defects often trace to lack of attention given to authority. In fact, specialization, or division of labor as
sales organi-zation during the early existence of a company. economists call it, is the chief means through which the pro-
When setting up a business, management is more concerned cesses of organization and reorganization are affected. As tasks
with financing and non marketing problems. Executives of grow in number and complexity, they are broken down into
new enterprises consider organization questions, but most manageable units and are assigned to specialized personnel. The
often these relate to non marketing activities. In manufacturing, assignments made are called delegations of authority. This is
for example, as prod-ucts are improved, production quantities conducive to the development of specialists.
increased, new products added, and production processes To Assure that All Necessary Activities are Performed
developed, the manufacturing organization is adapted to As a sales organization grows and specialization increases, it is
changed situations. Similar alterations in the sales organization increasingly im-portant to perform all necessary activities. What
are frequently neglected or postponed. are necessary changes over time. When jobs are highly
Sales organizations in many companies evolved without regard specialized, danger exists that the organizational plan will not
for chang-ing conditions. The basic setup designed when the provide for supervision of all activities. Essential tasks may not
company was new remains, despite, for example, changes in be per-formed, simply because they are not assigned to specific
selling style and size of sales force. The sales organization, after individuals.
all, is the vehicle through which personal-selling strategy is When a company is small, for instance, its executives are in close
implemented. A well-designed sales organization, like a well- contact with users of the product. As a company grows, as
designed automo-bile, accomplishes more, and more marketing channels lengthen, and as the marketing area expands
economically, than does one that is an arti-fact. geographically, top executives become far-ther and farther
The sales organization should be adjusted to fit-ideally, to removed from the customers. As soon as executives begin to
anticipate -changing situations. Shifts in marketing, in competi- lose their informal contacts with customers, an individual
tion, and in other business factors call for changes in the sales
40
should be assigned re-sponsibility for maintaining such

This permits higher-ranking sales executives to delegate more
relationships. If these contacts are highly important, responsi- authority. It also allows for the more effective use of specializa-
bility for maintaining them should be assigned to an executive tion, while higher executives devote less time to operations and
specializing in customer relations. more to planning. One purpose, then, of organization-and one
To Achieve Coordination or Balance often overlooked-is achieving economies in the use of executive
Good organization achieves coordination or balance. Individu- time. Top sales executives need not concern themselves
als vary in compe-tence, potential, and effectiveness. Their personally with all the sales departments problems and ac-
personalities may be such that through assumption of tivities, particularly routine or technical ones, when they have
authority, failure to delegate it, or both, their positions are capable and well- trained subordinates.
magnified out of all proportion to their importance. Worse yet, In building the sales organization, then, the need for effective
total accomplishments of the organization are less than they coordination limits the number of subordinates who report
could have been if, so to speak, greater advantage had been directly to certain executives. This limit is the span of control.
taken . By getting people to pull together as a team rather than But the greater the abilities of the coordinator and of those
as an assortment of individuals, the organization accomplishes report-ing to him or her, the larger the number that can be
more collectively than its members could independently. effectively coordinated. Lower-level sales executives, however,
Motivating individuals to work together toward common those with salespeople reporting directly to them, have a wider
objectives is, then, important in achieving coordination. span of control than higher executives devoting much time to
Individual goals are subordinated to, or reconciled with, planning and policy formulation and little to administrative and
organizational goals. Some of the means for accomplishing this operat-ing details.
are indoctrination and training programs, group meetings, Settlng Up A Sales Organization
supervision and guidance, and two-way communications. Let us see how a sales organization is set ?
Modern organizational theory suggests that sales departments Not often is a sales organization built entirely from scratch, as
should be divided into small, freely communicating, face-to-face some structure usually exists. Most problems of sales organiza-
groups to decrease the possibility of uncoordinated prolifera- tion, in other words, are problems of reorganization-the sales
tion. organization exists and the goal is to make it more effective. It
To Define Authority is appropriate, nevertheless, for the sales executive to approach
Sales executives should know whether their authority is line, the organizational problem, each time it arises, as though a
staff, or functional. Line authority carries the power to require completely new organi-zation were being built. There are five
execution of orders by those lower in the organizational major steps in setting up a sales organization:
hierarchy. Staff authority is the power to suggest to that
holding line authority the method for implementation of an
Defining
Definingthe
the
order. Functional authority enables specialists in particular areas, objectives
objectives
such as in technical product ser-vice, to enforce their directives
within a specific and limited field. Line executives make Delineating
Delineating
the
thenecessary
necessary
decisions on the need, place, and time of action over a wide activities
activities
range of mat-ters. Staff executives advise line executives about
Grouping
Grouping
methods but have no formal power to require or enforce the activities
activities into
into
execution of their recommendations. Functional executives are 'jobs"
'jobs"
specialists-experts in some aspect of the business-who assist ex-
Assigning
Assigning
ecutives holding general line authority. For example, such personnel
personnelto
to
specialists advise on new product introduction. positions
positions
A sales organization receives directions from several sources No Providing

Providingfor
for
person should have more than one boss. The supporting coordination
coordination
and control
and control
argument is that, if individuals receive instructions from multi-
ple sources, they may get conflicting and confusing directions.
The argument is a good one, but the one-boss rule does not Defining Objectives
necessarily follow. Modern organi-zational theory points out The initial step is to define the sales departments objectives.
that the real problem is; one not of avoiding the multiple-boss Top management, of course, defines the long-run objectives for
situation but harmonizing orders and directives from different the company, and from these, the general, or long-run, objec-
sources. A smoothly operating sales organization has built-in tives for the sales department are derived Quantitative
ways of achieving harmony. Two important ways are continuing personal-selling objectives, in turn, are set with an eye on the
coordination of the work of different executives and free- qualitative objectives. Survival, for instance, is the most basic
flowing communications systems. qualitative objective of any enterprise as well as its sales
To Economize on Executive Time department, and this requires, among other things, a continu-
As a sales departments operations and activities increase in ing flow of sales revenue; so, securing a given level of sales
complexity and number, additional subordinates are added. volume is an important sales department quantita-tive objec-
tive.
41
Survival also requires profits. Hence, a second qualitative prudent and profitable to modify the job specifications to fit
personal-selling objective is to produce profits, not only by them. Nevertheless, planners prefer, whenever the situation
making profitable sales but by control-ling departmental costs permits, to have individuals grow into particular jobs rather
and expenses. than to have jobs grow up around individuals.
It follows that a third qualitative personal-selling objective is to Provision for Coordination and Control
realize long-term growth in sales and profits. Therefore, three Sales executives who have others reporting to them (that is,
of the sales departments general objectives -all traceable to those with line au-thority) require means to control their
managements desire for survival of the firm-may be summed subordinates and to coordinate their ef-forts. They should not
up in three words: sales, profits, and growth. be so overburdened with detailed and undelegated re-
Quantitative personal-selling objectives are required as operating sponsibilities that they have insufficient time for coordination.
guideposts. Thus, the quali-tative personal-selling objective of Control and coordination is obtainable through both informal
producing profits may be translated into specific quantitative and formal means. Strong leaders control and coordinate the
personal-selling objectives efforts of their subordinates largely on an informal basis.
Determination of Activities and Their Through sheer force of personality coupled with unusual
Volume of Performance abilities to attract and hold the loyalty of followers, the strong
Fundamental to sound organizational design is recognition that leader tends to make minimal use of formal instruments of
activities are be-ing organized. Only after determining all control and coordination. The most important formal instru-
necessary activities and estimating their volume of performance ment of organizational control is the written job description.
is it possible to answer such questions as: What ex-ecutive This instrument sets forth for each job: reporting rela-
positions are required? What should be their relationships to tionships, job objectives, duties and responsibilities and
other posi-tions? What should be the duties and responsibili- performance measure-ments.
ties of persons who fill these positions? Good job descriptions provide clear pictures of the roles job
holders are to play in the sales organization, and are also useful
Grouping Activities into Positions
in other situations. Written job descriptions find use in
Next, the activities identified as necessary are allocated to
employee selection processes.
different positions. The planner must keep in mind that
activities are aimed at achieving certain objectives-ultimately the An organizational chart, another control instrument, shows
composite provides the raw material from which job descrip- formal rela-tions among different positions. A chart reduces
tions are compiled (in terms of reporting relationships, job confusion about the individu-als role. An organizational chart
objectives, du-ties and responsibilities, and performance delineates formal relations and, because of this, rarely provides a
measures). true picture of how the organization actually works. Neverthe-
less, availability of an organizational chart enables members of
Activities are classified and grouped so that closely related tasks
a sales depart-ment to learn the nature of their formal relations
are as-signed to the same position. Each position should
with others, to know with whom they are expected to cooper-
contain not only a sufficient number of tasks but sufficient
ate, and to clarify their formal roles.
variation to provide for job challenge, interest, and involve-
ment.
Certain activities are of crucial importance to success of the sales
Notes -
depart-ment, and this has implications for organizational
design. For example, in a highly competitive field, product
merchandising and pricing are assigned to po-sitions high up in
the organizational structure. Activities of lesser importance are
assigned to lower-level jobs.
When a large number of positions is being set up, groups of
related jobs are brought together to form departmental
subdivisions.. The smallest number of administrative levels
that permits the organization both to perform its activities and
to operate smoothly is best.
Assignment of Personnel to Positions
The next step is to assign personnel to the positions. This
brings up the question of whether to recruit special individuals
to fill the positions or to modify the posi-tions to fit the
capabilities of available personnel. This is a question that has
long been controversial. Compromises are frequent. On the one
hand, some position requirements are sufficiently general that
many individuals possess the neces-sary qualifications, or can
acquire them through training. On the other hand, some
individuals possess such unique talents and abilities that it is
42

Q1. What do you understand by sales organization structure?
Q2. What is the purpose of sales organization?
Purpose of sales organization Q3. What are the steps in setting up a sales organization
structure?
To permit development of specialists
To assure that all necessary activities are
performed
To achieve coordination of balance
To define authority
To economize on executives time
Defining
Definingthe
the
objectives
objectives
Delineating
Delineating
the
thenecessary
necessary
activities
activities
Grouping
Grouping
activities
activities into
into
'jobs"
'jobs"
Assigning
Assigning
personnel
personnelto
to
positions
positions
Providing
Providing for
for
coordination
coordination
and control
and control
43
LESSON 10
TYPES OF SALES ORGANISATION STRUCTURE
Learning Objectives Occasionally, however, the line sales organization is used where
To understand the different types of sales organization more than two levels of au-thority are present.
structures Figure 10.1 shows a fairly large sales department organized on
To understand what is centralization and decentralization the line basis. The sales manager reports to the general manager,
in sales force assistant sales managers re-port to the sales manager, and
salespeople report to assistant managers. Theo-retically, there is
To understand what are the schemes to divide line
no cross-communication between persons on the same level.
authority in sales organisation
Contacts between persons on the same level are indirect arid are
In the last lesson we learned about the purpose of sales effected through the next higher level. For example, the
organization. In this lesson we are going to study the different assistant sales manager of Divi-sion 1 arranges to confer with
types of sales organization structures . the assistant sales manager of Division 2 through the sales
Basic Types of Sales Organizational manager. Similarly, contacts by sales personnel with the office
Structures staff flow up through the organization to the sales manager
and back down through the assistant sales manager in charge of
Organization structure is the arrangement of people and
the office to the office staff.
tasks to accomplish organizational goals.
There are four basic types of sales organizational structure Advantages of Line Structure
line, line and staff, functional, and committee. The basic simplicity of line organization is the main reason
The grouping of activities into positions and the charting of for its use.
relationships of positions causes the organization to take on Be-cause each department member reports to only one
Struc-tural form. The first two types (line and line and staff) are superior, problems of disci-pline and control are small.
the most common. Functional and committee organizations Lines of authority and responsibility are clear and logical,
are rare. Most sales departments have hybrid organizational and it is difficult for individuals to shift or evade
structures, with variations to adjust for personalities and to fit responsibilities.
specific operating conditions.
Definite placement of authority and responsibility saves
The sales departments structure evolves from the needs of the time in making policy changes, in deciding new plans, and
business. No two companies have identical sales organizations, in converting plans into action.
because no two have iden-tical needs. The customers, the
The simplicity makes it easy for executives to develop close
marketing channels, the company size, the prod-uct or product
relations with salespersons. With this work-ing
line, the practices of competitors, and the personalities and
atmosphere, it is not surprising that executives who come
abili-ties of the personnel are but a few of the factors affecting
up through a line organization are frequently strong
the organizational structure of the sales department.
leaders. As the typical line sales department has few
Lines Sales Organization organizational levels, administrative expenses are low.
The line organization is the oldest and simplest sales organiza-
Weakness of the Line Sales Organization is that
tional structure. It is widely used in smaller firms and in firms
with small numbers of selling personnel-for instance, in The head needs outstanding ability and rare qualifications,
companies that cover a limited geographic area or sell a narrow and should be well versed in all phases of sales
product line. The chain of command runs from the top sales management, for there are no subordinates with specialized
executives down through subordinates. All executives exercise skills and knowledge.
line authority, and each subordinate is responsible only to one Even if the head is an all-around expert, there is
person on the next higher level. Responsi-bility is definitely insufficient time for policymaking and planning, since
fixed, and those charged with it also make decisions and take rigidity of the line structure requires that a great deal of
action. Lines of authority run vertically through the structure attention be given to direction of sales operations. The
and all persons on anyone organizational level are independent head often must make decisions and take action without
of all others on that level. benefit of planning. Under such conditions, results are
The line sales organization sees its greatest use in companies often dis-appointing.
where all sales personnel report directly to the chief sales For rapidly growing concerns and for those with large sales
executive. In these companies this executive often is preoccu- staffs, the line organizational structure is inappropriate. As the
pied with active supervision and seldom has much time to department grows, new layers of executives must be added to
devote to planning or to work with other top executives. retain control. Orders and directions must be passed down
44
through a growing series of administrative levels. Moreover, as sales executives, who if they approve, transmit necessary

growth proceeds, earlier advantages of close relations among instructions to the line organization Figure 10.2 illustrates the
exec-utives and salespeople are sacrificed and maintaining line and staff sales organization. The general sales manager
morale becomes a greater challenge. reports to the vice-president in charge of marketing as does the
adver-tising manager and the manager of marketing research.
General Manager
Six subordinates report to the general sales manager, but only
figure 10.2
one, the assistant general sales manager, is a line executive. Four
of the five staff executives have responsibilities in special-ized
Sales Manager
fields; the fifth, the assistant to the general sales manager, is
given more general assignments.
Note the difference between the assistant to and assistant. The
Asst. Sales Asst. Sales Manager Asst. Sales Manager Asst. Sales assistant to is a staff executive who is given a broader operating
Manager Division 2 Division 3 Manager
Division 1 Division 4 area than those staff specialists with more descriptive titles. In
contrast, the assistant has general line authority delegated by the
Salespeople Salespeople Salespeople Salespeople superior. The assistant general sales manager is an understudy
of the general sales manager who performs assignments of a
Line and Staff Sales Organization line nature in the name of the superior. The assistant to the
The line and staff sales department is often found in large and general sales manager carries part of the general administrative
medium-sized firms, employing substantial numbers of sales load that would otherwise be borne by the general sales
personnel, and selling diversified product lines over wide manager.
geographic areas. In contrast to the line organization, the line The Advantages of the Line and Staff Organization
and staff organization provides the top sales executive with a The chief sales executive, being relieved from much detail
group of specialists-experts in dealer and distributor relations, work, can take a broader view of the department.
sales analysis, sales or-ganization, sales personnel, sales
Problems can be seen in clearer perspective, and
planning, sales promotion, sales training, ser-vice, traffic and
connections between apparently unrelated problems are
warehousing, and similar fields. This staff helps to conserve the
brought into focus.
top sales executives time and frees them from excessively
detailed work. They make it possible for their chiefs to concen- A pool of experts provides advice and assistance in
trate their efforts where they have the most skill. If the top sales specialized fields.
executive is not equipped, through prior training or experience, Planning activities are subdivided and apportioned to staff
to handle certain problems, staff specialists assist in increasing members, and deci-sions and policies rests on a sounder
over-all effectiveness of the department. Similarly, by delegating base than lip the line organization.
problems involving considerable study or detailed, analysis to Meanwhile, the top sales executive can concentrate on
staff executives the top sales executive has more time for control and coordi-nation of subordinates. Staff members
planning and for dealing with higher-priority matters. assume much of the burden of solving problems in their
areas. Thus, the top sales executive can devote more
attention to the human aspects of administration.
President
Weaknesses
V P Marketing
Work of the staff specialists must be coordinated, and this
is costly. Other administrative expenses may also increase,
Advertising General sales Manager of
unless the num-ber of staff executives is kept in line with
Manager Manager Marketing Research departmental needs. The staff should be expanded only
when it can be shown that the contributions of new staff
Director Sales Asst. General Asst. to Sales Director
of sales Personnel sales Manager General sales Promotion of dealer mem-bers will equal or exceed the costs of maintaining
Training Director Manager Manager Relations
them.
District Sales Close control over staff-line relations is essential. If staff
Manager (5)
people issue in-structions directly to line executives, it is
Branch Sales
Manager (32)
difficult to prevent some persons from evading unwanted
responsibilities
Sales Personnel
(450)
When the line and staff sales organization is used, the time
between prob-lem recognition and corrective action tends
to widen. This results from giving staff executives time to
figure 10.2 study problems before making recommendations to the
decision makers.
Staff sales executives do not have authority to issue orders or
directives. Staff recommendations are submitted to the top
45
Figure 10.3 tive divisional or regional sales managers) that
Director of sales
Administration meets periodically to draft training plans and
formulate sales training policies. Implementa-
tion of these plans and policies, however, is the
Installation Manager of Manager of Manager of Manager of Manager of responsibility of the sales training manager, if
& service sales sales sales promotion Dealer sales the company has one, or of the line and/or staff
Manager training supervision Relations Personnel
execu-tives responsible for sales training in their
own jurisdictions. Other, committees found in
sales organizations includes customer relations,
operations, personnel, merchandising, and new
products.
Salesperson Salesperson Salesperson Salesperson Salesperson Salesperson Advantages
Before poli-cies are made-.and action is taken,
Functional Sales Organization important problems are deliberated by com-
This type of organizational structure is based upon the premise mittee members and are measured against varied viewpoints
that each individual in the organization executive and employee Committee meetings, where ideas are interchanged and diverse
should as few distinct duties as possible. The principle of opinions are present, promote coordination among members
specialization is used to the full extent. Duty assignments and of the executive team. When problems are aired in the give and
delegations of authority are made according to function. take of committee meetings, cooperation is likely to be better
No matter where a particular function appears in the organiza- than under any other organization plan. However, unless
tion , it is in jurisdiction of the same executive. In functional decision making and policy formulation are left to specific
sales department sales people receive instructions from several individuals, it is impossible to fix responsi-bility. Committees
executives but on different aspect of their work. Provisions for render their most important service in providing focal points
coordinating the functional executives is made only at the top for discussion and for the making of suggestions; so many
of the structure ; executives at lower level do not have coordi- companies prohibit committees from making decisions or
nating responsibilities. In contrast to line and staff organization formulating policies. No committee should develop into a
, all specialists in functional organization have line authority of vehicle for the evasion of responsibility.
the sort. Instructions and even policies cas be put into effect For committees to operate effectively, other precautions are
with or without prior approval of the top level coordinating necessary. The agenda must be planned and controlled to avoid
executives. wasting time of executives not directly interested in the topics
A functional sales organization structure is shown in figure considered. The tendency for committees to consume large
10.3.The coordinating executive is the director of sales adminis- amounts of time is counteracted if the chairperson keeps the
tration all executives in the next level are specialists . As indicated discussion focused upon the subject at hand.
sales personnel receive instructions from six different executives. Field Organlzation of the Sales Department
Advantages of Functional Sales Organisation Every growing company faces, sooner or later, the necessity for
Specialised activities are assigned to experts whose guidance establishing a field sales organization. The sales manager can
should help in increasing the effectiveness of sales force. personally supervise field selling operations when a company is
young, when only a few salespeople are em-ployed, when the
Weakness sales force travels out of the home office, and when the mar-
The sheer size of sales force in many large firms makes the keting area is small. As more salespersons are added, it is
highly centralized sales operation of a functional increasingly difficult to supervise and control them. If growth
organization impractical.This limitation is traced to the in sales volume is to parallel additions to the sales force, either
requirement in functional model for lone official to the same marketing area must be worked more intensively or
coordinate the specialists . new areas must be penetrated. Both alternatives call for closer
The practicality of functional organization for the sales supervision and control of field sales personnel.
department is open to question. Small and medium sized The field organization consists of all employees of the sales
firms do not find it feasible or financially possible to utilize department who work away from the home office. All outside
the high degree of division of labour. salespeople are included, as are traveling sales supervisors,
Committee Sales Organization branch and district managers, and clerical employees in branch
The committee is never the sole basis for organizing a sales and district offices. Also included are service, repair, and sales
department. It is a method of organizing the executive group promo-tion personnel. Although not all are concerned directly
for planning and policy formulation while leaving actual with increasing the effec-tiveness of field selling operations, each
operations, including implementation of plans and policies, to makes contributions to that end.
individual executives. Thus, many firms have a sales training The two main purposes of a field organization are
committee (com-prised of the general sales manager, his or her 1. To facilitate the sell-ing task and
assistants, the sales training man-ager, and perhaps representa-
46
2. To improve the chances that salespeople will achieve their toward centralization. Local wholesalers with restricted sales

goals. . areas also have small sales forces and, by the nature of their
Sales personnel count on the field organization for assistance operations, are highly central-ized. The principal factor deter-
and support. Their jobs should be made easier because of it. mining centralization, then, is a small size of sales force, but
other marketing factors, such as those illustrated, also move a
Companies that consider centralization desir-able have complex
com-pany in this direction.
supervisory organizations. Each salesperson is subjected to
close supervision-hence the need for a considerable force of High decentralization in sales force management is found
supervisors. Firms that believe in decentralization, in contrast, mainly among companies with large sales forces. Likely to have
permit individuals in the field to op-erate more on their own. considerable decentralization, for instance, is a manufacturing
firm distributing a wide line of consumer prod-ucts over a vast
Numerous factors influence the size of the field organization.
market area and selling directly to varied retailers-all conditions
The larger the firm, assuming similar sales-related marketing
indicating the need for a large number of salespeople. Wherever
policies, the greater the re-quired number of salespeople,
marketing con-ditions require large sales forces; the economies
supervisors, and regional, branch, and district managers. The
and effectiveness of decentrali-zation are more attractive than are
relative emphasis placed on personal selling in the marketing
those of centralization.
program affects the size of the field organization. For example,
the firm selling directly to retailers, ultimate consumers, or Other things being equal, there is a strong pull in the direction
industrial users commits itself to the performance of a sizable of sales force decentralization as a company grows. This is true
personal selling task, and it requires a field organiza-tion of even though decentrali-zation requires at least one more level of
commensurate size. In contrast, companies using wholesalers sales management, and the mainte-nance of branch and district
find that their field organizations can be correspondingly offices (or both) causes additions to other fixed operating costs.
smaller, since parts of the per-sonal selling and other-tasks are With growth, the advantages of decentralized sales force man-
transferred to these middlemen. Other factors affecting the size agement increasingly outweigh the higher costs. Among these
of the field organization include desired frequency of sales calls, advantages are:
number of customers and prospects, and geographical spread 1. More intensive cultivation of the market and, consequently,
of sales ac-counts. a higher sales volume to absorb the higher fixed costs.
Centralization Versus Decentralization in 2. More effective control, improved supervision, and
Sales Force Management increased sales pro-ductivity resulting from the addition of
In the centralized sales organization almost all activities, at least one intermediate level of sales executives, and from
including sales force management, are administered from a reduction of geographical separation of exec-utives and
central headquarters. The central sales office has full responsibil- sales personnel.
ity for recruiting, selecting, training, compensating, supervising, 3. Improved customer service stemming from more effective
motivating, controlling, and evaluating the sales force. In the control of sales personnel.
de-centralized organization, in theory at least, all these activities/ 4. Reduced need for and costs of territorial break-in time,
are handled by field sales executives. since more sale persons are recruited from the areas to
A decentralized sales organization is one in which there is which they are assigned.
decentralization -in management of various selling tasks and in 5. Improved sales force morale-there are more frequent
performance of certain important personnel management contacts with executives, reductions in travel time, and
activities. For example, branch or district sales offices may do the fewer nights away from home.
recruiting, selecting, motivating, and supervising; the central
6. Lower travel expenses-salespeople are dispatched from
head-quarters may handle training, compensating, and evaluat-
decentralized points, and fewer field trips by home office
ing; and the branches and the central headquarters may share
sales executives are re-quired.
responsibility, in proportions varying with the marketing
situation and management philosophy, for other aspects of 7. A built-in management development program-branch
sales force management. It is rare, in other words, for sales force and district offices not only provide realistic training but
management to be either 100 percent centralized or 100 percent serve as proving grounds for future high-level sales
decentralized. Managements appraisal of relative costs and executives. .
effectiveness results in some aspects being central-ized and Schemes For Dividing Line Authority in
others decentralized. the Sales Organization
Centralization in sales force management varies. Smaller As marketing operations expand, line authority and responsibil-
companies that have few salespeople and confine their opera- ity eventually be-come excessively burdensome for the top sales
tions to a small geographical area, keeping the unit of sales executive. There is an increasing number of people to supervise.
high, the sales call frequency low, and the caliber of salespersons Ordinarily, the first remedial step taken is to add a general line
relatively high, incline toward centralized sales force manage- assistant, for example, an assistant general sales manager. As the
ment. Manufacturing firms relying almost entirely upon burden of line administrative work continues to grow, it is
specialized wholesale middle-men for marketing of their necessary to provide additional assistants. These new subordi-
products need only minimum sales forces and, there-fore, tend nates are given line responsibilities nar-rower than those of the
47
assistant general sales manager. Although they work with a Product Division of Line Authority
variety of matters, their assignments cover a limited area of A second scheme for dividing line authority is to split the sales
operations. Tasks of line administration are subdivided among task among sub-ordinate line executives, each of whom directs
these new assistants in one of three ways: (1) by geographic sales operations for part of the product line. When authority is
area, (2) by products, or (3) by customers or mar-keting so divided, more than one sales force may be required. Some
channels. companies product lines are too wide to be distributed
econom-ically by a single sales force. Others sell both highly
Geographic Division of Line Authority
technical and non technical products; thus some salespeople
The large firm with far-flung selling operations is likely to
need specialized training and some do not. In still others,
subdivide line author-ity geographically (see Figure 10.4). This
economies of a single sales force are reduced or eliminated
is particularly so if the characteristics of large numbers of
because different products are marketed to different types of
customers vary by geographic location, if different selling
customers.(see figure 10.5)
problems are encountered in different areas, or if certain
products are more strongly demanded in some regions than in
others. But there is an even more compelling reason for Sales Organization with Product-
dividing line authority geographically as more custom-ers are
added and as a wider area is cultivated, the size of the sales task
Specialized Sales Force
increases enormously. Setting up geographic divisions is a way Chief Marketing Executive
of cutting the sales task down to manageable proportions.
When centralized administration becomes too great a burden Advertising Marketing General Sales Customer
Manager
for the top sales executives, secondary line executives are dele- Research
Manager
Sales
Manager
Promotion
Manager
Relations
Manager
gated authority to conduct sales operations within smaller areas.
Geographic di-vision is usually made first into regions or
divisions. This mayor may not be broken down further into Sales Manager Sales Manager Sales Manager
Product A Product B Product C
districts or branches. Salespeople Salespeople Salespeople
Advantages
When line authority is divided geographically, local
problems are handled speedily. It is not necessary to wait Figure 10.5
for decisions from the home office; many questions of The decision to use the product type of sales organization
importance to customers can be answered by executives should rest on whether the benefits of product specialization
personally acquainted with local conditions. outweigh the additional expenses. If they do not, it is wiser to
Shortening the lines of communication makes possible organize the sales force on some other basis. Gains associated
closer supervision of salespeople, which, in turn, helps in with specialized salespersons, who concentrate on selling specific
improving customer service. Local markets can be products, must be outweighed against increased expenses.
cultivated intensively, and tactics of local competitors can be Maintaining more than one sales force results in higher
met and countered in the field. administrative and travel expenses. There are almost certain to
be times when two company sales personnel selling differ-ent
Weakness
products make calls on the same customers. Although special-
However, this system calls for multiple offices, so administra-
ized salespeo-ple may give more push to individual products,
tive expenses increase. Then, too, the top sales executive faces
many customers object to mul-tiple calls from the same
coordinating several regional operations. Unless this coordina-
company. The benefits of specialized sales forces are greatest for
tion is effective, conflicting policies may develop in different
companies selling broadly diversified lines, reaching different
regions.
mar-kets with different products, and encountering unique
selling problems for the various products.
G e o g r a p h ic a l S a le s O r g a n iz a tio n Customer (or Marketing Channel) Division of Line
Authority
Chief Marketing Executive The third scheme for subdividing line authority is by type of
customer (figure 10.6) .This is appropriate when nearly identical
Advertising Marketing General Sales Sales products are marketed to several types of customers and the
Manager Research Sales Promotion Analyst
Manager Manager Manager problems of selling to each type are different. When the same,
or similar, products are sold to a number of industries, they
Western Regional Eastern Regional often find different applications in each industry. Customers
Sales M anager Sales Manager
4 District 4 District
not only have different needs, they are influenced by different
Sales Managers Sales Managers buying motives. Thus, special sales forces sell to each major type
Salespeople each Salespeople each
with own territory with own territory of customer.
Figure 10.4
48
Points to Ponder

Sales Organization Specialized by
Type of Customer General Manager
Chief Marketing Executive

Sales Man ager
Advertising Marketing General Sales Customer

Manager Research Sales Promotion Relations
Manager Manager Manager Manager Asst. Sales Asst. Sales Asst. Sales Asst. Sales
Manager Manager Manager Manager
Division 1 Division 2 Division 3 Division 4
Sales Manager Sales Manager Sales Manager Salespeople Salespeople Salespeople Salespeople
Transportation Steel Industry Petroleum
Industry Industry
Salespeople Salespeople Salespeople
Figure 10.6
Dividing Line Authority on More than One Basis

Few companies use a single basis for subdividing line authority.
Most use a com-bination, subdividing the selling task more
than once, to permit greater speciali-zation. Nearly every large
sales department subdivides authority on the geo-graphic basis
at some level of organization, but this is done visually in
combination with either the product or type-of-customer
system. If geographical differences are more important than
those of product or type of customer, the primary subdivision
is geographical, and the next is at a lower organizational echelon
according to one of the other bases. If geographical differences
are of lesser importance, the procedure is reversed. The factor Director of sales
most important to the marketing success of the company Administration
should form the basis for the first subdivision, and less
important factors should determine subsequent breakdowns at Installatio Manager Manager of Manager of Manager Manager
lower organizational echelons. n&
service
of sal es
training
sales
super vision
sales
promotion
of Dealer
Relations
of sales
Personnel
Manager
Conclusion
There is growing recognition of the need to apply sound
principles of organiza-tion to the sales department. Organiza-
tional planning is a Continuing activity, and the sales
Salesperso Salesperso Salesperso Salesperso Salesperso Salesperso
n n n n n n
department structure is adjusted to changing market needs.

This has evolved as less emphasis has been placed on securing
orders and more attention has been paid to control of costs
and expenses and the realization of net profits. These are trends
of great importance. As they continue, an increas-ing number
of sales organizations are structured more logically. Selling
activities are performed with less waste effort, and total
effectiveness of the sales effort is enhanced. These advances
result in
significant benefits to the firms achieving them, and to their
customers.
49
(Figure 4- 5) (Figure 4- 8)
Geographical Sales
Geographical Sales Organization
Organization
Sales Organization
Organization Specialized
Specialized by
by Type
Type of
of Customer
Customer

Advertising Manager Marketing General Sales Sales

Research Sales Promotion Analyst
Manager Advertising Manager Marketing General Sales Customer
Manager Manager
Research Sales Promotion Relations
Western Regional Eastern Regional

Sales Manager Sales Manager
Sales Manager Sales Manager Sales Manager

Transportation Industry Steel Industry Petroleum Industry
4 Di strict 4 Di strict
Sales Managers Sales Managers
Salespeople each Salespeople each

with own territory with own territory Salespeople Salespeople Salespeople
Questions
(Figure 4- 6)
Sales Organization
Organization with
with Product-
Product- Specialized
pecialized Sales
Sales Force
Force
Fo rce
Q1. What are the advantages and disadvantages of line
organization structure?
Q2. Explain line and staff organization structure?
Q3. What is functional organization structure?
Q4. What determines centralization and decentralization in an
organization structure?
Advertising Manager Marketing General Sales Customer
Research Sales Promotion Relations
Q5. How is line authority divided?
Sales Manager Sales Manager Sales Manager

Salespeople Salespeople Salespeople

50
LESSON 11 UNIT 4
RECRUITMENT PROCESS
Learning Objectives comprise a particular job via interviewing job holders and
To understand the recruitment procedure supervisors as well as by observation
To understand the recruitment reservoir Job Analysis
To understand internal and external source of recruitment Task
Let us understand how recruitment is done in sales Job context
organization Knowledge
Skill
Ability
The Recruiting and Selection Job Description The document that outlines the
Process purpose of the job, the tasks involved, the duties, and
responsibilities, the performance objectives and the
Step 1 Step 2 Step 3
reporting relationships
Selection:
Person Specification A document that describes the
Planning for Evaluating & Hiring skills, knowledge, and qualities needed to perform a
recruitment and
Recruitment:
Screening Resumes particular job; translates the job requirements into tangible
selection: and applications
Locating
Initial interview features that applicants need to demonstrate
Prospective
Job analysis Intensive interviews
Candidates Recruiting and selecting sales personnel is an important part of
Job qualifications Testing
Job description Assessment Centers imple-menting personal-selling strategy, but it is not all that is
External Sources
Recruitment and Background Inves- involved. Initial sales training is required to bring new sales
selection objectives tigation
Recruitment and
Internal Sources
Physical Exam
personnel up to expected productivity lev-els, and continuing
selection strategy Selection Decision/ sales training is needed to maintain more experienced sales
Job Offer personnel at high levels of productivity. Motivational and
supervisory efforts help in stimulating sales personnel to apply
their skills effectively. It is on thing for sales .personnel to know
Recruiting Sales Personnel
what they are supposed to know, but it is a different thing to
Fielding the sales personnel needed to service the companys
get them to apply what they know.
customers and prospects is a key responsibility of sales
executives. Discharging this responsibility requires that the sales There are three main steps in re-cruiting and selecting a sales
executive implement personal-selling strat-egy in terms of both force.
the kind and number of sales personnel. Implementation is by Step 1 is to evaluate the sources from which sales personnel
no means a simple process. Having determined the desired kind with good potentials are obtainable.
of sales per-sonnel, implementation requires Job analysis, the Step 2 is to tap the identified recruiting sources -and build a
writing of job descriptions, and the deriving of job specifica- supply of prospective sales personnel.
tions so that recruiters will know the qualifications they should
Step 3 is to select those who have the highest probability of
look for in prospective sales employees and sales trainers will
success.
know what additional qualifications they should aim to provide
The recruiting Company looks for Qualifications in individuals
newly recruited sales personnel. Having decided the appropriate
according to job requirement. They find the best possible sales
number of sales personnel, imple-mentation requires recruiting
people to suit the requirement. An applicant looks for compen-
that number initially and replacing those that are lost (for
sation , Position , Growth , security in a company which acts as
whatever reason). Implementing personal-selling strategy, then,
a motivation.
is a never-ending process-the nature of the selling job tends to
A Mutual Matching Process
change rather slowly (so changes in the kind of sales personnel
desired are infrequent), but having and keeping the right
number of sales personnel is a continual concern. Organization Individual
Recruitment - the process of generating a pool of candidates
from which to select the appropriate person to fill a job vacancy.
It involves-
Job Analysis: The process of analysing the content to Job Requirements Qualifications
produce an account of the tasks and competencies that Rewards Motivation
51
professor of marketing and sales management, the trade
association executive, the placement advisor of a university or

What Recruiters/Managers Look For community college, and vocational advisors in other educational
Education
institutions. Names in the prerecruiting res-ervoir should be
Interview performance
reviewed periodically. Those that become badly dated should be
Sales related experience
Personal appearance culled.
References Sources of Sales Force Recruitment
Psychological test results
aptitude Recruiting Sales Evaluation
personality One approach to evaluating the sources of recruits is to study
skills those used in the past. Analysis of each source reveals the
Demographic characteristics number of recruits produced, and the ratio of successes to
Personal background failures. Each source, in other words, is analyzed quantita-tively
Current status and lifestyle
and qualitatively. One source may have provided numerous
recruits but few successes; a second, fewer recruits but a high
Organization for Recruiting and proportion of successes.
Selection Consider the analysis in Figure 11.1. The source accounting for
The organization for recruiting and selection of sales personnel the largest number of recruits showed a success ratio only
varies from company to company. Company size, executives slightly more favorable than the ratio for all sources-but it did
personalities, and departmen-tal structure all influence the account for ten of the thirty-five successes re-cruited and, for
organization used. Where the sales manager has a personnel this reason, management might want to continue using it.
staff assistant, recruiting and selection usually is handled entirely Three sources had higher-than-average success ratios, and
within the sales department. Companies with small sales forces management should explore ways of increasing the number of
sometimes assign sole responsibility for recruiting and selection recruits from them. Three other sources had very low success
of sales personnel to the company personnel manager, but this ratios, and management should use them sparingly in the
is unusual. It is more common for the personnel department future.
to handle certain, but not all, aspects of recruiting and prelimi- A word of caution: These results indicate the experience of only
nary screening and for the sales department to handle other one com-pany and should not be considered typical. Further-
aspects of recruiting and screening and to make the hiring more, the definition of suc-cess adopted by a particular
decisions. management affects the analysis. Here success was defined as
Placement of responsibility for recruitment and selection of demonstrated ability to meet or exceed sales quotas in two
sales personnel in concerns with regional or district sales offices years out of three. Other managements might define success
also varies. These functions tend to be centralized at the home differently.
office when, the firm requires high-caliber sales personnel, such Figure 11.1 Source Analysis of Soles Personnel Recruited by an
as those needed to do technical selling. Other factors, for exam- Electrical Products Manufacturer
ple, size of regional and district organizations and location of
training programs, make it difficult to draw further generaliza-
Ratio of
tions. However, decentralized re-cruitment and selection result Number of % of Number of
Successes to
Recruits Total Successes
in reduced interviewing costs and time, and facili-tate the hiring Source Total
of local applicants for sales work. Recommendations by own 22 27.50% 10 0.455
Salespeople '-
The Prerecruiting Reservoir Educational institutions 14 17.50 10 0.715
Because of uncertainties as to when new sales personnel will be Sales personnel for 12 15.00 2 0:167
No competing firms
needed, many companies have a prerecruiting reservoir. This is a Employment agencies 10 12.50 3 0.300
file of individuals who might be recruited when the need arises. Personal acquaintances of 8 10.00 5 0.625
Executives
The names of individuals added to the reservoir come from Customers' employees 6 7.50 I 0.167
Unsolicited applications 5 6.25 2 0.400
diverse sources. Some come from volunteer walk-ins-people Competitors' salespeople 3 3.75 2 0.670
who come by the sales department inquiring about job - - -
opportunities. Others come from chance re-marks made by 80 100.00% 35
Ratio of successes to total 0.437
people with whom the sales executive comes into contactat From all sources
professional meetings, in conversations with customers, over
cocktails at the club, seat partners on planes, and the like: Still
Another word of caution: Reliability of this sort of analysis
others come from centers of influence that have been
depends upon the size of the group evaluated. More reliable
developed by the sales executive-the center of influence is a
conclusions can be drawn about the worth of a source produc-
person who occupies a position in which he or she meets many
ing twenty-two recruits than one producing only three recruits.
individuals who have high potentials as possible sales person-
However, even if only a small number of cases is available, the
nel and who often are seek-ing suitable job opportunities.
data may still serve as a helpful, although less reliable, guide in
Examples of centers of influence include the: university
identifying promising sources of new salespeople.
52
Sources With in the Company provide a steady flow of applicants; the volume fluctuates with

changing business conditions.
Company Sales Personnel
Many individuals apply for sales jobs because they know Employment Agencies
company sales personnel, and salespeoples recommendations Sales managers traditionally regard employment agen-cies as
may consti-tute an excellent source. Often such applicants unpromising sources. Many use agencies only after exhausting
already know something about company policies, and the fact other sources. Many believe that good salespeople neither need
that they apply indicates a favorable disposition toward the nor will use an agen-cys services. Experience, unfortunately,
company. Salespeople have wide circles of acquaintances, since tends to reinforce such attitudes, be-cause frequently agency
both on and off the job, they continually meet new people and referrals fail to meet sales job specifications. Sometimes this
have many friends with similar interests. Many of their contacts traces to agency deficiencies (such a_ the overzealous desire to
have potential as sales personnel -indeed; many now sell for receive place-ment fees), but often the fault is that of prospec-
other firms: However, some salespeople are not dis-criminating tive employers, who may be using unrealistically high job
in their recommendations, and their recommendations need specifications, may not make the companys re-quirements clear,
careful appraisal. Salespeople are a particularly valuable source of and so on. Experiences with individual agencies need re-viewing
recommendations when jobs must be filled in remote territo- periodically, using the pattern of analysis illustrated in Figure
ries; sales personnel in the same or adjacent areas may know 11.2.
more about unique territorial requirements and local sources of Whenever an agency is used, it should receive a clear statement
personnel than home office executives. of the jobs objectives and a complete rundown of job
Company Executives specifications. The recruiter should meet with an agency
Recommendations of the sales manager, the president, and counselor to assure that pertinent information is furnished and
other company executives are an important source. Sales understood. Agencies need time to learn about an employing
executives per-sonal contacts may yield top-caliber people firm and its unique requirementsconsiderable gains accrue
because of their understanding of the needed qualifications. from continuing relationships with agencies. Agencies often
Other executives recommendations, by contrast, of-ten are administer batteries of tests, check references, and perform tasks
based upon personal friendships and represent less objective otherwise done by the employer. Of interest to sales Executives
appraisals. Experience is the way to evaluate each executives is the growing number of agencies that take the initiative in
worth as a source of recruits, and the type of analysis shown in searching out promis-ing job candidates, employed or not,
Figure 11.2 adapts easily for this purpose. instead of confining themselves to volun-teer applicants.
Internal Transfers Sales People Making Calls on the Company
Two additional internal sources are other departments and the The purchasing director is in con-tact with sales personnel from
non selling section of the sales department. Employees desiring other companies and is in a position to evaluate their on-the-
transfers are already familiar with company policies, and the job performances. The purchasing director meets high-caliber
personnel department has considerable detailed information salespeople for whom jobs with the company would be
about them. While little is known about their aptitude for attractive both financially and in other respects. In well-managed
selling, they often possess excellent product knowledge. companies, the purchasing director, serving as a center of
Aptitude for selling, of course; can be tested formally or by trial influence, contributes names to the prerecruiting reservoir.
assignment to the field. Transfers are good prospects for sales Employees of Customers
positions whenever product knowledge makes up a substantial Some companies regard their customers as a recruit-ing source.
portion of sales training, since it may be possible to accel-erate Customers recommend people in their organizations who have
field assignments. reached the maximum potential of their existing jobs. Such
Sources Outside the Company transfers may have a favorable effect upon morale in the
customers organization. A customers em-ployees should be
Direct Unsolicited Applications
recruited only with the prior approval of the customer.
All companies receive unsolicited walk-in and write-in
applications for sales positions. Some sales managers favor Sales Executives Clubs
imme-diate hiring of applicants who take the initiative in Many sales executives clubs operate placement ser-vices.
seeking sales jobs, the reason-ing being that this indicates selling Salespersons seeking new positions submit personal data sheets
aggressiveness. Others reject all direct appli-cations because they that are duplicated and forwarded to members. At club
believe the proportion of qualified applicants from this source meetings, sales executives have opportunities for informal
is low. The most logical policy is to treat volunteer applications discussion and exchange of placement information.
the same as solicited applications-applicants not meeting Sales Forces of Noncompeting Companies
minimum requirements as set forth in job specifications should Individuals currently employed as salespersons for non
be eliminated; those meeting these require-ments should be competing companies are often attractive recruiting pros-pects.
processed together with Other applicants. The aim should be to Such people have selling experience, some of it readily transfer-
recruit the best qualified applicants regardless of the sources able, and for those who have worked for companies in related
from which they come. Direct unsolicited applications do not industries, there is the at-traction of knowing something about
the product line. For salespeople in dead-end jobs and those
53
seeking to upgrade their employment, this source provides a styles call for individuals with varying qualifications as to type
channel for career advancement. and amount of education, other training, and experience. If
trade selling is the basic style, the management seeks individuals
Sales Forces of Competing Companies
with minimal or general education and little or no experience. If
Because of their experience in selling similar products to similar
missionary selling is the basic style, management looks for
markets, personnel recruited from competitors sales forces may
higher-caliber individuals with specialized educations (as in
require only minimal training. However, competing sales forces
science or pharmacy, if the job involves calling on physicians or
are costly sources, since generally premium pay must be offered
hospitals) or equivalent qualifications, perhaps gained through
to entice sales per-sonnel to leave their present positions. Some
experience in a similar job with another company. If technical
sales executives, as a matter of pol-icy, refrain from hiring
selling is the basic style, management looks for even higher-
competitors salespersons-they feel that an individual hired away
caliber in-dividuals with scientific or engineering educations
from one organization for higher pay or other enticements may
and/or backgrounds. If the selling job also involves new-
be similarly tempted in the future. However, most sales
business selling, management looks for individuals with the
executives will consider in-dividuals who have worked previ-
required abilities to apply this selling style. Therefore, if the job
ously for competitors even though they now are either working
specifi-cations call for special talents, such as a knowledge of
somewhere else or are unemployed.
engineering or pharmacy, then management tends to emphasize
In considering the recruitment of Individuals currently educational institutions as sources of re-cruits and solicits
employed by com-petitors, a key question to answer is why applicants through personal contacts. Conversely, if trade sell-
does this person want to leave his or her present position? ing ability is the main job qualification needed, management
When the new job will not improve the applicants pay, status, taps diverse sources and emphasizes indirect recruiting methods
or future prospects, the desire to change companies may trace to (for example, advertising in help wanted columns and respond-
personality conflicts, or instability. But dissatisfaction with a ing to situations wanted advertisements in news-papers and
present job may not mean that the fault is the applicants. If the trade publications).
applicant has sound reasons for switching com-panies, there
The scope of the recruiting effort is influenced by the number
may be an opportunity to obtain a promising person who is
of recruits desired, which, in turn, is influenced by the size and
ready for productive work.
maturity of the sales organization itself, the sales personnel
Educational Institutions turnover rate, the forecasted sales volume, dis-tribution
This source includes colleges and universities, com-munity channels, and promotional strategy. A large sales organization
colleges, vocational-technical institutes, business colleges, high must re-cruit more new people just to maintain its average
schools, and night schools. It is reasonable to expect that strength than is true of smaller organization. Two firms of
graduates have attained certain educational levels, the amount comparable size (as to sales volume) may have different-sized
depending upon the type of school Many have training in sales forces, often because one uses a different distribution
general business, marketing, and sales techniques. Schools are a chan-nel or stresses advertising more in its promotional
fruit-ful source of new sales personnel at graduation time, and strategy. As might be ex-pected, companies with high sales
some maintain year-round placement services for their gradu- personnel turnover rates must do more re-cruiting than those
ates. Recent graduates are new to the labor market and, with lower rates.
consequently need not be attracted away from other jobs.
Personal Recruiting
Colleges and universities are important sources of sales and
management trainees, and competition is keen for their College Recruiting
graduates. Often the graduating sen-ior is in a position to Personal recruiting is used for recruiting graduates of ed-
choose from among several job offers. Companies not ucational institutions. Campus interviewing is often planned as
maintaining close relations with the colleges are at a disadvan- a companywide affair, because this avoids much duplication of
tage, frequently being unable to obtain appointments on effort. Representatives of differ-ent departments do the
overcrowded campus recruiting sched-ules and finding it interviewing, and the personnel department plans and coordi-
difficult to attract students away from companies better known nates the drive. In many companies an assistant sales manager
.to the college. Even better known companies face stiff shares the responsibility for interviewing students with the
competition in hiring the cream of the graduates. A few regional or district sales man-ager located nearest the specific
companies offer sales training pro-grams to out standing campus. In other cases, home office sales execu-tives rotate
juniors during vacation periods. Thus, the trainee and the campus interviewing responsibilities among themselves;
company have an opportunity to evaluate each other, and sometimes each returns annually to the same campuses, thus
trainees who probe satisfactory are offered jobs upon graduat- building long-term relation-ships.
ing. College recruiting requires thorough planning. Statements of
trainee re-quirements should be mailed to college placement
What is the Recruiting Effort?
officers early, preferably no later than January. The list of
The sales personnel recruiting effort differs from one company
colleges, based primarily upon past interviewing experience, is
to another, mainly as to the sources of recruits and recruiting
updated, and interview dates are requested. The best months
methods, and stem from man-agements size up of the
for recruiting June graduates are February, March, and April and
appropriate combination of selling styles. Different sell-ing
March is the most in demand. If the visit comes too late in the
54
spring, interviewers find that many of the best qualified the company identity; a blind advertisement hides company

graduates have already taken jobs. After visiting dates have been identity behind a box number, c/o this pub-lication. The
confirmed, colleges are sent letters specifying such details as company name, if well known and respected, should be promi-
salary, the training program, and starting date of employment. nently featured to attract the best applicants.
Some recruiters also send copies of promotional materials, Location of the advertisement in the publication is important.
company histories, and application blanks. Newspaper advertisements on sports or financial pages are
College placement officers schedule a 20- to 30-minute interview usually more productive but cost more per insertion than those
for each student. All interested students are granted interviews, in classified sections. Display ads on a sports page, for example,
the only screening device used. The most promising candidates not only attract unemployed persons looking for work but em-
are invited to company offices for fol-low-up interviews. ployed ones who are not in the job market but who can be
However, some campus interviewers have the authority to hire attracted by better jobs.
if it appears that promising candidates will be lost through When direct-to-consumer sales organizations fail to recruit
delay. sufficient sales personnel through offering bonuses to their
Recruiting Direct-to-Consumer Sales Personnel present salespeople, they general_ use direct-mail recruiting, the
One situation where persona] recruiting sees widespread use in mailing list often consisting of the names of former company
the direct-to-consumer selling industry, crowded with compa- sales personnel or names purchased from mailing list com-
nies that have a difficult time recruiting sales personnel. The panies selling mailing lists. In addition, help wanted ads are
type of selling, unattractive to many people, and the uncertainty placed in local news-papers or in publications such as Specialty
of earning result in high sales force turnover rates. Experience Salesman. As a last resort, direct-selling companies, especially
has taught many of these companies that their best source of those with field supervisors, use cold canvass recruiting in open
new salespeople is their own salespeople, so many (if not territories.
most) direct-selling ,companies offer bonuses (sometimes Recruiting Brochures
referred to as bounties) for each new salesperson recruited. Some companies distribute brochures outlining sales career
Recruiting Consultants opportunities to ap-plicants answering recruiting advertise-
In many cities, independent firms operate as special-ists in ments, as well as those contacted through such centers of
recruiting sales personnel for client firms. These consultants influence as career counselors in educational institutions. Effec-
maintain contacts with diverse local organizations (for example, tive brochures are written from the viewpoint of the
schools, and churches, train-ing specialists, salespersons dub8, prospective sales recruit.
veterans associations, and alumni associations) and have files Besides describing the company and its history, the brochure
identifying possible candidates for sales jobs. Some pre-screen details the qualifi-cations required for sales jobs, and the
applicants through collecting personal histories, administering salespersons duties, responsibilities, and advancement oppor-
aptitude tests, and so on. Companies using recruiting consult- tunities. Short write-ups on those who are and have been
ants generally provide the appropriate job descriptions and job successful company salespeople are included. Effective bro-
specifications. Sometimes, recruiting con-sultants are referred to chures make liberal use of pictures, charts, diagrams, and other
as headhunters, though this usually implies that the consult- presentations-a few even give the telephone number of a hot
ant has been commissioned to locate top-ranking executives. line where the prospect can get more information.
Indirect Recruiting through Advertisement in Conclusion
Newspapers Recruiting the right kind and the right number of sales
City newspapers carry numerous advertisements publicizing personnel is an impor-tant responsibility of sales management.
openings for sales personnel. Such advertisements appear both Recruiting sources need identifying, both those internal to the
in classified (want-ad) sections and as display advertising. So company and those external to it. Different selling styles
great is the number of prospective job candidates reached by a influence both the sources of recruits and recruiting methods,
single advertisement that companies often try to reduce the because they call for individuals with varying types and amounts
volume of applications. If the employer publishes details of education, other training, and experience. Personal recruiting
about the company and job, fewer obviously unqualified is used for recruiting persons graduating from educational
persons will reply. Specific job details vary with the company and institutions and other recent graduates. Personal recruiting by
its situations, and these should be in the ad if it is to attract present sales personnel is the main method of securing direct-
good applicants. Some ads give the compensation range of to- consumer sales personnel, while personal recruiting by
successful company sales personnel. Others explain that the independent consultants is widespread in procuring new sales
person selected is to replace a regular sales-person in an estab- personnel in large metropolitan areas. In-direct recruiting,
lished territory with active accounts. Still others specify that only mainly through placement of advertisements in print media, is
highly qualified professional salespeople need apply. Informa- used to obtain replacement personnel when only one or a few
tion of this sort helps to convince promising applicants that the individuals are needed and by direct-to-consumer sales organi-
opening is legitimate. zations failing to recruit sufficient sales personnel through
Most sales managers favor open over blind advertisements, personal recruiting methods.
although mixed practice exists. An open advertisement reveals
55
Points to Ponder
The Recruiting and Selection Sources outside the company

Process
Direct unsolicited applications
Step 1 Step 2 Step 3
Employment Agencies
Selection:
Planning for Evaluating & Hiring Salespeople making calls on company
recruitment and Screening Resumes
selection:
Recruitment:
and applications Employees of customers
Locating
Initial interview
Job analysis
Prospective
Intensive interviews Sales executives club
Candidates
Job qualifications Testing
Job description Assessment Centers Salesforce of non competing companies
External Sources
Recruitment and Background Inves-
selection objectives tigation
Salesforce of competing companies
Internal Sources
Recruitment and Physical Exam
selection strategy Selection Decision/
Educational institutions
Job Offer
Questions
Recruitment sources within the Q1. What do you mean by recruitment reservoir?
company Q2. What is the advantage of using employment agencies to
Company sales personnel get the sales people?
Company executives Q3. When should classified advertisements be used to attract
sales people?
Internal transfers
Q4. What are internal source of recruitment?
56
LESSON 12
SELECTION PROCESS
Learning Objectives Preinterview Screening and Preuminary

To understand the salespeople selection process Interview
Preinterview screening is for the purpose of eliminating
To understand the different interviewing techniques
obviously unqualified applicants, thus saving the time of
The next step in hiring a salesperson is selection. In this lesson interviewers and applicants. The applicant is provided informa-
we will study about the selection process. tion about the company and general details about selling
Selecting Sales Personnel positions in it-a well-prepared recruiting brochure does this
Selection systems for sales personnel range from simple one- effectively and does not require an employees time for anything
step systems consisting of nothing more than an informal other than to hand it to the applicant. Also most companies ask
personal interview, to complex multiple-step systems incorpo- applicants to complete interview application forms, which
rating diverse mechanisms designed to gather information obtain information on the applicants basic qualifications,
about applicants for sales jobs. A selection system is a set of education, experience, health, and the like. No interview
successive screens, at any of which an applicant may be application form should be longer than two pages, and the
dropped from further consideration. Figure 12.1 is an example- applicant should be able to complete it in a few minutes. The
at anyone of the seven steps in this tern, a decision to drop the interview application form fulfills its mission if it enables
applicant may be made. Employment offers are extended to management to detect the presence or absence of predeter-
applicants surviving all seven steps. The order of use of the mined minimum qualifications. Applicants not possessing
different screening mechanisms is related more to their helpful- these minimum qualifications do not receive appointments for
ness in terms of the information they secure than to the relative interviews. The preliminary interview can be handled by a low-
expense in using them. paid clerk or secretary, so this is generally the lowest-cost
Companies using multiple-step selection systems differ as to selection step.
the number of steps and their order of inclusion. Each The preliminary interview is short, perhaps no more than
company designs its selection system to fit its own information twenty minutes. Questions about the company and the job are
needs and to meet its own budgetary limitations. A selection answered while the company employee determines whether the
system fulfills its main mission if it improves managements applicant meets minimum qualifications. If this hurdle is
ability to estimate success and failure probabilities. Manage- passed and the applicant expresses interest, he or she is asked to
ment, in other words, because has available the information fill out a formal application form, and an appointment is made
gathered through the selection system, makes more accurate for one or more formal interviews.
estimates of the chances that a particular applicant will succeed a Formal Application Form
company sales position. As applicants survive through The formal application form serves as a central record for all
succeeding steps in the system, the additional increments of pertinent information collected during the selection process. A
information enable increasingly accurate estimates of success formal application is filled out after a preliminary interview
and failure probabilities. Recognize, however, that no selection indicates that a job candidate has promise as a company
system is infallible; all eliminate some who would have salesperson. The application form may be filled out by the
succeeded at recommend hiring some who fail. applicant personally or by an interviewer who records the
applicants responses. In either case the completed formal
application amounts to a standardized written interview, since
Typical Steps in the Selection most of the information that-it contains could be obtained
Process through personal interviews. Sometimes, sections are reserved
for later recording of the results of such selection steps as
reference and credit checks, testing, and physical examination.
Placement on the job
Ideally each company should prepare its own formal application
Physical Examination form, since no two companies have the same information
requirements-information significant for one may be useless for
Testing
another. But if a company has only a small sales force, and
recruits few people, the time and cost of preparing its own
Reference
Reference checks
checks
application form may warrant the choice of a standard form.
Interviews
Interviews Companies using standard forms ignore items inappropriate
Application
for them and obtain through interviewing needed additional
Application blanks
information.
Preliminary screening
Reject
Reject applicant
applicant
57
Certain items of information are always relevant to selection Good interviewers avoid covering the same ground as other
decisions, and these are assembled on the application form. selection devices. The interviewer reviews the completed
Included are present job, dependents, education, employment application form before the interview and refrains from asking
status, time with last employer, membership in organizations, questions already answered. Perusal of the completed applica-
previous positions, records of earnings, reasons for leaving last tion indicates areas that require further questioning.
job, net worth, living expenses, and length of job-hunting It is important to sell the applicant on the company, but there
period. are more efficient ways of accomplishing this than through
Final decisions as to the items to include on the form should be personal interviewing. One is by providing the applicant with a
based upon analysis of the existing sales force. The names of recruiting brochure. Another may be used when several
sales personnel should be arranged along a continuum, the best applicants are to be interviewed consecutively, as in college
performer at one end and the worst performer at the other. recruiting: the interviewer meets with the whole group and
This list is then divided into three or more parts, for example, describes general company policies. But it is still necessary to
good, average, and poor; if the sales force is large, finer answer questions during interviews.
subdivisions are justified. In measuring current qualifications, The job interview can be a trying experience for the applicant.
data are collected from sales records, supervisors evaluations, Even for experienced salespersons accustomed to selling
and similar sources. The next step is to compare good and poor themselves and their products daily to strangers, the great
performers according to qualifications possessed by each at the importance attached to a job change and the unfamiliarity of the
time of hiring. This reveals any factors that differentiate the two situation may cause nervousness. One way to relieve tension is
groups, and these items should be included on the application for the interviewer to begin with questions on the persons
form. The validity of this basis of evaluation depends upon family and educational background, subjects about which most
the size of the individual groups, and no group should be people talk freely. One of the interviewers tasks is to persuade
smaller than thirty. the applicant that the firm is a desirable employer. Throughout
Objective Scoring of Personal History Items the interview, pleasant rapport between interviewer and job
The total profile, rather than any single item, determines the applicant should be maintained.
predictive value of personal history items. Considered singly, Questions During Interviewing
few items have value as selection factors, but individuals
The Questions asked to the applicant should reflect the
possessing all the personal history requirements are those most
following:
likely to succeed. However, many potentially successful sales-
people do not possess all the requirements. One company Attitude: Ever lose in competition? Feelings? How do
found that most of its best salespeople were hired between the you handle customer complaints?
ages of thirty and thirty-five years, yet there were some as Motivation: How will this job help you get what you
young as nineteen and as old as fifty-two. The significance of want? What obstacles are most likely to trip you up?
each personal factor is relative, not absolute. Although thirty to Initiative: How do you feel about working alone? How
thirty-five may be the preferred age range, applicants outside this did you get into sales?
age range should receive consideration (since other factors may
Stability: What things disturb you most? What is your
more than offset the fact that they are outside the desired age
most pleasant work experience?
range).
Planning: Give me an idea of how you spend a typical day.
Some firms with large sales forces establish objective measures
for personal history items. A maximum possible score is Insight: Tell me about your strengths and weaknesses.
assigned for each item, and the points assigned to a particular How would you size up your last employer?
individual depend upon proximity to the ideal. In one firm Social skills: What kind of customer (person) do you get
fifteen personal history items are used as selection factors, at a along with best? What methods are effective for dealing
maximum value of 10 points each. The maximum score is 150 with people?
points, and the cutoff is 100. Successful salespersons in this Interviewing Techniques
company all scored over 100 when hired, and the company
automatically disqualifies all applicants with scores under 100. Let us study about the various interviewing techniques.
Many companies provide specialized training for those doing
The Interview interviewing. Scientifically designed rating scales and interview
The interview is the most widely used selection step and in record forms help interviewers to guide discussions along
some companies it comprises the entire selection system. Some productive lines. Interviews have become increasingly important
personnel experts criticize the interview as an unreliable tool, sources of information about applicants and their reactions.
but it is an effective way to obtain certain information. No other The informal, unplanned interview has been giving way in
method is quite so satisfactory in judging an individual as to most companies to newer techniques, some of which are
ability in oral communication, personal appearance and described here.
manners, attitude toward selling and life in general, reaction to
obstacles presented face to face, and personal impact upon
others.
58
These are so constructed that interviewers ratings are channeled

into a limited choice of responses. In evaluating an applicants
general appearance, for instance, one much-used form forces an
interviewer to choose one of five descriptive phrases: very neat,
nicely dressed, presentable, untidy, slovenly. Experience indicates
that this results in more comparable ratings of the same
individual by different interviewers. One drawback of the rating
scale is that its objectivity restricts precise description of many
personal qualities. It is good practice to encourage interviewers
to explain ratings in writing.
References
References provide information on the applicant not available
I. Patterned Interview from other sources. Some employers deny the value of
Here the interviewer uses a prepared outline of questions references saying that references hesitate to criticize personal
designed to elicit a basic core of information. The interviewer friends, or ex-employees. But the experienced employer reads
may work directly from the outline, recording answers as they between the lines, and sees where, for example, the weak
are given, but this may make the conversation stilted and the candidate is not praised.
applicant nervous. Greater spontaneity results when the
Personal contact is the best way to obtain information from
interviewer memorizes the outline and records the answers after
references, since facial expressions and voice intonations reveal a
the interview.
great deal, and most people are more frank orally than in
2. Nondirective Interview writing. When a reference is located at a distance, a telephone call
In this technique the applicant is encouraged to speak freely may substitute for personal contact. Solicitation of written
about his or her experience, training, and future plans. The recommendations is the weakest approach and should be a last
interviewer asks few direct questions and says only enough to resort.
keep the interviewee talking. The nondirective interview does Applicants tend to name as references those on whom they can
not prairies answers to standard questions, and much time is rely to speak in their favor. In addition, there is tendency for
spent on outwardly irrelevant subjects. Some personnel experts references to be biased in favor of an applicant. These tenden-
say that a nondirective technique yields maximum insight into cies are partially offset by contacting persons not listed as
an individuals attitudes and interests. Expert interpretation references but who know the applicant. These people often are
reveals much about the applicant often including things of excellent sources for candid appraisals and fall into four
which the individual is not consciously aware. This techniques classifications:
proponents claim that it is the best method for probing an
1. Present or former employers:These have observed the
individuals personality in depth. The main drawback is that
applicant under actual work conditions. However, many sales
administering the interview and interpreting the _results
executives do not approach a present employer without the
demand specialized instruction.
applicants permission.
3. Interaction (stress) Interview 2. Former customers: If applicants have selling experience,
The interaction interview simulates the stresses the applicant their former customers are in a position to assess sales ability. It
would meet in actual selling and provides a way to observe the is advisable to contact these individuals without the applicants
applicants reactions to them. This interviewing technique has assistance. This helps to avoid those who are personal friends
long been used by sales executives who, in interviewing of applicants.
prospective sales personnel, hand the applicant an ashtray or
3. Reputable citizens:If references suggested by the applicant
other object and say Here, sell this to me. The objective is to
are used, it is best first to contact those who are reputable, well-
see how the applicant reacts to the surprise situation and to size
known persons. Such people do not stake their reputations on
up selling ability.
those in whom they have little confidence.
Interaction interviewing has become a more complex, and
sophisticated, technique. In one version, two, interviewers are 4. Mutual acquaintances: Those who know both the applicant
required-one uses psychological techniques to set up the and the employer may give frank evaluations. What is even
simulated situations, and the other, who is present but not an more important is that the employer is able to judge the worth
active participant in the interview observes and records the of such evaluations.
applicants reactions. Because of their subtlety, the delicacy Credit Checks
involved in their application, and the importance of expert Many companies run credit checks on applicants for sales
interpretation, the newer kind of interaction interviews should positions. When a heavy burden of personal debt is found, it
be planned, administered, and interpreted by a trained psy- may indicate financial worries interfering with productivity, or a
chologist. motivating factor serving to spur productivity-to determine
4. Rating Scales
which requires further investigation.
One shortcoming of the personal interview is its tendency to
lack objectivity, a defect that is reduced through rating scales.
59
In analyzing the credit report, the executive looks for the danger Achievement tests measure how much individuals have
signals chronic lateness in making payments, large debts learned from their experience, training, or education.
outstanding for long periods, or a bankruptcy history-any of
Tests of Ability
which signal the need for additional probing. Financial irrespon-
Tests of ability include tests of mental ability (intelligence tests)
sibility mayor may not be indicative of irresponsibility in
and tests of special abilities (aptitude tests). Tests of mental
meeting job obligations. Information on all aspects of the
ability, or intelligence tests, are used in a wide range of applica-
applicants behavior, no financial as well as financial, needs
tions and have higher validity and reliability than most
considering.
psychological tests. However, they measure primarily abilities
Employment Tests that make for success in educational or training situations,
As used here the term tests refers to a procedure , techniques or namely, language usage and comprehension, and abstract
measurement instrument for ascertaining characterristics such as reasoning or problem-solving ability. They do not measure
aptitudes capabilities , intelligence , knowledge , skills or creativeness, originality, or insight. They are measures of mental
personality . Sales managers may approach the testing process in aptitude, not of general intelligence. Because tests of mental
any one of several ways. They may decide the following ability are timed tests, they indicate an applicants ability to learn
Not to use tests quickly and to arrive at accurate answers under pressure.
To administer tests and interpret the results themselves Where there is no other evidence of ability, such as graduation
from college, the test of mental ability serves as a screen to
To administer tests and have someone else interpret the
eliminate applicants falling below a predetermined level. A wide
results .
variety of mental ability -tests- is available.
To turn the testing over to consulting industrial
Certain tests measure special abilities or aptitudes, such as
psychologists.
spatial and perceptual abilities, speed and reaction time,
Sales managers should have the ability to judge the value of steadiness and controlled movement, mechanical comprehen-
tests whether or not they ever use them. sion, and artistic abilities. Aptitude tests used individually aid in
The majority of sales managers use tests as only one part of making selection for some industrial jobs, as illustrated, by the
selection process. The purpose of testing is to determine use of perception tests in selecting clerical personnel. But
whether applicants have the traits the company feels leads to because selling requires diverse aptitudes, and sales job specifica-
selling successfully. In turn, this results in Advantages such as tions differ even among competing companies, an especially
lower turnover and increased performance. designed battery of aptitude tests is needed for sales personnel.
The procedure for developing a battery of sales aptitude tests is
straightforward. The test expert begins with the job specifica-
Reliability
Reliability and
and Validity
Validity tions (derived, as you will recall, from the job description),
checking them to assure that the abilities required for job
Selection tests must be reliable and valid. performance are correctly identified. Then the expert selects
Reliability is the degree to which the tool existing tests and/or constructs new tests to measure each
measures the same thing each time it is used.
aptitude. Finally, the test expert develops a scheme for weight-
Example: scores should be similar for the same
ing and combining the scores of individual tests.
person taking the same test over time.
Validity is the degree to which the test measures Empathy and ego drive are essential in good salespeople.
what it is supposed to measure Empathy is the ability to feel as others do, to put oneself in
Example: how well a physical ability test another persons shoes. The empathetic salesperson senses the
predicts the job performance of a firefighter. reactions of customers and adjusts to these reactions. Ego drive
Managers have both an ethical obligation and a makes the salesperson want to make the sale in a personal way.
legal duty to develop good selection tests. The salespersons self-picture improves by virtue of conquest
and diminishes with failure. The good salesperson has a proper
balance between empathy and ego drive.
Types of Tests
Four types of psychological tests are used in selection systems Tests of Habitual Characteristics
for sales personnel: These include attitude, personality, and interest tests. Attitude
Tests of ability measure how well a person can perform tests are more appropriate as morale-measuring techniques than
particular tasks with maximum motivation (tests of best as selection aids. They ascertain employees feelings toward
performance). working conditions, pay, advancement opportunities, and the
like. Used as sales personnel selection devices they identify
Tests of habitual characteristics gauge how prospective abnormal attitudes on such broad subjects as big business,
employees act in their daily work normally (tests of typical labor unions, and government. Their validity is questionable,
performance). since people often profess socially acceptable attitudes they do
Interest test measures an individuals interest in a particular not actually have. Attitude tests do not measure the intensity
type of job. with which particular attitudes are held.
60
Personality tests initially were used to identify people with relatively high cost, the physical examination generally is one of

psychotic tendencies-and certain tests are useful for this the last steps. However, if physical condition is critical to job
purpose. Subsequently, some have been used for measuring performance-such as the ability to carry a sales portfolio
personality traits in normal individuals, or which purpose they weighing 20 kilos-a physical examination is positioned early in
have little or no validity or reliability. The basic limitation is the the selection system. Even in companies requiring entrance
lack of uniform definition for such traits as initiative or physical examinations, poor health often accounts for some
aggressiveness. The chief use of the personality test is as a separations, but when the examinations are not compulsory,
screening device to identify persons with abnormal personali- the number is higher.
ties.
Conclusion
Interest Tests Appropriate selection procedures, and their skillful execution,
A basic assumption implicit in the use of interest tests is that a result in greater selling efficiency. A higher-grade salesperson is
relationship exists between interest and motivation. Hence, if produced, and the advantages of having such employees make
two persons have equal ability, the one with the greater interest impressive list-better work quality improved market coverage,
in a particular job should be more successful in that job. A superior customer relations, and a lower ratio of selling expense
second implicit assumption is that interests are constant, that to sales. Good selection fits the right person to the right job,
those of a person at age forty are the same as they were at thereby increasing job satisfaction and reducing the cost of
twenty-one. personnel turnover. Training costs are reduced, either because
The interest test is useful for vocational guidance, but it is not a those hired are more capable of absorbing training or because
satisfactory selection device. This is because of the opportunity they require less training.
for faking responses individuals may select answers overstating The consequences of inappropriate selection policies are higher
their interest in a particular field. selling expenses. The misfit salesperson has a higher expense
What proof is there that interest tests help in predicting selling ratio because of lower sales, higher traveling costs, greater sales
success? Unfortunately, very little! Strong demonstrated that returns and adjustments, and inefficient distribution of
there is a positive but low correlation between interest scores working time. Because misfits rarely stay long with a company,
and success in insurance selling. Significant variation has also the. Turnover rate rises along with hiring and training costs.
been found in the interest test scores of successful and unsuc- Administrative costs go up, since low-grade salespeople require
cessful salespersons of accounting machines. Otherwise, there is extra motivation and supervision. In short, the unsuccessful
little proof of the value of interest tests as devices for predict- salesperson affects the profit picture adversely.
ing selling success. There are also hidden costs of poor selection, costs that cannot
be expressed in terms of money. Customer relations deterio-
Achievement Tests
rate, as excessive turnover prevents establishment of close
Achievement tests seek to determine how much individuals
customer-salesperson relationships. Moreover, the effects of
know about a subject. Few standardized achievement tests are
poor selection and resulting inadequate sales force performance
used by industry, because special job skills require different
spread to other departments. Costs rise throughout the
knowledge. Tests of clerical and stenographic ability are one
business as work is disrupted in such departments as credit,
exception, and civil service examinations are another. For the
accounting, advertising, and production.
employer custom designing a test for sales applicants, achieve-
ment tests can assess the knowledge applicants possess in such
areas as the product, marketing channels, and customer
relations. However, as with other psychological tests, test Notes -
designing is a job for an expert, not an amateur.
Conclusions on Testing
Besides the legal requirements that tests must not be used in
ways that discriminate, there are other precautions to observe
when incorporating psychology tests into a sales personnel
selection system. It is essential to have accurate job specifica-
tions, derived from up-to-date and complete job descriptions.
A qualified experts services are required in selecting tests and in
devising new ones when, necessary, in determining test validity
and in detecting differential validity, in administering the tests
themselves, and in interpreting the result. Effective scales
executives recognize that psychological testing, although capable
of making a valuable contribution, is but one step in a selection
system.
Physical Examinations
Since good health is important to a salespersons success, most
companies require physical examinations. Because of the
61
Points to Ponder
Typical Steps in the Selection Types of tests

Process
Tests of ability
Placement
Placement on
on the
the job
job
Tests of habitual characteristics
Physical
Physical Examination
Examination
Interest tests
Testing
Testing
Achievement tests
Reference
R e fe rencechecks
checks
Interviews
Interviews
Application
Application blanks
blanks
Preliminary
Prelim in aryscreening
screening
Reject applicant
Reject applicant
Questions
Q1. Why are sales candidates asked to fill an application blanks?
Q2. Explain why interviews are used to screen applicants?
Q3. Why are employment tests conducted?
Q4. What are the different testing methods?
Q5. Why do firms attempt to validate testing?
62
LESSON 13
TRAINING OBJECTIVE TRAINING METHODS
Learning Objectives The overall, efficiency of a companys personal-selling operation

To understand the objectives of sales training program is influenced by the state of relations with customers and
prospects. The sales force plays a crucial role in molding and
To know about training content
maintaining these relations. Contrasted with inexperienced sales
To understand the different methods of training personnel, experienced sales personnel maintain better con-
To understand how training is executed tinuing relations with established accounts and make better
It is required that the selected salesforce should undergo impressions on prospects. Sales training contributes through
training. In this lesson let us study how a sales person is accelerating (for the newly recruited sales personnel) the process
trained. of learning through experience.
What is Sales Training?

