Bridge Design Research

There are 8 factors that are considered by an engineer before designing a bridge. First,

the engineer needs to get an idea of the area the bridge is being built in. This is because he needs

to know what objects the bridge will span over, and to understand the flow of traffic. Secondly,

they need to know the physical requirements of the bridge; such as the number and width of

lanes, siderails, medians, and pedestrian walkways. Third, the engineer will research the areas

climate to better understand flooding in the area, the lengths of wet and dry periods in the region,

and the high and low tides. Fourth, they must take the time to learn the topography of the area so

they know what kind of elevation changes occur around the structure. Fifth, the engineer must

then have samples of the soil to better understand how the ground below the bridge will settle

over time after construction is complete. The sixth step to bridge design is knowing what the

logistics of the construction process will be. They must plan out how the materials used to

construct the bridge will arrive at the site. The seventh step is to consider the aesthetics of the

bridge and how pleasing it will be able to look with the other requirements taken care of. The

eighth, and final, factor considered before designing a bridge is the noise and vibrations the

bridge will create and how they will disrupt the surrounding environment or human population.

The First approach to building a bridge is to accept the fact that one needs to be built, this

could be due to a variety of reasons or obstacles: nature preservation, water obstruction, span

over topographical valleys and depressions, plus numerous more. This is where we introduce

the first factor of building a bridge, understanding the area of the projected project.

Understanding the area that is being spanned will help us evaluate the proper type of bridge to
adopt during construction. For example for longer bridges most contractors or designers would

lean towards the use of suspension bridges where numerous vertical columns would support the

span of road between each tower with the use of cable suspensions, while beam bridges are often

used to cover short distances such as a ruts for bicycle paths. Another element that is often

overlooked by the common civilian is that the aesthetics of a bridge. The area or location can

often employ one bridge over another. For example, both the truss and the tied arch bridges are

excellent choices in order to for medium span projects. They both use geometric support to

distribute stress along various contact points. Yet in a city setting it is common to find that the

tied arch bridge will be used solely due to the fact that it is aesthetically pleasing. Finally the

most common element of the area factor is the obstacle itself. A land bridge is easier to work

with due to solid foundations versus unseen contouring of a river bed as well as packing the land

in the water to avoid sinking. Application of this research in our current project led us to choose

a truss-suspension hybrid bridge due to the simplicity of the area: a solid foundation with a span

of 4 feet that will be able to hold the weight and force exerted on the bridge. Another constraint

we face is the area as in volume that is bridge can take up, the entire construction will have to be

housed within the dimensions of a 1 cubic foot box.

There are a variety of formulas and calculations used to determine what the physical

requirements and limitations of the bridge will be. Before understanding them one must also

know some basic elements within these formulas. The skew is the angle between the supports

and the longitudinal axis of the road surface. The abutment is the place where the bridge

structure rest on each end. The length of abutment along the skew is represented by a W. The

multiple presence factor, denoted by MPF, is a value that is determined by calculating outside

forces acting upon the bridge. Greatest integer value of the number of lanes is denoted as n.
A is the effective load distribution at the deck level. Using all of these values, the formula n-

max = {Wcos(a) - 2edge distance} / 12 gives us our number of lanes. The width of the

barriers are ignored during this calculation because it is assumed that future widening will be

done to create an Edge of deck.

Engineers must account for every possible situation when accounting for the effects of

weather. Examples include thermal expansion of joints, precipitation runoff on the road surface,

seismic activity, and historic flood levels. The design engineer must also devise a method for

quick response if the bridge must be closed due to weather. They must develop closure and

detour plans if extreme weather renders the bridge unfit for use. It is also necessary to account

for things such as the effects of a high flood level on a low lying bridge, or high speed water

flow underneath a bridge with extreme topography changes. Perhaps most importantly, the

engineer must decide the most efficient and safest method for the construction crew to build the

bridge.

