G RI FFIN S S TA N DARD P U B LI G A T I ON S

T H E OV A N I B E P R O C E SS O F G O L D E " T R A C T I O N B y .

J A M ES P A R K T H I R D ENGL I S H E D I T I O N I n lar g e 8 v o
F u ll y I ll u s t ra ted C l o th
. .
,

. . 73 . 6d .

EW L A N DS
N H U G H R O B ER T M I LL B s L L D P r o p ti e A dv t g : Th eir R eo re s u c s and s ec v an a es By
F ll y I ll s t ra ted 5
.

, . e .
,
. .
,
u u . 8 .

R O S P E C T I N G FO R M I N E R A L S A Pra ti l H db o ok By
P s H ER B ER T c ox
. F G S TH E mm I ll t ra ted 5 , . . . I RD
.

on .
c ca
us
an
. 5 .
.

FOO D S U P P L Y B y R O B E RT B R U C E W i th A pp ndi x . e on P RE
R D F D b y C A M I T C H E LL M A F I C 4 6 d
.

SE VE OO S . . , . .
, . . . s . .

M I N I NG L A W O F T H E B R IT I SH EM P I R E . B y C HA RL ES
J ALFO R D ,
I n C ro wn 8v o C l ot h 83 6 d , . . . net .

I DS I N
A T OL OG Y P R AC T I C A L G E O LO G Y . With a S e tio n
c on PA L E ON
B y R OF P G RE N V I LL E COL E F G S F I FT H E ITI D O N
Revi s ed
. .
.
, . .
,

. 1 08 6d . .

P E N -A I R S T U D I ES I N G E O LO G Y By P G REN VI L LE
O COLE ,
S E CO N D E DI T I O N , Revi s ed
.

. P r of u s e l y
R O F.
I ll u s t ra ted . 88 6d. .

S S A YI N G B y J J B E RI N G ER an d C B ER I N GER
A F C S
. . . N I
.

N T H ED I T I O N
. .

,
R ev ise d . Wi th
,

Di g a ram s . 108 6d . .
.
,

M ET A L L U R G IC AL ANAL YSI S A N D A SS A Y I N G . A T hre e

Y e ars
C ou r s e f o r tu de n ts o f S c h oo l s o f

in S
B y W A M es M A C LE O D B A B Sc
a n d C H A S WA L K F u ll y I ll u s t ra t e d ER s
. . . .
, .
, . .
,

,
F C S . 12 6d . . . . . . net .

A T E" T -B OO K O F E L E M E N TA R Y M E T A L L U R GY B .

A H U M B OL D T
. S E" T ON ,
F C S . . . T HI RD E D I T I ON Revi s ed I ll u strate , .

Gs .

E TT I N G G OL D A G old-m in in g Ha n dbook fo r Practi c a l M e n

G J C F J OH N S O N ,
.

T H I R D E D IT I O N Re vis ed
B y
Wi th P la te s and
.

I ll s ra ti o s
.
. . .
,

u t n 3s 6 d . . .

O L D S EE Kl N G IN S OU T H A F R I C A B y T H E O KA S S N E R
G I n o C
r wn 8 v o u y F ll I ll s tra ted u With C ha p te r on t h e Ag r i c u l t u ral P rosp e c ts of
. . .

o h A ri a
. .

S ut f c 4 3 6d . . .

YAN I D ING G OL D A N D SI L VER O R ES B y H F O R B ES

C JU L I A N an d E DG AR S M ART Wi th nu m e ro u s
.

M ap s ,
.

Pl at e s an d
I u ll s tra io
t ns . 21 3 n e t . .
, ,

O RE A N D S T ON E M IN IN G . B y S I R 0 L E N E VE FOS T ER
S
.

E D I T IO N R e vise d E n l arg e d
,
D Sc , F R S I" T H and b y B EN N ET T H B R O U G H ,
i I ll s t ra t io s
. . . . .
, .

F G 8 W th 7 1 5 u
. . n . 34 s .

T HE E L E M E N T S O F M I N I N G A N D QU A R R Y I N G By
0 L E N E V E F OS T ER D S c W i th n e arl y 300 I ll u s t rat i o n s
.

SI R . FR S , . .
, . . . . 7s 6 d
. .

ne t .

L A S T I N G : A N D T H E U S E O F E " P LO S I V E S By OS CAR
B G U T T MA N N S E CO N D E D IT IO N t h o ro u g hl y Revi s ed
.

I n l a rg e
Wi th I ll u st ra t i o n s a n d F ol ding P la te s 10 3 6 d
, , .

8vo . . . .

L O N DON : C HA R LE S G R I FF I N 8: C O .
, L T D .
,
E" ET ER S T R EET , S T R A N D .
 A T E" T B OOK DE -

MI N I N G G E OL OG Y
FO R T H E U S E OF MI N I N G S T U D EN T S
A N D M I N ER S .

JA M ES I A RK
P B OW
' Z
R OF HI N I F Q A N D MI N I N G
,

EOL OG Y ;
G
D I R EO I O B O F OT A G O U N I V ER S I T Y S C HOO L O F M I N E S

M E MB E R OF T H E I N S T I T U T IO N O F M I N I N G A N D M ET A L L U R G Y ;
M E M B E R O F T H E AM ER IC AN I N S T IT U T E O F M I N I N G EN G I N EE R S
FEL L O W OF T H E G EO L OG I CA L S OC I ET Y O F L O N D O N ;
L A T ] P R ES I D ENT OF T H E N EW Z E A L A N D
I N S T I T U T E OF m 9 EN G I N E ER S .

m m: 7 8 s umma tions anb 3 p late s .

C H A R L ES G R I FF I N CO M P A N Y , L I M I T ED ,

E " E TE R S T R EE T ,
S T RA ND .

1 90 6 .

[ A l l R ig h ts R e served ]
 P R E F A CE .

I T i s only in rec e nt y e a rs tha t M in i ng G e ology has b e e n r e garded

as o f s u f c ie n t impo r tanc e to warran t i ts e l e vation to the di g ni ty
"

of a distinct depa rt ment in t h e M ining Schools a n d Colleg e s of

'

E nglish speak i ng communi t ies F or long e nough it was t r eate d

-
.

as a subord i nat e subj ect b e ing taught for th e most pa rt as

,

an introduc ti on t o th e principl e s of mining a t a time in h i s ,

academic car ee r when t he young und e rgradua te posse ssi n g no ,

pe rsonal e xp e rience of or e bodi e s as t hey oc c u r in N ature was

-
,

l e as t abl e to gra sp t h e t ru e b e aring of the s ubj e c t i n i ts

relation to th e economics of th e mining indus t ry I n th e .

mining acad e mi e s of Contin e ntal E urop e e con omic g e ology has

,

always occupi e d a prom i n e n t and respec te d place .

Th e ma t ter i n the follow i ng pag e s compris e s a series of

l e c t ur e s issued i n Bulle t in for m at t h e e nd of 1 90 2 T h e .

e xhaus ti on of that li ttl e publicat ion has e ncourag e d t he au thor

to pr e s e n t t h e sam e mat te r i n t h i s revi s ed a n d e nlarg e d form .

The n e w chap te rs on O r e s and Mi n e rals Consi de re d E conomi

cally , Mi n e Sampl i ng and O r e Valua t ion and Th e E xamina
-
,

ti on and V aluation of Mi n e s hav e b ee n added t o comply w i th the

requir e men t s of th e n e w curr i culum for th e as s ociate d iplomas -

in M ining Met allurgy and G eology

, , .

Th e g e nes i s of or e d e posits is a subj e ct surr o u nd e d by ma n y

'

perplexing problems Th e ch ie f dif c u l ty en c ountered by th e

.

tea cher is t hat th e g e neral i sat i ons have no t yet been crys tall i sed
in forms s u f c ie n tly de n it e to be un i versally a cc e pted as rs t
principles .

The publication of th e lat e Professor P ose pn y s classic pap e r

on T he G enesis of O re D ep osi ts in 1888 may b e sai d to

'

-
vi P R EFA C E .

hav e mark e d t he beginning of a new era in the history of

e conomic geology Since that dat e t he lit e ratur e of the subj ect
.

has been e nriched by the writings of V ogt S t e lzn e r B e ck , , ,

de L aunay Van His e Rickard Becker E mmons G r e gory K e mp

, , , , , , ,

Chamberlain L indgren Weed Spurr Sir C L e N eve Foster

, , , ,
.
,

S H e rbert Cox G renville Cole and oth e r distinguished g e ologists

.
, ,
.

The Am e rican School has not e ndorsed th e e xtreme vi e ws of

P os e p n y or the fascinating th e ori e s of S a n db e rg e r but gradually
, ,

d e v e lop e d a c onception lying somewher e betw e en th e two with ,

a d i st i nct leaning towards th e t e achings of th e form e r .

With r e spect t o M in e Sampling and Va lu a t ion it is manifest ,

that no hard and fast rul e s can b e lai d down O i Am e rican .

,

E nglish and G e rman mining e ngin ee rs with whom th e author

,

has be e n associated i n min e e xam i na ti on i t is noteworthy that ,

all w e r e agr e ed as t o the prim e ess e n t ials although d i ffe rin g ,

within ce rtain small limi ts in mat te rs of procedure and routine .

D iiTe r e n c e s in minor details must always e xist wh e r e men vary

i n e xp e rience and temperament .

Stud e nts r e ading for advanced work a n d honours will n d a

f e rtile e ld of r e f e r e nce in such e xc e llent works as T h e G enes is
of Or e D ep oszts publ i sh e d by th e American I ns t i t u t e of M ining
'

-
,

E ngine e rs 5 the treatis e s on O r e D e pos i ts by S te lzn e r Beck -

, ,

Phill i ps and L ouis T h e S a mp lin g a nd Va lu a tion of M ines

, ,

by R i ckard ; t h e spl e nd i d M emo i rs and Repo rts of the G eological

Surv e y of th e Unit e d States ; and t h e valuabl e pap e rs scatt e r e d
thro u gh th e Transact i ons of th e Am e rican I nstitut e of M ining
E ng i n ee rs of th e I ns t itut i on of M in i ng E ng i n ee rs of th e
, ,

I ns ti tution of M ining a n d Me tallurgy and of th e N ew Z e aland ,

I nsti t ute of M ining E ngin ee rs Th e acknowl e dgmen t s of th e .

author are due t o th e writers of th e s e pap e rs and to fri e nds

in many places for much valuabl e assistanc e in th e pr e paration
of these pages .

T H E AUTH O R .

U N I V E RS I T Y , DU N ED I N , N . Z .
,

Al a rch 1 90 6 .
 CO N T E N T S .

CHAPT ER I .

I N T R O D U CT O RY .

P A G E
T he Sc ope d P r
an po e o f G eo
u l ogy
G eosl ogi l S tr c t re o f t h E rth ca u u e a

B egi n i ng o f G eo l ogi l T im T h A tio n o f W ter i D t y i g

n ca e e c a n e s ro n

d R fo rm i ng T h E rth C r t m o tly S edi m e t ry T h

an e -
e a s us s n a e

Al terati on o f S edim ent rie F o il C onte t G eolog i al T i me a s ss n s c

m arked b y D i ti n ti ve L i fe O rig in o f I gne

s c R oc k O w ou s s ver o

R o k
c D
sy ke R o k P l to n i B oc e Asl te r ti o n o fu I gn eo c ss s a us

R o k
c M etal
s d M i neral i I gn eo
s an Ro k T h I s of n us c s e n u e nc e

D y k Cl i ti o f I gneo
es a ss ca R o k I m po rtan e
on f Petro us c s c o

C HAPT ER II .

C LAS S I F I CAT I ON OF M I N E R A L D E P OS IT S .

Ba i o f Cl i ti M orph o logi l Cl i ti S p i l
s s a ss ca on ca ass ca on u er c a

D epo it G old Pl er Ri ver Pla er I m t i Pl er B la k

s s ac s c s cu s r n e ac s c

S and B e h e D eep Le d o f V i t ia C em ent Pla er D y

ac s a s c or c s r

bl owi ng P la r F orm o f A lluvi al G o ld A o iate o f A ll vial

ce s s ss c s u

Go l d O rig in o f A ll ial G o ld S tre m T i O rigi n o f S tre m T i

uv a n a n
Plati m P l er P latin m i R
nu ac ia d A m eri a Iron S and
s u n u ss an c

Pl G m P l er D iam ond Ru by S app h ire Ma ive D

ac e l s e ac s, , ,
ss e

po it B g Iro A tion o f De endi g Water S alt B orax

s s o n c sc n s

G y p m S l ph
su S t t i d D epo it S trike n d D ip o f Bed
u ur ra e s s a s
I l inatio n o f Bed T h i kne
nc f B ed Exam pl e o f B edded
s c ss o s s

Depo it C oal Origi

s s d F o rmatio M od e o f O nrr e an n cc u e nc

A g In l i ed Po itio n Fa l ti g E xt ent o f Fa l t Intr i e

e c n s u n u s us v

Dy ke s d th eir E t Irreg laritie B endi g o f S eam

an
'

ec s u s n s

V rietie o f C o l R d B anket Ree f Ma feld Copper S h ale

a s a an s ns s
S il ver S an d to ne o f U tah L ead S and tone o f Pr
s s i Copper s uss a

C o gl o merate o f L ke S perior C oprolite B ed G y p m Bed

n s a u s su s
U t ti ed D epo it
n s ra Depo it o f V o l ni Origi S to kwork
s s s s ca c n c

D epo it Conta t d Repl ement D epo it Fahl b nd I m

s s c an ac s s a s

p g
re n ti a S egreg ate
on s d V ei n Ga h V ei T r e Fi Vein s s ns u ss ure s,

Vl l
 C O N T EN T S .

CHAP T E R III .

ORE V E I N S T H E I R F I LL I N G ,
A G E S T RU CT U R E WA L L M OV E M E N T S
, ,

P A Y S H OO T S , ET C .

F i lli n g o f C vitie nd Vei Origin o f Vein C vitie A g o f Vei

a s a ns a s e n

lli g Wi dth o f L o de L e gth S troke In l i nation D epth

n s n c

A rr gem e t o f L ode MatterHor e i Vei O t rop o f Vein

an n s s n ns u c s s
-
Co ditio o f Metall i Content Po ition o f Valuable Co te nt
n n c s s n s
- P y S h oot G o l d Bo na z Wal l M ov m ents I
a s of n as e n u enc e

Cou n it y Pro d ti ve Z o e Verti l D i trib tio

uc o f Ore n s ca s u n s

S e o dary E i h m e t o f V ei I m po e i h m e t o f V ei
c n nr c n i ns v r s n ns n

D epth I di ator B ed P rage e i T em perat re i D eep

n c s a n s s u s n

M i i g Re ordi g R ook T em perat re L i m it f D eep M i ni ng

n n c n u s s o

M t o mati Repl eme t

e as c ac n

CHAPT ER IV .

T H E D Y NA MI CS OF L on s s A ND B E DS .

D e n ition o f Fa lt Fa lt par llel with B dD ip F lt S tep

u s u s a e au s

F lt T ro gh Fa lt R le fo In li ed L ode Z i mm erm n
au s u u s u s r c n s a

s

G raph i M eth o d
c ,

C HAPT E R V .

O R E D EP O S I T S G E N ET I CALL Y CO N S I D E R ED .

G e eti
n c g ti eg eg tio C o ite Peri dotite
Cl as s i ca tion M a ma c S r a n hr m in
i ke o ti e Coppe P ti
N c l Ir n N a v et O e form ed by
r la nu m M a l s r s
Eru pti e A te tio o t i A tio o A e i g A lkal i e
v f r ac n S l fa ar c c n f s c nd n
-
n

Water F ma oli Cont t M et m orph i D epo it Regio l

s u r c ac a c s s na

M et m orph i D epo it M eteori W ter O rg ni

a c s s c a s a c,

C HAPT ER VI .

T H E O R I ES OF VE N I FO R M AT I ON .

Eru ptive Pro e e T h eoryc ss s of L ateral S e retio

c n A en io o f S ol
sc s n u

tion S mm y
s u ar ,
 C O N T EN T S . ix

C HAPT ER VI I .

O RES A N D M I N E R A L S C ON S I D ERE D E C ON O M I CA L L Y .

PA G E
Al um A l um in i u m A ntim ony A r eni
s c A bes t
s os A ph altum
s

C opper Cry ol iteDiam on d F irec lay Fl o rite G old G raph ite u

G p sum Iro n Lead Magn e ite Man gane e s M i ca M l b s o

y y
de a m
h N i kel cO il S h al e Petroleum Ph o ph ate R oc k s

Platinum Qui k s ilver S ilver S late S ul ph nr T alc T i n

c

CHAPT ER VI I I .

M INE -
S AM P L I N G A N D O R E -V AL U AT I ON .

S am lp in g E q ipm ent S am pl i g Interval Rec ord o f S m ple

u n s a s

B reaki g th S m ple S m p l in g R ed tio n o f S m p le A ay o f

n e a a uc a ss

S am ple Cal l ating V l

s cu F t P o pec t S m ple Val e
a uem u u re r s s a u s

an d M i ll Val e S am p ling D um p
u s d He p s an a s,

C HA PT ER I" .

T H E E" AM I N AT I ON AN D VAL U AT I ON or MIN ES .

Valuatio n o f M etal M ines De vel oped M in es a n d G o ing Conc ern s

Class ica tion o f O re in a M ine V al ua tio n o f Coa l A reas Va l ua

I N D E"
 MI N I N G G EOL OG Y .

C H A P T ER I .

I N T R O D U CT O R Y .

CO N T E N T s z T ope n d P rp o e o f G eology G ologi l S tr t r o f

he S c a u s e ca uc u e
th e Earth Begi n i g o f Geo l ogi l T i me T h
n n A tion o f Wat r i
ca e c e n
D e troyi g d Re f mi n h Ea rth C r t m o tly S ed i ment ry
s n an -
or n e
'
s us s a

Th e A l teratio n o f S e d i m e tarie F o il Co nte n t G eo logi al T i me

n s ss s c
marked b y D i ti cti ve L i fe O rigi o f I g neou R o k U
s n w Ro k
n s c s ver o c s
D y ke R o k P l to i B o e A l t r tio n o f I gneo
c s u n c ss sR k M etal e a us 01 s s
an d Mi eral n I gneo
n s i R o k T h I us o f Dy k Cl i ti
c s e n ue n c e es as s ca on
o f I gneo R k I m po rta e o f Petrogr phy
us oc s nc a .

T he S cope a nd P Th e s t udy of
u rp o s e of G e o lo g y .
-

geology i s unde rta ken by two classes of student Th e r e is the .

pa t ient investigator who in th e intere sts of p ure sc ien c e wi t hout

, ,

hope of material gain is conten t not only to know t ha t a roc k i s

,

compos e d of min e ral mat ter but extends h i s researches to th e ,

investigation of t h e origin compos i tion and structure of th e rock

, , .

Then th e re is the ut i l itarian who v i ews a mineral from a com ,

m e r c ia l sta ndpoint and i s w illing to undergo a spec i al cours e of

,

tra i n i ng i n orde r to be able to d i stinguish the valuabl e from the

bas e a n d worthl ess .

Th e sci e nce may therefore b e divided into Theoretical G eology ,

which i nves t igate s the or i gin a n d s t ructur e of the rocky crus t of

t h e e art h ; and E conom i c or Mi ning G eo logy which b e ars mor e ,

direc t ly on m i ning and th e dev e lopment of t h e min e ral i ndus t ry

, .

A knowl e dg e of th e fun dam e ntal pr i nc i pl e s of th e rs t is n e cessary

to unde rs tan d t h e s e con d and for th i s reason e v e ry m i ning s tu den t
,

sho u l d prepare himself for his prof e ssion by going thr ough a
s s t e r a t ic cou rs e i n G e neral G eology
y n
.

It i s sa t isfactory to obs e rv e that many of t h e mos t e minen t

mining engine e rs in E urope Am e rica a n d Aus t ralia ar e d i stin, ,

ui s h e d g e ologists Wha t a n atomy is to the modern surgeon so

g .
,

i s g e ology to t he mining profession .

2 MI N I N G G EOLO GY .

G e o lo g ic a l S t r u c tu re of th e
The cr u st of the E a rth .

earth is th e great r e posi t ory of m i nerals and metals and there ,

for e a brief consideration of its orig i n and structur e will afford

a bett e r understanding of the ma n ner i n which ore bodies and -

mineral deposits occur

-
.

B e g in n ing O f G e o l og ic a l T im e G eological ti me date s .

-

back to the rs t beg i nning of th e phys i cal co nd i tions w hich now

pr e vail upon the earth To make th i s clear i t will be ne c essary
.
,

to trace the evolut i on of the earth to its pres e nt form .

Accord i ng to astronomers and physic i sts the earth l i k e many , ,

c e l e st i al bodies at the pr e sent tim e once e xisted as a nebular ,

mass of glowing in c andescent gases s winging through space B y .

the rad i ation of its b e at this globe in t he cours e of countl e ss

, ,

ag e s became s u f c ie n tly cool for a t hin skin or crust to form on

,

the ou t er surfac e B y th e cont i nu e d radia t ion of the h e at the

.
,

crust became thicker a n d th i ck e r and in a tt e mp t ing to adap t

, ,

i tself to the smaller dimensions of the molt e n mass below b e came ,

crumpled and rucked up into ridges and valleys lik e the sk i n of ,

a drie d u p appl e
-
.