Given appropriate initial training, most recruits become
Sales Training- effort put forth by an employer to provide the productive sales personnel. Furthermore, continuing sales
salesperson job related culture, skill, knowledge, and attitudes training improves job performances for both born and made
that result in improved performance in the selling environment sales personnel.
Modern sales executives, too, consider experience the most
valuable road to improved job performance. But they also are
convinced that sales training contributes to sales job perfor-
mance. They regard training as a supplement to, not a total
substitute for, experience.
Sales Training Building Sales Training Programs

There are several types of sales training programs. The most
comprehensive and longest is the training program for newly
recruited sales personnel. More intensive and shorter programs
Delivering Learning to Achieve on specialized topics, as well as periodic refresher courses
Business Results (collectively known as continuing sales training), are presented
for experienced sales personnel. In addition, many companies
offer sales training programs for the sales personnel of their
Planning Sales Training Programs distributors and/or dealers. Some programs are designed to
The purpose of sales training is to achieve improved job develop individuals as sales trainers (full or part time) or as
performance. In the absence of training, job performance junior-level sales executives (district or branch sales managers).
improves with experience. Training substitutes for, or supple- Each type of program serves a different purpose, and its
ments experience, so sales personnel given training reach high content reflects that purpose.
job performance levels earlier. Building a sales training program requires five major decisions.
The specific training aims must be defined, content decided,
training methods selected, arrangements made for execution,
Objectives of Sales Training Programs and procedures set up to evaluate the results. Some sales
training specialists refer to these decisions as the A-C-M-E-E
Increased
Sales
decisions-aim, content, methods, execution, and evaluation.
Productivity
Improved
Self- Lower Value of Sales Training to the Organization
turnover
Management
Sales training
program Acts as a Personal Development Tool
objectives
Contributes to the Culture
Articulates the How to
Improve
customer Improve Establishes a Common Language
relations morale
Improved
communica-
Enhanced Business Results
tion
63
Defining Training Aims sales personnel need to learn how to coordinate their activities
Regardless of the type of sales training program, defining its with advertising.
specific aims (the A in A-C-M-E-E) is the first step in its
planning. Defining the general aim is not sufficient. Although, Date__________ 19_________
for example we may want to increase the sales forces pro- TRAINING STATUS CHART
ductivity through training, we must identify what must be done Name of Salesperson__________________________ Name of Evaluator__________________
to achieve increased productivity. General aims are translated 1 2 3 4 5 6

key know knows knows does not Training to be conducted by
into specific aims phrased in irrational terms. elements this ,and this, but this, know Immedi Immediate Training Outside
of the job needs does not tries this, so ate supervisor Specialist Program
Specific aim definition begins with a review of general aims and no do it to do it does not supervis with help on
training do it or how to do it
the means currently employed to attain them. The process 1).
cannot be completed until sales management perceives the 2).
3).
training needs from which specific training aims derive directly. 4).
Training needs, then, must be identified. The following

discussion focuses on factors that management considers as it
seeks to identify training needs for (1) initial sales training
Identifying Continuing Training Needs
programs and (2) continuing sales training programs. Determining the specific aims for a continuing sales training
program requires identification of specific training needs of
Identifying Initial Training Needs experienced sales personnel. Basic changes in products and
Determining the need for, and specific aims of an initial sales
markets give rise to needs for training, as do changes in
training program requires analysis of three main factors: job
company sales-related marketing policies, procedures, and
specifications, individual trainees background and experience,
organization. But even though products and markets change
and sales-related marketing policies.
little and company policies, procedures, and organizations
Job Specifications remain stable, sales personnel change. Sales management must
The qualifications needed to perform the job are detailed in the know a great deal about how sales personnel perform to
job specifications. Few people possess all these qualifications at identify training needs and in turn to define specific aims.
the time of hiring. The set of job specifications needs scrutiniz- How does management gain this knowledge?
ing for clues to the points on which new personnel are most
Salespersons reports are, scrutinized for symptoms of needed
likely to need training. Other questions related to job perfor-
training. Sales records are inspected to uncover performance
mance need considering: How should salespeople apportion
weaknesses. Sales personnel are observed personally with a view
their time? Which duties require the greatest proportion of
toward detecting deficiencies. And details contained in the sales
time? Which are neglected? Why? Which selling approaches are
job description are compared with the qualifications possessed
most effective? Answers to these and similar questions help in
by individual sales personnel. A clear picture is obtained by
identifying specific training needs of newly recruited sales
completing a chart similar to that in Figure 13.1 for each
personnel.
member of the sales force.
Trainees Background and Experience Figure 13.1 chart useful in Assessing Nature of Training Needs
Each individual enters an initial sales training program with a for an Individual Salesperson
unique educational background and experience record. The gap
between the qualifications in the job specifications and those a Deciding Training Content
trainee already has represents the nature and amount of needed The content (the C in A-C-M-E-E) of a sales training program,
training. In all organizations, determining recruits real training whether an initial or continuing program, derives from the
needs is essential to developing initial training programs of specific aims that management, after analyzing its training
optimum benefit to company and trainee alike. needs, formulates. Initial sales training programs are broader in
scope and coverage than are continuing programs. Initial
Sales-Related Marketing Policies programs provide instruction covering all important aspects of
To determine initial sales training needs, sales-related marketing performance of the salespersons job continuing programs
policies must be analyzed. Differences in products and markets concentrate of specific aspects of the job where experienced
mean differences in selling practices and policies, which in turn, persons have deficiencies. Therefore, the following discussion
point to needed differences in training programs. For instance, relates to the content of initial sales training programs.
selling a line of machine tools requires emphasis on product
For an initial sales training program to contribute maximally
information and customer applications, whereas selling simple,
toward preparing new sales personnel, it must cover all key
no technical products demands emphasis on sales techniques.
aspects of the salespersons job. Content varies from company
Differences in promotion, price, marketing channel, and physical
to company, because of differences in products, markets,
distribution all have implications for initial sales training. In the
company policies, trainees ability and experience, organizational
case of promotion, for example, if advertising is not used or is
size, and training philosophies. No two programs are, or
used relatively little, sales training should prepare sales person-
should be alike. However, different companies tend to cover the
nel to handle considerable promotional work, but if advertising
same general topics despite the fact that variations exist in exact
is used extensively to supplement the sales forces efforts, new
content. Every initial sales training program should devote
64
sometime to each of four main areas product data, sales contribute to overall effectiveness. The training program should

technique, markets, and company information. include coverage of all sales-related marketing policies and the
reasoning behind them. The sales person must know company
Product Data
pricing policy, for instance, to answer customers questions. The
Some product training is basic to any initial sales training
salesperson needs to be fully informed on other policies, such
program. Companies with technical products devote more than
as those relating to product services, spare parts and repairs,
half their programs to product training. But in many situations,
credit extension, and customer relations.
especially with standardized products sold routinely new sales
personnel require only minimal product training. In all cases, The initial training program must equip the salesperson to
new salespeople must know enough about the products, their perform such tasks as recording and submitting customers
uses, and applications to serve customers information needs. orders for processing and delivery preparing expense and other
Product knowledge is basic to a salespersons self-confidence and reports, handling inquiries, following up on customers
enthusiastic job performance. requests, and so forth. Each firm develops its own systems and
procedures. If trainees are to perform properly, the initial sales
Understanding product uses and applications is important.
training program must provide the needed instruction.
Trainees receive instruction on customers problems and
Otherwise, company systems and procedures are learned, if at
requirements and learn how company products can solve these
all, through trial and error.
problems and meet these requirements. Training provides them
with full appreciation for buyers viewpoints. New salespersons Selecting Training Methods
learn how to relate company products to the fulfillment of The planners next select training methods (the M in A-C-M-E-
customers requirements, thus equipping themselves for E). There is a wide variety of methods, but the program
effective selling. content often limits those that are appropriate. If, for example,
Many companies, especially those with technical products, the content is a new policy on vacations and holidays the
include a period of initial sales training at the factory.. The training method almost certainly will be the lecture, supple-
benefits are thorough product knowledge and increased mented, perhaps, with visual aids. In this instance, such
confidence in demonstrating products to customers. methods as role playing and the demonstration would be ruled
out. It is important to select those training methods that most
Some training on competitors products is desirable. Salespeople
effectively convey the desired content.
should know the important characteristics of competitors
products and their uses and applications. They should know
the strengths and weaknesses of competitive products. Thus
informed, salespersons gain a decided advantage. They can The training methods are the
structure sales presentations to emphasize superior features of following
the companys products Lecture
Sales Technique Personal conference
Most new sales personnel need instruction in sales techniques. Demonstrations
Some sales managers believe, that if an individual has an Role play
attractive personality, good appearance and voice, and reasonable Case discussion
intelligence and knows the product, he or she will sell it easily. Impromptu discussion
But the predominant view is that new sales personnel need
Gaming
basic instruction in how to sell.
On the job training
Markets Correspondence courses
The new salesperson must know who the customers are, their
locations, the particular products in which they are interested,
their buying habits and motives, and their financial condition.
In other words, the salesperson needs to know not only who The Lecture
buys what but, more important, why and how they buy. When This ancient instructional method, in use before the invention
trainees are not given adequate instruction on the market, they of printing, is used extensively in sales training. Trainees mainly
take years to acquire the needed understanding. During this trial- watch and listen, although some versions of lecturing permit
and-error learning, through no fault of their own, productivity questions. The lecture features passive, rather than active, trainee
is low. In fact, left to their own devices, some trainees never gain participation. Its main weakness is that teaching is emphasized
important market information. For instance, a salesperson who more than learning.
is unaware of prospects potentials as buyers may neglect
completely to canvass them. Markets are always changing, so Advantages of Lecture Method
training in this area should be continuous, the content changing A lecture can be effective, provided that the lecturer is able and
with market changes. enthusiastic and uses examples, demonstrations, and visual
aids.
Company Information
Compared with other training methods, the lecture is economi-
Certain items of company information are essential to the
cal in terms of time required to cover a given topic.
salesperson on the job; others, not absolutely essential,
65
Disadvantages of Lecture Method Role Playing
Estimates are that the average trainee can immediately recall less This method has trainees acting out parts in contrived problem
than 10 percent of what he or she hears in a lecture using visual situations. The role-playing session begins with the trainer
aids. describing the situation and the different personalities involved.
Because of the absence of immediate participant feedback, no The trainer provides needed props, then designates trainees to
lecturer has any immediate or objective means for gauging the play the salesperson, prospect, and other characters. Each plays
effectiveness of a lecture, but must rely on a personal appraisal his or her assigned role, and afterward, they, together with other
of its reception, or on volunteered comments by participants. group members and the trainer, appraise each players effective-
ness and suggest how the performance of each might have
Some lecturing in sales training is necessary. If initial sales
been improved.
training is brief, for instance, lecturing may be the only way
to cover the desired content. It may be the only practical In another version of role playing a training group is given
way to handle instruction when the training group is too information on, for example, a buyers objection to a particular
large to permit constructive audience participation. product and then is asked to extemporize a solution. Called a
sweat session, this provides individual trainees a chance to
Lecturing is most appropriate for introductory and
apply what they have learned. Post mortem critiques afford
orientation sessions and for providing summaries of
opportunities to reinforce what has been learned through
major topics taught through methods such as case
participating in, or viewing, the role playing.
discussion and role playing.
Role playing presents few problems,
It is used, in continuing sales training programs for
Those playing roles must become actively and emotionally
providing new information about the company, its policies,
identified with the characters they portray; aaudience interest
products, markets, and selling programs.
must be maintained throughout, even though spontaneous
When using the lecture method, learning is improved through a reactions are suppressed. aAchieving these conditions is not
multimedia approach. The room is equipped with two to six easy. It is even more difficult when role players ham it up or
projectors and screens, and the entire lecture is projected visually when there is laughter or other involuntary audience reaction.
on succeeding screens across the front of the room. Further
This tendency, however, is overcome with repeated use of the
support is provided by projecting illustrations, charts, and
method.
graphs and through sound effects. This version of the lecture
increases attention, comprehension, and retention. More than offsetting the problems are the many benefits of
this training method.
The Personal Conference
It provides realistic practice in applying what has been
The potential of this method often goes unrecognized, because
learned in other training or by experience.
many people assume that learning occurs only in structured
situations. However, learning occurs in structured and unstruc- It is flexible and adapts to extreme diversity in role-playing
tured, formal and informal situations. situations.
In the personal conference, the trainer (often a sales executive or Role playing lends itself to training new personnel,
sales supervisor) and trainee jointly analyze problems, such as experienced salespeople, or even mixed groups.
effective use of selling time, route planning and call scheduling, Trainees learn to accept criticism from others, and the
and handling unusual selling problems. Personal conferences group soon recognizes that sound suggestions benefit
are held in offices, restaurants, bars, motel rooms, and else- everyone.
where. One version, the curbstone conference, takes place When a trainee criticizes anothers performance, that
immediately after the trainee (accompanied by the trainer) has individual has an incentive not to perform similarly later..
called upon a customer or prospect. The personal conference s
Role players gain acting experience, which may help later in
an unstructured and informal method-it varies with the
handling difficult selling situations.
personalities of the trainer and the trainee and the topics
discussed. Case Discussion
This method, originated by business educators as a partial
Demonstrations
substitute for learning by experience, is widely used in sales
The demonstration is appropriate for conveying information
training. Write-ups of selling and other problems encountered
on such topics as new products and selling techniques. Demon-
on the job provide the bases for group discussion. In most
strating how a new product works and its uses is effective,
sales training situations, however, the cases used are short (one
much more so than lecturing on the same material. In initial
or two pages almost) and trainees are given ten or fifteen
sales training, demonstrating techniques to use in closing
minutes to read them before group discussion starts. Each case
sales is more effective than is lecturing. Effective sales trainers
either describes a real selling problem or is developed around a
use demonstrations to the maximum extent-since the begin-
situation sufficiently real to stimulate emotional involvement by
ning of time, showing has been more effective than telling!
the trainees.
Demonstrations are generally used with other methods-they
enliven an otherwise dull lecture, and they reinforce the inter- Trainees discussing a case should identify the issue(s), marshall
change in a curbstone conference on, for instance, how to the relevant facts, devise specific alternatives, and choose the one
inform the next customer of an impending price increase. most appropriate. Most trainers believe that securing a thor-
66
ough grasp of the problem situation is more essential to writing of a computer program. Expertness and substantial

learning than the rapid production of solutions. To derive investments in time and money, then, are required, but partially
maximum benefit from case discussion, each session should offsetting this is that, once prepared, a game may be used in
conclude with the drawing of generalizations on lessons many training programs.
learned. Among the advantages of gaming are:
Impromptu Discussion 1. Participants learn easily because they involve themselves in
This method, sometimes called a sales seminar or buzz session, game play;
begins with the trainer, group leader, or some member of the 2. Players develop skill in identifying key factors influencing
sales force making a brief oral presentation on an everyday decisions;
problem. General give-and-take discussion follows.
3. Games lend themselves readily to demonstrations of the
Group members gain an understanding of many problems that uses and value of such analytical techniques as inventory
otherwise is acquired only through long personal experience. and other planning models;
Many complexities and implications that might go undetected
4. Games, with their built-in information feedback features,
by individuals are revealed to all, and trainees learn a valuable
are effective in emphasizing the dynamic nature of problem
lesson: fixed selling rules and principles are often less important
situations and their interrelationships. .
than are analysis and handling of specific situations. Im-
promptu group discussion improves the salespersons ability to Among the limitations of gaming are:
handle problems. 1. Usually three or four hours is required for playing , to
Impromptu discussion differs from lecturing. The discussion generate sufficient decision rounds to provide the
leader assumes a less dominant role than the lecturer, trainees desired learning experience;
are active rather than passive participants, learning receives more 2. Since game designs are based on ordinary decision-making
emphasis than teaching, and the atmosphere is informal and processes, their rules often prevent payoffs on unusual or
relaxed. These are important advantages, and impromptu novel approaches; and
discussions are being increasingly used, chiefly in training 3. Players may learn some things that arent so, a limitation
programs for experienced sales personnel. applying especially to poorly designed games. These
For maximum benefit from the impromptu discussion, certain limitations are overcome through careful game design and
conditions must be met. administration.
An effective leader or moderator is essentialotherwise, On-the-Job Training
discussion drifts into extraneous subjects or becomes This method, also called the coach-and-pupil method, com-
sterile. bines telling, showing, practicing, and evaluating. The coach,
The discussion leader must command the trainees respect, sometimes a professional sales trainer but more often a
be skilled in dealing with people, and be well informed. seasoned salesperson, begins by describing particular selling
The room arrangement is important-it helps in generating situations, explaining various techniques and approaches that
discussion, for instance, if all trainees can see each other. It might be used effectively. Next, accompanied by the pupil, the
is/important, too, that someone draws conclusions at the coach makes actual sales calls, discussing each with the trainee
close of the discussion. afterward. Then, under the coachs supervision, the trainee
makes sales calls, each one being followed by discussion and
Impromptu discussion requires considerable time. Most
appraisal. Gradually, the trainee works more and more on his or
companies schedule sessions for at least a half-day or, more
her own, but with continuing, although less frequent, coaching.
commonly, for a full day. If their aim is to maximize trainee
learning of specific points in depth, the impromptu discussion- Many seasoned salespeople, qualified for coaching, are unwilling
properly handled-is an effective training method. to spend the necessary time and effort. This is especially true
when personnel are paid commissions on sales. The problem
Gaming of recruiting coaches, nevertheless, is resolved through paying
This method, also known as simulation, somewhat resembles bonuses for each person coached, or overriding commissions
role playing, uses highly structured contrived situations, based on pupils sales.
on reality, in which players assume decision-making roles
On-the-job training is an important part of most initial sales
through successive rounds of play. A unique feature is that
training programs. No more effective way exists for learning a
players receive information feedback. In one game, for example,
job. This method is appropriate for developing trainees skills in
trainees play the roles of decision makers in customers
making sales presentations, answering objections, and closing
organizations, using data ordinarily available to make decisions
sales. Training in these selling aspects requires practice, and this
on the timing and size of orders, managing sales forces and
method provides expertly supervised practice.
advertising efforts, and so on. The results of these decisions
then are calculated by referees (using computers) and are fed Correspondence Courses
back for the players to use in the next round of decisions. This method is used in both initial and continuing sales
Preparation of a game requires research to dig out the needed training. In the insolence field it is used to acquaint new
facts, the incorporation of these into a game model, develop- salespeople with industry fundamentals and to instruct in basic
ment of detailed instructions for players and referees and
67
sales techniques. Companies with highly technical products and Organization For Sales Training
small but widely deployed sales forces use correspondence The execution step of A-C-M-E-E (the first E) requires four
courses to acquaint experienced salespeople with new product key organizational decisions:
developments and applications. This method is used also to 1. Who will be the trainees?
train non company any sales personnel, such as distributors
2. Who will do the training?
salespersons, to improve their knowledge of the manufacturers
product line and selling techniques. Few companies use this 3. When will the training take place?
training method exclusively. 4. Where will the training site be?
Correspondence training is most appropriate as an interim Who Will Be the Trainees?
training method when trainees are scattered geographically. Identifying trainees is more complex for continuing than for
Initial sales training; for example, might be by correspondence initial sales training programs. A company identifies the trainees
courses begun at different times and places; continuing, or for its initial sales training program when it firms up sales job
follow-up, training might come later through group methods at descriptions and hires sales job applicants.
a central location. Preparing a standardized correspondence While continuing sales training programs are prescribed for all
course covering technical product data, general company personnel in some companies, the general practice is to select
information, selling techniques and markets presents few trainees according to some criterion. Four criteria are in common
difficulties other than those of choosing, organizing, and use:
writing up the material. In many companies, particularly in the
insurance field, instructional materials are also taped for cassette 1. Reward for good performance,
players. 2. Punishment for poor performance,
The greatest problem is to motivate trainees to complete 3. Convenience (of trainee and trainer), and
assignments on schedule. 4 Seniority (the greater the seniority, the greater the
Not only are enrollees engaged, in full-time work requiring that opportunity for added training). Those selected for
correspondence lessons be done after hours, but few have continuing training should be aware of the criterion used.
sufficient self-discipline to study without direct supervision. Who Will Do the Training?
It is necessary to provide regular examinations, prizes for Initial sales training: Initial sales training is a line function in
completing work on time, or other incentives. some companies, a staff function in others. If a line function;
This method does not answer enrollees questions; hence, responsibility for initial training is assigned to the top sales
successful users arrange for periodic face-to-face discussions. executive. If a staff functions, responsibility for initial training
Shriller problems are met in processing completed assignments, is given to the personnel director, and sales management has an
evaluating work, and correcting errors. Despite these administra- advisory role. Actually both executives should participate in
tive problems, correspondence instruction is a useful initial sales training-the sales executives because of selling
supplement to other sales training methods. expertise and the personnel director because of training
expertise.
Executing and Evaluating Sales Training Programs
Continuing sales training: Responsibility for continuing sales
The execution step (the first E) requires organizational deci-
training resides with the top sales executive. Introduction of
sions.
new products, adoption of revised sales policies, perfection of
Who will be the trainees? improved selling techniques, and similar developments call for
Who will do the training? training. The top sales executive is in the best position to
When will the training take place? recognize the need and design and execute appropriate sales
Where will the site of the training be? training programs. Sales training is a never-ending process, and,
regardless of who is responsible for initial training, the sales
(Who, Who, When, and Where) trainers -whether full time or executive has continuing responsibility.
on special assignment-must be notified, necessary travel
Sales training staff: Top sales executives usually delegate sales
reservations made, and living accommodations arranged.
training performance to subordinates. Large sales organizations
The when decision requires consideration of key time-related often have a sales training
factors, and the where decision involves appraisal of factors director, reporting to the
bearing on the training site. In addition, instructional materials top sales executive. The
need preparing and training aids assembling. director conducts some
When these things are done, the stage is set for program training and coordinates
execution. that given on a decentralized
Effective program execution depends upon instructional skills (and usually part-time) basis
as well as coordination of planning and housekeeping details. by regional and district sales
Program administration involves doing what can be done to managers. In smaller
produce a training atmosphere conductive to learning. organizations, some top
sales executives handle some training themselves, but, in most
68
cases, they rely upon others, such as assistant sales managers or plans for changing sales force size. With a large number of new

district managers, to do the training, Companies without sales personnel, comprehensive highly structured programs are
training directors often have full-time or part-time: sales scheduled several times a year, dates being set after consideration
trainers, or both. The large sales organization makes efficient of recruiting quotas and deadlines. When the number is small,
use of a fulltime sales training director and sometimes even a initial training programs, if held at all, are infrequent. One
full-time staff, but the small organization must rely on company with a small sales force recruiting June college
executives to train in addition to other duties. graduates schedules initial sales training to begin in late June or
Outside experts: Many companies hire outside experts to early July.
conduct portions of sales training programs, generally portions Timing continuing sales training programs: Effective sales
relating to sales techniques. Numerous outside training management believes that training and learning must be
consultants present sessions on sales techniques (for instance, in continuous-new information must be assimilated and older
prospecting, selling by telephone, or basic ways to meet concepts modified in the: light of new developments. New
objections) and, through broad and long experience, achieve products, new refinements of selling techniques, new product
high effectiveness. Other outside experts, including university applications and uses, new customer problems, new selling
professors and similar moonlighters, also offer this instruc- aids, new selling, suggestions _all these and other develop-
tional service. ments require that each salespersons training continue as long
as he or she is on the Job. In some situations, sales personnel
When Will the Training Take Place?
are kept abreast of new developments informally, perhaps
Timing group versus individual training - Opinion is divided as
through field distribution of information bulletins. . But when
to the proper timing of group and individual training. Most
new developments accumulate, are unusually important, or
sales executives contend that newly recruited trainees should
imply a need for substantial changes in salespersons attitudes
receive formal group training before starting to sell. A sizable
and behavior patterns a formal retraining program is scheduled.
minority, however, assign trainees to selling jobs before sending
Many companies integrate retraining programs into a series of
them on to sales schools. In support of the minority view,
sales meetings or a single sales convention.
three things can be said:
Management should assume that sales personnel are eager to
1. New personnel prove that they can sell before money is
improve selling techniques; feel entitled to explanations of
spent on their training;
policy changes; want to learn how to tie in more closely with
2. New persons are not always, not even usually, hired in advertising programs; and are eager to learn about new
groups large enough to justify immediate formal training- products, model and design improvements, and market shifts.
people hired between programs can be put to work until Continuing sales training programs are designed and sold as
the next school begins; and a means of helping salespeople do their jobs more effectively
3. On-the-job experience furnishes needed learning .If it is demonstrated that training results m more take-home
motivation and makes initial training more meaningful. pay and increased job satisfaction, salespeople are motivated
The minority position, nevertheless, is inappropriate when When salespeople see that these benefits are obtainable through
highly technical products are sold to sophisticated buyers. In the continuing sales training program, its chances of successful
such cases, product training is not only important but is best execution are enhanced.
provided through formal group instruction at the outset of Where Will the Training Site Be?
trainees careers. Some companies hold initial sales training programs at the
When there are large numbers of new personnel, group training central offices; others conduct separate programs at branch
is the way to train at the lowest cost per person. offices. Each practice has advantages disadvantages.
Individualized training is conducted in the field office or in the The centralized program generally provides better product
trainees home. On-the-job training features personal confer- training, but higher costs are incurred in bringing trainees to the
ences (of the trainer and trainee) and demonstrations (as the central point. In many companies the small number of trainees
trainer explains this is how to do it). But not all field training does not justify decentralized initial training, and central location
is on-the-job training. In many companies, for example, trainees is a necessity.
in the field are enrolled in correspondence and programmed Numerous large companies, by contrast, have the option of
learning courses. decentralized initial training. They can train new salespeople near
Both types of field training are supervised on-the-job training their future territories and acquaint them early with field selling
by a supervisor in person and trainees participating in corre- problems. However, decentralized product training often
spondence and programmed learning courses by mail, phone, requires the substitution of motion pictures, slides, and
or cassette correspondence (convenient for playing in the auto in working models so it may be less realistic, less interesting, and
between calls on customers). less effective than centralized training.
Timing initial sales training programs: Timing of initial Decentralized programs have even more serious defects. Unless
sales training depends upon the number of new personnel supervised by higher management, their execution tends to be
trained each year, and this, in turn, depends upon the size of
the sales force, sales personnel turnover, and managements
69
poor, and the trainers, who have other responsibilities and purposes of advance assignments and receive clear instructions
regard training as a sideline, often turn ,in poor teaching (most expert trainers recommend written instructions
performances. Except in a company with a vast pool of
Evaluating Sales Training Programs
administrative and training skills, initial sales-training programs
The evaluation step (the second E in A-C-M-E-E) focuses
should be at central locations.
upon measuring program effectiveness. A sales training
Instructional Materials and Training Aids. program represents investments of time, money, and effort-
Critical to successful execution of sales training programs are the sales management expects returns commensurate with the
instructional materials and training aids. These vary not only for investment. However, measuring sales training effectiveness is
different companies but for programs with different aims, not easy, but it is possible to gauge, somewhat roughly,
contents, and methods. Pertinent features and uses of the main program effectiveness.
types of instructional materials and training aids are discussed The starting point is to compare the programs aims (the A in
in the following sections. A-C-M-E-E) with the results, but the core of the measurement
1. Manuals: Often known as workbooks, manuals are used in difficulty is in determining training results. Results, such as
most group type sales training programs. The best manuals improved selling performance, for instance, may not show up
contain outlines or summaries of the main presentations, until months later. Management approaches the measuring
related reading materials, statements of learning objectives for problem by making certain comparisons, such as the length of
each session, orienting questions or thought provokers, cases time new sales personnel (who have completed initial sales
and problems, plus directions for sessions involving role training) take to attain the productivity level of the experienced
playing or gaming. Many include concise statements of selling, salesperson, the performance against standards of trained and
pricing, training of sales personnel, and other policies as well as untrained sales personnel, and the respective training histories
details on company systems and procedures. Some contain of the best and worst performers. Some companies plot each
information on the products and their applications. salespersons sales records on a before-and-after training basis,
2 Other printed materials: These include company bulletins, generally converting them to market share percentages.
sales and product handbooks, information bulletins, standard Other approaches to measuring program effectiveness are in
texts, technical and trade books, and industry and general use. Some companies use written tests (on a before-and-after
business magazines and journals. Company publications are training basis) to determine how much trainees have learned.
used chiefly to furnish field sales personnel with up-to-date and This is appropriate for measuring improvements in amount
needed information . and depth of product knowledge, for instance, but reveals little
3. Training aids: The most used and indispensable is the about the trainees ability to apply this in the field. Other firms
blackboard-no training facility should be without one on which send observers to work with sales personnel who have
to illustrate points, summarize discussions, and the like, adding completed training programs and to report the extent to which
visual to vocal appeal. Modern substitutes for the blackboard trainees are applying what was taught in programs. Still other
(for example, projector, transparency roll, and screen) offer companies solicit customers for their reactions to a salespersons
improvements such as making it possible for the trainer to face performance after training. None of these approaches produces
the class even while his or her writing appears on a screen, and precise evaluative data. They provide indications as to whether
conserving time through using prepared diagrams, charts, results are positive or not.
statistical tables, and so on Form for Trainee raring of Sales Training Session
The motion-picture projector and film are effective when the Session Review
training is to explain complex situations. In conveying technical A brief, candid review of this training session will help you
information on installation and operation of new machine tool evaluate what can have learned and help us in our efforts to
models improve the program. Please answer all questions. Do not
Tape-recording and playback equipment is ideal for training in sign your name; the results are anonymous.
sales techniques. Actual or simulated sales presentations are Place an X where appropriate to describe your reactions to
taped and played back for individual or group appraisal. each of the following
Miniature (sometimes concealable) cassette-type recorders make
1.Material covered Exciting Dull
it easy for salespersons to tape their own sales interviews and
play them back later. Thus, they gain greater objectivity in 2.Instruction Excellent Poor
appraising their own effectiveness and in finding ways to 3.Worthwhileness of material Great Little
improve performance. 4.Completeness of coverage very Complete
4. Advance assignments: To conserve time, many programs Totally Inadequate
require trainees to prepare assignments in advance. In some
5.how might the session have been improved?
situations, these are reading assignments chosen to provide
some minimum comprehension of subjects scheduled for ________________________________________________________
coverage in formal sessions. In other situations, the assignment ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
is to read a case and prepare a plan of action for use in a ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
scheduled session. It is important that trainees understand the
70
However, any evaluation of training effectiveness based on sales Points to Ponder

records is an approximation. Territorial sales volumes are
inflected not only by personal selling but by advertising,
competitors activities, economic fluctuations, and similar
factors. No known analytical technique exists for precise
isolation of the influence of these factors.
Management measures the effectiveness of training programs
both while they are in progress and upon completion. The
purpose is to obtain insight for improving the effectiveness of
future programs. Tests and examinations measure trainee
retention of materials presented, most appropriately when
trainees are to memorize certain information, as product
specifications and applications.. There is little value in using
tests and examinations for evaluating training in sales tech-
niques: performance in role-playing assignments is a better
approach.
Conclusion
The entire production and marketing process culminates in the
making of sales, and managements objective in training sales
personnel is improved job performance. Effective sales training
also assists sales management in discharging its social responsi-
bility for controlling marketing costs. When salespeople
perform efficiently, cost savings show up in benefits to consum-
ers as well as to the enterprise. A companys position in its
industry is determined importantly by the performance of
its sales personnel. Skillfully designed and executed sales
training programs have potentials for helping sales personnel to
achieve effective job performance.
Notes -
Objectives
Objectives of Sales Training Programs
Programs
Increased
Sales
Productivity
Improved
Self- Lower
Management turnover
Sa le s t ra ining
program
objectives
Improve
c ustomer Improve
relations morale
Improved
communica-
tion
71
The training methods are the following

Defining Aims Lecture
Personal conference
Identifying training needs Demonstrations
Job specification Role play
Case discussion
Trainees background and experience Impromptu discussion
Sales related marketing policies Gaming
On the job training
Identifying continuing needs. Correspondence courses
Training content Training Execution

Product data Who will be the Trainees?
Sales technique Who will do the training?
Market When will the training take place?
Company information Where will the training site be?
72
Evaluating sales training
Questions
Q1. Why is it important for salespeoples training to be viewed
by salespeople as worthwhile and helpful for this job?
Q2. Discuss the different training methods?
Q3. Why is role playing an effective way of training?
Q4. What are the advantages and disadvantages of On the-job
training?
Q5. What are the preparations required for sales force training
execution?
Q6. Why is it necessary to evaluate sales force training program?
73
LESSON 14
THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
Learning Objectives The employer

The need to motivate salespeople Trusted, reliable employees who give their all,
The ways to motivate salespeople Ability to construe employee motivation, needs & drives +
To understand the different motivation models relate to: effort, economic efficiency, performance, retention,
loyalty & commitment, membership culture,
In this lesson we will learn why is it necessary to motivate sales
empowerment, obligation-duty, participation &
people and how it can be done?
contribution, work design, better teams .
Motivating Sales Personnel To most people motivation suggests the level or amount of
The sales executives job is to get results through company energy directed by someone toward a single task or goal .In
personnel-by making decisions and seeing to it that others carry business , motivation is used as a synonym for productivity . A
them out. Put differently, the sales executives performance sales person is motivated if job performance exceeds the level
depends upon the composite performances of the individuals expected by the firm .
making up the sales force. Small wonder, then, that sales
Motivation is a term originally derived from the latin word
executives are greatly interested in the factors influencing
mover which means to movebut has been expanded to
individual sales personnel to achieve given performance levels.
include the various factors by which human behaviour is
Assuming that a salesperson has the requisite ability and the activated. In any discussion about the motivation of sales-
skills needed for satisfactory job performance, what causes that people , the following questions need to be answered:
salesperson to expend the necessary effort? The answer is locked
1. What affects salespersons behaviour ?
up in the behavioral concept known as motivation-what causes
people to behave as they do. Behavioral scientists agree that 2. What infuences the intensity of behaviour ?
motivation is goal-directed behavior aimed toward achieving 3. What directs the persons behaviour ?
given results, which, in turn, provide rewards in line with the 4. How is the behavior maintained over time ?
goal.
A sales manager seeks to influence salespeople to do certain
High productivity in a sales force comes about neither naturally activities , to work hard to reach activity goals and to do so
nor accidentally. Some sales personnel are self-starters, requiring over the long haul and not occasionally.
little external incentive, but they are the exceptions. Most sales
personnel require motivation to reach and maintain satisfactory that that
Motivation
performance levels. leads to results in Some level
is the Choice of of job
Meaning of Motivation psychological behavior performance
Motivation is goal-directed behavior, underlying which are process
certain needs or desires. The term needs suggests a lack of
something that reaching the goal could satisfy, while the term
desires suggests positive ardor and strength of feeling. The The Motivation -Behavior-Job Performance Sequence
complex of needs and desires stemming from within, individu-
als leads them to act so as to satisfy these needs and desires. Why Salespeople Need Motivation ?
Specifically, as applied to sales personnel, motivation is the Most sales personnel require motivation to reach and maintain
amount of effort the salesperson desires to expend on the acceptable performance levels. They require motivation as
activities associated with the sales job, such as calling on individuals and as group members. As individuals, they are
potential accounts, planning sales presentations, and filling out targets for personalized motivational efforts by their superiors.
reports. Expending effort on each activity making up the sales As members of the sales force they are targets for sales manage-
job leads to some level of achievement on one or more ment efforts aimed toward welding them into an effective
dimensions of job performance-total sales volume, profitabil- selling team. Four aspects of the salespersons job affect the
ity, sales to new accounts, quota attainment, and the like. quality of its performance. The following discussion focuses on
these aspects; each is an important reason why sales personnel
Who wants what from motivation?
require additional motivation.
The person
Inherent Nature of the Sales Job
Health & well-being, safety/order, social affiliation/
acceptance, recognition & rewards (extrinsic/intrinsic, Salesman meets many prospects some of whom are
stimulus & incentive. Feelings of self-worth/value, difficult to deal with .
command of destiny, realisation of personal aspirations/ Competition is high because many compete for the same
expectations. Equity. Power. Affiliation business and they meet numerous turndowns .
74
Targets are set high by superiors. all members of the sales force feel they are participating in a

Sales people spend considerable time away from home. cooperative endeavor is not easy-nevertheless, effective sales
management works continuously to achieve and maintain it.
These conditions cause salespersons to become discouraged, to
achieve low performance levels, or even to seek nonselling Need Gratification and Motivation
positions. The inherent nature of the sales job, then, is the first Behavioral research studies show that all human activity-
reason that additional motivation is required. including the salespersons job behavior-is directed toward
satisfying certain needs (that is, reaching certain goals). Patterns
Salespersons Role Conflicts
of individual behavior differ because individuals seek to fulfill
The salesperson must try to satisfy the expectations of people
different sets of needs in different ways. Some salespersons, in
both within the company (in the sales department and else-
other words, are more successful than others because of the
where) and-in customer organizations. There is linkage with
differing motivational patterns and amounts and types of
four groups: (1) sales management,(2) the company organiza-
efforts they exert in performing their jobs.
tion that handles order fulfillment, (3) the customers, and (4)
other company sales personnel. Each group imposes certain How particular individuals behave depends upon the nature of
behavioral expectations on the salesperson, and, in playing these their fulfilled and unfulfilled needs modified by their environ-
different roles, the. Salesperson faces role conflicts . mental and social backgrounds.
Not much can be done to reduce the role conflicts of sales Needs are either primary or secondary.
personnel. Some evidence exists that experienced sales person- Primary needs are the inborn or physiological needs for food,
nel perceive significantly less, role conflict than do those with water, rest, sleep, air to breathe, sex, and so on, the fulfillment
less experience. This suggests that a salespersons perceptions of which are basic to life itself. Until primary needs are satisfied,
of and ability to cope with, role conflict are influenced not only other needs have little motivational influence.
by experienced but by the effectiveness, of sales training. It also Secondary needs arise from an individuals interaction with the
suggests that those who become experienced sales personnel environment, and are not inborn but develop with maturity.
may cope better with role conflict than those leaving the sales Secondary needs include those for safety and security, belonging-
organization earlier. ness and social relations, and self-esteem and self-respect.
So improving sales training effectiveness and revising selection
Hierarchy of Needs
criteria are two roads to reducing, the impact of role conflict on
A .H. Maslow, a psychologist, developed a theory of motiva-
sales force morale.
tion based on the notion that an individual seeks to fulfill
Tendency Toward Apathy personal needs according to some hierarchy of importance. He
Those who, year after year, cover the same territory and virtually suggests the general priority of need fulfillment shown in
the same customers, lose interest and enthusiasm. Gradually Figure 14.1
their sales calls degenerate into routine order taking. Because 1. Physiological: Like needs for shelter, hunger, thirst, sex
they know the customers so well, they believe that good and other bodily needs.
salesmanship is no longer necessary. Their customer approach
2. Security: Needs for protection and safety from emotional
typically becomes: Do you need anything today, Joe? They fail
and physical harm .
to recognize that friendship in no way obviates the necessity for
creative selling and that most customers do not sell themselves 3. Social: Needs like friendship, accompany, acquisitions.
on new products and applications. The customers response, as 4. Esteem: Internal esteem factor like self-respect, autonomy,
often as not, is: Nothing today, Bill. Later a competing and achievement and external factors like status,
salesperson calls on the same account, uses effective sales recognition, and attention.
techniques, and gets an order. 5. Self-actualization: The drive to become what one is
Many salespeople require additional motivation to maintain capable of becoming includes growth, and self-fulfillment
continuing enthusiasm to generate renewed interest in their Maslow suggests that after an individual gratifies basic physio-
work. logical needs, he or she proceeds to strive to fulfill safety and
Maintaining a Feeling of Group Identity security needs, then belongingness and social relations needs,
The salesperson, working alone, finds it difficult to develop and and so on-the individuals level of aspiration rising as needs on
maintain a feeling of group identity with other company higher levels are satisfied.
salespeople. Team spirit, if present at all, is weak. Thus, the Not every individual and certainly not every salesperson, of
contagious enthusiasmconducive to improving the entire course, establishes the order of priority of need fulfillment
groups performance-does not develop. suggested by Maslow. Some sales personnel, for instance,
If sales management, through providing added motivation, appear to assign earlier priority to filling the esteem need (for
succeeds in developing and maintaining team spirit, individual self-respect) than they do to filling the need for social relation
sales personnel strive to meet group performance standards. within a group.
Few people who consider themselves members of the sales After meeting basic physiological needs, it probably is impos-
team want to appear as poor performers in the eyes of their sible for most individuals to satisfy fully their needs on any
colleagues. Providing the kind of working atmosphere in which higher level-needs seem to multiply along with efforts to satisfy
75
them. As a particular need is satisfied, it loses its potency as a power a larger income retains is related to unfulfilled esteem and
motivator, but other unfulfilled needs, some of them new, gain self-actualization needs and the extent to which income can
in potency. Individuals continually try to fulfill ever-larger gratify them. Of course, too, the threat of receiving a lower
portions of their need structures, and the unsatisfied portions income, a negative incentive, endangers the fulfilled part of an
exert the strongest motivational pull. individuals need structure, and to the extent that this threat
What, then, motivates salespeople? exist, money continues to have power as an incentive.
Salespersons motives for working vary according to the nature Notice that whereas motives are internal to the individual,
and potency of the unsatisfied portion of their individual incentives are external. Sales management influences the
hierarchies of needs. We must also recognize, however, that behavioral patterns of sales personnel indirectly through the
some of the salespeoples needs are filled off the job as well as incentives it offers.
on it. One salesperson works because of the need for money to Motivation-Hygiene Theory
feed a family; another because the job is seen as a means for Frederick Herzberg and his co-researchers developed the
gaining esteem of others; still another because of a need to motivation-hygiene theory. According to this theory the factors
achieve (self-actualization) to the maximum of ones abilities, that lead to motivation and job satisfaction are not the same as
seeing job performance as a means to that end. those leading to apathy and job dissatisfaction. In other words,
If sales management knew the makeup of the unsatisfied the contention is that job dissatisfaction is not the opposite of
portion of a salespersons hierarchy of needs at a particular job satisfaction-two separate groups of needs are involved, one
time, it could determine the best incentives. related to job satisfaction and the other to job dissatisfaction.
The fact that an individual has needs causes him or her, While most needs have potentials for influencing the relief of
consciously or not, to formulate goals in terms of them. If job dissatisfaction and the increase of job satisfaction, each need
management can harmonize the individuals goals with those serves predominantly either a hygiene or motivator purpose.
of the organization, then individual behavior is channeled Deficiencies in fulfilling the hygiene needs cause job dissatisfac-
along lines aimed at achieving both sets of goals. tion. These needs relate to the working environment,
For a salesperson worried about providing for a childs educa- compensation, fringe benefits, type of supervision, and other
tion, an important individual goal becomes that of obtaining factors extrinsic to the job. Fulfilling the hygiene needs does not
money to remove the uncertainty. If management sees how lead to job satisfaction, but in the achievement of a neutral
furnishing the salesperson with an opportunity to earn more point known as a fair days work. Performance at this point
money will also further the attainment of organizational goals does not result from motivation.
(perhaps that of increasing the size of orders), then offering the At the fair days work point, the individual is ripe for
salesperson the chance to earn more money for obtaining larger influence by the motivation factors, ones intrinsic to the job
orders is a powerful incentive. itself. These factors reflect needs for personal growth, including
achievement, recognition, nature of the job itself, responsibility,
and opportunities for advancement. The motivation factors
represent needs that, when fulfilled, lead to job satisfaction.
Motivation Factors
Achievement The Two-
Recognition Factor
The work itself
Responsibility Theory of
Advancement
and growth
Motivation
Satisfaction No satisfaction
Hygiene Factors
Supervisors
Working conditions
Interpersonal relations
Pay and security
Company policies and
administration
Dissatisfaction No di ssatisfaction
Figure 14.1
Money, however, loses its power as an incentive once the
Motivation-hygiene theory has two important implications for
individual has gratified physiological needs and most safety and
sales management. The first is that management must see that
security needs. Other incentives (for example, a chance for
the job provides the conditions that prevent job dissatisfaction
promotion, which is one way to fulfill esteem and self-respect
(to get a fair days work from the salesperson). This means that
needs) become increasingly effective. The promise of more
management needs to provide an acceptable working environ-
money becomes a weaker incentive the farther up in the
ment, fair compensation, adequate fringe benefits, fair and
hierarchy an individuals unfulfilled needs are pushed. Whatever
76
reasonable supervision, and job security. The second implica- Motivation leads to effort, when combined with

tion is that management provide opportunities for ability and environmental factors, that results in
achievement, recognition, responsibility, and advancement (to performance which, in turn, leads to various
motivate performance beyond that of a fair days work). outcomes that have value (valence) to employees.
Achievement-Motivation Theory Elements of Expectancy Theory
David McClelland, in association with other researchers, Effort-to-Performance Expectancy
developed achievement-motivation theory. According to this The employees perception of the probability that
theory, if a person spends considerable time thinking about effort will lead to a high level of performance.
doing his or her job better, accomplishing something unusual
Performance-to-Outcome Expectancy
and important, or advancing his or her career, that individual
has a high need for achievement (nAch). Those who have high The employees perception of the probability that
need for achievement (1) like problem situations in which they performance will lead to a specific outcomethe
take personal responsibility for finding solutions (ones in which consequence or reward for behaviors in an
the possibilities of reaching them are reasonable), (2) tend to set organizational setting.
attainable achievement goals, and (3) want feedback on how Valence
they are doing. In practical terms, nAch is a motivation to An index of how much an individual values a
exceed some standard of quality in personal behavior-individu- particular outcome.
als who are self-motivated and who continually strive to
It is the attractiveness of the outcome to the
improve their performance are in this category. Many individu-
individual.
als like this are attracted to personal selling jobs, especially those
where compensation is largely in the form of commissions- Attractive outcomes have positive valences and
jobs characterized by opportunities to influence outcomes unattractive outcomes have negative valences.
through personal efforts, challenging risks, and rapid feedback Outcomes to which an individual is indifferent have
of results. zero valences.
What are the implications for sales management? If individuals For motivated behavior to occur:
with high nAch can be the best performers in the companys Both effort-to-performance expectancy and
sales jobs, then management might target its recruiting toward performance-to-outcome expectancy probabilities
such people. McClelland and his co investigators used the must be greater than zero.
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) in their research on
The sum of the valences must be greater than zero.
achievement, so management might consider including the
TAT in the sales selection system. But management would The strength of an individuals motivation to behave in a
want to make certain that the sales job environment was one in certain way (in terms of efforts) depends upon how strongly
which high achievers flourish. that individual believes that these efforts will achieve the desired
performance patterns (or level). If the individual achieves the
The fact that nAch drives individuals to act from an internally
desired performance, then how strongly does the individual
induced stimulus is noteworthy. People with high nAch are self-
believe that the organizations rewards/punishments will be
starters-they require little external incentive to succeed and
appropriate for that kind of performance, and to what extent
constantly challenge themselves to improve their own perfor-
will this satisfy the individuals needs (goals)?
mances. Such people do not require motivation by management
other than that of providing the right kind of job environ- The expectancy model raises motivational issues of concern to
ment. Understanding the concepts behind nAch, and the sales management. Does the company reward structure provide
conditions that individuals high in nAch seek in their jobs, what sales personnel want? Do individual sales personnel
helps to explain and predict the behavior of sales personnel. perceive the kinds and amounts of effort management
anticipates that they will make to attain set performance levels?
Expectancy Model How convinced are individual sales personnel that given
Expectancy Theory performance patterns lead to given rewards?
Motivation depends on how much we want
something and how likely we are to get it.
Expectancy Theory of
Assumes that:
Motivation
Behavior is determined by a combination of
Outcomes
personal and environmental forces. E-to-P P-to-O
& Valences
Expectancy Expectancy
People make decisions about their own behavior in
organizations.
Outcome 1
Different people have different types of needs, + or
or --
desires, and goals. Outcome 2

Effort Performance
Performance + or
or --
People choose among alternatives of behaviors in
selecting one that that leads to a desired outcome. Outcome 3
+ or
or --
77
Help each salesperson set reasonable goals and design
plans to attain those goals, and provide feedback

How to Use Positions should be challenging, have some authority, and
Expectancy Theory provide some freedom
Recognize the frequent adversities faced by the salesperson
&Determine rewards
Prevent job dissatisfaction by providing a fair basic
valued by employees. compensation plan, helpful and constructive supervision,
&Evaluate performance acceptable fringe benefits, and job security
level you seek. The organization environment
&Make performance level Take an active role in developing the motivational processes
attainable. Provide a participative environment
&Make reward valuable to Must communicate and maintain an open, constructive,
employee. and relaxed environment where trust, faith, and fairness are
openly practiced
Through formal and informal channels, communicate that
the salespeople are mature, professional individuals
Sales management, however, must recognize that this model is involved in significant, meritorious work
concerned with expectations. Sales personnel need counseling to Communicate clearly the relationship between performance
view their own competencies realistically. They also need sales and recognition
managements support in developing the skills that lead to Once the desired level of income has been reached,
improved performance. salespeople typically strive to satisfy such needs as status,
Let us study how salespeople can be motivated? prestige, recognition, the need to win, and opportunity to
Three elements affecting motivation can be found within the serve, and the respect and affection of management and
organizational environment peers
The individual salesperson Four important aspects that unsuccessful salespeople do
The sales job not have:
The organization environment Positive attitude
The individual salesperson Personal goals
Unique needs of each individual salesperson Time organization
Positive reinforcement Enthusiasm
Once financial security is met, appeal to other needs Three facets of non monetary motivation:
If time restraints make it impossible for the sales manager Recognition

to learn and respond to the needs of each salesperson, Awards
then segment the sales force in clusters Special communications
Explain the job requirements and expectations Recognition
To motivate individual salesperson Recognize everyone
Train the salespeople to be professionals Recognize publicly
Provide the incentives necessary for salespeople to want to Record the recognition
do their best Involve top management
Sales management should provide rewards that are: Make it personal
Simple Dont use negative recognition
Immediate Put the winner in the center
Frequent Award: is physical evidence that the receiver can take home and
Related to the special act show friends, family, and peers
Sales management should be cognizant of the Personal and fit the occasion
motivational value of personal visits, personal phone calls Distinctive
and letter, and small, intimate sales meetings
Show that the individual level of achievement is consistent
The sales job with the organizations goals
Sufficient product information Can be honorary job titles
Communication
78
Special communications Points to Ponder

Newsletters
Articles or news features about special efforts made
Pictures of the top salespeople that that
Motivation
leads to results in Some level
is the Choice of
Spot for award recognition of job
psychological behavior
performance
Individual letters/special telephone calls process
Conclusion
Motivating sales personnel is an important aspect of sales force The Motivation-Behavior-Job Performance Sequence
management. Sales personnel require additional motivation
because of inherent nature of the sales job, role conflicts, the
natural tendency toward apathy, and difficulties in building
group identity. The concepts of need gratification and
interdependence assist in understanding the complexities of
motivating sales personnel. Implementing motivational efforts
requires that sales executives be skilled leaders, rather than
drivers, of sales personnel. It demands that they be skilled in
interpersonal and written communications. Satisfactory job
performances develop out of deep understanding of motiva-
tional forces and processes, effective leadership, two-way
communications, and effective handling of relationships.
Notes -
79
Questions
Motivation Factors
The Two- Q1. What is meant by motivation?Why is it such an important
Achi evement
Recognition Factor concept for sales Managers to understand and learn how to
The work itself
Responsibility Theory of use?What is meant by motivation?Why is it such an
Advancement
Motivation important concept for sales Managers to understand and
and growth
learn how to use?
Satisfaction No satisfaction
Q2. What is Maslows motivation theory? How is it helpful in
motivating salespeople?
Hygiene Factors
Supervisors Q3. Describe the Motivation Hygiene theory?
Working conditions
Interpersonal relations Q4. How salespeople can be motivated ?
Pay and security
Company policies and
administration
Di ssatisfaction No dissatisfaction
Expectancy Theory of
Motivation
E -t o -P P- t o- O O u t c o m ee ss
Expectancy E x p e c t a n cy & V aalen
lences
Outcome 1
+ or -
Outcome 2
Effort P
Pee r f o r m a n c ee + or -
Outcome 3
+ or -
80
LESSON 15
DEVISING COMPENSATION
Learning objectives This example shows that compensation plans must be custom
To understand the importance of good compensation designed to meet the goals of individual firms. It also shows
plan. that the natural desire of salespeople to make money for
themselves sometimes conflicts with the firms need to control
How to devise a compensation plan for salespeople
expenses. This means you have the difficult task of designing
In this lesson we will study how sales compensation is compensation programs that motivate salespeople to reach
devised? In the next lesson we will study the different ways of company goals without bankrupting the firm at the same time.
compensation. Since 30 to 40 percent of all sales reps are unhappy with their
Compensating Sales Personnel compensation plans at anyone time, you are continuously
challenged to come up with a better program.
What a Good Sales