Learning the topography of the land where the bridge will be built is an essential part of

the design process for an engineer. Engineers use topographic maps to get an understanding of

the elevation changes in the area. Topographic maps have contour lines which show location

with the same elevation. There are many contour lines on these maps and they represent

different levels of elevation. Contour lines can describe the steepness, or elevation grade, of the

land depending on the distance between intervals of contour lines. The farther they are spaced

out, flatter the land. The topography can determine where the bridge must be built and the type

of bridge. When determining where a bridge will be built, the first step is to find to endpoints

where the ground is relatively flat. There is almost never a situation where the topography is

perfect so it is very common to alter it by digging or adding material. The bridges endpoints
must be higher than the entire length of the span it goes across whether it is ground or water. If

the bridge goes over water, the engineer must consider changes in water level in case flooding or

changes in tide could cause the water level to rise above the bridge. The elevation grade from

the endpoints to area below the bridge also plays a factor in the type of bridge being made. A

bridge design that includes piers to support the weight is common when the elevation grade is

low and there is solid land underneath the bridge because the piers would be short and an

inexpensive way of supporting the bridge. If there is a steep elevation grade, a suspension bridge

would be a better option for supporting the bridge because the area below the bridge would be

disregarded.

During the construction and duration of a bridges lifetime, the soil is an important

element that must be considered. All soil is made up different so the engineer must study the soil

at the location the bridge is being built and put it to the test. Soil is a combination of clay, sand,

and silt which all have different characteristics. The percentages of each clay, sand, and silt

make up each unique type of soil and determine the sturdiness and porosity which is the amount

of empty space in the soil. The porosity explains how well the soil can absorb and drain water

that may come from rainfall or water features in the area. Another important aspect of the soil is

soil erosion which can be cause in many ways. The type of soil is a factor in the amount of soil

erosion as well as elevation grade, wind and running water. A steep elevation grade could cause

soil to slide down the hill and eventually cause a structure to become unstable. High winds can

cause meaning change in the level of soil over a long period of time because the wind will

continuously blow away the top layer of loose soil. Moving water can cause a similar effect as a

river constantly moves the soils around it. If an engineer is depending on the stability of the

ground to support the bridge, the soil must be proven to be dependable and durable.
 Logistics is a very important thing to consider during the construction of a bridge. All the

parts must arrive at the site on time and completely intact, or the project may be ruined. I have

heard many complaints from constructors about the inadequate consideration of logistics during

design (Mossman, 2007). By not carefully planning out the logistics beforehand, a project can

be drawn on much longer than it is initially intended to. Careful planning can help to avoid

traffic congestion and major setbacks. Typically, planning authorities can ask for construction

logistics in the final planning stages to realize these benefits before beginning construction. The

parts must be ordered well before the project is supposed to start, and there must be a plan in

place as to how they will get there. Logistics must account for any possible factors, including

weather, traffic, and natural disasters, while also maintaining a reasonable budget.

In designing a bridge, there are many factors. One of the most strict is the aesthetics.

Each state has its own special guidelines that cover everything from color to shape to harmony.

When considering aesthetics, an engineer must not only consider how the bridge looks, but also

how it fits in with its environment. Every bridge is in some degree a historical document, a

demonstration of structural technique, a performance test of building materials, a comment on

the values of a society which produced it, and a reflection of the richness or poverty of its

designer's imagination." (Gouldie, NA) While bridge performance is obviously crucial to the

design, the aesthetic can be used to represent the area and its history. For this reason, there is a

very long, strict code for the aesthetic design of a bridge. The guidelines used for this research

come from Minnesota, and are over 80 pages long with 7 different sections, covering every

possible minor detail of the visual design. A bridges initial purpose was simply to allow for

people and vehicles to cross over obstacles that stood in their way, but now they are used for so
much more. A bridge must be visually pleasing to the public, while also being steady and reliable

for a long time.

One of the final approaches in designing a bridge is analyzing vibration and sound. When

referring to vibration we mean the physical movement of atoms or deflection as vehicles travel

over the bridge. This is caused by the minute transfer of energy as waves of vehicles pass over.