I n the course of time the scarred and gnarled ign e ous crust
b e came cool enough to p e rmit the condensation of the watery
vapours which e nvelop e d th e e arth Th e wat e rs settl e d in t he .

hollows and formed the rs t seas that ever existed on th e fac e of

,

th e globe .

Th e restl e ss wa t ers of the n e w born s e as at onc e b e gan to wear

-

away the dry lan d and the streams draining th e valleys t o de e p e n

,

and w i d e n their channels Th e denu ded material was spr e ad out

.

in lay e rs a n d b e ds on the rocky oo r of the seas t hus marking the ,

b e ginn i ng of the conditions of sedim e ntat i on that have e xisted

w it hout int e rrup ti on up to the present day Th e se ancient fresh .

water sedim e nts wer e the rs t r e cords of geological time .

T he A c t io n o f W a te r in D e s tr o y ing a nd R e -fo rm ing .

F rom t hat date up till n o w water has cont i nued to be t h e most

,

pow e rful agency i n sculptur i ng and modifying the surface of the

e arth I n wast i ng a n d e roding t h e dry land in transporting th e
.
,

e rode d mat e rial i n sorting and spr e ading it ou t the action of

, ,

water has b e en unceasing throughout all t i m e .

N o portion of t he original igneous crus t or ev e n of th e rs t ,

form e d sed i men t s has ever b ee n found 5 but shr e ds and patches
,

may still ex i st buri e d beneath t he deposits of lat e r t i m e s

, .

Th e amount of matter forming th e e ar t h is prac ti cally a xe d

quanti ty ; h e nc e it is e vid e n t that all the d e pos i ts and b e ds now
forming t he surfa c e of the e arth must hav e been derived from t h e
d e s t ruc ti on of the r s t igneous cr u s t or of sedime n tary rocks of ,

later date .
 INT R OD U CT O R Y . 3

E v e r sinc e t he b e gi n ning of g e ological time the dry land h as

be e n d e nud e d by wa te r yieldi ng the ma t erial to form ne w depos its
,

in seas and lak e s Through the contin u al crumpling of th e cr ust

.

of th e e a rth th e se d e posi t s in course of t ime beca m e dry land

, ,

and in t he i r turn were subj ected to the ag e nts of erosion aga i n

, , ,

yi e ld in g ma te rial to form s t i ll n e wer de pos i t s or s tra ta This .

a c t ion i s still going oh t h e older formations pro viding th e material

,

for th e youn g e r .

Th e sa m e mat e rial has app eare d r e sorted in di fferen t fo rms i n -

,

diff erent geolog i cal ag e s It is now ea sy to und e rsta nd how some

.

of th e older forma t ions have been entirely remove d by t his ever

last i ng denudation or are represented only by isolated remnants
,

of small extent .

T h e E a rt h C ru s t m o s t ly S e dim e n ta ry A
exa m ina

s . n

t ion of the crust of t h e ea rt h shows that it is c omposed p rincipally

of s tra ti e d rocks t hat is rocks occurring in parall e l bed s or

,

layers A stu dy of the materials forming th e s e roc ks and of the i r

.
,

fossil cont e n t s shows u s t hat t h e y hav e be e n formed by t h e

,

gradual depos it of s e dimen ts on the oo r of some sea or lake in ,

some cases by precipitation f rom solutions or by the growth and ,

a ccumulat i on of animal or v e ge table organi sms .

Th e physical s t ruc t ure of sedimentary or clas t ic rocks as t h e y

are some ti m e s called i s depend e nt on three main fac tors nam e ly , ,

the textur e of th e mater i al the charac t er of th e cemen t ing ,

medium and the amount of i ndura t ion alte ration or m e ta

, , ,

morph i sm to wh i ch th e mat e rial h as b e e n subj e cted .

Wa t er has possess e d through all t im e t h e sam e eroding trans ,

por ti ng and so rting power and what w e now s e e go i ng on in our

, ,

vall e ys a n d on our shores i s a fair exampl e of what took pl ac e in

earliest g e olog i cal ti m e .

Th e grav e ls on the shores formed conglom e rates t he water

born e sands formed sandston e s t h e mor e d i stan t muds beca me
shales wh i le the l itt oral shell beds and coral reefs b e ca me lime -

ston e s.

T h e A l t e ra t io n O f S e dim e n ta rie s The ol der sedimen ta ries .

hav e be e n subj e ct to all th e la t er mov e ments wh i ch have affe cted

t he crus t of t he ear th Th e y hav e b ee n indurat e d by t he gr e at
.

we i gh t of sup e rincumben t s t ra ta plica ted a n d con to rt e d by ,

e n tangl e m e n t i n grea t ear th folds and alt e red by the s i multa neous
-
,

act i on of pr e ssur e h e a t and c i rculating th e rmal wa t ers Thus

, , .

l i mes ton e s hav e b ee n changed to marbl e s sandstones to quar t zi te , ,

muds tones and shales to slat e s or schis t .

F o s s il C o nte n ts E xamina ti on h a s shown that th e earl ie r

.

e xis ti ng stra ta con ta in a f e w ind i stinct and badly p res e rved

rema i ns of plants and an i mals of a very primi t ive and lowly type .
4 MININ G G EOLOGY .

Beds highe r in the su c cession are found to contain a large and

varied assemblage of plant and animal remains many of a highly ,

compl e x stru c tur e such as molluscs sh e s huge bird like lizards

, , ,
-
,

saurians palms and tree ferns Th e higher or younger depos i ts

, ,
-
.

contai n besides molluscs and s h e s the remains of many

, ,

mammals wh i ch have r e presentatives living at the present tim e .

I n other words th e re has been a gradual succ e ssion of life in t i m e

,

from the lowly to the more highly organised forms .

G e o lo g ic a l T im e m a rk e d b y D is tin c tiv e L ife Ex .

h a u s tiv e i nvestigation has shown tha t c ertain o r ganic forms occur

only in certain beds S uch fossils are termed characterist i c or
.

d i stin c tiv e fo rms G eologists have taken advan t age of these to

.

divide g e ological time into periods j ust as histori c t ime is divided ,

into periods by succeed i ng dynasties or empires These periods .

are pur e ly e m pirical and are used for c onvenie n c e of des c ription
,

and study .

G eological time embraces three great periods which are further ,

subdivided as shown below

Recent .

T E RT I AR Y or Cainozoic , Pliocene .

M iocene .

E ocene .

Cr e taceous .

SE C O N D A R Y, or M esozoic J u ra ss ic .

Triassic .

Permian / .

Carboniferous .

D e v om a n
P R I M A RY , or Pal aeozoic .

Silurian .

Cambrian .

L aurentian
.

Su c h terms as Permian D evonian etc ar e time names , ,

.
, ,

cover vast eeon s When a ro c k is said to be of Mi ocene age a

.
,

reference to the table will sho w that it is comparatively young

whereas a rock of S i lurian age is one of extreme antiquity F or .

purposes of clos e inv e stigation these time periods ar e sometimes

,

st i ll further subdiv i ded by geologists .

O gr i in of I g ne o u s R o c ks Throughout all time the outer

.

shell or crust of the earth has been subj ect to the in t ru s ion a n d '

o v e r o w of molten magmas from below ; and there is abundant

evid e nce tha t these igneous intrusions or outbursts were more

frequent more v i olent and more widespread in earlier than in
, ,
6 MININ G G EOLOGY .

of s u perheat e d steam has often caus e d a rearrang e ment of th e

cons t ituents 5 while th e circula t ion of th e rmal waters has led to th e
elimination of some and the substitution of other constituents
, ,

of secondary origin M oreov e r it is found that intense meta

.
,

morphism may cause alter e d lavas and tu ffs to assume a sch i stos e
structure not unlike that induced in altered sedimentaries .

M e ta l s a n d M in e ra l s in I g n e o u s R o c k s N o volcanic .

ro c k of recent date is known to contain m etall i f e rous deposits of

commercial valu e Traces of gol d silver and most of the base
.
, ,

me tals have been found in modern lavas ; but the only minerals
of economic importance associated with these rocks ar e sulphur
and gypsum both of se c ondary origin
, .

The M iocene andesitic lavas and tu s of the Sie r ra N evada and

'

Cripple Creek districts in America 5 Transylvania and Banat in

Hungary 5 of Borneo and Sumatra in M alaysia 5 and of Hauraki
Peninsula in N ew Zealand contain gold and silver bearing veins
,
-

of great value in which ores of c opper lead and zinc a r e some

, , ,

times pr e sent .

A ow of andesite near the M anukau Heads in N e w Zealand

contains large grains of native copper an o c currence which is ,

rare and ther e fo re of great s c ie n ti c inter e st .

V olcani c tu s and lavas are also the m atrix of diamonds opals

, ,

and other precious stones .

T h e I n u e n c e o f D y ke S D yke rocks are not often them

.

selves metalliferous 5 but they have exerc is e d a potent in u e n c e

on the distribution of metallif e rous deposi t s M any valuabl e .

v eins of gold and copper occur in t h e vicinity of dyk e s 5 and

although t h e re is little de n ite knowl e dge concerning the origin

of v e in matter it s e ems fair to assume tha t the intrusion of the
-
,

dyke material originated fractures and s su r e s in the adj acent

-

c ountry which then became channels or tracks for the c irculation

,

of mineral laden wate rs .

I ntrusive bosses suc h as those of granite are oft e n impregnated

, ,

with tin ston e near the contact wi t h sedim e n t ary s t rata ; and in
-

other cases the sedimentary rocks in the n e ighbourhood of th e ,

granite are traversed by valuable veins of tin and copper

, .

The association of tin veins and granite bosses is too frequent

to be a mere coinciden c e 5 and we ar e comp e lled t o conclud e that ,

in some way which is not very clear to u s t he vein and its ,

contents are connected with th e presence of th e boss .

Th e int rusion of the boss may possibly have til t e d and fractured
the surrounding rocks 5 or th e boss may hav e been the anvil
against which the softer and more yielding sedimentaries were
crushed and fractured by the lateral stresses initiated by the
se c ular folding of the c rust of the earth I gneous magmas are .
 IN T R OD U CT O RY . 7

cha rged wi t h water and gas e s D ur ing the process of cooling .

,

mos t of t he wate r and gas e s ar e e xpe ll e d as highly hea t ed s te am

and , as will b e shown la te r on t h e r e i s much e vi de nc e to ,

s uppo r t t h e b e l ie f tha t t h e s t eam a nd gas e s w e r e laden w it h

d issolv e d me tals which wer e af te rwa rds d e posi t ed in t h e zon e of
,

C las s i c a t io n o f I g n e o u s R o c k s F or ou r pre s e n t pu rpos e s

.
,

igneous rocks may b e c lass ie d i n three principal and e as i ly dis

tin g u is h a b le gr ou ps as foll ows :

C la
ss . Vo lca ni c T y pe .

A . Basic ,
Ba sa lt .

B I nte rmedia t e Andes ite

. .
,

c Ac i dic ( Tra m m
.
,
( )
b Rhyoli t e .

The types wh i ch have proved th e mos t productive ar e diabase ,

diori te and e si t e and granite

, ,
.

I m p o rt an c e Of P P et rography was form e rly a

e t ro g ra p h y .

narrow branch of gen e ral geology Oi late years i t has de .

v e l o ed into a d istinct sci e nc e wh i ch conc e rn s it s e lf c h ie w i t h

p , y
t h e minu te structur e compos it ion a n d nom e ncla t ure of i gn e ous
, ,

and crys ta llin e rocks a n d al t hough th e general i sa t ions of p et ro

,

graphy hav e l ittle bear i ng upo n t he ph e nomena of s t ruc t ural

g e ology i t is ne e dful t ha t e v e ry geolog i s t should have an
,

i ntima te knowl e dge of its l e ading f e a t ur e s .

Val u able m i nerals a r e so frequ e n tly ass ociated wi t h i gn eous

rocks that it seems imposs i ble to avoi d the c onclusion t ha t a clos e
g e n et ic r e la t ionship exists b e tw e e n t h e m What th i s r e la t ion s h i p .

r e ally is has y e t to be de t e rmin e d in th e maj or ity of or e

deposits .

Ro ck forming constituen ts are now known to s e pa rate in t h e

-

coolin g magm a i n a de n ite order and t h e inv e s ti ga t ion of t h e ,

laws gov e rn i ng magmat i c d i ff er e n t ia t ion prom i ses t o throw much

l i ght on the gen e s i s of ore d e pos i ts .
 C H A P T ER I I .

C LA S S I F I C A T I O N O F MI NE RA L D E P OSI T S .

C ON T E N S T B i o f Cl sic ti

T he M ph l g i l C l i ti
as s as a on w
or o o ca a ss ca on

S p u i lerD epo its

c aG o l d P l er R i v ersP l er L tri e Pl r ac s ac s ac u s n ac e s
B l k S nd Bea h e D eep L e d o f Vi t n Ce me t P l er D y

ac a c s a s c o a n ac s r

b l o wi g P l er F orm o f All vial G old A o i te o f A ll vi l G o l d

n ac s s u ss c a s u a

O igi o f A ll vi l G o ld S t e m T i O rigi n o f S tr am T m P l ti
r n u a r a n- e a n u in

P l er Pl ti m i R ia d A meri Iro S nd P l er G m
ac s a nu n uss an ca n a ac s e

Pl er D i m o d R by S pph ire Ma i ve D epo it Bog Iro

ac s, a n , u , a ss s s n
A tio f De e ding Water S l t Bor x G y p um S lph r
c n o sc n s a a s u u

St t i
ra d D epo it e S trike n d D ip sf B e d I c l i ti n o f B ds ?
s a o s n na o

e

T hi k e c o f B ed Ex m ple f B edded D epo it Coal Origi n d

n ss s a s o s s n a

F or matio M o de o f O n r ence A g In l i ed Po itio F lti g

cc u r e c n s n au n

Exte t f F l t Intr i e D y ke
n o au d th ei r E t Irreg l riti
s us v s an ec s u a es

B e din g o f S e m Varietie o f Co l R d B k t R ee f M
n a s feld s a an an e s ans

Coppe S h le S i lver S nd to e o f U t h L d S d tone o f Pr i

r a s a s n s a ea an s u ss a
C opper Co gl o m r te o f L ke S perior Copro l ite B d G p m
n e a s a u e s sn
B ed U st t i d D epo it D epo it
n s ra e f V o l n i O rigi S to w o rk
s s s s o ca c n c

D epo it Co t t d Rep la m t D epo it F h l b n d I m preg n

s s n ac an ce en s s a a s a

tio S egreg ted Vein G a h V i T r e F i re Vei

ns a s s e ns u ss u ns .

T he B as is o f C las s i ca tio n M inera l

d e posits are found . .

in so many di ffe rent forms and und e r so many varying con ditions , ,

that t he attempts of different writers to formulate a c la s s ic a tion ,

found e d upon a natural basis have not b e en attended with much ,

success I n any case it must be r e memb e red that a c la s s i c a tion

.
,

i s only an e mpiri c al arrangement intended to facil i tate the study

and investigation of min e ral d e posits .

The maj ority of the c lass ica tion s hitherto proposed are based
upon either (a ) morp h ologica l or ( b) g en etic consi de rations or ( c) , ,

a comb i nation of the two .

The rs t principles of ore d e positio n are st i ll imperf e ctly -

understoo d The most diverse th e ori e s ar e still advanced by

.

em i n e nt authori t ies ; and it is doubtful if a theory has y e t been

for rn u la t e d that will sat i sfy all the cond i tions and explain all the
r
iacts .

The basis for a natural c la ss ic a tion has still to b e discovered .

U n ti l then outward form and mod e of o c currence seem t o

,

8
 C LA S S IFI C A T I O N OF M I NE R A L D EP O S I T S . 9

o ff e r the mos t conveni e nt sta rting poin t for th e el e mentary -

Th e more advan c e d s t udy that is the philosophical inquiry as, , ,

to t he origin p e rs i stenc e a n d probabl e valu e of or e d e pos its can

, ,
-

only be pursued wh e n some knowledge h as b e en acquir e d of th e

fun damen tal laws of or e forma t ion I n t h i s case t he inv e s ti ga t ion
-
.

mus t b e pu rsued from the g e n et ic standpo i n t .

I Ve w i ll rs t deal with mineral d e pos i ts from t h e mo rphological

and aft e rwa rds from the genetic standpoint .

M O RPH O L O G I CA L C L AS S IFI CAT I O N .

A simpl e c las s ic a tion of v e ins and mineral de posits bas e d ,

upon out wa rd form and mod e of oc curr e nce but e ntir e ly in de p e n ,

dent of ag e or mineral charac t er is as follows ,

Cl a ss l S u pe r c ia l
. .

Class II S tra ti ed
. .

Class III U n s t ra ti e d . .

F or descriptive purposes thes e clas ses may be subdivided into

,

groups or sub cl a sses

-
, as u nder

I . S U P ER F I C I AL D EP O S IT S .

( )
a F r a g me n ta ry F orming all uvial drif ts .

( )
b M a ssi ve F orming laye rs and sheets .

I I S S T RA T I F I ED D E P O S I T S .

( )
a Con stitu ting bed s F o rming m e mbe rs of a s t ra t i e d

formation .

( )
b D is s em in a ted th ro u g h a bed .

I II .
U N S T R AT I F I ED D EP O S I T S .

( )
a D ep os i ts of v ol c a n ic or ig in .

b
( ) S to c k w o r k d ep os its .

( 0 ) Con ta c t a n d r ep la ce ment dep os its .

( d ) F a h l ba n d s .

( ) 8

(f
(g ) G as h v ein s .

( )
h T r ue
ss ure v e ins .
10 MINI N G G EOLOG Y .

CL ASS I
SU P E R FI C I A L D E P OSI T S .

( ) a F rag me n ta r y .

D enitio n f o These embrace alluvial deposi t s

P la ce r D ep os ita
of all kinds whether beach sands river gravels lake deposi ts or
, , , ,

glaci e r drifts containing loose particles of gold tin ore pla t inum ,
-
, ,

iron ores or precious stones They also includ e the alluvial deep
, .

leads or deep placers of California V ictoria and N ew S outh

, , , ,

Wales which are often cov e r e d with a sheet or sheets of basalt

, ,
.

G o ld P la c e rs .

That po r tion of the drift in whi c h the gold is c o n centrated is

termed p a y wa sh p a y dzr t or p a y s trea k When the pay wash is

- - - -
, ,
.

covered by a considerable d e pth of gravel drift or other cover it is ,

termed a deep lead -

.

M e th ods of working P la cera Alluvial drifts a cc o rding to thei r ,

situation are worked as follows

,

( 1 ) B y ground or gravitation sluicing with water not under

pressure .

tha t is ground sluicing with water under

( ) y
2 B hydraulicking ,

pressur e .

( )
3 B y hydraulicking and elevating wi t h water under pressur e .

This method is only resor te d to wh e n the con g u ra tion of the

ground renders it impossibl e or too costly to construct a tail race , ,
-

for gravitation sluicing I t is worked wit h much success at the

.

Blue Spur and o t her claims in Ne w Zealand .

( ) y bucket and suction d redges when the mate rial is mainly

4 B ,

or partly b e lo w wat e r level as for example on sea beaches mari

-
, , ,
-
,

time lagoons lakes rive r beds and river a ts

, ,
-
,
-
.

E xa mp les of G old P la ce rs F amilia r examples of gold bearing .

-

gravels are the alluvial drifts of V ictoria W e st Aus t ralia Klon , ,

dyke California Ne w Zealand and Altai M ountains in C e ntral

, , , ,

Sib e r i a .

G old b earing beach sands containing iron sa n d mostly magnetite

-
, ,

occur along th e shor e s of Westlan d and Southland in N ew Z e aland , ,

and the G old Coast of West Afr i ca .

Among later alluvial gold discoveries that at Cape N ome in , ,

Alaska is th e mos t important A sloping plane or tundra extend s

, .

from the s e a back to th e foot of t he mountains I t cons i sts of .

a succession of b e ds of sand gravel and clay res t ing on the , ,

upturned edges of the Pal aeozoic basem e nt roc k The su rfa c e is .

 C LA S S IFI C AT I O N or MIN ER AL D EP O S I T S . 11

covered with a layer of tundra moss and decaying vege ta ble peaty
matter to a depth of 18 inches or 2 4 inches Th e gold b e a ring .
-

matter is foun d along the beach being appar en tly a rewash or ,

concentra t e of the tundra gravels and sand .

T h e tundra gr avels bear no e vid e nc e of glacier o r igin bu t ,

appear from th e ir bedd e d and wate rworn ch ara cter to have b ee n

de posited in a lakeb a sin or in a shallow sea n e ar th e estuary of a
'

large r iver .

G lacier D r ifte Count ry that was once overrun by glacie rs is

to contain two classes of tra n spo r ted matter on e trans

FI G . l .
S ectio n o f G lac ier abo ve Termi al F e n ac .

( a ) M orai nes .
(c) G lacier tu n l n e .

( b) B ement ro k
as c .
(d ) Gl i r i
ac e ce .

porte d by ice the other by water The rs t forms tumbled

,
.

morainic m a sses the latter water worn gravels and sands deposited
,
-

FIG . 2 .
S ectio n o f G lac ier Valley .

( at ) G lac ier m o rai nes .

(c ) B as e ment roc k .

( b) G lac ier grave ls .

( d ) G lac ier ri ver .

by the river which dra ined the botto m of the gla c ier Both .

class e s are o ften mixed a t c e rta i n points When th e co un try i s .

gold bearing the glacier gravels and morainic matt e r conta i n gold
-
,
.