Compensation Plan Should Do
Efforts + Control Treat Attract and
Results = activities of customers keep good
Reward sales reps properly people
Motivate the Good sales Economical yet

salesperson compensation plan competitive
Security and Flexible and

Fair Simple
incentive stable
The sales compensation plan is an essential part of the total

program for motivating sales personnel. A sales compensation
plan, properly designed, has three motivational roles:
Compensation is one of the most important tools for 1. Provide a living wage,
motivating and retaining field salespeople. However , designing 2. Adjust pay levels to performance, thereby relating job
compensation plans tends to be a derivative rather than a lead performance and rewards (in line with expectancy
process. For example, a paper distributor faces a mature market motivation theory), and
with average gross margins of 18 to 20 percent. Salespeople are
3. Provide a mechanism for demonstrating the congruency
paid commissions of 20 percent of gross margin to center their
between attaining company goals and individual goals (also
attention on boosting distributor profits. Although this plan
in line with expectancy theory).
looks good, gross profit growth mysteriously results in a
decline in net profits. The sales reps would rather focus on A properly designed sales compensation plan fits a companys
small orders they can turn around quickly than spend time special needs and problems, and from it flows attractive returns
working for the big order. However, the small orders have for both the company and its sales personnel. Sales and growth
higher processing and delivery costs. Thus, growth in small goals are reached at low cost, and profits are satisfactory. Sales
orders raises overhead faster than the increase in gross profit. personnel receive high pay as a reward for effective job per-
The paper distributor needs a plan that will maintain gross formance, and esprit de corps is high.
profit margins and also reach its goals for net profits. To meet In established companies it is rarely necessary to design new
both goals, the distributor must create a plan that links sales compensation plans, and sales executives concern them-
commission rates to gross profit and order size. Instead of one selves mainly with revising plans already in effect. Most changes
gross margin commission of 20 percent, the distributor needs are minor, instituted to bring the plan and marketing objectives
to vary the size of commissions with the size of the gross into closer alignment. If, for example, additional sales effort is
margin percentage achieved on each order and on the gross needed for the factory to operate at optimum-capacity, an
margin dollars earned on each order. The result is a plan that adjustment in compensation may be required. This could mean
ties reps commissions to their true contribution to the paying- bonuses on sales over the quota, paying additional
companys profit goals. compensation for larger orders or for securing new accounts, or
81
revising commission rate schedules. Any change, of course, volume objectives, for instance, whether in dollars, units of
could be either temporary or permanent. product, or numbers of dealers and distributors, are translated
There are two situations where total overhauling of compensa- into what is expected of the sales personnel, as a group and
tion plans are in order. individually. The impact of sales-related marketing policies is
determined. Distribution policies, credit policies, price policies,
One is the company whose sales force already has low morale,
and other policies affect the salespersons job. Current and
perhaps because of the current compensation plan. If the plan
proposed advertising and sales promotional programs assist in
is at the root of the morale problem, drastic change is appropri-
clarifying the nature of the salespersons goals, duties, and
ate. A second situation calling for a complete revamping of the
activities.
sales compensation plan occurs when a company is anticipating
the cultivation of new and different markets. Consider the Companys General Compensation
The problems in these two situations are like those in the newly Structure
organized company, which must build its sales compensation Most large companies, and many smaller ones, use job evalua-
plan from scratch-in both cases management_ must consider tion systems to determine the relative value of individual jobs.
many factors, the nature and number of which vary with the It focuses on the jobs, without considering the ability or
company and the situation, but usually include the types of personality of individuals who do the work. Its purpose is to
customers, the marketing channels characteristics of the arrive at fair compensation relationships among jobs.
products, intensity of competition, extent of the market and There are four job evaluation methods. Two are not quantita-
complexity of the selling task. tive: simple ranking and classification or grading. The other two
are quantitative: the point system and the factor-comparison
Requirements of A Good Sales
method.
Compensation Plan
Simple ranking: In this inexpensive job evaluation method,
A good sales compensation plan meets seven requirements.
widely used by small businesses, an executive committee sorts
i. It provides a living wage, preferably in the form of a secure job descriptions in the order of worth. This is done without
income. Individuals worried about money matters do not considering the individuals currently in the jobs or their
concentrate on doing their jobs well. compensation levels. No attempt is made to determine critical
ii. The plan fits with the rest of the motivational program-it factors inherent in the jobs; only overall appraisals of the
does not conflict with other motivational factors, such as relative worth of different jobs are made.
the intangible feeling of belonging to the sales team. Classification or grading: This approach utilizes a system of
iii. The plan is fair-it does not penalize sales personnel because grades and grade descriptions, against which individual jobs are
of factors beyond their control-within the limits of compared. The grades, sometimes called classes, are described in
seniority and other special circumstances, sales personnel terms of job responsibility, skills required, supervision given
receive equal pay for equal performance. and received, exposure to unfavorable and hazardous working
iv. It is easy for sales personnel to understand-they are able to conditions, and similar characteristics. Job descriptions are then
calculate their own earnings. classified into appropriate grades-this is done by an executive
committee or by personnel specialists. The basic process is to
v. The plan adjusts pay to changes in performance.
compare job descriptions with grade descriptions. All jobs
vi. The plan is economical to administer. within a grade are treated alike with respect to base com-
vii. The plan helps in attaining the objectives of the sales pensation.
organization. Point system: The point system is the most widely used job
Devising A Sales Compensation Plan evaluation method. It involves establishing and defining the
Whether contemplating major or minor changes or drafting a factors common to most jobs that represent the chief elements
completely new sales compensation plan, the sales executive of value inherent in all jobs. The specific factors chosen differ
approaches the project systematically. Good compensation plans from one company to another, but generally include mental and
are built on solid foundations. physical skills, responsibility, supervision given and received,
personality requirements, and minimum education required.
Define the Sales Job
Each factor is assigned a minimum and maximum number of
The first step is to reexamine the nature of the sales job. Up-to-
points, different ranges being associated in line with the relative
date written job descriptions are the logical place to start. If job
importance of the factors. Next, appraised factor scores are
descriptions are outdated, if they are not accurate, or if complete
combined into a total point value. Finally, bands of points are
descriptions of the sales job objectives and work are not given,
decided upon and become the different compensation classes.
then a revision is in order. The effective sales executive asks:
Less arbitrary judgment is required than under the classification
Does this description convey a realistic picture of what the
method; the use of point values makes it possible to determine
salesperson is supposed to accomplish and to do? If there are
the gap, or distance, between job classes.
no written sales job descriptions, they are prepared.
Factor-comparison method: This method resembles the
Other aspects of company operations are considered in relation
point system but is more complex. It utilizes a scheme of
to their impact upon the sales job. Sales department objectives
ranking and cross-comparisons to minimize error from faulty
are analyzed for their effect on the salespersons job. Sales
82
judgment. In a process similar to that used in the point system, or on an arbitrary judgment basis, neither expedient is recom-

the factor-comparison method employs selected factors and mended. Management should ascertain whether the caliber of
evaluation scales. However, the scale values are in dollars and the present sales force measures up to what the company would
cents, and no upper limit exists to the valuation that can be like to have. If it is too low, or if the company should have
assigned to anyone factor. A selected number of key jobs, lower-grade people than those currently employed, manage-
typical of similar jobs throughout the company, are then ment should determine the market value of sales personnel of
evaluated; factor by factor .This is done by arranging them in the desired grade. Management weighs the worth of individual
rank order, from highest to lowest for each, factor. As a check persons through estimating the sales and profit dollars that
against this judgmental evaluation, the compensation dollars would be lost if particular salespeople resigned.. Another
actually paid for each job are allocated to the factors; the consideration is the compensation amount the company can
allocation automatically establishes the relationship among jobs afford to pay. The result of examining these and other factors
for each factor. The judgment ranking and the ranking by pertinent to the situation is a series of estimates for the total
allocation of compensation are compared and differences are cost of salespeoples compensation.
reconciled, or else the jobs are removed from the key list. On the In some firms, companywide formal job evaluation programs
basis of the dollar amounts assigned to the several factors are used to set compensation levels for sales positions. The
making up key jobs, additional jobs are evaluated and their procedure recommended earlier serves as a check on the
monetary values for each factor interpolated Into the scale. This compensation levels prescribed through job evaluations. Any
procedure is repeated until all jobs are evaluated. discrepancies should be reconciled. When the job evaluation
Job evaluation and sales positions: Job evaluation occurs program is sound, there should be few, if any, discrepancies.
whenever decisions are made about the relative worth of jobs, It is not unusual to find that two companies operate under
and it is inescapable in organizational life. If, for example, the similar selling conditions but with different sales compensation
owner of an automobile dealership decides that the new car levels. Sales personnel in one company earn more than those
sales manager should be paid more than the service manager, who do essentially the same work in another company.
the jobs have been evaluated. So informal job evaluation exists Relatively speaking, the first group of salespeople is
in firms not using formal job evaluation. overcompensated. What explains such situations?
Traditionally, sales executives have opposed using formal job Sometimes, management does not know the true worth
evaluations to determine the compensation levels of sales of individual sales personnel.
personnel. They contend that compensation levels for sales
In other cases, management regards some sales personnel
personnel are more closely related to external supply-and-
as indispensable .
demand factors than to conditions inside the company. Sales
personnel enjoy greater job mobility than most other employ- In still other cases, sales managers are biased in favor of
ees, and are in everyday contact with potential employers. high compensation for selling jobs.
Consider Compensation Patterns In commodity and Provide for the Various Compensation Elements
Industry A sales compensation plan has as many as four basic elements:
Because compensation levels for sales personnel are related to 1. A fixed element, either a salary or a drawing account, to
external supply and-demand factors, it is important to consider provide some stability of income;
prevailing compensation patterns in the community and 2. A variable element (for example, a commission, bonus, or
industry. Management needs answers to four questions: profit-sharing arrangement), to serve as an incentive;
1. What compensation systems are being used? 3. An element covering the fringe or plus factor, such as
2 What is the average compensation for similar positions? paid vacations, sickness and accident benefits, life insurance,
3. How are other companies doing with their plans? And pensions, and the like; and
4. What are the pros and cons of departing from industry or 4. An element providing for reimbursement of expenses or
community patterns? payment of expense allowances. Not every company
includes all four elements. Management selects the
If there is a companywide formal job evaluation program, it
combination of elements that best fits the selling
should take into account the current rates for sales positions in
situation. The proportions that different elements bear to
the community and industry. A program for setting compensa-
each other vary. However, most companies split the fixed
tion of sales personnel is sound only if it considers the relation
and variable elements on a 60:40 to an 80:20 basis.
of external compensation practices to those of the company.
Building Blocks for a Sales
Effective sales executives maintain constant vigilance against the Compensation Plan
possibility that the pay of sales personnel will get out of line
with that paid for similar jobs in the community or industry. Others
Determine Compensation Level Profit sharing Others
Pension Entertainment
Management must determine the amount of compensation a Profit Sharing Moving Expenses Lodging
Company Car
salesperson should receive on the average. Although the Bonus Insurance Lodging
compensation level might be set through individual bargaining, Salary Commission Paid Vacation Travel
SECURITY INCENTIVES BENEFITS EXPENSES
83
Special Company Needs and Problems happened with what would have happened had the new plan
A sales compensation plan is no panacea for marketing ills, but been in effect. If the sales pattern has shown considerable
it is often possible to construct a plan that increases marketing fluctuation, calculations are made for periods representative of
effectiveness. If a companys earnings are depressed because average, good, and poor business.
sales personnel overemphasize low-margin items and neglect Then a look is taken into the future. Utilizing sales forecast data,
more profitable products, it may be possible, despite the new and old plan) are applied to future periods. The plan is
existence of other managerial alternatives, the adjust the tested for the sales force as a group and _or individuals faced
compensation plan to stimulate the selling of better balanced with unique selling conditions. Analysis reveals whether the
orders. Specifically, variable commission rates might be set on plan permits earning in line with the desired compensation
different products, with the higher rates applying to neglected level. If deficiencies show up, the plan may not be at fault;
products. weaknesses can trace to the way territorial assignments have
Or, as another example, a firm might have a small-order been made or to inaccuracies in sales forecasts, budgets, or
problem. It is possible to design compensation plans that quotas.
encourage sales personnel to write larger orders. Commission To conduct a pilot test, several territories representative of
rates can be graduated so that higher rates apply to larger orders. different sets of selling conditions are selected. The proposed
However, it is desirable to supplement such a revised plan is applied in each one long enough to detect how it works
compensation plan with a customer classification and call under current conditions. Pilot tests are invaluable for spotting
scheduling system, enabling management to vary call frequency possible sources of trouble and other deviancies.
with account size.
Revise the Plan
As still another example, a company may want to obtain more
The plan is then revised to eliminate trouble spots or deficien-
displays or local advertising by retailers. The presence or absence
cies. If alterations are extensive, the revised plan goes through
of point-of-purchase displays can spell the difference between
further pretests and perhaps another pilot test. But if changes
marketing success or failure. Securing retail displays is a task that
have been only minor, further testing is not necessary.
sales personnel may neglect, especially if they are paid commis-
sions based on sales volume. To overcome this tendency, an Implement the Plan and Provide for Follow-up
incentive payment for obtaining retail displays is often incorpo- At the time the new plan is implemented, it is explained to sales
rated in the compensation plan. personnel. Management should convince them of its basic
fairness and logic. The sales personnel are made to understand
Numerous other possibilities exist for using the compensation
what management hopes to accomplish through the new plan
plan to help solve special company problems. Plans may assist
and how this is to be done. Details of changes from the old
in securing new customers and new business. Repeated
plan, and their significance require explanation. All sales
tampering with the sales compensation plan frequently results
personnel should receive copies of the new plan, together with
in complex and difficult-to-administer plans.
written examples of the method used for calculating earnings.
Consult the Present Sales Force If the plan is at all complex, special training sessions are held
Management should consult the present sales personnel, and aimed at teaching sales personnel how to compute their
inasmuch as many grievances have roots in the compensation own earnings. If sales personnel do not understand the plan or
plan. Management should encourage sales personnel to certain of its features, such as quotas and variable commission
articulate their likes and dislikes about the current plan and to bases, they may think that the company is taking unfair
suggest changes in it. Criticisms and suggestions are appraised advantage of them. Inadequate understanding of the sales
relative to the plan pr plans under consideration. But at this compensation plan is common and often a cause of low
point, management compares the caliber of the present sales morale. No effort is spared to make certain that everyone on the
force with that of the people whom it would like to have. If sales force fully comprehends the compensation plan and its
the present salespeople are not of the grade that the company workings.
wishes to attract, their criticisms and suggestions are of limited
Provisions for follow-up are made. From periodic checkups,
usefulness. Since, however, nearly every sales force has some
need for a further adjustment is detected. Periodic checks
people of the desired caliber, more weight can be attached to
provide evidence of the plans accomplishments, and they
their opinions than to those of others.
uncover weaknesses needing correction.
Reduce Tentative Plan to Writing and Pretest it
For clarification and to eliminate inconsistencies the tentative
plan is put in writing. Then it is pretested. The amount of
testing required depends upon how much the new plan differs
from the one in use. The greater the difference, the more
thorough is the testing.
Pretests of compensation plans are almost always mathematical
and usually computerized. Past payrolls, perhaps for a year or
two, are reworked to check operation of the proposed plan
against experience under the old system. Analysts compare what
84
Points to Ponder

Devising a sales compensation
plan
Define the sales job.
Consider the companys general compensation structure
Consider compensation pattern in community and
industry
Determine compensation level
Provide for various compensation elements
Special company needs and problems
Consult the present sales force
Reduce tentative plan to writing and pretest it.
Implement the plan and provide for follow up
Building Blocks for a Sales

Compensation Plan
What a Good Sales
Sales
Compensation Plan Should Do
Others
Efforts + Cont rol Treat Attract and
Profit sharing Others
Results = activities of customers keep good
Reward sales reps properly people Entertainment
Pension
Profit Sharing Moving Expenses Lodging
Company Car
Bonus Insurance Lodging

Motivate the Good sales Economical yet
salesperson compensation plan competitive Salary Commission Paid Vacation T ravel
SECURITY INCENTIVES BENEFITS EXPENSES
Security and Flexible and

Fair Simple
incentive stable
85
Questions
Q1. What is the requirement of a good sales compensation

plan ?
Q2. What are the different methods of job evaluation?
Q3. Why is it important to consider compensation pattern in
industry to set compensation for the sales people?
Notes -
86
LESSON 16
TYPES OF COMPENSATION PLANS, FRINGE BENEFITS
Learning Objectives In spite of the trend away from its use, sometimes the straight-
To understand about the different types of compensation salary plan is appropriate. It is the logical compensation plan
plans when the selling job requires extensive missionary or educa-
tional work, when salespeople service the product or give
To understand about straight salary plan and its advantages
technical and engineering advice to prospects or users, or when
and disadvantages
salespeople do considerable sales promotion work. If
To understand about straight commission plan and its nonselling tasks bulk large in the salespersons total time
advantages and disadvantages expenditure, the straight-salary plan is worthy of serious
To understand about combination salary plan and its consideration.
advantages and disadvantages Straight-salary plans are commonly used for compensating
To understand about fringe benefits salespeople heavily engaged in trade selling. These jobs, in which
In this lesson we will study about the different types of selling amounts to mere order taking, abound in the wholesale
compensation plans. and manufacturing fields, where consumer necessities are
distributed directly to retailers. Frequently, too, the straight-
Types of Compensation Plans salary method is used for paying driver-salespersons selling
The, four elements of compensation are combined into liquor and beverages, milk and bread, and similarly distributed
hundreds of different plans, each more, or less unique. But if products.
we disregard the fringe benefit and expense reimbursement
elements:-as is entirely reasonable, since they are never used From managements standpoint, the straight-salary plan has
alone-there are only three basic types of compensation plans: important advantages. It provides strong financial control over
straight salary, straight commission, and a combination of sales personnel, and management can direct their activities along
salary and variable elements. the most productive lines. Component tasks making up
salespersons jobs can be recast with minimum opposition
from those affected, so there is flexibility in adjusting field sales
Sales Incentives work to changed selling situations. If sales personnel prepare
detailed reports, follow up leads, or perform other time-
consuming tasks, they cooperate more fully if paid straight
Sales Incentive Plans salaries rather than commissions. Straight-salary plans are
economical to administer, because of their basic simplicity, and
Straight Salary compared with straight-commission plans, accounting costs are
lower.
Straight
Straight Commission
Commission
The main attraction of the straight-salary plan for sales person-
Salary and Commission nel is that stability of income provides freedom from financial
Combinations uncertainties inherent in other plans. In addition, sales person-
nel are relieved of much of the burden of planning their own
activities (the practice of providing detailed instruction, for
example, on routing and scheduling, generally goes along with
the straight salary plan). And, because of its basic simplicity,
sales personnel have no difficulty in understanding straight-
salary plans.
Straight-Salary Plan
The straight-salary plan, however, has weaknesses. Since there
The straight salary is the simplest compensation plan. Under it,
are no direct monetary incentives, many salespeople do only an
salespersons receive fixed sums are regular intervals (usually each
average rather than an outstanding job. They pass up opportu-
week or month but sometimes every two weeks), representing
nities for increased business, until management becomes aware
total payments for their services. The straight salary was once
of them and orders the required actions. Unless the plan is
the most popular sales compensation plan, but it has been
skillfully administered, there is a tendency to under compensate
declining in importance. Such plans are more common among
productive salespeople and to overcompensate poor perform-
industrial-goods companies than among consumer-goods
ers. However, many of the straight-salary plans weaknesses are
companies. Firms that formerly used the straight salary have
minimized through good administration.
tended to combine a basic salary with a variable element-that is,
they have switched to combination plans.
87
1. Straight commission with sales personal paying their own
Management is able to exercise expenses. Advantage may or may not be made against
Sales Force greater control over the sales force earned commissions.
Compensation (compared to straight commission).
Appropriate when personnel in
2. Straight commission with the company paying expenses,
Methods with or without advances against earned commissions.
selling roles are required to provide
design and engineering assistance. There is a general away from the straight commission plan,
Motivator/problem solver and
Straight and today no more than 6 or 7 percent of all companies use
Straight relationship/value creator roles are
Salary appropriate for straight salary such plans. The straight commission plan is used in situations
Salary
compensation. where nonselling duties are relatively unimportant and manage-
Creates stability of sales ment emphasizes order getting. Straightcommission plans are
employees. common in clothing , textile , and shoe industries and in drug
Does not tie financial rewards to
sales results may attract
and hardware wholesaling. Firms selling intangibles, such as
personnel who are security oriented insurance and investment securities, and manufacturers of
instead of achievement oriented. furniture, office equipment, and business machines also are
frequent users of straight commission plans.
In administering a straight-salary plan, individual sales person-
nel are paid, insofar as possible, according to their relative Sales Force Most appropriate where repeat
efforts are necessary to sustain
performance. Compensation customer purchases.
All sales personnel need rating not only on their achievement of Methods Rewards are linked to short-term,
sales and cost goals but on their performance of each assigned repeated performance.
Sellers will likely concentrate on
duty. The total evaluation of an individual is a composite of customers that have a patterns of
Straight
Straight
the several ratings, weighted according to relative importance. Commission frequent and substantial purchases.
Commission
Persons rated as average are paid average salaries. Salaries of Inappropriate during new product
introductions.
below-average and above-average sales personnel are scaled to
May not work well for sophisticated
reflect the extent to which their performances vary from the products where missionary work is
average. Each individuals performance is regularly reviewed and needed.
upward adjustments made for those showing improvements, Compensation variability/volatility
may create problems for the sellers.
and downward adjustments made for those with deteriorating
performances.
The straight-commission plan has several advantages. The
greatest is that it provides maximum direct monetary incentive
STRAIGHT SALARY for the sales person to strive for high-level volume. The star
salesperson is paid more than he or she would be under most
salary plans. And low producers are not likely to be overcom-
Advantages: Disadvantages:
pensated. Straight commission plans, in addition provide a
Simple Limits ability to use
compensation as a tool to means for fast control all direct selling expenses , except for
Encourages customer
service shape behavior traveling and miscellaneous expenses(which are reimbursable in
Protects income Increases fixed selling some plans),fluctuate directly with sales volume changes and
Facilitates team selling
costs sales compensation becomes virtually an all variable expanse.
Gives sales managers
Lowers salespersons The straight commission plan also is characterized by great
incentive
maximum flexibility in flexibility- by revising commissions rates applying to different
Does not attract successful
changing salespersons
aggressive stars
products, for instance it is possible to stimulate sales personnel
priorities on short notice
Stars subsidize others
to emphasize those with the highest gross margins
STRAIG HT COM MISSION

Straight-Commission Plan Advantages:
The theory supporting the straight-commission plan is that Attracts high-performing Disadvantages:
Severely limits ability to
salespeople
individual sales personnel should be paid according to produc- Forces non-performers to direct salespeoples efforts,
require non-selling
leave organization
tivity. The assumption underlying straight-commission plans is Compensations costs are activities, modify territories,
etc.
completely variable
that sales volume is the best productivity measure and can, Easy to understand and Encourages short-term
administer orientation
therefore, be used as the sole measure. This is a questionable Encourages maximum sales Salespeople can obtain a
efforts high level of income from
assumption. Minimizes need for mature territories
supervision by treating Fosters salespersons
The straight-commission plan, in its purest form is almost as employee much like an pursuit of the greatest payoff
for the least effort to
independent contractor
simple as the straight-salary plan, but many commission maximize income
Can create conflict between
systems develop into complex arrangements. the reps dependence on
volume and the principals
Straight commission plans fall in to one of two broad classifica- ability or willingness to fill
every order
tions: Generates little loyalty
88
However the straight commission method has weaknesses the company shares their financial risks, a cooperative spirit

provides little financial control over sales peoples activities, a develops between them and the company.
weakness further compounded when they pay their own The combination plan, however, has disadvantages. Clerical
expenses. Salespersons on straight commission often feel that costs are higher than for either a salary or a commission system.
they are discharging their own expenses. salespersons on More records are maintained and in greater detail. There are risks
straight commission often feel that they are discharging their that the plan will become complicated and that sales personnel
full responsibilities by continuing to send in customers orders will not understand it.
.They are careless about transmitting reports, neglect to follow
Sometimes a company seeking both to provide adequate salaries
up leads, resist reduction in the size of sales territories, consider
and to keep selling costs down uses commission rates so low
individual accounts private property, shade prices to make sales,
that the incentive feature is insufficient to elicit needed sales
and may use high-pressure tactics with consequent loss of
effort. But, if the incentive portion is increased, salespeople may
customer goodwill. Moreover ,unless differential commission
neglect activities for which they are not directly paid. Therefore,
rates are used, sales personnel push the easiest-to-sell low
the ratio that the base salary and the incentive portion bears to
margin items and neglect harder to sell high margin items.
the total compensation is critical. As mentioned earlier, most
Finally, some salespersons efficiency may decline because of
companies split the fixed and variable elements on a 60:40 to an
income uncertainties. If a sales force has many financially
80:20 basis.
worried salespeople; management may have to invest consider-
able time, effort, and money to buoy up their spirits. Most frequently used form of
Sales Force
Determining commission base: One important aspect of Compensation
compensation.
Salary portion of compensation
designing a straight commission system is to select the base on
Methods corresponds to managements
which to pay commission. Company selling policies and needs for the sales staff to perform
problems strongly influence selection of the base. If obtaining administrative duties, while the
volume is the main concern, then total sales is the base. If sales Combination commission portion encourages
Combination
personnel make collections on sales, commissions are based on Plan increased selling effort.
P lan
collections. If a firm has excessive order cancellations, commis- The commission portion of the
sions can be based upon shipments, billings, or payments. To compensation is paid as it is
earned, as opposed to a bonus
control price cutting by sales personnel, some companies base
(most likely paid on a quarterly or
commissions on gross margins. Other companies use net annual basis).
profits as the base, seeking simultaneously to control price
cutting, selling expense, and net profit.
Combination Salary-and-Incentive Plan
Salary plus commission: Most sales compensation plans are
SALARY & COMMISSION
combinations of salary and commission plans. Most developed
as attempts to capture the advantages and offset the, disadvan-
Advantages: Disadvantages:
tages of both the salary and commission systems.
Attracts salespeople with
Can be so complex, it is
Where the straight-salary method is used, the sales executive skills beyond pure selling
difficult to understand and
abilities
lacks a financial means for stimulating the sales force to greater administer
Enables company to
effort. Where the straight commission system is used, the compete with employers Can dilute emphasis on
executive has weak financial control over nonselling activities. By offering alternative careers key results because of a
tendency to try to control
a judicious blending of the two basic plans, management seeks Helps retain employees
during tough times too many specific
both control and motivation. Actual results depend upon Permits inclusion of non-
activities of salespeople
managements skills in designing and administering the plan. sales activities
Unless there is skillful adjustment of salary and commission,
weaknesses of both basic systems reappear.
Use of Bonuses
Strengths and weaknesses of combination plans: A well-
Bonuses are different from commissions-a bonus is an amount
designed and administered combination plan provides
paid for accomplishing a specific sales task; a commission varies
significant benefits. Sales personnel have both the security of
in amount with sales volume or other commission base.
stable incomes and the stimulus of direct financial incentive.
Bonuses are paid for reaching a sales quota, performing
Management has both financial control over sales activities and
promotional activities, obtaining new accounts, following up
the apparatus to motivate sales efforts. Selling costs are
leads, setting up displays, or carrying out other assigned tasks.
composed of fixed and variable elements; thus, greater
The bonus, in other words, is an additional financial reward to
flexibility for adjustment to changing conditions exists than
the salesperson for achieving results beyond a predetermined
under the commission method. Nevertheless, selling costs
minimum.
fluctuate some with the volume of business. There are
beneficial effects upon sales force morale. Disagreements on pay Bonuses are never used alone-they always appear with one of
increases and territorial changes are less violent than under a the three main sales compensation methods. If used with the
straight-commission plan. Further, if salespeople realize that straight salary, the plan resembles the combination plan. If used
89
with the straight commission, the result is a commission plan dependents. Similarly, given a choice between supplemental life
to which an element of managerial control and direction has insurance and increased retirement benefits from the savings
been added. If used with the combination salary and commis- plan, a fifty-nine-year-old probably would pick the latter, but a
sion plan, the bonus becomes a portion of the incentive thirty-two-year-old father of five might opt for the life insur-
income that is calculated differently from the commission. ance.
Bonus plans cant operate alone, they have to be part of a An increasing number of companies offer a cafeteria approach
combination plan to fringe benefits. In this approach, the company offers a core
Bonuses are often based on achieving quotas of basic benefits-the benefits required by law plus other
traditional benefits, including paid vacations, medical, disability,
Quotas on virtually anything can be used including sales, profit
and death benefits and a retirement program. Employees then
and activity based accomplishments
use credits (based on age, pay, family status, and years of
company service) to obtain optional benefits not included in
Certain administrative actions are crucial when a bonus is the core; this lets employees select those benefits that best fit
included in the compensation plan. At the outset, the bonus their needs. Because needs for benefits change,
conditions require thorough explanation, as all sales personnel Fringe Benefits Compendium of Types Available to Sales
must understand them. The necessary records must be set up Personnel in Some Companies
and maintained. Procedures for keeping sales personnel abreast
of their current standings relative to the goals are needed. In Time Organization dues
addition, any bonus misunderstandings or grievances arising Holidays Trade association
Vacations Civic clubs
should be dealt with fairly and tactfully. Sick leave Country clubs
Deriving Compensation Plans from Marketing Strategies Personal leave Professional association
Sabbaticals
Pregnancy leave Miscellaneous
Automobile
Marketing Objectives Sales Tasks Recommended
Strategy Compensation Retirement Problems Use of vacation spot
Plan Social security (mandatory) Parking
Build Build sales volume Call on prospective and new Salary plus Pension plan' Dry cleaning and laundry
accounts Provide high service incentive Profit sharing Lunches (all or part)
levels, particularly presale
service Salary reduction plans Secretarial services
Product / market feedback Employee stock purchase plan
Insurance and 'medical Company-provided housing
Hold Maintain sales volume Call on targeted current Salary plus Physical examinations Legal services
Consolidate market accounts commission or
position through Increase service levels to bonus
Medical payments and Financial counseling
concentration on current accounts Call on new reimbursements Tuition for continuing education
targeted segments accounts Hospitalization insurance programs ,
Secure additional Dental insurance Financial support for dependents'
outlets
Disability insurance Education Credit unions Discounts
Harvest Reduce selling costs Call on and services most Salary plus
Target profitable profitable accounts only and bonus Life insurance for purchases of company products
accounts eliminate unprofitable accounts Travel insurance Child care payments
Reduce service levels Reduce Accident insurance Matching funds to charities and
inventories Worker's compensation schools Company, social events
Divest/ Minimize selling costs Inventory dumping Eliminate Salary
liquidate and clear out service (mandatory) Company sports tournaments
inventory Unemployment insurance Retirement counseling
(mandatory) Career counseling
Cancer insurance Payment of moving expenses
Psychotherapy expense
Fringe Benefits
Fringe benefits, which do not bear direct relationships to job
Employees are given opportunities to change their selection of
performance, range from 25 to 40 percent of the total sales
those benefits that best fit their needs. Because needs for
compensation package. Some are required by federal and state
benefits change, employees are given opportunities to change
law for example, payments for social security premiums,
their selections. Companies using the cafeteria approach also
unemployment compensation, and workers compensation.
have awareness programs aimed at making employees aware
Most, however, the company provides for other reasons: to be
of the benefits available.
competitive with other companies in the industry or commu-
nity, to furnish reasons for employees to remain in the Conclusion
companys service, and to comply with what employees expect The sales compensation plan is an essential part of the total
as fringe benefits. program for motivating sales personnel. Sales compensation
Figure below shows fringe benefits currently offered by U.S. plans play three motivational roles: (1) to provide a living
companies. As the variety of fringes has expanded, individual wage (thereby contributing-in line with Herzbergs motivation-
fringes have been added that appeal more to some groups than hygiene theory-to the lack of job dissatisfaction if not to job
others-people with bad teeth are the ones most interested in satisfaction), (2) to relate pay to job performance (in line with
dental insurance, while those with children are the ones most the expectancy theory of motivation), and (3) to demonstrate
interested in plans for paying educational tuition fees for the congruency between attainment of company goals and goals
90
of individual sales personnel (also in line with expectancy

theory).
The basic sales compensation elements (salary, commissions Sales Force Compensation
and/or bonuses, or some combination thereof) should be in
amounts large enough to provide the living wage and suffi-
ciently flexible to adjust for changes in job performance. The
fringe benefit elements, supplementary items not related to job Straight Straight
Straight Straight
performance and generally not payable in cash, need to be Commission
Commission Salary
Salary
chosen and administered carefully-sales personnel, like other
employees, increasingly look upon the fringes as customary and
expected.
Appropriately chosen arid skillfully administered sales compen- Com bination
Combination
Plans
Plans
sation policies facilitate sales force management. They affect the
relative ease of building and maintaining an effective sales force.
They attract promising recruits and encourage satisfactory
performers to remain on the job. This helps to hold down the
sales personnel turnover rate, which, in turn, increases the return
from sales training. The direction and control of sales force
activities, in general, become increasingly more effective. In
short, effective implementation of appropriate sales compensa-
tion policies and practices reduces time and effort devoted to
other aspects of sales force management.
Points to Ponder
Sales Incentives
Sales Incentive Plans Management is able to exercise
Sales Force greater control over the sales force
Straight Salary Compensation (compared to straight commission).
Methods Appropriate when personnel in
Straight selling roles are required to provide
Straight Commission
Commission
design and engineering assistance.
Motivator/problem solver and
Salary and Commission Straight
Straight relationship/value creator roles are
Combinations
Salary
Salary appropriate for straight salary
compensation.
Creates stability of sales
employees.
Does not tie financial rewards to
sales results may attract
personnel who are security oriented
instead of achievement oriented.
91
Most appropriate where repeat

Sales Force
Compensation
efforts are necessary to sustain
customer purchases.
Bonus Plans
Methods Rewards are linked to short-term,
repeated performance. Bonus plans cant operate alone, they
Sellers will likely concentrate on have to be part of a combination plan
Straight customers that have a patterns of
Straight Bonuses are often based on achieving
Commission frequent and substantial purchases.
Commission Inappropriate during new product quotas
introductions. Quotas on virtually anything can be
May not work well for sophisticated
products where missionary work is
used including sales, profit and activity
needed. based accomplishments
Compensation variability/volatility
may create problems for the sellers.
Questions
Most frequently used form of
Q1. What are the advantages and disadvantages of straight
Sales Force compensation. salary compensation plan?
Compensation Salary portion of compensation Q2. When should a firm use straight commission?
Methods corresponds to managements
Q3. Explain the advantages of combination plan?
needs for the sales staff to perform
administrative duties, while the Q4. Why are fringe benefits so important to salespeople?
Combination commission portion encourages Q5. Can companies pay salespeople too much ? too little ?
Combination
increased selling effort.
Plan
Plan Why?
The commission portion of the
compensation is paid as it is
earned, as opposed to a bonus
(most likely paid on a quarterly or
annual basis).
92
LESSON 17 UNIT - 5
STANDARDS OF PERFORMANCE QUALITATIVE, QUANTITATIVE
Learning Objectives In this lesson we will discuss the first step and in the next two
To understand the importance of performance standard in lessons the other steps will be covered.
sales force control Control, then, has both static and dynamic facets. The first three
To understand the different quantitative performance steps, static, enable sales management to measure the progress
standards toward achieving departmental objectives. If the fourth step in
control-action-is not forthcoming the three static steps cannot
To understand the different qualitative performance
contribute maximally to sales management, despite the
standards
information they provide. Yet the action step, the dynamic
In this lesson we study about the different performance facet of control, is frequently neglected. By taking the indicated
standards set for Sales force which helps the Management in actions, sales management keeps the department on course.
control function.
Depending upon specific circumstances, sales management may
Controlling Sales Personnel decide
What part does controlling play in sales force management? To The managerial functions-
answer this, lets review what is involved in the management (1) To take "no action" now
planning, organizing,
(2) To take action aimed to
process. Well do this in what is normally visualized, at least in increase the degree of attainment coordinating, and controlling-
the literature, as a sequence of activities performed more or less of objectives are not performed in an
in chronological order. (3) To revise the policy or plan
or the strategies used in their unchanging straight-line
The management process starts when top management makes implementation to facilitate sequence. The order of
achievement of objectives
known the companys goals, and department heads, including (4) To lower or raise the performance is circular, and
the top sales executive, use them to derive departmental objectives or the standards or nowhere is this better illustrated
objectives. For the sales department, the next step is to criteria used for measuring their
degree of attainment, to make
than in the controlling phase.
formulate policies and plans to achieve these objectives. Then, them more realistic.
the sales management group maps out sales programs and
campaigns, determines specific methods and procedures, and
takes other needed actions, including making indicated changes
in the sales organization to execute the policies and implement
the plans. In performing these activities, sales executives Planning
coordinate the departments activities with each other and with
related activities performed other departments and by distribu-
tive outlets in the marketing channels. Up to this point, then,
sales executives focus upon planning, organizing, and coordi-
Controlling Organizing
nating.
Four steps remain in the management process-some refer to it
as the management cycle. They are
Coordinating
Steps in control process
The decision to set sales performance standards (the first

Establishing step in control) requires planning. Planning, in turn, means
Performance
standards deciding where the sales department is going (that is, setting the
objectives) and determining how the department is to get from
Recording
performances
where it is to where it wants to be.
Evaluating
The initiation of control through standard setting is realistic
Performance against only when the capabilities of the sales organization are taken
standards
into account; it does little good to set performance standards
Taking action
beyond the capabilities of the sales force.
For control to reach maximum effectiveness, management
These four steps constitute what is known as control. must coordinate sale planning with sales efforts. After sales
force control is set in motion, more planning, organizing, and
93
coordinating are required. Indeed, the benefits of dynamic 9. To help salespeople set career goals
control, the initiating of action based on comparisons of actual 10. To improve salesperson performance
performances with the standards, are not realized unless sales
management takes further planning, organizing, and coordinat- Relation of Performance Standards to
ing steps. Personal-Sellng Objectives
Standards of sales performance facilitate the measurement of
Standards of Performance progress made toward departmental objectives. Specific
Setting standards of performance requires consideration of the objectives vary with changes in the companys marketing
nature of the selling job. In other words, sales job analysis is situation, but are reconcilable with the general objectives of
necessary to determine job objectives, duties and responsibili- volume, profit, and growth. For instance, a general objective
ties, and the like. Performance standards are designed to might be to add $10 million to sales volume, a figure in itself
measure the performance of activities that the company of little assistance for operating purposes. But using this
considers most important. objective as a point of departure, management drafts plans to
Some unique sales jobs exist. The mainframe computer expand sales volume by $10 million. Through analysis of
salesperson, for example, is both a management consultant market factors, management may conclude that $10 million in
and a system analyst. Evaluating the job performance of a additional sales can be made if two hundred new accounts are
computer salesperson requires standards that measure not only secured. Experience may indicate that 1,000 calls on prospects
skill in new-business selling but, even more basically, effective- must be made to add 200 new accounts. Thus, in successive
ness as a management consultant and skill as a system analyst. steps, the general sales volume objective is broken down into
It is important to recognize the nature of the selling job before specific operating objectives. Performance standards are then
selecting standards of performance. established for the business as a whole and, ultimately, for each
Setting sales performance standards requires considerable salesperson. These standards are used to gauge the extent of
market knowledge. It is important to know the total sales achievement of general and related specific objectives.
potential and the portion that each sales territory is capable of The first quantitative standard that any firm should select is one
producing. Marketing intelligence must provide evaluations of that permits comparisons of sales volume performance with
competitors strengths, weaknesses, practices, and policies. sales volume potential. From the sales departments stand-
Management must know the selling expenses in different point, the volume objective is the most crucial and takes
territories. These items all bear on the setting of performance precedence over the profit and growth objectives. Before profits
standards, especially quantitative standards. can be earned and growth achieved, it is necessary to reach a
Sales management takes still other factors into account in setting certain sales volume level. It is entirely logical for sales manage-
performance standards. Sales planning is reappraised to assure ment first to develop a standard to gauge sales volume
that it is the best possible under the circumstances. The policies performance.
and procedures being used to carry the personal-selling portion Quantitative performance standards also measure success in
of the marketing program into effect are reviewed for appropri- achieving profit objectives. Profits result from complex
ateness. Adjustments are made for the strengths and interactions of many factors, so the modicum of control over
weaknesses of the individual sales personnel and for the profits provided through the standard for sales volume is not
differences in their working environments. Sales management enough. Standards to bring some or all factors affecting profit
puts together a combination of sales performance standards to under sales managements control should be set. Performance
fit the companys needs, its marketing situation, its selling standards, then, are needed for such factors as selling expense,
strategy, and its sales organization. the sales mixture, the call frequency rate, the cost per call, and the
size of order.
Purpose of Salespersons Performance Evaluation
Setting quantitative performance standards to gauge progress
1. To ensure that compensation and other reward
made toward growth objectives is even more complex. Growth
disbursements are consistent with actual salesperson
objectives are met to some extent through the natural momen-
performance
tum picked up as a company approaches maturity, but
2. To identify salespeople that might be promoted performances by sales personnel impact upon growth. In an
3. To identify salespeople whose employment should be expanding economy, where the gross national product each year
terminated and to supply evidence to support the need for is larger than that in the year before, it is reasonable to expect
termination individual sales personnel to show annual sales increases.
4. To determine the specific training and counseling needs of However, this assumes that marketing management keeps
individual salespeople and the overall sales force products, prices, promotion, and other marketing policies in
tune with market demand and that sales managements
5. To provide information for effective human resource
efficiency is continuously improved. If these are logical assump-
planning
tions, then the standards needed for individual sales personnel
6. To identify criteria that can be used to recruit and select (besides successively higher sales volume and profit quotas each
salespeople in the future year) relate to such factors as increased sales to old accounts,
7. To advise salespeople of work expectations sales to new accounts, calls on new prospects, sales of new
8. To motivate salespeople products, and improvements in sales coverage effectiveness.
94
Quantitative Performance Standards standards, quotas specify desired levels of accomplishment for

Most companies use quantitative performance standards. The sales volume, gross margin, net profit, expenses, performance
particular combination of standards chosen varies with the of nonselling activities, or a combination of these and similar
company and its marketing situation. Quantitative standards, in items.
effect, define both the nature and desired levels of performance. When sales personnel are assigned quotas, management is
Indeed, quantitative standards are used for stimulating good answering the important question: How much for what period?
performance well as for measuring it.
The assumption is that management knows which objectives,
Quantitative standards provide descriptions of what manage- both general and specific, are realistic and attainable. The validity
ment expects. Each person on the sales force should have of this assumption depends upon the market knowledge
definitions of the performance aspects being measured and the management has and utilizes in setting quotas. For instance, the
measurement units. These definitions help sales personnel first step in setting sales volume quotas is to estimate future
make their activities more purposeful. demand for the companys products in each sales territory-
A single quantitative standard, such as one for sales volume hence, sales volume quotas can be no better than the sales
attainment, provides an inadequate basis for appraising an forecast underlying them. When sales volume quotas are based
individuals total performance. In the past the performances of upon sound sales forecasts, in which the probable strength of
individual sales personnel were measured solely in terms of demand has been fully considered, they are valuable per-
sales volume. Todays sales managers realize that it is possible to formance standards
make unprofitable sales, and to make sales at the expense of
Selling Expense Ratio
future sales. In some fields-for example, industrial goods of
Sales managers use this standard to control the relation of
high unit price-sales result only after extended periods of
selling expenses to sales volume. Many factors, some control-
preliminary work, and it is not only unfair but misleading to
lable by sales personnel and some not, cause selling expenses to
appraise performance over short intervals solely on the basis of
vary with the territory, so target selling expense ratios should be
sales volume.
set individually for each person on the sales force. Selling
Sales personnel have little control over many factors affecting expense ratios are determined after analysis of expense condi-
sales volume. They should not be held accountable for uncon- tions and sales volume potentials in each territory. An attractive
trollable such as differences in the strength of competition, the feature of the selling expense ratio is that the salesperson can
amount of promotional support given the sales force, the affect it both by controlling expenses and by making sales.
potential territorial sales volume, the relative importance of
The selling expense ratio has several shortcomings. It does not
sales to national or house accounts, and the amount of
take into account variations in the profitability of different
windfall business secured. Ample reason exists for setting
products-so a salesperson who has a favorable selling expense
other quantitative performance standards besides that for sales ratio may be responsible for disproportionately low profits.
volume. Then, too, this performance standard may cause the salesperson
Each company selects that combination of quantitative to over economize on selling expenses to the point where sales
performance standards that fits its marketing situation and volume suffers. Finally, in times of declining general business,
selling objectives. If necessary, it develops its own unique selling expense ratios inhibit sales personnel from exerting
standards designed best to serve those objectives. The stan- efforts to bolster sales volume.
dards discussed here are representative of the many types in use.
Selling expense ratio standards are used more by industrial-
Let us now discuss the different quantitative standards that can product companies than by consumer-product companies. The
be set : explanation traces to differences in the selling job. Industrial-
Quotas product firms place the greater emphasis on personal selling and
Selling expense ratio entertainment of customers; consequently, their sales personnel
incur higher costs for travel and subsistence.
Territorial net profit or gross margin ratio
Territorial Net Profit or Gross Margin Ratio
Territorial market share
Target ratios of net profit or gross margin to sales for each
Call-frequency ratio territory focus sales personnels attention on the needs for
Calls per day. selling a balanced line and for considering relative profitability
Order call ratio (of different products, individual customers, and the like).
Average cost per call Managements using either ratio as a quantitative performance
Average order size standard, in effect, regard each sales territory as a separate
organizational unit that should make a profit contribution.
Nonselling activities
Sales personnel influence the net profit ratios by selling more
Quotas volume and by reducing selling expenses. They may emphasize
A quota is a quantitative objective expressed in absolute terms more profitable products and devote more time and effort to
and assigned to a specific marketing unit. The terms may be the accounts and prospects that are potentially the most
dollars, or units of product; the marketing unit may be a profitable.
salesperson or a territory. As the most widely used quantitative
95
The gross margin ratio controls sales volume and the relative number of calls made. Order call ratio standards are set for each
profitability of the sales mixture (that is, sales of different class of account. When a salespersons order call ratio for a
products and to different customers), but it does not control particular class of account varies from the standard, the
the expenses of obtaining and filling orders. salesperson needs help in working with the class of account. It
Net profit and gross margin ratios have shortcomings. When is common for sales personnel to vary in their effectiveness in
either is a performance standard, sales personnel may high- selling to different kinds of accounts-one person may be
spot their territories, neglect the solicitation of new accounts, effective in selling to small buyers and poor in selling to large
and overemphasize sales of high-profit or high-margin buyers, another may have just the opposite performance
products while underemphasizing new products that may be pattern.
more profitable in the long run. Average Cost Per Call
Both ratios are influenced by factors beyond the salespersons To emphasize the importance of making profitable calls, a
control. For instance, pricing policy affects both net profit and target for average cost per call is set. When considerable variation
gross margin, and delivery costs, which also affect both net exists in cost of calling on different sizes or classes of accounts,
profit and gross margin, and delivery costs, which also affect standards are set for each category of account. Target average
both net profit and gross margin, not only vary in different cost per call standards also are used to reduce the call frequency
territories but are beyond the salespersons control. Neither ratio on accounts responsible for small orders.
should be used without recognition of its shortcomings. Nonselling Activities
Territorial Market Share Some companies establish quantitative performance standards
This standard controls market share on a territory-by-territory for such nonselling activities as obtaining dealer displays and
basis. Management sets target market share percentages for each cooperative advertising contracts, training distributors person-
territory. Management later compares company sales to industry nel, and goodwill calls on distributors customers. Whenever
sales in each territory and measures the effectiveness of sales nonselling activities are critical features of the sales job, appro-
personnel in obtaining market share. Closer control over the priate standards should be set. Since quantitative standards for
individual salespersons sales mixture is obtained by setting nonselling activities are expressed in absolute terms, they are, in
target market share percentages for each product and each class reality, quotas.
of customer or even for individual customers. Multiple quantitative performance standards
Call-frequency Ratio It is widespread practice to assign multiple quantitative perfor-
A call-frequency ratio is calculated by dividing the number of mance standards. A company can assign different quantitative
sales calls on a particular class of customers by the number of standards for a sales person.
customers in that class. By establishing different call-frequency Qualitative Performance Criteria
ratios for different classes of customers, management directs Certain aspects of job performance, such as personal effective-
selling effort to those accounts most likely to produce profitable ness in handling customer relations problems, do not lend
orders. Management should assure that the interval between themselves to precise measurement, so the use of some
calls is proper-neither so short that unprofitably small orders are qualitative criteria is unavoidable. Qualitative criteria are used for
secured nor so long that sales are lost to competitors. Sales appraising performance characteristics that affect sales results,
personnel who plan their own route and call schedules find especially over the long run, but whose degree of excellence can
target call frequencies helpful, inasmuch as these standards be evaluated only subjectively. Qualitative criteria defy exact
provide information essential to this type of planning. definition. Many sales executives, perhaps most, do not define
Calls Per Day the desired qualitative characteristics; instead, they arrive at
In consumer-product fields, where sales personnel contact large informal conclusions regarding the extent to which each
numbers of customers, it is desirable to set a standard for the salesperson possesses them. Other executives consider the
number of calls per day. Otherwise, some sales personnel make qualitative factors formally, one method being to rate sales
too few calls per day and need help in planning their routes, in personnel against a detailed checklist of subjective factors such
setting up appointments before making calls (in order to reduce as that shown in Figure 17.1
waiting time or the number of cases where buyers are unavail- Companies with merit-rating systems differ on the desirability
able), or simply in starting their calls early enough in the of using numerical ratings. Most numerical scoring systems are
morning and staying on the job late enough in the day. Other in companies that rate sales personnel primarily for detecting
sales personnel make too many calls per day and need training needed adjustments in compensation. Companies that use
in how to service accounts. Standards for calls per day are set merit rating primarily to improve and develop individual
individually for different territories, taking into account salespersons usually do not use numerical scoring systems.
territorial differences as to customer density, road and traffic
conditions, and competitors practices.
Order Call Ratio
This ratio measures the effectiveness of sales personnel in
securing orders. Sometimes called a batting average, it is
calculated by dividing the number of orders secured by the
96
Figure 17.1 Form Used For Qualitative Analysis of Salesperson Performance

SALES PERFORMANCE ANYLYSIS
NAME. DATE.
JOB FACTORS PROBLEM FAIR AVER GOOD SUPERIOR

PRODUCT KNOWLEDGE
AWARENESS OF CUSTOMER NEEDS
RELATIONSHIP WITH CUSTOMERS
NUMBER OF SALES CALLS
QUOTA PERFORMANCE
SERVICE FOLLOW-UP
PERSONAL FACTORS
PUNTUALITY
GENERAL ATTITUDE
DRESS & APPERANCE
DILIGENCE
COOPERATION
ACCURACYADAPTABILITY
RELIABILITY
STORAGE POINT..

WEAKES POINT..

COMMENTS..

-------------------------------------------
SIGNATURE
Executive judgment plays the major role in the qualitative Points to Ponder
performance appraisal. Written job descriptions, up to date and
accurate, are the logical points of departure. Each firm develops
its own set of qualitative criteria, based upon the job descrip-
tions; the manner in which these criteria are applied depends
Steps in control process
upon the needs of management.
Establishing
Performance
standards
R ecording
performances
Evaluating
Performance against
standards
Taking action
97
Purposes of Salesperson
Performance Evaluations
Qualitative performance
1. To ensure that compensation and other reward
disbursements are consistent with actual salesperson
performance
standards
2. To identify salespeople that might be promoted
3. To identify salespeople whose employment should be
terminated and to supply evidence to support the need for
termination
4. To determine the specific training and counseling needs of
individual salespeople and the overall sales force
5. To provide information for effective human resource
planning
6. To identify criteria that can be used to recruit and select
salespeople in the future
7. To advise salespeople of work expectations
8. To motivate salespeople
Quantitative performance
standards.
Quotas
Selling expense ratio
Territorial net profit or gross margin ratio
Territorial market share
Call-frequency ratio Questions
Calls per day. Q1. What is the purpose of setting performance standards?
Order call ratio Q2. What is the relation of performance standard to personal
Average cost per call selling objective?
Average order size
Q3. Describe selling expense ratio as a performance standard?
Nonselling activities
Q4. What is
i. Call frequency ratio
ii. Standard as Calls per day
iii. Order call ratio ?
Q5. What is qualitative performance standard?
1. To take no action now
2. To take action aimed to increase the degree of
attainment of objectives
3. To revise the policy or plan or the strategies used in
their implementation to facilitate achievement of
objectives
4. To lower or raise the objectives or the standards or
criteria used for measuring their degree of attainment,
to make them more realistic.
98
LESSON 18
RECORDING OF ACTUAL PERFORMANCE
Learning objectives A good field sales reporting system assists sales personnel in
To understand the different types of reports to be made their self improvement programs. Recording accomplishments
up by sales people in written form forces individuals to check their own work
To understand how the performance is measured Purposes of field sales reports. The purpose a report is to serve
determines the nature of the information it contains and the
To understand the different ways of evaluating salespeople
frequency of its transmittal. The general purpose of all field
Let us now discuss the second step in control process sales reports is to provide information for measuring perfor-
Recording Actual Performance mance; many reports, however, provide additional information.
Sales managements next task is to measure actual performance. Consider the following list of purposes served by field sales
Emphasis in this phase of control, in other words, shifts to reports:
gathering performance information. It is necessary to define 1. To provide data for evaluating performance-for example,
information needs, determine the information sources, and details concerning accounts and prospects called upon,
collect the information. number of calls made, orders obtained, days worked, miles
The choice of performance standards dictates the information traveled, selling expenses, displays erected, cooperative
needed. However, with increasingly sophisticated management advertising arrangements made, training of distributors
information systems, the choice of performance standards is personnel, missionary work, and calls made with
based as much on information availability as on the desire to distributors sales personnel.
use certain standards. It is good practice to review periodically 2. To help the salesperson plan the work-for example,
the sales performance standards in use and the availability of planning itineraries, sales approaches to use with specific
other information that might permit use of different or accounts and prospects.
additional standards. 3. To record customers suggestions and complaints and their
There are two basic sources of performance information: sales reactions to new products, service policies, price changes,
and expense records and reports of various sorts. Almost every advertising campaigns, and so forth.
company has a wealth of data in its internal sales and expense 4. To gather information on competitors activities-for
records, but this information frequently requires reworking, or example, new products, market tests, changes in
reprocessing, before it is useful for sales control purposes. promotion, and changes in pricing and credit policy.
Reclassified according to sales managements information needs,
5. To report changes in local business and economic
sales and expense data contribute to the determination and
conditions.
measurement of actual performances.
6. To log important items of territorial information for use
The methods of obtaining needed information depend upon
in case sales personnel leave the company or are reassigned.
the sources. Internally generated information, such as that from
the data-processing installation, is provided on a routine basis, 7. To keep the mailing list updated for promotional and
or in response to requests for special tabulations. Information catalogue materials.
obtainable only from sales personnel or field sales management 8. To provide information requested by marketing research-
personnel is gathered through formal reports; such information for example, data on dealers sales and inventories of
is also obtained through personal observation-by trips to the company and competitive products.
field or through field sales supervisors.
Types of Sales Force Reports
System of Field Sales Reports Reports from sales personnel fall into six principal groups.
The fundamental purpose of field sales reports is to provide
control information. Good communications require interaction 1. Progress or Call Report
between those preparing and those receiving reports. A good Most companies have a progress or call report. It is prepared
field sales reporting system provides both for communication individually for each call or cumulatively, covering all calls made
from the field to headquarters and from the headquarters to the daily or weekly. Progress reports keep management informed of
field. the salespersons activities; provide source data on the
companys relative standing with individual accounts and in
Field sales reports provide sales management with a basis for
different territories, and record information that assists the
discussion with sales personnel. They indicate the matters on
salesperson on revisits. Usually the call report form records not
which salespeople need assistance. The sales executive uses field
only calls and sales, bill more detailed data, such as the class of
sales reports to determine whether sales personnel are calling on
customer or prospect, competitive brands handled, the strength
and selling to the right people, and whether they are making the
and activities of competitors, best time to call, and future
proper number of calls.
promises.
99
2. Expense report 6. Report of Complaint and/or Adjustment
Because most sales personnel are reimbursed for expenses and This report provides information for analyzing complaints
itemized expense records are required for income tax purposes, arising from a salespersons work, complaints by class of
most companies have an expense report. From sales manage- customer, and cost of complaint adjustment. This assists
ments standpoint, the purpose is to control the nature and management in detecting needed product improvements and
amount of salespersons expenses. This report also helps the changes in merchandising and service practices and policies.
salesperson exercise self-control over expenses. The expense These data also are helpful for decisions on sales training
report reminds salespersons that they are under moral obliga- programs, selective selling, and product changes
tion to keep expenses in line with reported sales-some expense
Reports from Field Sales Management
report forms require salespersons to correlate expenses with
In decentralized organizations, field sales executives have an
sales. The details of the report form vary with the plan for
important part in setting sales performance standards. Branch
reimbursing expenses.
and district sales managers and, in some cases, sales supervisors
Weekly Expense Report assist in establishing sales volume quotas for salespeople who,
Name__________________________________________ in many companies, also are consulted on their own quotas.
Branch and district sales managers, in addition, play roles in
Week Ending____________________________________
breaking down branch and district sales volume quotas to
Date From/To Meals(includi Entertainment Miscellaneous Daily quotas for individual sales personnel, and to products or
(or place at) ng) SELF Descript Amount Totals product lines and/or to types of customersoccasionally, even
M
T to specific accounts. At the district level, especially in larger
W companies, profit and/or expense quotas are sometimes set for
T
F individual sales personnel and by product line.
S
S The district sales managers planning report is called a district
sales plan, often prepared by compiling, with or without
Itemize below Amount to be reimbursed revisions, sales work plans, and covering the work or results
I hereby certify that the above expenses represent monies spent that each district salesperson expects to accomplish during the
for legitimate business only month, quarter, or year ahead. District sales plans usually require
the district sales manager to suggest standards for appraising
Approval___________________
his or her own performance, for example, the recruiting of a
Signed___________________________
certain number of new sales personnel and the carrying out of
some amount of sales training. District sales plans are subject to
3. Sales Work Plan review and to revision by higher sales executives.
The salesperson submits a work plan (giving such details as Field sales executives have responsibility for reporting informa-
accounts and prospects to be called upon, products and other tion on personnel performance. Since they are in the most
matters to be discussed, routes to be traveled, and hotels or frequent contact with the sales force, they are well placed to
motels) for a future period, usually a week or a month . The observe individual sales personnel in the field. Consequently,
purposes are to assist the salesperson in planning and schedul- field sales executives prepare sales personnel evaluation
ing activities and to inform management of the salespersons reports, often of the merit-rating type, which gather informa-
whereabouts. The work plan provides a basis for evaluating the tion on qualitative sales performances. In some companies, this
salespersons ability to plan the work and to work the plan. is called a progress report and includes qualitative information
on personnel performance and data comparing individual
4. New-Business or Potential New-Business Report
performance to quantitative standards. Sales personnel evalua-
This report informs management of accounts recently obtained
tion reports are prepared either periodically or each time a district
and prospects who may become sources of new business. It
sales manager or supervisor works with a salesperson.
provides data for evaluating the extent and effectiveness of
development work by sales personnel. A subsidiary purpose is Who should evaluate sales people?
to remind sales personnel that management expects them to get The primary evaluator should be sales persons immediate
new accounts. Comparing the information secured with data in supervisor because this person has direct knowledge having
company files, management evaluates the effectiveness of actually worked with the sales person. For some companies the
prospecting. immediate supervisor completes the entire evaluation including
recommendations for pay raises and promotions. The evalua-
5. Lost-Sales Report tions and recommendations are then sent to the managers
This report provides information for evaluating a sales-persons immediate supervisor for final approval. The managers
abilities to keep customers and to sell against competition. Lost supervisor accepts the recommendations without question.
sales reports point the way to needed sales training, changes in
In majority of organizations several managers evaluate each
customer service policies, and product improvements. The
salesperson. The simplest approach is for the district manager
salesperson reports the reasons for the loss of the business; but
and the regional sales manager to arrive at the evaluation. The
receipt of a lost-sales report also causes management to
other district managers in the region also may express their
consider further investigation.
100
opinion when the regions entire management group gets reports. However, and in apparent contradiction, commission

together periodically. sales personnel are asked for less detail in reports than are
Review is necessary salaried salespeople, probably because management feels that it
has less power to direct their activities. In general, the higher the
1. To make certain that the appraisal form has been filled out
caliber of sales personnel, the less is managements need for
properly.
details. High-caliber people are expected to exercise self-control,
2. To check against personal bias or errors in judgment. thus reducing the need for detailed formal reporting.
3. To rate the raters ability to set performance standards and
Evaluating-comparing Actual
to evaluate sales personnel.
Performances with Standards
When sales people be evaluated?
Sales people should be evaluated at the end of each perfor- Evaluating the Sales Force
mance cycle. A performance cycle is a period related to specific The job of sales managers is not complete until the total effort
product goals or job activities. For example consumer-goods of the sales force is evaluated. First, it is important to determine
manufacturers typically have some products they want to if the sales function is meeting its quantitative objectives. If
emphasize periodically. They may have six performance cycles not, the sales manager must figure out the causes. Individual
during the year. Every two months sales force is given specific salesperson performance is normally measured against sales
sales goals for five to ten different products. These goals should quotas for individual sales territories, even when compensation
be compared with results after each cycle. In addition sales plans do not include bonuses or commissions based on
people are monitored monthly for other products they sell. quotas. Other quantitative measures, such as number of sales
calls and sales reports, may also be used in the evaluation.
These periodic performance evaluations provide the input for
Many firms also evaluate their sales force on qualitative indica-
semiannual and annual performance evaluations. They provide
tors of performance such as salesperson attitude, product
important feedback to both management and sales people. A
knowledge, and communication skills. Increasingly, as firms
minimum of one formal evaluation should be completed yearly
focus on relationship management, the level of customer
for each salesperson.
satisfaction is a strong qualitative measure of superior salesper-
Number of Reports son performance.
The optimum number of reports is the minimum necessary to
The most difficult step in sales force control is the evaluation
produce the desired information. Holding down the number
step-the comparing of actual performances with standards. This
of reports is important, since they are generally made out after
is more than a mechanical comparison; this step is difficult
the selling day. Report preparation places demands on free time,
because evaluation requires judgment. The same standards
and, unfortunately, the best people often have the least time. All
cannot be applied to all sales personnel-there are differences in
reports are reviewed from time to time to determine whether
individual territories, their sales potentials, the impact of
the information is worthwhile. When a new report is proposed,
competition, and the personalities of sales personnel and their
the burden of proof of its need is upon its advocates. Infor-
customers. It is possible to take territorial differences into
mation obtainable through other means at no higher cost
account by setting individual performance standards for each
should not be gathered through field sales reports. Some
territory, but it is not possible to adjust fully for differences in
companies, in assessing the worth of a sales report, discontinue
the personalities of the salesperson and the clientele. Further-
it without notice or insert intentional errors in the form, thus
more, complications often develop in relating individual
learning whether the report ill essential and the use, if any, made
performances to standards, for example, when two or more
of the information.
salespersons work on the same account or when an account
Design and Construction of Reports deals both with the salesperson and the home office.
Each field sales report should be as short as is consistent with Evaluating sales personnel requires both a comparison of
its purpose. This is especially important for those submitted by performance with quantitative standards and an appraisal
sales personnel-whenever possible, the form should provide for against qualitative performance criteria. Sales personnel with
easy checking off of routine informational items. Similarly, sales poor performances, as gauged by quantitative standards, may be
report forms should be of conveniently portable size and making offsetting qualitative contributions. Individuals who do
shape. not reach sales quotas or keep to prescribed call schedules, for
Information on field reports should be so arranged that it can instance, may be building for the future by cementing relations
easily be summarized. There should also be set routines for with distributors and dealers. Evaluating performance of sales
transferring information onto other records. personnel requires judgment and deep understanding of
market factors and conditions.
Detail Required in Sales Reports
The amount of detail required in sales reports varies from firm Judgment enters into the evaluation of sales personnel in still
to firm. A company with many sales personnel covering a wide other ways. Performance trends, as well as the current record, are
geographical area needs more detailed reports than does a relevant-an individual showing improvement but with still
company with a few salespeople covering a compact area. The substandard performance needs encouragement. There is always
more freedom that sales personnel have to plan and schedule the chance, too, that something is wrong with a standard when
their activities, the greater should be the detail required in their
101
an individual continually fails to reach a standard, management management. The manager is usually required to use this
should investigate whether the standard has been set too high. descriptive statements to rank the salespeople .
In comparing actual results with projected results, the general c. Management by Objectives: Is a result based evaluation
procedure in scientific work is to set up tests that measure the program . Salespeople are given objectives and their actual
variable under observation while taking account of the effects results are compared with the objectives to evaluate their
of other variables. In the evaluation of sales personnel it is not performance
possible to set up such tests. Each salespersons performance If salesperson has achieved objectives of three out of four
results from complex interactions of many variables, some criteria , the salesperson should explain to management why the
beyond the control of either the salesperson or of manage- specific product goal was not obtained and what is being done
ment. The time element changes and so do the sales personnel, to make sure this objective will be reached in future.
the customers, general business conditions, competitors
d. Behaviorally Anchored rating scales Referred to as BARS
activities, and other variables. However, some companies
represent an attempt to improve evaluation that use descriptive
measure the impact of particular variables on personnel
cues or adjectives. With BARS critical incidents distinguish
performance through careful design of experimental and
among values on the scale . The BARS evaluation method
control groups.
makes each performance category easy for the manager to
Sales persons performance evaluation approaches interpret because each includes a detailed explanation of exactly
1. Most evaluate on an annual basis what rating means. Such evaluation methods tend to be more
2. Most combine input and output criteria which are reliable and valid , thus reducing rating errors. Also the response
evaluated using quantitative and qualitative measures categories directly represent job tasks. Thus manager can better
explain evaluation to the individual involved.
3. When used, performance standards or quotas are set in
collaboration with salespeople A Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scale for evaluating ability to
obtain Individual product
4. Many assign weights to different objectives and incorporate
territory data. sales goals
5. Most use multiple sources of information
6. Most are conducted by the field sales manager who Name Rohit
supervises the salesperson Place X on Appropriate Rating Scale
7. Most provide a written copy of the review and personal 9 Salesperson reaches all individual
discussion Outstanding
Outstanding product sales goals
Performance evaluation forms Salesperson consistently reaches an

Periodically each manager is supplied with performance appraisalAbove average
Aboveperformance
average performance X 7 above average number of individual
product sales goals
forms for evaluating each salesperson. Several different types of
appraisal forms exists and each can have numerous variations. Average performance 5 Salesperson works to reach each
individual product sales goals and can
We will discuss some of the ways to evaluate salespersons be expected to reach the districts
performance. average number of goals
a. Graphical Appraisal Scales Below average performance 3 Salesperson has difficulty meeting the
districts average number of individual
It is the most commonly used form for evaluating salespersons product sales goals.
performance.The manager fills out a form appraising a salesper-
Poor performance 0 Salesperson reaches few if any
sons selling skills. individual product sales goals.
1. Selling skill excellent poor

4 3 2 1 0 The example above shows that Rohit has been evaluated as an
above average in reaching companys individual product sales
4 3 2 1
2. Selling skill goals.
outstanding Above Average Below
Average Average e. 360 Degree Feedback A new evaluation method which is
becoming more popular among sales managers is called 360
degree feedback. Managers obtain feedback from an employees
The table above shows formats for such evaluation. The peers , assistants , clients and even sales managers supervisors
manager is evaluating salespersons selling skills . Two methods in preparation for a performance review.
are shown.
b. Descriptive Statements is a method of performance
appraisal requiring the manager to provide a detailed , written
description of each salespersons performance . Typically the
manager has five to ten categories to evaluate such as selling
ability , management potential , goal attainment , territorial
102
Points to Ponder

360-Degree Feedback System
Salesperson is
evaluated by
Sales Manager
Purpose of field sales report
Evaluation
Evaluation
Te
multiple raters
am
elf
To provide data for evaluating performance
Me
es
EEvv
On
mb
aalul
Helps salespeople uaat i nn To help the salesperson plan the work
ers
tioion attoio
n alulua
EEvva
better understand To record customers' suggestions and
Salesperson
Salesperson complaints
their ability to add
To gather information on competitors' activities
EEv
value to their
vaal
ulua
onn
aatitio
atitoi
organization and Ex . To report changes in local business and
onn
aalulu
ter s
er
EEvv
na
their customers lC
us sto
m economic conditions.
u
to lC
m
er er
na To log important items of territorial information
s Int
To provide information requested by marketing
research
Effective job performance is essential for organisations to stay
in business and for salespeople to keep their jobs. Performance
evaluations are periodically conducted with each salesperson to
determine success or failure in meeting past goals and to
develop plans for obtaining future goals. The primary evaluator
is salespersons immediate supervisor.
Companies must develop performance criteria that are measur-
able, practical, relevant and stable. Firms use both quantitative
and qualitative performance criteria. Evaluation method must
effectively measure performance.
Performance evaluation serves to reward effective performers
and penalize ineffective salespeople. Many difficulties can be
corrected if performance evaluations are effectively conducted.
The manager and salesperson must be prepared for for the
evaluation. Both should view evaluation positively. Performance
should be honestly and openly reviewed. At the end of
evaluation the manager should summarize the salespersons Types of sales force reports
past performance and together they should outline future
performance objectives. Progress or call report
Expense report
Sales work plan
New- business or potential new -business
report
Lost-sales report
Report of complaint and/or adjustment
103
Sales persons performance

360-Degree Feedback System
evaluation approaches
Most evaluate on an annual basis Salesperson is Sales Manager
evaluated by
Evaluation
Most combine input and output criteria which are
Evaluation
Te
evaluated using quantitative and qualitative measures multiple raters
am
elf
Me
es
When used, performance standards or quotas are set in EEvv
On
mb
aalul
collaboration with salespeople Helps salespeople uaat ionnn
ers
itoion
n uaattioio
llu
alu
Many assign weights to different objectives and EEvva
incorporate territory data. better understand Salesperson
Most use multiple sources of information their ability to add
EEv
Most are conducted by the field sales manager who value to their
vaa
lulua
onn
aattiio
supervises the salesperson
attiio
Ex
organization and
onn
aalulu
ter s
er
EEvv
Most provide a written copy of the review and personal na
lC sto
m
discussion their customers us u
to lC
m na
er er
s Int
Questions
Performance evaluation forms Q1. Discuss who should evaluate salespeople and why?
Q2. What is the purpose of sales report?
Graphical appraisal scales Q3. What are the different types of field sales reports?
Descriptive statements Q4. What are the different types of performance evaluation
forms?
Management by objectives
Behaviorally anchored rating scales
Referred to as BARS
104
LESSON 19
EVALUATION AND CONTROL THROUGH ACTION AND SUPERVISION
Learning Objectives Increasing ratio of selling expenses to sales in an