Vibrations are taken into consideration when determining the materials of the bridge as well as

traffic. A certain material may be able to take the energy of 10 cars at any given point but if the

bridge is strong enough to accommodate 30, then the ability to withstand vibrations now

becomes your limiting factor in this bridge design. In short sinusoidal curve functions can help

us model the defection of the bridge by using trigonometric applications of frequency and

wavelengths. We can take these and apply Newton's laws of motion to calculate the force that a

certain material can withstand before any damage is done to the bridge. Also the vibrations have

to be taken into consideration when servicing a bridge if crucial structures are removed down the

road even if only a portion of the bridge is open for use, the undeveloped portion could be

damaged in the process as vibrations travel down the material. Finally sound is less a physical or

structural constraint as it is a social one. One has to consider building a 6 lane bridge over a

developing subdivision, for the sake of domestic comfort, sound pollution takes a very big role in

construction. Sound pollution can impact design choices such as elevation, materials, and usage

volume. Although our team does not have to worry about the sound that may be produced by the

bridge or due to its usage, vibration is very much so an issue. Due to the decision of using

paracord the ability for our bridge to deflect is considerably more. As weights are placed on the

bridge we may experience a bounce in the rope deck. Providing a firm structure for this deck will

be one of the greatest challenges of this project.

N.a. "." Ac.els-cdn.com. 13 Dec. 2010. Web. 15 Oct. 2017. <https://ac.els-

cdn.com/0045794993904116/1-s2.0-0045794993904116-main.pdf?_tid=3445e9da-b208-11e7-

8c12-00000aab0f02&acdnat=1508113576_4e27ba9d34f4bf414643c58d1ef1128a>

N.a. "." Ascelibrary.org. n.d. Web. 15 Oct. 2017.

<http://ascelibrary.org/doi/pdf/10.1061/(ASCE)1084-0702(2000)5:3(249)>

Mossman, Alan. Construction Logistics: Improving Productivity, Cutting Carbon, &

Creating Client Value by Systematically Bringing People, Information, Plant & Materials

Together in the Workplace. Construction Logistics: Improving Productivity, Cutting Carbon, &

Creating Client Value by Systematically Bringing People, Information, Plant & Materials

Together in the Workplace. The Change Business Ltd.

<http://www.thechangebusiness.co.uk/TCB/downloads_files/_Construction_Logistics-

together_at_the_workface_0711.pdf>

Natural Resource Conservation Service. Soils Fundamental Concepts .

extension.illinois.edu/soil/concepts/concepts.pdf.

Natural Resources Canada. Topographic Maps: The Basics.

www.nrcan.gc.ca/sites/www.nrcan.gc.ca/files/earthsciences/pdf/topo101/pdf/mapping_basics_e.

pdf.

DOT, California. Equivalent Number of Live Load Lanes for CT-Abut Input

(Approximate Solution). www.dot.ca.gov/hq/esc/osfp/ctabut/ctabut-number-of-ll-

lanes.pdf.

Lewis, Joe. Building Model Bridges Following the Engineering Process. 01.05.04:

Building Model Bridges Following the Engineering Process, Yale-New Haven

teachersinstitute.yale.edu/curriculum/units/2001/5/01.05.04.x.html.

Subcommittee on bridges and structures . Extreme Weather and the Transportation

System. AASHTO, 22 June 2014, doi:(NCHRP 750, Vol. 2, 2014), (NCHRP 438,

2012).

Flemming, Donald J., et al. Aesthetic Guidelines for Bridge Design.

<doi:http://www.dot.state.mn.us/bridge/pdf/aestheticguidelinesforbridgedesign.pdf.>

Weil, Marty. Building a Bridge to Continuous Improvement. Inbound Logistics, 30 Jan.

2015,

<www.bing.com/cr?IG=FFCA11ED5BBA4003B2B632D9368B413E&CID=37640B918EF2634

0025E008C8FF462B9&rd=1&h=-OXCxKfvfZOsopIB8aLaBi5hY7gzkdGBVlzosp-

VJkY&v=1&r=http%3a%2f%2fwww.inboundlogistics.com%2fcms%2farticle%2fbuilding-a-

bridge-to-continuous-improvement%2f&p=DevEx,5067.1.>