The mo ra i nes are formed by ic e which cannot s e para te th e gol d

from the rock debris ; hen c e the gold is scatt ered thr ough i t j us t
as the glacier happ e ned to drop it The gl a cier gravels on t he .
,
12 M I NIN G G EOLO GY .

other hand being larg e ly a rewash of the moraines c ontain the

, ,

gold in a more conc e ntra t ed form .

M any of the gold bearing t erraces in N ew Zealand a nd in the

-

h i gh e r valleys of the Rocky M ountains bear e vi dence of glacier

r i ver orig i n while som e are compos e d of a rewash of glacier
,

grav e ls and morainic matter .

P os ition of P a y Wa sh E xperien c e has shown that alluvial gold

-
.
-

i s deposit e d along the inner side of the curves in the course of the
river Any stratum of good grav e l in the opposite bank was
.

e vidently laid down at so m e pr e vious time under similar conditions ,

.

The accompanying diagram (g 3) shows the distribution of th e .

pay wash Th e gold is coars e st at the h e ad of the bar gradually

-
.
,

b e coming n e r and s c arcer and spreading ou t below until th e , ,

dirt is too poor to pay 8 0 long as the river r e tains its course
.
,

FIG . 3 . P lan o f R i er cour

v -
se , s h o wm g po ition o f gravel
s s .

th e pay streak will continue to form as the bar is ext e nded

-

y e ar to year .

Th e average uniform size of the gravel seems to show that th e

gold i s only deposit e d where the current has a cer tain medium
velo c ity A t the points wher e th e bends in th e river ar e mad e
.

more permanent by rocky banks th e pay gravel is generally deep e r ,

-

and of greater ext e nt than elsewh e re .

The richest gold does not collect in the de e p pot holes in th e -

river as might naturally be expected but on t h e bars or rocky

, ,

l e dg e s below The reason for t his may be that pot holes g e ner
.
-

ally occur in narrow rock bound parts where the v e locity a nd

,
-

scour of the water are t oo great to p e rmit the p e rmanent

lodgment of the gold particles .

P os ition of G old in D r if te I n alluvial deposits the gold is

foun d in a layer of pay wash resting either on t h e s la te or s ch ist
-

bottom or on a fa lse bottom

,
I n r iver and creek workings th e
-
.
,
14 MI N l N G G EOLOGY .

been tilted almost on edge thereby greatly in c reas i ng the difc u l

,

ties of work i ng th e pay wash with success -

.

B l a c k S a n d B e a c h e s The washing of b e a c h sa nds is a .

for m of alluvial m i n i ng pu rsued on the sea b e aches of Westland -

and Sou thland in Ne w Z e aland The black sa nd is princ i pally mag .

n e tit e d e rived from the disint e gration of the neighbouring rocks .

The gold occurs in excessively n e particles and is found con ,

c e n tr a t e d wi t h the black sand in layers along the sea beach the ,

laving act i on of the r e tr e ating waves removing the lighter par

t ic l e s of quartz sand .

D e e p -L e a ds o f Vic t o ria The buried placers of this sta te .

are of great ext e nt and value They may be ta ken as typi cal of .

a c lass of d e posi t also found in California They consist of gold .

FIG . 6 .
S e ctio n
h o wi ng L acu strine G old bearing Wash ( A fter Park )
s -
. .

( a ) Rece n t g ravel s ( d ) Carbo n aceou s san ds

. .

( b) Gray q u rtz s a n ds
a
( e ) G o ld b eari n g wa s h
.
-
.

( c) Ferrugi n o us qu artz sa n ds ( f ) S ti ff c lay ( g ) S ch i s t. . .

bearing gravels c overed by a single o w of basalt or by a succession ,

of thin ows separat e d by b e ds of gravel .

The gold bearing pay wash lies on the oor of an c ient river valleys
- - -

i nto which the lava streams poured from crater vents and ss u re s -

situat e d in the higher lands T h e ancient valleys when c ompara .

t iv e ly narrow were g e nerally ll e d w i th the ign e ous magma to

such a d e pth as to cause the dive rsion of the str e ams in t o n e w
channels I n some cas e s the area was invad ed by oods of
.

lava which ov e r owe d the d i str i ct for hundreds of squar e miles

a n d bu i lt up great basaltic plateaux on the sites of the river

valleys and watercourses .

Wh e r e t h e r i ver valley down which the lava pou red was wide
-
,

the magma g e n e rally spread itself over t h e gravels in a thi n

stream Th i s caused only a temporary or partial dive rsion of the
.

river in s u f c ie n t i t would seem to compel the river to n d a new

, , , .

outlet in another river system - .

 C LA S S IFI C A T I ON or MINER AL D EP O S I T S . 15

Where a success ion of g ravel beds and basalt ow s occurs ,

may b e inferred t hat t he t hin o ws only t empora rily div e rted

w h i ch ma intained i ts o riginal wat e rshed un ti l the
ion of material had re a ch ed such a h e ight as to com
CA M P HI L L

s rn c r J DI A R D
'

F I G 7 C ro ss
. e tion o f B
-s c a lla rat G olde ld s h o wi ng deep le
,
-

un derly i n g b lt a sa .
( A fter R B rou g h S my th )
. .

p l e t echok e u p the old valley wher e by the wate rs were enabl e d

ly ,

to command a n e w ou t let t hrough some low saddl e or pass i nto a

neighbouri ng wat e rs hed .

S i nce th e em i ssion of the ba sa l t s the coun t ry has b e en di ssec t e d

WIN ?" FL A 1
a n' u ll c n u n u m S rk t

t r

FI G . 8 S. e tio o f Deep le d B ll rat G ld l d h o wi g

c n -
a a aa e io n o f o e ,
s n s u cc ss

lav w
a d ri er g ravel
o s an ( A fter R B ro g h S m y th )
v -
s . . u .

by streams a n d sc u lptur e d into the e xist i ng ri dges plate aux and , ,

valleys I t is no t ic eable t ha t t h e new r i v e r cours e s are s e ldom

.
-

coinc i d e nt w i th th e old wh i ch s ti ll l i e bur i ed und e r their load of

,

gravel and basalt exc e p t at th e po i n t s wher e t he i r cours e has been

c rossed by th e ne wer t ransve rse streams .
16 MININ G G EOLOGY .

This process of denudation h a s in some c ases removed th e

barriers which bounded the ancient riv e r valley Thus the oor -
.

of the old valley with its cap of hard basalt now forms a t
topped
, ,

ridges wh i le the hills wh i ch formed the barriers have b een worn

,

down into valleys and water c ourses .

a b

FIG . 9 . ection o f M o nt Gree o k h wi g protective effe t

S
-
u n c ,
s o n c s

o f ba lt p ( A fter R Bro gh S my th )
sa ca . . u .

( a ) W a h d i rt
s -
.
( ) W a h di r t de rl y i g b a sal t c s -
un n .

E xi ti g w t r o
s n e (d ) Ex i ti g waterco r e
a e c u rs . s n u s .

The pay wash in the deepleads of V i c toria generally lies at th e

-

base of t h e buried gravels resting in a rocky gutter or channel c u t

i n the bas e ment rock .

FIG . 10 S
. e tion o f Deep Le d i D y le ford D i tri t h o wing po itio n
c -
a n a s s c ,
s s

o f gold beari g w h ( A fter R B S my th )

-
n as . . . .

The d ee p leads accord i ng to the contour of the ground are

-
, ,

worke d by shafts or from adit levels ,

-
.

m
C e e nt P la c e rS G old bear i ng grav e ls have sometimes
.
-

become consol i dated into hard cements or even conglomerates , ,

by th e cementing a c t i on of iron peroxide carbona t e of l i m e or , ,

s l i ca deposited from waters whi c h at one t i me circulated through

i
t em .

Ce m ented placers are found in all g e ological formations from

the S i lurian up to the pres e nt day The most important a r e of .

recen t a n d young e r T e rt iary age .

T h e quartz grits and conglom e rates which form t h e coal

measures of the M ioc e ne brown coals of N ew Zeala n d are gol d
bearing throughout O tago Westland and Ne lson ; but only in a , ,

f e w places ar e t h e y rich enough to be wo rked for thei r gold con te n ts .

 C LA S S IFI C AT I O N OF MIN ER AL D E POS IT S . 17

Th e i mpo rtance of t h e se old pl a ce rs lies ma i n ly in the c i rc ums tanc e

tha t many of the richest pl ace rs of a rec e n t or Pleistoc en e da t e
"

deriv e d their gold from them by a proc ess of na t ur al c oncentrat i on .

C e m e nted gold bearing gravels mostly s u p e r c ia l are comm on

-
, ,

e nough in all alluvial e lds and many notabl e examples ar e found ,

in Californ i a and Central Sibe ria more es pecially in old river ,

chann e ls .

G old b e ari ng cements of a unique kind oc cur a t K i ntor e

-
,

Kanowna Kalgoo rli e a n d e lsewhere i n We s tern Aus t ral i a Th e y

, ,
.

d i ffer fr om th e u v ia tile wa te r worn gr avels wh i ch form th e -

c e ments in N ew Zea land and Californ i a Ac c o rding to R ic ka rd l

.
,

th ey consis t variously of in te rmingled clays sands gr i t s kaolin , , , ,

P H} . 11 S .e tion a ro S late Ri ver Co ili g wood N w Z e l d h o wi g

c c ss , n , e a an ,
s n
go ld be ri g ement belo w e m o f c oa l ( A fter P rk
a n c s s a . a .

1 .
Quartzites .

2 . B ro w c o l ly i g go ld be ring ceme t
n a n on -
a n .

3 . G o ld be i ng egregated q rtz vei th e so rce o f gold in cement

-
ar s ua -
n, u s .

4 .
Qua i tzite s .

broken rock iron s tone and qua rtz in most cases r esting in
,
-
,
2
shallow depre ssions .

Th e ir o ri gin i s due to pe c uliar geologi cal and c l i matic conditions .

T h e cl ima te is s e mi trop i cal Th e surfac e h as been expos e d to -

.

sub a e rial in u e n c e s sinc e probably th e e arly pa rt of t he S e condary , ,

p e rio d and i s des

,
t itute of running s t r e ams The ma te r i als a r e .

t he prod ucts of long cont i nued a t mospheric d isintegration a n d -

erosion ; They wer e transpo rt ed to th ei r present plac e s by the

a ct i on of wind rain and ood waters I n no case has th e ma te r i al
, ,
-
.
,

or con ta i ned gold travell e d far from the parent sourc e The , .

w ork i ng of the c e men t s a t Kalgoorli e l e d to th e dis c overy of t he , ,

more valuable lode formations -

.

1
T . A .T he Rll u v i k rd
c a ,

A ial D epo it o f We ter A tr l ia s s s n us a , T r a ms .

A m I n st M i n E ng , v ol xx v iii
. . . . . .

2
T B 1a tc h ford, B u ll etm N 0
. . 3, G eol . S u r vey f
o Wester n A u s tr a l za .

P t
er h , 1 8 99 .
18 MININ G G E OLOGY .

l-
o
D ry b w ing P la c e rs A s a r esult of the long continued .
-

sub aerial disint e gration the surface of the a t country around

-
,

Kalgoorlie has b e com e covere d by a d e posit of red sandy loam ,

ben e a t h wh i ch there is oft e n blu e clay This material which occurs .

,

most fr e quently at the h e ad of shallow gulli e s i s mix e d wi t h ,

frag m ents of iron ston e and a l i t tl e quartz d e rived from the gol d
-

bearing lodes l n th e vicinity .

The gold i n th i s loos e sur face material 18 obtained in the absenc e ,

of water by th e method peculiar t o Australia known as d r y

, ,

blowm g wh i ch consists of screen i ng shaking and dry blowing

.

-
, , , ,

( Plate L ) .

F o rm s o f A l lu v ia l G o l d E xcepting the large r nugg e ts

. ,

which have been found of all shap e s and sizes up to thousands ,

of ounc e s t h e coarse gold g e n e rally assumes a beanshaped

,

form .

The n e r gold occurs as small heavy shots but more often as ,

thin ake s ranging from the smallest particl e which almost oa ts

, ,

in wa t er to pieces l i ke bran
, .

I n riv e r claims where the gold has been deriv e d from the denu
,

dation of gold bearing lodes fragments of quartz with a dhering

-
,

pi e ces of th e precious metal are often met with .

A s s o c ia te s O f A l l u v ia l G ol d The constant asso c iate of .

alluvial gold i n all countri e s is magnetit e sand the agenci e s whi c h ,

led to th e c on c e nti a tion of the gold having also collect e d th e mor e

abundant magn e tite I t is found t hat whatever h e avy or e s or
.

m i nerals ar e associated w i th the gold 1n the original country rock -

are also found wi t h it in the r e sul t ing alluvial drift s .

I n Collingwood in Ne w Zealand considerable quantiti e s of

, ,

na ti ve lead i n the form of round sho t have b ee n found for many

, ,

years in the slui c e boxes with the gol d I n places it i s so

, .

abundant as to choke up the rippl e s Samples collected by th e .

author and submitt e d to ch e mical e xaminat i on disclose d the fac t

, ,

that t h e l e ad is almost chem i c ally pure and somet i m e s e ncloses a ,

skeleton of gold .

I n Takaka near Collingwood the alluv i al gold besides magn etite

, , , ,

is as sociated with gray Coloured grains of osm i um ir i dium a n d

-
, ,

platinum ; in O repuk i with one ounce of platinum for e very,

hundred ounces of gold 5 on the West Coast and in the or ds wi t h

garn e ts locally known as rubi e s 5 and in Central O tago with large
,

mass e s of sch e el i te and m agnetit e .

Throughout Austral i a the alluvial gold is oft en associated

with gem sands containing t opaz zircon spinel rubies and , , , ,

garnets .

O rig in o f A ll u v ia l G o ld Alluvia1 gold originat e d from th e .

-

we a thering and denudation of country containing gold bearing veins -

20 MININ G G EO LO GY .

S T RE A T I N
M -
.

O rig in Of S tre a m T in from the - .

S t ream tin or i g i nated
-

surface disin t egration and denudation of tin bearing lod es or of -

,

granitic mass e s containing tin impregnations -

.

T h e T in P l a cer s of M a la y s ia The tin e lds of M alaysia are .

-

of great extent and value the tin beari n g belt extending south ,

w ard from Burmah and S i am through t he M alay P e n i nsula to , ,

t he outlying islands of Banca and Billiton o ff th e sout h e ast coast ,

of Sumatra .

The tin bearing gravels are deposit e d on the o or of th e valleys

-

which in t ersect th i s rich zone of metall i ferous country .

The geolo g ical f e atures throughout are almost the same The .

basement rock is granite which i s variously overlain by gneiss , ,

schis t sla ty shales sandstone and limeston e

,
1
,
Tin stone has been .
-

found in situ in veins traversing both the granite and slates and ,

disseminated as impregnations in the granite near the contact

2
with the sedimentaries and also in the limestone The stream
, .

t i n was manifestly d e rived from the t in bearing veins and rock -

,

and con c entrated in the gravels by the rive rs and their lateral
streams .

I n many places th e gravels r e st on a fa ls ebottom of s t i ff kaolin ,

derived from the disint e gra t ion of t he granite out c rops Th e y .

vary from 1 t o 1 5 feet thick and are overla i n by an ov e rburden ,

ranging from 5 to 80 feet d ee p Th e richness of the grav e ls .

varies from 5 1b to 4 0 lb p e r cub i c yard . . .

The tinstone of this reg i on is very pure generally containing ,

from 7 0 to 7 5 per c e nt of the metal The colour is oft e n . .

black a n d sometimes pale brown or white The ore is found in

, ,
.

pi e ces of all sizes from n e sand to bould e rs half a ton in w ei ght

, .

Th e associated m i nerals are magnetite and ilmen ite .

The States of Perak Selangor N egri Sembilan Pahang and the , ,

-
, ,

D utch E ast I n die s yi e ld two t hirds of th e world s produ c ti on of

-

ti n O i these the Sta t e of Perak produces about one th i rd and

.
,
-
,

the Sta t e of Selangor on e th i rd of the total output 3 -

.

The tin plac e rs in the Kinta V alley in the S tate of Perak , ,

cov e r an ar e a 4 0 miles long and about 2 5 miles wid e and yi e ld , ,

about three fourths of the tinston e raised in Perak I n 190 4

-
.

Perak produced tons of t in .

Oth er T in P l a cer s There ar e stream tin mines in Burmah

.
-
,

S i am and China and in the Commonw e alth of Australia in th e

, , ,

States of N ew South Wales Queensland V ictoria and Tasman i a , , ,

.

1
R A
. . F . P ro e
en s , Jr
. J ou r n a l f
o G eol ogy , Fe b 1 903 . .

2
Pe ro e
n s , Z oe . ci t .

F O we i i g i Perak vi

3
. n, M n n n ,
T r a ns I . ns t . M in . a nd M et .
,
v ol . .
p 5 1
. .
 C LA S S IFI C AT I ON or MIN ERAL D EP O S I T S . 21

The stream tin deposits of Co rn wall and Saxony have long b e en

-

P l a tin u m P l a c e rs .

P la tinu m in R u s s ia N early
p e r cen t of th e platinum of 90 .

commerc e i s found as loose grains in th e grav e ls of t h e r i vers

draining th e e astern slop e s of t h e Ural M oun tains The grav e ls .

g e nerally con ta i n some a lluv i al gol d .

A li tt l e plat i num has b e en found in situ in p e r i dot i te a n d

olivine gabbro bu t not i n pa yable quantity Ultra basic e rup t iv e s
-
,
.
-
,

and somet i me s chloritic a n d ta lcos e sch i sts pr e vail in th e ne i gh ,

b o u rh ood of t he pla t in u m plac e rs 5 and fragm e n t s of th e se rocks

pr e dominat e in the sands and gr av e ls t hereby i ndicat i ng pr e t ty ,

conclusiv e ly that t he noble me tal was derived from th e adj acen t

a r ea by the o rdina ry proc e sses of wea th e r ing and e rosion .

P l a tinu m in A m e ric a The domestic supply of pla t inum

.
-
,

in th e U nited S tates is obta ined from the gold place rs i n T rini ty

,

and Shasta counties California The gold drif ts in Colomb i a in

, .
-
,

Sou t h Am e ri c a B raz i l Bri t ish Columbia and N ew Zealand also

, , ,

yield a small quanti ty of the metal .

Platinum is always alloyed with a small propo rtion of iridium ,

and oft e n with a smaller amount of osmium .

I ro n s a n d P la c e rs .

E normous depos its of black iron sa n d mostly t i ta nif e rous exis t , ,

on t he c oas t of Chili ; on th e nor t h shore of the S t Lawr e nce i n ,

Canada 5 on th e coa st of California 5 and in Ne w Zealand 0 11 t h e ,

coast between Taranaki and Wanganui .

Th e s e ir ons a n d d e pos its wer e d e rived in mos t cas e s from , ,

weath e red and denud e d later eruptive roc ks n e ar t he coas t l i n e ,

.

I n some parts of th e coasts of Cal iforn i a and Ne w Zea land t h e ,

black san ds con ta in payable gold .

G em P la c e rs .

D ia m o nd P l a c e rs River d e posits yield diamonds ,

. ubies r ,

sapphires and other pre c ious stones The diamon ds of Braz i l

,
.

and N ew South Wal e s are obtained from gravels The diamond .

place rs of the V aal River in Sou th Africa y ie ld gems of grea t

, ,

size and purity .

R u b y P a c e rs
l The princ i pal ruby produ c ing region in
.
-
,

Burma is situated near M ogok about 90 miles d u e north of

, ,

M andalay Th e r ubies are usually found in a somewhat tenacious

.
22 MINI N G G EOLOGY .

clay or in material passing from n e gravel to r iver sa nd T h e

,
.

country rock is a v e ry hard gneiss passing in pla c es into gra n ite 5 ,

l
or a soft friable mi c aceous s c h is t .

The district of Chantabun in S iam has long be e n famous for , ,

its ruby and sapphire min e s .

S a p p h ire P l a c e rs I a the sapphire e lds of A n akie in .

,

Queensland the wash is often c layey and sometim e s friable and

, ,

free from clay I n these deposits are also found oth e r pre c ious
.

stones notably ruby diamond topaz peridot moonstone cat s
, , , , , ,

eye and cairngorm

,
.

( )
b M a s siv e .

D epositsof this class o cc ur as layers or sheets and irregular , ,

masses lying on the surfa c e or cov e red with soils surfac e clays
, , , ,

e tc of rec e nt accumulation They include deposits of bog iron

.
,
.
-

ore and in some places those of manganese and rock phosphate

, ,
-
.

B og iro n D e p o s its -
Bog iron generally occu rs as i rr egular .
-

layers or l e nti c ular masses which were deposited in shallow lak e s ,

or swamps .

The iron in the maj ority of c ases was d e rived from lodes or
, ,

deposits of iron in the adj a c ent country The decomposition of .

iron bearing minerals has doubtless contributed its po rt ion of

-
, ,

iron E xtensive beds of bog iron are oft e n found near the o u t
.
-

crops of pyritic lodes and of beds of th e carbonate ore , . .

When iron pyrites is oxidised a large portion of it passes into ,

salts soluble in water 5 while carbonate of iron is read i ly solubl e

,

i n wat e r containing dissolved carbonic acid Atmospheric .

w eath ering must therefore daily liberate a large amount of iron

, ,

in a soluble fo r m .