To understand how salespeople can be controlled by organizational unit.
supervision Low morale, as implied by negative attitude toward
To understand who should supervise company, lack of enthusiasm, signs of restlessness and job
hunting.
What should be the qualification of a supervisor
These conditions can trace to the wrong kind of supervision as
Let us now discuss the last step of salesforce control process
well as to too much or too little supervision. While this list is
The evaluations, or comparisons of actual performances with useful for appraising the effectiveness of sales supervision,
standards, tempered and adjusted by executive judgment, point those doing the appraising must recognize that many of these
the way to needed action. If performance and standards are in conditions may have their roots in deficiencies in other phases
alignment the decision may be: no action needed. Otherwise, of sales force management. It sometimes happens, too, that a
the three alternatives are company upgrades the quality of its sales personnel and fails to
1. Adjust performance to the standards, thus increasing the adjust the pattern of supervision. The selling task in many
degree of attainment of objectives; companies has changed so that it is now high-level, key account
2. Revise the policy and/or plan, or the strategies used for selling, and this demands independent, self-reliant, highly
their implementation, to fit better the achievement of educated sales personnel who can and must make their own
objectives. decisions! When management brings in highly trained and self-
reliant people to meet the new selling challenge, traditional
3. Lower or raise the objectives or the standards and/criteria
supervision and the attitudes that underlie it-stifles those
used in measuring their degree of attainment to make
whom management seeks to encourage: What worked for so
them more realistic.
long is wrong for the more dynamic assignment of the newer
The actions resulting from these decisions, in turn, are condi- type of person. The type of supervision, in other words,
tioned by the executives judgment, experience, knowledge of should be adjusted to the type of person in the selling job-
the situation, and administrative skill. when the type of person changes, so should the type of
Controlling Sales Personnel Through supervision.
Supervision Who Should Supervise?
Management also controls sales personnel through supervision. Depending upon the company and its organization, sales
Regardless of who does the supervising, the objective is to personnel may be supervised by
improve the job performances of sales personnel. The executive
home office personnel,
with supervisory responsibilities establishes working relations
with sales personnel for purposes of observing, evaluating, and branch or district managers,
reporting on performance; correcting deficiencies; clarifying field sales supervisors.
responsibilities and duties; providing motivation; informing Put another way, sales supervision may be either through
sales personnel of changes in company policy; helping to solve executives as one of their job responsibilities, or through
business and personal problems; and continuing sales training. specialists whose jobs are mainly supervising. If the sales force
Clearly, sales supervision is concerned mainly with the action is small and experienced, sales supervision is generally through
phase of control-action aimed at enhancing personnel contribu- the top sales executive or an assistant. Necessarily, control
tions to the achievement of objectives. through home office supervision is minimal, but it may be
How much supervision is enough? Too much is as bad as too enough, especially when the sales organization is small and
little. It is difficult to prescribe how much supervision is permits the development of close relations among sales
enough, but there are some conditions under which supervi- personnel and executives and when little sales training is
sion is needed. Among these conditions are: required.
Sales personnel turnover rate excessive in a branch, district, Companies having decentralized sales organizations sometimes
or other organizational unit. assign the supervision responsibility to branch or district
High turnover of accounts. managers. Customarily promoted from the ranks, branch
managers are presumably well prepared to supervise; field sales
Increased complaints from customers.
personnel. However, even in companies with elaborate field
Mail or phone orders increasing for no known reasons. sales organization, limitations exist on the amount of supervi-
Low ratio of orders to sales calls. sion that branch managers: should exercise. In practice, the
Total number of calls very low or very high. branch manager is often a local general manager more than a
105
specialized sales executive and in this capacity is responsible for
Sales Call report
the local conduct of all the companys affairs, not only for CALL REPORT
DATE_____________19________
managing sales personnel but for warehousing, extending credit
Customer ______________________________________________________________________________
and making collections, providing service, and performing other
Street ______________________________________________________________________________
work. Branch managers spend most of their time attending to
city____________________________________________________state__________________________
details, so it is unusual for them to devote much time to
Persons_________________________________________________Title:___________________________
personal supervision of sales personnel. But they should spend Contacted
some time. Especially when branch managers have large TYPE OF CUSTOMER SELLING STEPS TAKEN
numbers of sales personnel under them, the time they can ? Road Contractor ? Catalogs
spend with each one is limited, and, as is true of supervision ?
?
Building Contractor
water and Sewer Contractor
? Movie
? View Machine Demonstration
emanating from the home office, they rely mainly upon sales ?
?
Governmental
Industrial ? service
personnel to supervise themselves. ? Utility ? Entertained
? Mining and Quarry ? Other________________________
? Other________________
Qualifications of Sales Supervisors
Sales supervisors generally are selected from among the sales INTERESTED IN
? NEW ? USED ? RENTAL
force, but beside having the qualifications required for selling ? Euclid ? Thew ? Gardner-Denver ? Pioneer ? Bros
? Rogers ? Dynahoe ? Coastel ? other_________
success, they need other qualifications. They must be good
FOLLOW UP PLAN:______________________________________________________________
teachers. They must recognize training needs, know how to Date of next call:____________________
train, be patient with those who have less skill, and be tactful in REMARKS:______________________________________________________________________
point out better ways of doing things. As vital links in the :______________________________________________________________________
:______________________________________________________________________
chain of communication go-betweens for higher sales manage- Sales person:__________________________________________ ? Add to Mailing List
ment and the sales force alike-they must understand the needs WHITE-HOUSTON PINK BRANCH YELLOW - SALESPERSON
and problems of both and reconcile them in the field.
They must be skilled in handling people and be equipped to Expense reports show where the salesperson spent the
deal with many complex situations. Beyond these supervisory money, how much traveling was done.
duties, some companies expo; sales supervisors to sell certain Compensation directs sales personnels activities.
accounts personally, this being one way to motivate them to Commissions, bonuses, and contests influence the time
keep up to date on field selling techniques. The field sales and effort salespersons invest in their jobs.
supervisors job is difficult and, in most companies, one with Sales analysis report shows what was sold and how much
comparatively low pay. Nevertheless, many salespersons are was sold.
eager for promotions to supervisory positions, since they often
The methods described above are indirect methods for
are stepping stones to higher positions.
supervision. The best way to supervise people is, however , is
The Supervision Activity with direct methods.
Supervision refers to actual overseeing and directing day to day Direct supervisory methods Three common methods for
activities of salespeople. A manager can supervise salespeople in directly supervising people are the telephone or e-mail, sales
two ways: indirectly and directly. meetings, and working with each salesperson.
Indirect supervisory methods A sales manager may be respon- The telephone and e-mail are essential tools for contacting
sible for 3 to 12 salespeople. This is a lot of people to oversee. salespeople and for salespeople to talk with the manager.
Most sales organisations employ the following methods to Both are faster and cheaper than traveling to see a
indirectly help their manager stay abreast of their peoples day to salesperson.
day activities:
Sales meetings take place frequently, often once a month.
Call reports let the manager know which customers and This is a great time to provide information, training, and
prospects were contacted and on what day. Many call inspection.
reports have a brief description of the salespersons
activities and accomplishment for each call. Work withs, often occurring once a month refer to the
manager s routine visits with each salesperson. The
manager meets with each person in his or her sales territory
for reasons such as:
Troubleshooting- calling on a specific account to handle a
specific problem.
Joining the sales pro in a team effort in which both
combine their selling talents to close a certain account.
Training a seasoned sales pro to sell a new product or an
established product in a new way.
Introducing a seasoned salesperson to a new territory.
106
Conclusion Points to Ponder

Discussion in the last two lessons and this lesson focused upon
the part that control plays in the sales force management
process. The following outline summarizes the different phases Conditions under which supervision
in this process. is needed
1. Company goals are defined, and appropriate objectives for Sales personnel turnover rate excessive in a branch,
the sales department are derived. . district, or other organizational unit.
High turnover of accounts.
2. To facilitate achievement of objectives, departmental Increased complaints from customers.
policies are formulated and plans designed. Mail or phone orders increasing for no known
reasons.
3. To execute the policies and implement the plans, Low ratio of orders to sales calls.
promotional programs and campaigns are mapped out, Total number of calls very low or very high.
specific methods and procedures are determined and other Increasing ratio of selling expenses to sales in an
organizational unit.
needed actions, such as making indicated alterations in the
Low morale, as implied by negative attitude toward
sales organization, are taken. company, lack of en-thusiasm, signs of
restlessness and job hunting.
4. Various sales department activities are coordinated with
each other and with related activities performed by other
organizational units and middlemen.
5. Quantitative performance standards are set, and criteria for
appraising qualitative aspects of performance are selected.
6. Actual performance is recorded.
7. Actual performance is compared with quantitative
performance standards and qualitative performance criteria,
and judgment is reached on the significance of variations.
8. Indicated actions are taken after deciding
a. To take no action at this time.
b. To increase the degree of attainment of objectives.
c. To revise the policy and/or plan, or the various
strategies used in their implementation, to better fit the
achievement of objectives. d. To lower or raise
objectives or the standards and/or criteria used in
measuring their degree of attainment, to make them
more realistic.
In that they deal specifically with evaluating and supervising-
Who should supervise
sales personnel, the last four steps comprise control, the first
three being static, whereas the action step (phase 8) is dynamic. home office personnel,
Adoption and successful operation of appropriate control branch or district managers,
procedures for a sales department results in greater effectiveness, field sales supervisors.
which ultimately shows up in greater sales volume at more
profit and less cost per sales dollar.
Effective procedures for evaluating and supervising sales
personnel assure that sales department objectives are reached
with minimum effort. Evaluating and supervising are con-
cerned with monitoring the balance between standards and
actual performance. Both are instrumental in achieving sales
force control.
107
Questions
Sales Call report
CALL REPORT
DATE_____________19________
Customer ______________________________________________________________________________
Q1. What are the conditions that lead to salesforce
S treet ______________________________________________________________________________
city____________________________________________________state__________________________ supervision?
Persons_________________________________________________Title:___________________________
TYPE OF CUSTOMER
Contacted
SELLING STEPS TAKEN
Q2. What are the direct methods of supervision ?
? Road Contractor ? Catalogs
? Building Contractor ? Movie Q3. What are the indirect methods of supervision?
? water and Sewer Contractor ? View Machine Demonstration
? Govermental
? Industrial ? service
? U tility ? Entertained
? Mining and Quarry ? Other________________________
? Other________________
INTERESTED IN
? NEW ? USED ? RENTAL
?Euclid ? Thew ? Gardner-Denver ? Pioneer ? Bros
? Rogers ? Dynahoe ? Coastel ? other_________
FOLLOW UP PLAN:_________________________________________________ _____________
Date of next call:___________________ _
REMARKS:______________________________________________________________________
:______________________________________________________________________
:______________________________________________________________________
Sales person:__________________________________________ ? Add to Mailing List
WHITE-HOUSTON PINK BRANCH YELLOW - SALESPERSON
Direct supervisory methods

Telephone
E-mail
Sales meetings
Work withs
108
UNIT 6
LESSON 20 UNIT 6
PURPOSE OF SALES BUDGET
Learning Objectives Planning

To understand the purpose of budgeting Companies formulate marketing and sales objectives. The
budget determines how these objectives will be met. The
To understand how budget is determined
budget is both a plan of action and a standard of performance
To understand the different types of budget for the various departments. Once the budget is established, the
To understand the budget making procedure department can begin organizing to realize that plan. This is
Sales Budge especially important to salespeople. It is through a detailed
Salespeople underestimate how much they spend and overesti- breakdown of the sales budget among products, territories, and
mate how much they sell. customers that sales reps learn what management expects of
them.
Andy Cohen, Sales & Marketing Management,
October 1996
Coordination
Maintaining the desired relationship between expenditures and
The budgetary process and its offspring, the budget, are the very revenues is important in operating a business. The objective of
core of the planning-control structure of most large companies. a business is to buy revenues at a reasonable cost, and a budget
At the end of each year, top management of most firms establishes what this cost should be. If sales of $5 million are
requires the organization to prepare a plan for operations forecast, management can establish how much it can afford to
during the coming year. Such operational plans are developed by pay for that revenue. If the company wants a profit of 10
each operating unit (marketing, sales, production, finance, percent on sales, then $4.5 million can be paid to buy the $5
research, etc.) according to the basic sales and profit targets for million in revenue. Part of the $4.5 million would go to the
the year given them by top management. Each department head production and administrative departments, and another
then develops a detailed plan of what the unit must do to portion would be available to operate the sales department.
achieve these goals. The plan also includes a detailed itemization Thus the budget enables sales executives to coordinate expenses
of the costs of doing those things-the projected costs. The with sales and with the budgets of the other departments. The
projected costs ultimately are the basis for the budgets dis- budget also restricts the sales executives from spending more
cussed. The budgetary process is a lengthy, time-consuming than their share of the funds available for the purchase of
managerial task. It is not much fun. But it must be done! revenues. Hence the budget helps to prevent expenses from
The sales forecast provides the basis for developing company getting out of control.
operating plans. Everything is keyed to the level of expected
Evaluation
sales activity. The budgets are essentially based on the sales
Any goal, once established, becomes a tool for evaluation of
forecast. If the forecast is wrong, the resulting budgets will have
performance. If the organization meets its goals, management
to be revised often to reflect actual sales results.
can consider the performance successful. Hence the sales
A budget is simply a tool, a financial plan, that an administra- department budgets become tools to evaluate the departments
tor uses to plan for profits by anticipating revenues and performance. By meeting the sales and cost goals set forth in the
expenditures. By using various planning procedures manage- budget, a sales manager is presenting strong evidence of his or
ment hopes to guide operations to a given level of profit on a her success as an executive. The manager who is unable to meet
certain volume of operations. budgetary requirements is usually less well regarded.
Budgetinc and Strategic Planning Determining the Sales Budget
Just how does budgeting fit into strategic and operational Determining expenditure levels for each category of selling
planning? The answer is that the budget reflects the dollar expense is very difficult.Two methods for determining budget
manifestation of the plan. It is quite difficult to put dollar costs levels are discussed below
to those plans and make them all result in a profit. The budget
is the planners governor. It forces a reality on the planner that is Budgeting by Percentage of Sales Method
mandatory for profitable operation. Ultimately all plans must Many business people plan and control their enterprises by
be quantified into dollars and checked against realty. percentages. Using this method, the manager multiplies the
sales , forecast by various percentages for each category of
Purposes of Budgeting expense. The resultant product then becomes the dollar
The budget is very important for the successful operation of amount budgeted for each of the respective categories.
the sales force. It serves several purposes including planning,
The percentages used for each category may be based on the
coordination, and evaluation, each of which is discussed in this
managers experience and/or feelings about what portion of the
section.
sales dollar can or must be spent on each business function to
achieve the desired profit. The percentages might also be based
109
on published industry averages for expense categories. These Management estimates the sales of each product, and often
published averages should be used only as guidelines which makes separate forecasts for each class of customer and each
must be adjusted to reflect the unique aspects of the particular territorial division. Budgets for territories and classes of
organization. These percentages are then used in controlling customers usually are of interest only to sales executives. Other
sales and their costs. departments normally need only the sales budget for product
Of course there are no guarantees that setting the budgets using divisions.
these percentages will lead to optimal performance. In fact the To some extent a sales budget can become a self-fulfilling
expense allocations, using this method, will follow the direction prophecy. You predict that 100 units of Model 101 will be sold
of change in sales. For example, if sales are forecasted to in January, so 100 units are produced to be sold in January.
decline, then the budget allocations for all expense categories While sales of that item may fall short of the goal, they cannot
will decrease as well. This mayor may not be the optimal exceed it, for thats all there is to sell. Moreover, there is
allocation to counter the sales decline. Additionally, the effective- considerable pressure to make the planned sales figure a reality.
ness of this method is dependent on the firm having accurate Thus, once the sales budget is set, management digs in to make
sales forecasts. it become fact.
Despite the limitations, the manager knows that if expenses are The Selling-Expense Budget
kept within their percentage budgets, final operations will come The selling-expense budget anticipates the various expenditures
out as planned. for personal-selling activities. These are the salaries, commis-
Budgeting by the Objective and Task Method sions, and expenses for the sales force. This is not a difficult
In the objective and task method, the manager starts with the budget to develop. If the salespeople are on a straight commis-
sales objectives, which are specified in the sales forecast. Then sion, the amount of the revenue allotted for compensation
the manager determines the task that must be accomplished in expense will be determined by the commission rate. Experience
order to achieve the objectives and estimates the costs of clearly indicates how much money must be set aside for
performing those tasks. These costs will be reviewed in light of expenses. If sales reps are paid a salary, the process merely
the companys overall profit objective. If the costs are too high, requires compiling the amounts, taking into consideration any
the manager may be asked to find a different way of achieving raises or promotions to be made during the coming period.
the objective or some adjustment may be made to the original Any plans for sales force expansion also should be anticipated
objective. This iterative process continues until management is in this budget.
satisfied with both the objectives and the means of achieving The selling expense budget must be closely coordinated with
them. Many firms use some variation of the objective and task the sales budget. Suppose the sales budget calls for the intro-
method. duction of a new product line that requires considerable
The American Marketing Association, a nonprofit association retraining of the sales force and the addition of a new service
of marketing professionals and academics, uses an objective and department. The expense budgets must reflect those needs.
task .method to develop its budget. Its budgeting process starts What will it cost to accomplish each line in the sales budget?
with forecasts of membership revenue and publication sales. That is essentially the question the sales manager must answer
Then the senior managers estimate the costs, of the programs in preparing the selling-expense budgets that will accompany
designed to achieve the forecasted revenues. If the projected the sales budget.
expenses exceed revenues, adjustments in costs, programs, and
The Administrative Budget
revenues are made until the budget is balanced.
In addition to having direct control over management of the
Budgets for Sales Department Activities sales force, the typical sales executive is also an office manager.
Sales executives are responsible for formulating three basic Ordinarily the staff includes sales department secretaries and
budgets: the sales, selling-expense, and sales department office workers; the total staff can be large. There may be several
administrative budgets. assistant sales managers, sales supervisors, and sales trainers
under the sales manager. Budgetary provisions must be made
The Sales Budget
for their salaries and their staffs. Management must also budget
The sales budget is the revenue or unit volume anticipated from
for such sales office operating expenses as supplies, rent, heat,
sales of the firms products. This is the key budget. It is the
power and light, office equipment, and general overhead. These
basis of all operating activities in the sales department and in
costs constitute the administrative budget.
the production and finance areas. The validity of the entire
budgetary process depends on the accuracy of this one sales The Budgeting Process for the Firm
budget. If it is in error, all others will also be in error. Everything starts with the sales budget, described earlier. From
The sales budget is based on the sales forecast, which was it, data flow in five directions. Figure shows the flow of
discussed in the previous chapters but the sales budget calls for information from one budget to another. The sales budget
extreme detail. Every single product sold by the firm must be provides the basis for the various sales department budgets,
accounted for. It does little good to tell production planners such as advertising, selling expenses, and sales office expenses.
that $100,000 worth of small parts will be needed. Ihey must Sales budget figures also flow directly to the production
be told specifically what small parts will be sold, in what department. Here the total production budget is established,
quantities, and when. and from that the various materials and labor budgets are
110
determined. The financial officer also uses anticipated sales Budget Periods

figures from the sales budget to prepare the cash and the profit Budgets are commonly created for yearly, semiannual, and
and loss budgets. The cash budget is a tool used to determine quarterly periods. Some firms prepare budgets for all three
how many dollars will flow into and out of the firm each periods; others prefer to operate on an annual basis, thereby
month. This budget is necessary because of the time lag reducing the amount of paperwork required.
between expenditure and receipt of funds. It is necessary to The quarterly budget forces a reappraisal of the firms position
layout money for materials, labor, advertising, and selling from times a year, thereby decreasing the likelihood that
expenses many months prior to selling the merchandise. Then, operations will get out of control. Many companies find a
after sales of the goods, it may he several months before the quarterly system advisable because that is roughly their opera-
firm receives cash. The financial officer must ensure that the firm tions conversion cycle.
has sufficient cash to enable it to finance the lag between the
Garment makers usually have four conversion cycles per year.
expenditure and receipt of funds.
That is, they put out four different lines of goods, one for each
The financial officer also Uses the anticipated net sales figure as season, and find it convenient to budget for each
the beginning of the profit and loss budget. The budgets for
selling season. The main advantage of a short planning period
sales department expenses, production, and general administra-
is that it is more likely to be accurate. The shorter the forecasting
tive expenses all flow into the profit and loss and cash budgets
period, the less likelihood there is that the estimate will be
to determine the expected costs of operation. Thus all budgets
disturbed by unforeseen developments. In deciding which
are summarized in the profit and loss and cash budgets. Errors
period to use, a firm must balance the degree of control with
in the sales department budgets have a twofold effect on the
the costs of compiling the budgets.
financial plan. First, the revenues will not be correct. Second,
expenses will be out of line because the sales budget determines The Budget-Making Procedure
the production and administrative expenses. The first step in the budgetary process is to translate the sales
forecasts into the work that must be done to achieve the
forecast. This is no easy task. The firm may want, to introduce a
Sales Budget new type of product, since existing product is now obsolete.
What does that mean in terms of the people needed (staff
requirements ) ? What will it do to office expenses, field-selling
costs, trade show commitments, and so on?
Sale Department Administrative Production Department Each administrative unit must determine how much money it
expense Budget expense Budget Budget
will need to meet the performance goals set for it. This is
Cash Budget Profit and usually done by (1) surveying each of the activities the unit
Loss Budget
must perform, (2) determining how many people will be
required to accomplish the job, and (3) figuring what materials
Revenues Revenues and supp1ies will be needed for them to do the job properly.
Expenses Expenses Many sales managers use the previous years budget as a starting
point. Then they take into account any changes in sales strategies
and what those will cost to implement. They also get as much
information as possible from their salespeople about changes in
their territories which may necessitate changes in the budgets.
Once the sales department budgets are compiled into one major
budget, it is forwarded to the financial executive, who dissemi-
nates the information to the other departments.
The due dates on various budgets must be staggered if the
budgeting program is to be a success. The sales department
budget must be in the hands of the financial officer before final
preparation of the production budget, since the production
budget is completely dependent on the sales budget. Compiling
all the budgets into the overall cash and profit and loss budgets
can be done only after all other work on the plans of the
organization has been completed.
Meetings, compromises and much hand-wringing are all part of
the budgeting process. This give and take process can be seen
in the comments of the sales manager for American Paging in
Flow of information from Sales Budget to other Budgets Minnesota: Our senior corporate managers meet for an entire
week to hammer out our budget. Generally, well fight for
whats necessary and they deliver the objectives they expect.
111
Administrative heads tend to be overly generous in their Points to Ponder
estimates of funds they will need for the coming year. Few
managers relish working on tight budgets, yet in well-managed
organizations all budgets are tight. As noted by Bill Thorne, PURPOSES OF BUDGETING
president of Morris Paper Company, If you have a limited
budget, it forces you to pay closer attention to the value of your
Planning
dollar and the quality you expect in return.
Every aspect of this process has become more efficient with the
Coordination
use of computers. With computer spreadsheets, it is possible evaluation
to make changes in one part of the budget and see the impact
of those changes on all other parts of the budget immediately.
Sound planning procedures dictate that each administrative
head sign off on all plans and budgets. That is, they agree that
they will make it happen.
Managing with Budgets
Once prepared and in operation, the budget becomes one of
the managers regularly used tools. The previous months actual
sales and expenses come back from the accounting department
by the middle of the present month. All figures that are over
budget are marked for attention. Some of the accounts that are
over budget are understandable; the manager knows the reason
and either accepts it or knows that the matter will be corrected ill
the near future. If there are others which are significantly over
budget and the manager does not know why, he will investigate
the overage and take corrective action if necessary.
Notes -
DETERMINING THE SALES

BUDGET
Budgeting by Percentage of Sales
Method
Budgeting by the Objective and Task
Method .
112
Questions

Sales Budget
Q1. Can budgets be prepared without an accurate forecast?
Q2. You feel your sales people are underpaid. You request a
Sale Depart ment Administrative Production large increase in the budget for them but it was denied in
expense Budget expense
Budget
Department Budget
the conference with other vice presidents, who all wanted
Cash Budget Profit and
L oss Budg et
pay increases for their people. You still feel strongly that
more money is needed if sales force is to be kept effective.
Revenues Revenues What would you do about this situation?
E xpenses Expenses Q3. What are the two methods of determining sales budget?
113
LESSON 21
OBJECTIVE IN USING QUOTAS
Learning Objectives whether or not the quota is being reached. If the sales total
To understand the meaning of quotas significantly exceeds the predetermined standards, management
should analyze the reasons for this variance. If the sales in a
To understand the purpose of quotas
district fail to meet the quota, this failure tells management that
To understand relation between quotas, sales forecast and something has gone wrong. Of course, it does not tell why the
sales budget failure occurred. It may be that competition is stronger than
To understand the different types of quotas expected, the salespeople have not done a good selling job, or
In this lesson we will study about the quota which is set for the potential was overestimated.
salespeople and its purpose. To furnish goals and incentives for the sales force: In
business, as in any other walk of life, individuals usually
Quotas
perform better if their activities are guided by standards and
Quotas are quantitative objectives assigned to sales organiza-
goals. It is not enough to say to a salesperson, We expect you
tional units individual sales personnel, for instance. As
to do a good selling job. It is much more meaningful to
standards for appraising selling effectiveness, quotas specify
express this expectation in a specific quota consisting of a given
desired performance levels for sales volume; such budgeted
dollar sales volume or number of new accounts to be acquired
items as expenses, gross margin, net profit, and return on
during the next month. Without a standard of measurement,
investment; selling- and nonselling-related activities; or some
sales reps cannot be certain their performance is satisfactory. A
combination of these items. Sales management sets quotas for
recent survey found that sales relative to quota is the most
organizational units, such as individual sales districts and sales
widely used performance criterion by which salespeople are
personnel. In some companies, sales management sets quota
judged.
for middlemen, such as agents, wholesalers, and retailers.
Quotas set for sales regions, or other marketing units on higher To control salespeoples activities: A corollary to the
organizational levels, are customarily broken down and preceding point is that quotas. enable management to direct the
reassigned to lower-level units like sales districts, or IT indi- activities of the sales force more effectively than would other-
vidual sales personnel. All quotas have a time dimension-they wise be possible. Through the use of the appropriate type of
qualm: what management expects within a given period. quota, executives can encourage a given activity such as selling
Quota can be defined as high-margin items or getting orders from new customers. The
sales reps are not likely to know which area of activity should be
Sales quota represents a specific sales goal that an individual stressed unless management tells them. Swissotel North
is responsible for satisfying over a period of time, usually a America wanted their salespeople to spend a greater percentage
year. Specifically, quotas measure and define the appropriate of their time with customers, so management instituted a
accomplishment level desired from an individual by quota of six quality sales calls per day for each rep.
management
Quotas are devices for directing and controlling sales operations.
Their effectiveness depends upon the kind, amount, and
accuracy of marketing information used in setting them, and
upon managements skill in administering the quota system. In
effective systems, management bases quotas on information
derived from sales forecasts, studies of market and sales
potentials, and cost estimates. Accurate data are important to
the effectiveness of a quota system, but in and of themselves,
they are not sufficient; judgment and administrative ski: 8!
required of those with quota-setting responsibilities. Soundly
administered quotas based on thorough market knowledge are
effective devices for directing controlling sales operations.
Purposes of Sales Quotas
Sales quotas serve several useful purposes, as shown in Figure
and discussed below.
To indicate stronger weak spots in the selling structure:
When accurate quotas are established for each territory, manage-
ment can determine the extent of territorial development by
114
To evaluate productivity of salespeople: Quotas provide a controlling phase, which involves, among other things,

yardstick for measuring the general effectiveness of sales determination of quotas for use as performance standards.
representatives. By comparing a reps actual results with his or A review of the sales planning process is in order. Basically, a
her quota, management can evaluate that persons performance. sales forecast is a sales estimate tied to a marketing program and
Quota performance also provides guidance for field supervisors assuming certain environmental factors. When management
by indicating areas of activity where the sales force needs help. arrives at the sales estimate, it has, in effect, decided the sales
Decisions on whether to give salespeople promotions or raises volume objective; then, after determining the expenses of
are often based largely on their performance in relation to their obtaining this sales level, management computes the net profit
quotas. contribution, brings all these figures together into a sales
To improve effectiveness of compensation plans: A quota budget, and sets the objective for net profit. Management now
structure can playa significant role in a sales compensation decides how much of the estimated sales volume should come
system. Quotas can furnish incentives to salespeople who are out of each territory, how much expense should be incurred in
paid straight salary. A sales rep knows, too, that a creditable each, and how much profit contribution each should produce.
performance in meeting 3.ssigned quotas reflects favorably on Here management determines quantitative objectives, such as
him or her when it is time for a salary review. quotas, to assign to individual sales personnel (or to other
In some cases, salespeople receive a bonus if they achieve a organizational units of the sales department, or to distributive
certain quota or they may receive a commission on all sales outlets). However, as is made clear later, setting quotas is not a
above some preset level (or quota) of sales. At Disney, for matter of simply dividing companywide estimates into smaller
example, the reps earn commissions if they exceed ambitious parts.
quotas set by the company for the number of hotel rooms Different types of quotas are set .
booked. Inequities in territorial potential may cause inequities in Differences in forecasting and budgeting procedures, manage-
compensation unless a firm establishes a quota system. In one ment philosophy, selling problems, and executive judgment, as
territory, a person may get a $1,500 monthly salary plus a 5 well as variations in quota-setting procedures, cause each firm to
percent commission on sales over a quota of $10,000. In a have somewhat unique quotas. Ignoring small differences,
district that presents low potential and a more difficult selling however, quotas fall into four categories:
job, the sales rep may have the same arrangement, except that 1. Sales volume quota
the commission starts when the rep reaches a quota of only
2. Budget quota
$7,000 each month.
3. Activity quota
To control selling expense: Management can often encourage
expense control by the use of expense quotas alone, without 4. Combination quota
tying them to the compensation plan. Some companies gear (4) Combination quota
payments for the salespeoples expenses to a quota. For Types of sales quotas
instance, a business may pay all the expenses of a sales rep up to

Quota Bases
8 percent of sales. Other companies may set an expense quota
and let the salespeople know their effectiveness is being judged
in part by how well they meet it.
To evaluate sales contest results: Sales quotas are used Sales Expense Quota Gross margin Activity quota
volume quota
frequently in conjunction with sales contests. Salespeople rarely
have equal opportunities in a contest unless management
makes some adjustment to compensate for variation in
territorial potentials and workloads. Using the common
denominator of a quota, management can ensure each partici- Combination
pant a reasonably equal chance of winning, provided the quota

has been set accurately.
Let us now see the relation between
So what is Sales Volume Quotas ?
The sales volume quota is the oldest and most common type.
Quotas, the Sales Forecast, and the Sales It is an important standard for appraising the performances of
Budget individual sales personnel, other units of the sales organization,
Relationships among quotas, the sales forecast, and the sales and distributive outlets. Sales volume quotas communicate
budget vary from company to company. Relationships depend managements expectations as to how much for what period.
not only upon the procedures used in forecasting, budgeting, Sales volume quotas are set for geographical areas, product lines,
and quota setting but upon how the planners integrate these or marketing channels or for one or more of these in combina-
three procedures. The greater the integration, the more effective tion with any unit of the sales organization, the exact design
quotas are as devices for controlling sales efforts. Planning a depending upon what facets of the selling operation manage-
company sales effort begins with a sales forecast and evolves ment wants to appraise or motivate.
naturally into a sales budget, thus setting the stage for the
The smaller the selling unit, the more effective a quota is for
controlling sales operations. Setting a sales volume quota for a
115
sales region, for example, obtains some direction and control, different categories, according to relative profitability. Then
but setting sales volume quotas for each sales territory in the individual point volume quotas were set for each category, and
region obtains much more. Setting sales volume quotas for bonus points were awarded for sales over quota in each category.
smaller selling units makes it less likely that good or bad sales Sales personnel had to meet all the point volume quotas before
performance, in one aspect of the selling operation will be becoming eligible for b0nus points. In appraising performance,
obscured by offsetting performance in other aspects. The same management regarded a 150 percent total point volume
holds for sales volume quotas on products or time periods- attainment with 4 bonus points as less meritorious than a 120
more direction and control are secured by setting quotas for percent point volume attainment with 5 bonus points. The
individual products rather than for entire product lines, and for new quota system led to a more profitable sales mixture.
short periods rather than long.
Budget Quotas
Sales volume quotas see extensive use. Sales executives set them Budget quotas are set for various units in the sales organization
and the sales volume objective dominates other objectives. to control expenses, gross margin, or net profit. The intention
Before profits are earned, some sales volume level must be in setting budget quotas is to make it clear to sales personnel
attained. It is entirely logical for sales management first to set that their jobs consist of something more than obtaining sales
standards for sales volume performance. Sales personnel readily volume. Budget quotas make personnel more conscious that
grasp the significance of sales volume quotas. However, sales the company is in business to make a profit. Expense quotas
management should not deemphasize earning of profits or emphasize keeping expenses in alignment with sales volume,
conserving on selling expense. Sales volume alone, although thus indirectly controlling gross margin and net profit contribu-
important, is not sufficient-profits are necessary for survival. tions. Gross margin or net profit quotas emphasize margin and
The following are the types of sales volume quotas profit contributions, thus indirectly controlling sales expenses.
Dollar sales volume quotas: Companies selling broad product Expense quotas: The setting of dollar expense quota plans for
lines set sales volume quotas in dollars rather than in units of reimbursing sales force expenses were analyzed earlier, so
product. These companies meet complications in setting unit discussion here focuses on using expense quotas in appraising
quotas and in evaluating sales performance for individual performance. Hardly ever are expense quotas used in lieu of
products. A key advantage of the dollar terminology is that the other quotas; they are supplemental standards aimed toward
dollar sales volume quotas relate easily to other performance keeping expenses in line with sales volume. Thus, expense
data, such as selling expenses, through ratios or percentages. In quotas are used most often in combination with sales volume
addition, when products have no established prices, and sales quotas.
personnel have discretion in cutting prices, either dollar volume Frequently, management provides sales personnel with financial
quotas or combined dollar and unit volume quotas assure that incentives to control their own expenses. This is done either by
sales personnel do not cut prices too deeply to build unit tying performance against expense quotas directly to the
volume. compensation plan or by offering expense bonuses for lower
Unit sales volume quotas: Sales volume quotas in units of expenses than the quotas. Expense quotas derive from expense
product are used in two situations. One is that in which prices estimates in territorial sales budgets. But to reduce the adminis-
fluctuate considerably; in this situation, unit sales volume trative burden and misunderstandings, expense quotas are
quotas are better yardsticks than are dollar sales volume quotas. generally expressed not in dollars 1 but as percentages of sales,
If a product is now priced at $80 a unit, 600 units sold means thus directing attention both to sales volume and the \ costs of
$48,000 in sales, but if the price rises by 25 percent (to $100 a achieving it.
unit), only 480 units sold brings in the same dollar volume. Setting expense quotas as sales volume percentages presents
The second situation occurs with narrow product lines sold at some problems. Variations in coverage difficulty and other
stable prices. In this situation, dollar volume and unit volume environmental factors, as well f! as in sales potentials, make it
quotas might both appear appropriate, but, especially if unit impractical to set identical expense percentages for tall territories.
prices are high, unit quotas are preferable for psychological Then, too, different sales personnel sell different product mixes,
reasons-sales personnel regard a $1 million quota as a higher so some incur higher expenses than others, again making
hurdle than a forty-unit quota for machines priced at $25,000 impractical the selling of identical expense percentages. But
each. most important is that selling expense does not vary directly
Point sales volume quotas: Some companies use sales volume with sales volume, as is implicitly assumed with the expense
quotas expressed in points. A company using point volume percentage quota. Requiring that expenses vary proportionately
quotas might consider each $100 sales as worth 1 point, it with changes in sales volume may reduce selling incentive. It
might value unit sales of product A at 5 points and of product may happen, for instance, that selling expenses amount to 3
B at 1 point, or it might convert both dollar and unit sales into percent of sales up to $700,000 in sales, but obtaining an
points. Companies use point volume quotas because of additional $50,000 in sales requires increased expenses of
problems in using dollar or unit volume quotas. Porter-Cable $2,500, which amounts to 5 percent of the marginal sales
Machine Company, for instance, once used dollar volume increase.
quotas, but sales personnel often attained most of their quotas Clearly, management should not arbitrarily set percentage
through selling only one or two easy-to-sell products. Manage- expense quotas. Analysis of territorial differences, product
ment initiated a program whereby products were put into eight mixes in individual sales, and expense variations at various sales
116
volume levels should precede actual quota setting. Furthermore, nel, arguments and disputes are inevitable. The company using

because of difficulties in making precise adjustments for these gross margin or net profit quotas assumes increased clerical and
factors, and because of possible changes in territorial conditions administrative costs.
during the operating period, administering an expense quota
Activity Quotas
system calls for great flexibility.
The desire to control how sales personnel allocate their time and
The chief attraction of the expense quota is that it makes sales efforts among different activities explains the use of activity
personnel more cost conscious and aware of their responsibili- quotas. A company using activity quotas starts by defining the
ties for expense control. They are less apt to regard expense important activities sales personnel perform; then it sets target
accounts as swindle sheets or vehicles for padding take-home performance frequencies. Activity quotas are set for total sales
pay. Instead, they look upon the expense quota as one standard calls, calls on particular classes of customers, calls on prospects,
used in evaluating their performance. number of new accounts, missionary calls, product demonstra-
However, unless expense quotas are intelligently administered, tions, placement or erection if displays, making of collections
sales personnel may become too cost conscious-they may stay at and the like. Before setting activity quotas, management needs
third-class hotels, patronize third-class restaurants, and avoid time-and-duty studies of how sales personnel actually appor-
entertaining customers. Sales personnel should understand tion their time, making additional studies to determine how
that, although expense money is not to be wasted, they are sales personnel should all Kate their efforts. Ideally, manage-
expected to make all reasonable expenditures. Well-managed ment needs time-and-duty studies salesperson and sales
companies, in fact, expect sales personnel to maintain standards territory, but, of course, this is seldom practical. Activity quotas
of living in keeping with those of their customers. . are appropriate when sales personnel perform important,
Gross margin or net profit quotas: Companies not setting nonselling activities. For example, activity quotas are much used
sales volume quotas often use gross margin or net profit in insurance selling, where sales personnel must continually
quotas, shifting the emphasis to making gross margin or profit develop new contacts. They are also common in drug detail
contributions. The rationale is that sales personnel operate selling, where sales personnel call on doctors and hospitals to
more efficiently if they recognize that sales increases, expense explain new products and new applications of both old and
reductions, or both, are important only if increased margins new products. Activity quotas permit management not only to
and profits result. control but to give recognition to sales personnel for perform-
ing nonselling activities and for maintaining contacts with
Gross margin or net profit quotas are appropriate when the
customers who may buy infrequently, but in substantial
product line contains both high- and low-margin items. In this
amounts.
situation, an equal volume increase in each of two products
may have widely different effects upon margins and pr9fits. While there is a large amount of clerical and record-keeping
Low-margin items are the easiest to sell; thus sales personnel work, the main problem in administering an activity quota
taking the path of least resistance concentrate on them and give system is that of inspiring the sales force. The danger is that
inadequate attention to more profitable products. One way to sales personnel will merely go through the motions and not
obtain better balanced sales mixtures is through gross margin perform activities effectively. Activity quotas used alone reward
or net profit quotas. However, the same results are achieved by sales personnel for quantity of work, irrespective of quality.
setting individual sales volume quotas for different products, This is less likely to happen when activity quotas are used with
adjusting each quota to obtain the desired contributions. sales volume or expense quotas; still adequate supervision and
close contact with sales personnel are administrative necessities.
Problems are met both in setting and administering gross
margin or net profit quotas. If gross margin quotas are used, Combination Quotas
management must face the fact that sales personnel generally do Companies that are not satisfied with any single type of quota
not set prices and have no control over manufacturing costs; may combine two or more types. As an example, a firm may
therefore, they are not responsible for gross margins. If net want to establish a quota based on three activities, plus gross
profit quotas are used, management must recognize that certain margin on the products sold. The results for one rep may come
selling expenses, such as those of operating a branch office, are out as follows for the January-March quarter:
beyond the salespersons influence. Quota Actual Percentage of
To overcome these complications, companies frequently set quota obtained
quotas in terms of expected contribution margins, this Gross margin, all products $ 30,000 $25,000 83
avoiding arbitrary all of expenses not under the control of sales Product demonstrations made 120 135 117
personnel. Arriving at expected contribution margins for each Orders from new accounts 15 17 113
salesperson, however, is complicated. Even if a company solves Window displays obtained 20 19 95
these accounting-type problem, it faces further problems in Average = 102%
administration. Sales personnel may have difficulties in grasping
technical features of quota-setting procedures, and management The salesperson in this example reached a little over 102 percent
may spend considerable time in ironing out misunderstand- of her combined quota. The four components were weighted
ings. In addition, special records must be maintained to gather equally, but management may want to assign more value to
the needed performance information. Finally, because some some elements than others.
expense factors are always beyond the control of sales person-
117
A combination quota seeks to use the strong points of several Points to Ponder
types of quotas, but frequently such a plan is limited by its

complexity. In many cases, combination quota structures are so
complicated that they are not easily understood by the reps:
Then the quota becomes a source of dissatisfaction rather than
an incentive. Also, a sales rep may overemphasize one element
in the quota plan. In this illustration, for example, the rep may
reach 200 percent of the quota for product demonstrations and
do virtually nothing to secure orders from new accounts.
Notes -
Different types of quotas are set

.
(1) Sales volume quota
(2) Bud-get quota
(3) Activity quota
(4) Combination quota
118
Questions
Sales Volume Quotas Q1. What is the purpose of setting sales quota?
Dollar sales volume quotas Q2. Should quotas be used in each of following cases ? If so,
Unit sales volume quotas what type do you recommend, and what should be the
Point sales volume quotas.
length of the quota period?
a. Promotional sales rep for a manufacturer of candy
bars.
b. Salesperson for manufacturer of room air conditioners
for home or industry.
c. In home selling of cosmetics.
Q3. A luggage manufacturer uses volume quotas for its
salesforce.
a. What effective measures may this firm take to
encourage its salespeople to do nonselling tasks such as
prospecting for new accounts or setting up dealer
displays?
b. How can the customers be protected against
overstocking, high-pressure selling and other similar
activities by this manufacturers sales force?
119
LESSON 22
PROCEDURE OF SETTING QUOTA, LIMITATIONS OF QUOTA SYSTEM
Learning Objectives sales potential; in other words, the tempering of experienced

To understand the procedure of setting quota system judgment is needed for realistic sales volume quotas to result.
Rarely does a company achieve an ideal territorial design, and to
How to administer the quota system
the extent that territorial differences (in coverage difficulty, for
To understand the characteristics of good quota instance) have not been taken into account previously, compen-
In this lesson we will learn about the procedure for setting sating adjustments are made when setting sales volume quotas.
quotas. Few companies achieve an ideal assignment of sales personnel
Procedures for Setting Sales Volume to territories, so, in setting quotas, differences in anticipated
Quotas personnel effectiveness because of age, energy, initiative,
The sales volume quota illustrates quota setting procedure well experience, knowledge of the territory. And physical conditions
because it is the most commonly used type. However the same require adjustments. Moreover, sales volume quotas motivate
procedure can be used for the other types. individual sales personnel in different ways-one is thrilled to
learn that next years quota is 50 percent above this years, a
Sales volume quotas derived from territorial sales poten-
second is hopelessly discouraged by similar news-and quota
tials: It seems logical that a sales volume quota should derive
setters adjust for such differences. Then, too, some companies
from the sales potential present, for example, in a territory a
provide financial motivation by linking compensation to
sales volume quota sums up the effort that a particular selling
performance against quota; this generally means that volume
unit should expend. Sales potential, by definition, represents
quotas are set lower than sales potentials.
the maximum sales opportunities open to the same selling
unit. Many managements derive sales volume quotas from sales Sales volume quotas derived from total market estimates.
potentials, and this approach is appropriate when (1) territorial In some companies, management has neither statistics on nor
sales potentials are determined in conjunction with territorial sales force estimates of territorial sales potentials. These
design or (2) bottom-up planning and forecasting procedures companies use top-down planning and forecasting to obtain
are used in obtaining the sales estimate in the sales forecast. the sales estimate for the whole company; hence, if manage-
ment sets volume quotas, it uses similar procedures.
If sales territories are designed and sales personnel assigned to
Management may either (1) break down the total company sales
the territories management is justified in setting sales volume
estimate, using various indexes of relative sales opportunities in
quotas by calculating the percentage relationship between each
each territory, and then make adjustments (such as those
territorial sales potential and total sales potential and using the
described in the previous section) to arrive at territorial sales
resulting percentages to apportion the company sales estimate
volume quotas; or (2) convert the company sales estimate into a
among territories. If, for instance, territory As sales potential is 2
companywide sales quota (by taking into account projected
percent of the total, and the company sales estimate is $20
changes in price, product, promotion, and other policies) and
million, then the sales volume quota for territory A is $400,000.
then break down the company volume quota, by using an index
Assuming that no further adjustments are needed, the summa-
of relative sales opportunities in each territory. In the second
tion of all territorial sales volume quotas equals the company
procedure, another set of adjustments is made for differences in
sales estimate. However, total sales potential is generally not
territories and sales personnel before finally arriving at territorial
equal to the total sales estimate, even though the two figures are
quotas.
related. Sales potentials, for companies as well as for territories,
are the sales volumes reachable under ideal conditions, whereas Note that these choices are similar, the only difference being
sales estimates and sales volume quotas are the sales levels whether adjustments are made only at the territorial level, or
management expects to attain under somewhat less than ideal also at the company level. The second alternative is the better
conditions. choice. Certain adjustments apply to the total company and to
If bottom-up planning and forecasting procedures have been all sales territories; others apply uniquely to individual territo-
used, management already has considered such factors as past ries. The two-level approach assumes that both classes of
sales, competition, changing market conditions, and differences adjustments receive attention.
in personal ability, as well as contemplated changes in prices, In companies with more than two organizational levels in the
products, promotion, and the like-if it has, then the final sales department, additional rounds of adjustments are
revised estimates of territorial sales potentials become the necessary. For instance, consider the company with both sales
territorial sales volume quotas. However, in spite of what has regions and sales territories. One round of adjustments takes
just been said, further adjustments are generally advisable place at the company level, and another at the regional level.
because sales volume quotas related directly to territorial sales Most regional sales managers would want a third round of
potentials depend upon statistical data underlying estimates of adjustments before setting territorial sales volume quotas, as
territorial sales volume quotas should not be set finally until
120
after consulting sales personnel assigned to territories. The believes sales personnel should receive. No consideration is

regional sales manager ordinarily calls in each salesperson to given to territorial sales potentials, total market estimates, and
discuss the territorial outlook relative to the share of the past sales experience, and quotas are tailored exclusively to fit the
regional sales volume quota that each territory should produce; sales compensation plan. If, for instance, salesperson A is to
then the regional manager sets territorial sales volume quotas. receive a $1,000 monthly salary and a 5 percent commission on
Quotas developed in this way are more acceptable to the sales all monthly sales over $20,000, As monthly sales volume quota
staff, because each has participated in setting them, and each has is set at $20,000. As long as As monthly sales exceed $20,000,
had the opportunity to contribute information bearing on the management holds As compensation-to-sales ratio to 5 percent.
final quota. Note that A is really paid on a straight-commission plan, even
Sales volume quotas based on past sales experience alone: though it is labeled salary and commission.
A crude procedure is to base sales volume quotas solely on past Such sales volume quotas are poor standards for appraising
sales experience. One company, for instance, takes last years sales sales performance; they relate only indirectly, if at all, to
for each territory, adds an arbitrary percentage, and uses the territorial sales potentials. It is appropriate to tie in sales force
results as sales volume quotas. A second averages past sales for quota performances with the sales compensation plan, that is,
each territory over several years, adds arbitrary amounts, and as a financial incentive to performance, but no sales volume
thus sets quotas for sales volume. The second companys quota should be based on the compensation plan alone, for
procedure is the better of the two by averaging sales figures; that is putting the cart before the horse.
management recognizes that the sales trend is important. The Letting sales personnel set their own sales volume quotas.
averaging procedure evens out the distorting effects of abnor- Some companies turn the setting of sales volume quotas over
mally good and bad years. to the sales staffs, who are placed in the position of determin-
Companies using past sales procedures for determining sales ing their own performance standards. The ostensible reason is
volume quotas assume not only that past and future sales are that sales personnel, being closest to the territories, know them
related, but that past sales have been satisfactory. These best and, therefore should set the most realistic sales volume
assumptions mayor may not be valid, but one thing is certain: quotas. The real reason, however, is that management is
companies making them perpetuate past errors. If a territory shirking the quota-setting responsibility and turns the whole
has had inadequate sales coverage, basing its sales volume quota problem over to the sales staff, thinking that they will complain
on past sales ensures future inadequate sales coverage. Further- less if they set their standards. There is, indeed, a certain ring of
more, the average-of-past-sales method has a unique defect in truth in the argument that having sales personnel set their own
that average sales lag behind actual sales during long periods of objectives may cause them to complain less, and to work harder
rising or falling sales. Thus, during these periods quotas always to attain them. But sales personnel are seldom dispassionate in
are set either too low or too high. Quotas based solely on past setting their own quotas. Some are reluctant to obligate
sales, moreover, make poor performance standards, as previ- themselves to achieve what they regard as too much; others-
ously poor performances go undetected and are built into the and this is just as common-overestimate their capabilities and
standards automatically. Two individuals for example, may set unrealistically high quotas. Quotas set unrealistically high or
receive identical sales volume quotas, even though one realized low-by management or by the sales force cause dissatisfaction
90 percent of previous territorial sales potential and the second and low sales force morale. Management should have better
only 30 percent. Neither knowing nor considering the true sales information; therefore, it should make final quota decisions.
opportunities in each territory, management perpetuates past How, for instance, can sales personnel adjust for changes
inequities. Past sales experience should be considered in setting management makes in price, product, promotion, and other
territorial sales volume quotas, but it is only one of many policies?
factors to take into account.
Administering the Quota System
Sales-volume quotas based on executive judgment alone: Skill in administering the quota system is basic not only to
Sometimes, sales volume quotas are based solely on executive realizing the full benefit for control purposes, but to securing
judgment. This is justified when there is little information to staff cooperation in making the system work. Most critical is
use in setting quotas. There may be no, sales forecast, no securing and maintaining acceptance of the quotas by those to
practical way to determine territorial sales potential. The product whom they are assigned. Few people take kindly to having
may be new and its probable rate of market acceptance un- yardsticks applied to their performance. Constitutionally, most
known; the territory may not yet have been opened or a newly sales personnel oppose quotas, and anything that makes them
recruited salesperson may have been assigned to a new territory. doubt the accuracy, fairness, or attainability of those quotas
In these situations, management may set sales volume quotas makes them less willing to accept them, thus reducing the
solely on a judgment basis. Certainly, however, quotas can be of systems effectiveness.
no higher quality than the judgment of those setting them.
Judgments, like past sales experience, is important in determin-
Accurate, Fair, and Attainable Quotas
Good quotas are accurate, fair and attainable. Obtaining accurate
ing quotas, but it is not the only ingredient.
quotas is a function of the quota-setting procedure: the more
Sales volume quotas related only to compensation plan: closely quotas are related to territorial potentials, the greater the
Companies sometimes base sales volume quotas solely upon chances for accuracy. But, in addition, regardless of the type of
the projected amounts of compensation that management quota-sales volume, budget, activity, or combination sound
121
judgment is important in analyzing market data, adjusting for understand. Also, the system should be economical to
contemplated policy changes (and for conditions unique to each administer.

territory), and appraising changes in personnel capabilities, as Flexibility: All quota systems need adequate flexibility.
well as in setting the final quotas. Accurate quotas result from Particularly if the quota period is as long as a year,
skillful blending of planning and operating information with management may have to make adjustments because of
sound judgment. Setting a fair quota involves determining the changes in market conditions.
proper blend of sales potential and previous experience.
Fairness: A good quota plan is perceived as fair to the
Admittedly, whether quotas are fair and attainable depends not people involved. The workload imposed by quotas should
only upon the quality of managements judgment but upon be the same for all sales reps. However, this does not mean
the capabilities and motivations of sales force. Sometimes, that quotas must be equal. Differences in potential,
perhaps even usually, the extent to which a salespersons quota competition, and reps abilities do exist.
is fair and attainable can only be ascertained after performance
has been recorded. Even then, management must exercise care Securing and Maintaining Sales Personnels
in appraising variations from the quota-to what extent are they Acceptance of Quotas
attributable to quota inaccuracies and to what extent to salesper- Management must make certain that sales personnel under-
son inadequacies? After all, quotas are not absolute performance stand quotas and the quota-setting procedure. Convening this
standards, and errors are made in setting them. understanding is a critical step in securing staff acceptance of
quotas. If sales personnel do not understand the procedure
If management believes that its quota-setting procedure used in establishing quotas, they may suspect, for example, that
produces accurate quotas and is confident that fair quotas are the quotas are a technique to obtain extra effort from them at
being assigned, then they should be attainable. Most quota- no cost to the company. This attitude destroys the quotas
setting errors are those of judgment, most traceable to setting effectiveness as an incentive. It is important that sales personnel
quotas above each salespersons expected performance to understand the significance of quotas as communicators of
provide an incentive for improvement. Quotas that some sales how much for what period, but, if they also understand the
personnel fail to attain are not necessarily unfair-whether they quota-setting procedure, they are more likely to consider their
are or not depends on who fails to attain them. One executive quotas accurate, fair, and attainable. The quota-setting method
offers this general rule. You have set equitable quotas if your should be simple enough for sales personnel to understand, yet
weaker people fail to attain them, and if your better people sufficiently sophisticated to permit acceptable accuracy.
either reach or slightly exceed them. Thus, in ascertaining
fairness, management faces a possible dilemma because the Sometimes, this means that management, faced with choosing
quotas themselves are the performance standards most used for between two quota-setting procedures, may choose the less
appraising the quality of sales personnel. Clearly, subjective sophisticated because it can be more easily explained to, and
evaluations of sales personnel according to qualitative perfor- understood by, the sales staff. More sophisticated procedures
mance criteria are required to ascertain whether quotas are fair. should not be ruled out, but managements using them must
explain them to the sales force.
Usually the sales department is responsible for establishing the
sales quota, and no approval of a higher executive is needed. Participation by sales personnel in quota setting:
Within the sales organization, the task may rest with any of If sales personnel participate quota setting, the task of explain-
several executives. The chief sales executive may be responsible ing quotas and how they are determined is simplified. With
for setting the total company quota. But the individual sales personnel helping to set their own quotas, management
breakdown may be delegated down through the regional and has more assurance that the procedure will be understood. How
district managers. Or territorial sales potentials may be given to much staff participation is solicited depends upon management
the district managers, and they set the salespeoples quotas. philosophy, types of quotas, information available, sophistica-
Many attributes found it good compensation plans, territorial tion of the quota-setting procedure, and the caliber of the sales
designs, and other aspects of sale management are also found force. It is not advisable to turn the whole quota-setting job
in good quota plans. over to the sales staff, but some sales force participation can
obtain more accurate and realistic quotas. Sales personnel have
Characteristics of a Good Quota Plan
some information about their territories that management does
Realistic attainability: If a quota is to spur the sales force not have, and it can contribute to quota accuracy. Furthermore,
to maximum effort, the goal must be realistically attainable. when sales personnel participate in quota setting, they are more
If it is too far out of reach, the salespeople will lose their easily convinced of the fairness of quotas.
incentive.
Keeping sales personnel informed: Effective sales manage-
Objective accuracy: Regardless of what type of quota ment keeps sales personnel informed of their progress relative
management uses, it should be related to potentials. to quotas. Sales personnel receive frequent reports detailing their
Executive judgment is also required, but it should not be performance to date. This permits them to analyze their own
the sole factor in the decision. strong and weak points and take corrective action. Of course,
Ease of understanding and administering: A quota sales personnel need encouragement, advice, and occasionally,
must be easy for both management and the sales force to warnings, in deciding
122
to take measures to improve their performance. Reaping full Typical Administrative Weaknesses

benefits from keeping sales personnel informed requires Companies that do not use sales quotas may justify their
frequent personal contacts by supervisors, as well as regular position by citing various limitations in a sales quota system.
reports. Generally speaking, however, these limitations are not inherent
Need for continuous managerial control: In administering in the system. Instead they are administrative weaknesses that
any quota system, there is a need for continuous monitoring of reflect managements failure to utilize of characteristics of a
performance. Arrangements must be made to gather and good quota plan.
analyze performance statistics with minimum delay. Charts Probably the major criticism of quotas is that it is difficult or
recording each salespersons performance against quota on a even possible to set them accurately. This point may be justified
monthly, or even weekly, basis facilitates this analysis. Figure in some cases. Perhaps a company sells a new product for which
22.1 is a typical chart for comparing sales quotas with actual very little marketing formation is available. Or a firm sells a
performances. Not all sales executives agree that charts should product that requires several quota periods to elapse before the
be posted for all to see, but most provide each person with sale is consummated. However, just because a company cannot
information on his or her performance. Keeping sales person- set a goal that is 100 percent statistically correct is no reason for
nel informed at frequent intervals, at least monthly, requires management to abandon the entire project.
subdividing the year. Generally, the annual quota is divided by In other instances, quotas are not used because management
the number of reporting periods, but, of course, this can be claims they lead to high-pressure selling and. generally empha-
misleading, when random fluctuations in sales occur. For size some activities at the expense of others. These criticisms
products with seasonal sales patterns it is more logical to may well be justified if a sales volume quota is used alone. Or
apportion annual quotas relative to either the proportion of the compensation and quota plans may be linked to encourage a
sales made in each reporting period during the previous year, or high volume of sales, irrespective of the
the proportions made in normal years.
gross margin. A quota also may overstress a given selling or not
Functioning quota systems can almost always be improved. An selling activity.
alert management continually appraises operation of the system
However, these are indications of planning or operating
and makes needed changes. Continuous managerial review and
weaknesses, They are not inherent disadvantages of quotas.
appraisal are required, since, for example, a quota that was
accurate, fair, and attainable at the beginning of an operating Conclusion
period can prove totally unrealistic in view of changing selling Quotas are quantitative objectives assigned to sales personnel
conditions. Flexibility in administering the system is important- and other units of l the selling organization. They are intended
if a quota is proving unrealistic, it should be adjusted. both to stimulate performance and to evaluate it, through
Administrative flexibility is desirable, but not too much. Small communicating managements expectations and through
changes can be ignored; important changes call for adjustments. serving as performance measures. In successful quota systems,
One company, for instance, adjusts dollar quotas in the event of special pains are taken to tie in quota-setting procedures with
a significant price change, or any change of 5 percent or more in sales potentials and planning data from the sales forecast and
their industry forecasts. Balance is needed between flexibility to sales budget. Sound judgment is required for adjusting
every slight change and inflexibility regardless of changes. tentative quotas both for contemplated policy changes and for
factors unique to each territorial environment. Continuous
Current Month Year to Date
Salesperson Quota Sales Percent Rank Quota Sales Percent Rank managerial review and appraisal and balanced flexibility in
A marking changes in quotas and improvements in quota setting
B
C
procures characterize successful quota system. When based on
D relevant and accurate market information, and when intelligently
E administered, quotas are effective devices for directing and
F
G controlling sales operation.
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
V
W
X
Y
Z
Total
123
Q1. How is Sales volume quotas derived from territorial sales

potentials?
Procedures for Setting Sales
Q2. When is sales volume quota based on executive judgment?
Volume Quotas
Q3. What are the characteristics of a good quota plan?
Sales volume quotas derived from territorial
sales potentials Q4. What are the situations in which quota may not be set?
Sales volume quotas derived from total
market estimates
Sales volume quotas based on past sales
experience alone
Sales-volume quotas based on executive
judgment alone
Sales volume quotas related only to
compensation plan.
Characteristics of a good quota

plan
Realistic attainability
Objective accuracy
Ease of understanding and
administering
Flexibility
Fairness
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LESSON 23
CONCEPT OF SALES TERRITORY
Learning Objectives To emphasize the point that designations of territories should

To understand the meaning of sales territory not be solely along geographical lines, consider the following
situations. When sales personnel sell mainly to personal
To understand how workload is determined
acquaintances, as in selling property insurance, investment
To understand how the territory size decreases or increases securities, and automobiles little logical basis exists for dividing
according to workload the market geographically. Similarly, in selling real estate, where
In this lesson we will study about the concept of sales territo- the market is localized and where the customer usually seeks out
ries and the ways in which workload is determined. the firm rather than the salesperson, geographically defined
territories are meaningless. In these cases, sales personnel are,
Sales Territories
for the most part, inside order takers; customers seek out the
Establishment of sales territories facilitates matching selling
supplier. But even, as in life insurance selling, where sales
efforts with sales opportunities. Sales personnel are assigned the
personnel are outside order getters and seek out prospects, the
responsibility for serving particular groupings of customers and
personal and localized nature of the market makes geographical
prospects and provide contact points with the markets,
assignments of territories inappropriate.
Territorial assignments lend direction to the planning and
control of sales operations. Other situations exist in which sales territories are not desig-
nated geographically. Certain companies have highly specialized
In establishing sales territories management is taking an
sales personnel, each with responsibility for serving customers
important step toward accumulating knowledge on the
who need his or her special skills. For instance, one maker of
companys strengths and weaknesses in serving different
complicated machinery has only five salespersons, each specializ-
markets, Through utilization of this knowledge in planning
ing either in part of the product line or in particular product
sales operations, managerial efforts to improve competitive
applications. In other companies, it is common to have more
position become increasingly effective.
than one salesperson assigned to work in the same city or
Realistic sales planning is done on a territory-by-territory basis. metropolitan area, and it is difficult to divide the area among
Characteristics of customers and prospects vary from one sales them, not only because of the scattered locations of accounts
territory to another, and sometimes even from one county to but because leads furnished by established customers often
the next. The territory is a more homogeneous unit than the require calls in different parts of the city.
market as a whole.
Small companies, and companies introducing new products
Breaking down the total market into smaller units makes requiring the use of different marketing channels, often do not
control of sales operations more effective, Assigning responsi- use geographically defined territories at all or, if they do, use
bility for achieving specific objectives to subordinate line rough divisions, such as entire states or census regions. In these
executives and individual sales personnel brings selling efforts instances, there is no reason to assign territories, since existing
into alignment with sales opportunities, Direction is lent to sales coverage capabilities are inadequate relative to sales
gathering information on individual performances, and potentials.
comparisons of performances with 155 sales opportunities
present in each territory provide sound bases for appraisal. In most marketing situations, however, it is advantageous to
assign sales personnel to territories. Determining the
The Sales Territory Concept territorial assignments requires consideration of customers
The emphasis in the sales territory concept is upon customers service requirements and the costs of providing service.
and prospects rather than upon the area in which an individual Geography affects both a companys ability to meet customers
salesperson works. Operationally defined, a sales territory is a service requirements and the costs of meeting them. Even
grouping of customers and prospect assigned to an individual when territorial boundaries are geographical, each salespersons
salesperson. Many sales executives refer to sales territories as assignment is a grouping of customers and prospects, and only
geographic areas, for example, the Southern india territory or the for reasons of convenience and economy a geographical cluster-
western india territory. But, in contrast, in some companies, the emphasis is on the customers, not on their locations.
particularly those in which the technical selling style is predomi-
nant, geographical considerations are ignored and sales House Accounts
personnel are assigned entire classes of customers, regardless of A house account is an account not
Sales territory comprises a assigned to an individual salesper-
their locations. Whether designated geographically or not, a sales number of present and
territory is a grouping of customers and prospects that can be son but one handled by executives
potential customers,
called upon conveniently and economically by an individual located within a given or home office personnel. Many are
salesperson.
geographical area and extremely large customers, most of
assigned to a salesperson, whom preferindeed, sometimes
125
demand-to deal with the home office. Frequently, house
How do you determine salesforce size?
accounts are responsible for significant shares of a companys Workload method

total business. When house accounts are excluded from Number of salespeople = Total Selling Effort Needed
territorial assignments, adverse effects upon sales force morale Average selling effort per salesperson
are possible-if sales personnel feel that the company is depriv-
From portfolio analysis:
ing them of the best customers. Segment 1--50 calls x 50 customers = 2500 calls
Most companies prefer to minimize the number of house Segment 2--30 calls x 40 customers = 1200 calls
Segment 3--20 calls x 100 customers = 2000 calls
accounts. However, some large customers refuse to do business Segment 4--6 calls x 300 customers = 1800 calls
any other way. Companies in which sales personnel understand Needs to make 7500 calls per year
Assume each salesperson can make 5 calls per day and is in the field 200 days
that their territories are particular groupings of customers and per year.
prospects-rather than specific geographical areas-find that house Need 7.5 salespeople
accounts have little adverse effect on sales force morale.
Territory Size and Work Load Factors Territory Size and Workload Factors
Depending upon the workload the territory size decreases or
increases. Companies determine the selling effort required i.e Workload Factor Territory Size
number calls to be made to each account. Increase/Decrease
Nature of Job:
This is required because Lots of presale and post-sale activity Decreases
You need this information to be able to decide how many Nature of product:
salespeople you need. A frequently purchased product Decreases
A limited repeat-sale Increases
You also need this information to be able to decide how to
Market development stage:
group accounts into territories that individual salespeople New market--fewer accounts Increases
can cover. Established market--more accounts Decreases
How do you figure this out ? Market coverage

Selective coverage Increases
There are two models for this Extensive coverage Decreases
Single factor model: Competition:

Intensive Decreases unless
Decide which one factor will drive your decision market is oversaturated
Limited Increases
This is usually sales potential.
Then classify all accounts based on that one factor
The above is a table which shows how the territory size will be
Account with potential > $1 million is A affected with the nature of workload.
account
Who is responsible for territorial development?
Account with potential > $500,000 but < $1 Development of sales territories is usually the responsibility of
million is B account sales manager overseeing the larger sales unit within the
Account with potential < $500,000 is C account organization- for example the divisional, regional, or zone sales
Then make a judgment about how many sales calls manager.This person knows the market, customers, and sales
each category should receive personnel needed to service these accounts. The manager makes
recommendations to corporate management on whether to
A accountone call per week, or 52 per year
increase or decrease the number of sales territories. Often,
B accountone call per month, or 12 per year however, the manager has the authority to change geographic
C accountone call per quarter, or 4 per year boundaries without corporate approval. It is important that all
field managers ( for example district, regional, zonal ) affected by
territorial change have a part in seeing that the needs of the
Portfolio model:
Does the same thing that the single factor model does, only you use more than
company, customers, and sales personnel are served.
one criteria for classifying accounts. Here we use competitive position and
account opportunity.
In the next two lessons we will study the purpose of sales
territories and the procedure for setting sales territories.
Strong Competitive Position Weak

High Very attractive Potentially attractive
Lots of selling effort Lots of effort for some
50 calls per year accounts, little for
Account others--30 calls per yr
Opportunity Moderately attractive Unattractive
Moderate selling effort Little to no field
20 calls per year sales effort
Low 6 calls per year
126
Points to Ponder

A llocation of Selling Effort
Sales territory comprises a Portfolio model:
Does the same thing that the single factor model does, only you
number of present and potential use more than one criteria for classifying accounts.
customers, located within a Strong Competitive Position Weak
given geographical area and High Very attractive

Lots of selling effort
Potentially attractive
Lots of effort for some
50 calls per year accounts, little for
assigned to a salesperson, Acco unt
Opportunity
others--3 0 c alls per yr
Moderately attractive Unattractive
branch, or intermediary. Moderate selling effort
20 calls per year
Little to no field
sales effort
L ow 6 calls per year
Allocation of Selling Effort How do you determine salesforce size?