I t is well known that wh e n chalybeate waters are e xposed in

shallow sheets as in ponds lagoo n s and swamps to the actio n of
, , , ,

the air the i ron is deposited as the carbonate Fr e sh ly pre

, .

c i ita t e d iron may be fr e quently seen in s t agnant pools in swamps

p .

The precipitation is caus e d by the action of atmospheric ca rbon

dioxide I n some cases the iron is thrown down as the hydrated
.

oxide by decomposing vegeta ble products .

Bog iron ores are porous and cindery in structure They

-
, .

contain in many cases too h i gh a propo rtion of phospho r us to be

, ,

useful for smelting pu rpos e s .

A c tio n o f D e s c e n din g W a te rs Whe r e su pe r c ial ore .

bodies have been fo rmed by the a c tion of descending wate rs i t ,

will be found as a ge n eral ru le that the waters have merely acted

, ,

1
T . T . W y nn e ,

T h e Ru y M b i nes o f Bur a m h , T r a ns . I ns t . M in . a nd
Jll et v ol . v. 1 897, p 1 6 1 . .
 C LAS S IFI C AT I O N OF MIN ERAL D EP O S I T S . 23

upon and concentrate d or e s d i ss e minat e d in th e adj a cent coun t ry

rock Such seconda ry c oncentra t ion i s often s ee n i n th e case of
.

i ron mangan e s e a n d phosphate d e pos i ts

, , .

A t ypical exampl e of t h i s class of or e body is the gr e a t deposi t -

of limon ite at Parapara i n Ne w Z e alan d wh i ch occurs as an ,

irr egular shee t of or e ly i ng on t he surfac e in a d e pression form e d

in Pal aeozoic schis t The or i gi nal sourc e of the iron is t h e sch i st
.

and associated l i m e ston e .

E xampl e s of th e same k i nd ar e foun d in P e nnsylvania 1

Th e .

ores are larg e ly limoni t e Th e y occur as rounded or elonga t e d .

fragments w i th r e sidual clay i n irr e gular d e pos i ts i n ca viti es ,

.

Th e source of th e iron is th e Pal aeozoic shales and lim e s tone in

which the primary iron is dis s e mina t ed in t he form of carbonate ,

sulph i de and silicate , .

FIG . l 2 S e c tio n
. at
Pe yl nia F rn c O b k h o wi g depo ition
th e nns va u a e re - an ,
s n s
o f li m o ite b y de e di g water i th b ddi g n d j oi t plane
n sc d n n s n e e n a n s , an

n od lar iro n o r i h o llo w i l i me tone ( A fter T C Hopki )

u es n s n s . . . ns .

Th e mangan e se d e pos its of Cartersvill e in t he Sou t hern

Appal a chians of the Sta t e of G eorgia are among t h e most impo r t ,

ant in America They occur e mbedd e d i n a thick d e pos it of

.

res i dual clays ma i nly d e rived from t he d e cay of t h e Beav e r l i me

s ton e a n d Weis n e r quartz i tes of Cambrian age .

Acco rd i ng t o T L Watson the ore is distribu te d irr e gularly

2
. .
,

throughout t he clays in the form of pockets l e n t ic ul ar masses , ,

veins and string e rs single nodules and concr et iona ry mas s e s 5 and
,

as small diss e min ate d grai n s I n extreme cases the la rges t .

poc k e ts may yi e ld as much as s e veral hundr e d to ns of or e Th e y .

are rarely composed of so l i d ore t he usual form being t ha t of ,

nodules thickly studded through the clay .

O i the mangan e se oxid e s wh i ch occur pyrolus it e and milom e la n e ,

1
T C . . Hopki ns, B u l letin G e ol .S oc A m .
, v ol . xi .
p 4 75
. .

2
T L . . W t on a s , T h e M an g eean s Ore Depos its o f Georgia ,
T r a ns A m . .

I ns t M E.
,
v ol . xxxi v . 1 90 4 , p . 2 22 .
24 MINI N G GEOLOGY .

greatly predominate Beds of limonite oc c ur separately or in

.

c lose asso c iation with the ma n ganes e ox i des forming mangan i f e rous ,

iron ores of varying grades of purity .

The imme di at e sourc e of th e mangan e se is held by Watson and

others to b e rocks from which th e r e si dual clays enclos i ng th e or e s
w e re derived The dissolution and concentrat i on of the manganes e
.

was effe cted by desc e nding waters charged with oxygen carbon i c ,

and organic acids .

I n th e Cav e Sprin g district in th e adj oining co u n ty th e , ,

mangan e se ores are c on n e d to r e sidual clays deriv e d from th e

Knox dolomit e stratigraphically h i gh e r than the quartzites a n d
limestones of Cartersville district M assiv e cherty beds occur in .

FI G . 13 S c
. e tio
n in o n e o f t h e O pe n in gs at th e D obbi n M i ne near Carte s ,
rs

i e eo gi
v ll , G r a , s h w n th e o i g o c c urrence f m n g ne e e in th re si du l
o a a s or e a

c lay s ( M odie d fr m nr
. o Pe o se by Wat on ) s .

A fragme nts
,
a nd m asse s o f parti lly decaye d ro ck ; B ma ng nes e o e
a ,
a r

C, resi dual cl ay .

Horizo nt al a n d verti cal scale ,

1 in = 1 0 ft
. .

the limestone in pla c es a n d the decay of the rocks in these pla c es

,

has formed manganiferous c hert breccias which howev e r are not -

, ,

of much economic importance Th e following figure shows the .

form of d e c ay assum e d by th e Knox limestone w h i ch is ascribed to

th e Silurian period .

The important mangan e se or e s of Roman eche ( S a one e t L oire ) - -

o c cur according to D e L aunay 1 bo th as ve i ns wh i ch traverse the

, ,

granite and as irregu lar shee t s in red clays intercalated in l i m e

stone Th e latter abut against a nearly v e rt i cal wall of grani t e
. .

The verti c al boundary between the granit e and th e Secondary

1
Pro fes s or L de Lau nay Comp tes R endus v iii S ession Congr es G ol I n ter
.
, ,
. e

n a tion Paris 1 90 1 p 96 8
, , . .
 C LAS S IFI C A T I O N or MIN ERAL D EP O S I T S . 25

rocks is occup ie d by a v e in of mangane s e Th es e d e pos it s app e ar .

to b e pa rtly contac t or e s a n d pa rtly r e placem e nts of t h e lim e s ton e .

Th e valuabl e i ron deposits on th e M e s ab i rang e n e ar the nort h ,

shor e of L ak e S up e r i or are b e l ie ve d to b e du e to s e condary con

,

c e ntra ti on by t h e ac t ion of d e sc e nd i ng wa te r G reat bod i e s of .

or e l ie on the su rfac e and pass und e r h e avy d e pos it s of glac i al

S u p e r c ia l S a l t D e p o s it sThis subclass also i nclud e s t h e .

surfac e depos i ts of sal t i n Asia Am e rica a n d Aus t ral i a as w e ll as , , ,

t he valuable d e pos i ts at L ak e A l b e rt N yanza i n Af r i ca .

B o ra x D e p o s its A larg e proport ion of t h e borax of com

.

m e l e e i s obtained from muds a n d marsh s e dimen t s Th e muds of .

D agg e t t P a con ta i n valuabl e d epos i ts of sodium bora te as also

,
.
, ,

do t hos e of Turk e y Th e marsh e s of California and Ne vada also

.

y ie l d a small outpu t .

FI G . 14 S
. e tion i K o x D o lo mite 2 m i le ea t o f Ki ng ton G eorgia
c n n , s s s , ,

i ll tr ting de ay o f th m g e i n l im e tone by w o f undergro nd

us a c e a n s a s o u

water ( M d i d fro m S pen er by Wat o

s . o e c s n .

A re i d l l y B , g si lim tua c a ,
n1a ne s a n e s on e .

S u p e r c ia l y p s u m
G D o
e p s it s Gypsum is fo u nd forming .

thick b e ds on th e oor of crat e r lak e s i n volcan i c r e gions A -

.

notable e xampl e of th i s i s seen at Whi t e I sland in N e w Z ealand ,

w h e r e th e banks a n d oor of t h e c r at e r lak e are cover e d with an -

incrusta t i on of gypsum and sulphur many f ee t t h i ck .

G ypsum al s o occu rs as b e ds associated with calcareous and

arg i llac e ous rocks ; a n d i n d i sseminate d crystals i n clays and

S u l p h u r D e p o s its N ativ e sulphur occu rs most frequ e ntly

.

in volcan i c r e gions ofte n a s soc i ated with sulphur and c e lest i n e .

26 MININ G GEOLOGY .

I t occurs beds in the valleys of N ot e and M a z za ro in S icily 5 at

in
Solfata ra near N a ple s 5 also in J ava J apan and Ne w Z e aland
, , ,
.

C L ASS II .
S T R AT I F I ED D EP O S I T S .

( )
a Cons titu ting beds or s tra ta .

( )
b D issemin a te d th rou gh a be d .

( )
a Con stitu ting B e ds or S tr a ta .

S t rik e a nd D ip Of B e ds
bed or seam is a member of a A
s t ra ti e d formation the overly i ng layer forming the roof and the
, ,

und e rlying the oor .

The s tr ike of a bed or seam is the direction of a horizonta l line

drawn along the plane of the s tra ti c a tion .

The dip is the direction to wards which a bed inclines and is ,

always at right angles to the strike I f w e assume that we a re .

standing upon the outcrop of a vein running or s t riking no rth ,

and south and facing north it will be found t hat the dip may b e
, ,

either to the right or left that is to the east or west, ,

.

The dip or direction of th e in clin ation of a bed or v e in must not

be confounded with the inclination or a ng le of dip .

T h e I n c l in a tio n O f B e dS The a ng le of d ip is the do wn

~
.

wa r d inclination measured in degrees f rom the h or izon ta l .

Th e u nder lie is the downward inclination measured in degr ees

from the v er tic a l .

The dip and underlie a r e only the same when t he inc lination

F IG S . 15 an d 16 .
S h o w i n g I ncl ination o f V ei n s by Co o rdinates -
.

of the bed or vein is The te r m u nderlie is in common

use among miners and is apt to le ad to confusion if used care
,

lessly.

When des c ribing a bed or seam a geologist will gene rally say ,

The seam strikes north south and d i ps east at an angle of

-
,

This means that the dire c tion towards which the seam in c lines is
28 MININ G GEO L O G Y .

yea rs however have shown that coal oc c u rs in rock of all ages ;

, ,

and the invest i ga t ion of the newer coal measures has led to the -

belief that c oal vegetation established itself wherever and when

-

ever the conditions were favourable for its growth .

I n tra c ing th e success i on of pl an t a n d animal l i fe i n geological

time i t is found that the e arlier fo rms wer e of a v e ry prim i tiv e
,

type I n asc e nding the g e olog i cal scale t hese earl ie r forms wer e
.
,

su c ceed e d and to a large e xt e nt displaced by more highly

, ,

organis e d forms doubtless better adapted to th e prevailing con

,

dition s of th e time and pla c e .

I n resp e c t to plant life the Primary period was specially

-
,

distinguished by the great developm e nt of mosses ferns and , ,

o ther cryptogamic forms 5 the S econdary period by th e growth of

cycads and fe rns 5 and the Tertiary by deciduous trees and
o we r in g plants .

The coals of the di fferent geological periods are formed of th e

veg e tation prevailing at that time Henc e th e Carbonif e rous .

coals of E urop e are compos e d of the r e mains of f e rns mosses , ,

equisetums lycopodiums and l e pidodendrons many of which

, , ,

grew to a gigan ti c s i ze resembl i ng i n their habit the forest tr e es

,

of the pr e sent time .

The gr e at c oald e pos its of Carboniferous age would indicat e

that plant life in this period reached its maximum developm e nt
-
,

at taining a luxuriance unrivalled at any later geological period .

Ther e is good reason for the belief that the coal vegetation of
this and all later periods grew 0 11 wide tra c ts of low lying swampy -
,

1a n d a dj a c e n t to some sea or lake e nv e loped in a cloud of s te am

, .
,

ing vapour th rough which th e rays of the sun s e ldom p e n e trated

,
.

M any of these an c ient forests extended for hundreds of miles ,

occ u py i ng the estuaries and deltas of great slugg i sh riv e rs laden

with mud and n e sediments .

A study of the coal measures of eve ry count ry and of e v e ry

-

age reveals the fact that the accumulated coal vegeta t ion was -

preserved from des t ruction by the gradual submergence of th e

land whi c h t hus permitted the deposition of a great thickn e ss of
,

protecting sedimen t s .

The succession of seams met with in many c oa l e lds indicates

successive p e riods of minor subsidence and elevation of the land ,

e ach seam with its underclay marking the site of a n e w forest .

The thickn e ss of the beds or strata b e tween the diffe rent seams
a ff ords some evidence of the extent and duration of e ach sub
m e rgence 5 b u t th e clay partings met with in coal seams cannot -

always be taken as an eviden c e of submergen c e They may mark .

an encroachment of ood waters on to the forests dur i ng an

-

abnormal inundation whereby a layer of mud was d e posited

,
 C LA S S IFI C AT I O N or MIN ERAL D EP O S IT S . 29

among t he v e getation whose growth would be reta rded but not

, ,

M o de Of O c c u rre n c e charac t er of t h e sed iments

.
T h e
su cc eeding th e coa l na t urally var i ed wi t h the position of t he
fores t s and t h ei r prox i mity t o th e s e a e ven for coal s of th e ,

sam e age .

Subsidence of t h e land was a fundamenta l requir e m e n t for the

pres e rvat i on of t he accumulate d coa l vegeta tion I n most coun t rie s -
.
,

t h e coal 18 follo wed by shales or indurated clays sandstones a n d , ,

l i mes t ones .

Th e shales are commo nl y forme d of u v ia t ile mu ds which ,

generally contain plantr e ma i ns 5 th e sands t on e s ar e u v io mar i n e -

,

and often conta in a rich mollusc an faun a ; wh i l e the l i m e s t on e s

ar e compo s e d of shells and co rals which ind i ca t e a t ru e mar i n e ,

l i t toral I n th e se cas es the c oal m arks th e beginning of a cycl e of

.

deposit i on .

Wher e the coal v e geta ti on gr e w on the marg i ns of lak e s or in

lake estua ries the coal measures cons i st principally of shal e s gr its
,
-
, ,

and sandston e s I n most plac e s th e gr i t s i m de rlie t h e coal

. .

A g e of C o al Carbon a ceo us ma t ter i s found in rocks of all

.

ag e s and in nearly all kinds of sedim e nta ry rocks

,
.

T h e graphite be d s of Canada oc cur in rocks of La uren ti an ag e .

Th e an th ra cite of Coun ty Cavan i n I reland i s S i lurian 5 the gr e a t

, ,

c oa l e l ds of G r e at Bri t a i n Con ti n e n ta l E urope a n d United S ta t es

, ,

ar e Carboniferous 5 the c oals of Ne w S out h Wales S ta t e of ,

Vi rgin i a I ndia and Ch i na Carboniferous and Fe rmoc arbon i f e rous 5

, , ,

the bi t um i no u s coals of N ew Z e aland Upp e r Cr eta c eous 5 th e ,

brown coals of Sou t h Hungary Pennsylvania and N or t h G ermany

, , ,

O oli t ic and L iassic ; of N e w Zealand and V ienna bas in M iocene 5 ,

a n d t h e l i gn i te beds of I r e land Pl i oc ene ,

.

I n c l i n e d P o s itio n o f Co a l S e a m s Th e coal measur es wi t h

.
- -
,

th ei r accompanying seams of coal w e r e ori ginally d e po s it ed in a ,

mor e or less horizontal posit i on I f the stra t a had r e mained .

horizon tal i t is ev i dent t hat the task of procur i ng coal would hav e
,

been v e ry labo rious and expensive 5 a n d in coun t r ie s where th e

overlying strata are t h i ck th e coal co u ld no t have b ee n reach ed .

The s e cular movem e n t s of th e cru s t of t h e e a rt h have t il ted the

s t ra ta a t different angles th e dip varying from a few degr e es to
,

a n gl e s wh i ch occasionally approach the vertical .

F a u l ting O f C o a l S e a m s Sudd e n dislocations or changes of

.

po s iti on ar e spoken of as th r ows tr ou bles slip s or fa u lts

, , ,
.

I n coal stra ta faults often occur in a ser i es of two or mor e

-
,

hav i ng a parall e l b e aring Th ey som e ti m e s all d i p one way bu t

.
,

fr e quen tly in oppo s ite d i r e ctions .

S tep f a u lts are of t en me t w it h i n coal m e asures

-
Wher e t h e -
.
30 MINI N G G EOLOGY .

dislo c ations do not exce e d the thi c kness of the c oal seam they are -

t erm e d h itch es .

E x te nt O f F a u lts F ault lin e s are ofte n so thin as to be

.
-

e asily mistaken for th e ordinary j ointing of th e beds which they

traverse M or e frequen t ly how e ver t he opposi t e faces pr e sent
.
, ,

smooth glassy slicken sided walls with a space partially or

, ,
-
,

entirely lle d with clay or debr is derived from the adj oining
rocks .

I n many c ases the faulting has been caused by lodes or c ross

courses which often con t ain threads or pock ets of iron pyr i tes
,
-
,

known to c oal miners as bra ss es 5 and where they interse c t a coal

-
,

seam quantities of sooty coal mix e d with clay

,
.

I n t ru s iv e D y k e s a n d th e ir E ffe c ts D ykes consist of
wall l i ke masses of igneous rock often basaltic
-
They are ,
.

vert i cal or incl i n e d at various angl e s and sometimes a c t the part

, ,

of faults by d i splacing the strata on the O pposite walls They .

sometimes run parallel to faults .

I n t he c oal e lds of Scotland sheets of basalt h a ve been forced

along the surfaces of coal seams and even along thei r centre so as -
, ,

t o form a bed or sheet in the middle of the seam .

I ntrusive dykes and sh e ets or sills sometimes c ause great loss of

coal and extra e xpense in the working of the seam
, .

The coal in the vi c in ity of an igneous mass is often coked and ,

rend e red c inde ry or sooty .

But t he e ff ects ar e not always destructive A t M alvern Hills in .

,

N ew Zealand a sea m of brown coal was dehydrat e d and conve rted

,

into anthracite of good quality by a sheet of basalt .

Coal may also be alter e d by the same agency into graphite .

Among the debris on the slopes of M ount E gmont in N ew Zealand ,

( a beaut i ful volcanic c on e which is piled up to a h e ight of 80 0 0

feet upon a oor of th e lower Tertiary brown coal measures ) -
,

masses of sandstone with adhering layers of graphite of n e

quality are of not un common occurr e nce .

I g n eous dyk e s oft en dam back water in coal mines 5 and i n -

some cases they ha v e e ff e ctually pr e vented the spread of r e .

I rre g u l a rit ie s o f Co a l S e a m s The troubles m e t with in .

coal min i ng are known as ba l/cs mp s g a ws s a ddle ba c hs s wellies

- -
, , , , ,

t b t m h and s h a ken coa l

p o -
o t o s orse s , , .

B a lhs are sudden thinnings in the coal occas i oned by a ,

depression of the roof of the seam accompanied by a correspond ,

ing rising of the oor .

Wh e n the stratum above the coal invades the thickness of the

seam so as to almost or entirely take the place of the coal it is
, ,

called a h ip or wa nt .

G a me and s a dd le ba c/cs appear to be the reverse of nips as th e

-
,
 C LAS S I FI C AT I O N or MIN E RAL D E P O S I T S . 31

oo r is e ith e r irregu lar or ris e s into and inte rfer e s with th e

con t inuity of th e e oa l s e am
.

I n s wellies and p ot bu ttoms the ordinary th i ckness of th e c oal is

-

increased by a depress i on of th e oo r .

Coal sea ms which r e s t clos e to the b asement rock are always

-

the mos t subj e ct t o irregul ari ti e s i n th i ckness Th i s i s a v e ry .

no ti c e able f e a t ure of t h e Auckland coa l e lds of N ew Zealand ,

wher e the s e ams of brown coa l c onform to some e x ten t to the

conto ur of the bas e m e nt roc k T h e r e sult o f t h i s conform ity i s .

tha t t h e coal thins where the b as ement rock ris e s in ri dg e s and ,

t hick e ns in the b e llows I n t h e depressio ns t he s e am i s som e

.

ti m e s 60 feet thick and on the ridges only a few f eet T h e t hick

,
.

e n in
g and t hin n ing of the seam does not n e ces s ar i ly i mply t ha t
t he coal is de t r ital for i t is manifes t tha t t he w et spongy p e aty
, , ,

mass of vege tabl e matter from wh i ch th e coal was form e d would

slowly gravitate towa rds and ac cumu lat e in the hollows ex i sting in
,

th e land s u rface 0 11 which th e vegetat i on grew .

S h a ken coa l is coal wh i c h app ea rs to hav e b e en compl etely

cr ush e d by some pressure or movement of t h e stra ta It i s .

oft en a mere h e ap of shapeless coal dus t which i s so soft t ha t it -

,

may be du g ou t w i th a spa de .

B e n din g O f C o a l S e a m s T h e effec t of fa u l ts 1 o lc a n ic
.
,
'

in t rusions or late ral pr e ssur e due to the con t raction of the crus t
,

of th e ea rth has b e en some t imes to bend the coal strata and in ,

some c a s e s t hrow t hem into complica te d folds which i ncrease the ,

cos t of working and ca use a g reat was te of coal i n mining

,

E xamples of t he f olding of t h e s t rata i n th e anthrac i te c oa le lds

of Pen nsylvania are sho wn in the g s 1 8 and 19 . .

FIG . 18
. C ro
e tio o f N w Bo to n B in Penn y lva i a th racite
ss s c n e s as ,
s n a n
region ( Red ed b y B S Ly man fro m th cro ection h e t f th
. uc . . e ss -s s e o e
Pe ylv ia G eo l ogi l S rvey
nn s an ca u .

I n g 19 w e have an i nst r uctive exampl e of i nverte d folding on

.

th e sam e c oal e lds .

The compli c ated manner in which coa l me asur e s are fold e d i s -

32 MININ G GEOLOGY .

well illustrated in the c oalbas in of S aint E loy in F rance . A

typi cal section of this e ld drawn by D e L a u n ay i s sho wn in g
l
, ,
. 20 .

FI G . 19
. Cro ec tio S h d h B i n Pen y l n i an th r c ite regio
s s -s n e n an a as ,
ns va a a n,

o i g i verted foldi g f o l m ea re ( Red ed by B S Lym

sh w n n n o c a - su s. uc . . an

fro m cro ect ion h eet o f th Pe n y lvan i Geol ogi l S rvey )

s s -s s e n s a ca u .

FI G . 20 S
. e tion o f Co
c al B as i n ,
Sa i nt El o y .
( A fter D e L au n a y ) .

Va rie tie s of C oal a nd I n u e nc e o f E n c lo s ing R o c k .

Assuming c oal to b e a form of altered v e ge table mat te r th e pro ,

r e s s iv e stages in its for m a t ion a re indicat e d by th e following

g
kinds
( )
1 P e at .

( )
2 L i gnite .

( )
3 Brown coal .

( )
4 Cann e l coa l -

( )
5 B i tuminous or caking coal .

( )
6 Semi anthracite smokeless c
-
oal .

7
( ) Anthracit e .

The quality of a coal is not so much dependent upon the age of

the coal as upon the thi ckness an d li tholog i cal character of the coal
measures A gr e at thickness of close grained imp e rv i ous strata
.
-

e nabl e s the alteration of the vegetabl e matter to proceed without

1
Pro fe oss r L . de L au nay Comp tes R eh du s , m iz
,

. S essi on Congr eh G eol .

I n ter n a tio na l , P ri a s, 1 90 1 , p 959

. .
 C LA S S IFI C A T I O N OF MIN ERAL D EP O S I T S . 33

a c cess of air or water thereby produ c ing c oals of high quali ty

,
-

w i thout regard to age .

Th e n e b i tuminous s t eam coals of the w e st coast of N ew Zea -

lan d of Upper Creta c eous age are en c losed in a gr e at th i ckness

, ,

of close gra i ne d sandstones and shales Th e coals of the sam e age

-
.

on t h e e as t coa st ar e enclosed in po rous qua rtz gri t s and are lit t le ,

be tte r than l i gn i t e .

Another example of th e in u e n c e e x e rcised by the enclos ing

rocks upon t h e character of the coal is seen in t h e c oa le lds of
e ast e r n T e xas I n the F aye t te Y e gua and T i mb e r Bel t d i vis i ons
1
.
, , ,

wh e r e th e e nclosing rocks are c h ie y soft sandy clays and shales , , ,

t h e coa l i s only a l i gnite w h il e in Webb County wh e r e th e m e asur e s

,

are san dstones and shales it i s so superior as to b e classed by ,

P e nros e i n the bituminous group of c oa ls .

( )
b D isse m in a ted th r ou g h a B ed .

Sed i men tary rocks conta i ning well de n e d horizons impregnated -

wi t h or e s and m i n e rals of greater or l e ss econom i c value ar e found

i n many parts of t he glob e The origin of the metall i c con te n t s .

of t hese b e ds i s a problem not yet sa tisfacto ri ly d eterm i ned Th e .

metals wer e e i ther introduced contemporaneously wi t h the d e pos i

t ion of the sedim e n ts in which th e y oc cur or after t h e consol i da ,

t ion an d elevat i on of th e sediments above water The subj ec t .

awaits furth e r investigation A fe w typ i cal examples of th i s class .

of d e posit are given below .

B k
T h e R a n d a n e t R e e fs I n this class may b e inclu d e d t h e .

c e l e brated so ca lled ba nket or almond re e fs of the W i twate rsran d

-
, , ,

in th e Transvaal .

Th e bas emen t rock is granite wh i ch is intruded by dyk e s of

2
,

felsit e syen i te granuli t e e tc The grani t e is ov e rla i n by th e

, , , .

Quartzite shal e group which consists of a gr e at th i ckness of

-
,

qua rt z ite and ferrug i nous shales dipp i ng south at angl e s varying , ,

f rom 2 0 to This gr oup wraps round th e no rt h s i d e

of J oh a n n e s b u r g I t conta i ns s e veral t h i n conglomerate or banke t

.

beds which are gol d bearing

,
-
.

The Quar t zi t e shale group is follow e d appar e ntly c om for m a b ly

-
, ,

by the W i t wate rsran d group th e gold bea ring series prop e r -

con sis ti ng principally of quart zites w i th which ar e associa te d beds ,

of conglome rate or bank e t sandstones and shales The d i p i s ,

.

south a t som e wha t lower angles t han th e und e rly i ng s e ri e s

,
.

Th e W it wa t ersrand group is overlain by an enormous pil e of

amygdaloidal diabase in its turn followe d by t h e Black Re e f
,

1 H i ri
n c h R ie s M in es a nd M i ne ra ls
e ,
S cran to n P O c t 1 905 p 1 0 4 , ,
a .
, .
,
. .

2
S J T ru sc ott T he Wztzoa te rs ra nd G old e lds 18 98 p 1 8

. .
.
, , ,
34 MININ G GEOLOGY .

formation The latte r consists of alternating quartzites and

.

shale 5 and at its bas e conta i ns conglomerates of the banket type

, ,

varying from a few inches to 14 feet thick I t is separated from .

the diabase by a few inch e s of ferruginous clay .

The bulk of the gold in the Ba nd is der i ved from the M ain
Reef series i n the Witwate rsrand group which comprises three
, ,

important banket reefs namely ,

( )
a The M ain Reef ( the lowest ) .

( )
6 The M ain Reef L eader .

( )
c The S outh Reef .

I n addition to these th e re a re the less important bankets k n o wn

, ,

as the N orth Reef the M iddl e R e ef and the Bastard South Reefs
, ,
.

f 6 7

FIG . 21 .
C ro ss
e tio a ro s R obi on Mine ( A fter G ib on )
-s
c n c s ns . s .

(1 an d 2 ) B tard S o th Ree f ; ( 3 ) D i b e D y ke ; ( 4 ) S o th R ee f ;
as u s a as u (5 )
M i ddle R e ef ; ( 6 ) Mai Ree f Leader ( 7 ) Mai Reef ; ( 8) N orth Ree f
n n .

The banket be ds consist of pyrit i c quartz conglomerates composed ,

of rounded or sub angular p e bbles of bluish gr ay quartz embedded

- -
,

in a quartzose matrix .

Th e M a i n Reef series comprises three more or less payable r ee fs

or bank e t beds namely the M ain Re e f which i s often 12 feet
, ,

thick and very low grad e 5 the M ain Reef L ead er about 1 5
, ,

in c hes thick and very rich ; and the South Reef varying fro m
, ,

a few inches to 6 feet thick and payable in mos t places This , .

series can b e traced for 4 6 miles and is the main sourc e of the ,

gold produc e d in th e Transvaal .

A charac te r i s t ic f e ature of th e bankets is their uniform value .

The e ven d is t r i bution of the gold has b e en a n i m portant factor

in th e d evelopm e nt of th e Rand g olde ld T h e gold does n ot .

occur in t h e enclos e d p e bbles but i n t he cem e nt i ng med i um a

circumstance wh i ch t e nds t o sho w that th e conglom e rates are
simply consol i da t ed lacustrin e or e stuar i ne d eposits in which the ,

gold was deposi t ed from circulating gol d b e aring solutions -

.

M a n s fe l d C o p p e r S h a l e s The copp e r bear i ng shales ( Kup .

-

f e r s c h ie fe r ) of M ansfel d in Prussian Saxony are of Perm i an age

, , .

They are 18 inches thick and extend for many m i les I n places , .
36 MININ G GEOLOGY .

E urope They consist of alternating shales and sa ndstones of

.

Triass i c age .

The White Reef and Bu c k eye Reef a re two sandstone beds -

,

from 30 0 0 fe e t to 4 0 00 feet apart Above water l e vel they are .

-

impr e gnated with ke ra rg y r ite or horn silv e r 5 and b e low water ,

l e vel the chloride is r e placed by sulphid e s The m e tal bear i n g .

-

rock vari e s from 30 t o 90 feet wid e and yi e lds an av e rage of 2 5 o z , .

of silve r per ton A small percentage of copper also occurs with

.

the s i lver .

Ne arly all geologists are agreed that the silver and c opper wer e
introduced subsequently to the tilting of the beds .

L e a d S a n ds t o n e o f P r u s s ia The lead sandstone of .

C om m e rn in Rhen i sh Prussia is bel i eved to b e lower Triassic in

, ,

age The rock is a white sandstone of great thickness The

.
, .

u pper part is charged w i th small concretions varying from a pin ,

h e ad to a pea i n size composed of quartzos e san d cemented with

.

, ,

galena .

The con c retions are called knots h e nce th e min e rs nam e ,

,

kn otten s a nds te in
- They contain a little chromium vanadium
.
, ,

and titanium 5 th e latter in t he greatest proportion Th e or e is .

mine d partly by open cast and par t ly by underground workings

-
.

L e ad bearin g sedimentary rocks belonging to this class o c cur in

-

s e veral parts of G ermany and in the counti e s of N ottin g h a m and

,

L e i c e stershire in E ngland
,
.

B e ds c o nt a in ing C o p ro lite s Coprolites are found d i s .

s e m i nat e d in greensands interbedded with strata of younger

Secondary ag e in t he south of E ngland The coprolite b e aring .

gr e ensands of t h e Cr e tac e ous Wa i para s e r ie s of N ew Z e al and are

of too low a grade to be of econom i c value .

G y p s u m B e dS Gypsum occurs in beds associated with

.

calcareous and clayey rocks I t is found in great quantity in the .

Paris basin at M ontmartre I ts occurrenc e in vol canic reg i ons has

.

already been noted .

C L ASS II I U N S T R AT I F I ED
. D EP O S IT S .

s of vol c a n ic or ig in
( )
a D e p os i t .

ockwor k d ep os its
( )
6 S t .

0 ) Con ta c t a nd r ep la c em en t dep osi ts

( .

( )
d F a h l ba nd s .

e ) I mp r eg n a tion s
( .

S eg r eg a te d veins .

G a sh v e ins .

( )
h T w e s su r e v eins .
 C LA S S IFI C AT I O N or M IN ERAL D EP O S I T S . 37

( ) a D ep os its o f Vo l ca n ic O r ig i n .

These includ e the de posi t s of sul phur and borax which ,

accumulate in and ar ound fumarol e s i n th e form of sublima tes .

N ota ble exampl e s of sulphu r d e posits ar e found at M oun t Et na

-

and M ount V e suvius 5 Whi te I sland and Ro torua i n N e w ,

Zealand ; and m J apan

A t Whi te I sland t h e bulk of t h e sulphur is of ve ry low grad e ,

being m ix e d wi t h a v e ry larg e p ropo rt ion of gyp sum A t Roto rua .

,

t housands of tons of bo th y e llow a n d black sul phur of high grad e

ar e be ing mined by t he natives for export .

T h e steam fumarol e s of Pisa and G ros e t to in Italy yi e ld a , ,

large a n nual ou t put of bo ric a cid .

( )
b S tockwor k D e osits
p .

The term stoc kwork was rs t used in E urope to dis t in gu ish

the quarry method of min i ng cer tain min e ralis e d rock mass e s
- -

in terse c ted by small re t icul a ti ng v e inl e ts of or e I t no long e r .

refe rs to t h e m e thod of working bu t is appli e d to m e ta ll if e rous ,

orebodies possessing t he characteristi cs of t h e d e pos i ts rs t mined

as stoc kworks .

A stoc kwork may b e de n e d as a r ock mass t rav e rs e d by -

numerous small veins of or e t hat mu tually in te rs ec t e ach o t h e r ,

bu t ar e too small to be worked s e parately .

Th e v e ins seldom poss e ss cl ea rly de n e d walls b u t merg e ,

impercep t ibly into t he coun t ry rock wh i ch i t s e lf is often

impregna t ed w it h min e ral matt er to a gr ea ter or less e x t ent .

Stockworks are sometim e s of grea t wid t h and length They .

ar e mostly of low grad e 5 a n d from n e cessi ty ar e commonl y worked

by t h e quarry or open cut system of minin g which enabl e s a larg e
-
,

output of ore to be produced at a small cos t .

A l as k a T r e a dw e ll S t o c k w o rk s Th e c e l e bra t ed gold .
~

bearing ore bodi e s in t he Treadw e ll m i nes D ouglas I slan d in

-
, ,

Alaska acco rd i ng to Sp e nc e r c ons i s t of min e ral i s e d dyk e s of

,
1
,

alb i te dior i t e lyi ng b et w e en gr ee ns ton e on t h e hang i ng wall and

- -

sla t e 0 11 th e foo twall wi t h a few small e r dyk e s nea r by i n t h e

,

slate Th e y g e nerally conform to t h e s t r i ke and dip of t h e

.

The greenston e s ar e as a rul e gr eatly al te r e d and in plac e s

, , ,

possess a schistos e or slaty s t ruc t ure Th e y ar e suppos e d to be .

ancien t an desites and basal t s that w e r e e rupted a t t h e t i me the

slates wer e form ed .

1
A C S pe n c e 1
. . T h e G eo l ogy o f t h e T rea dwell O re D epos its D o u g l as
, ,

I sl and A laska T r a ns A m I nst M E Pam phl et 190 4

, , . . . . .
,
.
38 MININ G GEOLOGY .

The ore mainly consists of alt e r e d d iorit e impr e gnat e d with

sulphides c h ie y iron pyrites Th e rock is also partly shat t er e d
,
.

and lle d wi th a n e twork of thin calci t e and quar t z veins t hat

carry a fair proportion of sulphides 1
The dyk e s are considerably .

mineralised and often th e whol e mass can be min e d I n general

,
.

the best ore is that wh i ch conta ins the gr e atest numb e r of calci te
and quartz veinle t s .

T h e gangue is felspar calcite and qua rtz The gold is associ , ,

.

ated with about 2 per cent of pyr i tes and some magnetite . .

Pyrrho t ite often accompanies or replaces the pyrites , , .

The ore is of very low grad e av e raging about twelve shillings ,

per ton but t he larg e ou t put free milling character of the ore
, ,
-
,

and skilful managemen t hav e enabl e d th e min e s t o pay handsome

r o ts for many years The ore b odies are mined pa rtly by O pen -
p .

cuts and partly by underground workings .

O th e r S t o c k w o rk s A t Zinnwald in Bohemia in a dome .

, ,

shap e d mass of greisen (quartz and mica ) there ar e narrow hori , ,

z e n ta l v e ins of tin or e that form stockworks -

.

A t Altenberg ther e is a greisen like rock locally called Zwitter -

, ,

in which t in ore is disseminated to th e ext e n t of one third to on e

- -

half per cent thus forming a s tockwork S omewhat similar

.
, .

deposits occur in granite in the form of impregnations .

N ear S tanthorp e in Qu ee nsland grains of tin ar e d i ss e minated

, ,

through a gran i t i c rock as if forming on e of its original consti t uents , .

A t M ont e Catini in Tuscany t he Cr e tac e ous strata are broken

, ,

through by s e rpentine and gabbro containing large pockets of ,

coppe r or e mostly erub e scit e and copp e r pyrit e s

, .

I n Cuba and N e wfou n dlan d rich d e posi t s of copper oc c ur in

s e rpentine .

I n Cornwall granit e s and s laty shal e s locally call e d killas , ,

containing from 8 lbs to 9 lbs of t i n stu ff to the t e n of rock yield

. .
,

a good p ro t I n some cas e s 2 lbs of t i n stu ff have been s u f c ie n t

. .

to pay all exp e nses A man can br e ak from 15 to 2 tons of the.

hard rock per day and 7 to 8 tons of soft killas ,

.

I n the mineral belt n e ar Ne lson in Ne w Z e aland native copper , ,

d cuprit e occur in serp e ntin e and chromite of iron in massive ,

olivine .

A t Kimb e rl e y in South Africa diamonds are foun d diss e m i

, ,

mat e d in tu s and agglomera t es oc c upyi n g the necks of ancient

volcano e s .

( ) c Con ta c t a nd R ep la ce me n t D ep os its .

A contact deposit is on e which occurs a t or near

-
, ,
th e conta c t of
a sedimentary rock and an intrusive mass or dyke .

1
A 0 S pe n cer loo cit p 2 5 . .
, . .
, . .
 C L A S S IFI C A T I O N OF MIN ERAL D EP O S I T S . 39

Valuabl e deposits of magn etite sp e cular iron and of copp e r , , ,

l e ad and zinc sulph ides are not uncommon along t h e j un ction

,

b e tw e en th e in t r usiv e and country rock frequ e n tly ne a r t h e -

,

bounda ry but ne ver ou tside t he meta morp h os ed zone

, .

I n most probably in all cas e s t he or e body i s a min e ralise d

, ,
-

replacement of the country rock followin g ce rta i n w e lld e n e d -

zones of fracture or c rush which are gene t ically conn e c te d wi t h

the igneous intrusive mass P e trolo g ica l m e thods of exam i na ti on.

{4 4

F1G . 22 S
. e tion ho wing Cont t D ep it
c s ac os .

( a ) Gran ite .
( b) S late ( ) C o tac t Depo its
. 0 n s .

have shown that progr e ssive stag e s of al t era t ion ca n be t raced

from th e unal ter e d roc k to th e m i n e ra l is ed or e body -
.

Th e al terat i on removal and r e plac e m e n t wer e du e t o as cend i ng

, ,

highl y h e ated wa te rs laden with min e ral ma tter d e riv e d from a

d e eper zone probably t h e cool i ng intrus i v e rock magma its e lf
,
-
.

Valuabl e de po si ts of m a gnetit e are found a t t h e con ta c t of im

pur e limesto n es and granite i n th e Chris t ian i a dis t rict, in N e rway
, .

N ear F ramont in th e V osges in F ranc e m ass e s of sp e cular

, , ,

iron a re fo u nd wrapping round a boss of qua rt z porphy ry -

.

P y r it c O
i re -B o
d ie s R io T in to Ca pp er C o n
. ta c t O i pyri ti c .

contac t deposi ts t h e most typical in E urope ar e t hos e of Rio

-

T into Tha rsis a n d San D om i ngo i n Spain and adjace n t pa rt of

, , , ,

Portugal which occur at t h e boun dary be tw e en al te red sla t e and

,

fe lspar po rphyry
-
.

Th e famous coppe r min e s of Rio Tinto ar e con ta in ed in a g r ea t

b e l t of mineralised coun t ry 1 4 0 mil e s long and 30 m il e s w i d e , ,

s t r e tchin g from Hu e lva i n Spa i n i nto Por tugal Th e co u nt ry is

, , .

slat e of Upp e r D e von i an ag e often loca lly al te r e d i n to jasp e r , ,

talc schis t a n d chias tol ite sch i s t and i n t ru de d by great mass e s of

, ,

quartz and f e lspar porphyry d i abas e quart z s yeni te and gran it e

-
,
-
,
.

Th e ore i s a n e grain e d and compac t i ron pyri t es con tain i ng

-
,

on an average less t han 3 p e r cen t of copp e r Small v ei ns of . .

copp e r pyri t es e r ub e sc i te and oc cas i onally copper glance mor e or

, , ,

l e ss mixed w it h iron py rit e s qua rtz blende and oth e r m i nerals , , , ,

trave rse t he m ass .

40 MININ G GEOLOG Y .

Conta c t Or es tn A mer ic a
The argentif e rous lead ores of L ead
ville in Colorado hav e be e n describ e d by E mmons as contact
,
1
,

deposits occurri n g along th e contact planes of eruptive po rp h yry

dykes which hav e brok e n into and ov e rlain a b e d of dolomiti c
,

limestone .

1 L
5
F I G 2 3 S ectio n o f Rio T into Pyritic Contact D epo s it
. . .

( )
a Altered s late ( b) F el par porph yry
. ( c) C u pri fero us py rites s - . .

The lead zine ores of S outh M ountain in the S tate of I daho

-
, ,

occur along the c ontact of limestone and diorite or granite Th e y .

have been described by L indg ren as true conta ct deposits

2 -
.

I n the S e v e n D evils distri c t in the same State there are coppe r , ,

d e posits whi c h o cc u r as (a ) s su r e veins ( 6) zones of impregnation -

, ,

and ( c ) c on tact deposits The country rocks consist of Triassic

-
.
-

slate and limestone intercalated with basic lavas I n s e veral ,

.

places this se ries is intruded by diorites ; and all the ore bea ring -

bodies appea r to be gen e ti c ally connected with these int r usiv e

masses .

The sedimentary se ries in di ff erent places has bee n ss u re d , ,

in the zone of metamorphism and also outside of it The s s u re s ,

.
,

in the zone of metamorphism when lle d with mineral matter , ,

formed contact deposits while those outside of it became ssu r e

-
,

veins M orphologically they di ff er but geneti c ally they are the

.
,

same .