How do you figure this out? Workload method
Number of salespeople = Total Selling Effort Needed
Single factor model: Average selling effort per salesperson
Decide which one factor will drive your decision Go back to portfolio analysis:
This is usually sales potential. Segment 1--50 calls x 50 customers = 2500 calls
Then classify all accounts based on that one factor Segment 2--30 calls x 40 customers = 1200 calls
Account with potential > $1 million is A account Segment 3--20 calls x 100 customers = 2000 calls
Account with potential > $500,000 but < $1 million is B Segment 4--6 calls x 300 customers = 1800 calls
account
Account with potential < $500,000 is C account
Need to make 7500 calls per year
Then make a judgment about how many sales calls each
category should receive Assume each salesperson can make 5 calls per day and
A account --one call per week, or 52 per year is in the field 200 days per year.
B account --one call per month, or 12 per year
C account--one call per quarter, or 4 per year Need 7.5 salespeople
127
Te rritory Size and Workload Factors TM 13 -8
Workload Factor Te rritory Size

Increase/Decrease
Nature of Job:
Lots of presale and post-sale activity Decreases
Nature of product:
A frequently purchased product Decreases
A limited repeat-sale Increases
Market development stage:
New market--fewer accounts Increases
Established market--more accounts Decreases
Market coverage
Selective coverage Increases
Extensive coverage Decreases
Com petition:
Intensive Decreases unless
market is oversaturated
Limited Increases
Questions
Q1. What do you mean by salesforce territory?
Q2. How do you determine Workload?
Q3. How does the workload factor affects the territory size?
128
LESSON 24
NEED FOR ESTABLISHMENT AND REVISION OF SALES TERRITORY
Learning Objectives volumes. Sales personnel spend fewer nights away from home,
To understand the reasons for establishing sales territory which reduces or eliminates many charges for lodging and food;
at the same time, cutting travel miles reduces transportation
To know about the procedure of setting sales territory
expenses.
Reasons for Establishing or Revising These savings, plus the higher sales volumes from increased
Sales Territories productive selling time, reduce the ratio of selling expenses to
Why establish sales territories? sales. In fact, even if dollar selling expenses remain unchanged,
Sales territories are set up, and subsequently revised as market the sales increase produced through proper market coverage
conditions dictate, to facilitate the planning and control of sales reduces the selling expense percentage.
operations. Reduced selling expense ratios do not, however, follow
More specifically, there are five reasons for having sales territo- automatically. If territorial planning is unsound or is not
ries: combined with appropriate assignments of sales personnel,
I. To provide proper market coverage. selling expense ratios increase. If the planner, for instance,
ignores normal travel routes and geographical barriers, sales
2. To control selling expenses.
personnel spend time traveling when they could be calling on
3. To assist in evaluating sales personnel. customers; this results in higher selling expenses and lower sales
4. To contribute to sales force morale. volumes.
5. To aid in the coordination of personal-selling and Nor should management overlook the possibility that dollar
advertising efforts. selling expenses may have to go up to obtain a lower selling
expense ratio. To secure larger sales volumes, sales personnel
Providing Proper Market Coverage
may have to incur additional expenses. Securing larger orders
Sometimes a company loses business to competitors because it
may require more frequent sales calls, which increases selling
does not have proper market coverage. Sales management has
expenses. Well-designed sales territories and appropriate
not matched selling efforts with sales opportunities effectively,
assignments of sales personnel increase the total time available
competitors have a better match, and they obtain the orders. To
for contact with customers and prospects, thus preparing the
overcome problems of this type, generally management must
ground for improved sales volumes.
establish sales territories, if the company does not have them,
or revise those that it has. If sales territories are set up intelli- Sales managements problem in controlling selling expenses is
gently and if assignments of sales personnel to them are not to minimize them but to obtain the best relation between
carefully made, it is possible to obtain proper market coverage. dollar selling expenses and dollar sales volumes. Short-term
Note that mere establishment or revision of the sales territories reductions in the selling expense ratio are not always desirable;
is not enough. The design of the territories should permit sales the long-term result is important, Rises in selling expenses may
personnel to cover them conveniently and economically. not be followed immediately by increased sales volumes and
Territories, in other words, should represent reasonable work higher sales volumes in the future. The intelligent setting up or
loads for the sales staff while assuring that all prospects that are revising of sales territories is one step management takes to see
potentially profitable can be contacted. that selling expense dollars are spent to the best advantage.
Good territorial design allows sales personnel to spend Assisting in Evaluating Sales Personnel
sufficient time with customers and prospects and minimizes Well-designed sales territories assist management in evaluating
time on the road. This permits them to become thoroughly sales personnel. Selling problems vary geographically, and the
conversant with customers problems and requirements. impact of competition differs widely. When the total market is
Successful selling is based upon helping customers solve their divided into territories, analysis reveals the companys strengths
problems, not just upon making sales or, even worse, upon and weaknesses in different areas, and appropriate adjustments
taking orders. Well-designed sales territories, combined with can then be made in selling strategies. Through analyzing the
appropriate sales force assignments, result in calls upon market territory by territory and pinpointing sales and cost
different classes of customers and prospects at needed frequen- responsibility to individual sales personnel, management has
cies. Call regularity is important selling products purchased on a the information it needs to set quotas and to evaluate each
repeat basis, and persistence turns many a prospect into a salespersons performance against them.
regular account.
Contributing to Soles Force Morale
Controlling Selling Expenses Good territorial designs help in maintaining sales force morale.
Good territorial design combined with careful salesperson Well-designed territories ire convenient for sales personnel to
assignment results in low selling expenses and high sales cover; they represent reasonable-sized work loads, and sales
129
personnel find that their efforts produce results. All are
responsible for achieving given levels of performance within Procedure for Designing Sales Territorie
Territoriess
their own territories so all know what management expects of
them. Results that come from each sales territory are correlated
Determine
with the efforts of individual sales personnel. Good territory Se lect a Determine Location
Control Unit and Potential of tentativeTerritori
design plus intelligent salesperson assignment help to make es
Customers
each person as productive as possible and make for high
earnings, self- confidence, and job satisfaction. Morale is high
also because there are few conflicting claims of sales personnel
to the same accounts-when sales territories are not used, there
are numerous conflicts. Even with well-designed sales territo-
ries, some conflicts arise, because some customers trans4ct Adjusting for coverage difficulty and redistributing
tentative territories
business in more than one territory, but well-designed territo-
ries reduce the magnitude of the problem.. Finally, sales force
morale is high because excellence; in planning territories and
making territorial assignments causes sales personnel to spend
Selecting a Basic Geographical Control Unit
minimum time on the road.
The starting point in territorial planning is the selection of a
Aiding in Coordination of Personal Selling and basic geographical control unit. The most commonly used
Advertising control units are counties, Zip code numbers, cities, standard
Management may set up sales territories or revise existing metropolitan statistical areas, trading areas, and states. Sales
territorial arrangements to improve the coordination of territories are put together as consolidations of basic geographi-
personal selling or advertising efforts. In most situations, cal control units.
personal selling or advertising alone cannot accomplish the There are two reasons for selecting a small control unit.
entire selling task efficiently or economically. By blending
One reason is to realize an important benefit of using territo-
personal selling and advertising, management takes advantage
ries, the precise geographical identification of sales potential. If
of a synergistic effect (the 2 + 2 = 5 effect) and obtains a
the control unit is too large, areas with low sales potentials are
performance greater than the sum of its parts.
hidden by inclusion with areas having high sales potentials, and
Sales personnel play key roles in capitalizing upon synergistic areas with high sales potentials are obscured by inclusion with
opportunities. Prior to launching an advertising campaign for a those having low sales potentials.
new consumer product, for example, sales personnel call upon
The second reason is that these units remain relatively stable
dealers to outline the marketing plans objectives, provide them
and unchanging, making it possible to redraw territorial
with tie-in displays and other promotional materials, and make
boundaries easily by redistributing control units among
certain that adequate supplies of the product are on hand in the
territories. If, for example, a company wants to add to Joness
retail outlets. Territorial assignments make every dealer the
territory and reduce Smiths adjoining territory, it is easier to
responsibility of some salesperson, and proper routing ensures
transfer county-sized rather than state-sized control units.
that sales personnel contact all dealers at appropriate times
relative to the breaking of the consumer advertising campaign. Counties: In the United States, the county is the most widely
In some cases, the manufacturers marketing plan calls for used geographical control unit. The county is small enough to
dealers to share in the costs of advertising the product; here, prevent the obscuring of areas with high and low sales poten-
again, sales personnel sell such cooperative programs to tials, and statistical information on the more than, 3,000
dealers. In situations where sales personnel do work related to counties in the United States is readily available. This makes it
the advertising effort, the results are more satisfactory if the inexpensive to develop market and sales potentials on a county-
work is delegated on a territory-by-territory basis rather than for by-county basis. Further- more, the county typically is the
the entire market. smallest unit for which governmental sources report statistical
data. The county is a smaller market division than the typical
Procedures for Setting up or Revising sales territory, so a company using counties as control units can
Sales Territories build up or revise sales territories without collecting new data
In setting up or in revising sales territories, there are four steps: on potentials.
1. Selecting a basic geographical control unit. Zip code areas: A basic geographical unit increasingly used by
2. Determining sales potentials in control units. U.S. companies is the Zip code area. There are more than 33,000
Zip code areas in the United States, so the typical Zip code area
3. Combining control units into tentative territories.
is smaller than the typical county.
4. Adjusting for coverage difficulty and redistributing
tentative territories. Using Zip code areas as the basic geographical units has
advantages. The Zip code areas generally reflect economic
characteristics of the areas-in marked contrast to counties, cities,
and states, which represent political subdivisions. The Zip code
system permits a precise definition of markets according to
130
economic and demographic characteristics. Each Zip code area is consumers buy work clothes and routine supplies in the nearest

a convenient unit for which to collect data on market and sales small towns, but they go to regional shopping malls or larger
potentials. cities to shop for dress clothing, and even farther to buy
Cities: When a companys sales potential is located entirely, or expensive furniture or jewelry. Each such location is the focal
almost entirely, in urbanized areas, the city is used as the control point for a trading area, at least for products customarily
unit, although, in some cases, both the city and the surround- purchased there. Trading areas for products purchased fre-
ing county (or counties outside the city) are used as twin quently and routinely are much smaller in size, and consequently
control units. The city rarely is fully satisfactory as a control unit, more numerous, than are those for luxury products.
inasmuch as most grow beyond their political boundaries. For Precise delineation of trading areas requires primary research
many products, suburbs adjacent to cities possess sales into, and quantification of, customers buying habits and
potentials at least as great as those in the cities themselves, and, preferences. Considerable expense is involved in dividing
in addition, they can often be covered by the same sales market and sales potentials for counties or other political
personnel at little additional cost. subdivisions among two or more trading areas. Consequently,
Metropolitan statistical areas: Companies whose markets most companies using trading areas as control units adjust
have expanded beyond city limits and into suburbs and satellite trading-area boundaries to county lines.
cities find the Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA) a good choice States: States, as basic geographical control units, provide a
for basic geographical control unit. An MSA is a geographic area rough basis for subdividing the national market. There are two
with a large population nucleus together with adjacent commu- situations in which the fixing of territorial boundary lines along
nities that have a high degree of economic and social integration the borders of states is justifiable. One is the company with a
with that nucleus. An area is designated an MSA in one of two small sales force covering the market extensively rather than
ways: intensively; there are only a few customers and prospects, but
1. If there is a city of at least 50,000 population they are all across the nation. The other situation is the company
first seeking national distribution, which assigns its sales
2. If there is an urbanized area of at least 50,000 population
personnel to territories consisting of one or more states as a
with a total metropolitan population of at least 100,000.
temporary expedient. As soon as feasible, a change is made to a
MSAs are defined in terms of entire counties smaller control unit. The main difficulty in using states as basic
Because the MSA definition is in terms of counties, the control units is that they are political rather than economic
tremendous amount of statistical data available for the counties subdivisions
themselves may also be tapped. If the planner is willing to
Determining Sales Potential in Each Control Unit
accept the definition and boundaries for each metropolitan
The next step is to determine the sales potential present in each
statistical area, it is easy to secure data for use in estimating sales
central unit. The territorial planner needs some way to measure
potentials. In fact, because the definition is in terms of whole
sales potentials, which, you will recall, represent the maximum
counties, the planner is free to add to or subtract from the
possible sales opportunities open to a specific company selling a
official roster of metropolitan statistical areas.
good or service during a stated future period to particular
Trading areas: A logical choice for a geographical control unit is market segments. For the present purpose, substitute a
the trading area, since it is based upon the natural flow of trade. particular control unit for a particular market segment, in
Formally defined, a trading area consists of the geographical other words, each control unit is a particular geographical market
region surrounding a city that serves as the dominant retail or segment. Geographical market segments, like all market
wholesale center or both for the region. The trading-area segments, are made up of present and prospective customers,
concept recognizes that consumers, retailers, and wholesalers so the territorial planner must identify the buyers of the
pay scant attention to political boundaries in deciding where to product as precisely as possible. A vague identification such as,
buy. Consumers, for example, regard convenience and the Our product is bought by women, is not sufficient. But if it
merchandise selection available as key factors in deciding where can be determined that Our product is bought almost entirely
to shop. Shopping across political boundaries is common, by middle aged, lower-income women living in cities, a more
especially where population concentrations are close to state precise description of the buyers comprising the market is
lines and where suburban areas have spread into counties obtained. Formal market identification studies may be necessary.
surrounding cities. Many consumer products, including most
Sometimes, sales personnel supply information, but it is not
specialties and shopping goods, are available almost entirely in
necessarily usable. For example, a sales force calling only on
large regional shopping malls. So residents of small towns and
wholesalers has little contact with retailers or consumers. Even
rural areas must travel to these malls (or, of course, order by
when sales personnel sell to final buyers, as in marketing many
mail or phone). Increasingly, too, residents of the older areas of
industrial goods, they may neglect certain classes of prospects
cities, when they are in the market for these items, go to
and be able to provide only partial identification of possible
outlying shopping malls. The main problems in using trading
buyers. When there is no direct contact with final buyers, formal
areas as control units are defining them and estimating sales
marketing research studies obtain precise identification of all
potentials.
classes of final buyers.
Depending upon the product, both retail and wholesale trading
Having identified potential buyers, the planner next determines
areas vary in size and shape and change over time. Rural
the sales potential in each control unit. The planner ascertains
131
how many potential buyers in each class there are in each control combines only control units contiguous to each other; indi-
unit and the unitss total market potential. Then the planner vidual control units are not split into different territories, even
estimates the portion of the units market potential that the if this results in tentative territories with different total sales
company has an opportunity to obtain (that is, the sales potentials.
potential). Territory shape: The planner now considers territory shape.
Market potentials are generally converted into sales potentials by The shape of a - territory affects both selling expenses and ease
analyzing historical market shares within each control unit, of sales coverage. In addition, if the shape of a territory permits
adjusting for changes in company and competitors selling the salesperson to minimize time on the road, shape contrib-
strategies and practices, and arriving at estimates. Having made utes to sales force morale. Three shapes are in wide use the
these estimates, the territorial planner ascertains those control wedge, the circle, and the clover leaf (see Figure 24.1).
units with sufficient sales potential to justify sales coverage. For The wedge is appropriate for territories containing both urban
the manufacturer with mass distribution, this is not a problem. and nonurban areas. It radiates out from densely populated
Mass marketers provide sales coverage in every control unit, urban center. Wedges, of course, can be in many sizes (up to
regardless of how little sales potential it represents, because just under 360 degrees). Travel time among adjoining wedges
maximum sales exposure is crucial to marketing success. Many can be equalized by balancing urban and nonurban calls.
manufacturers, however, provide sales coverage only in those
The circle is appropriate when accounts and prospects are evenly
control units containing sufficient sales potential to assure
distributed throughout the area. The salesperson assigned to
profitable operations, and for most manufacturers, there are
the circular-shaped territory is based at some point near the
some control units where selling costs are excessive. This is true
center, making for greater uniformity in frequency of calls on
of numerous industrial-goods producers, such as those selling
customers and prospects. This also makes the salesperson
machine tools and mining equipment. (Studies of industrial-
nearer to more of the customers than is possible with a wedge-
goods markets show that over 90 percent of U.S.
shaped territory.
manufacturing is done in approximately 650 of the 3,000
counties.) It is also true of most producers of consumer The clover leaf is desirable when accounts are located randomly
shopping and specialty goods; the bulk of the market lies in a through a territory. Careful planning of call schedules results in
small number of market areas. each cloverleaf being a weeks work, making it possible for the
salesperson to be home weekends. Home base for the salesper-
Combining Control Units into Tentative Territories son assigned to the territory is near the center. Clover-leaf
The planner next combines units into tentative sales territories. territories are more common among industrial marketers than
This is only a tentative arrangement because, as explained later, they are among consumer marketers and among companies
subsequent adjustments must be made for relative coverage cultivating the market extensively rather than intensively.
difficulty. At this stage, the planner assumes that no significant
Figure 24.1 Shapes of Sales Territories in Wide Use:
differences in the physical or other characteristics of individual
control units exist. The purpose is to obtain a first approxima-
tion of sales territories, by combining contiguous control
units into tentative territories, each containing approximately
the same sales potential.
At this point, however, the planner decides the number of
territories, and this, assuming that all sales personnel are of Adjusting for Differences in Coverage Difficulty and
average ability, is identical to deciding sales force size. Basically, Redistricting Tentative Territories
the planner estimates the percentage of total sales potential that The final step is to redistrict the tentative territories through
the average salesperson should realize. Analysis of past sales adjusting for coverage difficulty. The tentative territories each
experience helps in making this estimate, which, once made, is contain approximately the same sales potential, but, almost
used to determine the number of territories. In effect the certainly, territories with nearly equal sales potentials require
planner estimates the sales productivity per sales personnel unit different selling efforts and, in turn, selling expense totals. Now
and divides it into the total estimated sales potential, thus it is time to remove the unrealistic assumption that no differ-
arriving at the number of sales personnel units-and territories- ences in the characteristics of geographical control units exist.
required. Assume that management estimates that an average Significant differences in physical and other characteristics make
salesperson should realize $2,500,000 of a total sales potential providing sales coverage more difficult for some control units
of $25 million-ten territories and ten units ($25,000,000/ than for others. Certain large cities, for instance, have greater
$2,500,000) of sales personnel are required. When these sales potentials for most products than some states, but the
estimates and this calculation have been made, contiguous time required to contact customers and prospects in cities is
control units are combined into tentative territories of roughly much less, and the same is true of selling expenses. The
equal sales potential. To simplify this step, sales potentials for optimum territorial arrangement is reached when incremental
control units are expressed as percentages of total sales poten- sales per dollar of selling expenditures are equated among all
tial. In the example, then, control units are grouped into ten territories.2 In working toward this ideal, both sales potential
tentative territories, each containing, about 10 percent of the and coverage difficulty are taken into account. And, as
sales potential. Throughout this grouping process, the planner
132
J. G. Hauk writes, It is only coincidental if equal potential profitable order sizes also provide input to the decision on

territories achieve the optimum. As the planner adjusts for call frequencies.
differences in coverage difficulty, control units are taken away 5. Calculate the number of calls possible within a given
from some tentative territories and added to others. The final period. This is a matter of simple arithmetic. To determine
territorial arrangement almost certainly is one in which different the number of calls per day in a certain control unit, the
territories contain different sales potentials. average amount of time required for each call is added to
H.R. Wellmitn, The Distribution of Selling Effort Among the average time between calls and divided into the number
Geographic Areas, Joumal of Maruting, 3, no. 3 (January of working hours in the day. Adjustments are made when
1939), pp. 225-41. 3J.G. Hauk, Research in Personal Selling, in call lengths vary for different classes of customers and
G. Schwartz (ed.), ScWnce in Maruting(New York: john Wiley. prospects.
1965), p. 238, 6. Adjust the number of calls possible during a given period
Redistricting to adjust for coverage difficulty (that is, differences by the desired call frequencies for the different classes of
in work loads) is a seven-step procedure: customers and prospects. This results in an estimate for
1. Determine number, location, and size of customers and the total work load represented by the control units in each
prospects in each tentative territory. Customers are tentative territory. Further adjustments are made to assure
identified and located through sales records; prospects that the work load in any territory is not larger than the
through trade directories, subscription lists to trade allowable maximum and that selling expenses are within
publications, classified directories, and credit-reporting budget limits. The planner shifts control its among
agencies. Size is measured in terms of sales potential. different tentative territories, adding units to some by
taking them away from adjacent territories. Each shift
2. Estimate time required for each sales call. This varies
brings the territorial arrangement closer to the optimum-
from account to account and from prospect to prospect, so
that is, closer to one in which incremental sales per dollar
customers and prospects are classified into groups,
of selling expenditures are equated among all territories.
estimating an average time per call for each group. Time
and duty analyses of sales personnel are used to check these 7. Finally, check out the adjusted territories with sales
estimates. personnel who work or who have worked in each area, and
make further adjustments as required. Personnel familiar
3. Determine length of time between calls that is the
with customer service requirements, competitive
amount of time required to travel from one customer to
conditions, and the topography, roads, and travel
the next. This varies among regions depending on the
conditions may point out weaknesses not obvious to the
density of customers and prospects and the condition of
planner. These cause further shifting of control units from
roads and transportation facilities. Particular attention is
paid to physical characteristics. Large rivers, lakes,
mountains, and other barriers to travel make natural and
necessary territorial boundaries. The number of places
where a large mountain range can be crossed by automobile
are limited and often considerable time is consumed in the
crossing. The same is true of large rivers, lakes, bays, and so
forth. Transportation facilities are as important as physical
characteristics. If travel is by automobile, territories are
planned so that driving is mainly on primary, all- weather
roads, with minimum cross-tracking. If public
transportation facilities such as commercial airlines are used,
territories are planned with an eye on locations of air
terminals. The planner interrelates and balances differences
in sales potential, physical geographical characteristics, and
transportation facilities and routes. After sketching in on a
map the tentative territorial division according to roughly
equal sales potentials, the planner makes adjustments after
superimposing maps showing topographic and
transportation features.
4. Decide call frequencies within certain control units,
some or all customer and prospect classes require call
frequencies that differ from those in other control units.
Differences in the strength of competition require
variations in call frequency rates. Similarly, call frequency
rates are influenced by the market acceptance of the product
line within control units. Cost studies on minimum
133
Points to Ponder
Shapes of Sales Territories in

W id e U se:
Why establish sales territories?
(I) To provide proper market coverage.
(2) To control selling expenses.
(3) To assist in evaluating sales personnel.
(4) To contribute to sales force morale.
(5) To aid in the coordination of personal -
selling and advertising efforts.
Procedure
Procedure for Designing Sales Territories Ad justing for Differences in Coverage Difficulty and
Redistricting Tentative Territories
Determine Determ ine number, location, and size of customers and prospects in
Select a Determine Location each tentative territory
Control Unit and Potential of tentativeTerritori
es Estimate time required for each sales call
Customers
Determ ine length of tim e between calls that is the amount of time
required to travel from one customer to the n e x t
Decide call frequencies
Calculate the number of calls' possible within a given period.
Adjust the number of calls' possible during a given period by the
desired call frequencies for the different classes of customers and
prospects
Adjusting for coverage difficulty and redistributing Finally, check out the adjusted territories with sales
tentative territories personnel who work or who have worked in each area,
and make further adjustments as required
134
Questions

Q1. What are the reasons to establish sales territories?
Q2. What are control units?
Q3. How do you determine sales potential for establishing
sales territories?
Q4. What are the different shapes of sales territories?
135
LESSON 25
ASSIGNMENT OF SALES PERSONNEL TO TERRITORIES
Learning Objectives personnel. These companies, in effect, design sales territories

To understand how salespeople are assigned to territories around, and to fit, the abilities of sales personnel.
To know the different routing patterns At the opposite extreme, management in a few companies is
free to assign any salesperson to any territory, designing
In this lesson we will study about how the sales personnel are
territories (according to procedures like those discussed earlier)
allotted to territories.
and closely aligning salespeoples ability levels with territorial
Deciding Assignment of Sales Personnel sales opportunity levels. Management shifts sales personnel to
to Territories predestined territories where their relative profit contributions
When the arrangement is the best obtainable, it is time to are maximized.
assign sales personnel to territories. Up to this point in The situation in most companies is somewhere between the
territorial planning, an implicit assumption has been that all two extremes. For various reasons, some totally outside
sales personnel are average, that is, that all are interchangeable, managements control, certain sales personnel are not transfer-
each capable of producing similar results at similar costs able, but others are freely moved from one territory to another.
regardless of territorial assignments. Clearly, this is an unrealistic This means that management designs some sales territories to
assumption, adopted only for territorial planning purposes, fit the ability levels of nontransferable sales personnel while
and one that is discarded when sales personnel are assigned to reassigning other sales personnel with ability levels appropriate
territories. Few sales personnel are averagethey vary in ability, to sales territories redesigned according to the suggested
initiative, and effectiveness as well as in physical condition and procedures.
energy. What constitutes a reasonable and desirable work load
for one individual may not be appropriate for another person. Illustration of Assigning Sales Personnel to Territories:
Furthermore, salespersons effectiveness varies with the territory Now let us work through several situations involving assign-
assigned. One person is outstanding in one territory and a ment of sales personnel to territories, our purpose being to
failure in a second, even though territorial sales potentials and demonstrate that, where practical, effective sales management
coverage difficulty factors are almost identical. Performance, assigns each salesperson to the territory where his or her relative
moreover, is conditioned by customer characteristics, customs profit contribution is maximized.
and traditions, ethnic influences, and the like. Dyadic interac- First, consider the situation in which territories have equal sales
tions, with customers and prospects, in other words, vary in potential and coverage difficulty, but the sales personnel differ in
their outcomes from one territory to another depending on ability. Figure 25.1picts this situation. Predicted sales are
many factors, most of them outside the salespersons control. obtained by multiplying each territorys dollar potential by the
In assigning sales personnel to territories, management seeks ability index of the salesperson assigned. Predicted profit
the most profitable alignment of selling efforts with sales contributions are assumed to amount to 25 percent of
opportunities. The territories, containing varying sales poten- predicted sales. The. total profit contribution is $312,500, the
tials, represent different amounts of sales opportunity. The maximum attainable here regardless of how the sales personnel
sales personnel, differing in ability and potential effectiveness, are assigned.
represent the range of available selling talent. Management Figure 25.1 Assignment of Sales Personnel to Territories
should Assign each salesperson to the particular territory of Equal Potential
where his or her relative contribution to profit is the highest.
Hauk, Research in Personal Selling, pp. 241-42. Territory Dollar Salesperson Ability Predicted Predicted
Potential Assigned Index Sales Profit
The general guide for assigning sales personnel to territories is Contribution
(25 % of
not universally applicable because the discretion that manage- sales)
ment has in making these decisions differs from company to A $ 500,000 1 1.0 $ 500,000 $ 125,000
company. At one extreme, some companies display great B 500,000 2 0.8 400,000 100,000
reluctance to transfer sales personnel to different territories, 500,000
management fearing not only sales force resistance but the C 3 0.7 350, 000 87,500
consequences of breaking established salesperson-customer

relationships. These companies adhere to a no transfer or Total $ $ $ 328,500
1,500,000 1,250,000
infrequent transfer policy and build restrictions on shifting
sales personnel into territorial designs. The planner expands or
contracts territorial boundaries, adding to or subtracting from Now suppose that these territories are redesigned so that their
individual territorial sales potentials, until territories contain sales potentials vary in direct proportion with the ability of the
sales potentials appropriate to the abilities of assigned sales sales personnel assigned, with the same total dollar potential as
136
before ($1.5 million). The results of this assignment pattern are reasonable to expect any salesperson, regardless of ability, to

shown in Figure 25.2Redesigning territories so that sales assume. Then, too, selling expenditures do not fluctuate directly
potentials are directly proportional to abilities of assigned sales with predicted sales volumes throughout all sales volume
personnel increases the predicted profit contribution by $7,000 ranges. They may rise more or less in proportion to sales
(from $312,500 to $319,500). volume increases, but after a certain point is reached, the rate of
But what is the predicted profit contribution if total sales rise accelerates greatly (that is, as the difficulty of making sales
potential is divided some other way? After all, the number of becomes increasingly greater), and they may decline proportion-
possible ways of dividing it is very large. Consider Figure ately to sales volume decreases until a minimum .level is reached
25.3which shows a different division of the $1.5 million sales (where potential sales are no longer large enough to support
potential; sales personnel, however, are still assigned territories needed selling expenditures). Work load restrictions, in other
in rank order of their respective abilities. words, confine the uniformity of variation of selling expendi-
tures within fairly narrow limits.
Again there is an increase in the predicted profit contribution,
this one even more impressive than in the preceding example. The optimum territorial arrangement is reached when the
However, it is unlikely that this is a feasible territorial division incremental sales produced per dollar of selling expenditures are
and salespersons assignment plan. The coverage difficulty and equated among all territories. After a sales territory reaches a
associated work load now involved in covering territory A certain size in terms of sales potential, adding successive
would likely exceed salesperson 1 s capacity to perform; thus, ls increments of sales potential is feasible only up to the point at
ability index should be lowered. Similarly, territories Band C which the last dollar of selling expenditures just brings in
now have such greatly reduced sales potentials (which means sufficient sales to provide a dollar of profit contribution. A
that their coverage difficulty is less than before) that probably company seeking the optimum territorial arrangement generally
neither would represent sufficient work loads for salesperson 2 concludes that it is wise to cut off additional selling expendi-
or 3. tures before reaching this point of feasibility. This is because
the best condition requires the equating among all territories of
Figure 25.2Assignment of Sales Personnel to Territories
the incremental sales produced by the last dollar of selling
Containing Sales Potentials Proportionate to Salespersons
expenditures in each.
Ability
Thus far, an implicit assumption has been that ability indexes
do not change with assignment of sales personnel. However,
Territory Dollar Salesperson Ability Predicted Predicted
Potential Assigned Index Sales Profit
sales personnel have different degrees of effectiveness in
Contribution different territories, because environmental forces condition
(25 % of selling performance. It is not realistic, in other words, to assume
sales) that ability indexes for individual sales personnel are fixed
A $ 1 1.0 $ $ 150,000
600,000 600,000 regardless of the territorial assignment.
B 2 0.8 96,000 Consider, then, a situation where sales personnel maintain their
480,000 384,000
C 420,000 3 0.7 73,500 rank order according to ability indexes as they are switched
294, 000 among territories but where the indexes change. With the
assignment pattern 1A, 2B, 3C, the respective ability indexes
Total $ $ $ 319,500 might be 1.0, 0.8, and 0.7 (as in Figure 25.2, for example), but
1,500,000 1,278,000 with the assignment I B, 2A, 3C, the respective ability indexes
could be 1.0, 0.9, af\d 0.7-salesperson I in this situation
FIGURE 25.3 Assignment of Sales Personnel to ability to performs better than salesperson 2 regardless of the assign-
Territories Containing Different Sales Potentials ment. Using the basic data in Figure 25.2 the results of the
IB-2A-3C assignment are shown in Figure 25.4. This assign-
ment pattern results in a higher total profit contribution than
Territory Dollar Salesperson Ability Predicted Predicted
Potential Assigned Index Sales Profit that secured by assigning sales personnel to territories strictly in
Contribution accord with their abilities (that is, $328,500 versus $319,500).
(25 % of
sales) FIGURE 25.4Assignment of Sales Personnel to Territories
A $ 1 1.0 $ $ 250,000 where Ability Indexes Vary with the Assignment
1,000,000 1,000,000
B 2 0.8 60,000 Territory Dollar Salesperson Ability Predicted Predicted Profit
300,000 240,000 Potential Assigned Index Sales Contribution
C 200,000 3 0.7 35,500 (25 % of sales)
140, 000 A $ 2 0.9 $ 540,000 $ 135,000
600,000
Total $ $ $ 345,000 B 1 1.0 480,000 120,000
1,500,000 1,380,000 480,000
C 420,000 3 0.7 294, 000 73,500
There are upper and lower limits to the amount of sales Total $ $ ,314,000 $ 328,500
1,500,000
potential to incorporate in anyone territory. These limits are set
by coverage difficulty and the size of the work load that it is
137
Thus in some territorial designs, the best salesperson should not only towns and cities and transportation routes but
not necessarily be assigned to the territory with the highest sales trading-area boundaries, mountain ranges, lakes, bridges, and
potential, and in some, a salesperson should not necessarily be ferry lines. If sales personnel are to travel by air, airport locations
assigned to the one territory where his or her profit contribu- need spotting. The route, or routes, finally laid out should
tion is higher than that of any other salesperson who might be permit the salesperson to return home at least on weekends.
assigned to the same territory. Each salesperson should be If the route planner considers the desired call frequency rate for
assigned to the territory where his or her relative contribution to each customer on the route, the call schedule is a by-product of
profit is the highest. In Figure 25.4 salesperson 1 could make a setting up the route. In most cases, however, making up the call
higher dollar profit contribution than salesperson 2 in territory schedule is more than planning the route. Customers and
A, but 1 contributes more, relative to 2, when assigned to prospects are segregated according to the desired call frequency
territory B. Similarly, salesperson 2s inferiority relative to rate. Using detailed maps, the planner identifies the locations of
salesperson 1 is less when 2 has territory A, not territory B. members of each customer and prospect group and reconciles
Ability indexes change with different assignment patterns; the route with these locations. Hence, often the salesperson has
consequently, management estimates ability indexes for each a different route each time he or she travels the territory, to
possible assignment pattern. The large number of possible achieve the desired call frequencies and to incorporate new
assignment patterns makes complex the task of achieving an customers and prospects into the itinerary. Furthermore,
ideal assignment. When twelve salespeople are to be assigned to because changes occur in account classifications, prospects,
twelve territories, for example, there are 12! (that is 479,001,600) competitive activity, as well as in road conditions, it is impractical
possible patterns. It would be possible, although not practical, to set up fixed route and call schedules good for long periods.
to write down all 479,001,600 assignment. patterns and select Routing and scheduling plans reduce wasted time by sales
the one providing the maximum profit contribution; fortu- personnel. Much backtracking, travel time and other
nately, however, the assignment linear programming technique nonselling time is eliminated, and scheduled call frequency is
and the computer afford a rapid and less laborious way to find to fit customers needs. Effective routing and scheduling
the solution. But even this technique requires estimates for the automatically builds up the size of the average order.
probable net profit contribution for each salesperson for each
In scheduling sales personnel, some firms not only designate
possible assignment pattern, and this requires not only
the customers to call upon each day but prescribe the time of
knowledge of the nature and peculiarities of each territory, but
day to make each call. Detailed scheduling is coupled with a
insight on how each salesperson might perform in each
system for making advance appointments. Companies not
territorial environment.
using scheduling plans usually suggest advance appointments,
Strictly speaking, of course, the planner might now reapportion but often salespeople ignore this suggestion. For effective
the total sales potential among the three territories in direct detailed scheduling the scheduler needs current information on
proportion to the revised ability indexes of the sales personnel time required for each call, probable waiting time at each stop,
assigned to each, thus obtaining a still further increase in the travel time between calls, and the probable time with each
total profit contribution. The perceptive reader will see that this customer. This information is difficult to collect and update.
reapportionment would involve making territory 8 a higher- Detailed scheduling is most feasible when customers give their
potential area than territory A. The resulting personnel full cooperation. Most firms allow their sales personnel time
assignment pattern, then, would be one in which the best cushions to allow for the many variations met on each selling
salesperson (no. I) would have the territory with the highest trip.
sales potential (now territory B), but note carefully that each
Companies, almost without exception, benefit from systematic
salesperson still would be assigned to the territory where his or
routing and scheduling, but not all find detailed scheduling
her relative contribution to profit is the highest.
feasible. The petroleum marketing companies, and other firms
Let us now see how sales personnel can plan their calls in order with combination driver-salespersons, use detailed routing and
to save time and increase the market coverage. scheduling plans successfully, as do several large pharmaceutical
Routing and Scheduling Sales Personnel manufacturers. Less detailed routing and scheduling plans are
Routing and scheduling plans aim to maintain the lines of used by wholesalers of groceries, drugs, and hardware. Detailed
communication, to optimize sales coverage and minimize scheduling plans are appropriate in trades typified by frequent
wasted time. When management is informed at all times of calls, great homogeneity among customers, short travel time
salespersons whereabouts in the field-or at least knows where between calls, and highly standardized products not requiring
they should be-it is easy to contact them to provide needed large amounts of creative selling time-that is, in situations
information or last-minute instructions. Chances are good that where trade selling predominates.
sales personnel will be where they are supposed to be. The size of the territory and geographic layout determine the
Routing and scheduling plans improve sales coverage. The type of the route. Sales personnel should lay out a travel route
mechanics of setting up a routing plan are simple, but in so that they can start from their home in the morning and
working out the plan, detailed information is required on the return in the evening. Remember critical factor is time and not
numbers and locations of customers, the means and methods miles. In some cases using major nonstop highways may
of transportation connecting customer concentrations, and increase miles but total travel time may decrease. The actual
desired call frequency rates. Detailed maps are needed showing route the salespeople follow each day within each section can
138
help maximize their use of daily prime selling hours. They The routing patterns shown above helps sales personnel

should make long drives usually in the morning and in late economise time. In clover leaf pattern the sale personnel is
afternoon, if possible. For example if most of their accounts placed in the middle and start in the morning and tries to cover
are strung out more or less in a straight line from their home maximum number of accounts in a day in the fashion shown
base they should get up early and drive to the far end of the in the figure. In major city patter also the sales personnel
territory before making the first call. They would then work should cover one area at a time since it represents the different
their way back, so they end up near home at the end of the day. industrial areas.
Routing, scheduling, and control: The routing plan, the
scheduling plan, or both assist sales management in obtaining
Straight-Line Pattern closer control over sales personnels movements and time
expenditures. The routing and scheduling plans are integral
parts of the overall process of establishing sales territories and
assigning sales personnel. Any routing or scheduling plan
should have frequent checkups to detect needed adjustments.
First call
Call reports are compared with route and call schedules to
c determine whether plans are followed. Variations or discrepan-
cies are noted and sales personnel asked for explanations.
Adherence to the plans is also enforced through frequent and
c c c unannounced visits to the field by supervisors or branch sales
managers
Work back
Reasons Companies May Not
Develop
and Use Sales Territories
Cloverleaf Pattern Sales people may be more motivated if
not restricted by a territory
c c
Company may be too small to be
c c
concerned with segmenting the market
c c into small areas
c c c c
c c May not have the time or knowledge
Base Personal friendships may be the basis for
c c
c c c c attracting customers
c c
Each leaf out and
c c
back the same day
c c
Conclusion
In the last two lessons and this lesson we learnt about setting
up sales territories and assignment of sales personnel to these
territories. Setting up sales territories facilitates the planning and
Major City Pattern control of sales operations. Well-designed territories assist in
attempts to improve market coverage and customer service,
reduce selling expense ratios, secure coordination of personal
selling and advertising efforts, and improve the evaluation of
2 3 personnel performance.
Good territorial design is based upon thorough knowledge of
1 1 = Downtown sales potentials and differences in coverage difficulty. In
assigning sales personnel to territories, management seeks the
best alignment of selling efforts with sales opportunities, and
4 5 systematic plans for routing and scheduling sales personnel help
in accomplishing this. Since sales personnel vary in individual
effectiveness with the territories to which they are assigned,
management develops ability indexes for each possible assign-
ment pattern.
139
Points to Ponder
Major City Pattern

Deciding Assignment of Sales
Personnel to Territories
2 3
1 1 = Downtown
4 5
Straight-Line Pattern
First call
c
c c c
Work back
Reasons Companies May Not

Develop
and Use Sales Territories
Sales people may be more motivated if
not restricted by a territory
Company may be too small to be
concerned with segmenting the market
into small areas
May not have the time or knowledge
C loverleaf Pattern
Personal friendships may be the basis for
c c
attracting customers
c c
c c
c c c c
c c
Base
c c c c
c c
c c
E ach leaf out and
c c
back the same day
c c
140
Questions

Q1. One of your salespeople has come to you for help. He is
having trouble calling on his accounts. He says he feels his
territory is too large and spread out, and he feels as though
he is spending all his time in the car instead of making
sales calls. What steps you would take to help him develop
a more effective sales route?
Q2. How is sales personnel assigned to territories?
Q3. What ae the different types of routing patterns?
141
LESSON 26
IMPORTANCE OF CUSTOMER FEEDBACK BY SALES PERSONNEL
Learning Objectives The differentiating idea may be product, service, or channel

To understand the importance of feedback mechanism in related
sales. Keep an eye on how the competitors are positioning their
To use the feedback for increasing sales companies
How to build customer loyalty Below are some truth about customers
In this chapter we will study about how sales people can obtain Your organization chart is of no interest
feedback and how it can used by the management in taking They do not care about your problems
corrective action. The fact that you are trying hard has no impact
The salespeople are directly in contact with the customers so They are self-centered
they can obtain information from the market which will be
They always notice bad service
helpful to the organisation. Since personal selling involves face
to face interaction with the prospect a salesperson is in a Giving good service only counts if the customer thinks its
position to gather information from them. The information good service
may be about the product, organisation, competitors, likes and You must almost always ask to get feedback
dislikes, complain about the product etc. These information is Customer loyalty is fragile and fleeting
of use to the organisation as they can plan their selling strategy
Most bad attitudes are communicated by the wrong tone
accordingly.
of voice
There are three main pieces that need to be in place to have an
Dissatisfied customers tell up to 20 people about poor
effective Feedback System:
service
Mechanism for Feedback (i.e. complaint cards or a form )
Therefore it is important for sales people to get customer
The feedback from the customers can be taken by feedback. They should provide after sale service in order to
asking them to fill up a form, or salesperson can, after satisfy the customer.
interacting with them fill up a form. The mechanism
Using the Feedback
for feedback should be an easy and short process for a
Collecting information and feedback is the easy part. But actually
customer. Customers are unlikely to fill out a long
using it and implementing it is the key to being successful.
form.
Feedback Loop To apply the information:
Identify issues that need to change
The feedback loop should be a defined process that
allows the feedback from the customer to get in front Come up with solutions for change
of managers and decision makers. The importance of Implement the solution for change
feedback lies in the fact that message should reach Check up to see if solution is working
higher levels so that actions can be taken.
If not, find another solution!
Corrective Action
Remember the more feedback you use, the more success you
The corrective action should be the fix that is being will have.
instituted to correct the gaps in customer service that
All forms of feedback are helpful, so when using them, try to
have been identified i.e depending upon the customers
use more than just one kind of feedback to ensure and increase
response measures are taken to satisfy them.
the chances of success.
Sales persons should
Benefits of Using Feedback
Ask customers what about your organization is most
important to them create a position that meets those Increases sales
needs. Knowing what is important to your customers; and what
Ask about attitudes toward styles and models they really want and like. Makes your job easier.
Extent of brand loyalty Guarantees Continuous improvement of overall service
and production.
Willingness to pay a premium for superior quality
Creates loyal, enthusiastic, and happy customers.
Formulate a selling strategy around one simple factor that
is important to customers and sets you apart Making positive changes over time. Keeps employee moral
up.
142
Ensures good product development. may not make the final decision, but you are there at the end

Creates a competitive advantage. when it is made.
Recognize that there may be others in the buying process that
Building Customer Loyalty
should be made to feel appreciated. These people might also be
Dr. Ted Levitt, senior professor at Harvard Business School involved in the buying process, such as an assistant, a secretary
says that the function of every business is to get and keep or even a committee, but may not be the person or people you
customers. Consequently, it is also the function of every are dealing with day to day. Even if the assistant or secretary is
employee of every business to do the same. Knowing how to not involved in the buying decision, they are still part of the
keep existing customers happy is key to a companys continued team. Dont forget to show appreciation for these people as
success. well.
Studies have also proven that it is much more expensive to Create a demanding customer. Now, here is an interesting
attract a new customer to a business than to keep an existing concept! Creating a demanding customer means that if your
one. customer were to go to your competition, they would not just
So, what can we do to build customer loyalty to get that expect, but demand, the same level of service that they get from
customer to come back again and again? Here are six universal you. Anything less from the competition reinforces that the
points that will apply to any type of business. customer made the right choice to do business with you. In
other words, you have spoiled your customer. What may be
DonteverforgettosayTHANKS!It can be face to face, over
standard for you, is better than the competition. The competi-
the phone or via written thank you notes. Customers like to feel
tion will find your customer to be not just demanding, but
appreciated. Recently I bought some clothes from a local retail
perhaps a bit unreasonable.
store. Just a few days later I opened my mail and found a thank
you note from my salesman. Was I impressed? You bet. Will I Conclusion
go back? You bet. And, when I do, I will be looking for my In this lesson we discussed the importance of feedback system.
salesman. Salespeople can provide feedback from customers and can help
Find out if you are doing a good job, and if there are problems increase sales. They can build loyal customers through proper
react quickly. By the way, your customers will not likely tell you if after sales service.
there are problems. Numerous studies have shown that
complaining customers dont complain. TARP (Technical
Assistance Research Program) was commissioned by the White
House Office of Consumer Affairs to survey customer
satisfaction. They found that an average business only hears
from 4% of unhappy customers. The other 96% dont
complain at least not to the places they did business. While
the study was conducted a number of years ago, current
independent studies still show similar findings. Your ultimate
goal should be to try and find any problems before the
customer complains. The best way is for you to simply ask how
you are doing.
Make sure the customer knows they made the right decision to
do business with you. Educate and reinforce that they have
made a good choice. If you do something different than the
competition, make sure the customer knows about it. I
remember buying meat from a grocery store. The butcher
proudly held up the steak he was selling me and said, Look at
that! Is that a beautiful piece of meat or what? Did you know
that we trim the fat around the steak to just 1/8 of an inch.
You wont find that at the competition! Thanks for shopping
with us. These competitive differences need to be emphasized.
It is your opportunity to stand out.
Guarantee your products and/or services. Personally, stand
behind everything you do. A customer doesnt do business
with a company. They do business with the people who
represent the company. And, make sure the customer knows
you mean it. If there is a problem, dont just push it off to
someone else, better referred to as the Its Not My Department
reaction. If a customer has a problem, and you are the person
that received it, it is your responsibility to see it through. You
143
Points to Ponder
Benefits of Using Feedback

FEEDBACK SYSTEM Increases sales
Knowing what is important to your customers; and what
they really want and like. Makes your job easier.
Guarantees Continuous improvement of overall service
Mechanism for Feedback and production.
Creates loyal, enthusiastic, and happy customers.
Feedback Loop Making positive changes over time. Keeps employee
moral up.
Corrective Action Ensures good product development.
Creates a competitive advantage.
Questions
TRUTH ABOUT CUSTOMERS Q1. How is the feedback system formed?
Q2. How should feedback given by the customers should be
The truth about customers used,
Your organization chart is of no interest
They do not care about your problems Q3. What are the benefits of feedback?
The fact that you are trying hard has no impact
They are self-centered Q4. How customer loyalty can be build up?
They always notice bad service
Giving good service only counts if the customer thinks its good
service
You must almost always ask to get feedback
Customer loyalty is fragile and fleeting
Most bad attitudes are communicated by the wrong tone of voice
Dissatisfied customers tell up to 20 people about poor service
Therefore it is important for sales people to get customer feedback.
They should provide after sale service in order to satisfy the
customer.
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UNIT 4
DISTRIBUTION MANAGEMENT
LESSON 27 UNIT 7
WHAT IS MARKETING CHANNEL?
Learning Objective a. Wholesalers buy and resell products to other wholesalers,

To know what is marketing channel? to retailers, and to industrial customers.
To understand Nature of Marketing channel b. Retailers purchase products and resell them to ultimate
consumers.
Types of intermediaries.
3. Although distribution decisions need not precede other
Introduction to the contemporaries channel in India.
marketing decisions, they are a powerful influence on the
Now let us see what is marketing channel. rest of the marketing mix.
What is Marketing Channel? a. Channel decisions are critical because they determine a
A marketing channel is a set of interdependent organizations products market presence and buyers accessibility to the
involved in the process of making a product or service available product.
for use or consumption. b. Channel decisions have additional strategic significance
The definition bears some explication. It first points out that a because they entail long-term commitments. It is usually
marketing channel is a set of interdependent organizations. easier to change prices or promotion than to change
That is, a marketing channel is not just one firm doing its best marketing channels.
in the market whether that firm is a manufacturer, whole-
B. Marketing Channels Create Utility
saler, or retailer. Rather, many entities are typically involved in
Marketing channels create three types of utility: time, place, and
the business of channel marketing. Each channel member
possession.
depends on the others to do their jobs.
1. Time utilitycreated by having products available when the
What are their jobs? The definition makes clear that running a
customer wants them
marketing channel is a process. It is not an event. Distribu-
tion frequently takes time to accomplish, and even when a sale is 2. Place utilitycreated by making products available in
finally made, the relationship with the end-user is usually not locations where customers wish to purchase them
over. 3. Possession utilitycreated by the customer having access to
For example, think about an end user purchasing a microwave the product to use or to store for future use
oven and it demands for post sale service. 4. Channel members sometimes create form utility by
Finally, what is the purpose of this process? The definition assembling, preparing, or otherwise refining the product to
claims that it is making a product or service available for use or suit individual customer tastes.
consumption. That is, the purpose of channel marketing is to C. Marketing Channels Facilitate Exchange
satisfy the end-users in the market, be they consumers or final Efficiencies
business buyers. Their goal is the use or consumption of the
1. Marketing intermediaries can reduce the costs of exchanges
product or service being sold. A manufacturer who sells
by efficiently performing certain services or functions.
through distributors to retailers, who serve final consumers,
Intermediaries provide valuable assistance because of their
may be tempted to think that it has generated sales and
access to, and control over, important resources used in the
developed happy customers when its sales force successfully
proper functioning of marketing channels.
places a product in the distributors warehouses. This definition
argues otherwise. It is of critical importance that all channel 2. Despite these efficiencies, the press, consumers, public
members focus their attention on the end-user. officials, and other marketers freely criticize intermediaries,
especially wholesalers.
The Nature of Marketing Channels
a. Critics accuse wholesalers of being inefficient and parasitic.
A. Marketing Channel Concepts b. Buyers often wish to make the distribution channel as
1. A marketing channel (also called a channel of distribution) short as possible, assuming that the fewer the
is a group of individuals and organizations that directs the intermediaries, the lower the price will be.
flow of products from producers to consumers. The major c. Because suggestions to eliminate them come from both
role of marketing channels is to make products available at ends of the marketing channel, wholesalers must be careful
the right time at the right place in the right quantities. to perform only those marketing activities that are truly
2. Some marketing channels are directfrom producer straight desired.
to customerbut most channels have marketing 3. Critics who suggest that eliminating wholesalers would
intermediaries that link producers to other middlemen or lower customer prices do not recognize that this would not
to ultimate consumers through contractual arrangements eliminate the need for services that wholesalers provide.
or through the purchase and reselling of products.
145
Although wholesalers can be eliminated, the functions they selling agent, he appoints just one agency as the sole-selling
perform cannot. agent (in a given territory).

D. Marketing Channels Form a Supply Chain Types of Marketing Intermediaries
An important function of the marketing channel is the joint
effort of all channel members to create a supply chain, a total Sole-selling agent Retailer / dealer
distribution system that serves customers and creates a Marketer Broker
C & F agents (CFAs) Franchisees
competitive advantage. Redistribution stockiest Authorised representatives
1. Supply chain management refers to long-term partnerships Stockiest / Distributor / Wholesaler Commission agents
among marketing channel members working together to Semi-wholesaler Jobbers
reduce inefficiencies, costs, and redundancies in the entire
In many cases, manufacturers employ carrying and forwarding
marketing channel and to develop innovative approaches,
agents, often referred to as C&F Agents, or CFAs. The CFAs can
in order to satisfy customers.
be described as special category wholesalers. They supply stocks
a. Supply chain management involves manufacturing, on behalf of the manufacturer to the-wholesale sector or the
research, sales, advertising, shipping and, most of all, retail sector. Their function is distribution. Their distinguishing
cooperation and understanding of tradeoffs throughout characteristic is that they do not resell products, but act as the
the whole channel to achieve the optimal level of efficiency agent/representative of the manufacturer. They act on behalf
and service. of the manufacturer and as his extended arm. In essence, they
b. Whereas traditional marketing channels tend to focus on are manufacturers branches.
producers, wholesalers, retailers, and customers, the supply
Wholesaler/Stockiest/Distributor
chain is a broader concept that includes facilitating agencies,
A wholesaler or stockiest or distributor is also a large
such as component parts suppliers, shipping companies,
operator but not on a level comparable with a marketer or sole
communication companies, and other organizations that
selling agent, in size, resources, and territory of operation. The
take part in marketing exchanges.
wholesaler/stockiest/distributor operates under the marketer-
2. Supply chain management is helping more firms realize sole selling agent, where such an arrangement is used by the
that optimizing the supply chain costs through manufacturer.
partnerships will improve all members profits.
Nature and Characteristics of Wholesaling
3. Supply chains start with the customer and require the A wholesaler buys the product in large quantities, (often, from
cooperation of channel members to satisfy customer several producers) and resells the goods in sizeable lots to other
requirements. intermediaries down the line, such as semi-wholesalers and
4. Technology has dramatically improved the capability of retailers. Normally, a wholesaler does not sell directly to
supply chain management on a global basis. consumers, the exception being institutional buyers who prefer
5. Supply chain management should not be considered just a to buy their requirements from wholesalers rather than retailers.
new buzzword. Reducing inventory and transportation In fact, the distinguishing feature of wholesalers is that they do
costs, speeding order cycle times, cutting administrative and not sell to the ultimate consumers for personal consumption.
handling costs, and improving customer servicethese Even when they sell to institutional buyers who are ultimate
improvements provide rewards for all channel members. consumers, the sale is not for personal consumption of an
individual/household consumer.
Types of Intermediaries
The different types of marketing intermediaries differ signifi- Wholesalers generally specialise; some specialise by type of
cantly in their roles, capabilities, territories, level and size of product, some by industry and some by markets. The rationale
operations, cost of operations, remunerations and amenability for their existence is their cost-effective operation in buying
for control by the principal. Let us see the main characteristics of goods in large quantities and reselling them to other intermedi-
each of them. aries in smaller, yet sizeable lots.
Wholesalers add value by performing a number of vital
Sole-Selling Agent/Marketer
marketing functions. Stock holding and sub-distribution are the
When a manufacturer prefers to stay out of the marketing and
main functions of the wholesalers. They also perform functions
distribution task, he appoints a suitable agency as his sole-
like promotion, financing, and collection of accounts receivables
selling agent/marketer and entrusts the marketing job with
and provision of market feedback. They serve the principals as
him. A sole-selling agent or a marketer is usually a large
well as the retailers under them. In some cases, they also assume
marketing intermediary with large resources and extensive
a part of the risk associated with product failures, price changes
territory of operation. He will be having his own network of
and bad debts. :
distributors/stockiest/wholesalers, semi-wholesalers and
retailers. He takes care of most of the marketing and distribu- Wholesalers basically belong to two types: Agent wholesalers
tion functions on behalf of the manufacturer. Obviously; a and merchant wholesalers usually, merchant wholesalers
sole-selling agent/ marketer will earn a large margin/commis- participate in all the flows that characterise the distribution
sion compared to other types of intermediaries. A manufacturer process while agent wholesalers do so only in some of the
can have one or more marketers; but when he opts for a sole- flows.
146
Semi. Wholesalers Contemporary Channel Scenario in India

Semi-wholesalers are intermediaries who buy products either 1. Conventional wholesale-retail Exclusive retailing
from producers wholesalers, bulk, break the bulk and resell the trade continues to dominate the Exclusive dealers without franchising
goods (mostly) to retailers in assortments needed by the Like scene, though formats like arrangement
supermarkets, retail chains and Exclusive retailing through
the wholesalers, semi-wholesalers too perform the various shopping malls are making a mark. showrooms
wholesaling functions that. part of the distribution process. In 2. Image of channels/distributive Exclusive retiling through shop-in-
some cases, they may also perform the retailing function Their trade undergoes a change. shop Franchising
3. Profiles of distributors tool A. Firm go in for non-store
strength is specialisation by region . They assist the producer in undergo a change. retailing methods.
reaching a large number of retailers efficiently. They spread the 4. Trade margins escalate as costs of Direct selling /home selling
distribution keep growing. Multi-level
distribution cost over the products of several producers, as they 5. Expectations of distributors in the marketing/Networking
usually handle the products of a number of producers. matter profits also change. Marketing
6. The power equation among the Marketing by vending
Retailer Dealer distribution triumvirate machines
Retailers sell to the household/ultimate consumers. They are at principals, distributors and Consumer fairs.
retailersshifts in favour of the B. Firms go in for direct
the bottom of the distributors hierarchy, working under lower levels. marketing methods.
wholesalers/stockiest/distributors/semi-wholesalers, as the 7. Distributors are becoming choosy. Mail order
case may be. In cases where the company operates a single-tier 8. IT greatly influences the way marketing/catalogue
marketing channels operate. marketing
distribution system, they operate directly under the company. 9. Firms go in for different kinds of Direct mail marketing
The retailers are also sometimes referred to as dealers or non-traditional channel Direct response marketing
authorised representatives. They operate in a relatively smaller arrangements. Database marketing
10. Outsourcing of channel Tele marketing
territory or at a specific location; they not normally perform task/ marketing logistic Tele shopping (Home
stock-holding and sub-distribution functions. The stocks they shopping)
Online marketing/
keep operational stocks necessary for immediate sale at the retail Marketing on the web
outlet. C. Equally radical changes are
taking place on the retailing
Contemporary Channel Scenario in India side
Conventional Wholesale-Retail Trade Continues to
Dominate the Scene
In total contrast with the western countries, where formats like
supermarkets/retail chains dominate the distribution system,
Firms Go in for Non-traditional Channel
conventional wholesale-retail trade dominates the scene in
Arrangements
In recent times, firms have been taking to different kinds of
India. Again, unlike the West where a handful of apex distribu-
non-traditional channel arrangements such as:
tion chains service the millions of retail shops, in India,
stand-alone wholesalers/retailers dominate the scene. Some Outsourcing of channel arrangement/marketing logistics
experts believe that before long, India too will see the massive Exclusive retailing
growth of distributing companies/retail chains. Many others,
Outsourcing of Channel Arrangement
however, feel that in India, large distribution outfits will not
Complete outsourcing of channel arrangement is the most
replace traditional distributors in the near future.
striking of the non-conventional attempts. Firms contract
Image of the Trade is Changing outside logistics specialists to operate as their marketing
Till recently, the image of a stockiest/distributor in India was channel.
one of a cash-rich trader interested in quick profits. Such an
Exclusive Retailing
image was a concomitant to the prevailing marketing environ-
In India, many firms have been practicing exclusive retailing for
ment. Many products enjoyed a premium, often in black, in
the past several years. In recent years, however, the idea has
view of the all-round shortages and the system of price
proliferated fast. More and more companies are now recogniz-
controls. The distributive trade was making merry at the cost of
ing the inadequacy of the traditional wholesaler-retailer trade
the consumer. The situation has changed considerably in recent
channels and are going in for exclusive retail networks. Across
years. With the increased availability of products, removal of
industries, it is becoming a trend, partly displacing and partly co-
price controls, increased competition and increased choices to
existing with the traditional wholesaler-retailer set-up.
the consumer, the environment in which the distributive trade
was operating has changed significantly; the distributor of today Firms pursue exclusive retailing in different forms such as:
has to put in harder effort to sell his products and he has to Exclusive dealers without franchising arrangement
service the customer properly. Naturally; his image has under- Exclusive retailing through showrooms
gone a change. Companies too are now keen to present to the
Exclusive retailing through shop-in-shop
public/consumers a cleaner image of their distributors.
Franchising
Exclusive Dealers Without Franchising Arrangement
Exclusive retail networks have been in existence in India for
many years now. In the earlier days, businesses like textiles and
147
footwear were the ones in which this concept was widely Advantages of Exclusive Retailing
prevalent. In textiles for example, Reliance (Vimal) achieved

phenomenal success by setting up a network of exclusive retail 1. Helps the firm get A. With exclusive
shops. Garden Silks too has taken to this route. It has over 150 best locations. outlets, the firm can
exclusive retail outlets, of which seven are company-owned. avoid margin wars.
Bombay Dyeing is another example. Ready-made garment 2. Superior store image. B. Superior store image.
brands like Louis Philippe and Van Heusen, have also taken to 3. Uniform store C. Facilitates building
exclusive retailing. In footwear, Bata runs a network of 1,200 image. store loyalty.
exclusive shops and is expanding it further. It also has a parallel 4. Spreading awareness D. Creates special
network of BSC stores, which are also exclusive shop to a large about the company enthusiasm for the
extent. Liberty Shoes, Batas challenger, has also gone in for and its brand. company's brand at
exclusive shops. It now has over 150 such shops. the retail level; multi-
5. More appealing brand outlets cannot
Degree of Exclusiveness can Vary visual create such
A scrutiny of practices prevailing in the market shows that a merchandising. enthusiasm for a
firm can practise exclusive retailing to varying degrees of particular brand.
exclusiveness and in combination with non-exclusive retailing.
Bata, for example, has 900 company-owned exclusive shops, 6. Full product range E. Enables better
120 franchisee exclusive shops and 600 market extension of the company can control of the
programme dealers, who are semi-exclusive. In addition, it has
be stocked and outlets.
displayed in all
a; separate, non-exclusive wholesaler-retailer system, consisting
outlets.
of 200 wholesalers and 12000 dealers.
Ready-made garment brands like Louis Philippe, Van Heusen,
and Allen Solley were, to start with, marketed through exclusive Showrooms
outlets/franchisee showrooms. But, after some time, the Showrooms are one type of exclusive outlets. There are actually
companies concerned voted for a policy of semi-exclusiveness. two kinds of showrooms:
They opened the door to multi-brand textile shops. They also Own
adopted the shop-within-shop concept. Franchised
In the matter of size, exclusive retail networks can range from Titan Watches is a good example of a company putting the
very small to very huge depending on the nature and class of concept to fine use. The two kinds of showrooms have certain
the product/brand. Pierre Cardin, for example, markets its commonalities as well as certain differences.
products through just eight exclusive shops in India. Reliance
(Vimal), against this, has a network of over 2,000 odd exclusive Advantages of Own and Franchised Showrooms
Vi mal showrooms. Own showrooms
Shop-in-Shop Help the firm to be more close to the customers and in
Today; many super stores reserve special areas in their shops direct touch with time.
exclusively for particular brand. These are called shops-within- Help the firm get market feedback directly from customers;
shops. The Louis Philippe line, for example, is sold through with franchisee showrooms, this advantage may not be
the shop-in-shop in the super store Shoppers Stop. available to the same extent.
Philips Corners: Philips is another good example of a Own showrooms can be controlled better and used more
company using the shop-in-shop concept. It has established its for enhancing company image as compared to franchisee
shops-within-shops in many stores, and named them the showrooms.
Philips Comers. In fact, Philips overcame the problem of not Franchised Showrooms
having exclusive showrooms by voting for the shop-in-shop
concept. It gained good visibility for its products in multi-brand Franchised showrooms often do not the job more
outlets. Philips Comers helped in keeping a good presence in economically; they incur lower overheads compared to
outlets where consumers went to compare various brands. The company showrooms.
internationally standardised colours, shelves and display Often suitable space is not readily available at the desired
windows of the Corners helped Philips to cut across the locations for setting up own showrooms; franchises bring
clutter. in such space.
Help save set-up time
Budget constraints also drive firms towards franchisee
showrooms..
Setting up own showrooms is usually an expensive
business. Singer, for example has estimated that it cost Rs.
4 lakh to set up one showroom of its own. Companies can
at best have only a limited number of own showrooms as
148
coverage of the entire market will be prohibitively costly place. Second, while home selling is always one-to-one, direct

given the size of the country. Franchisee showrooms selling can at times be to a group. The latter method is referred
become the easy answer for quick growth without to as party selling or one- to-many direct selling
sacrificing the requirement of exclusive retailing. Titan It is, however, safer and more logical to treat them as one and
Watches is a good example of a company using a mix of the same.
own and franchisee showrooms, leaning heavily on the
latter in view of their advantage. Direct Selling Catches up in India
In recent years, direct selling has been catching up in India
Franchising is one form of exclusive retailing. It, however,
rapidly: Avon, Amway, Oriflame are all now present in India. So
involves certain special features. Franchising, in fact, is not just a
is Tupperware, which is in the business of plastics food
method of retailing; it is a method of marketing, Here, the
containers. Modicare has been using the method for quite some
franchisee, who is an independent businessperson, abides by
time now for selling its homecare and personal care products.
the marketing plan of the franchiser and pays him a fee for the
use of his brand and know-how. In many cases, franchising Multi-level Marketing (MLM)
covers manufacturing as well, wherein the franchisee uses the Multi-level Marketing (MLM) is a modified version of direct
process/formula of the franchiser in addition to the brand and selling. Only a few firms, who do not mind experimenting in
marketing know-how. reaching out to the consumers, practise it.
Example of Citihome: Citibanks home loan division, Avon, Amway, Oriflame, ModiCare: Avon, Amway,
Citihome is one example Citihome appoints franchisees under Orif1ame International are among the largest MLM outfits in
its Shelters scheme for generating customers for home loan. It the world. The Indian firm, ModiCare of the K.K. Modi
has found that the franchisees carry out the task at much lower Group also sells its range of household and personal care
cost compared to the companys own branches. The franchisees products through a large MLM network.
personal knowledge of the customers is an added benefit. In MLM utilises a multi-tiered, non-employee sales persons-cum-
addition, franchisees also ensure continuity. These factors are of distributors to sell the products. We have seen the process to an
special importance in home loan business. extent in the Amway exhibit. The process begins with the
Firms Embrace Non-store Retailing recruitment of a core group of sales persons-room-distribu-
tors, who have to be introduced to the company by a sponsor.
So far, we have been discussing retailing methods wherein
Each of these distributors picks up products worth a certain
retailing takes place through a retail store
sum, say Rs 1,000 at a time, and sells them directly to the
Non-Store Retailing Methods Gain Ground consumers. After they have sold their first consignment they are
Direct selling/Home selling allowed to pick up their next lot.
Multi-level marketing No distributor is expected to make all sales on her own.
Instead, the system envisages the distributor recruiting a second
Network marketing
rung of distributors. The distributor earns commissions at two
Marketing by vending machines levels. The first is the commission that accrues to her on what
Consumer fairs she sells by herself, and is made up of the difference between
Direct Selling/Home Selling the distributor price and the consumer price. The second is the
Direct selling/home selling, also known as door-to-door selling share that accrues to her out of the commissions earned by the
is one of the major non-store retailing methods. Of course, it distributors at the next lower level, whom she has recruited and
is the most ancient method of marketing known to man. trained. The value of the products a distributor has sold is
Before marketing channels came into being, the producer was worked out in the form of point value (PV). Supposing a first-
selling his product to the user directly: However, direct selling in level distributor sells products worth 100 PV on her own and
the context of modern mass marketing of branded products has recruited six second-rung distributors, each of whom sells
needs to be explained specifically: products worth 100 PV; she gets a commission that corre-
sponds to 700 PV. The distributor can, if she so wishes, charge
Direct selling and home selling are almost synonymous: a lower price than the one suggested by the company, foregoing
Let us first clarify the terminology: The two terms direct selling a part of her commission.
and home selling, which have emerged concurrently, denote the
same thing. Both of them are person-to-person selling and MLMs plus points: The plus points of direct selling in general
both take place away from and without the help of any retail discussed earlier, are plus points of MLM as well. Because of
store. the unique multi-level nature of the distribution, an MLM
distribution network grows rapidly; continuously; and auto-
Some experts make out a minor distinction between the two, by matically Multiplication and growth are inherent to network
referring to direct selling by employee-salespersons as home marketing. MLM is, therefore, a quick, and cost-effective,
selling, and direct selling by independent salespersons-cum- method of marketing. It is specially suited to fast-moving
distributors as direct selling. There does not seem to be any consumer products such as special cosmetic or premium
logic in this approach. On the contrary; we can think of one or fragrances, targeted at niche markets.
two more meaningful distinctions between the two. While
home selling invariably takes place at customers home, direct MLMs drawbacks: Being basically a direct selling model, MLM
selling can take place either at the customers home or her work shares all its drawbacks. Its suffers some additional drawbacks
149
on account of its peculiarity. First, like the classic chain letter, Discounts premiums and other promos were an integral
MLM is a winner while the network keeps growing unbroken. part of the bazaar. In fact, Good Prices, Great Prizes was
But, should the link snap at many a place, the entire distribu- the theme of the bazaar.
tion-cum-sales pyramid will suffer a setback. Second, in the Prize given at an hourly contests boosted consumer
MLM system, the distributors are quite often perceived as an participation. Over 2 lakh consumers have visited the
irritant by the prospect. Third, distributors are also customers in bazaar and sales worth Rs. 10 crore have taken place.
most cases; losing distributors will amount to shrink-age of the
The second ET Bazaar was organised in Mumbai and
customer base.
Ahmedabad by the close of 1995 for four days each
One specific minus point is that in the MLM system, the seller
ET and Mudra Diversified, the direct markeing and
cannot have control over the sales persons to the desired extent
promotion arm of Mudra communication, jointly
as they are not employees of the company Moreover, in the
organized the fair. They gave extensive publicity to the fair
MLM system, the sales persons-cum-distributors often reduce
through the local media.
prices arbitrarily in order to meet their sales targets. As a result,
the equity of the brand suffers. Fresh Force: The Bangalore-based Fresh Force is an example
of an independent direct selling outfit. It has established a
Sometimes, some sales people use high-pressure tactics. It
commercial, direct selling network, with a team of salespersons
spoils the reputation of brand. Many who joined Amway
of its own and functions as a direct selling service provider to
Network are buying Rs 1,500 worth of products just to reach
any company that wishes to sell its products through direct
the required level and keep the Network going. They may be just
selling but is wary of establishing a direct selling system of its
storing them.
own. Fresh Force compensates its sales persons with commis-
MLM lays excessive emphasis on meeting people and making sion, which increases geometrically as the sales goes up. A tie-up
friends, which creates an artificial behaviour. with outfits like Fresh Force confers some advantages on the
Sales forecasting is usually more difficult in the MLM method. firms hiring their services. Without maintaining a direct selling
So, incidence of mismatch between supplies and sales, and system of their own, they are able to direct-sell their products.
consequent piling up of inventories will be more in MLM. They also get the benefit of quicker sales and faster cash
Finally, in India, the government too does not seem to be so recovery, as they can instantly offload their products on the
favourably disposed towards the MLM concept. direct selling service provider. For the consumer too there is
some benefit in this arrangement. She enjoys the convenience
Network Marketing
of shopping at home, getting several products from the same
The student may often come across the term network market-
direct seller in this case.
ing in the direct selling context. It needs to be clarified that the
term is used in two different senses. Some use it to denote Marketing by Vending Machines (Automatic
MLM; others use it to denote independent direct selling by Vending)
third-party outfits, which direct sell others products for a Retailing through vending machines also belongs to the
commission. To avoid confusion, we shall call the former MLM category of channel-less marketing! non-store retailing tech-
and the latter as independent direct selling. niques. It enables the principals to have the benefit of intensive
and extensive retailing without any manned retail stores at all.
Independent Direct Selling Outfits
This method also has been catching up of late in India,
Here, a third party-an external independent agency/service
especially in urban centres and is bound to acquire increased
provider-enters the picture as direct selling service provider.
importance in the coming years. Usually; products which belong
There are many manufacturing firms, who prefer to keep away
to the buy on impulse category like soft drinks, cigarettes,
from the marketing task. They entrust their marketing task with
candy, etc., and select articles of daily consumption such as milk,
a suitable outside marketing agency; some among such firms are
edible oils, etc., lend themselves to be marketed by this method.
also particular that their products should be marketed by the
direct selling method. In recent years, some help has become Consumer Fairs
available to such firms in the form of independent direct-selling Selling through consumer fairs also belongs to the non-store
outfits. These outfits direct sell products of different companies retailing category; Exhibition- cum-sales is what happens here.
to consumers. Marketers often use this as an additional tool of retailing.
Usually; independent promoters and trade associations organise
The ET Bazaar
these fairs in which various manufacturers participate and sell
In recent years, the economic Times has been sponsoring their products.
and organizing the ET bazaars which are basically
consumer fairs. Conclusion
In this lesson we have discussed that marketing channel is a set
The first ET bazaar orginised in 1994 in Mumbai
of interdependent organizations involved in the process of
Manufactures of many leading brands of consumer
making a product or service available for use or consumption.
products participated in it.
We have also explained various types of intermediaries its role
The sellers were able to access thousand of consumers in and relevance in Indian market.
an enclosed. Carpeted area of over 1 lakh sq.ft.
150
Points to Ponder

2
Marketing Channels
Channels Channel Intermediaries
A channel
channel intermediary that
Retailer
Retailer sells
sells mainly
mainly to
to customers.
customers.
AA set
set of
of interdependent
interdependent organizations
organizations
Marketing
M a r keting that
that ease
ease thethe transfer
transfer of
of ownership
ownership asas
Channel
C h annel products
products move
move from
from producer
producer toto An institution
institution that buys goods
business
business useruser or
or consumer.
consumer. Merchant
Merchant from
from manufacturers,
manufacturers, takes
takes title
title
Wholesaler
Wholesaler to
to goods,
goods, stores
stores them,
them,
All
All parties
parties in
in the
the marketing
marketing channel
channel that
that and
and resells
resells and
and ships
ships them.
them.
negotiate with one one another,
another, buy
buy and
and sell
sell
Channel
Channel products,
products, and facilitate the change of
and facilitate the change of Wholesaling
Wholesaling intermediaries
intermediarieswhowho
M
Member
ember ownership
ownership between
between buyer
buyer and
and seller
seller in
in Agents
Agents and
and
the course of moving the product from
facilitate
facilitate the
the sale
sale of
of aa product
product by
by
the course of moving the product from Brokers
Brokers representing
the
the manufacturer
manufacturer to to the
the final
final consumer.
consumer. representing channel
channel member.
member.
Chapter 12 Copyright 2002 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited. 12 - 4
2
Channel Intermediaries
Retailers
Retailers Take
Take Title
Title to
to Goods
Goods
The Nature of Marketing
Merchant
Channels Merchant
Wholesalers Take
Wholesalers Take Title
Title to
to Goods
Goods
Marketing Channel Concepts
Marketing Channels Create Utility Agents
Agents
and
and Do
Do NOT
NOT Take
Take Title
Title to
toGoods
Goods
Marketing Channels Facilitate Bro
Brokers
kers
Brokers
Exchange Efficiencies
Marketing Channels Form a Supply
Chain
Questions
1. Define marketing Channel?
2. Explain meaning and nature of marketing Channel ?
3. Discuss types of Intermediaries .
151
LESSON 28
OBJECTIVE OF MARKETING INTERMEDIARIES
Learning Objective We can take an example of Hindustan Lever to explain it better.