The valuabl e copper deposi t s of Arizona occur associa t ed w i th

Carboniferous limestone gen e rally at the line of contact of gran i te , ,

or other erupt i ve rock .

G old and copper bearing contact vei ns a re common in M exico - -

,

occurring generally between Creta c eous limeston e and eruptiv e

3
ro c ks which are nearly always diorite
, .

S 1
F Emm ns ,
. .T he G n s o
e e i o f Certais n O re Depo s its , T r a ns A m I
. . n s t.
M E .
,
v ol
.
, p . xv
1 2 5 , 1 886 . . .

2
W L nd r n, T h e G n s s
. i ge e ei and Ch ra ter o f Cert i Conta t Depo it
a c a n c s s .

T ra n s A m I n s t M in E ng V ol
. . . . . , . xxx i p 2 2 6 5 d G ene i o f O Depo it
. . an s s re s s,

p 72 1
. .

3
L i n dgren , loc . c tt .
, p 7 2
. 4 .
 C LA S S IFI CAT I O N 0 11 MIN ERAL D E P O S I T S . 41

i
R a n m els be rg D ep Pyri ti c or e bodie s ass oc ia te d
'
P y r itic os it -

with bu t not ac t ually in con tac t with e rup t iv e m ass e s ar e foun d

, , ,

in all part s of t h e world O f s u ch ore bodies tha t a t Ramm e l s

-
.

berg in th e Hart z sa id to have be e n worke d for 90 0 y e ars

, , ,

M ount L y e ll lod es in Tasman i a and th e Broken H i ll lod e i n

, , ,

N ew So ut h Wal e s may b e c ite d as typical e xampl e s ,

.

Vog t d e scribes th e Ramm e lsberg d e pos it as an irre g ular l e ns

1

of or e with a curious lateral b ranch l ik e th e Brok e n Hill lod e .

The d e pos it is 1 5 00 yards long and from 4 9 to 6 5 fee t wid e It .

S E

24 .
I deal S e c tion o f Ra m m l e s be r ; Py riti Depo it
c s .
( A fter V ogt .
)

I S enclosed in Upper D e vonian sla t es occupy ing t he cen tr e of a ,

s he a r zo ne It s gen e s i s is b e lieve d by V og t t o be closely

.

conn e c t ed w it h c e rta i n lin e s of erup ti on of grani te i n t h e

i mm e dia te n ei ghbourhood .

M o u n t L y e l Or e D ep
l os ita Prof e ssor J W G r e gory group s .

t he or e depos it s of t h i s di s t ric t i n to t wo class e s nam e ly ( a ) hug e

-
, , ,

l e ns shaped pyr iti c mass e s a n d ( b) min e ral i sed ban ds of sch i s t

-
, ,

1
Pro fes s o r J H L V ogt U eber die Kies l ag ers tatte n v om T y p u s Reros
. .
, ,

V ig s n as S u l itelm a in N orwege n u n d Ra mm el s berg in D eu ts chland Z e tt

'

, , .

P ra kt . G e ol .
,
1 8 94 .

2
Pro fe or J W G r
ss . egory ,
o t
T h e M u n Ly l l M e ini g F ieldT
n as m an ia .

T r a ns . A us t I ns t A L E. .
,
v ol . x .
,
1 90 5 , p 2 6
. .
42 MININ G GEOLO G Y .

forming fahlbands Th e form e r a r e t he sourc e of th e great bulk

.

of the valuable mineral m i ned in the e ld 5 t h e la t t e r ar e

economically of little importance .

The rocks consist of D evon i an conglomerates and quartzites

anked by Silurian and Cambrian sch i sts The structur e is not .

complicated by folding but the c ountry is traversed by a compl e x ,

of great faults .

The ore bodies occu r a s detached masses alo n g the line of

-

co n tact of th e quartzi t es and conglomerates on the east and ,

schists on the west side .

O f the two main pyritic m asses the la rg e s t a n d most impo r tant

is known as the B ig M ine or P a rent M ine Professo r G rego ry .

des c ribes it as irregula rly boat shaped in form be i n g an elliptical -

,

mass which tapers gradually downwards and is th e n cut 0 11 0

with a rounded base T h e extension in depth is limited by a .

great th r ust plane which brings the conglomerates under the ore
1
and schists .

The oxid i sed gossan consisted mainly of silica ba r ite a n d iron , ,

oxid e containing about 1 5 oz of silv e r and 1 5 dwt of gold p e r . .

t on .

The pyritic ore is c h ie y pyrites with coppe r gold and silv e r , ,

.

Small patches of very rich or e probably the result of secondary ,

e nrichment were m e t with at the bottom of the oxidised zo n e

, .

They contain e d redruthit e born ite fahlore and arg e n ti te , , , .

The main pyritic mass is of very low grade I t contains from .

0 5 to 2 per c e nt of copper from 1 5 to 3 o z of silve r and

.
, .
,

from 0 0 4 to 0 0 7 o z of gold per ton of ore . .

W T Bat c helor stat e s that a featur e of the or e bodies is their

. .
2 -

p e cul i arity of splitting into on e or more legs or branches as they

d escend a feature so characteristic of the Broken Hill lode in
,

Ne w South Wales .

The genesis of the M o u nt L yell ore bodies is still a question of -

doubt Prof e ssor G r e go ry thinks they may be classed as contact

.

d e posits although not dir e ctly connected with igneous masses

, .

Th e main or e body lies in a c r u s h zon e at the contact of the

- -

quartzites and schists and its formation may possibly be conn e ct e d

,

w it h th e granit e intrusions of M ount He e m skirk rang e A .

p e trolog i cal examination of t he wall rock and or e would probably -

show that the M ount L y e ll or e s lik e those of oth e r pyr iti c masses ,

e ls e where are m et asomatic repla c ements of the enclos i ng rock

, .

The grea t faults which traverse the lodes are thought by some
writ e rs to hav e a genetic association with the ore bodies but thi s -
,

co n nection has not y e t been proved The manner in which the .

lodes are faulted and displa c ed horizontally by thrust faults -

1 2
L oc . cit. , p 1 18
. . L oc . ci t. , p.1 4 1 .
44 MININ G G EOLOGY .

contents wer e principally cerussite native silver chlorides , , ,

bromides and iodi de s of silver associated with kaolin garn e t and

, , , ,

quartz .

Belo w the oxidised products c ame what are locally termed

sooty sulphides consisting of loose aggregates of galena and blend e
, ,

enclosed in a gangue of quartz and garn e t The friabl e sulphides .

JA M I ES ON S

N fi c r
rL

N 35 0

2"
S ca le Fe et
FI G . 26 . Cro s ection o f Broke Hi ll L o de B k n Hil l P
s s n io e 1o
p1 1e tary
Mi e n ( Copied f m t h Co m pa y p lan
. l e e n

3 .

passed downward into solid sulphide s (blend e and galena ) enclose d ,

in a gangu e of quar t z garnet and rhodonite containing also i ro n

, , ,

pyr i tes and a li t tle chalcopyrite The sooty sulphid e s w e r e

, .

frequently very rich and apparently r e pres e nted a zone of

,

secondary enrichment .

Bet ween the 2 0 0 and 300 feet levels th e lod e divides into two ,

spurs or branches which follow th e trend of the en c losing rocks

, .
 C LA S S IFI C A T I O N OF MIN ERAL D E P O S I T S . 45

The wal ls of t he lodes are not slicken sided I n many places the -
.

roc k is i mpregnated or r e pl ac ed more or l e ss wi t h or e .

The gn eiss and schist ar e associated wi th numerous dyk e s of

dior i te to th e in t r u sion of wh i ch the fold i ng of t h e rocks and
1
,

subsequ e nt llin g of the cavi ti es along t he axial l i n e of ma i n

e xu r e may be ascr i bed .

The charac ter and g e n e s is of t his lod e is s t ill a ma t ter of d i s

agreement among Aus t ralian geologis ts P i t t man and Jaquet 2
.

conte nd t ha t th e lode is a large sa d dl ereef e nclos e d in al t ered

se dimen taries P rof e ssor G r e gory on t he o th e r hand mainta i ns
3
.
, ,

t hat th e po si t ion of the lode has be e n determined by a s e ries of

powerful faults al ong which m i n e ralisa ti on h as tak e n place H e .

con t en ds that the c onta ining rocks are no t sed im e n ta ry and n e v e r

w e r e Th e gn e iss e s and sch i sts beside th e lod e are h e a f r m s a
.
, ,

ser i es of altered igneous rocks Pi tt man and J aq u e t oppose t h i s .

vi e w with t he statement t ha t the sa m e or similar gne i sses and ,

schis t s in t he adjacent dis t r i ct con ta i n bands of l i mestone which

, ,

cl e arly prov e a sed i menta ry origi n for the seri e s .

B uc kton Or e D ep osi ts T e n ness ee The pyri ti c ore bodies in t his

, .
-

reg i on m ay b e tak e n as typical of t h i s class of ore depo s i t i n -

Am e r ica Th e rocks consis t of gn e iss and micaceous sch i s t s or

.

sla t es wh ich have been thrown into close folds .

FI G 27 I deal S ec tion , N . W . to S . E owing probab le tru ture o f

.
, sh s c

D uc kte n regio n ( A fter Henri c h )

. .

. .

The ore bod i es consis t of masses of pyrrho t i te with wh i ch occur

-

sulph i des of copper zinc and le ad Th e port i ons near t h e surfac e

, , .

have been oxi dis ed into gossan Carl Henrich sta tes t hat b e low 4
.

J aq u et G eo l ogy o f t h e B roken Hil l L ode a n d B arrier Ra n ges

1
J B
M in eral F iel d N e w S o uth Wale s M emoi r G eo] S u r vey N S W N o 5 1 8 94
. .
,
. .
,
. . .
,

E F Pittm an a n d J B Jaq u et T h e G enes is o f B roken 11111 L od e

,
2
. . . .
, ,

A u str a l ia n M in in g S ta nd a r d Oc tober 1 90 4 ,
.

3 Pro fe
s s or J W G rego ry .
T h e G en es 1s o f B roken H ill L ode
.
, ,

A l elbou r n c A r gu s S epte m ber 1 90 4 .

C arl Henri ch D u c kto wn Ore D epo s its a n d T rea tment o f Copper Ores
,
1

,
,

T ra ns A m I ns t A L E v ol xx v 1 896 p 2 0 6
. . .
, . .
, ,
. .
46 MININ G GEOLOGY .

the gossan and above the unaltered sulph i des there is a zone of
secondary enrich m ent consisting of partly oxidised c opp e r ore or

black copper F requ e ntly a oor of whit e quartz o c curs b elow
.

the enrich e d zone frequently containing dispe rsed grains or

bunch e s of marcasite .

The or e deposits do not occur in d i r e ct association with igneous

-

intrusions bu t are found along the planes of fa u lt s su r e s th e

, ,

fault plan e in all cases according to Henrich form i ng the east or

-
, ,

hanging wall of th e d e posit which is always sharply de n e d

-
, .

That wr i t e r is of the Opin i on t ha t the B uckton ore depos i ts ar e -

replac e ments of igneous dykes which at one tim e occupied th e

pr e s e nt places of the ore bodies -
.

( )
d F a h l ba nds .

Thes e are beds or strata of crystalline metamorphic rock so ,

highly i mpregnated with or e as to be of commercial value Th e .

silver b e aring fahlbands (or gray beds ) of N e rway are among th e

-

bestknown exampl e s They follow more or less clos e ly th e

.
, ,

strike and d i p of the gneissoid and schistose strata by which they

are bound e d They e xtend for several mil e s and in cases atta i n
.
,

a width of s e veral hundred feet .

I n th e Kongsberg district t hese bands are crossed nearly a t

right angles by narro w s s u r e veins varying in width from a few ,

inches up t o 2 feet and are product i v e of silver only wher e

,

th e y in te rsect the fahlbands The fahlbands are important in th i s .

distr i ct sol e ly from the fact that t he small ss u r e veins ar e e n -

riched i n passing t hrough them more esp e cially when two such ,

veins i nters e ct within the mineralised belt .

FI G . 28 .
S ec tio n of F ah l band at D k y S o nd N w Z us u ,
e eal and .
( A fter Park ) .

( a ) S h i t c( b) F
s s.h l ban d a .

A t D usky Sound in N ew Zealand there is a mineralised band

, ,

of mica and chlorite schists c ontain i ng pyrrhotite pyr ite with a , , ,

littl e chalcopyrite and nickel asso c iat e d with epidote and garne t ,

min e rals T h e band can be tra c ed southward across the moun

.
,

tains for several mile s but i t has not yet been shown to contain
, ,

p y Z
a a b l e or e of any kin d .
 C LA S S IFI C A T I O N or MIN E RAL D EPO S I T S . 47

Fahlbands are r e lated to bed impregnat i ons wh i ch probably -

,

ow e t heir or i g i n t o a queous and gaseous emanations aris i ng from

a cooling intrus ive magma .

( ) e I mp reg n attons .

I t has sometimes happ e n e d t hat when a rock has been crack e d

or s s u r e d a porti on of t he roc k on on e or bo t h walls has becom e
i mpregnated wi th some metallic su bs tance d i ss e mina t ed as grains , ,

n e sts or bunches throughou t the mass in t h e vicini ty of th e

,

ss u r e .

Such an occurrenc e is ca lled an imp regn a tion implying t ha t ,

th e m i n e ral has been introduc e d as a secondary produc t by

m i neral waters or superheated s tea m .

The term impr e gnation i mpl ie s a ref e rence to th e genes i s

rath e r t han t he form of an ored e po sit and wh e n used i n a ,

morphologi ca l sens e i s somewha t va g ue and meaningless .

G e net i cal ly the maj ority of s t ockwork s con tact d e posits and ,
-

fahlban ds may b e properly regarded as impreg na ti ons as well ,

as th e S i lv e r San ds ton e s of U ta h the Copp e r Conglom e rates of

,

Lak e Sup e r i or th e Copper Shales of M ansf e l d and th e G old

, ,

Bank e ts of th e Rand a ll of wh i ch probably d e r i ved th e ir me tallic

,

con te n t s from aqueou s and gas e ou s emanations e xpelled from a

cooling magma .

T in I m p re g n a tio n s The or e mo s t frequently found as an

.

i mpr e gnat i on i s cass it er ite or t i n s tone and t h e rock i n which it

-
,

occurs i n th i s mann e r is commonly gran i t e M any exampl e s of .

t his class of t in d e pos it are me t w ith in Aust ral i a and i n

Tasman i a .

FI G . 2 9 T in
. I m pregn atio n .

(
a ) G ra n ite .
( b) T in i m pregn atio n .

At M ount W i lls in Vi ctor i a ti n or e is foun d in veins and in

, ,
-

d i ss e m i nated grains i n a gran ite forming a true s t ockwork

,
.

A t Ve getable Cr ee k i n Ne w South Wal e s it i s found llin g

, ,

contraction cracks and j oints i n a granite near the j unction w it h ,

48 MI N IN G GEOLOGY .

clay slat e s I n th e E mmaville division in the same S tate the

.
, ,

t i n b e aring ore occu rs in v e ins and i mpr e gnations in t he outer

-

crus t of a gran iti c boss .

I n th e H e rberton di str i ct which produc e s the bulk of the tin ,

rais e d in Queensland th e t i n stone occurs i n veins bunch e s a n d

,
-
, ,

i mpregnat i ons i n gran i t e .

A t t h e famous t i n m i n e at M ount Bischoff t h e ti n ston e occ u rs

- 1
, ,
-

i n str i ngs bunch e s v e ins and i mpregnations in quartz porphyry

, , ,
-
,

e ur ite a n d topaz porphyry which have intrude d slates sandstones

,
-
, , ,

and quar t zose rocks .

I mpregnat i ons l i k e fahlbands form a group of metall i f e rous

, ,

d e pos i ts not very clearly de n e d G enetically t hey are clos e ly .

,

related to contac t deposi t s -

.

(f ) S eg r eg a te d Ve in s .

D e posits of this kind gen e rally occur i n the shap e of lenticular

masses , a n d oft e n succee d one another in l e ngth and d e pth in such
a manner as to const i tut e a more or l e ss conti n uous ve i n Th e y .

are o n ly foun d i n s e d i m e ntary rocks that have b ee n sha rply folde d ,

wher e by cracks or s s u r e s have been form e d more or less parallel

w i th the bed di ng planes and d i pping at right angles to the axial
,

l i n e of e leva t ion .

C h a ra c te ris tic s o f S e g re g a t e d V e in s
The ch ie f char .

a c t e r is t ic s of s e gr e gat e d v e ins a r e as follows

( )
1 Unc e rta i n both in depth and lin e ar e xtens i on 5 that is they ,

ar e s e ldom cont i nuous e i ther in l e ngth or d e p t h but occur ,

as a success i on of d i sconnect e d l e ntil shap e d mass e s ,

-
,

which may contain a f e w tons or many thousands of tons , ,

of quartz .

( 2 ) I rr e gular i n w i d t h .

( )
3 S e ldom possess more t han one w e ll d e n e d wall -
.

( )
4 F requently re c eiv e small ve i ns in th ei r course .

( ) Conform more or less to bedding planes of country rock

5 -
.

( )
6 They ar e only foun d i n bed d e d s e d i mentaries which are ,

gen e rally slat e s clayston e s or san dstones

, .

O rig in o f S e g re g a te d Ve in s Th e orig i n of segregated .

d eposi t s of this class i s som e what obscure Th e y g e n e rally occur .

alo g the b e ddi ng plane of t he country rock Th e cav i t i es they

n -
.

ll hav e appar e ntly b ee n forme d by th e fold i ng of the enclosing

rock 5 and th i s fol ding may hav e b ee n caus e d by secular earth
movem e nts or the intrus i on of an igneous mass
,
.

N e w Z e a l a n d S e g re g a t io n s The pro ductiv e quar t z veins

.
-

1
H W F K ay ser
. . . M ou n t
, A n s t A s soc A dv t S ci en ce 1 892 . . .
,
.
 C LA S S IFI C AT I O N or MIN ERAL D EPO S I T S . 49

in th e Reefto n I nangah u a and L yell g old e lds cons ist of a

, ,

suc c e ss i on of l e n t icular masses which generally conform to

the be dd i ng planes of the enclosing clays ton e s and sandston e s .

Some of t h e larg e r or e bodies sw e ll ou t to a w i dth of 2 0 fe et a t

-

t h e ir w ides t part but the maj ori ty are shaped l ike a t lenses w it h
,

a thickness varyin g from 3 to 6 f e et Th e re are no dykes or .

intru s ive boss e s i n t he v i cini ty of t he v e ins which oc cupy cav it i e s ,

formed along the bedd i ng planes of a monoc linal .

S a ddl e R e e fs These are se named from th e ir resemblance

.
-

in form to a stockman s saddle Th e y ar e mer e ly s e gregated v ei ns

.

formed in cavities along the bedding planes of sedimen ta ry rocks

wh i ch hav e been bent i n t o ant i clinal and syn clinal folds .

E J D unn who worked out th e morphology of t h e saddl e

.
1
,

reefs of Bend i go g old e ld in Vi c to ria de n e s a saddle reef as z

, ,
-

A lenticular qua rtz lode lying between bed ding plane s of roc k
-

be nt over i n an ti clinal or syncl i nal folds .

The chief chara c teristics of saddle reefs are as follows -

( )
1 They occur in bedde d banded or folia te d rocks , ,
.

( )
2 They ll cavities which conform to the planes of bedding or
fol i a ti on of th e rocks .

( )
3 The gr e ate s t mass of ore occurs along t he crown of the
ant i cl i nal arch forming the s a dd le from whi c h the leg s
d e scen d on e on e ac h s i de of th e arch
, .

( )
4 The legs diminish rapidly in size as they des c end and ,

n ally die out .

( )
5 Two or mor e saddlereefs may succ eed ea ch o ther in v e rtical
d e p t h under t he axis of the same anticl inal fold .

( )
6 Th e great e st thickness of ore in inv e r t ed saddle r e efs -
,

form ed in synclinal folds is found along the axis of th e ,

trough .

The saddle re e fs of Bend i go c onsis t of arch like mass es of gold

- -

b ea ring qua rtz conforming to the bedd i ng plan e s of the enclos i ng

slate a n d sands ton e of S i lur i an age D unn has shown t ha t i n .

most cas e s t he fol ding of the roc ks was caused by t he in t rusion of

i gneo us dyk e s .

I nv e rte d S a dd e R e e fs
l Th e gol d b e arin g veins at Cape -

T e ra w h it i near W e llingto n l n N ew Z ealan d are interes t ing ex

, , ,

amples of sad dl e r ee fs wh i ch e xh i b it bo th an anticlinal and

-

s yncl inal arrangem e n t as shown in g 3 1 ,

. .

Th e rocks ar e Triassic claysto n e s a n d sands tones which hav e

b ee n e rod e d i nto s tee p r i dges and de e p valleys wi t h th e resul t t h a t ,

th e veins have b ee n correspondingly denuded The or e bod ie s .

-

1
E J D u nn R ep or t on B end igo G ol d
.
, e ld D ept o f M ines V ictori a ,
.
, ,

M el bo urne 1 8 93
. .
50 MININ G GEOLOGY .

FI G . 30 . S
-
ectio ns s h o wi g Fo rmatio n o f S addle Ree f
n - s. ( A fter E J
. . D unn )
.
52 MININ G G EOLOGY .