How to formulate Channel Objectives Lever lays down the objective that Lifebuoy should be available
To understand Linkage between Channel Design and in more than 80 per the villages of India; its channel design
Channel Objectives. takes shape in line with this objective. Similar is the case, when
FACT, the fertiliser firm, lays down the objective that in the
How channel design differ from firm to firm?
home market of any company, no farmer should have to travel
In the last lesson we read about the marketing channel, here we more than 3 km to buy its products.
will discuss what are the channel objectives.
We can take this forward a little more and state that marketing
Objectives of Marketing Intermediaries objectives determine channel objectives, and the latter determine
1. Formulating the Channel Objectives the channel design. Usually, with the channel objectives, the
Formulation of channel objectives is the first step in designing broad contours of the channel design also get fixed. In the
a channel system. The objectives clarify what is sought to be Lifebuoy example, given the channel objective to cover 80 per
achieved by having the channels. All firms seek to realise certain cent of the villages, the channel design has to naturally ensure a
common objectives by having the channel. In addition, they very intensive network of dealers spread through every nook
may also have some specific objectives depending on their and comer of rural India. As a corollary, a multi-tier channel,
unique circumstances. consisting of C&F agents, re-distribution stockists, retailers,
and village-level shops, will have to be the choice. In fact, HLL
Channel Objectives will Decide Channel Design uses almost every village shop to sell Lifebuoy.
Channel objectives will determine the channel design the firm
Above chart gives several illustrations of the linkage between
should adopt.
channel objectives channel design. It will be clear from the chart
Objectives, Firms Commonly Seek from Channels that the channel design/channel strategy of a firm flows directly
Effective coverage of the target market. from its channel objectives.
Efficient and cost-effective distribution. In the case of Castrol, for example (cited in the chart), engine oil
Ensuring that consumers incur minimum exertion in is a convenience good and a medium involvement product.
procuring the product. Castrol knows that if a customer does not find engine oil at a
given outlet, he may switch to another brand. Castrol accord-
Helping the firm to carry on manufacturing uninterrupted, ingly stresses reach and speedy delivery in its channel strategy.
confident that the channels will take care of sales. And, once these two factors are set as the main channel
Partnering the firm in financing and sub-distribution tasks. objectives, it automatically leads to the channel design, which
Linkage between Channel Design and Channel Objectives Castrol has adopted.
Channel objectives Channel design Channel objectives Channel design
Archies gifts and Greetings
Castrol India
Proximity to customers Establish outlets close to the target
Provide locational convenience to Go for vast network of outlets. buyersthe upper echelons of society.
customers; make the products available Go for exclusive shops/shop-in-shops.
everywhere (strong reach). Convert low involvement puchase into Go for trendy interior design and peppy
Make available all products/all pack sizes high involvement purchase. ambience
(1,800 Stock keeping units) in all outlets Make purchase of greeting cards/gifts as Stock a wide range of highly appealing
and allow of the customer to pick what he enjoyable experience. merchandise.
wants. This means the outlets have to be BBLIL (Premerger with HLL)
backed by an extensive network of Make the products available everywhere Embrace all types of shops, supermarkets,
CFAs/stockists/warehouses/delivery (strong reach). grocery stores and kirana shops, as part of
facilities. the companys channel. BBLIL has
Provide speedy delivery; fulfill orders This again means extensive back-up and adopted a three-tier channel with C &
from outlets within 24 hours. a multi-tier design. F agents, redistribution stockists and
Reliance Textiles (Vimal) retailers.
Provide choice of brand; ensure different Provide for proper inventory / delivery
Use channel to project the exclusive Go for exclusive showrooms (Vimal has
brands are available at the right place, right back-up.
image of Vimal fabrics. a chain of over 2,000 showrooms). time.
Ensure that the outlet in itself serves as a Always give fresh stocks to consumers. At each level, minimise the distance
communication device. between issuing and receiving points.
Concentrate on urban market to fall in Have showrooms in all cities/Class I Louis Philippe
line with the segmentation/positioning towns of the country. Promote Louis Philippe as a complete and Go for exclusive showrooms; ensure
strategy. Have jumbo showrooms in the metros/big premium wardrobe line, with shirts, availability of the whole line at these
cities. trousers, ties, socks, blazers, belts, etc. outlets.
Philips (Appliances / Personal care Cover the target market (the will-to-do Showrooms alone will not be enough.
products) gents) adequately.
Cover the market intensively and Have a three-timer channel, with C& F Go for dress circles (similar to showrooms,
extensively. agents, distributors, and retailers. Philips but stocks are bought and resold by the
has set up a large base of 2,200 retailers. retailer)
Make after-sales service an integral part Establish APSCs (authorised Philips Go for multi-brand outlets too.
Maintain an edge over competition by Go for Shop-in-Shop in super stores like
of channel function. service centers); Philips now has 110
competing on quality, service, image and Akbar Alis, Mumbai, where special areas
APSCs, four CRCs (consumer response
value. (shops within shops) are available for
centers), and a team of 60 engineers exclusive marketing of specific brands.
liaising with the APSCs. ITC-Tobacco Division
Motivate the channel for attending to Ensure easy availability of ITC cigarates. Go for CFAs as well as wholesalers, who
service requirements. will distribute / resell to retailers (ITC has
Philips gives a guaranteed 30 per cent more than 8,000 retailers).
return on investment to the APSC. Go for different types of retailers; Branded,
Bind barriers to competitors through Pre-empt the march of competitors by traditional and Non-traditional.
channel strength. embracing practically all strong dealers in Build brands through merchandising. Have branded retailers / franchisee
the market as Philip dealers. retailers who sell only ITC cigarettes and
not other brands.
152
Channel Objectives Differ from Firm to Firm; Points to Ponder

Consequently, their Channel Designs Differ
We see that often channel designs of firms differ from one
CHANNEL OBJECTIVE
another. Even within a given industry; different firms have
different channel designs. This is so because their channel I. Channel structure must be derived from channel objectives. These
objectives, in turn, result from a careful analysis of the servi ce levels
objectives differ. Even in respect of those objectives, which are desired by consumers and from managements long-run overall
by and large common for all firms, we can see variations in goals for the organization.
emphasis from firm to firm. For example, intensity of market

coverage sought from the channels and extent of convenience II. The specific objectives for the channel must be couched in terms of
the service levels that are needed to meet the demands of the
to be provided to the customer will vary from firm to firm. The channels target market.
weightages will flow from the marketing objectives of the EXAMPLE
respective firms. A well -known food processor recently developed a high-quality

prepared frozen entree to be sold in supermarkets and convenience
The textile industry example: National Textile Corporation stores. The channel objectives for this company were clearly stated.
(NTC), Reliance Industries, Bombay Dyeing, DCM and Mafatlal WE WANT THIS PRODUCT TO BE NO MORE THAN A TEN -
MINUTE DRIVE FROM 75 PERCENT OF THE FULL-TIME
are all textile firms and all of them operate in the same market. WOR KING WOMEN IN THE UNITED STATES. WE PLAN TO
Yet, their channel designs vary from one another. This is so REACH THIS GOAL WITHIN 12 MONTHS OF OUR PRODUCT
ROLL-OUT.
because their channel marketing objectives differ from one
another. NTCs objective is to cater to the lower middle class,
with textiles of reasonable quality at reasonable prices. It goes in
for a channel design, which is appropriate for this objective. At
the other end of the spectrum, selling fashion to well-to-do
urban segments is the objective of Reliance. Premium product
and premium price are the implications here. Evidently, the
channel design of Reliance differs from that of NTC Reliance
has gone in for a chain of exclusive Vimal showrooms. Though
NTC has also set up some showrooms, it relies mainly on Levels of Distribution Intensity
conventional trade. Reliance has set up 2,000 odd showrooms,
covering all metros and Class I towns of India; it has located Intensity
Intensity Level
Level Objective
O bjective
Number
Number of
of
Intermediaries
Intermediaries
Intermediaries
them in the shopping areas of the concerned towns; it has
fabulously displayed its fabrics in these showrooms; the Intensive
Achieve
Achievemass
massmarket
market
Intensive selling.
selling. Many
Many
showroom is one main strategic strength of the company; Convenience goods.
Convenience goods.
Firms like Bombay Dyeing and DCM fall somewhere on the Work
Work with
withselected
selected
line between the positions taken by NTC and Reliance at the SSelective
elective
intermediaries.
intermediaries.
Shopping
Several
Several
Shopping and some
and some
two ends. All these firms have obviously selected their channel specialty
specialtygoods.
goods.
design, based on their respective channel objectives. Work
W orkwith
withsingle
single
intermediary.
intermediary. Specialty
Specialty
Exclusive
Exclusive On
Onee
Conclusion goods and industrial
goods and industrial
equipment.
equipment.
We have understood the channel objectives, how it is framed.
The channel design depends upon objectives and it differs from
firm to firm.
Questions
Q1. What are the common channel objectives?
Q2. Give an example to describe how channel objective affects
channel design?
153
LESSON 29
FUNCTION OF MARKETING CHANNEL
Learning Objective ultimate consumers of its automobiles but also the inventories
To understand distribution functions. held by dealers. It has worked to cement its key role as financing
agent both by introducing innovations such as the 10-minute
Functions performed by Marketing channel.
credit review. As long as Maruti Finance can handle the financing
In this lesson we will study the functions of marketing channel. flow at lower cost than other channel members can, others (e.g.,
What is the Work of the Marketing dealers) do not need to help consumers finance their automo-
Channel? bile purchases.
The work of the channel includes the performance of several In general, flows should be shared only among those channel
marketing flows. We use the term flows rather than functions members who can add value or reduce cost by bearing them.
or activities to emphasize that these processes often flow However, specialization increases interdependencies in channels,
through the channel, being done at different points in time by and thus creates the need for close cooperation and coordina-
different channel members. In institutional settings, one often tion in channel operations.
hears of the need to carry inventory; to generate demand It is also important to note that the performance of certain
through selling activities; to physically distribute product; to flows is correlated with that of other flows. For instance, any
engage in after-sales service; and to extend credit to other time inventories are held by one member of the channel
channel members or to end-users. system, a financing operation is also underway. Thus, when a
Important flow that permeates all the value-added activities of wholesaler or retailer takes title and assumes physical possession
the channel: the flow of information. Information can and of a portion of a manufacturers out-put, the intermediary is
does flow between every possible pair of channel members, in financing the manufacturer. This is consistent with the fact that
both routine and specialized ways. Retailers share information the largest component of carrying cost is the cost of capital tied
with their manufacturing suppliers about sales trends and up when inventories are held in a dormant state that is, not
patterns through electronic data interchange relationships; when moving toward final sale. Other carrying costs are obsolescence,
used properly, this information can help better manage the costs depreciation, pilferage, breakage, storage, insurance, and taxes. If
of performing many of the classic flows (e.g., by improving that intermediary did not have to tie up its funds in inventory
sales forecasts, the channel can reduce total costs of physical holding costs, it would instead be able to invest in other
possession through lower inventory holdings). So important is profitable opportunities. Capital costs are thus the opportunity
the information content that logistics managers call this the costs of holding inventory.
ability to transform inventory into information. Manufactur-
Channe is Perform Many Vital
ers share product and salesmanship information with their
Distribution Functions
distributors, independent sales representatives, and retailers, to
improve the performance of the promotion flow by these Provide Distribution Efficiency
intermediaries. Consumers can give preference information to Provide Salesmanship
the channel, improving the channels ability to supply valued Help in Price Mechanism
services. Clearly, producing and managing information well is at
Look After a Part of Physical Distribution and Financing
the core of developing distribution channel excellence.
Provide Market Intelligence
In addition, not every channel member need participate in every
flow. Indeed, specialization in the performance of channel flows Assist in Merchandising
is the hallmark of an efficiently operating channel. For example, Provide Market Intelligence
a channel in which physical possession of product moves from Act as Change Agents and Generate Demand
the manufacturer to wholesalers to retailers and finally to end-
Take Care of the Flows Involved in Distribution
users. But an alternate channel might involve not stocking
wholesalers, but instead manufacturers representatives, who Provide Distribution Efficiency
generally do not participate in the physical possession or In the first place, the channels bring together the manufacturer
ownership flows because they do not handle physical product. and the user in an economic manner and thereby provide
In such a case, the physical possession flow might be performed distribution efficiency to the manufacturer.
by the manufacturer and retailer, but not by other intermediar- Minimize the number of contacts needed for reaching
ies, on its way to the final end-user. consumers: In most cases, it will be impractical for a manufac-
Similarly, financing may be spun off to a specialist and not be turing firm to sell its entire production directly to the
done by other channel members to any great degree. For consumers. Resource constraint is the first hurdle in this regard.
example, the mission of Maruti Finance, a wholly owned Even assuming that the required resources can be found, the
subsidiary of Maruti Udyog a car maker, is to finance not only question arises whether it will be advantageous for the firm to
154
sell its products directly and all by itself, totally avoiding Assist in Merchandising

external. Marketing channels analysis shows that in most cases, Merchandising is another important function performed by
using external marketing channels/intermediaries is more marketing channels. Through merchandising, they help
advantageous to the firm than performing the distribution reinforce the awareness about the product among customers.
function all by itself. When channels are dispensed with, the When a customer visits a retail shop, his attention can be allured
number of contacts a manufacturer will have to establish for by an attractive display of the product brand increasing his
reaching out to the consumers are far too many; Channels awareness and interest. Merchandising, especially display
minimise the number of contacts. complements the selling efforts of the company and acts as a
Break the bulk and cater to tiny requirements: Channels silent salesman at the retail outlet.
break the bulk and meet the small-size needs of individual Provide Market Intelligence
consumers. Channels provide market intelligence and feedback to the
Supply products in suitable assortments: Channels also principal. In the nature of things, channels are in a good
combine products and components manufactured by different position to perform this task, since they are in constant and
firms and offer them in assortments that are convenient to direct contact with the customers. They feel the pulse of the
users. The users normally need an assortment of items. They market all the time.
will shop at only those outlets, which supply such assortments. Act as Change Agents and Generate Demand
But, a manufacturer cannot meet the need for such assortments, In certain cases, the marketing task involves diffusion of some
since it will not be feasible for him to take up distribution of innovation among consumers. In such cases, the channels go
other products required by the customers. The channels thus much beyond the conventional functions of distribution aid act
render the vital service of assembling the products of different as change agents among consumers and generate demand for
manufacturers and offering them to customers in suitable the product.
assortments. In other words, the channels help in matching
segments of supply with segments of demand. Take Care of the Flows Involved in Distribution
The distribution process can be viewed as a series of flows: the
Provide Salesmanship physical flow of products, the title/ownership flow, risk flow,
Marketing channels also provide salesmanship. In particular, the negotiation flow, the financing/payment flow, the informa-
they help in introducing and establishing new products in the tion flow and promotion flow. Marketing channels handle and
market. In many cases, buyers go by the recommendations of take care of all these flows.
the dealers. The dealers establish the products in the market
through their persuasive selling and person-to-person commu- Functions Performed by Marketing Channels
nication. They also provide pre-sale and after-sale service to the Facilitate selling by being physically close to
(d) transforming static stocks into
customers
buyers. operational stocks, thereby aiding the
Provide distributional efficiency by bridging sale process
Help in Price Mechanism the manufacturer with the user, efficiently
and economically
Share the financial burden of the
principal; provide deposits; finance the
In many cases, the channels also help implement the price Break the bulk and cater to the tiny stocks till they are sold to the ultimate
mechanism. They conduct price negotiations with buyers on requirements of buyers consumers; extend credit to
retailers/consumer
behalf of the principals and assist in arriving at the right price- Assemble products into assortments to meet Provide salesmanship
buyer's needs; match segments of supply
the price that is acceptable to the maker as well as the user. This with segments of demand
Provide pre-sale and after-sale service
Assist in sales promotion
is vital for the consummation of the marketing process. The Look after a part of physical Assist in merchandising
manufacturer would find it difficult to complete this step distribution/marketing logistics Assist in introducing new products
Sub-distribution
Assist in implementing the price
without the help of the channels. (a) reselling mechanism; assist in price negotiations
Assist in developing sales forecasts/sales
Look after a Part of Physical Distribution and (b) transport .
plans for the territory
Financing (c) handling Provide market intelligence and feedback
Channels also look after a part of the physical distribution (d) accounting . Maintain records
Stock holding . Take care of liaison requirements
functions like transportation, handling, warehousing, sub- (a) Providing warehouse space Help diffuse innovations among
distribution, order processing and inventory management. consumers, act as change agents' and
(b) storing the stocks generate demand
Channels also share the financial burden of the manufacturer by (c) bearing risks
financing the goods flowing through the marketing pipeline.
Often, they pay cash and lift the products; in the process, the
Some of these flows are forward, some backward and the
manufacturer gets his money long before the products reach the
others take place as a two-way process. Normally, the flow takes
ultimate users. In some cases, the channels provide substantive
place sequentially through different levels in the distribution
deposits to the principals. In several cases, the channels also
chain. In some cases, however, the flow may bypass a particular
extend credit to the subordinate levels in the channel and to the
level in the chain.
consumers. This also relieves the principals financial strain to an
extent. More than everything else, the channels place the Channels Acquire Their Importance by Their Functions
products close to potential consumers and thereby enhance the The foregoing elaborations not only explain the importance of
chance of its sale. marketing channels, but also clarify the fact that the channels
acquire their importance by virtue of the functions they
perform.
155
Channel Functions cannot be Eliminated inefficiency, or waste. In many cases, such duplication may be
Sometimes, firms tend to think that channels could be easily essential for achieving the desired service level in distribution.
dispensed with and that the firm would be better off doing so. For example, inventories may have to be kept at different
The firms assume that by eliminating the channels, they can levels/tiers of the channel so that the flow of products is
eliminate the channel costs, this is erroneous thinking. The smooth and customers get the products at the time and place
inherent assumption in this thinking is that by eliminating the of their choice. In such cases, duplication is essential and
channels, they can escape the functions that the channels beneficial. The firm, therefore, has to find out whether
perform. The fact is that even where channels are eliminated, the duplication is wasteful. If it serves the interests of the firm, it is
channel functions as such are not eliminated; they are merely not wasteful. So based on the facts of the case, the firm should
transferred from the channels to the manufacturer; and the costs find out how costs are reduced, efficiency increased and waste
thereof are also just transferred, not eliminated. eliminated.
Sometimes, the firms assume that while channels as a whole Channel Decisions have a Bearing on Other
cannot be eliminated, a particular tier in the channel can be Marketing Decisions
readily eliminated and the firm would be ipso facto better off The decisions on channel have a vital bearing on other decisions
with such elimination. Here too, if the assumption is based on relating to marketing. Pricing decisions, for example, are related
the logic that with the elimination of the particular tier, the to the channel pattern adopted by the firm and the compensa-
functions performed by that tier can be eliminated, then the tion paid to the channel. Similarly, decisions on sales force, its
firm will soon realise that it has committed a mistake. For here size, type, etc., depend on the nature and size of the marketing
too, the alternative arrangement may not eliminate the functions channel adopted. The channel pattern influences the pattern of
performed by that particular tier. What is likely to happen is a salesmens operations. It also determines to a significant
transfer of the functions from the given tier to another one in measure the size and complexity of the marketing department
the channel, backward or forward. So, it will be wrong to of the firm.
assume that the elimination of the tier will ipso facto result in
Channel decisions usually bind the firm with long-term
savings to the firm. It depends on the circumstances.
commitments. The channel types and the number of levels/
Channels/middlemen are no parasites: The problem arises tiers in the channel cannot be changed every now and then. For
due to a confusion in thinking. The firms concerned might be example, once a firm has developed a marketing channel of its
viewing channels as mere middlemen, with a negative connota- own, with companys own stock points performing the
tion attached to the term. And, they might consider the wholesaling/semi-wholesaling task, and dependence on
channels as parasites. No wonder then, they think that they external channel limited to retailing activity alone, it cannot all of
would be better off by dispensing with the channel, in part or a sudden switch to a sole-selling agent system or even a
full. It needs to be emphasised that channels/middlemen are wholesaler-retailer system. Having invested heavily in companys
no parasites. They are an essential and valuable part of the own stock points/depots, the firm cannot suddenly extricate
firms marketing activity. Manufacturers use them as there is itself from the commitments already made. Basically; once a
economic sense in doing so, and all things considered, using firm adopts a particular channel model and goes along with it
them improves distribution efficiency. for some time, exiting the model will be difficult.
This is not to suggest that under no circumstances can a tier in Channel Levels, Channel Members, and Channel Length
the channel be eliminated and that there would be no advantage All marketing intermediaries do not operate at the same tier;
at all in doing so. In some cases, it certainly is sensible to they operate at different tiers. Each distinctive tier of intermedi-
eliminate one particular tier in the channel and the firm might aries is referred to as a level in the channel; and each link is
be better off doing so. It has to be conceded that there are referred to as a channel member. The number of levels
always alternative methods of performing a set of channel determines the length of the channel; the more the levels,
functions and a firm may be better off by following one longer is the channel. The number of members does not
method in preference to another. But, it depends on the deter- . mine the length of the channel.
circumstances of the case. The firm has to analyse and find out
whether the concerned distribution functions are performed Conclusion
more cost-effectively by eliminating the tier and shifting the We have discussed that channels perform many vital distribu-
functions backward or forward to another tier in the channel, or tion functions. They Provide Distribution Efficiency by
by keeping the tier alive. As a general rule, it can be said that bringing together manufacturer and user, Provide Salesmanship,
where the number of tiers are far too many, the elimination of Help in Price Mechanism, Look After a Part of Physical
a tier would be advantageous. Distribution and Financing, Provide Market Intelligence, Assist
in Merchandising by creating awareness about the product
The test question: The test question is: Are the functions
among customers, Provide Market Intelligence as they are in
duplicated in a wasteful manner? Sometimes, duplication of
contact with the customers, Take Care of the Flows Involved in
channel functions does take place in a channel system; the same
Distribution, Act as Change Agents and Generate Demand.
function being performed by more than one tier. Firms often
The channel functions cannot be eliminated, though intermedi-
presume that in such cases, it is beneficial to dispense with one
ary can be eliminated. For example wholesaler can be
of the tiers. This is again incorrect thinking. Duplication of
eliminated but functions will have to be transferred to a retailer.
functions by different tiers need not automatically imply
156

Q1. How does channel provides distribution efficiency?
Marketing Channel Q2. Discuss the channel functions.
Q3. How channel is important due to its functions?
Functions or Tasks
These functions or tasks can be re-allocated among all channel
members, but that cannot be eliminated.
RRisk
isk Taking
Taking Information
Information
Financing
Financing Promotion
Promotion
Physical
Physical Contact
Contact
Distribution
Distribution
Negotiation
Negotiation Contracts/Title
Contracts/Title
Channel Functions
Performed by Intermediaries
Contacting/Promotion
Transactional
Transactional Negotiating
Functions
Functions
Risk Taking
Physically distributing
Logistical
Logistical Storing
Functions
Functions
Sorting
Facilitating Researching
Facilitating
Function
Function Fina ncing
157
LESSON 30
CHANNEL DESIGN
Learning Objective achieved by having the channels. All firms seek to realise certain
To know the steps in channel design common objectives by having the channel. In addition, they
may also have some specific objectives depending on their
In channel design- segmentation
unique circumstances.
positioning
Channel Objectives will Decide Channel Design
targeting
Channel objectives will determine the channel design the firm
To understand implementation of channel. should adopt.
What is the best marketing channel for a particular product or Objectives, Firms Commonly Seek from Channels
service?
Effective coverage of the target market.
This question is well worth asking, given the great expense of
establishing (or changing) marketing channel and the high cost Efficient and cost-effective distribution.
of poor decision making in this area. The marketing channel Ensuring that consumers incur minimum exertion in
challenge involves two major tasks: (1) to design the right procuring the product.
channel and (2) to implement that design. The design step Helping the firm to carry on manufacturing uninterrupted,
involves segmenting the market, identifying optimal position- confident that the channels will take care of sales.
ing responses to segments demands, targeting the segments Partnering the firm in financing and sub-distribution tasks.
on which to focus the channels efforts, and establishing (in the
absence of a preexisting channel) or refining (in the presence of Channel Objectives Differ from Firm to Firm;
a preexisting channel) the channels to manage in the market- Consequently, their Channel Designs Differ
place. The implementation step requires an understanding of We see that often channel designs of firms differ from one
each channel members sources of power and dependence, an another. Even within a given industry; different firms have
understanding of the potential for channel conflict, and a different channel designs. This is so. because their channel
resulting plan for creating an environment where the optimal objectives differ. Even in respect of those objectives, which are
channel design can be effectively executed on an ongoing basis. by and large common for all firms, we can see variations in
This outcome is called channel coordination. emphasis from firm to firm. For example, intensity of market
coverage sought from the channels and extent of convenience
Designing A Channel System to be provided to the customer will vary from firm to firm. The
We have observed that a firm can take its product to the user in weightages will flow from the marketing objectives of the
more ways than one. It can use different types of intermediar- respective firms.
ies; it can also structure its channel in different ways. For
example, it can have a single-tier or a two-tier or a three-tier Distinctive Characteristics of Industrial Products
channel structure. It can reach different market segments with
different channel arrangements or with the same channel Buyers are few. Purchased only once in
arrangement. It can also use different channel arrangements for a while, as their
Size of at-a-time replacement rate is low.
reaching a single market segment. The options are indeed many. purchase is large.
They are complex,
How does the firm make the choice? How does it Have high unit value. technical, and often as
determine which one is the best? per buyers'
specifications.
Should it go for own channels-company showrooms and
depots-or prefer conventional intermediaries, i.e. the
wholesale/retail trade? How many levels/tiers should
2. Identifying Channel Functions
there be in the chosen channel design. How many
Identification of the functions to be performed by the channel
wholesale points should it have to ensure satisfactory
is the next step in designing channel system Channel design
market coverage? Where should they be located?
depends on the functions expected of the channel and that
How many retail points should it have? Which are the channel functions must be identified in the specific context of
places where it should have them? the firm in order to get practical direction in designing the
What should be the relationship between the wholesalers channel system.
and the retailers?
3. Linking Channel Design to Product Characteristics
1. Formulating the Channel Objectives Different products require different channel systems. The firm
Formulation of channel objectives is the first step in designing should analyse the characteristics of the product and choose the
a channel system. The objectives clarify what is sought to be channel system that matches the product best. Consumer and
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industrial goods, for example, need different channels. And products that require extensive servicing. They need specialist

within the category of consumer goods, different sub-categories distributors, who command the required service facilities.
such as convenience goods, shopping goods and specialty
Even within Consumer Products, Channel
goods may need different channel systems.
Requirements of Different Products may Vary
Industrial and Consumer Products Need Different Channels We come across three distinct categories of products within
Industrial and consumer products usually need different consumer goods-viz., (i) convenience goods, (ii) shopping
channels as they differ from each other in several vital respects. goods, and (iii) speciality goods. We have seen that the different
categories of goods require different channel systems, since
Channels for Industrial Products
buying behaviour and buying habits differ, depending on the
Industrial products need extensive pre-sale service (installation
category Convenience goods require intensive market coverage
and commissioning service ) and post-sale service (maintenance
and, therefore, need a comprehensive and high penetration
service).
channel arrangement. Shopping goods and speciality goods
Consumer products on the contrary, are mass products. non- need lesser intensity of coverage, compared to convenience
technical and least most of them are of a low unit value; they goods. Often, in these cases, the number of tiers in the channel
are regularly consumed and replaced; and require nil or limited can be less than those for convenience goods. The number of
after-sale service. It is in view of these differences that the two outlets too can be far lesser. In the matter of location of the
can need different channel systems. outlets too, the requirements will be different in respect of
Only Some Industrial Products are Amenable for convenience goods on the one hand, and for shopping and
Selling Through Channels specialty goods, on the other. Obviously, there is a need for
First of all, among industrial products, only some are amenable product-channel matching. .
for selling through channels. The firm should check whether its The Products PLC Stage too Influences Channel
items are appropriate for selling through channels / distribu- Choice
tors. And, if the answer is yes, it must find out which type of We have seen that the concept of PLC helps product manage-
distributors will be appropriate for the items under consider- ment. PLC also helps channel management. Different channels
ation. fit different stages of PLC.
Chart below presents some useful guidelines for testing the A product in the introduction stage will be relatively unknown
amenability of a given industrial product for marketing through to the market; its customer base small; and its sales volume low.
channels/distributors. At this stage, it may be advantageous to sell the product directly
to the customer, dispensing with the channels. Such a move will
enable the manufacturer to get direct market feedback on the
new product and thereby improve the product as required.
Alternatively, a specilised channel could be used in this stage. A
specialised distributor will be in a better position to introduce
the product in the market and also provide the required
technical support to the user.
When the product moves into the growth and maturity stages,
the requirements of distribution will be different. In these
Need for specialist distributors: the firm finds that a given
stages, the product is almost an off-the-shelf item. Now,
industrial product lends itself for marketing through channels;
convenience in delivery and price competitiveness are more
the firm may proceed to select an appropriate channel. It must
important factors. Therefore, conventional/general purpose
remember that:
distributors would be more suitable. Producers usually appoint
i. industrial products as a general rule require specialist a number of general purpose distributors at this stage and also
distributors. Entrusting the products with the traditional make more and more territories non-exclusive. Some pushing
consumer product distributors does not bring in the best becomes necessary at this stage and conventional market
results. channels admirably suit this requirement.
ii. different industrial products need different types of In the decline stage in the PLC, the market for the product
distributors. usually gets reduced to select groups of customers and it may
For example, some industrial products have to be demon- be advantageous to revert back to direct marketing to customers
strated to the customers. Here, specialist distributors with the at this stage. Alternatively, the firm may serve the select groups
required demonstration facility will be more suitable. Some of customers through a minimal use of middlemen.
industrial products are hazardous from the point of view of Product Influences Type and Number of Channel Members as
distribution. Petroleum products, explosives and certain well
industrial chemicals are examples of this category these products
Product characteristics influence not merely the channel design
need specialised distributors, who command specialised
to be opted for; they often influence even the type and number
transportation and storage facilities. Similar is the case of
of intermediaries needed. For example, for textiles or shoes,
franchisees, who can run showrooms, may be an effective type
159
of intermediary. For a product like detergents, conventional must evaluate these alternative designs and choose the best
wholesaler-retailer arrangement may be the appropriate one. among them.

4. Evaluation of the Distribution Environment Keeping the System Flexible
While selecting the channel design, the firm should also take The physical distribution system should also be kept flexible.
into account the distribution environment obtaining in the Marketing is never static. Thus, in keeping with the dynamic
country/territory. It should evaluate the vital features of the nature of marketing, the physical distribution system should
distribution environment and ensure that the proposed channel remain, flexible. At the same time, flexibility has an associated
design is compatible with them. Distribution environment in cost. Often, that is why, issue of economy vs. flexibility is raised
the broader sense includes the trade related legal environment as while designing a physical distribution system. Even at the cost
well. A mention about the legal environment relating to of economy; some flexibility must be retained. It would come
marketing and trade matters has been made in the chapter on to the help of the firm in the future.
The Marketing Environment. The legal implications of channel Why do we need to segment, position and target in channel
design must be carefully examined before taking a final decision. design?
5. Evaluation of Competitors Channel Designs Channel Design: Segmentation
The firm should also study the competitors channel patterns One of the fundamental principles of marketing is the
before deciding its channel design. While the firm may not segmentation of the market. Segmentation means the splitting,
necessarily follow the competitors in channel design, it should of a market into groups of end-users who are (1) maximally
analyse the plus and minus of the channel patterns adopted by similar within each group and (2) maximally different between
each of its major competitors. Quite a number of firms do groups. But maximally similar or maximally different based on
settle down for a follow the leader policy in channel design. what criterion? For the channel manager, segments are best
They find it an easy route. But such an approach may deprive defined on the basis of demands for the outputs of the
them of the chance to score an edge over competition through marketing channel. A marketing channel is more than just a
the channel strategy. conduit for product; it is also a means of adding value to the
6. Matching the Channel Design to Company product marketed through it. In this sense, the marketing
Resources channel can be viewed as another production line engaged in
Choice of channel is also governed by the resources available producing not the product itself that is sold, but the ancillary
with the organisation. services that define how the product is sold. These value added
services created by channel members and consumed by end-
Firms with limited resources settle for conventional
users along with the product purchased are called service
channels: Firms with limited resources and small volume of
outputs. Service outputs include (but may not be limited to)
business will normally find it difficult and uneconomical to opt,
bulk-breaking, spatial convenience, waiting and delivery time,
for own channels. For such firms, establishing branch show-
and assortment and variety.
rooms/depots/retail outlets of their own will result in a high
unit cost of distribution, which they cannot afford. They are End-users (be they final consumers or business buyers) have
better off by depending on conventional channels. In fact, they varying demands for these service outputs. Consider, for
are usually content with a small network of conventional example, two different soft drink buyers: an office employee at
intermediaries. work, looking for a soft drink during her afternoon coffee
break, and a family buying for at-home consumption. Table
Firms with larger resources have more options: Firms with
below outlines the differences in service output demands
larger resources and larger marketing operations can go in for
between the two segments of buyers. The office employee has
varied distribution channels. In fact, in India, in several
high demands for all service outputs except assortment and
businesses, firms which are strong in resources, usually operate
variety (for which her demand is moderate, implying willingness
two parallel channels, one reaching out to the customer through
to brand switch within reason), whereas the family has the
company depots and showrooms, and the other through
opposite pattern of service output demands. Clearly, a different
conventional intermediaries. The textile business is a good
marketing channel meets the needs of these two segments of
example of this phenomenon. Firms like Reliance Industries,
shoppers. The office employee cannot travel to a grocery store to
Bombay Dyeing, DCM and Mafatlals, have all gone in for such a
buy a can of soda during her break, nor does she want to buy a
two-pronged channel design. In some cases, however, even
six-pack or more of cans of soft drinks. She is willing to pay a
large firms prefer a distribution arrangement wherein they will
slightly higher price for the convenience of getting just a single
not be required to pump in much of their resources. They are
can of soda close to her office. A vending machine would be an
content with entrusting their distribution job to some distribu-
ideal retail outlet for her. The family, on the other hand, would
tion houses, appointing them either as the sole-selling agent or
not find the vending machine an attractive retail purchase
as marketers. Many manufacturers of pharmaceuticals, machine
alternative. The familys demand for assortment and variety may
tools, agricultural equipment, electric motors and household
not be met by a vending machine, and other service outputs are
appliances have adopted this route.
offered at too high a level, resulting in a higher per-unit price
7. Evaluating the Alternatives and Selecting the Best than the family wants (or needs) to pay. A local super market
With the completion of the foregoing steps, the number of does a better job of meeting the familys service output
alternatives would have narrowed down considerably; the firm demands for soft drinks. This example shows how the same
160
product can be demanded with a widely varying set of service management). Just as positioning a product means setting its

outputs, resulting in very different demands for the product- product attributes, price, and promotional mix to best fit the
plus service-output bundle by different segments of end-users. demands of a particular segment, so also positioning refers to
An analysis of service output demands by segment is thus an the design of the distribution channel to meet the segments
important input into a manufacturers marketing plan, and can demands. This exercise should be done, even if the channel
help increase the reach and marketability of a good product to ends up not selling to some of the segments in the end. The
multiple market segments. channel analyst may then discover that some segments simply
Understanding market demands also requires an understanding do not make good targets because their demands cannot be
of the markets environmental characteristics and constraints. A adequately met with the channels current resources. Alterna-
market with limited infrastructural tively, the positioning exercise may reveal some unexpectedly
attractive segments to target. Unless the optimal channel is
Service Output Demand Differences (an example of
defined for each segment, it is impossible to make a thorough
segmentation in the soft drink market)
decision about what segments to target.
The optimal channel is defined first and foremost by the
FAMILY OFFICE EMPLOYEE necessary channel flows that must be performed in order to
SERVICE DESCRIPTOR SERVICE OUTPUT DESCRIPTOR SERVICE OUTPUT
OUTPUT DEMAND LEVEL DEMAND LEVEL generate the specific segments service output demands.
Bulk breaking "I buy groceries weekly Low "I'm on my coffee High Channel flows are all the activities of the channel that add value
for my family, and all break and I have
of us like soft drinks." time for only one to the end user. In enumerating the list of channel flows, we go
Spatial "I drive to the Low
can of soft drink."
"I have only 15 High
beyond the concept of the mere handling of the product to
convenience supermarkets in minutes for my include issues of promotion, negotiation, financing, ordering
my area to shop." break, so I need to
buy whatever is and payment. For instance, our office employee looking for a
handy."
Waiting and "We usually have some Low "If I don't get my High soft drink on her coffee break (see Above Table) has a high
delivery time extra cans of soft
drinks in the house, so
soft drink right "at
3:00 when my
demand for spatial convenience and minimal tolerance for out-
I'll just come back the
next time if I can't find
break starts, I'll
never have a
of-stock product. This means that the channel How of physical
the soft drinks I want chance to go back possession (the physical holding of inventory) takes on great
on this trip." later arid get one."
Assortment "My husband and I like High "I can't be too Moderate importance for such end-users. Each product or service-selling
and variety Coke and Pepsi, but particular about
our kids aren't which soft drink I situation can have its unique set of service output demands by
permitted to drink
caffeinated soft drinks.
pick. It's important
to me to get one, as
segment, implying that the differential importance of different
They like caffeine free
fruit-flavored soft
long as it has
caffeine."
sets of channel flows depends on the segment.
drinks."
Further, the channel analyst must identify the optimal-channel
structure to produce the necessary channel flows, which
themselves, of course, result in the generation of the required
development, for instance, will usually be characterized by service outputs that are demanded by a particular segment of
consumers with high demands for service outputs such as: 1) end-users in the market. The design of the channel structure
spatial convenience (because the consumers cannot travel very involves two main elements. First, the channel designer must
easily to remote retail locations), 2) minimal waiting time for decide who are to be the members of the channel. For example,
good (because consumers will not have sufficiently high will a consumer packaged-goods manufacturer sell its grocery
disposable income to keep backup stocks of goods at their products through small independent retailers with in-city
homes in case of retail stock outs ), and 3) bulk-breaking (again locations, or through large chain stores that operate discount
because, with low disposable incomes, consumers cannot afford warehouse stores? Or will it use an outlet such as
to buy large lot sizes of goods, even if doing so would mean a Indiangrocer.com, an on-line seller of Indian food and
lower price per unit). An example of the impact of these household products that operates no retail stores at all? Moving
constraints on consumer purchasing is the market for Wrigleys up the channel from the retail level, decisions must be made
chewing gum in the Peoples Republic of China: Individual whether to use independent distributors, independent sales
packs of gum are sold through many small kiosks and stalls in representative companies (called reps or rep firms),
local marketplaces after traveling a circuitous (and high-cost) independent trucking companies, financing companies, export
route through the countryside. If Wrigleys is to sell to Chinese management companies, and any of a whole host of other
consumers, it must recognize their high service output de- possible independent distribution channel members that could
mands in order to construct a marketing channel to meet those be incorporated into the channel design.
demands. Beyond this decision, the channel manager must also decide the
Channel Design: Positioning exact identity of the channel partner to use at each level of the
When the market has been segmented into groups of end- channel. For example, if it is deemed advisable to sell a line of
users, each of which can be described by a set of service output fine watches through retail stores, should the outlets chosen be
demands, the channel manager should next define the optimal more upscale, such as Tiffanys, or should they are family-
channel to serve each segment. We call this exercise positioning owned local jewelers? The choice can have implications both for
or configuring the channel (positioning to parallel the segmen- the efficiency with which the channel is run and the image
tation-targeting-positioning paradigm in marketing connoted by distributing through a particular kind of retailer.
In a different context, if a company seeks distribution for its
161
products in a foreign market, the key decision may be which whose sales would be threatened by larger retailers. Such legal
distributor is appointed to carry the product line into the restrictions can lead to a channel design that does not appropri-
overseas market. The right distributor may have much better ately meet the target segments service output demands, and
relationships with local channel partners in the target market may cause a channel manager to avoid targeting that segment
and can significantly affect the success of the foreign market entirely.
entry. Of course, the corollary of this statement is that when superior
The other main element of the channel structure is the decision competitive offerings do not exist to serve a particular
of how many of each type of channel member will be in the segments demands for service outputs, the channel manager
channel. This is the channel intensity decision. In particular, may recognize an unexploited market opportunity and create a
should the channel for a consumer good include many retail new channel to serve that underserved segment. Meeting
outlets (intensive distribution), just a few (selective distribu- previously unmet service output demands can be a powerful
tion), or only one (exclusive distribution) in a given market competitive strategy for building loyal and profitable consumer
area? The answer to this question depends both on efficiency bases in a marketplace. But these strategies can best be identified
and on implementation factors. More intensive distribution with knowledge of what consumers want to buy, and impor-
may make the product more easily available to all target end- tantly, how they want to buy it, and the necessary response in
users, but may create conflict among the retailers competing to terms of channel flow performance and channel structure.
sell it. We have now identified a subset of the markets segments that
The channel structure decisions of types, identity, and intensity the channel plans on targeting, using the segmentation and
of channel members all should be made with the minimization positioning insights derived earlier.
of channel flow costs in mind. That is, each channel member is
Channel Design: Establish New Channels
allocated a set of channel flows to perform, and ideally the
allocation of activities results in the reliable performance of all or Refine Existing Channels
channel flows at minimum total cost. This is a nontrivial task, Now, the channel manager has identified the optimal way to
particularly because it involves comparing activities across reach each targeted segment in the market, and has also
different companies who are members of the channel. Intu- identified the bounds that might prevent the channel from
itively, an activity-based costing (or ABC) sort of analysis is implementing. the zero-based channel design in the market. If
useful to establish the best allocation of channel flows no channel exists currently in the market for this segment, the
This exercise results in one channel profile for each segment that channel manager should now establish the channel design that
is identified in the market segmentation stage of the exercise. comes the closest to meeting the target markets demands for,
Each of these channel profiles is called a zero-based channel, service outputs, subject to the environmental and managerial
bounds constraining the design.
because it is designed from a zero base of operations that is, as
if no preexisting channel exists in the market. The concept of a If there is a preexisting channel in place in the market, however,
zero-based channel means (1) that the segments service output the channel manager should now perform a gap analysis. The
demands are met and (2) that they are met at minimum total differences between the zero-based and actual channels on the
channel cost. demand and supply sides constitute gaps in the channel design.
Gaps can exist on the demand side or on the supply side.
Channel Design: Targeting
At this stage of the analysis, the channel manager is equipped to On the demand side, gaps mean that the service output
decide what segments to target. Note carefully that this also demands is not being appropriately met by the channel. The
means that the channel manager is now equipped to decide service output in question may be either undersupplied or
what segments not to target! Knowing what segments to oversupplied. The problem is obvious in the case of undersup-
ignore in ones channel design and management efforts is very ply: The target segment is likely to be dissatisfied because
important, because it keeps the channel focused on the key end-users would prefer more service than they are getting. The
segments from which it plans to reap profitable sales. problem is more subtle in the case of oversupply. Here, target
end-users are getting all the service they desire-and then some.
Why not target all the segments identified in the segmentation
The problem is that service is costly to supply, and therefore,
and positioning analyses? The answer requires the channel
supplying too much of it leads to higher prices than the target
manager to look at the internal and external environment facing
end-users are likely to be willing to pay. Clearly, more than one
the channel. Internally, managerial bounds may constrain the
service output may be a problem, in which case several gaps may
channel manager from implementing the zero-based channel.
need attention.
For example, top management of a manufacturing firm may be
unwilling to allocate funds to build a series of regional ware- On the supply side, gaps mean that at least one. flow in the
houses that would be necessary to provide spatial convenience channel of distribution is carried out at too high a cost. This
in a particular market situation. Externally, both environmental not only wastes channel profit margins, but can result in higher
bounds and competitive benchmarks may suggest some prices than the target market is willing to pay, leading to
segments as higher priority than others. For example, legal reductions in sales and market share. Supply-side gaps can result
practices can constrain channel design and hence targeting from a lack of up-to-date expertise in channel now manage-
decisions. Many countries restrict the opening of large mass- ment or simply from waste in the channel The challenge in
merchandise stores in urban areas, to protect small shopkeepers
162
closing a supply-side gap is to reduce cost without dangerous]) total success of the channel effort, and thus can harm total

reducing the service outputs being supplied to target end-users. channel performance
When gaps are identified on the demand or supply sides,
several strategies are available for closing the gaps. But once a
channel is already in place, it may be very difficult and costly to
close these gaps. This suggests the strategic importance of
Channel Conflict
initial channel design. If the channel is initially designed in a
haphazard manner, channel members may have to live with a A clash of goals and methods between
suboptimal channel later on, even after recognizing channel gaps distribution channel members.
and making best efforts to close them.
Channel Implementation: Identifying Horizontal
Horizontal Occurs
Occursamong
amongchannel
channel members
members
Power Sources Conflict
Conflict on
on the
thesame
samelevel
level
Assuming that a good channel design is in place in the market,
the channel-managers job is still not done. The channel Vertical
Vertical Occurs
Occursamong
amongchannel
channel members
members
Conflict
Conflict at
atdifferent
differentlevels
levels
members now must implement the optimal channel design
and indeed must continue to implement an optimal design
through time. The value of doing so might seem to be self-
Channel conflict can stem from differences between channel
evident, but it is important to remember that a channel is made
members goals and objectives (goal conflict), from disagree-
up of multiple interdependent entities (companies, agents,
ments over the domain of action and responsibility in the
individuals). But they mayor ma) not all have the same
channel (domain conflict), and from differences in perceptions
incentives to implement the optimal channel design.
of the marketplace (perceptual conflict). These conflicts directly
Incompatible incentives among channel members would not be cause a channel member to fail to perform the flows that the
a problem if they were not dependent upon each other. But by optimal channel design specifies for them, and thus inhibit total
the very nature of the distribution channel structure and design, channel performance. The management problem is twofold.
specific channel members are likely to specialize in particular First, the channel manager needs to be able to identify the
activities and flows in the channel. If all channel members do sources of channel conflict, and in particular, to differentiate
not perform appropriately, the entire channel effort suffers. For between poor channel design and poor performance due to
example, even if everything else is in place, a poorly performing channel conflict. Second, the channel manager must decide on
transportation system that results in late deliveries (or no the action to take (if any) to manage and reduce the channel
deliveries) of product to retail stores prevents the channel from conflicts that have been identified.
succeeding in selling the product. The same type of statement
In general, channel conflict reduction is accomplished through
could be made about the performance of any channel member
the application of one or more sources of channel power. For
doing any of the flows in the channel Thus, it is apparent that
example, a manufacturer may identify a conflict in its indepen-
inducing all of the channel members to implement the channel
dent-distributor channel: The distributorship is exerting too
design appropriately is critical.
little sales effort on behalf of the manufacturers product line
How, then, can a channel captain implement the optimal and therefore sales of the product are suffering. Analysis might
channel design, in the face of interdependence among channel reveal that the effort level is low because the distributorship
partners, not all of whom have the incentive to cooperate in the makes more profit from selling a competitors product than
performance of their designated channel flows? The answer lies from selling this manufacturers product. There is thus a goal
in the possession and use of channel power. A channel conflict. The manufacturers goal is the maximization of profit
members power is its ability to control the decision variables over its own product line, but the distributorships goal is the
in the marketing strategy of another member in a given channel maximization of profit over all of the products that it sells-
at a different level of distribution. These sources of channel only some of which come from this particular manufacturer. To
power can of course be used to further one channel members resolve the goal conflict, the manufacturer might use one of the
individual ends. But if channel power is used instead to following strategies:
influence channel members to do t_ jobs that the optimal
1. It might use some of its power to reward the distributor
channel design specifies that they do, the result will be a channel
by increasing the distributors discount, thus increasing the
that more closely delivers demanded service outputs, at a lower
profit margin it can make on the manufacturers product
cost.
line. Or
Channel Implementation: Identifying 2. the manufacturer may invest in developing brand equity
Channel Conflicts and thus pull the product through the channel. In that
Channel conflict is generated when one channel members case, its brand power induces the distributor to sell the
actions prevent the channel from achieving its goals. Channel product more aggressively because the sales potential for
conflict is both common and dangerous to the success of the product has risen.
distribution efforts. Given the interdependence of all channel
members, anyone members actions have an influence on the
163
In both cases, some sort of leverage or power on the part of Points to Ponder
the manufacturer is necessary to change the distributors

behavior and thus reduce the channel conflict.
Channel Implementation: Channel Design Decisions
The Goal of Channel Coordination
Now channel has been designed with target end-user segments Fo rmulating channel objectives
service output demands in mind, and channel power will be
Identifying channel functions
appropriately applied to ensure the smooth implementation of
the optimal channel design. When the disparate members of Linking Channel Design to Product Characteristics
the channel are brought together to advance the goals of the Evaluation
Evaluationof
ofthe
theDistribution
DistributionEnvironment
Environment
channel rather than their own independent (and likely conflict-
ing) goals, the channel is said to be coordinated. This term is Evaluation of Competitor's Channel Designs
used to denote both the coordination of interests and actions
among the channel members who produce the outputs of the Matching the Channel Design to Company Resources
marketing channel, sand the coordination of performance of Evaluating

Evaluatingthe
theAlternatives
Alternativesand
andSelecting
Selectingthe
theBest
Best
channel flows with the production of the service outputs
demanded by target end-users. This is the end goal of the entire
channel management process. As conditions change in the
marketplace, the channels design and implementation may need
to respond; thus, channel coordination is not a one-time
achievement, but an ongoing process of analysis and response
to the market, the competition, and the abilities of the mem-
bers of the channel.
Notes -
CHANNEL DESIGN: SEGMENTATION

POSITIONING
TARGETING
164
Channel Conflict
A clash of goals and methods between

distribution channel members.
Horizontal
Horizontal Occurs
Occurs among
among channel
channel members
members
Conflict
Conflict on
on the
thesame
samelevel
level
Vertical
Vertical Occurs
Occurs among
among channel
channel members
members
Conflict
Conflict at
atdifferent
differentlevels
levels
Questions
Q1. What are the steps in channel design?
Q2. How does product life cycle influence channel choice?
Q3. What do you mean by segmentation, positioning and
targeting in channel design?
Q4. How do you refine existing channel?
Q5. How is channel conflict managed?
165
LESSON 31
SELECTION OF APPROPRIATE CHANNELS
Learning Objective Social Environment

To know how environmental factors affect channel Changes occur in:
selection. Collapse of tradition and structures
SWOT Analysis of company for channel selection New education, new expectations, new motivations.
To understand dealer selection process. New life styles, mobility, quality of life, health care.
Let us study the environmental factors which will affect channel Consumerism/ecology/anti-business attitudes
selection. Unemployment and shorter working time
The New Business Environment Crime/terrorism
Conditions are changing simultaneously in different fields, Participate working conditions
social, political, economic and technological, and they are often
in conflict. It is difficult to forecast the area where changes will Political Environment
most affect business. For each specific business, it is important The political environment is subject to
to keep in touch with the key changes in each area of the Nationalism versus grouping of industries
business environment and to update the forecast. .Higher government intervention/trade and job
Technological Environment protection.
This is probably the easiest to identify: Price control and income equalisation
Accumulated technical knowledge (general exponential Political instability/wars
curve)
Relative importance of the external factors
World-wide communications system (transport, satellites, Generally speaking, the changes in social environment and to
etc.) some extent the political factors will play a much larger part in
Data processing (mini-computers, data banks, office shaping the business environment than they did in the past.
systems, electronic mail (E-mail)) General Impact of Environmental Changes on
New processes aimed at lower energy consumption and Business
higher feed/raw material utilization, new energy sources . Coping with the changing environment is already a difficult
High investment cost. task; the difficulty appears larger when it is realised that not only
New technology for basic human needs (biotechnology, is the number of changes high, but the difference in quality is
synthetic food, genetic engineering) even more striking. Most conditions show fundamental
differences with past history and knowledge, as well as the past
Economic Environment and even the current approach to business theories and
This changes in the following areas: management. Things are not only drastically different, they
Obsolescence of all past theories change quickly, much faster than they did in the industrial
Irrelevance of past extrapolation revolution during the 19th century. These fast changes are
therefore very difficult, if not impossible, to foresee; they create
World-wide population growth, but concentrated in certain
business turbulence and unexpected crises at short notice;
areas
instability, discontinuity and uncertainty seem to characterise the
High energy/raw material costs present years and this situation will continue until the world
Inflation coupled with lower economic growth (stagflation) reaches a new period of stability in all these respects.
Monetary instability and disparity between developed Evaluation
countries All these changes can be frightening and leave one wondering
(DC)/Organization of Petroleum-Exporting Countries whether the ordinary business executive can cope with them;
(OPEC) and LDC. whether the human gap is not too great. However, there is no
Shortage of capital, credit squeeze, very selective choice, so one might as well adopt a responsible and positive
investments attitude instead of a passive and negative one.
Shortage of people able to understand the new The serenity prayer says:
environment In most businesses, a change in environment can be considered
Potential shortage of food world-wide either as a threat or as a new opportunity depending on the
point of view. A newly industrialised nation can be considered
as a threat (cheap competition) or an opportunity (new market).
166
While excessive inflation is a nightmare for most governments, b. Seasonal variation, causing inventory problems;

it is viewed as an opportunity by many businesses. Increasing c. Unit value of the product;
crime is a frightening trend to most people; but security
d. Inventory investment required; and
companies consider it as an opportunity for more business.
e. Customer service requirements.
It is important to conduct a rational and systematic analysis of
the future impact of each environmental factor on a specific 2. Technical nature: whether
business; and to avoid being trapped in a last minute crisis, a. A simple or complex product;
under the pressure of events, when it may be too late to adjust b. Advice is needed on product use;
to them. This analysis can be set out in the following manner.
c. Installation is needed or
I. Environmental Factor: Technological d. Special training is needed.,
a. Degree of change: high/low 3. Length of product line: This consists of a group of
b. Probability of occurrence: high/low products related either from a production or a marketing
c. Implication: opportunity or threat standpoint. Intermediaries are preferable own sales force
when the line is short. Decisions must be made whether
2. Environmental Factor: Economic etc.
to use a single channel for the entire line or split the line
The probability level associated with each factor is a basic and use multiple channels.
ingredient of any potential environment scenario and concerns 4. Market position: An established product made and
the risk evaluation of each future business strategy. Thus the promoted by a reputable manufacturer may have a high
systematic evaluation of opportunities and threats is a key part degree of market acceptance and can be readily sold
of the overall process of strategic business planning. through more channels than a lesser known product.
The Importance of Swot Analyses Market Factors
Answers to the following five essential questions, asked
periodically, will provide clues to gaining advantage over 1. Existing market structure: This includes traditional modes
competitors: of operation, geographical factors, size and placement of
the population, etc.
What are our companys unique strengths or aspects
which give us competitive advantage over our close 2. Nature of the purchase deliberation: The amount of
competitors? deliberation by the buyer before purchase differs from
product to product. Frequent purchases need more buyer-
What are our relative strengths in comparison to our seller contacts and intermediaries are indicated. Formal
nearest competitors? specifications and competitive bids may be used in
What are our weak flanks which we have to guard? purchasing certain industrial products.
What are the weak points of our competitors which we 3. Availability of the channel: Existing channels may not be
can attack? interested in new products. The promoter can either
What ideas do the foregoing give us in terms of persuade them or use aggressive promotion to stimulate
opportunities? consumer demand on the theory that this will force the
To do this, it is necessary to make an analysis of the strengths, intermediaries to carry the product in order to satisfy the
weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOTs) faced by the customers.
company and the distributor. Since the market-place, the Institutional Factors
conditions and the competitors may be different as far as each 1. Financial ability of channel members: Manufacturers may
distributor is concerned, it is important to start afresh in each find it necessary to aid their retailers through direct
case. This analysis must be undertaken at least once a year. financing; willingness to extend credit can influence channel
Marketing and Channel Flows acceptance. Conversely, mass retailers sometimes finance
The above analysis of a companys SWOTs must be augmented their suppliers.
by similar analyses of the other channel members. The number 2. Promotional ability of channel members: Wholesalers
of members in a particular channel can vary according to the cannot aggressively promote particular products, but
length and width of the channel strategy a company adopts. exclusive distributors usually join the manufacturer in
A Checklist for Selecting the Most doing so. Manufacturers assume this function in the case
Appropriate Channels of national brands, while the promotion of private brands
usually rests on the mass retailer or wholesaler who
Product Factors establishes the brand name.
Four product variables must be weighed in channel selection.
3. Post-sales service ability: The after-sales service, with or
I. Physical nature: the variations that influence the decision without a warranty, may be performed by the manufacturer,
are: the retail distributor or an independent service
a. Perishability of the product, whether physical or due to organization. This ability affects channel selection.
fashion;
167
The channel Decision Dealer Selection
This is made by a combination of intuition and analysis, and Dealer selection is the first task in the process of dealer manage-
the exercise of judgment. The decision is complicated by the ment. It is obvious that a firm has to be very careful in selecting
interdependencies existing between relevant factors. While it is its dealers. It has to ensure that those selected for dealership
difficult to quantify the many trade-offs associated with channel possess certain essential qualifications. Some of these qualifica-
decisions, certain tools can be applied to them. Cost analysis tions are common ones, irrespective of the product lines
techniques will give reasonable estimates of each channel cost. involved; others are product specific. Financial strength,
System analysis involves trade-offs in time, service and costs in business capacity, creditworthiness and salesmanship form part
order to maximize profits in the long run. Quantitative of the common qualifications.
comparisons are made between alternative production runs,
Qualifications/Attributes to be Looked for
inventory holding levels, transport modes, customer service
A detailed checklist of the qualifications/attributes to be looked
standards, order transmission, processing systems, etc. This
into while selecting dealers is furnished in above chart. The
must involve computer-oriented modelling techniques owing
criteria can be modified appropriately, depending on the product
to the large number of variables to be considered.
characteristics, the marketing environment and the objectives of
In recent years, significant environmental changes have taken the firm.
place:
In practice, however, it is difficult for any firm to locate dealers
1. Trend towards a short-order economy - the increase in possessing all the qualifications and attributes enumerated in
inventory has meant that the best decision is to order the chart. Obviously, one has to compromise. Out of the
frequently, forcing the primary supplier to carry the available candidates, the firm has to select those who have the
necessary inventory. potential to be a good dealer. Then, it should build them into
2. Rapid expansion of product lines - this generates effective and strong dealers through a sustained process of
obsolescence and stock availability problems as well as development. If the product requires a specialised distributor,
inventory imbalance. as in the case of industrial products, the choice must be made
3. Price differentials and discounts - legally speaking, these accordingly;
have to be cost-justified. Firms which are well established in the market and those that
4. Competitive strategies - at one time they centered on which possess certain unique strengths in terms of product,
product features and price; now the emphasis is on indirect brand, service, etc., will enjoy a wider choice when they set out
competition such as outperforming competitors on logistic to appoint dealers. Their reputation and brand equity will pull
planning and customer service. in a large number of applicants who are above average in the
required attributes. In contrast, for firms yet to be established,
The members of a marketing channel are interconnected by
the choice base will be small. Such firms may have to initially
several different factors:
accept those who prepared to take up the dealership and build a
1. The product line from manufacturer to end-user good network over a period of time.
2. The flow of ownership from member to member The Net must be Cast intelligently
3. The cash flow as payments are made by one member to Effective dealer recruitment depends in the first place on the
another firms ability to attract applications from the right candidates.
4. The exchange of information between channel members Advertisements will no doubt be of help in this regard. But
5. The advertising and sales promotion directed by channel they must be developed carefully. The companies and ad
members towards other members or end-users. agencies must have the expertise needed for developing effective
dealer recruitment ads.
Now we will study how a dealer is selected?
Qualifications/Attributes to be Looked for in Prospective
Dealer Wanted Ads
The first test of a good dealer wanted ad is no doubt its
Dealers
attention grabbing strength among the prospects. The second
test is the ads ability to coax the stronger ones among them to
Qualifications/ Attributes to be Looked for in Prospective respond to the proposition being made. In the present times,
Dealers
Business reputation/standing Capacity to provide with more brands crowding the marketplace, the premium on
Business capacity storage facilities, dealers shelf space is increasing exponentially; It needs a well-
Salesmanship showrooms, shops, service
workshops, salesmen and thought out and well-written dealer ad to bring in the right
Expertise / experience in the
line service personnel response. The communication must put across the proposition
commensurate with the
Financial capacity and forcefully; while many companies give dealer wanted ads, only
business
willingness to invest in the line
Positive attitude towards a few do a good job of it. Cited below are a few effective dealer
Creditworthiness
the company
Capacity to offer assortments
Good relations with: wanted ads.
of products and
Consumers
services required by the
Opinion leaders in the area
customers
Government officials and
Capacity and willingness to others (as applicable,
extend credit to customers depending on the nature of
the business.
168
Choosing the Channel Intensity

Nanz Dealer wanted Ad
While two firms may go for the same channel design, they may
An Invitation to be a NANZ franchisee need different intensities. It depends on the position of the
firm its objectives and strategies, its sales, profits, and market
Open your own NANZ Lobill Store for If you are financially strong and ready
the customers in your area, if you for financial investments upwards of coverage, present and projected, and its resources. For example,
have Rs. 25 lakh. Maruti and Mitsubishi India, being passenger car firms
Premises with an area of 1,000 sq. ft or Franchisees of leading petrol/service
more in a well-located commercial stations who are willing to add on operating in the same market, may opt for similar channel
market near a residential complex of convenience stores of an area of about design. But they may settle for different channel intensity;
potential customers (ground floor 1000 sq.ft. are also invited to apply.
preferred). Parking space for vehicles preferred. Maruti has a massive network consisting of 144 sales outlets,
Your business standards are high and 175 dealer workshops and 750 authorised service stations across
you have the motivation and ambition
to recognize the growing potential of India. Mitsubishi has not gone in for similar intensity.
retailing.
In fact, a firm would be ill-advised to adopt without question
the channel intensity of another firm, even if the latter were the
The Nanz ad: The Nanz ad is another example. The Nanz industry leader. What suits one may not suit the other. Blindly
Lobill chain stores were to be run by franchisees. The approach following another firms channel pattern and intensity will land
of Escorts-Nanz in this regard could be understood from the the firm in trouble. Recent experience of some well-known
ads put out by them towards locating prospective franchisees. MNC FMCG firms in India will clearly amplify this point.
Below table shows how choosing channel intensity wrongly
Evaluating the Alternatives and Selecting the Best
landed P & G and Nestle in trouble.
With the completion of the foregoing steps, the number of
alternatives would have narrowed down considerably; The firm
must evaluate these alternative designs and choose the best Levels of Distribution Intensity
among them. Actually, two distinct evaluations-an economic Number
Number of
Number of
Intensity
Intensity Level
Level Objective
Objective
Objective
evaluation and a conceptual evaluation-may be necessary. Intermediaries
Intermediaries
Intermediaries
Economic evaluation; balancing cost, efficiency and risk: Achieve
Achievemass
massmarket
market
Intensive
Intensive selling. Many
Cost and efficiency are the two main parameters in economic selling.
Convenience
Many
Convenience goods.
goods.
evaluation. Often, though not necessarily, the two are directly
Work
Work with
with selected
selected
proportional. The firm has to rate the risk associated with the intermediaries.
in termed iaries.
SSelective
elective Several
Several
different alternatives. The firms choice is a compromise among Shopping
Shopping and some
and some
specialty
specialty goods.
goods.
the three parameters. The first step here is the determination of Work
Work with
with single
single
the sales volume that can be obtained through each alternative Exclusive
intermediary.
intermediary. Specialty
Specialty On e
Exclusive goods
goodsand
and industrial
industrial
One
design. Second, the costs of selling that volume through that equipment.
equipment.
alternative have to be assessed. In other words, the firm
determines the unit cost of selling in each of the alternatives.
The firm chooses the one, which is attractive from the cost vs Wrong Choice of Channel Intensity : P & G and Nestle
efficiency angle and is also relatively less risky. P & G, Nestle and HLL are FMCG companies It now confined itself to Class I and Class II towns,
operating in India. P & G and Nestle thought that and exited practically all rural areas. Only for some
Conceptual evaluation; flexibility and controllability: it would be appropriate for them to follow the HLL select products like Vicks Action-500, it continued
channel model. It was only after losing some its distribution in rural areas.
Conceptual evaluation is also equally important. It has to be precious money and time that they realised that they
neither needed no could afford channel intensity on
used for assessing the flexibility and controllability of the the HLL pattern.
It also reduced the number of pack sizes in which it
offered its products as another measure towards
alternative. It is possible that economic evaluation points to one reducing distribution costs.
HLL maintains a channel consisting of over a
particular alternative as superior, while conceptual evaluation million retail points and 7,500 distributors, the Nestle too decided to move away from the HLL
largest in the country. The arrangement has suited model. Earlier, embracing the HLL model, it had
gives it a low rating. For example, a marketer-oriented channel HLL very well. gone in for high channel-intensity. For example,
design may show merit in terms of unit cost of selling, but HLL has a large basket of products and brands
between 1993and 1996, Nestle had added on 350,00
retail points to its distribution network in India, the
may show severe limitations from the standpoints of controlla- covering every possible price/ bulk of them in smaller towns and rural areas.
demographic/geographic segment. At the last
bility/flow of market feedback as well as requirements of count, it had over 110 actively selling brands. As its sales were nowhere near the HLL level, it
HLLs marketing channel has to naturally cover could not sustain the channel intensity. It reduced
long-term market development. With conceptual evaluation, every income group and every geographical it considerably. It also compressed its product mix
segment in the country. And HLL has an annual
the firm can also check out whether the alternative is compatible sales turnover of over Rs. 10,000 crore.
and product line. It now concentrated on products
in which it was traditionally strongmilk products
with its business objectives. P & G and Nestle were different from HLL in all
and beveragesand weeded out the low-profit
products from the portfolio.
these respects.
Some Vital Aspects in Finalising the Channel It also went in for tighter market targeting and
The job is not over with the selection of the basic channel Moreover, the HLL model comes with its
associated costs. Setting up marketing networks in
limited its attention to urban population. In fact, it
limited its focus to roughly half of the urban
design. Within a given design, .different arrangements are rural areas and small towns takes both time and
money. HLL had incurred the associated
population.
possible. It means that further decisions are needed. The investment and had absorbed a dent on its With these moves, it could reduce the cost of
bottomline on this account over the past several servicing the channel. Its new policy was to be on
important aspects to be decided are: years, and it is not affected currently by this perpetual guard in the matter of channel intensity,
strategy. limiting it to the level warranted by its sales and
Channel intensity profitspresent and planned.
After learning the lessons the hard way, P & G
Number of tiers decided to forget the HLL model and drastically
downsized its distribution.
The appropriate variant within the design
169
Choosing the Number of Tiers Correctly
Exiting an Established Channel Structure is Difficult: P&G Example

The second decision concerns the number of tiers. How many
tiers should the channel have? This issue is related in a way to As mentioned earlier, P&G had P & G also went in for the ECP (efficient
consumer response) approach. ECP
channel intensity; In a majority of cases, the choice will be embraced a highly intensive, two-
focuses on containing costs and improving
tier channel structure in India. It bottomlines. In the ECP approach, stocks
between single tier and two tiers, while in a few cases, firms may are replenished at the retail shop at more
was more or less akin to the
find it necessary to go in for a three-tier channel. When a firm frequent intervals. This enables the
channel structure of HLL. retailers to operate with smaller
opts for a sole-selling agency or marketer, the latter will be have inventories. And consequently, a cut in
retailers margin would be in order.
their own channel arrangement and the tiers that operate under Over the year, it become clear to P & G that it did
not need such a structure, as in business growth and
them automatically become a part of the firms channel. pattern of sale, it differed from HLL. P & G then
P & G drastically cut the trade margins on
its best selling products. It cut stockist
went in for a reorganisation of the channel set-up.
The decision depends on a number of factors. In a given It has to face several problems.
margin from 10 to 3 per cent and retailer
margin from 12 to 8 per cent.
business, a particular channel pattern might have taken roots
P & G had earlier gone in for nearly 200 stockists
and there may be some advantage in going along with the and 4,000 dealers all over the country. But sales
P & G did inform the stockists beforehand
about the new scheme. But, many
had remained limited. A large number of the
established trade pattern. The product characteristics are perhaps stockists and dealers were not notching up enough
stockists had set up a lot of infrastructure
over the past two decades, much of its
the most important consideration. For example, for selling sales. In other words, P & Gs channel productivity
specifically for marketing P & G products,
had become low. The company was incurring a
passenger cars, a firm need have only a single-tier distribution disproportionately large cost on channel .
and with the loss of P & G stockist role,
they faced financial hardship. They went
Moreover, the companys sales were coming
channel. Here, the intermediaries at one level can effectively link primarily from the urban market, as this market
on a warpath. In a collective bargaining
move, most of them banned P & G
the maker buyer. In a product like toothpastes, or cosmetics, or alone was willing to pay the premium price, which P
products. The retailers too, especially
& G normally charged for its Products.
those in mofussil areas, went on a war-path
cigarettes it may be necessary to have a two or three-tier channel and banned P & G products.
pattern in view of the mass nature of the product. It may be P & G then downsized and revamped its channel
structure, drastically pruning the number of
difficult to achieve adequacy of market coverage in such stockists. In the revised scheme, it appointed state-
wise sole distributors and derecognised more than
products, with just a single tier of marketing intermediaries. 150 ongoing stockists in the bargain. At the retail
level too, thousands of dealers became a casualty.
Source: Economic Times

So, the choice depends on the context. The governing principle
is that the chosen channel must have the capability to sell the
product and to provide the required market coverage. It should
also ensure that the user gets the products with the minimum
of effort or strain on his part. And it must be cost-effective.
The channel must also be amenable to the control of the
company to the extent required for operating the marketing
system.
In recent years, as a general trend, the number of tiers in the
distribution channels is getting shorter. Businesses that used to
have a three-tier structure earlier now have a two-tier structure
Comparative merits of single-tier and two-tier channel: and those with a two-tier structure earlier are now trying to
The single-tier and two tier channel patterns have their associ- manage with a single- tier channel. And often, the axe falls on
ated advantages and disadvantages. The single-tier pattern the stockists. Asian Paints, again, is an example. It chose, as a
provides better motivation to each member in the channel, as in matter of conscious policy, a single-tier channel-going directly to
such a pattern, the trade discount is available in full measure to the retail trade.
the retailer. The pattern also brings in savings to the firm by the Selecting Appropriate Variant within a Given Design
avoidance of multiple transport and handling. The firm can also Usually, within a given channel design different variants can be
service all the outlets directly in this pattern. But, the pattern thought of. For example, firm I: A and firm B may opt for the
involves greater administrative burden for the firm. It will have same channel design consisting of conventional wholesalers
to perform many functions that could otherwise be passed on and retailers. Still, their approaches within the model can vary
to the channel. It will have to increase the number of field from one another. Firm A may opt for a wholesaler-weighted
storage points and the size of sales force to make up for the system, while firm B for a retailer-weighted system. For
absence of the wholesale middlemen. The pattern may also example, Nirma Chemicals distributes Nirma soap with a
sometimes result in inadequate market coverage. The two-tier wholesaler-weighted system. In contrast, HLL distributes its
pattern helps quicker outflow of stocks and more intensive Lifebuoy in the same market through a retailer-weighted
coverage of the market. But, it results in lower profits to system. Nirma off-loads the product on the wholesalers at a
retailers as the available trade margin has to be shared between larger discount; the retailers buy the product from the wholesal-
two tiers. It also weakens the principals control over the outfit ers. HLL reaches out directly to a large number of retailers,
compared with a single-tier pattern. using wholesalers! C&F agents to the extent necessary:
The two variants have their associated advantages and disadvan-
tages. For instance. the wholesaler-oriented system obviates the
need for a large sales force, thereby resulting in considerable
170
savings in related costs. But, brand building may suffer Points to Ponder

somewhat in that system. The firms have to study in detail the
trade-off between the two approaches and have to see which
one would best suit the firm.
An Eye on the Future is Essential Channel Design Decisions
Once a channel structure is created and channel members are put
in place and channel compensations are streamlined, it will be Analyzing Consumer Service Needs
difficult for the firm to exit from that structure and put an Setting Channel Objectives & Constraints
alternative in its place. Therefore, as a general rule, an eye on the
future is essential while adopting a channel system and struc- Identifying Major Alternatives
ture. Exhibit illustrates this point with the example of P&G.
Intensive Selective Exclusive
The example clearly illustrates the difficulties involved in altering Distribution Distribution Distribution
an ongoing channel structure.
Evaluating the Major Alternatives
One Unified System
We saw in the preceding chapter that for the optimisation of Designing International Distribution Channels
the physical distribution task, all elements of physical distribu-
tion/marketing logistics, such as transportation, warehousing
and inventory management, must be handled as a single,
unified system. In the same way. the firm has to handle
wholesaling, retailing and other forms of selling as one unified
system and not as separate entities. The linkage among them in
terms of functions, costs and efficiency being quite strong,
looking at them as independent entities will lead to sub-
optimisation of the channel management task as a whole.
Compensation provided to the different tiers has also to be
properly intertwined, since the functions performed by the
different tiers are inter. twined.
Building Channel System by Bottom-up Method
The purpose of having marketing channels is to serve customer
needs effectively. This means that the prime task in channel Channel Strategy Decisions
design is to determine the type of retailers who are best suited
to serve customer needs in the specific context and develop the Issues
Issues that
thatInfluence
Influence
distribution system by the bottom-up method. Once the type Channel
ChannelStrategy
Strategy
of retailers suited for the context is determined, the wholesaling
arrangement that would best suit the chosen retail arrangement Factors
Factors Levels
Levels
Levels of
of
Affecting
Affecting
can be chosen and put in place. Channel
Channel
Distribution
Distribution
Distribution
Choice Intensity
Intensity
Intensity
Choice
Creating and Administering the Channel Choice
Fixing the channel design is only one part of channel manage- Market
Market Factors
Factors Intensive
Intensive Distribution
Distribution
ment. Creating the channel and administering it effectively is the
Product
Product Factors
Factors Selective
Selective Distribution
Distribution
other, and bulkier, part of the job. After deciding the design of
the channel and the number of tiers in the channel, the firm has Producer
Producer Factors
Factors Exclusive
Exclusive Distribution
Distribution
to decide the number of members needed in each tier and their
locations. It has to select suitable persons establishments and
appoint them as stockists, distributors and dealers, as the case
may be. It has to administer them, service them and motivate
them.
171
Questions
Levels of Distribution Intensity Q1. What environmental factors affect channel selection?
Q2. Why should companies go for SWOT analysis for channel
Intensity
Intensity Level
Level Objective
Objective
Number
Number of
of selection?
Intermediaries
Intermediaries
Intermediaries
Q3. Describe how a dealer is selected?
Achieve
Achievemass
massmarket
market
Intensive
Intensive selling.
selling. Many
Many
Convenience
Conveniencegoods.
goods.
Work
Workwith
withselected
selected
intermediaries.
intermediaries.
Selective Several
Several
Selective Shopping
Shoppingandand some
some
specialty
specialtygoods.
goods.
Work
Work with
with single
single
intermediary.
intermediary.Specialty
Specialty
Exclusive
Exclusive goods and industrial
One
One
goods and industrial
equipment.
equipment.
Number of Channel Levels

(Fig. 12.2, p. 434)
Channel Level - Each Layer of Marketing Intermediaries that
Perform Some Work in Bringing the Product and its Ownership
Closer to the Final Buyer.
Channel 1
Direct Channel
MM CC
Channel 2 Indirect Channel

MM RR CC
Channel 3
MM W
W RR CC
Channel 4
MM W
W JJ RR CC
172
LESSON 32
CHANNEL MANAGEMENT
Learning Objective In some cases, manufacturers supply their products directly to

How to manage the channel network certain specialised channels select consumers bypassing the
appointed wholesale functionaries in the territory; Such buyers
To understand the trade relation mix
usually prefer, as a matter of policy, to deal with the principal
To know how channel members are appraised rather than the wholesaler of the area. The wholesaler of the
To understand the need of channel member training area often expects some compensation for such sales that take
In this lesson let us study about how channel members are place in his territory: The manufacturers some times cover the
managed. wholesalers with an overriding commission for such sales. At
other times, they do not provide any compensation whatsoever.
Managing The Channel Member The important point is that the firm must have settled in
Developing the channel design, recruiting intermediaries and advance the policy in this regard with their wholesalers. The
inducting them into company are not everyday tasks in channel agreement between the firm and the wholesaler must specify
management. It is the administration and management of the whether and to what extent the wholesaler will be covered on
distribution network that constitutes the everyday task here. We such sales.
shall examine task in detail.
Trade Margin
Component Tasks in Managing the Intermediaries Trade margin is the No.1 element in trade relations mix.
The task of managing a distribution network has several Channel member invariably look for whole-some, juicy margin.
components as shown in the below chart The principals invariably try to peg it as modest as possible. The
Determining the Trade Relations Mix point to be noted here is that the margin must be sufficient to
Evidently, developing the trade relations mix is the first task in enable the dealer to gain a reasonable return on his investment.
distribution management. As shown in the chart A the trade Present-day dealers as a rule, expect larger margin: In the
relations mix or relations between a firm (principal) and its earlier days, dealers managed to operate their outlets with
members revolve largely around the following four factors: modest trade margins. First, their investment in infrastructure
Territory of operation was relatively low and they were able to make a profit even with
Trade margin a modest margin. Second, their expectation of profit was also
relatively low. In recent years, the position has been changing
Functions which the channel member have to perform
rapidly; First, the new generation dealers adopt a more contem-
Functions which the firm has to perform porary approach to retailing. Accordingly, their investment in the
Territory of Operation business infrastructure is much larger. They go in for attractive
The firm must settle the issue of territory in a fair manner. shops/showrooms; they periodically renovate and redecorate
Territory has significance at wholesale as well as retail levels. the premises; they also employ skilled and better trained
Different businesses have different requirements and different salesmen. All this naturally pushes up their investment in
practices in this regard. FMCG businesses, for example, supply infrastructure and their overheads. Running costs too have been
their products to practically all retail outlets; they do not assign going up. Added to this, the expectation of the new generation
any territory as such to any retailer; they assign territories only to dealers in the matter of profit is also considerably higher
distributors, redistribution stockists, and C&F agents. Durables compared to the earlier day dealers.
marketers on the contrary, operate through a limited number of Paradigm shift from gross margin to retained earning:
dealers in each town. Usually in these lines, territories are Thus, in the contemporary scene, in most cases, the manufac-
assigned to the dealers; even where territories are not exclusively turers have to willy-nilly settle for a higher outflow towards
assigned, an understanding is often worked out. dealer margin. It also becomes necessary for them to accept a
paradigm shift in this matter-from gross margin to retained
Chart A Component Tasks in Managing the Network earning. They are required to hike the dealer margin to a level
Fixing the trade relations mix Securing shelf space and that would fetch the dealer a reasonable retained earning after
Territory of operation merchandising support
meeting all his normal expenses. They are also required to
Trade margin from
Functions which the dealers dealers collaborate with their dealers and help them achieve a larger
have to perform Dealer motivation turnover and greater retailing productivity, so that at a given
Functions which the firm has
Performance appraisal of level of trade margin, their retained earning is higher.
dealers
to perform In the matter of margins, the way it is structured and allocated
Servicing the dealer
Dealer training and
development among the different tiers/levels in the channel is as important
Resolving channel conflicts as the total quantum. There are several instances where firms
173
have suffered in their marketing endeavour on account of Functions the Principals have to Perform
defective structuring and improper allocation of the margin

Building the Brand
among the different levels of the channel.
Dealers always want their principals to provide them a winning
Hawkins Pressure Cookers brand. Discriminating dealers give far more emphasis to the
Let us understand this with an example of Hawkins pressure firms performance on the brand front rather than the trade
cookers. They gained market dominance by recasting the margin margin offered by the firm. They hesitate to take dealership of
structure. weak brands even if they offer very attractive margins. And, they
are happy to deal strong brands even if the margins offered are
Hawkins Gains by Recasting Dealer Margins low.
Till the 1970s, Prestige pressure The actual costs to the sole
cooker, manufactured by the distributor, Killick-Nixon, and Functions, the Principals have to Perform
TTK group, was the leader in the the distributors amounted to just
Indian pressure cookers market, 2 to3 per cent. Yet, they were Supply quality products
outselling Hawkins. Prestige had keeping a very high share of the Build the brand and keep it a winner
a strong distribution network. margin for themselves, 33 per
Hawkins had in its favour a good cent and 10 per cent, Regular, adequate and prompt supply of the product
product design. In spite of its respectively. Against this, the
superior product design, retailers, who had to incur all
Effective servicing
Hawkins sales were much lower major expenses on the Advertising and sales promotion support
than that of Prestige, largely as a distribution of the product
result of its distribution storage cost, cost of inventories, They overwhelmingly vote for products/brands that move
weakness. and cost of shop/personal from the shelf without any need for pushing. Likewise, they
The actual problem was that the received only 7 per cent.
retailers were getting only a small In the revamping exercise, as a
vote for products and brands that make their customers come
share of the total trade margin, first step, Hawkins dispensed back to their shops with enthusiasm. They also prefer prod-
while the sole distributor and the with the sole-selling arrangement ucts/brands that provide them volume margins rather than
regional distributors were with Killick-Nixon and took the
value margins. Dealers have to put in a lot of their time. Effort.
allowed to keep a large portion of distribution responsibility into its
the margin for themselves. own hands. Then, it recast the shelf space and money on the various products that they deal
In the 1970s, Hawkins overtook margin structure thoroughly. in, and they certainly do not want to get stuck with a weak
Prestige and became the market It set up four regional
brand. In particular, when a company offers a new brand the dealers
leader. It attained a market share distributors (subsequently, the
of 30 per cent as against number went up to 15) and want to be sure that the company would continue with the
Prestiges 21 per cent and increased their margins to 20 per brand and build it well.
Uniteds 10.5 per cent. It was by cent. They were made to pass on
streamlining the distribution and 14 per cent to the retailers. Regular; Adequate and Prompt Supply
recasting the margin structure The doubling of the margin to Regular supply of the product by the principal is another major
that Hawkins achieved the feat. the retailers played a substantial
Till the 1970s, Hawkins was role in the increased sales and concern of the dealer. If the firm is unable to supply the
using Kellick-Nixon as the sole market share of Hawkins. product regularly after he has pushed the brand with his
distributor for the product. It The company also introduced customers, he not only loses face with them, but also runs the
was paying Kellick-Nixon, 50 per several trade promotion schemes
cent of the list price as to enlist the enthusiastic
danger of losing out his other business.
distribution margin. But, the participation of the retailers in Effective Servicing
latter was passing on just 17 per promoting the brand.
cent to the distributors, retaining We shall cover this point in the section on servicing and
33 per cent for itself. The administering the dealer.
distributors in turn were passing
on a mere 7 per cent to the Advertising and Sales Promotion Support
retailers. Dealers also expect adequate advertising and sales promotion
support from the principal, In particular, they expect good
Functions Which channel has to Perform point of purchase promotion support. Such support. besides
They have to perform the following essential functions helping them to achieve higher sales, also serves as a good
normally expected by their principals. motivation.
Functions are Trade Relations Mix must Provide Satisfaction to both
Help establish the brand in the market Dealer and Principal
Help achieve the sales targets The name of the game is to ensure that the trade relations mix
provides satisfaction to the dealer as well as the principal. The
Provide adequate shelf space
firm must offer a viable business proposition to the dealer.
Provide merchandising support That is the baseline, It must also remember that dealers act
Provide service to consumers more as a purchasing agent for the consumers than as a selling
Make prompt payments agent for the principal. And, it must hence enthuse the dealers
by supplying products/brands. which they would be happy to
Maintain fair trade practices
purchase on behalf of their customers.
Provide winning store image
Servicing and Administering the Dealers
Dealers expect effective servicing from the firm. Prompt supply
of the product is one part of effective servicing. Prompt supply
174
of the product helps the dealers not only to achieve larger sales. could it get it by touting its bazaar power of a million retail

But also faster turnover and lower cost on inventory carrying. outlets. The dealers wanted to be convinced about the con-
Technical support is the other part. Technical support must be sumer preference for the brand before he considered it for shelf
forthcoming promptly from the firm wherever necessary. In any space and display. Mter all, he now had the choice of a whole
bazaar, one can see several cases of retailers switching their host of products brands with international affiliations and he
loyalty from one company to another purely on the basis of could pick and choose the products/brands to which he would
their servicing standard. allot shelf space.
Effective servicing; example of Electrolux: In the white Many companies are now running special communication
goods business, Electrolux has scored an edge through effective programmes with a view to acquainting retailers with their
servicing of dealers. They have picked up one crucial aspect in products and brands, and convincing them of the benefit that
servicing-replenishment of stocks-and have scored high. They would accrue to them if they patronised them. Companies are
have enabled their dealers to achieve larger sales and simulta- also now forced to meet a major part of the expenses involved
neously reduce their inventor~ Now, they can draw their in display in the shops. In fact, they are even expected to meet
supplies from a ring of warehouses around the country and the expenses of general decoration of the shops. ITC, for
receive the stocks within 24 hours. Electrolux has actually example, has been earmarking a substantial portion of its
reached a point where its dealers need not carry any inventory at promotional budget to the decoration of retail outlets. The
all; the company delivers the products directly to the consumer, company now sets up at its cost special counters, which add
once the dealer enters the order on his computer, which is considerable glamour to the shop and serve as point of sale
connected to companys stock points. Earlier, the dealers had to advertising.
wait for two weeks or more; they had to carry heavy inventory; Today, in most companies, merchandising accounts for more
to avoid lost sales due to stock outs. than 15 per cent of the total marketing spend. Many companies
Regular visits by field force: Largely, the field sales force of are also devising their own quality control checks on merchan-
the company/its C&F agents stockists provides dealer servicing. dising fronts. Kellogg has about 20 staffers doing the rounds
The dealers expect regular visits by the field sales force, so that of the outlets once every fortnight. And, at Pepsi, the merchan-
seated in their shop they can have all their problems addressed. dising teams stir out every two or three months and, even more
The dealers also expect to be kept updated on all vital matters frequently during the peak season, carrying with them scissors,
relating to the business. This is possible only if the salesman cello tapes, dusters, nails, board pins, hammers, thread and, of
visit the dealers regularly. course, the usual POP material. They clean the bottles, dust the
Securing Shelf Space and Merchandising Support from Dealers racks, put up new posters and rearrange the bottles so that the
brand fails the customer.
Securing shelf space and merchandising support from dealers is
another important aspect of dealer management. By enlisting Ensuring Right Store Image
the willing cooperation of the dealers in the merchandising The competitive edge a firm derives from its retailers extends far
effort, the firm derives multiple benefits. Effective merchandis- beyond shelf space, merchandising and display: The store can
ing accelerates the buying process as it serves as an on-the-spot be a total communication tool for the company. We shall be
reminder to the consumer to buy. A quick glance at the way in discussing the communication role of marketing channels in
which the dealer aids/point of purchase promotion materials detail in the chapter on Marketing Communications. Suffice to
supplied by a firm are used in a retail shop, can help one judge point out here that the retail points are not mere outlets form
the firms dealer management. where the products flow out. They serve as communication
In the contemporary Indian context, getting shelf space and tools as well. It is a fact that consumers patronise certain stores
merchandising and display support from the retail outlets is of and discard certain others. The store image does the trick. Today,
special significance as competition among brands is fast more and more companies are realising the communicative
building up at the retail level. For example, in CTVs s since a significance of the stile image and are concentrating their
number of firms compete for the limited shelf space available attention on the store image of their retail shops.
at the retail shops, the ones who score in this matter enjoy an It was mentioned earlier that in many businesses the marketing
overall edge in marketing. war is fought and won at the dealer level. Better servicing of the
Even big firms and major brands have to fight for shelf dealers, better communication and better motivation and
space: With the growing competition and the explosion in training bring in superior dealer loyalty. And, with this loyalty,
branded FMCG products, the premium on shelf space has been the firm can win markets. A firm enjoying superior dealer loyalty
going up steadily: The competition for grabbing shelf space usually gets a bigger slice of the market.
usually becomes more intense during stagnant market condi- It is aptly said that a wise firm gets a good band of dealers and
tions. Even big firms and well-known brands have to earn their good dealers settle down with a wise firm. And a wise firm is
shelf space and display the hard way; they are not in a position one that provides right motivation to its dealers.
to demand it as a matter of right from the retailers. For example, Performance Appraisal of Channel Member
some time back, even a firm like HLL was not in a position to Appraisal of the performance of individual channel member is
demand from its retailers shelf space and display arrangement yet another important element of channel management.
for its internationally acclaimed brand Denim, by merely citing Performance appraisal must bring forth the strengths and
that it was a Lever product and an international brand. Nor
175
weaknesses of the channel member. If the performance is and sales techniques. In addition, essentials of inventory
below the desired level, remedial action must be taken management, credit management and sales promotion can also
promptly. The appraisal should specifically identify areas where form part of the training content. When competing companies
improvement is called for. match each other in the marketplace in every aspect, it is the
The appraisal has to be based on pre-agreed standards of training provided to the channel member that makes them
performance. Appraisal based solely on sales volume will be different. And thats why most companies are now concentrat-
inadequate. The ranking done on this basis may not correctly ing their energies on training. They now consider it a necessary
reveal the contribution made by different channel member. The investment.
fact that channel member face varying environments in their Hyundai Motors India, for example, took all its 70 dealers to
sales operations should be taken into account while appraising Korea a before the launch of its Accent model. Daewoo and
their performance. A wider set of relevant criteria must be used Hyundai both conduct regular in-house training programmes
in the appraisal. While the criteria may vary from company to for their dealers. Concorde, a Telco-Jardine Matheson JV; created
company and product to product. for setting up the dealer network for Indica, conducts in-house
Performance appraisal is intended to serve as a means of training for Indica dealers. And, Maruti has tied up with
improving the performance of channel member. In extreme National Institute of Sales for training its dealers.
cases, however, the appraisal may lead to the termination of the Resolving Channel Conflicts
channel member. When termination is the only alternative, the Sometimes, there may be unhealthy competition and conflicts
firm should not hesitate to take that course. among the different channels/ channel tiers employed by a firm.
Basically, all channel members are evaluated on the basis of There may also be conflicts among the channel members within
whether they have met their assigned targets or not. Customer a given channel type/channel tier. These conflicts must be
satisfaction surveys are also conducted to evaluate the quality oft handled with tact and fairness.
service provided by the channel member. In managing marketing channels, firms will usually encounter
Weaknesses Commonly Noticed in Networks some bottom-up pressure. The retailers would exert pressure
on the wholesalers/stockists, and the latter would pass it on to
The Network is inadequate size-wize
the firm. Sometimes, the wholesalers/stockists may have their
The network is inadequate, qualitatively own problems with the firm. Wise firms anticipate the pres-
The network is not properly spread out. sures that can emerge from the different layers of the channels
The interior markets are not covered properly and formulate appropriate channel policies.
A part of the network is inactive Tackling dealer conflicts-Wipro-lnfotech: Wise firms follow a
sound policy with regard to dealer conflicts. Wipro-lnfotech
Quite a few links in the network are unviable
Group (WIG) can be cited as an example. In the first place, it
The network is excessive for the task on hand makes a conscious effort to reduce the scope for conflicts among
Review of the Dealer Network as a dealers through dealer/product class/marketing segment
Whole alignment. It has reduced the scope for conflicts among dealers,
In addition to performance appraisal of individual dealers, the by explicitly defining the territories of operation of each. Often,
firm must also carry out periodic reviews of the dealer network there is stiff competition among WIG dealers and they
as a whole. Removal of weaknesses in the network is the frequently under-cut each other. The under-cutting is com-
objective of such a review. pounded by the fact that different dealer categories have varying
All such weaknesses must be overcome if the channel has to margins. For example, an A + category dealer will be able to
function as a vital instrument of marketing. easily under-cut a B category dealer. This de-motivates the
smaller dealers. So, the company strictly enforces the sales
Training and Development territories. The scope for cannibalisation is also removed. And
Training is another important part of channel management. when conflicts do occur, WIG tries to resolve them in a fair and
The primary purpose of training is to improve the perfor- firm manner. When overlapping does occur, then it negotiates
mance of the channel members through a sharpening of their with both the dealers, evaluates as to which of them is capable
sales skills and product knowledge. Upon the channel members of satisfying the needs of the particular customer more
rests the responsibility of sensing, serving and satisfying the efficiently and entrusts the customer with him. And while
needs of the customers. The intermediary cannot fulfill this role doing this, it takes care to protect the sentiments of the losing
unless they are equipped with the requisite knowledge, skills, dealer.
techniques and attitudes. Any progressive firm will, therefore,
make training an integral part of its channel management Conclusion
endeavour. In practice, the job of channel management is quite exacting.
Firms usually have a large number of channel member spread
The content and methodology of training should be framed over a large territory: Administering them, communicating with
so as to suit the background of the channel member and the them and keeping them happy and well motivated, involves a
contextual requirements. The prime purpose of the training is great deal of effort on the part of the firm, In fact, in a sense,
to impart to the channel member knowledge about customers, channel management is more difficult than employee manage-
about products, about competition, and about merchandising
176
ment, While, employees of a firm are under its direct control, Points to Ponder

the channel members are not. Accordingly, administration, and
motivation becomes far more difficult in the case of intermedi-
ary as compared to employees. Channel-Management
It should finally be mentioned that channel management,
which includes intermediary selection, channel motivation and
Decisions
channel development, is a continuous job. The efforts cannot Selecting Channel Members
be slackened any point of time. Even in the best of networks, Appraisal of channel Member
there will be some dropouts, every year; a few may become Training Channel Members
inactive. New channel members must be added in place of
those who drop out. And, the inactive ones must be either
activated or weeded out. Even when the dealer outfit is in a
fairly trim condition, there has to be a continuous infusion of
fresh blood into the system. Similarly, training and develop-
ment of the channel member has also to be a continuous
effort.
Notes -
Functions, the Principals have to

Perform
Supply quality products
Build the brand and keep it a winner
Regular, adequate and prompt supply of
the product
Effective servicing
Advertising and sales promotion support
177
Weaknesses Commonly Noticed

in Networks
The Network is inadequate size-wize
The network is inadequate, qualitatively
The network is not properly spread out.
The interior markets are not covered properly
A part of the network is inactive
Quite a few links in the network are unviable
The network is excessive for the task on hand
Questions
Q1. What do you mean by trade margin?
Q2. What are the functions of principal?
Q3. Why is it necessary to train channel members?
Q4. How are channel members appraised?
178
LESSON 33
CHANNEL MOTIVATION
Learning Objective motivate a channel member. The channel structure and the type
To understand the need of motivating channel members. of distribution are also interdependent to some degree. A long
channel structure which possesses many intermediate wholesalers
To know about the motivational tools
allows for greater spread and therefore more intensive distribu-
How to manage Agents and Distributors tion. Conversely, a short structure has more direct channels and
What are the elements of Dealer Motivation tends towards exclusive distribution.
In this lesson, we consider the important task of ensuring that It is obvious that the more intensive the distribution, the greater
the relationship is maintained at the desired level and that the the sales in the short term. However, over a long term, adverse
motivation to pursue the common shared goals remains at the effects such as lower margins appear, followed by unwillingness
level necessary for both parties to succeed. on the part of the distributors to sell the product, consequent
The Vision, Mission and Objectives necessity of an increase in promotional efforts by the manufac-
Channel objectives determine channel strategy. Making a major turer and deterioration of the service levels. As a business
change in an established channel structure is difficult and often executive once remarked you can take fifty years to build a brand
risky. Therefore it is desirable to set up the objectives properly in and you can ruin it in three years through careless distribution.
the first place. They should be dictated by the service level However, intensive distribution is successfully followed in the
output which is desired by the ultimate consumer and the case of innumerable products through a well-formulated
global vision and mission of the company in terms of long marketing programme which fulfils the requirements of
term return on investment, market share, absolute level of distributors and consumers alike. The various factors should be
profits to be achieved and sales growth. carefully considered before deciding on a distribution strategy, in
The specific objectives of any channel, apart from the global particular the relation between the products marketed and the last
aspirations of the company, should be firmly based on the selling point for them.
service outputs demanded by its customers. Different levels of Motivational Tools and Control Areas
these outputs may be required in different segments of the The following means of persuasion are available to channel
market and these need to be determined. The use of multiple members to influence the decision-making or behaviour of
channels catering for different segments of the market is others.
common in marketing today. 1. Rewards: If A possesses some resource which B wishes to
Once the service levels are decided upon, then the market obtain and B believes this can be obtained through
coverage has to be determined. This in turn determines the confirming to As wishes, this amounts to reward power.
support which can be expected from the channel in the event of Specific rewards to channel members could include wider
different coverage strategies. Here the company should also margins, granting of exclusive territories and various
decide whether it needs to own the entire channel or parts of it promotional allowances.
and what the costs of full and part ownership are going to be in 2. Coercion: This exists if B believes that A will punish
terms of possible consequences. anyone who does not conform to As wishes. Coercion
Three choices are possible: intensive, selective or exclusive amounts to negative sanctions or punishment including
distribution. It is worth mentioning in this context that they are reductions in margins, withdrawals of rewards granted
all possible in case of vertical or non-vertical integration earlier and slowing down of shipments. This brings less
although the costs may be prohibitive in case of full ownership results over the long term than other tools and should
of a channel specializing in intensive distribution. therefore be considered as a last resort.
Intensive distribution is generally used for products which are 3. Expertise: This occurs when B perceives A to possess some
frequently bought and which need to be easily available, like special knowledge which would help B. Small retailers often
newspapers and sweets. Selective distribution is usual for rely heavily on their wholesalers for expert advice. However,
products which buyers like to choose with some effort, e.g. once transferred, expertise is considerably reduced in power.
clothing. This type of distribution can. range from expensive If a business wishes to retain expertise over a long term, the
items which are almost exclusive, to items like cosmetics which following options are open to it:
are almost intensively distributed. Exclusive distribution a. It can ration its advice to small portions and keep back
implies a mutually dependent relationship between seller and sufficient vital knowledge so that the others remain
re-seller and is used for large or expensive items such as farm dependent upon it. This could be detrimental to
machinery or very expensive clothes or jewellery. efficient working of the channel as every member
It is appropriate to check and verify that the strategy adopted is should work up to its capacity for the channel to
in line with current circumstances when considering how to
179
function successfully. A member starved of vital Focusing channels onto specific products and target
information cannot do so. markets motivation of channel principals and sales force
b. A better though somewhat expensive option is to Ensure that the traditional distributor attitude and priorities are
collect accurate information regarding market trends, recognized by you and dealt with. Distributors:
threats and opportunities, and other ongoing matters always feel that a high price is charged by the manufacturer
which individual channel members would find difficult
think that manufacturers mark-up is high
to obtain themselves. The benefits of this option can
be high in terms of channel goal achievements. think that the manufacturer does not invest in the market
c. Another way is for channel members to invest in Avoid the traditional manufacturer attitude. The manufacturer:
specialized transaction expertise which is difficult to is interested in volume sales
transfer to other products or services and so hinders is interested in profits
the members from leaving the channel.
wants distributors to make stock investment
d. The ability of a channel member to acquire
How to ensure that a manufacturers product is measured
information which is necessary for another channel
member to function efficiently confers power on the Check that the points in below Table.
acquirer. For example, retailers hold a privileged For mutual benefits the relationship should produce:
position with respect to manufacturers because of their acceptable profit margins to the distributor
close customer contacts.
acceptable volume and rate of growth to the manufacturer,
4. Identification: This occurs when B identifies with A or at optimum profit margins
desires to do so. For example, given equal returns from
two different dealerships, one may well choose that which
one would like to identify with, perhaps the marc Distributor principal has: Distributor sales executive
prestigious one. Here the company reputation or image has:
confers an advantage on the business.
5. Legitimacy: Results from B feeling that A has the right to 1. Quality product 1. Quality product
exercise power over them. This would be the case between 2. Reliable delivery dates 2. Reliable delivery dates
workers and their supervisor, for example. In a channel 3. Fair profit margins 3. Technical information as
relationship, such a power may be assigned to the largest 4. Good communication, and when required
firm. Or the retailers and industrial suppliers may believe
physical and written 4. Ad hoc bonuses, e.g.
5. Reasonable advertising money, travel, trip
that they have the power since they are in contract with the
and sales promotion to manufacturer's head
end-users and the others are not. However, the amount of
support office, etc.
power thus exerted is usually small. 6. Willingness by 5. Good communications
In real life situations, all these powers are used simultaneously manufacturer to assist with with manufacturer's
in most situations. Sometimes, the use of one power may distributor's general 'field' representative.
enhance another power base; or the opposite may happen. problems 6. Fair evaluation of
Environmental conditions and the effect of such a use of performance
power on them must also be considered in this situation. The
norms of the channel systems also prohibit the use of some of
these powers.
The degree of success that a channel member will have in Table: Factors affecting the majoring of a manufacturers
influencing the behaviour of other channel members will product
depend on its leadership behaviour. When the channel mem- The manufacturers link person must try and assist the
bers have common goals, the use of information exchange distributor in upgrading their entire operation. Allow the
and/or recommendations will probably produce positive distributors to consult your financial director; let individual
results. In other situations, promises, threats, legalistic strategies interested distributors have the use of the directors time for a
and requests are used with varying success. day or two. Run seminars on relevant subjects, e.g. modern
An international business manufacturing paints, which is based warehousing. A distributor should be able to call on the
in Italy, has the policy of treating its agents like its own manufacturers experience when trying to solve any problem
employees. They are required to submit progress reports every relative to their business.
month just like the company sales force. All these reports are Control systems
fed into a computer and analyzed. The company management First and foremost, a system to establish an annual campaign
keeps an eye on the stocks bought by key customers and the plan must be introduced. This campaign plan should cover, as a
price they paid. Any falling off in an agents performance results minimum,
in rapid identification of the problem and support provided by the common goals to be achieved in the first year at least;
a senior staff member on the spot.
180
what this would mean realistically in terms of the quarterly giving ,people more responsibility where called for and

volumes of more scope for variations in methods and speed of work;
sales to the channels customers and shipments from the giving groups a unit of work to perform, thus reducing
manufacturer; specialization and increasing the sense of achievement and
the recommended price at which the product would be responsibility and the expertise;
marketed; relaxing overhead controls while setting targets and/or
the price/discounts/terms of trading at which the standards to make members accountable;
manufacturer will supply making available the necessary information so that
the product; members can monitor their own performance;
what this would mean in terms of market share; encouraging the channel members to join in planning and
innovation.
levels of sales and supporting staff resources to be
deployed; 8. Try to make sure that the group pressure is working for
you by involving the members of the channel in decisions
a schedule of training to be provided by the manufacturer;
which affect them.
promotional materials, campaigns, etc., to be undertaken
The link persons role can be likened to that of a master of
by the manufacturer and the channel;
ceremonies, who initiates the use of the available motivational
specific actions to be taken concerning inventory/logistics, tools, the link persons have to be self-motivated and display
etc.; enthusiasm for their company, its products and its distributors.
key event/action review calendar. It is important that they appear self-confident. Their leadership,
Secondly, regular monitoring and review sessions must be held management skills and bond-building activities will then be
to ensure that the performance is on course and that if needed, able to play the necessary part in motivating the distributor
corrective actions are taken on time. principal and the sales force.
Motivation of the distributor Managing and Motivating Your Agents and Distributors
The link person or manager can do the following to motivate a This process calls for an understanding of the relationship,
distributor: mutual SWOTs, mutuality of benefits and a commitment to
working together for common goals.
1. Attempt to categorise and understand the distributors
motives in terms of Maslows hierarchy of needs: security, A creation of the right environment - nature, scope and
social needs, esteem, self-fulfillment. style of operation
2. Discover their wants as well as their needs; this will help Realistic objective setting, review & control
your dealings with them. Joint development of campaigns
3. Remember that monetary rewards serve many needs and Remuneration of the salesperson
are therefore the best rewards. Industrial selling is distinguished from other kinds of selling
4. Bear in mind, however, that recognition, praise, promotion by customer penetration. As a rule, when distributing a
and successful achievement of a task can also be effective product for resale, the sale is made by a salesperson to the buyer
motivations and are sometimes more needed than money. or the merchant acting as their own buyer. Rarely does the sales
5. If people know that good work will earn a reward, this executive have to sell both the buyer and the owner of the
makes the reward more effective. The expectation should shop, though a smart person makes sure that anyone who sells
be clearly set out on a payment by-results basis, with an their product understands its sales points. In industrial selling,
appropriate bonus or commission scheme. Achievable however, it may be necessary for the sales executive to persuade
targets and standards should be set. Praise should be several people before walking out with an order. First, the user
bestowed when deserved at not too frequent intervals. The of the product has to be sufficiently interested to suggest to
rewards and efforts required should be clarified. The their immediate supervisor that this particular product be
penalties also should be stated, if targets are underachieved specified when a requisition is next placed; since few workers are
or if substandard results are recorded. capable of effectively relaying a sales presentation, the sales
executive must also sell the supervisor. After the supervisor
6. Paraphrasing what Douglas McGregor said in another
requisitions the product, the matter may go to the works
context, conditions should be such that the members of
manager or the engineering department for approval, if it is
the channel system should best achieve their own
sufficiently important. Again, the salesperson has to make sure
expectations by working for the success of the channel
that these executives understand the engineering advantages of
system as a whole. It is necessary to identify the needs of
the product. After being approved by the engineering or
the members so that appropriate rewards can be devised
operating department, the requisition may travel to the financial
and to agree targets and standards with all the members.
controller, who approves the budgetary expenditure and passes
7. People can be motivated by the work itself if their needs it along to the purchasing department.
for achievement and responsibility are thereby satisfied.
This can result from:
181
The buyer or the assistant mayor may not issue a purchase order at selling. Those products may not be the ones the company
at this point. After checking the price against competition, some wants pushed. A salesperson doing well on a commission only
similar product may be found which seems just as good and basis can still feel insecure. If the performance is too good, the
may be cheaper. So, unless the sales executive is on the job, the company may decide to take on someone else, thus effectively
requisition may travel back to its point of issue to ascertain reducing their territory and their earnings. This naturally has a
whether the cheaper product may not be acceptable. This dampening effect on their selling capacity. A company cannot
process is quite usual in industrial selling. In the case of effectively control and direct the effort of a sales force paid on a
equipment involving a considerable outlay of money, it may be commission-only basis except by harsh measures, which may be
necessary to sell several executives and the board of directors. undesirable.
There are usually no people in every organization, who may
Low Rate of Commission Plus A
not actually have much buying authority, but who can, if not
Liveable Basic Salary
otherwise persuaded, wreck the sale.
This method is the most widely used in industrial selling. This
Remunerating the sales effort is quite satisfactory for a one product or one product range
Remuneration of sales executives always provokes a great deal company, but problems appear when the company expands or
of lively discussion whenever the topic is raised. So it should - it increases the sales force. The sales executives are not interested in
is an important motivational factor as far as the salesforce are establishing new lines or in the expansion of the companys
concerned. Companies use various methods to calculate the activities.
amounts paid to their salesforce, depending on their number or
Continuous Incentive Bonus Scheme
the products they sell or other factors. However, any method of
The total remuneration should be made up of a liveable salary
remuneration must be of mutual benefit to both the sales
and a bonus, in a predetermined ratio, say 80 : 20. The company
executives and the company employing them; if either party
must have a master plan with its aims and expectations clearly
feels that it is 110t getting a fair deal, then the association will
defined. At the beginning of every financial year, the company
eventually, if not immediately, break down. A sales executive
should set out, in the form of an overall company sales target:
who is dissatisfied with the remuneration, will leave the
company. While a company that is unhappy with the the total sales target for the next twelve months;
salespersons performance, in view of their total costs, it may the target for each salesperson in that achievement;
discharge him. We will briefly examine the methods of the share of the total sales target to be borne by each
remuneration in current use. product range, particularly if a multiplicity of products are
Salary Only to be sold.
A salary, however high, does not provide the incentive needed It is one of the functions of senior management to determine
for extra effort when it is necessary. This arrangement is the target proportions carried by each product range and it is
preferred by the salesforce when the salary is high, but the cost one of the sales executives major functions to attain those
may be too high for the management to accept. It may be a objectives. It is vital that the salesforce sell the product range
good idea when large capital plant is being sold, but in that case that makes the highest gross contribution to the company
the selling may well be handled by a senior employee, whose profit. Others may be easier to sell, so incentives should be tied
incentive would perhaps be an equity holding in the company. to selling those lines which enhance the bottom line of the
business and maximize the return on capital employed, which is
High Basic Salary Plus Bonus on Trading
the true measure of the companys success. The continuous
Profit
incentive bonus scheme is designed to inform the salesperson
This method is a little better than the previous one from the
exactly what is required of them in the year ahead and what their
incentive point of view. But sales executives tend to be impa-
rewards will be if the objectives set are attained. This ensures
tient people, and they are not usually prepared to wait for a year
that the goods are sold according to the overall company targets
or so before knowing whether they are going to get a bonus.
and in the right product range proportions.
Therefore the advantage is slight. Also, too many intangible
factors affect the bonus payments and many of them are not Setting Sales Targets by Broduct Range
controlled by the salespeople. While the salesforce in the field In this example, nine points are allocated to general work. This
may have done extremely well, the orders may be fouled up by a covers punctuality, grooming, accuracy of records, etc. The
strike in the factory or an extra large payment may be made to a percentage of target achieved, up to a maximum of 100 per
departing chairman, depleting profits; such happenings could cent, but not beyond, will qualify for that percentage of points
cause justifiable dissatisfaction among the salesforce. allocated to the product group target; i.e. 75 per cent achieve-
ment of product range A target above qualifies for 75 per cent
Commission Only
of twenty points, equal to fifteen points. In the case of general
This can create insecurity, especially with new recruits. If they
work, points received will be based on the recommendation of
have family responsibilities, and cannot obtain orders quickly
senior management.
enough, it can create dishonesty, which does not do either party
any good in the end. If a company with a wide range of At the end of the period, the points achieved per product range
products pays its salesforce on a commission only basis, the are added up and a total arrived at. A bonus is then paid
sales executive will only sell what they wish to sell and are good according to a previous scale laid down, e.g. (for twelve months)
it may be as given in Table
182
must be recognized. All campaign planning must be

$ undertaken jointly so that no motivation is lost due to
95 points and above 1500 inadequate planning.
earns 750 4. Breakdown of the relationship - where independent
85 - 94 points earns 375 members form a significant part of the channel, the
75 - 84 points earns nil relationships are based on individuals, their interpersonal
74 and below earns behaviour, trust, mutual understanding of a set of
common objectives and other objectives based on the
needs of the parties concerned. Mutuality of interest
It should not be necessary to point out that a sales executive must be maintained to avoid the risk of damaging the
does not qualify for a bonus unless all the product ranges are position of the two parties.
sold, not just a few. The executive should be kept informed of
progress by the regular issue of progress information. This In all these cases, rapid contingency planning is crucial to
scheme combines flexibility with a fixed basic method and level safeguard the companys position.
of bonus payment. It can cope with changes in territory or in Elements of Dealer Motivation
targets. Product range F may be more important than product The trade margin
range B, even though the target is lower; the profitability may be
Special incentives
higher or it may be a new product. Therefore, the former may
carry more points than the latter. Harmonious relations
Note that: Effective communication
1. Sales should be equal to invoice sales less credits. Dealer Motivation
2. All sales targets must be achievable, for the system to work, The firm should constantly motivate its dealers lists the
so management must plan ahead with due care. elements of dealer motivation.
3. The scheme can be operated by the company over any time Trade Margin, a Major Motivator
period, viz., twelve, six, three or even one month. An attractive trade margin is no doubt a key element in dealer
4. The scheme is not difficult to operate and makes use of motivation. After all, the primary objective of any dealer is to
paperwork, such as invoices, which should already be earn an attractive return on his investment. We have discussed
produced by the company. the issue of trade margin in detail in the earlier paragraphs.
5. Sales costs could be significant (total costs against net sales Motivational Elements Other than Trade Margin
turnover). The cost depends on marketing objectives and Trade margin though important, is not everything in dealer
other factors which should be considered before costing. motivation. The firm can use several other elements in enthus-
Finally, while remuneration is the most important motivational ing its dealers.
factor for sales executippves, job satisfaction, security, etc., also Dealer Incentives
count. Remember your salespersons role: Besides an attractive trade margin, the firm should provide
To maintain personal contact with customers and buyers for the some special incentives to the dealer so as to win him over and
purpose of obtaining sales. sustain his loyalty to the firm/brand. Sustaining dealer loyalty is
the sure route for obtaining optimal retail thrust for the
Risk Management product/brand. Special incentives like quantity rebates, off-
Good management is all about anticipating events and season rebates, gifts, cash incentives, etc., can be used for
planning for action before the events happen. This is where motivating dealers.
understanding the sorts of risks which are likely to arise is very With increased competition, companies are now increasingly
important. The risks may be of one or more of the following realising the role of such incentives. One measure that seems to
types: be catching the fancy of companies is fully-paid vacations for
1. The usual product risks, political risks, economic risks, etc. dealers. Companies are also hosting lavish dealer meets at exotic
that exist in any international marketing operation - these places. For instance, ITC has been taking out whole groups of
are not being explored here. its dealers on a safari to Kenya. Godrej-GE last year flew over 40
2. A chosen channel member may turn out to be a misfit. of its best dealers to the US and Videocon sent around 650 of
This is where careful planning and selection of the right its best dealers to Europe. Even companies, which were giving
partners is vital. A good channel member of yesterday may cash or gold sovereigns as incentives earlier, now seem to have
not be a good channel member tomorrow. A mutual realised the potential of travel abroad as an incentive. The tours
understanding of the roles of the channel members and are considerably expensive, since the companies try to ensure
their responsibilities to each other is a must. that they become unforgettable outings for the dealers. The
3. At least one channel member is not pulling their weight. companies concerned seem to spend on an average more than
The performance expectations must be made clear right Rs 40,000 per head on dealer holidays. Godrej-GE, which is one
from the start. Mutual monitoring of performance is vital of the big spenders on dealer incentive tours, has an annual
to the continuing success of the venture. Mutual reliance budget of around Rs 4 crore for this purpose. As the demand
183
for such tours has been going up, some travel houses have Points to Ponder
started special divisions for corporate dealer incentive tours.

Harmonious Relations and Cooperative Endeavor
Harmonious dealer relations are another important element in
dealer motivation. Frequent visits to dealers shops by the field MOTIVATIONAL TOOLS
sales force of the company/stockists helps harmonious dealer
relations. Dealer meets too facilitate this process. They help to Rewards
exchange ideas and to generally bring the dealers closer to the
company; Coercion
Dealers need understanding and support. They are happy to Expertise
receive sales ideas from the salesmen and executives of the firm. Legitimacy
Likewise, helpful and prompt attention to dealer complaints.
Associating the dealers in various campaigns such as service
campaign, promotion-campaign, etc., will cement relations with
the dealers. It will also add to the success of the campaign. The
firm can even persuade dealers to share the expenditure on
service, publicity and sales promotion. Dealer cooperated service
and publicity campaigns not only reduce the financial strain of
the firm, but are also more effective than stand alone campaigns
by the firm. The willing involvement of the dealers in the
campaigns does the trick.
Ford Dealer wanted Ad

Market share Market intelligence support
Sales intensity Promotional support
Storage space provided Prompt payment of invoices
Inventory holding support Maintenance of business records
Standard of service provided to Submission of reports
customers Public relations
Enlistment of new accounts
Effective Communication
Maintaining effective communication with the dealers is Managing and Motivating Your
another element of dealer motivation. It is, in fact, a part of
Agents and Distributors
maintaining harmonious relations. Effective communication
often gives a sense of participation to the dealers. Company A creation of the right environment -
newsletters and direct mailing can be used for effective commu- nature, scope and style of operation
nication with the dealers. Periodical dealer meetings/ Realistic objective setting, review & control
conventions also help build good communication. They help
the firm understand the views of the dealers. In addition, they
Joint development of campaigns
act as a morale booster.
184
Elements of Dealer Motivation
The trade margin

Special incentives
Harmonious relations
Effective communication
Questions
Q1. What do you understand by motivation? Why is it
required to motivate channel member?
Q2. Why control is essential of channel members?
Q3. What is the role of manager (link person) in motivating
channel member?
Q4. What are elements of dealer motivation?
185
LESSON 34 UNIT 9
PHYSICAL DISTRIBUTION CONCEPTS AND OBJECTIVE
Learning Objective For example, instead of the retailer pricing the goods
To understand the concept of Physical Distribution. received, which is a time-consuming and therefore
expensive process, the retailer can provide the manufacturer
Introduction to Supply chain Management
with up-to-date price lists, the manufacturer can price the
To know the importance of Physical Distribution. products and charge the retailer for the service; the result
Let us begin our discussions in this chapter with a clarification being lower costs in total.
of the distinction between physical distribution/marketing
Supply Chain Management (SCM)
logistics on the one hand, and supply chain management which
SCM is larger in scope than both physical distribution and
is a comparatively recent idea on the other.
marketing logistics. It encompasses materials management task
Physical Distribution, Marketing as well. Supply chain actually refers to the whole business chain,
Logistics, and Supply Chain encompassing procurement of inputs, in-bound logistics,
Management conversion of inputs into products, physical distribution/
Distribution/Marketing Logistics marketing logistics and channel functions, which finally take the
Physical distribution is the process of delivering the product to end product to the ultimate consumers Essentially, SCM can be
the marketing channels and consumers. It encompasses the viewed as the combination of materials management and end
various activities involved in the physical flow of the product product distribution, which constitute the two vital compo-
from the producer to the consumer. nents of the business process and form the key tasks at the
front and back ends of the process, respectively.
Marketing logistics is somewhat larger in scope compared to
It can be seen that the supply chain is in effect the firms value
physical distribution. It covers physical distribution plus a part
chain. Value is actually spread through the firms supply chain. A
of the task of marketing channels. While physical distribution
firm can optimise its total customer value by managing activities
takes care of functions such as transportation, warehousing and
in the supply chain in an integrated manner, treating them as
inventory management and facilitates the flow of the product,
one continuous chain. The supply chain constitutes a value
marketing channels actually connect the firm with its customers.
delivery network. That is why it is often said that firms compete
Marketing logistics covers physical distribution in full measure,
in the marketplace using their supply chains as the weapon, not
plus a part of the function of marketing channels. Marketing
their products and brands. Superiority in supply chain is thus a
logistics bring in greater value addition in the delivery chain,
major competitive advantage. A firm with the better supply
beyond mere transportation or distribution.
chain wins in the market. We have discussed the value chain
The Physical Distribution Concept concept in detail in the two chapters on Industry Analysis, and
This emphasizes the connection between costs and service levels Competitive Advantage.
and aims to minimize the total distribution costs at a given
Taking note of the advantage in dealing together materials
service level, when backed by an integrated logistics network. Its
management and physical distribution of end products, which
four main components are:
constitute the two major functions at either end and which
1. The total cost approach: this considers all the costs of the form a virtual chain permeating the business from end-to-end,
physical distribution network, visible and invisible, while many experts have preferred to combine the two subjects and
trying to achieve a given service level. It is necessary to deal them as SCM.
remember the interdependence of all these elements and to
The SCM approach, no doubt, has some merits. It facilitates the
try to minimize the total costs instead of attempting to
integrated handling of the functions of the business, especially
reduce them piecemeal.
the procurement function and the logistics functions at the
2. Trade-offs in costs: certain costs may increase while others front and the back ends of the business. As a result, it comes
are being reduced, but the objective should be to reduce the handy in value creation! value addition.
total distribution costs.
The approach, however, has a strong demerit as well. It gives
3. Minimum sub optimization: owing to the prominence to materials management and treats the customer
interdependence of all the distribution functions, any requirements of logistics as an appendix to the business cycle.
change in one will affect the others. When these functions The requirements from the side of the customer/market get
are integrated, the goal should be to minimize sub diluted in such an approach. Moreover, in the nature of things,
optimization through systems management. the focus as well as requirements of materials management and
4. The total system perspective: this takes the concept a stage physical distribution of end products are somewhat different
further by considering the costs in the entire marketing from each other. Perhaps all things considered, the two subjects
process from the beginning to the sale to the end-user,
186
should be studied independently, rather than as one unified tion system is necessary to balance all these factors simulta-
subject. neously.
In this text, we shall in any case avoid the SCM approach. Mer In many ways, the customer subsystem is the mirror image of
all, in a marketing text there is no scope for discussing materials the supply system. An order from a customer is the start of the
management. We shall confine ourselves to distribution of end process. Hundreds of such orders per day have to be moni-
products. We shall, however, make a slight deviation from the tored against customer records for creditworthiness and special
traditional way of handling the subject. Instead of treating it terms or needs, among other things. After which stock has to
merely as a physical distribution task, we shall treat it as be assigned to the order, replenishment of inventory catered for
marketing logistics. if necessary, delivery and invoices as well as other comple-
mentary activities arranged for, A host of other information
Materials management
regarding achievements of service levels, re-order levels, etc., has
The materials management cycle consists of the inflow of
to be gathered at this point to assist in making demand
goods through materials acquisition whether it is by outright
forecasts.
purchase or partially or fully on credit basis, plus internal
transport and inventory management. The relevant strategies These two subsystems come together in the manufacturing
regarding purchasing, transport and warehousing must include function and have to be integrated through production control
cost-effective methods in these functions. The materials flow so that the supply sub system generates what the customer
Involves vendors and suppliers, and is integral to the operation subsystem demands. Many companies have installed materials
of the business, Purchasing forecasts are directly based on requirements planning (MRP) systems. Basically these forecast
production schedules or other internal usage plans, highly the components and materials needed from the companys
integrated materials management is possible given a disciplined master production schedule (MPS) and the bill of material
internal planning process. (BOM) for each end product. The requirements are calculated by
taking existing stock levels and orders already placed into
The logistics activity in a company acts to co-ordinate the flow
account, as well as the times when the items will be needed and
of material and the related information through the system. It
the supply lead times. A successfully implemented MRP system
has to co-ordinate production planning; delivery frequencies
can reduce inventory levels, speed up changes in the production
required to match sales demands and customer order frequen-
process to meet changes in demand and increase the level of
cies. All this has to be achieved through shared information.
service in meeting demand. The basic idea is simple but the
This requires an integrated information system in which:
control of such multiple activities has only become possible
1. Data entering one subsystem is also available to any other through the use of advanced computer technology.
subsystem requiring it; for example, data concerning
Other methods such as the just-in-time (JIT) system can reduce
customer orders should be available to inventory control,
inventory levels while maintaining service levels. The idea is that
production scheduling, sales forecasting, etc.
the materials needed should arrive just in time for their use in
2. All inter-related subsystems should have access to data in a manufacture. Reliable lead times are necessary for these systems
common data base. to work properly. A similar development in the distribution
3. Closely connected activities are integrated into the same field is the distribution requirements planning (DRP) system.
procedure, order processing, credit checking and stock This starts from the demand for the finished product and
allocation. produces requirements schedules at each level of the distribu-
A high degree of sharing of expensive capital equipment tion chain. This is a pull system in that the end demand pulls
should be allowed for; for example, the central computer the required products down the chain rather than a centrally
installation, the data base and the application packages, among decided production plan pushing the products down the line.
others, can be shared among the various functions. Since the emphasis is now on customer needs, the former
The logistics information system consists of two subsystems makes more sense than the latter, though both have their
dealing with supplies and customers. The supply subsystem advantages.
input consists of the materials requirements plan, indicating The latest innovation is a combination of the MRP and D RP
how many of what types of items are needed und when they systems into logistics requirements planning (LRP) systems,
are needed for production; this has to be checked against the which will link the end demand through the whole chain back
standing inventory and any orders outstanding. If necessary, to the suppliers. This has a number of complex requirements
sources of supply for any extra materials needed will have to be which must be satisfied before such a system can be contem-
decided upon and purchase orders generated. This process plated, including a high degree of dedication on the parts of the
appears simple but a company may have a register of hundreds management and the whole organization.
of suppliers and maintain an inventory with many thousands Importance of Physical Distribution/
of stock-keeping units. Also a sharp look-out must be kept for Marketing Logistics
possible shortages and the suppliers checked for their reliability, Physical distribution/marketing logistics forms a pivotal part of
prices and service. At the same time, the inventory must be the marketing task.
minimized while making sure that production is not held up
due to a stockout. It is obvious that a sophisticated informa- Confers Place and Time Utility on Products
It is physical distribution that confers place-utility and time-
utility to a product by making it available to the user at the right
187
place and at the right time. Thereby, it maximises the chance to tion today just as much as what Napoleons contemporaries
sell the product and strengthen the companys competitive knew about the interior of Africa. We know it is there and we
position. If any product made in any place could be consumed know it is big and thats all. The message is obvious. Physical
in its entirety at the very place of production and at the very distribution is the most promising area for cost control
time of production, there would be no need for physical
Conclusion
distribution of that product. But such products are very rare. In
We discussed that Physical distribution is part of Marketing
practice, almost every product gets consumed at places and
Channel which is part of Supply Chain Management. Impor-
times that are different from those of their manufacture. They
tance of Physical distribution lies in making products available
have to be carried to places of consumption; they have to be
to the user at the right place and at right time.
stored; and they have to be distributed.
Points to Ponder
Importance of Physical Distribution/Marketing Logistics
Ensures the physical flow of the product from the
producer to the consumer. Without this flow, marketing
PHYSICAL DISTRIBUTION
cannot take place. System: Organized group of
Confers place and time utility on products components linked according to a plan
for achieving specific objectives
Helps build clientele.
Where production locations and markets are distanced,
physical distribution becomes all the more crucial.
A promising area for cost reduction.
Where Production Locations and Markets are

Distanced, Physical Distribution Becomes more
Crucial
In some cases, production locations are totally dictated by
considerations, like proximity to sources of raw material. As a
result, the points of production might be far away from the
markets for the product. In some cases, huge production
capacities get established at a given location on co-derations of
technology and economies of scale. In all such cases, the
product has to be marketed over an extended territory; it has to
IMPORTANCE OF PHYSICAL
be transported over long distances, stored for a considerable
length of time and sold. Then, there are products, which are
DISTRIBUTION/MARKETING LOGISTICS
impacted by the seasonality factor-either production is continu-
ous but demand is seasonal. or demand is continuous but Ensures the physical flow of the product from the
producer to the consumer. Without this flow,
production is seasonal. Here too, physical distribution becomes
marketing cannot take place.
particularly crucial. It has to perform the balancing act between
Confers place and time utility on products.
production and consumption.
Helps build clientele.
Helps Build Clientele Wher e production locations and markets are
It is physical distribution that determines the customer service distanced, physical distribution becomes all the
level to a large extent. As a result, it serves as a vital tool in more crucial.
building clientele/market for the product. And conversely " A pr omising area for cost reduction.
ineffective physical distribution leads to loss of customers and
markets.
A Promising Area for Cost Reduction
Physical distribution is a fertile area for cost savings. Over the
years, in most businesses, physical distribution costs have
grown into a sizeable chunk of the total costs and now ranks
second among all cost elements, next only to material costs.
And surprisingly, it has remained one of the neglected areas of
cost control.
The dark continent: Peter Drucker has rightly compared
physical distribution to the dark continent of Mrica of
Napoleons days. He said, we know about physical distribu-
188
Questions