The ores m ost commonly found in gash veins are galena and -

zinc blende V eins of t h i s class have no distinct walls and being

.
, ,

co n n e d to a singl e stratum of the formation in which they o c cur ,

are limited in exten t .

FI G . 33 G
. ash V ei ns Wan ga peka ealand
, , N ew Z .

(a) S il rian l i me to ne
u ( b) S i l rian late
s . u s s.

) G sh v ein o ntai ni ng galena nd b lende

(c a s c a .

( )
h T r u e F tssu r e Vein s .

V eins of this c lass are generally admitted to h a ve o rigin ated in

s s u r e s caused ei t h e r by se c ular folding or by ign eous int ru sio n s , ,

and are believed to possess great depth They pass through all .

kinds of ro c ks in their course independently of any bedding or ,

s tra ti c a t ion 5 but in some part they may chan c e to c oincide

the dip and strike of the c ontaining formation .

\
L
. L L ~

_ L

FI G 34 . . T ru
-
e Fi ssu re Vei n .

(a ) L i mes to ne .
( 0 ) G ra n ite .

( )
b S late s .
(d ) F i s su re vei n -
.

The mineral contents of th e s e veins w ere d e pos i ted

asc e nding aqu e ous solutions wh i ch were probably gen e ti cally
, , ,

connect e d with deep seated magmat i c intrusions

-
.

Th e ban ed arra gement of the v ei n matter of the ssu re vein s

d

n -

of Cornwal l i s very si m i lar t o t ha t of t he solfataric v ei ns of th e -

Hauraki g olde lds which would t e n d t o show th at t h e ll in g took

,

 C LA S S IFI C A T I O N or MIN ERAL D EP O S I T S . 53

place in t h e la t er stages of the aft er actions following t h e ign e ous -

i ntrusion .

T h e two walls do not always c oincide tha t is the ss u re is , ,

ofte n a faul t and of va riabl e width A t ru e vein like a s e gr e gate d

, .
,

vein m a y throw out spurs or branches from on e or bo th walls

,
.

L o de s O f Co r nw a l l The lodes of Cornwall are famil i ar

.

e xampl e s of t r u e s sur e veins Th e y pass in d e p t h succ e ss iv e ly

-
.

through lim e ston e sla te and grani te I n t he limestone th e

, ,
.
,

princ i pal commercial produc t was l e ad 5 in the slate copp e r 5 a n d ,

i n th e granite t in , .

L o d e s O f B a v a ria n F o re s t The thr ee gigantic qua rt z .

lod e s on the slopes of t he Bavarian F ores t are r e garded by Suess 1

as the grea t es t monuments of lin e ar d i sloca t ion known in E urop e .

Th e y are true ss u r e veins and are bel ie ved by tha t d i s ti nguish e d

-
,

geologist to oc cupy great faul t frac t ures on t he existenc e of which -

,

he n ds suppor t for h i s cel e brated th e ory of moun ta in building

by h or sts a nd gr a ben .

O f these the Asch lod e begins in the most north wes t erly par t
,
-

of Boh e mia no rth w e st of Asch runs to th e south eas t t rans

,
-
,
-

v e rs e l
y across t h e m i ca schist gneiss a n d grani te of E rzg e birge
-
, ,

M oun ta i ns 5 th e n cuts across t he narrow ou tcrop of gn ei ss n e ar

Se e berg d i sa ppears ben e ath t h e Tert i ary cov e r i ng in the bas i n
,

of F ranzensbad and E ger and r eapp e a rs immed i a tely on the o t h e r

,

sid e of t h i s in t he granit e m a ss of Sandan n a lly extending ,

through th i s up to th e sou t h of K onigs wart The to tal l e ngt h of

'

outcrop is nearly 2 5 mil e s .

N ea r Hals where th e Asch l ode e nds th e re appea rs the begin

, ,

ning of th e gr e at v e in known as t h e Bohem i an Pfahl which strik e s

sou t h south e a s t th e n curves to t he eas t t h e n turns ba ck to th e
- -
, ,

s t raight course and crosses the Bavarian front i er near F u r th .

The l e ng t h of outcrop is abou t 3 4 m i les and t he av e rage wid th ,

about 10 0 fe e t F or a long d i s ta nce t h e lode runs bet w e e n t h e

.

gn e iss and hornbl e nd e rock but wh e re th e hornbl e nd e rocks ben d , ,

it pass e s completely in to t he lat te r .

Th e t hird and grea te s t of thes e lod e s i s the G r e at Pfahl It .

s t rikes N 5 8 W and for th e gr e a te r pa rt of i t s cou rse vari e s

.
,

from 2 2 5 to 37 0 fee t w i d e F or a di s tanc e of 2 7 m i l e s in a sou th

.

eas t c ours e it separates th e granite from th e Triassic and middl e

,

Jurassic strata and then t o t h e w e s t of the chain passes com

,

p l e t e ly into the Arch a ean region 5 thenc e it continues in a s t raight

lin e as far as the Aust rian frontier Th e total length of outcrop .

of this remarkable l ode i s 92 mil e s .

Ve in s o f C rip p le C re e k Th e gold bea ring v ei ns at Cripple .

-

Cr e ek in Colora do traverse and e s i t i c t uffs and phonolite of low e r

, ,

1
Edu aid S u ess T he Face of the E a r th Engl i sh ed ition v ol i p 2 0 7
, , , . . . .
54 MININ G GEOLOGY .

Tertia ry age They are . s s u re -

veins g roupe d around old volcanic
,

c e ntres of eruption .

T he Th e cel e brat e d Comstock lod e in

C o m s to c k L o de . ,

N evada t rav e rs e s propyl i tised andesite dacite d i abas e diorit e

, , , , ,

e tc of older Tertiary ag e I n the middle portion of i ts cours e i t

.
,
.

occupies the line of c ontac t between mass e s of diori te a n d

diabas e th e lat te r lying on th e hanging wall Th e bas e ment
,
-
.

rocks are grani t e schists slates and l imeston e s

,
1
, ,
.

The lod e has been traced for a distanc e of over feet in a

nearly du e north and south dir e ction I t dips t owards th e east .
,

and has a t hickness varying from 2 0 to 6 0 fe e t Th e v e in .

ss u r e is also a fa u lt The vein matter c onsists of crushed and

.

de c ompos e d rock clay and quartz The lode is r e markabl e for

, , .

th e high temp e rature of the mine water in the lower l e v e ls -

.

Th e m in e s on the Comstock lode have yielded a fabulous

amount of gold and silver since they wer e opened in 1 85 9 The .

gold exists as free gold associat e d with sulph i d e s of silv e r , .

M o th e r L o de O f C a l ifo rn ia Th e G r e at M oth e r lode of .

California is one of t he most remarkabl e s su r e veins in th e glob e -

.

I t is trac e abl e for a distance of 7 0 m i l e s e xt e nding through v e ,

count i es and in many plac e s is a min e ralis e d belt ra ther t han a

, ,

tru e vein .

Th i s immens e v e in or group of veins generally occurs in a b e lt

, ,

of black slate of Triass i c ag e and runs nearly parall e l with th e ,

plan e s of s tra t ic a tion dipping in th e sam e di rection at n e arly

,

t he same angl e of inclination A t d i ffer e nt par t s of its cours e it .

,

traverses sla te diori te d i abas e s e rpent i n e a n d granit e

, , , , .

The mines on the M other lode and the rich placers on its
course hav e yi e ld e d a large propo rtion of t h e gold produc e d in
Cal i fornia for many years 2
.

L o de F o rm a t io ns o f K a l g o o rl ie The famous lod e .

format i ons of Kalgoorlie in Western Au s t ral i a poss e ss many

featur e s of pecul i ar inter e s t to the mining geologist Th e y .

are group e d t ogeth e r in an area about a square m i l e in e xten t ,

locally named th e G olde n M ile The country rocks i n t his area .

-

have undergon e e xtreme alteration which ren ders the determina ,

t ion of th e ir original character very difc u lt .

I n th e oxidised ground there i s no sharp line of d e marcation ,

betw ee n the lode formations and the country rock which i s

- 3 -
,

1
G B c r,
. F
. e ke
G l y f th e ms c eo og o
L d and as h D s ri c , Co to k o e W oe i t t
M on ogr ap h tit of U S G eol S u rvey
. a sh n n , 1 8 8 2
. . . . W i gto .

2
DJ . W it e
h n y , T h e A n mf er on s C r a w ls of th e S ier r a N eva d a of

C b i ge
am r d , U S , 1880 , p 4 5 . . . .

3
H C .

. Hoo e
v r, T h e S u pe rcial l ra n f s rn u s ral an O re A te tio o We te A t i
epo it
D s s , T ra n s A mer I ns t M in Eng , v ol xxv p 785
. . . . . iii . . . .
 CL A S S IFI C T I N A O or MIN ERAL D EP O S IT S .

ge n erally a dmitted to be of an e ru ptive chara c te r p robably of an ,

ac i d i c ho rn bl e nd e typ e .

Th e lod e format i ons ar e beli e ved by s ome t o b e b e l ts of co u n t ry

-

rock more al te re d and m in e ral i s e d t han th e r e ma i ning rocks 5 by

,

othe rs to be ign e ous dyk e s wh i ch i n trud ed t h e old e r e ruptiv e s ,

and subs e qu e ntly becam e m i n e ral i s e d by asc e nding t h e rmal

wa ters i n t h e wan i ng or solfa taric phas e of e rup t iv e afte r actions -
.

Th e schis tos e s t r uc t ur e obs e rve d i n t he lod e ma tter may hav e -

been induced by t ang e n t ial st r e ss du e to s e cular foldin g a n d

e levation subsequ e nt to th e form ation of t h e lod e s Th e pr e senc e
, .

of s e rici t e favours t h e V ie w tha t it was i nduced by pr e ss ur e .

The e videnc e ava i lable a t pr e s e n t s ee ms to sugg e s t t ha t

m e tasoma t ic r e plac e men t on a larg e sca l e op e ra t ing along l i n e s ,

of fracture probably con t rac ti on ss u r e s played an i mpo rtan t

, ,

pa rt in t h e genesis of th e Kalgoorli e lod e s .

The oxid i s e d po rt ion of t h e lodes exte nds from 5 0 t o 400 f e e t

below t he present surfac e the d e p th to which it e x te n ds b e ing ,

apparently i nd e p e nden t of e xis t ing wat e r l e v e l or surface con tours 1 -

.

Th e gol d in i t is fre e and extremely fine G enerally sp e ak i ng .

,

the rich e r and more heav i ly min e ral i sed pa r ts a r e foun d to b e

oxid i sed to t he gr eates t d e pth 2
.

I n the oxid i se d zon e the lod e mat te r cons i s t s c h ie y of hydra te d -

oxides of i ron hydrate d sil i cates of alumin a and magnesia

,
3
Calc i te ,
.
,

s e rici te chlorite and o ther alterat i on p roduc ts ar e also pres e n t

, ,
.

The lode formations ar e ofte n in te rs e c t e d by s mall v e in s of

-

decomposed qua rt z and Woodward states t hat i t is wher e t h e s e

4
,

are met wi t h that th e or e is rich e s t .

Th e or e bodies or courses of rich ore oc cur in irregular l e ns

-
, ,

sha ped mass e s varying from a mere thread to many feet in wid th
,
.

They ar e no t con t inuous but occur in ech e lon one l e ns over ,

lapping th e o t her .

Below th e ox i d i sed zone t h e lod e s are mor e cl e arly de n e d ,

pa rt ic u larly i n the rich e r min e s 5

The c ountry rock is mass i v e bu t .
-
,

e xtr e mely alt e red while t h e lode ma tte r i s sch i s to s e in places ,

-
,

show i ng al te ra ti on t o chlori te and s e ric i te and pl e n t ifully charged ,

wi t h d i ssem i nated iron pyrite

I n som e mines the vein ll in g consists c h ie y o f quart z 6
The - .

1
H C Hoo er l
. . v , oo. c it p 7 58
, . .

2
H P Woodwrd
. . a

, T h e s e -cal l d L d e o e F ormatio ns o f Hannan
s an d

T ell ri de D ep its
u T os ,
r a ns I n s t M in a nd M e t
. . .
, v ol . Vi .
p 17. .

3
L oc . cit .
, p 16. .

4
E F .Pittman .
,
ote
N s on th e Geol ogy an d M i er l D epo it
n a s s 0 1 Portio ns

o f We te rn A tral i
s us a ,
R

ecor d s f
o G eo l S u r v e y f
o M S TV v ol vi p 1
. . . . . . .

5
W Fre h eville
. c ,

N ote
s on a V s t h e G ld M n s ai it to al o i e t K goorlie ,

We tern A tralia
s

us . T ra ns I ns t M i n a nd M et , v ol
. . i , 1 8 98 , p 1 4 1
. . v . . .

6
L oc . c it , .
p 1 44
. .
56 MININ G GEOLOGY .

quartz however is in many cases replaced by calcite which is an

, , ,

important gangue material sometimes occurring in larg e mass es , ,

with calav e rite 1

.

The gold o c curs mainly in tellurides and sulphides only a minor ,

proport i on e xisti ng in t he free state The prin c ipal accessory .

min e rals ar e magneti t e siderite iron pyrites and ars e nical , , ,

pyrites .

The tellurides occur as veins splashes and disseminat e d minute , ,

crystals throughou t th e entir e m ass .

M o u n t M o rg a n L o de The great ore body in M ount M organ .

-

mine in Queensland is b e li e ved by some to b e a huge pyriti c lode .

I n the upper part of the deposit it c onsists of siliceous h aemat i t e ,

or g os s a n often with a porous c avernous structure ; and in th e

, ,

lower part of massiv e pyritic gold b e aring or e A zone of

,
-
.

FI G . 35 . C ro e tio n o f M o nt M organ L o de ( A fter E J D nn )

s s -s c u . . u .

(a an d b) S a d to ne t n ( ) Cell lar i li ceo

s s, e c . e u s us o re .

(c) D yke s. ( f ) S i li eou ul ph i de c s s s.

(d) I gneou ro ck s ( 9) O x i di e d e ri h e d zon e

. s n c .

secondary enrichment of g re a t value was met with in the oxidised

zon e .

The a c tion of s e a water is held by E J D unn to s u f c ie n tly
2
.

account for the secondary oxidised or e s without calling in th e a i d ,

of thermal spri n gs as contended by D r J ack , .

The country rocks are highly metamo rphosed strata of P e rm o

-

G W Card N ote s on th e Co u n try R o c k s o f th e K algoorl ie G ol deld

1
.
.
, ,

Western A u stralia Res of th e C ool S u r v ey of N S IV

, v ol vi . . . .
, . .

Part I .

2
E J D u nn
. M o u nt M organ G ol d M i n e
.
,

P r oc R oy a l S ociety of ,
.

Vzctor ta , 1 90 5
'

.
 CLA S S IFI C A T I O N OF MIN ERAL D E P O S I T S . 57

Carboniferous age trave rsed by in t rusions of hornblende g ranite,

-

a n d dol e r ite
1
.

Th e or e body i t s e lf i s nearly su rrounded by dykes of dol e rit e

-
,

oft en al te red and s e rp e nt i nised .

Th e e vidence suppli e d by D r J ac k W i lk i nson and o t h e rs se e m s ,

to ind i cat e t ha t t h i s un i qu e lod e 18 a t ru e ss u r e v e in g e n eti cally ,

conn e c te d w it h t he in t rus i on of t he dol e ri te s It bears many .

po i n t s of r e s e mblanc e to t h e famous copp e r contac t d e pos i ts a t -

Rio T i n to m Spa i n .

Th e d i s ti nct i on b et w ee n contac t d e pos it s and ss u r e veins i s one -

of geologic occurr e nc e ra t h e r t han genetic origin As will b e .

shown la t er t he afte r ac ti ons of a magma t ic int rusion may b e th e

,
-

g e ne ti c cause i n th e forma ti on of s su r e veins con tac t d e pos it s -

, ,

or e v e n b e d i mpregnation -
.

T in L o d e s O f M a l a ys ia Th e t in lod e s of t h e M alay .

Penins ul a t h e e rosion of wh i ch has produc e d th e valuabl e alluvial

,

plac e rs of the S t ra i ts S ettl e m e n ts ar e ss u r e v e ins pass i ng from ,

-

clay sla te s downward i n to t he bas e m e n t rock gran it e 2

.

G o l d Ve in s o f C h a rte rs T o w e rs I n t his ri ch g o ld e ld a .
-

large nu mber of t h e v ei ns ar e enclosed in gran it e but som e occur ,

in porphyry Th e v e in gangu e is pr i nc i pally quart z con ta i ning

.
-
,

i ron pyr ite s and oft en pyrr ho t ite bo th of wh i ch con ta i n gold ,

.

C o p p e r L o de s o f B u tte C ity Th e copp e r d e posi ts n ea r .

-

But t e C ity i n the S tate of M ontana are among t h e rich e st 1n t he

, ,

glob e T h e co u n t ry rock l s grani t e t rav e rsed by dykes of rhyoli te

.
-
,

t r e nding nort h and sou t h 3

.

A numb e r of minin g companies are opera t ing on a lod e or

min e ralised belt w hich can b e t raced for ov e r 3 miles i n a
, ,

c o u rs e r u nn i ng nearly e ast and w e s t .

Th e dir e c t ion of t h e min e ral b e l t follows the g e n e ral trend of

t h e ss u re plan e s which ar e approxi ma t ely pa rallel to e ac h oth e r
, ,

i m itin
g in plac e s runn i ng ou t a n d uni ti,
ng again .

E mmons conclude s that t h e grani te was s s u r e d by t h e rhyoli te

i nt r us i ons wh i ch w e r e followed by t h e usual sequ e nc e of erup t iv e
,

after a c ti ons includi ng a t one s t ag e t he c i rc ul a ti on of hot asc e nd

,

ing solu t ions Through th e ag e ncy of t h e se solutions t h e g ran ite

.
,

be ca m e decompos e d along t h e l i n e s of fractur e and t h e orebodies ,

form e d by metas omatic i nt e rchang e .

M uch of t he ore occurs i n t h i n interlacing v e i n s s om e of it ,

impregnating th e grani t e a n d some as hug e or e m a sses ,

-
.

1
C S Wilkins o n N otes o n a C o llec tio n o f R oc k s a n d M i n eral s fro m
. .

M o u nt M organ Rea irds of G eol S u r vey of N S W1 1 891 v ol ii 86

,

. . .
, . . .

W H D e 1 r ick N ote s o n Lo de T i n M inin g iii th e M alay e n in sul a

.
, ,
2 '
. .
, ,

T ra ns I ns t M i n a nd M et v ol v ii 1 898 1 899 p 1 2
. . . . .
, , . .

E mm on s T h e Copper Res o urc es o f t h e U nited S tate s

,

T r a ns , .

A me r I
. ns t. M in E ng . v ol . x i x .
p 6 78
. .
58 MININ G GEOLOGY .

The oxidised portion carried silve r mainly the chloride a nd no , ,

copp e r of any moment down to a depth of about 400 fe e t wh e r e

, ,
.

a zone of secondary e nrichment was met with c on ta in l n g r i ch ,

oxysulphides and other secondary ores of copper B e low this zo n e .

app e ared the n ormal sulphide ore which consists principally of ,

chalcopyrite bornite and copper glance con taining

, , ,

10 per cent of c opper and a li t tle silver

.
1
, .

The width of the lod e s varies considerably but on a n average ,

may b e t aken at about 10 f ee t .

1
D o ugla s , T he Copper Re o r e o f s u c s th e U nited S t tea s, T r a ns . A m .

I nst . M i n En g
. .
,
l xi x p 6 79
vo . . . .
60 MININ G GEOLOGY .

( b) A decrease of pressure .

( ) 0 E lectro chemical act i on

-
.

( )
d Ch e mical pre c ip ita t ion .

( )
8 B y oth e r contact with oth e r min e ralised solutions .

(f B y gas e ous emanations .

(9) By absorption of metals by gelatinous sili c a etc ,

.

O rig in of The solutions eith e r found th e

Ve in C a v itie s .

caviti e s awaiti ng them or they formed t h e ir own channels by a ,

process of slow progr e ssiv e replac e ment of th e wall rock parallel to -

pr i mary fractures .

I f the cavit ie s wer e pre existing they wer e formed mechanically -

,

by forc es either ( 1) in ter na l or ( b) e txer na l to the rock a e c te d

'

4 .
,

I n the case of e ruptive magmas unequal cooling of the igneous

mass would tend to cr e ate unequal internal tens i ons with the ,

r e sult that s su r e s of contra c tion would be formed M agmas like .

,

t h e mol t en charge in a blast furnace will cor r ode the walls of ,

t h e ir cavern and th e plucking ac t ion of the rising pasty mass

,
1
will tend to detach fragments from the roof and sides D aly .

conclud e s tha t the diges t ion of solid ro c k by a magma causes an

i ncrease of volume of the magmas ther e by furnishing su f c ie n t ,

e nergy to fracture t he overlying rocks and force the magma itself

along planes of weakness .

Sedimentary and older erup t ive rocks may be fractured by an

igneous intrusion or by the lat e ral and tangential s t r e sses created
,

by the secular folding of t he cr u st of the earth Such forces ar e .

ext e rnal to th e rock mass affected 5 and if w e consider the manner

-

i n which they act we shall n d that igneous intrusions play a

,

more important part in the genesis of vein cavities than the more -

pond e rous s e cular earth movements -

.