Q1. What do mean by Physical Distribution?
Q2. What is the importance of Physical distribution?
189
LESSON 35
COMPONENTS OF PHYSICAL DISTRIBUTION
Learning Objective c. The customer is billed; inventory records are adjusted; and
To understand what are the components of Physical the order is delivered.
Distribution E. Methods of order processing
Physical distribution refers to the activitiesorder processing, 1. Manual order processing suffices for a small volume of
inventory management, materials handling, warehousing, and orders and is more flexible in special situations.
transportationused to move products from producers to 2. Electronic data interchange (EDI) integrates order
consumers and other end users. processing with production, inventory, accounting, and
transportation.
Physical
Distribution Systems
Systems
a. EDI is an information system for the supply chain.
b. Many companies are pushing their suppliers toward EDI
Order to reduce distribution costs and cycle times.
Costs
Costs Order Processing
Processing
Minimize
MinimizeCosts
Attaining
Costsofof Submitted
Submitted
Processed
c. The Internet is another opportunity for EDI systems.
AttainingLogistics
Logistics Processed
Shipped
Objectives
Objectives Shipped Since the costs of physical distribution can amount to more
than a quarter of sales price at manufacturing level and the
Com ponents of necessary assets can amount to as much as a third of the
Physical
Di stribution corporate assets, it is important for management to keep these
Transportation Warehousing
Warehousing
Water, Truck, Storage costs down. It is possible to keep visible costs, such as ware-
Storage
Rail, Distribution
Distribution housing, inventory and transport, down when the logistics
Pipeline & Air
functions are integrated. The invisible costs are due to customer
Inventory
Inventory dissatisfaction caused by late deliveries, lost sales/orders, etc.
When
Whentotoorder
How
Howmuch
muchto
order
toorder
order
Control of these costs, both visible and hidden, is very difficult
Just-in-time
Just-in-time owing to the effect of any changes on customer service levels.
Improvement of the latter can increase costs and a decrease in
costs may mean a drop in the quality of the service. Physical
Order processing
distribution management provides guidelines for keeping a
The distribution process is activated by a customer order. The balance between cost and service levels
order cycle includes the time spent in processing the order as
well as the time taken by the physical motion and therefore Transport
depends on the speed and efficiency of (hest.: operations, Transport is an important part of logistics since inadequate
Electronic systems are now available to reduce the time needed transport provision can increase inventory costs prohibitively, as
for the flow of information and communications. well as the investment in inventory; it can also cause customer
dissatisfaction and increase the invisible costs dramatically.
A. Order processing is the receipt and transmission of sales Therefore the selection of the right mode of transport, which is
order information. efficient and dependable, is essential for the achievement of
B. Efficient order processing facilitates product flow. distribution objectives. The five modes are: rail, road, sea/
C. There are three main tasks in order processing. waterways, air and pipeline, plus combinations of some or all
1. Order entry begins when customers or salespersons place of these. The possibilities must be considered for cost,
orders by mail, telephone, or computer. reliability and possibility of risk/damage.
2. Order handling involves several tasks. Warehousing
a. Transmission of orders to the warehouse This can be either company-owned or leased/rented from
others. The advantages of company-owned warehousing are:
b. Verification of product availability greater flexibility and control, better information feedback and
c. Checking of prices, terms, and customers credit ratings potentially lower unit costs. Regional distribution centres
d. Instructions to the warehouse to fill the order serving regional markets are a new development in the Europe
3. Order delivery of today; if they are highly automated and can cater for
packaging of orders, maintenance of full inventory and
a. The warehouse schedules pickup with an appropriate combining products from different production centres, they can
carrier. go a long way towards achieving improved efficiency and
b. Premium transportation is used if the customer is willing increased customer satisfaction. For example, some companies
to pay for rush service. are considering locating regional distributor centres in Maastricht
190
in the Netherlands, Calmar in Alsace and in Bavaria. These Production Control and Materials

regions are also developing the type of infrastructure needed for Requirement Planning
the functioning of such centres. These, together with purchasing and raw materials handling, are
The advantages of leasing are: location and space flexibility, and generally grouped under the materials management function.
possibly lower costs for seasonal businesses. There is also wider Sometimes the objectives set by the management for these
choice available for the type of warehousing needed, e.g. special functions clash and cause a drop in the level of the customer
commodity warehouses for storing agricultural products or service and/or a rise in physical distribution costs as a whole.
refrigerated warehouses. Warehousing firms may also offer a Production is the focal point of all this activity, because
variety of extra services to compete with each other. production levels determine the needs for raw materials, parts,
etc., and also the amount and types of finished products, which
It is possible to reduce the need for warehousing by choosing a
in turn influence the delivery times and modes for the distribu-
slower form of transport, e.g. storage in transit. The number
tion function.
and location of warehouses is decided by their purpose and the
level of customer service to be provided. They should be so Materials management is the single manager organization
positioned that they will yield the desired service level after all concept embracing the planning, organizing, motivating and
the variables are considered. This solution is unique to each controlling of all activities and personnel principally concerned
business. The transportation costs decrease as the number of with the flow of materials in an organization. If the physical
warehouses increases; while the inventory and warehousing distribution concept is adopted by a business, it is usual to
costs increase at a diminishing rate. combine all activities concerned with raw materials under a
single manager, who is sometimes also responsible for
The locations of the warehouses affect the customer service
production scheduling. These activities are similar to those
level and the total costs; they also have a significant effect on the
concerned in physical distribution of finished products, the
competitive powers of the business. A number of models have
difference being in the materials handled and their recipients.
been developed to help management make better decisions.
The significant factors are the estimates of lost sales due to the Just-in-Time (JIT) Logistics Systems,
distance of the warehouses from the customers, and the costs This is a logistics system by which materials arrive at the point
of operation and of transport. of use just in time, thus saving on inventories and warehous-
ing. Their implementation affects the purchasing, transport,
Inventory Management
warehousing, production, quality control and data processing
Inventories may be held in the material management cycle to
functions, and requires an amount of discipline which many
supply the production function or in the distribution function
businesses find difficult to create and sustain.
to meet customer demand. Inventory control in the latter is
crucial to efficient physical distribution. Inventory represents the In order to be successful, it has to be operated by all channel
largest single investment for manufacturers of packaged members in a given channel. It calls for all materials to be part
consumer goods, amounting up to a third of their asset of the work-in-progress, without pausing to collect storing
investment. High inventory levels are necessary in competitive expenses. Each part of the manufacturing process has to get the
conditions where the market segments are diverse in nature and right elements in the correct amounts just in time. JIT is found
customers are used to obtaining goods quickly. to work best in repetitive manufacturing situations where the
suppliers are close by, the forecasts are accurate and there exist
The objective of inventory control is to minimize total
significant levels of inventory to start with. Significant cost
inventory costs subject to demand and service level constraints.
reductions can be made if JIT is successfully applied.
The main costs are due to holding inventory, ordering and the
risks of stockouts. The system has to figure out how much to Planning A Logistics Strategy
re-order, when to re-order and how to control stock outs at the Strategy for the logistics process requires the evaluation of
minimum cost. possible physical distribution systems which meet the customer
There are a number of inventory control systems available, service standards required at the lowest possible cost. A system
depending on the type of business. Distribution requirements thus properly planned will increase the response of the various
planning (DRP) systems deal with connecting the production elements in the process, the sensitivity to the distribution
process with the other inventory levels further down the environment, knowledge of the possibilities of cost reduction
channel. They operate on the assumption that they are manag- and service optimization in the function, and the awareness of
ing inventories intended to resupply other inventories. the effect of corporate strategy on the process.
An accurate forecast of future demand is obviously essential for The planning begins with deciding on the customer service
any inventory control system, Lack of such a forecast or strategies and goals, and goes on to the functions and invest-
inaccuracies can wreck havoc throughout the physical distribu- ment involved in physical distribution, to decide on systems
tion channels. Unpredicted increases also cause stockouts and and procedures for the functions and then developing these
loss of orders in the future, Every firm and every channel strategies in human resource terms and implementing them.
member has to balance the costs of holding higher inventory After this process is complete, the criteria for the selection of
levels against the costs of stockouts. channel members have to be established. The performance of
the strategy has to be monitored periodically and action for
improvement taken if needed.
191
The logistics strategy needs to be updated whenever there is an Points to Ponder
appreciable change in one or more of the following:

Physical
Distribution System
Systemss
demand
customer service levels.
products Costs
Costs
MMinimize
inimize Costs
Order
Order Processing
Processing
Submitted
Costsofof Submitted
Attaining
AttainingLogistics Processed
distribution costs Logistics
Objectives
Objectives
Processed
Sh ip ped
Shipped
pricing policy
Components of
Conclusion Physical
Distribution
In this lesson we discussed the components of Physical Transportation Warehousing
Warehousing
Water, Truck, Storage
Storage
Distribution. Rail, DDistribution
istribution
Pipeline & Air
Inventory
Inventory
Notes - When
Whento
How
How much
toorder
much to
order
to order
order
Just-in-time
Just-in -time
PHYSICAL DISTRIBUTION
System: Organized group of
components linked according to a plan
for achieving specific objectives
A companys physical distribution
system contains the following elements:
Customer Service
Transportation
Inventory Control
Protective packaging and materials handling
Order Processing
Warehousing
192
Questions

Q1. What do you mean by order processing?
Q2. What is JIT?
Q3. What is Warehousing?
193
LESSON 36
TRANSPORTATION
Learning Objective modes. The name of the game is optimisation. A number of

To understand the main task in Transportation considerations, as listed below, are involved in the determina-
Management tion of the optimal mix of modes:
To understand Transportation requirement and How do the different modes compare in speed and
optimization of mix of transport mode. costs?
How to control Trasportation cost What is the extent of user orientation of the modes?
What is the availability of the modes? Is it adequate? Is it
Transportation
timely?
Transportation confers time utility and place utility to the
product; it determines the companys customer service; it also
has a crucial bearing on the other elements of physical distribu-
tion and marketing, like warehousing, inventory control and Transportation
Transportation Modes
channel management. Finally, transportation is also a very
important cost element in most businesses. Rail
Rail
Nations
Nationslargest
largestcarrier,
carrier,cost-effective
cost-effective
Main Tasks in Transportation Management for
for shipping
shippingbulk
bulkproducts,
products,piggyback
piggyback
Main Tasks in Transportation Management Truck
Truck
Flexible
Flexiblein inrouting
routing&&time
timeschedules,
schedules,efficient
Assessment of the transportation requirement for
efficient
for short-hauls
short-haulsofofhigh
highvalue
valuegoods
goods
Choosing the mix of transport modes
Water
Water
Deciding the routing Low
Lowcost
cost for
for shipping
shipping bulky,
bulky, low-value
low-value
goods,
goods,slowest
slowestform
form
Development of operational plans
Pipeline
Pipeline
Implementation/review Ship
Shippetroleum,
petroleum, natural
natural gas,
gas, and
and chemicals
chemicals
Control of transportation costs from
fromsources
sourcesto tomarkets
markets
Basically transportation management involves decisions on: Air
Air
High
Highcost,
cost, ideal
ideal when
when speed
speed is
isneeded
needed or
orto
to
How much to move? ship
shiphigh-value,
high-value,low-bulk
low-bulkitems
items
When to move?
Where to move? Routing has two dimensions: First, systematic assignment of
By what mode, or combination of modes to move? territories to each production/supply point; Second, the actual
The considerations in making these decisions are: sequence in which a delivery vehicle should move and service the
a. the lead time for stock replenishment retail points. When a firm has more than one production
location or supply point, it should clearly demarcate the
b. sales expected in the territory in the intervening time marketing territory to be serviced by each location. Similarly, for
c. The normal cycles of inventory build up at the warehouse/ each warehouse/stockpoint too, it should demarcate the
dealer points. territory. Transportation effectiveness depends very much on
If a firm can estimate these factors fairly accurately, it can make systematic assigning of territories to each source. When there is
the basic decisions on transportation. In a fundamental sense, a strong need for drawing supplies from a source other than the
transportation has to be based on the sales forecast. Decisions designated one, it can be done, but only on the basis of strong
on when to move, how much to move and where to move will justification.
essentially depend on the sales forecast. Secondly, equal care should be taken in deciding the actual
Assessment of the Transportation Requirement sequence a delivery vehicle should take in supplying stocks to
In the first place, a transport manager makes an assessment of the various retail points that come under its service territory.
the transportation requirements based on the sales forecast, Intelligent routing, covering both the above aspects, is an
sales plan and schedules. He also watches the actual sales integral part of effective transportation. Optimisation of
performance vis-a-vas the forecast and updates the transporta- transport lead, reduction of transport time and optimization
tion. of costs are the objectives in effective routing.
Mix of Transport Modes

Depending on the product, the market and the cost factors,
firms select the transport mode, or the combination/mix of
194
do not become available for executing the plan. Often, the rates

overshoot the budgeted figures. Due to seasonal factors and
Choosing
Choosing Transportation
Transportation pulls from competing products, which can afford to pay a
higher rate, securing effective transport capacity becomes
Modes
Modes difficult. Factors like climate, road condition, labour situation,
octroi rules and problems of interstate movement all affect the
Checklist for Choosing availability.
Transportation Modes Controlling Transportation Costs
1. Speed. As mentioned earlier, transport cost is a major element of
2. Dependability. distribution costs in most businesses, and it has been increasing
3. Capability. constantly in recent years. As such, it is essential that the
4. Availability. transportation costs are controlled tightly. Also, this has to be
5. Cost. done without sacrificing the minimum guaranteed distribution
service level to the channel and consumers. Saving in transporta-
tion can be realised by: (a) optimizing the mix of the transport
modes, (b) reducing the transport lead and the lead-time
through effective routing and other means, and (c) eliminating
multiple and wasteful transfer, and handling of products. The
transport controller has to have an overall appreciation of the
whole range of physical distribution activities and the costs
thereof. He cannot remain confined to the narrow role of
freight rate negotiator, or a transport liaison man. He has to
Comparison of Transport
Transport Modes
Modes view transport as a total back-up capability, supporting the
Mode Speed Depend- Frequenc Availabil Flexibilit Cost marketing function and a source of competitive advantage for
ability in y of - y in
Meeting Shipment ity in Handlin the firm in the marketplace.
Schedul s Different g
es Location Conclusion
s In This lesson we studied the different modes of transporta-
Rail Average Average Low Low High Average tion and points companies need to take care in deciding the
Water Very Average Very low Limited Very Very means of transport.
slow high low
Truck Fast High High Very Average High
extensiv
e Notes -
Pipelin Slow High High Very Very Low
e limited low
Air Very High Average Average Low Very
fast high
Developing Operational Plans

The transport manager must work out detailed operational
plans from the overall transportation plan. Detailed plans/
schedules must be developed for each product and each supply
point/warehouse, month-by-month and week-by-week. The
plans must indicate the made/combinations of modes. They
must also be properly dovetailed with the warehouse plans.
Once the plan in all its details is ready, the task becomes one of
creating the required transportation capacity and securing the
required linkage between transportation schedules and wan
house space procurement.
Implementation of Plans
The transportation job does not end with the preparation of
plans, the determination of optimal modal mix, development
of operational plans and putting in place the required service
contracts. In fact, it begins there. The smooth movement of the
product and efficient execution of the whole plan, with
minimum deviation, is the real task. Many practical problems
may crop up in the process. Sometimes, transport capabilities
195
Points to Ponder
Transportation
Transportation Modes
Comparison of Transport
Transport Modes
Modes
Rail
Rail Mode Speed Depend- Frequenc Availabil Flexibilit Cost
Nations
Nationslargest
largestcarrier,
carrier,cost-effective
cost-effective ability in y of - y in
for
for shipping
shipping bulk
bulk products,
products,piggyback
piggyback Meeting Shipment ity in Handlin
Schedul s Different g
Truck
Truck es Location
Flexible
Flexibleininrouting
routing&&time
timeschedules,
schedules,efficient
efficient s
for
for short-hauls
short-haulsofofhigh
highvalue
valuegoods
goods Rail Average Average Low Low High Average
Water Water Very Average Very low Limited Very Very
Water slow high low
Low
Low cost
cost for
for shipping
shipping bulky,
bulky, low-value
low -value
goods,
goods,slowest
slowestform
form Truck Fast High High Very Average High
extensiv
Pipeline
Pipeline e
Ship
Ship petroleum,
petroleum, natural
natural gas,
gas, and
and chemicals
chemicals Pipelin Slow High High Very Very Low
from
from sources
sourcestotomarkets
markets e limited low
Air
Air Air Very High Average Average Low Very
High
High cost,
cost, ideal
ideal when
when speed
speed is
is needed
needed or
or to
to fast high
ship
shiphigh-value,
high-value,low-bulk
low-bulkitems
items
Choosing
Choosing Transportation
Transportation Questions
Q1. What are the various modes of transport? Discuss the
Modes
Modes merits and demerits of each?
Checklist for Choosing Q2. What are the points Transport manager needs to look
Transportation Modes while deciding modes of transport?
1. Speed. Q3. How to control transportation cost?
2. Dependability.
3. Capability.
4. Availability.
5. Cost.
196
LESSON 37
WAREHOUSING
Learning Objective se, or company demand (a company may lose or gain relative
To understand the main task in Warehousing market share). Thus, in the nature of things, warehousing will
have a constant component plus a variable component. And,
To understand Warehouse designing.
there is some scope for adjustment in warehousing of prod-
To understand cost associated in Warehousing. ucts, depending on market behaviour/companys performance.
Warehousing Warehousing Job can be Taken Care of in Different
Warehousing is the major component of physical distribution. Ways
Warehousing management has two distinct and equally As regards the actual organising of the warehousing system,
important parts: (i) the physical job of creating and running the different alternatives can be considered by the firm.
network of storage points, and (ii) the managerial task of
Hire warehousing service from public warehousing agencies
controlling inventory levels without sacrificing service levels.
Though interrelated, they require separate and detailed discus- Own the godowns and manage warehousing through
sion. We shall, therefore, devote two independent sections to company staff
the subject. In the first, we shall deal with the warehousing Entrust warehousing to C&F agents/stockists/
aspects and in the second, with the inventory management distributors
aspects. A combination of the above
Designing a Warehousing System Each alternative has its associated merits and drawbacks.
In most cases, products flow from the factory to the consumer Decisions have to be basically situation specific. FMCG (Fast
through a long winding chain, consisting of multiple tiers of Moving Consumer Goods) firms usually transfer a large part of
warehouses and multiple tiers of marketing intermediaries. In the warehousing task to their C&F agents.
designing a warehousing system, the following basic questions
relating to this flow become significant.
How many warehouses should we have? WAREHOUSE BENEFIT
Where should we locate them? BREAK BULK OPERATION
What should be the size or capacity of each of them?
Customer
The Cost-Service Tussle A
When we look closely at these questions, two interesting, but
conflicting, points emerge. Salesmen and channels always plead Plant A Break Bulk Customer
B
for greater convenience in delivery and consequently more Warehouse
warehouses. But, maintaining a large network of warehouses is
a costly proposition. Thus, there is an inherent tussle between Customer
C
cost and service in warehousing decisions.
Warehousing to be Tackled as Part of the Physical
Distribution System Determining the Number Location and Size of
While designing a warehousing system, the fact that warehous- Warehouses
ing is a part of the overall distribution job should be borne in Determining the locations and capacities of the warehouses is
mind. The warehousing design should fit smoothly into the the crux of the task. On this depends the firms customer
overall distribution design, which includes physical distribution service level, its competitive advantage in distribution and its
elements like transportation plus channel arrangements, which inventory cost structure. While one might point out that it is
will be discussed in the succeeding chapter. the inventory turnaround that primarily determines inventory
Warehousing, a Partly Fixed and Partly Adjustable costs, the fact remains that the costs are also influenced by the
Entity locations and spread of the inventories -at how many places
In most cases, it may be apt to view demand in a given territory and in what sizes are stocks kept. Moreover, inventory turn-
as consisting of a constant component and a transient compo- around itself is partly the outcome of the manner in which the
nent, which is to be added to or subtracted from (mostly added inventory is spread.
to) the constant component. Past sale corresponds to the Determining the number: The optimum number will depend
constant component. Changes occurring in demand in the upon the nature of the product, the size and geographical
current period correspond to the transient component. The spread of the market serviced by each warehouse. the current
transient component is related to change in market demand per and potential sales in the territory, the extent of seasonality of
197
demand if applicable, the level of peak demand, the trade
Elements of Inventory Costs
patterns, the number of distributors/retail outlets to be
serviced by each warehouse, the acceptable order-execution time, Interest on capital tied Postage and communication charges
the possible speed of replenishment of stocks and the cost up in the inventory Administrative overheads
involved in operating warehouses. Future requirements and Warehouse rent Costs of handling, unloading and
pattern of competition are also relevant factors in deciding the Staff salaries stacking
Insurance Loss due to damage and deterioration
number and sizes of the warehouses.
Rates and taxes while on storage
Choosing the size: The decision on the size of the warehouses Stationery Cost of order processing/record
must be taken in alignment with the decision on their total keeping/accounting
number. After a firm assesses the sales potential in each
warehouse territory, the question to be decided is: What is the In many cases, warehousing as a whole becomes inefficient on
optimum inventory holding needed for realising the sales account of unreliable sales forecasts. When actual sales show
projected for the territory? great divergence from the forecast, any warehousing plan
naturally goes haywire and its effectiveness suffers a setback.
Warehouse size and costs are inversely interrelated. So, as a
general rule, small-sized warehouses are uneconomic compared Conclusion
to larger ones. At the same time, if the sales projected are small, In todays Business environment the companies are going for
warehouse size has to be small. Customer convenience and bulk production and customers are distributed globally so it is
channel service will call for a large number of small-sized necessary that organizations have proper warehousing facilities.
warehouses spread extensively all over the marketing territory. It helps in adding time and place utility.
There will also be the additional consideration of future
requirement. As a general rule it can be said that by reckoning
the volume of sales and the desired market share in the area Notes -
covered by the warehouse, and by applying the factors of transit
time and peak season demand, the optimum warehouse
capacity at a given location can be worked out.
Choosing the exact locations: Choosing the exact locations of
the warehouses is as important as choosing their number and
capacity. The locations must be suitable in terms of market
factors and availability of transport facility: Rent rates, commer-
cial suitability of the location, implications of local levies, etc.,
have also to be looked into. Above all, availability of suitable
godown space has to be considered.
Improving Warehousing Effectiveness
Warehousing effectiveness can be improved by adopting
scientific methods and by taking the support of IT. In the larger
context, however, warehousing effectiveness depends squarely
on right policies of physical distribution.
Scientific warehouse layout in itself facilitates warehousing
effectiveness. The layout/design must be suitable for the
product(s) concerned and the nature of storage and in-out
operations.
Warehousing effectiveness also improves when the handling
and movement of items within the warehouse is minimized.
This applies especially to large warehouses and products
involving extensive storage, receiving and issue operations.
Every time an item is moved within the warehouse, it means an
opportunity for damage to the item; and each lifting of the
item fatigues the package.
Systematic stocking of items is another factor. If the items of
high demand, with high frequency of in-out operations, are
kept in the front and the relatively slower moving items in the
rear, it will facilitate smooth operations and also help reduce the
overall costs of warehousing. It is such matters of detail that
make the real difference between poor and good warehousing.
198

Q1. What factors should be considered while designing
Warehouse?
WAREHOUSE BENEFIT Q2. How can Warehousing effectiveness be improved?
BREAK BULK OPERATION
Customer
A
Plant A Break Bulk Customer

Warehouse B
Customer
C
Warehouse strategy is evolving to more

focused and flexible
Technology and expertise are key
warehouse alternative determinants
Operating and industry synergies are
more important factors
199
LESSON 38
IMPACT OF IT ON PHYSICAL DISTRIBUTION
Learning Objective the retailers inventory system. This allows them to view
To understand the ways in which IT has affected POS data - XYZ controls the stock in the retailers stores.
distribution system This eliminates the information gap discussed earlier. This
information also has cross-functional value, as it allows
1. Introduction XYZ to generate superior demand forecasts. It has increased
Recent advances in information technology have enabled low- the number of inventory turns by over 300%. Another of
cost and efficient inter-organizational information sharing XYZs retailers does not allow this form of VMI, but gives
(IOIS) relationships between firms adjacent on the supply XYZ access to their POS information; this information is
chain. These arrangements have been prevalent in the automo- targeted at helping XYZs marketing and sales divisions
tive industry for many years. For instance, Chrysler mandates make better forecasts, and to give XYZ the option of
that all its suppliers be able to interface electronically with their replenishing stocks continuously. XYZ also manages a
logistics management information systems. However, of late, whole category of OTC pharmaceutical products for one of
IOIS arrangements have become more varied, and have also their retailers; this provides XYZ with valuable information
become common in a number of other industries; in particular, about competing pharmaceutical companies sales and
between large commercial retailers and their suppliers of OTC promotion patterns. The benefits to XYZ should be
(over-the-counter) goods. immense; however, their managers do not feel that there is
To illustrate some of the issues that are believed are crucial to any tangible net value from these advanced systems. The
understanding their costs and benefits, consider the following efficiency of their logistics management and their marketing
real-life case: strategies have improved; however, these benefits seem to be
outweighed by the fact that they operate on stringent and
XYZ Corporation started selling pharmaceutical over-the- expensive supply schedules, and are saddled with a number
counter (OTC) products in 1978. They have a variety of such of the ordering costs that the retailer used to bear. In short,
products that they sell today. They rely heavily on electronic as one despondent manager put it: The retailer seems to
interfacing at various levels with their buyers in order to drive have extracted all the benefits of our partnership.
efficient supply chain management. XYZ was introduced to
EDI in 1985. Their basic EDI process is fairly simple. The case raises a number of interesting points. We focus
Customers enter orders via EDI by sending UPC codes and primarily on the following issues:
order quantities to an electronic mailbox with a specific How much information should a firm share? If sharing
customer ID. Orders are retrieved four times a day, and after information generates value, one might argue, then why
being screened for consistency, are translated and sent into not share all relevant information available ? At least two
XYZs order processing system. Currently, there are over 160 observations are of consequence when examining the
customers who use EDI for ordering. 70% of their dollar question of up to what level must one build these
volume of orders comes in electronically, and 50% of the relationships:
total number of orders use this system. The benefits of the The sharing of information also affects a different
simple EDI system have been immense. Delivery times have dimension of the buyer-supplier relationship: the
been cut from an average of 21 days to an average of 5 days. relative bargaining power of the two parties.
Customer order problems, which used to take 24 hours to
The nature of the information shared may influence
handle, are resolved in less than an hour. The EDI system is
the strategies of departments outside operations and
handled by customer service representatives, who, instead of
supply chain management; also, it may affect the
entering line items manually, now have more time to focus
competitive position of the buyer or supplier with
on advertising, selling and forecasting. However, there are
respect to their own industry rivals.
some concerns with this system. Customers like to use the
same UPC each time they order, and do not keep up with Based on above example, we describe the impact of different
changing product types and packaging sizes; hence, a fraction levels of information sharing on the operations, sales and
of the orders tend to be for products that are no longer in marketing strategies of an organization.
existence. It is difficult to handle specialized product features, If these arrangements are indeed value creating, then a
and promotional products, due to the information gap question which arises is how can IOIS relationships be
between the customer and XYZ. XYZ has solved these sustained. For instance, a supplier may get tremendous
problems and achieved further operating improvements operations and sales strategy improvements if permitted to
using VMI (vendor managed inventory). For instance, one access point-of-sales information; however, the buyer may
of their retailers allows them to hook the EDI system into not gain significantly from this arrangement. In a case like
200
this, one would expect a contract of some kind to ensure

that the information is shared on a continuous basis, and
that the value created is shared in a satisfactory manner.
2. The Level Of Information Sharing
The diversity of information content, and the numerous
sharing options makes it seemingly impossible to classify the
nature or level of information sharing. Our field studies have
indicated that a number of different sharing arrangements are
possible. For example, some suppliers share inventory position
information of the products a certain supplier sells them. This
information may be transmitted daily, or weekly; the level of
detail also varies. There are suppliers who see the store-level day- Figure 2: EDI exchanging transaction information
to-day point-of-sales (POS) information; there is a great deal of
variety here as well - some see only product UPCs and quanti- This is one of the oldest and most widely prevalent forms of
ties, while others have access to temporal sales distribution and IOIS, and is aimed at reducing transactions costs and the
customer profiles. Other buyers transmit order quantity, duration of order cycles.
payment and cost information using EDI - this is a situation At this level, both parties gain from reduced order cycle times
where the volume of information exchanged may be great, but (which reduce inventory levels). The value gained is not joint;
its impact on the operations of the firms are relatively low. each party improves efficiency independently, and hence there are
If one examines information from another perspective, the no value sharing issues. There is the issue, however, of
problem simplifies a great deal. Treat the level of information information technology costs. One party may find it cost-
shared not based on what its exact content or volume is, but effective to invest in an EDI system that enables these
rather, based on the impact it has on the operations, sales, improvements; the other may not. However, both need to
marketing and production strategies of the parties that contract invest in the system in order to transact electronically.
to share the information. Using this view, one can classify IOIS 2.2 Sharing Operations Information
arrangements into four categories, based on the level of impact Information is often shared to leverage on the superior
the shared information has on the buyer and supplier (Figure expertise, or operational economies-of-scale of one organiza-
1). tion. This occurs when one firm owns valuable information,
while the other firm possesses the ability to use this informa-
tion. An example of this is vendor managed inventory (Figure
3).
Figure 1: Models of information sharing
The first level involves increased cost-and-time-effective

exchange of transaction-level information (like order quantities
and prices) through EDI. The second level involves sharing
select operational information (such as inventory levels) in order Figure 3: VMI sharing operational information
to exploit superior expertise across organizational boundaries,
For instance, a buyer shares aggregate inventory position
and improve operating efficiency. At the third level, the informa-
information with its suppliers; this enables suppliers to manage
tion shared has strategic value to the party that receives the
the inventory of their own products at the buyers site. Suppli-
information. Finally, at the highest level, the information adds
ers are better equipped to perform these duties, for the
both strategic and competitive value to the party that receives it.
following reasons:
2.1 Exchanging Order Information They have experience managing large supply side
Many IOIS arrangements do not involve sharing firm-specific inventories of this product.
operations information; they merely improve logistics processes
through efficiency gains from EDI. We treat this case - where They have superior knowledge of production schedules,
the companies exchange ordering information - as our base case. which reduces the supply-side uncertainty that a buyer
(Figure 2) normally faces, resulting in a lower average inventory for
the buyer.
201
They could have comparable VMI arrangements with a The model has been discussed for many years now - supply
number of buyers (economies-of-scale). chain management has always striven to move towards a system
Efficiency gains are not restricted to inventory cost reductions. where consumer purchases pull goods through the chain,
In our case in when product specifications, packaging specifica- rather than suppliers pushing them.
tions or packaging quantities changed, an order sent with an Since inventory positions can easily be derived from POS
outdated UPC would generate rework. When new products information, the operational information is also being shared.
were introduced, there was a similar problem. Moving to VMI Hence, all the benefits that accompany VMI-type situations still
eliminated these difficulties. However, the buyers costs of exist. However, this information is of a much higher level of
ordering and order fulfillment are now borne by the supplier.. detail than inventory aggregates. - it can be used by the
What does the supplier gain ? Their internal operating efficiency suppliers sales and product development groups for improved
gains are minimal at best. However, one benefit that may not be demand forecasting, promotion scheduling and segment-
immediately tangible (if it exists) is that the suppliers relative specific forecasts. According to the director of worldwide sales
bargaining position for its transactions with the buyer may forecasting at Eastman Kodak, such region specific and tactical
improve. Since it is has superior knowledge of how well or demand forecasts are increasingly becoming a major role of
badly its product is doing on a regular basis, the information sales. Reduced demand uncertainty also improve the internal
asymmetry it faces reduces; it may therefore be able to bargain inventory management of the supplier.
for price schedules that are more favorable. The benefits described above may indicate that the buyer can
It is likely that the contracts underlying these sharing agreements induce suppliers unwilling to enter into information sharing
will include value sharing agreement between the buyer and the agreements by offering them access to information that is of
supplier. Alternately, there could be a penalty for non-VMI strategic value. However, when this information is available to
suppliers. This penalty could range from a complete shut-out the supplier, the relative bargaining power of the buyer is
(we do business only with suppliers who manage their own reduced further . For instance, in the POS example above, the
inventories in our stores - implies a strong bargaining position supplier now knows not only gross product movement figures,
on the buyer side, despite the apparent gain in power by the but also the details of what prices the buyer charges consumers,
supplier as described in the previous paragraph) to some kind any local demand patterns and the schedule of promotions -
of price advantage that the buyer passes on to the supplier. Our this puts the buyer at a significant disadvantage when negotiat-
discussion in provides insight into some these issues. ing supply terms.
2.3 Sharing Strategic Marketing Information 2.4 Sharing Strategic and Competitive Marketing
It is becoming common for organizations to share brand- and Sales Information
specific information which provides strategic benefits to one of At the highest level of information sharing, it is possible for a
the organizations, and also leverages on their superior expertise. buyer to allow a supplier to access broad market information
This occurs when one organization owns information that it that provides the supplier with strategic and competitive
can derive little independent value from, but which another can benefits. This occurs when one organization possesses informa-
use to generate operational benefits for the company it receives tion that it can derive little independent value from, but from
the information from, besides garnering strategic value for its which another can derive internal strategic production benefits,
own sales and marketing departments. For instance, a retailer as well as competitive sales and marketing benefits. The
possesses POS (point-of-sales) information on all the products competitive benefits are with respect to intra-industry rivals -
it sells. This information is not of much value in isolation; this information does not give the supplier additional competi-
however, a supplier can make superior demand forecasts by tive advantage over the buyer, but over other suppliers in its
analyzing detailed transaction level information from many own industry. Category management is an example of this
retailers. This form of information sharing is used in the situation (Figure 5).
efficient customer response, continuous replenishment and
quick response systems models (Figure 4), common in the
grocery and fashion retailing industry. ).
Figure 5: Category management sharing strategic and

competitive marketing information
Figure 4: Continuous Replenishment sharing strategic
information
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The retailer endows one of the suppliers with inventory buyer could end up getting all the value from the

management responsibility over all the products supplied for arrangements.
that category, and provides them with the relevant POS 5. Buyers should target suppliers who have the characteristics
information. This gives that supplier strategic benefits (from described in (4), as they are likely to be tempted by the
improved demand forecasts), competitive benefits (from sales prospects of high savings - since these savings are likely to
and demand information about competitors products), and accrue to the buyer, these are better firms to share
will enable superior inventory management. It also reduces the information with. The same holds for highly competitive
buyers operating costs tremendously - not only are all order supplier markets.
management costs eliminated, but the buyer deals with only
6. Partnering with suppliers (as advocated by many supply
one supplier per category, and hence has a significant reduction
chain management information systems vendors) is
in information technology costs.
unlikely to be optimal for the buyer in many situations.
On the face of it, the supplier also gains tremendously when There is little reason for buyers to be worried about loss in
provided access to this information. Not only are all the benefits bargaining power when they share information; through
of present, but the supplier can track the sales of competing creative contracting, they can regain any power they
products in the category, and use this information to improve apparently lose.
the sales strategy of their own product. Since there may be a
7. A supplier in an IOIS relationship is unlikely to benefit
time lag between the category manager generating an order, and
from the relationship, or accrue any of the value generated;
a competing supplier receiving it, inventory costs of competing
however, it may still be necessary to remain in the
products will tend to be higher, and hence the category manager
arrangement, to avoid further losses. A supplier who
gains a cost advantage as well. The tradeoff appears to be
breaks even on a VMI or category management agreement,
increased transaction costs for the supplier, who manages,
is probably doing as well as they can.
orders and monitors product movements of a whole category
of products. 8. As I.T. enables buyers to use and share information more
effectively, they are bound to be able to pull more and
In this section, we have discussed the sources of value creation
more from suppliers. Hence, suppliers may do well to
when two companies share information at different levels. We
negotiate long-term VMI contracts with buyers. Even if
examine how this value will be shared by the two firms.
these contracts generate little or no apparent present or
4. Summary and Insights future value, they are insurance against what will only
Corporations have long been aware of how information become a less favorable market for them. This is
systems can allow them to operate across organizational particularly true in highly competitive markets; if a buyer
boundaries; however, there has not been much research into the possesses competitive information that is potentially very
competitive implications of these IOIS arrangements. There valuable to a supplier, this is not a sign of the supplier
has also been significant concern on the part of suppliers who benefiting a lot, but a predictor of all suppliers losing a lot.
see no tangible benefits accruing to them from different 9. As the cost of processing and sharing information drops,
information sharing arrangements. Our study offers the as is evidently has and will continue to do, two related
following insights into these long-standing concerns. occurrences are very likely:
1. The impact of IOIS relationships is not merely The volume of information that a buyer collects (and
operational; they can alter supplier marketing and sales can potentially share) will increase
strategies, and shape competition in supplier markets.
The strategic and competitive value of this information
2. It is possible for a buyer to extract all the competitive value to suppliers will increase
of information from each supplier. Therefore, it is
In the light of our analysis, this spells more profits for the
worthwhile for buyers to collect as much information as
buyer, and more value extraction from suppliers.
possible that is of competitive value to their suppliers -
they need not actually share it - a realistic threat of potential Conclusion
sharing is sufficient. After going through above discussion we can understand the
3. In a supplier market with many competing suppliers of importance and impact of information technology on distribu-
similar size, VMI is likely to be the best policy for a buyer; tion management.
though category management may offer higher operational Question
savings, a buyer can do better by extracting competitive Q1. Discuss role of IT in distribution management?
value from the suppliers with the threat of CM.
4. The following factors increase the operational savings that a
supplier expects from an IOIS relationship:
High inventory cost rates
High demand uncertainty
However, the supplier should examine the competitive
factors involved in these arrangements, before being
tempted by large (and often illusory) cost savings, as the
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LESSON 39
IMPLICATION OF SUPPLY CHAIN MANAGEMENT IN PHYSICAL DISTRIBUTION
Learning Objective U.S. grocery industry, and that change is spreading to other
To understand supply chain management sectors and other countries. Its success is surprising, given how
different it is from the usual operating methods of most
What is Efficient consumer Response
channels. Indeed, ECR is so successful that some critics are now
Physical Efficiency versus Market Responsiveness in supply declaring it outdated and looking for a new movement to
chain management replace it.
What is Supply Chain Management? The source of ECR is fear. In 1992, the U.S. grocery store
A supply chain is the set of entities that collectively manufac- industry was feeling threatened by the rapid growth of non
tures a product and sells it to an endpoint (the ultimate grocery outlets, such as drugstores.23 these alternative format
customer). In this sense, supply chains are like value added (alternative to a supermarket) stores were aggressively adding
chains. However, they include only players that add value in food to their assortments, and the consumer was responding
production and distribution. The concept of a supply chain is positively. A principal threat was seen to be Wal-Mart, which
narrower than that of a value-added chain, but it is broader was moving from mass-merchandising to a hypermarket
than the idea of marketing channels. These go from factory to concept (merchandise and groceries). This is why, in 1992, two
buyer. A supply chain goes back to a more distant starting grocery trade associations commissioned a study of grocery
point-the suppliers of the factory that makes whatever is being methods. The report strongly criticized existing grocery channels
sold-and the suppliers of the suppliers. Indeed, the beginning and proposed a radical and complex series of changes to these
point of a supply chain is somewhat arbitrary, although it channels. This program of change was named according to its
usually is considered to include only the immediate suppliers of objective: to achieve efficient (as opposed to wasteful) consumer
the factory that produces finished goods. A supply chain is also (the final buyer) response (supplying only what is desired).
distinctive in that it ends with the ultimate buyer, the customer As initially proposed, the idea is to focus on four areas where
of someones customer. The end of the supply chain is the last the industry as a whole had and still has great potential for
invoice. improvement. How great? The United States grocery industry
In practice, much of what is called SCM does not go all the way converged on an estimate of $30 billion annually, or 5 percent
forward to the last invoice, nor backward to the suppliers of of retail sales. Interestingly, a similar figure (21 billion, 5.7
suppliers of manufacturers. percent of retail sales) is being suggested for European
A good working definition of SCM is that it is an organizing grocers.24 The four areas are
concept that starts with customer service and argues that this 1. A continuous replenishment program (CRP). The goal is
results from the cumulative efforts of the entire channel. to end the bullwhip effect. The method is to use purchase
Customer service cannot be interpreted as the sole responsibility data captured via scanners from the final buyer to inform
of any single channel member. The guiding principle is to unify all upstream supply chain members of demand, right back
product flows and information flows up and down the to the suppliers of suppliers. This requires massive
production and distribution chain. Doing this requires standardization of codes and methods, and
1. a market orientation, focused on the last customer; implementation of ED!
2. effective channel management, to enable smooth transfers 2. Efficient pricing and promotions. A scourge of the
of product and information; and industry is poorly calibrated promotions that wreak havoc
3. effective logistics. with pricing and buyer behavior. At the consumer level,
excessively generous promotions (such as one free for one
An organizing concept, a statement of principles, a focus on purchased) create demand spikes and degrade brand equity.
end customers, channel management, and logisticscritics Non-targeted promotions encourage price comparisons
charge, with some fairness, that SCM needs a more precise and brand switching purely for temporary price cuts. At the
definition. Yet, SCM is not really a package of techniques, it is wholesale level, manufacturer promotions lead to huge
akin to a paradigm; that is, a set of common values, beliefs, and demand spikes. These push factory production up too
tools that unites a group of people engaged in related tasks. high, then down too low. This, in turn, pushes inventory
Any paradigm has subfields, and SCM is no exception. A up too high (resulting in spoiled food) or down too low
number of concepts and techniques can be folded into SCM, (running out of stock).
and we will treat these as we encounter them. Let us begin with
3. Changes in product introduction. Thousands of new-
the roots of SCM in the grocery industry.
product introductions, most of which fail, are endemic to
Efficient Consumer Response grocery retailing. ECR calls for combining market research
Efficient consumer response (ECR) is a landmark in marketing commissioned by channel members in order to forecast
channels. As a movement it has wrought radical change in the
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new-product success better on a store-by-store basis, or 2. drive store traffic and category sales (the retailers concern),

based on reasonable store groupings (store clusters). and
4. Changes in merchandising. This is the same idea (combine 3. provide added value (to the targeted consumer).
research) for the purpose of finding better ways to This third objective masks the real concern of many manufac-
merchandise brands and their associated categories (e.g., turers: that their promotions do not offer value to their
snack foods, pet food, soups) store by store, or cluster by brand-loyal shoppers, nor do they build brand loyalty within
cluster. the segment of consumers who rely solely on promotions to
Over time, these ideas have been developed and expanded. decide what to buy.
ECR has become an umbrella term that now encompasses a Efficient promotions use data about consumer behavior to
variety of means by which pure grocers combat alternative discover what is selling, at what price, and to whom. Retailers,
format stores. Some major operational features of ECR follow. wholesalers, and manufacturers work together (often by
Category Management and Efficient Promotions: Histori- commissioning a market research firm) to make sense of reams
cally, grocers think of what they sell in terms of how they buy: of transaction data or market research data. The purpose is to
one brand of one type of item (e.g., Frito-Lay Taco Chips). discover win-win promotional opportunities for a store or a
Category management is the principle that a higher level of cluster of stores. For example, in Italy, manufacturer Kraft
aggregation is called for. A consumers shopping list is com- Jacobs Suchard and retailer Groopo GS have jointly analyzed
posed of product categories (remember to buy two bags of loyalty card data to target consumers in a single attitude-based
salty snacks). Therefore, a grocer should think in terms of a segment labeled seeking healthy relaxation. As the label
product category, and manage it as a whole, rather than manag- implies, it is no easy matter to identify these people. Similarly, in
ing each product-brand and letting the collection of items Spain, manufacturer Elida Faberge and retailer Auchan have
amount to a category. Further, in the spirit of ECR, retailers and jointly analyzed panel data to identify a mutually interesting
suppliers should work together to understand each categorys growth opportunity: susceptible consumers who are secondary
dynamics as perceived by the consumer. customers of Faberge and who are secondary shoppers at
The rationale is that any item competes with any other item for Auchan.
shelf space. Consumers think in categories, and some as a Continuous Replenishment: Continuous replenishment
whole merit more space than do others. Depending on the planning (CRP) is the practice of replacing stock based on
store, the diaper category, for example, may merit (on a contri- speedy knowledge of consumer withdrawals (Le. sales). More
bution per-space basis) more space than it is getting, whereas precisely, in SCM the term means partnering between distribu-
the laundry detergent category might merit less. This conclusion tion channel members in order to replace the traditional
may not emerge from analyzing items one by one. And what practices (push systems, stocking to forecast) with a pull system.
should be in a category? The principle is to look for groupings In this pull system, a retailers stock is replenished based largely
that seem natural to a consumer. Thinking in category terms is on actual sales data from the end of the supplier chain (the
made easier by advances in activity-based costing (ABC). The consumer).
cost of slow-moving items is often surprisingly high, and ABC The goal is to automate the process related to warehouse
helps point out these items. fulfillment and shipping, using consumer demand (captured by
The category management focus is related to the idea of an scanners) to trigger just-in-time restocking. By automating,
efficient assortment: Having what the customer wants and ECR practitioners seek to cut errors and processing costs, which
skipping the rest. For groceries, skipping the rest is of great are substantial. For example, British grocer Sainsburys estimates
importance. It is widely believed that brand managers have that one-quarter of the chains supply chain management
proliferated SKUs to lock up shelf space and brand share, with budget is spent confirming the location and movement of
the result that consumers are overwhelmed with unsought inventory.
variety. For example, P&G claims that in the laundry category 40 Continuous replenishment is an arduous task. In CRP, a
percent of SKUs could be eliminated, yet 95 percent of supplier (perhaps a distributor, perhaps the manufacturer
consumer needs would still be met. Some manufacturers directly) takes complete responsibility for monitoring and
believe that having fewer SKUs actually increases overall sales.26 refilling the retailers inventory. In the grocery industry, CRP is
this paradoxical observation might be explained by the idea that often accomplished by charging the manufacturer with manag-
buyers arent motivated to sift through multiple options in ing the downstream channel members inventory. In most of
low-involvement product categories. Bewildered by more variety these cases, powerful retailers have obliged manufacturers to
than they want, consumers depart with fewer purchases. A make the significant expenditures necessary to perform continu-
simplified display enables faster information processing, thereby ous replenishment. Intriguing, albeit preliminary evidence
increasing consumer confidence and motivation to purchase. suggests the biggest winners of this exercise are consumers
Category management sparks thinking about efficient promo- (lower prices, fewer stock outs) and retailers (higher profits).
tions. These can be defined as limited-time offers that are The profit benefits for manufacturers are somewhat difficult to
win-win for all parties. This means that they document. Although many report sales increases, they also find
1. move product (the manufacturers concern), that significant logistical complexities and costs have been
moved back to their level. As oil industry analyst notes, just-in-
time (JIT) often becomes just inventory shift (JIS). Perhaps the
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biggest benefit of CRP for manufacturers is that they remain must work together in project teams to create tremendous
suppliers to large retailers. CRP keeps them in the game. It may organizational change. And teamwork becomes permanent.
or may not yield increased profits. Salespeople and purchasing agents, for example, are replaced by
Obstacles to ECR: The list of obstacles to ECR is formi- multifunctional teams on the buyers side and the sellers side.
dable.32 At a physical level, ECR requires agreement on codes And each side is expected to understand the others business.
and on a huge number of ED I choices. In general, it requires These are wrenching changes.
standardization of methods. For example, the delicate exercise Rapid Response
of cross-docking is difficult to pull off if channel members Rapid response, or what logisticians prefer to call quick response
cannot agree on a number of issues. ECR implementation is a (QR), is another approach to supply chain management.34 It
long and expensive affair. appears similar to, and is often compared with, ECR, but is
One of the greatest barriers to ECR is the necessity of trusting really quite different. QR originated in the early 1980s in the
other channel members. Trust and good working relationships fashion industry, in which it has seen its greatest development.
are necessary for the information exchange, joint planning, and Many of the original developments are attributed to Benetton,
joint actions that underpin efforts to make the entire grocery the knitwear retailer. Many of the later ones are due to
channel respond to consumers while cutting waste. And trust is Giordano, a retailer that perfected QR from the late 1980s to the
essential for continuous replenishment. The idea of making early 1990s. Since 1993, Giordanos methods have diffused
another party responsible for ones own stock, and doing so considerably in the industry and are now practiced by retailers
without an abundant safety stock, is a very difficult one for such as Gap and The Limited.
many industries to accept. In some ways, QR is like ECR. The fundamental pull system
Trust is based on equity. The fundament of ECR is not that idea-let the consumer tell the entire channel what to make and
channel members share risk and information to produce gains what to ship, then do it quickly-is the same. And the emphasis
for the channel as a whole, but that they then share the gains on inter firm cooperation, data analysis, data transmission,
equitably. Opportunism (reneging on a promise to compensate inventory management, and waste reduction is the same. The
all players fairly) is fatal to ECR. fundamental difference is in the volatile, unpredictable nature of
And yet, ECR exists. Although not the norm in grocery what is being sold. For FMCG (fast-moving consumer goods)
retailing in the United States, it has made great progress. If categories, such as toothpaste, consumers know well in advance
imitation is the most sincere form of flattery, sincere compli- what they want and what they dont want. ECR enables them
ments of ECR abound. Trade publications of many industries to tell the retailer and the suppliers readily.
overflow with discussions of how to create ECR in their In fashion, consumers dont know what they want until the
sectors. For many, ECR has become synonymous with supply moment they are ready to buy it. They dont know what will be
chain management, which is attracting considerable attention in fashionable and whether the next fashion will appeal to them.
Europe. In fashion retailing, consumers see and try an item, then form
Demanding customers seem to create excellent supply chain an opinion. And they change their minds readily. Benchmarks
operations-albeit painfully. The auto giants and1he major retail are difficult to find, in part because of lack of standardization
chains not only know what they want, they are determined to (e.g., of sizes) in the industry. Routinely, retailers put out a line
get it: delivery to a tightly specified time slot, in exactly specified of clothing, then. discover consumer reaction. If the sizes tend
quantities, at near-faultless quality; and faultless is extended to run bigger or smaller than normal, the retailer will have the
to cover not only the products themselves but also the associ- wrong size assortment. If one fabric or color or variation
ated planning, delivery, and invoicing systems. In these pleases more than another, retailers will find themselves with
industries, that is now the entry ticket to the game, not a too much of one item and not enough of another. And
differentiator. And the word is spreading. fashion is perishable Consumers wont wait months for restock
of a desirable item, and items that sell poorly must be marked
That ECR began in the grocery industry is miraculous. When
down quickly in order to get rid of them at all.
the initiative was unveiled at a trade conference in 1993, few in
the audience were confident that the traditionally adversarial Historically, store buyers forecasted fashion demand well in
relations in these marketing channels could be set aside. The advance and committed to orders, sometimes six seasons
cooperation and transparency that ECR requires had to be before the items would be sold. This is a push system (make to
brought into being. The power of example is critical, and here forecast). Over time, consumer fashion tastes have become so
the example used is the now-legendary arrangement between difficult to forecast that many fashion retailers have adopted the
Wal-Mart and P&G (Chapter 11 on strategic alliances). Ironically, opposite strategy: Try something in a small wav and see if it
Wal-Marts entry into the food business drove the grocery works. If it sells, stock more and quickly. But stock how?
industry to devise ECR in the first place. Manufacturers need lead time. By the time fashion is discovered,
its too late to order up more.
ECR also requires considerable change in the internal operations
of a channel member. Jobs are lost and roles are redefined Here is the impetus for quick response. The essence of QR is in
when EDI rationalizes supply chains. People representing many manufacturing. QR involves keeping manufacturing flexible as
different functions in the organization (sales, marketing, to what to make and how much to make. In contrast, ECR is
purchasing, production, shipping, warehousing, accounting) more focused on how much to make and when to put it into a
ware house. There is no need to keep manufacturing flexible to
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produce variations of toothpaste, and there is little harm in The speed required to respond to fashion puts a premium on

stockpiling it for a while. Demand can be steadied (e.g., by EDI (for fast transfers), CAD-CAM (for changing what is being
restraining promotions). heading off production surges. But it manufactured), excellent P_S systems, standing arrangements
is critical to keep clothing fabrication flexible to produce more with members of the supply chain, and standardized identifica-
of the latest hot dress or jacket, in this seasons hit colors and tion. One of the most difficult challenges to QR has been
fabrics, in the sizes that have proven popular. Production implementing a standard system of universal product code
volume needs to be scaled up or down dramatically, and setups (UPC) and scanning.3.5 In contrast, the grocery industry had
from one item to another should be quick. The items produced already made great progress on this problem in the 1970s,
should be out the factorys door and to the customer rapidly. making ECR easier in the 1990s.
Thus, whereas ECR focuses on shipments and promotions, Given the intricacy of the production process, QR puts a very
QR focuses more on manufacturing. QR firms are heavy users great strain on the myriad fashion channel members, particularly
of flexible manufacturing techniques. Computer-aided design the subcontractors in manufacturing. Trusting relationships and
and computer-aided manufacturing (CAD-CAM) occupy center open information transmission are difficult to keep up among
stage in quick response programs. And a good deal of empha- so many players. The uncertainty of the demand environment
sis goes into keeping the components flexible. Benetton, for also puts a strain on the system, making it hard to issue
example, is famous for waiting until the last minute to dye its guarantees.
wools, after receiving early information from pas (point-of-sale) Hence, some vertical integration is commonly used to achieve
cash registers about what colors are selling. QR in fashion. It occurs in two functions: design of the
Much of ECR is about pricing and promotion. This does not merchandise and retailing. Design is wholly owned because it is
figure at all in QR. The objective is always the same: Catch the the key to manufacturing. Retailing is wholly owned in order to
fashion and charge highly for it. When mistakes are made, have stores to serve as test sites, observatories, and transmitters
which should be a frequent event, catch the mistake soon and of fast, thorough information. Benetton, for example, is largely
mark it down quickly-but modestly. Then mark down again franchised but keeps some stores under company ownership.
what is left-quickly. In this way, drastic markdowns are reduced: And with their stores, integrated providers such as Gap can
These become necessary to move out merchandise that has been quickly alter prices, raising them to stave off stock outs on
around well after people realized they didnt want it. surprise winners (while rushing more into production), or
In short, QR is not about merchandising and inventory. It is lower prices early, before it is obvious to consumers which items
about manufacturing and timing. Another difference is that are losers. This is quick response indeed.
ECR always seeks to minimize transportation costs. This is How quick it has to be depends on how fashionable the goods
fitting in FMCG: Toothpaste and foodstuffs are low-margin are. The less demand is influenced by fashion trends, the more
items that dont pass out of style while in transit. Fashion the supply chain looks conventional. For moderately priced
goods are the reverse. Hence, many channel members in the staple clothing, for example, a hyper responsive supply chain is
fashion industry willingly airfreight the hot sellers-as soon as neither necessary nor profitable. A good system of regional
they know what those are and to save time, suppliers locate near warehouses will suffice to fill in surprise inventory gaps, and
designers and final points of assembly for the most fashion long lead times for production and transportation are employed
sensitive categories. to cut costs without penalty.
Net, ECR is about demand that consumers know they will Putting it All Together: What is the Right
have. QR is about demand that consumers dont sense Supply Chain?
themselves until theyre at the point of purchase. Both are pull To this point, we have discussed building blocks of supply
stems that respond to a consumer. But ECR focuses on being chain management and have seen them put together in different
efficient (holding down physical costs ), whereas QR focuses on ways to serve different environments. Which model is better:
being quick; that is, fast to produce what the market has just the QR philosophy (keep manufacturing design flexible, dont
decided it wants. focus on minimizing transportation costs) or the ECR
Quick response is an objective. In general, the key is to have philosophy (fix design, control costs tightly)? Both are pull
access to POS data, then to use the information to cue an array systems, but differ in how and when they react.
of shippers to pick up and deliver within a network of flexible Physical Efficiency versus Market Responsiveness
factories. These factories can be individuals working at home. A good starting point is the nature of demand for a brand. A
The transportation network shunts raw materials, work in functional brand is of a product that is a staple which people
process, and finished goods around through various steps buy in many outlets and which serves basic stable needs. Thus,
design, pretreatment of fabrics, cutting, sewing, labeling, quality the brands have stable, predictable demand and long life cycles.
control, fulfillment of orders, shipment of packages. Firms This invites competition, which creates low margins. In
have multiple suppliers, some of which act as backup systems, contrast, an innovative brand of a product is new and different.
and others of which check on work in process. This enables it to earn higher margins. But the sales cycle of the
These intricate arrangements drive off of POS data. Those with product-brand is short and unpredictable, in part, because such
access to the data are in position to trigger frantic waves of brands are quickly imitated, and their advantage dissipated.
manufacturing once a winner has been noticed. Fundamentally, an innovative product faces unpredictable
207
demand, has a short product life cycle, and is hard to forecast. It cost are less critical here and can be sacrificed somewhat to
has high margins but also higher markdowns and stock outs achieve modularity. Suppliers are selected for quality and
(due to changing tastes and forecast errors). And, because these flexibility, not lowest cost. The manufacturing system keeps
products are differentiated, they often exist in many variations. buffer stocks of supplies, just in case. An obsession exists with
Functional products have the reverse profile. Figure 16.4 reducing the lead time needed to fill an order, even though this
summarizes the contrasts between these two endpoints of a raises transportation and fulfillment costs.
spectrum. Market responsiveness and physically efficiency are two end-
The key to supplying functional goods is to hold down three points on a continuum, along which a supply chain philosophy
types of costs: can be fitted.
1. manufacturing, An intriguing element here is that where a brand falls on the
2. holding inventory, and spectrum from highly functional to highly responsive depends
on the brands marketing strategy. Thus, the same product
3. transportation.
category can have more innovative or more functional brands,
These observable physical costs all involve handling a good and each calling for a different supply chain. For example, in cars,
accountants to track them. Efficient manufacturing and logistics some brands are very conservative and stable, often appealing to
are crucial. They matter first because low margins make cost a buyer who resists change (Cadillac Seville, Ford Fairmount).
consciousness important and second because predictable Others have an ephemeral, faddish appeal (the BMW Z3
demand simplifies decision making. ECR fits in this spirit, as roadster, the Mazda Miata). The more functional brand needs a
do many manufacturing methods based on tight planning and more physically efficient supply chain and doesnt need to be so
management of supplies. Here, the most important informa- market responsive. The more innovative one needs somewhat
tion flow occurs inside the chain from retailers back to suppliers more market responsiveness and can afford somewhat less
of manufacturers. physical efficiency in its supply chain.
Supply chains for these products need to be physically efficient.
Two Kinds of Supply Chains
At the factory, this means running at high capacity; in the
warehouse, fast-turning inventory. Products are designed once
and for all to make them easy to manufacture and to maximize Physically Efficient Supply Chain Market-Responsive
(Functional Goods) Supply Chain
their performance. Cost and quality are the criteria used to select (Innovative Goods)
suppliers. Objective Cut costs of manufacturing, Respond quickly as demand
holding inventory, transportation materializes
Consequences of Failure Low prices and higher costs Stockouts of high-margin

create margin squeeze goods Heavy markdowns of
Benefits of Manufacturing Goods Run at high capacity utilization
unwanted goods
Be ready to alter production
Supply Chain Management rate (quantity and type) swiftly
Keep excess production
capacity
Inventory Minimize everywhere Keep buffer stocks of parts

Reduced
Reduced Costs
Costs and finished goods
Lead Times Can be long, because demand is Must be short
predictable
Suppliers Should Be Low cost Adequate quality Fast, flexible Adequate

Improved
Improved Service
Service quality
Product Design Design for ease of manufacture , Design in modules to delay
and to meet performance final production
Common Benefits
Benefits standards
of
of Supply
Supply Chain
Chain Enhanced
EnhancedRevenues
Revenues
Management
Management
Management
Supply Chain Management: Why Only Now?

On paper, supply chain management is an eminently sensible
idea, so sensible that one wonders why it is having its heyday
Innovative goods demand the opposite. The greatest risk with
only now. Even now, SCM is more a slogan than a reality at
these products is to miss the market by having the wrong item
many companies, and the methods needed to make pull
at the wrong time at the wrong price. The key to innovative
systems work are still very difficult to implement. Pull systems
goods is speed: Demand cant be estimated, only noted as it
in channels are so different from push ones that it is a very
begins to surge. Hence, the point of sale is a critical information
challenging task to make the changeover. Internal and external
flow. For innovative goods, the opportunity cost of a stockout
barriers to implementation exist everywhere. What does a
is very high, given the high margins. And by the time the
company need to build a supply chain management mentality
stockout is rectified, the item may have lost favor, leaving the
into its marketing channels? Experience from data suggests that
supplier with drastically devalued stocks.
these elements are critical:
Supply chains for innovative products need to be market
1. Pressure: A common threat is a marvelous impetus. A
responsive. To do this, product design must be modular to
huge opportunity (e.g., European economic union) can be
postpone final assembly as long as possible. Performance and
208
phrased as a threat (develop pan-European logistics or be Points to Ponder

shut out of the game).
2. Industry agreement on standards (preferably regional, even
global) for ED!. This means agreement on coding of 4
goods and the definition of templates (e.g., for invoices) as
Supply Chain Management
well as on software.
A management system that
3. Heavy EDI investment, or more generally, heavy IT ( coordinates and integrates all
information technology) investment.
of the activities performed by
4. Excellent cost accounting (speedy, accurate, detailed, activity
supply chain members into a
based).
seamless process, from the
5. Internal incentive systems that focus on system gains and
source to the point of
reward managers for making local sacrifices (i.e., in their
own functions) for system gains. consumption.
6. Internal culture of cross-functional integration (as opposed

to functional silos). Task forces and .team incentives are
valuable tools here. Participative management and flattened
hierarchies are also conducive to devising and
implementing the dramatic changes that SCM thinking
demands.
7. Effective channel management, .i.e., trust, good working
relations, good design, the judicious exercise of power-in
short, the implementation of the principles.
Conclusion
In this lesson we discussed the importance of supply chain
management. It leads to the idea of supply chain management ,
a paradigm that starts with customer service and argues that this
results from the cumulative efforts of the entire channel.
Customer service cannot be interpreted as the sole responsibility
of any single channel member. The guiding principle is to unify
product flows and information flows up and down the
production and distribution chain. 4
Focus
Focus on
on Innovative
Innovative Solutions
Solutions
Competitive
Competitive with
with focus
focus on
on
Notes - Customer
Customer Satisfaction
Satisfaction
Results
Results Synchronized
Synchronized Flow
Flow
of
of
S upply Chain
Supply Chain
Management
Management
Management Customer
Customer Value
Value
209
Questions
Q1. What do you mean by supply chain management?

Role of Supply Chain 4 Q2. How has ECR affected distribution channel?
Management Q3. What is Physically efficient supply chain?
Communicator
Communicator of of Q4. What is market efficient supply chain?
customer
customer demand
demand from
from
Role point
point of
ofsale
saleto
tosupplier
supplier
Role of
of
Supply
Supply Chain
Chain
Chain
Management
Management
Physical
Physical flow
flow process
process
that
thatengineers
engineersthe
the
movement
movementof ofgoods
goods
Benefits of 4
Reduced
Reduced Costs
Costs
Improved
Improved Service
Service
Common
Common Benefits
Benefits
Benefits
of
of Supply
Supply Chain
Chain Enhanced
Enhanced Revenues
Revenues
Management
Management
210
The lesson content has been compiled from various sources in public domain including but not limited to the
internet for the convenience of the users. The university has no proprietary right on the same.
Rai Technology University Campus

Dhodballapur Nelmangala Road, SH -74, Off Highway 207, Dhodballapur Taluk, Bangalore - 561204
E-mail: [email protected] | Web: www.raitechuniversity.in

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What are some of the topics covered in the course?

What are some of the topics covered in the course?

What are some of the challenges faced in sales and distribution management?

What are some of the challenges faced in sales and distribution management?

?

Sales and Distribution Management

An Introduction to Sales Management

Organization and Management of Sales Force

Controlling the Sales Effort

Channels of Distribution and Strategy

1. Sales Management, Richant.R.Still, Edward.W .Gundiff and Norman.A.P.Govoni

This course pack is designed to help students learn about sales

SALES AND DISTRIBUTION MANAGEMENT

Lesson No. Topic age No.

Lesson 1 Objective and Scope of Personal Selling 1

Lesson 8 Functions of Salesperson 34

Lesson 12 Selection Process 57

Lesson 19 Evaluation and Control Through Action and Supervision 105

iv Lesson 18 Recording of Actual Performance 99

Lesson 34 Physical Distribution concepts and objective 186

Learning Objectives services backed up by supporting activities (help in doing

SALES AND DISTRIBUTION MANAGEMENT

SALES AND DISTRIBUTION MANAGEMENT

Learning objectives customers perception of what that behavior should be is a

Franklin Evans researched buyer-seller dyads in the life insurance

personality factors (politics, smoking). 3

sumer-goods selling, where the number of prospects and

and personality and objective factors cited by Evans, the

SALES AND DISTRIBUTION MANAGEMENT

The Buyer -Seller Dyad

1. Salesperson determines consumer needs.

2. Salesperson presents information

3. Salesperson and consumer

SALES AND DISTRIBUTION MANAGEMENT

SALES AND DISTRIBUTION MANAGEMENT

Right set of circumstances

Q1 What is AIDAS theory of selling?

theory of selling Q4 When you are a customer do you experience a similar

Behavioral Equation Theory

SALES AND DISTRIBUTION MANAGEMENT

Negotiating & handling

The Sales Cycle

N egotiating & handling

from nonprospects . overcome by patience and thorough explanations.

SALES AND DISTRIBUTION MANAGEMENT

Q1. What is involved in the process of qualifying prospects?

SALES AND DISTRIBUTION MANAGEMENT

SALES AND DISTRIBUTION MANAGEMENT

Q1. What is the difference between sales potential and sales

Learning Objectives: One drawback of time-series analysis is that it is difficult to call

SALES AND DISTRIBUTION MANAGEMENT

N = new-owner demand (purchases made not to replace 0. 8621

scrappage rates competitors. The result is an estimate of expected market share

SALES AND DISTRIBUTION MANAGEMENT

To learn about the functions of sales management Sales Management Functions

Relations With Managers of Other Marketing Activities

The Effective Sales Executive

SALES AND DISTRIBUTION MANAGEMENT

SALES AND DISTRIBUTION MANAGEMENT

SALES AND DISTRIBUTION MANAGEMENT