Secular movement i s extrem e ly slow s e ldom ex c eeding a f e w ,

inches in a c e ntury T h e folding wh i ch i t causes being for th e

.

most part of wide stru c tural or t e ctonic importance is contin e ntal ,

rather than local When the stress exce e ds the e lastic limit
.

of th e mat e rial the resultant e ffects are faulting and shearing ,

plication and sharp infolding .

Th e fractur i ng which produces open ss u r e s and caviti e s is

c h ie y the work of igneous intru sions a n d volcanic forc e s Th e s e .

agencies having mad e the cavities also provide the mineralised ,

gases and solut ions that corrode and r e place the shattered r ock
and ll the ss u r e s with mineral matter .

O r e bodies a re often formed along j oint and faul t planes and

-
,

at the interse c tion of j oints simple fractures and faults A , , .

1
Dal y R A ,
. .
,
M e ha i
c n cs o f I g eo n us Intrusio n ,
A mer . J ou r n . S et .

v ol . xvi p 1 0 7
. .
,
1 90 4 .
 O R E y a ms . 61

typical example of this class of depos it in Bend i go g ol d e l d ,

V ictoria has been shown by T A Rickard

,
1
. . .

FI G . 36 .
-
Ty pi ca l S e tion o f O
ody at Inter ec tion o f Fract r
c re B s u es .

( A fter T
A R i kard ) . . c .

(a ) S an d to n e
s ( b) S late
.
(cc ) Fr cture . a s .

(d ) Go ld b ari g q rtz i th form o f a f l

- e n ua dd l
n d e a se -sa e re .

The sulphid e ores of M onte Cristo in the S ta te of Washing ton , ,

ar e stated by Spurr to be replacem e nts of t he coun t ry rock

2 -

t onalite The ores which are c h ie y gal e na blende chalcopyr i te

.
, , , ,

pyri t e and a rsen opyrit e are concentra ted along j oin t plan e s and
, ,

i nt e rsections in t h e mann e r shown i n the nex t g u re .

A g e O f Ve in F il lin g I t som e times happens t hat the lod e s

.

in a dist ric t a r e of different ages and that t he m e mbe rs of on e ,

syste m make an an gle with t h os e of anoth e r system W Vh e n .

d i splacement ta k e s place i t i s e vid e n t that t h e vein which ,

d i splac e s another vein is younger t han the displaced v e in .

I n the case of large ss u r e s now lle d wi t h min e ral mat t er i t ,

is highly imp robabl e tha t they remained as op e n chas m s w i thou t

suppor t unt il th e y were lled It is g e nerally beli e ved that i n .

th e beginning t h e ss ur e s w e re of small s i z e and gradually ,

1
. . ik
T A R c ard T r a ns A m I n st M E , v ol . . . . xx p 469
. . .

2
J E S u rr . p
O re D s
,
s fM n epo it o
rs o te C i to W ,
as h n n , i gto 2 2 nd A n nu a l
R ep or t U n ited S ta te s G eol S u rv ey , 1 90 01 90 1 ,
'
. P art I I p 8 49 . . .
62 MININ G GEOLOGY .

in c re a sed in length depth and width as th e min e ral matter , ,

a cc umulated in them to a fford the necessary support I n other .

words the e n largement of the lode was the work of m e ta somatic

,

replacement operating upon the rock forming the walls of the

orig i nal s su r e .

I t might be expected that it later movement took place it ,

would t end to follow an old line of ss u r e rather than initiate a

new one and in support of th i s view there is internal ev i dence i n
,

many lodes that they have been reopened at different periods .

Port i ons of the M artha lode at Waihi have been brecciated by

S C A L E O F FE E T
5

FI G . 3 7 S ketch
. e tio o f T nnel d Vei Expo re in V ertical C liff
-
s c n u an n su
,
G la ier C re k c h o wi g m i nerali tio n al o g j oi t
e ,
s by probab ly
n sa n n s , ,
de en di g w ter
sc S h ade d are
n repre ent i m pregn tio o f to alite
a s . as s a n n
w it h l p h i de al o n g j oi nt
su ometi me be o ming o li d ore
s
( A fte rs, s s c s s.
S p rr u .

wall movements and r e cemented 5 and evidences of a similar

- -

character are not uncommon elsewhere .

Weed who mad e a special examination of th e copper v e ins of

1
,
-

Butte in M ontana states that the veins there are of s e veral ag e s

, ,

and syst e ms and that the older primary quartz pyrite veins were
,
-

reop e ned by later movem e nts which he corr e lates with a period ,

of volcanic activity This reopen i ng he says result e d in the .

, ,

d e pos i tion of the copper sulpharsen i de e n argi t e which i s n o w , ,

found to b e the chief ore of some of the veins .

As a rule the formation of vein matter took place after the -

formation of t he enclos i ng rock .

1
W H Weed O re D epo s itio n a n d Vei n E nri c h m en t by A scending Hot
. .
,

Waters T r a ns A m I nst M E v ol xxxiii 190 3

,
. . .
,
. .
, .
 0 111: VE IN S . 63

I n many lod e s ther e is evidence that t here w e re sev e ral p e riods

of ore formation Recent inves t igat i on has shown tha t t he ag e
-
.

of a l ode may be of compara ti vely late date even in v e ry old

,

rocks .

The m e talliferous andesitic rocks in South Amer i ca Ne va da , ,

T ransylvania and Ne w Z e aland were erup t ed i n middle Tert i ary

,

times ; hence t he con tained ve i ns must b e of later da t e probably ,

of ol der Pl i oc ene age The major i ty of v ei ns occurring i n clastic

.

roc ks ar e supposed to have be e n formed in later geological t ime s .

W idth O f L o de s L odes vary considerably i n wid t h bo th

.

along their cou rse and in depth Th e Comstoc k lode i s i n par t s .

2 00 fe e t to 30 0 feet wide and in oth e rs no t more t han 2 0 fee t

,
.

The Premier lode at T e A roha va r ies from 2 0 feet to 60 feet wide ,

and s tands up like th e wall of a hous e along t he anks of the

mountain for m i l e s The M artha lode a t Wa i hi var i es from 10
.
, ,

FI G 38 S h o wingLE ffec ts o f Faulting

. . .

(a ) Be fore faulting ( b) A fter f ulting

. a .

to 90 feet wide The Bohemian Pfahl in a leng t h of 34 m i l e s

.

main tains an average width of 1 0 0 f e et but in places widens out ,

to 3 7 5 f e et wh il e t h e G reat Pfahl in its c ourse of 92 miles varies

,

from 2 2 5 to 3 7 0 feet in width .

The varia t ions i n w i dth may b e du e to sev e ral caus e s Th e .

rock may hav e yi e lded more a t on e po i n t than a t another dur i ng

the formation of th e ss u r e .

A fractur e t hat pass e s t hrough al t erna ti ng bands of hard and

soft rock generally follows a sinuous cou rs e ; for wh i l e th e
frac tur e t e nds to pass t hrough the soft er rock in a d i r e c t ion
normal to its course the res i stance offered by t he har d rock
,
.

caus e s i t to tak e the sho r test d i stance t hrough the resis ti ng

med i um wh i ch w ill be a cou rs e a t r i ght angles to the bed ding or
,

When faul ti ng tak e s place on t he walls of such a sinuous

ss u r e th e result is a succ e ss i on of w i de and narrow cav itie s as
, ,

shown i n g 38 . .
64 MININ G GEOLOGY .

The Temperance lode in th e Ne rr e na or L ittl e Bend i go g old e ld

in Vi ctoria is a typical e xample of an ore body compos e d of a -

string of loz e nge shaped mass e s Accord i n g to W Bradford the

-
1
. .
,

lod e traverses a seri e s of alterna t ing sla t es and sandston e s of

Silurian ag e I n vertical d i stance it cons i sts of a succ e ssion of
.
,

w ide and narrow parts the wide pa rts forming in th e slates and ,

th e narrow in the harde r sa n dstones as drawn i n the accompany ,

ing g u re which however does not show any appearanc e of

, , ,

faulting .

Again i t is poss i bl e that erosion either chem i cal or mechanical

, , ,

hav e act e d in one portion of a s s u r e mor e than in another .

FI G . 39 . S e c tio n
o f T em pera e L o de h o wi g m k nc f q rtz in ,
s n a es o ua
sl ates . S le 1 i
ca to 40 ft ( A fter W Bradford )
,
n . . . .

L odes are generally widest in soft or moderately soft ground ,

and narrowes t in hard rocks such as unalt e red granit e and e site , ,

and d i orit e I n hard rock a lode will frequ e ntly d windle down to
.
,

a m e r e crack or clay parting and expand to i t s normal siz e on ,

enter i ng softer c ountry .

L e ng t h o f L o d e s The longest lod e s ar e g e nerally th ose .

-

which are broadest O f the thr e e gr e at lod e s trav e rsing th e slopes

.

of the Bavarian F or e st the Asch lod e is traceabl e for a dis tance

of 2 5 mil e s th e Bohem i an Pfahl for 34 mil e s and th e G rea t
, ,

Pfahl for a leng th of 92 miles .

I n Cornwall the average length of a loa d is about a m i l e in ,

Saxony 3 to 4 mil e s and i n t he Harz M ounta i ns 8 t o 10 ,

1
W . B ra dford ,
B u l l etin N o . 15 , C eol . S u r ve y o
f Victor ia , M l e bo r eu n ,

1 90 5 , p 6 . .
 O RE V E IN S . 65

m il e s I n California the G reat M other lod e has be en t raced for

.

ov e r 7 0 m i l e s .

I n t h e Hauraki g old e lds in N ew Z e aland t he T oka te a lod e can , ,

b e trace d for 3 m i l e s 5 the Wa i ota hi lode 2 mil e s 5 t he Pr e m ie r ,

lode T e Aroha 4 miles

, ,
.

S trik e o r B e a rin g O f L o de s I n many mini ng d i str i c t s t h e .

-

main lod e s possess a gen e ral bearin g Thus in C ornwall t h e .

g e n e ral s t rik e i s E N E and i n th e no rth of E nglan d E

. . .
.

and W I n Prussia many of th e iron lodes s t r i k e N a n d S I n

. .

t h e Hauraki g old e lds th e trend of th e mos t produc t ive lod e s i s

NN E . . . O n the o t h e r hand t he lod e s i n t he F re i b e rg ,

dis tric t run i n var i ous direc t ions A chang e of s t rike has som e .

t i m e s an in u e n c e in the enrichm ent of a lod e .

I n som e mining regions th e r e is a gr e at sim i lari ty in the con te n t s

of th e lod e s runn i ng i n the sam e dire c ti on Thus in Cor nwall t h e .

E N E lodes yie l d ti n copper and a l it tle l e ad while t h e N S lod e s

. .
, , , . .

yi e l d clay and l e ad Bu t the e xcep t ions are too many to allow a

.

sa fe g e n e ralisa t ion to be made .

o
I n c lin a ti n o f L 0 de s The d i p of a lode may vary as i t
.

d e scends i n depth or may vary a t diffe re nt points along i ts cours e

,
.

The dip is spoken of as a t or st e ep I t is always at right angles .

to the str i ke .

The Samson lode at Andr e asb e rg the Tal i sman lod e at ,

Karangahak e and th e E mpire lod e i n t he Wa i hi m i n e i n N ew

,

Z e aland dip in opposite direct i ons i n d i ffe r e nt par ts of th ei r

,

cours e .

M oiss e n e t i n h i s classi cal work on th e L od es of Corn wa ll

, ,

fully endo rses t h e g e neral i sat i ons of Henwood r e la ti ng t o t h e

in u e nc e of inclination str i ke and charac te r of cou nt ry upon t h e
, ,

cont e n t s of th e lod es of that country With r e spec t to th e se h e .

formulat e d the following laws

e se parts of t h e lod e w hos e i nclina ti on is most n e a r l v
( )
1 Th
v e rtical ar e always t h e most productiv e .

( )
2 I n th e r i ch par t s t h e lod e is enclos e d in coun t ry of mode
ra te hardn e ss .

( )
3 The courses
? or shoots g e n e rally d i
p i n t h e same
dir e ction as the country and very oft e n also th e gro u ps ,

of bunches con t ained i n th e sa me lode .

( )
4 Th e bearing of the rich par t s i s g e n e rally t hat of t he
stratigraphica l sys te m w it h wh i ch t h e in iti al fracture of
the lod e i n t h e r e g i on und e r obs e rva ti on is conn e ct e d .

Thes e laws hold good for th e lod e s of Cornwall It is doubtful .

i f t h e y can b e saf e ly applied in o ther min i ng r e gions and e ach of ,

th e m has b e en d i sprov e d in d i ffe rent pl a c e s .

Take th e rs t law The richest bonanzas in the Tham e s gold

.

0
66 MININ G GEOLOGY .

e ld were found in t he Caledonia and Cambria reefs in places

where the angle of dip was und e r Both above and below t he
bonanzas th e d i p was abou t
D e p th O f L o de s With the exception of gash v ei ns which
.
-
,

ar e wedg e shaped openings from t he surface t he d e pth whic h

-

ve i ns may attain has not yet foun d a l i mit .

Th e greatest dep t h to w hich a lod e has be e n followed down

wards i s at P rz ib ra m in Boh e m i a wher e on e of the min e s has
, ,

reached a depth of n e arly 4 00 0 f e et and is still being de e p e ned , .

Th e gold min e s of V ictor i a and the copper mines a t L ake Superior

- -

have reach e d depths ranging from 2 00 0 feet to 5 0 00 feet .

It s e ems l i kely that s s u r e v e ins will des c end to a greater dep t h

-

than min i ng operations can follow them .

A rra ng e m e n t o f L o de M a tt e r The gangue or matrix of.

-

mos t veins is quartz Th e most notable exception is lead which

.
,

ofte n occurs i n v e ins of calcit e or u or spar -

.

The quartz may b e in ty or chalce donic n e ly or coars e ly ,

crystallin e I t may b e ba nded r ibbon like co n centric brecciat e d

.
,
-
, ,

FI G . 40 .
S h o wi ng R ibbon S tru t re o f V i
c u e n Matter .

compact vuggy granular d i sseminated or in loose sugary grains

, , , , .

The arrang e m e nt of the lod e ma tt er should always be obs e rved

-
,

s i n c e the structure and arrang e men t will almost al ways tell u s

someth i ng about it s history .

I n lodes of the base m etals the contents are somet i mes arranged
in bands or layers parallel to the walls the minerals a nd ore s ,
68 MIN IN G GEOLOGY .

I n Cornwall and elsewhere experi e n c e has shown that the occur

rence of a horse is often attended wi t h an enrichm e nt of the
con t ents of the lode a c i rcumstance whi c h doubtless originate d
,

the Corn i sh aphorism A h or e p a ys f or itself m e aning that

,
s
,

the incr e ased richness of the l od e more than comp e nsa te s the
extra labour and expense of working caused by th e app e arance of
th e hors e .

I n the steeply incl i n e d gold bearing v e ins of the Thames horses -

of rock were oft e n m e t with and in a lmost every i nstan c e they ,

caused local enrichm e nt the increased val u es being generally ,

c o n n e d to one split or branch of the lod e .

I nvest i gation showed t hat this enr i chm e nt was not due t o a
concentration of the valu e s into on e branch but to an ac t ual ,

increase i n the mean valu e s previously rul i ng in the main lod e .

O u tc r o p s O f Ve in s Professor Van His e dist i nguish e s th e

1
.

diffe rent zon e s of ro c k alteration by a nomenclature suggested by

-

th e biologi c al terms used to d e s i gnat e the som e what parallel

changes i n animal life His subdivisio n s ar e as follows .

1 . Z on e o f Ka ta morp hism .

a . B e lt of weathering .

b . Bel t of cementat i on .

A n a mmp h zs m

2 . Z on e o f .

Th e Katamorphi c zone is that in which co mplex c ompounds ar e

brok e n down and altered into S i mple compounds I n othe r words .

it is th e zon e of oxidation .

I n t h e Anamorphic zon e th e alt e rat i on of rock masses results in

th e production or build i ng up of compl e x compounds from simpl e
compounds .

The belt of weath e ring extends down from the surface to

groun d water level th e belt of c ementation from ground water

,

lev e l to th e zone of Anamorphism .

Ch e m i cal action is very active in the zone of Katamorph i sm ,

and is in most cases accomplished by descending solutions Th e .

changes effected in this zone are : ( a ) oxida tion (b ) h y dr a tion , ,

and (c ) c a r bona tion .

B y long c ontinued e xposure to atmospheric ag e nci e s and t he

-

action of desc e nding met e oric waters th e o u tcrops of iron copp e r , , ,

and silver sulphide lod e s are often oxidised and so altered by

removal a n d replacem e nt as to bear lit tl e res e mblance t o the
unaltered vein matter which will generally be found at a greater
-

depth .

1
C h as R i ch ard Va n Hi se A T reati se on M etam orph i sm U S C eol
.

, ,
. .

S ur vey Wash i ngton 1904

.
, .
 O R E VE IN S . 69

The iron sulph i d e s ar e ox i di s ed rs t to sul pha tes a n d t h e n t o

ox i de s while t h e copper is r e move d by wa te r i n t h e form of
,

solubl e s ul phates or i s o xid i s e d to carb ona tes wh i ch s ta i n th e

, ,

rocks gre e n and blu e S i lv e r sulph i des a r e al tere d to th e chlor i d e

.

n ea r t h e surfac e or the d i s solved m e tall i c con te n ts are found

,

conc e ntrated at or b e low wat e r l e v e l -

.

I n many sulp h ide lod e s i ron is th e predomina t ing cons t i t u e n t ,

and i t s oxida ti on g e n e rally r e sults in t h e ou t crop assu ming a

porous hon e y combed appearance t h e removal of t he sul ph i de s
,
-
,

leaving cavit ie s which ar e only pa rt i ally lle d wi t h ox i d e T h e .

ferruginous solution o win g from the ou tc rop s ta ins and d iscolours

th e s u rrounding rocks and so i l .

Such ironstone outcrops ar e kn own as g ossa n in Cornwall tr o n ,

h a t i n G ermany and ir on s t n e blows in Aus tralia

,
o .

Th e na t ure of th e gossa n va ri e s wi t h the cha ra cter of th e

orig in al sulph i d e or e body I f much qua rt z is pr e s e n t the ou t
-
.
,

c rop is cav e rn ous and cind e ry red or brown colour ed 5 but if th e,

-

or e body is compos e d mainly of iron pyri te s t h e gossan w i ll cons i s t ,

of ochr e a n d bro w n h aema tite of te n in bo t ryoidal and s ta l ac titi c

,

forms .

The oxidation and l e ach i ng of lod e mat te r has often proc ee d e d -

to a dep th of 5 00 f ee t be low the surfac e outcrop i n some cas e s ,

far b e low th e pr e s e n t wa te r l e vel Som et ime s t her e is a sharp

-
.

line of de marcation betwe e n the o x idised and unaltered po rt ion s

of a lod e but mor e ofte n t h e passa g e i s gra dual the s u ph ide s a t
, ,

rs t making t h e ir appearanc e in d eta ched nodul e s bunch e s or , ,

small lenticular masses which gradually beco me mor e pl e n t iful

,

wi t h increasing d e p th .

A gos sa n is always an indi c ation of a lod e b e lo w a n d for t hi s , ,

r eason forms a valuabl e guid e to t he pros pec tor

, .

G ossan outc rops shoul d be ca r e ful ly sa mpl e d and assay e d as ,

th e y may contain valuabl e min e rals t h e pres e nce of which co ul d

not be d e te cted by pan n ing .

Th e valuabl e gold a n d s i lv e r lodes of th e Ha u raki g olde lds

give little or no indica ti on of the i r valu e by crush i ng and panning .

The gold exists in such a n e ly div i d e d s ta te tha t a c olo ur is rar e ly

s ee n i n t h e or e and t h e valu e can only b e asc e r ta i ned by car e ful
,

sampl i ng and r e as say -

.

Th e r i ch unox i dis e d sulpho tellurid e or e s of W e s te rn Aus t ral i a

,
-

possess no phys i cal fe atur e of a s t r i king charac t er to in di ca te

t h e ir gr e at valu e and wh e n tested by t he pros p e ctor s ready
,

method of rough crushing and panning app e ar valu e l e ss .

E ach min e ral poss e ss e s cer ta in charac te rist i c indica t ions pecul iar
to its e lf and must be co n sid e red separat e ly Thus an i ri de sc e n t
, .

lm or layer of oil on a poo l of water or an emanation of car ,

70 MININ G G EOLOG Y .

b u r e tte d hydrog e n may dir e c t att e nt i on to the existence of

,

petrol e um in the vicin i ty .

Brine springs point t o d e posits of salt and chalybea te S pr i ngs ,

to iron though not n e c e ssarily of commercial value P u ffs of

, .

steam or the smell of sulphur e tt e d hydrogen in a volcanic r e gion

may point to th e exist e nce of sulphur F or instanc e at Rotorua .
,

and White I sland in Ne w Z e aland extensive deposits of sulphur

, ,

ar e found around the num e rous fuma roles both activ e and ,

extinct and at both places the odour of sulphuretted hydrog e n is

,

plainly p e rc e ptible long b e fore t he deposits ar e reached .

Co n dit io n o f M e ta l lic Co n t e nts o f V e in s G old occurs .

in t h e native or uncombined form but at Cripple Cre e k and Kal ,

g o or l ie much of it e xists combined wi t h te llurium .

I n the port i ons of the veins that hav e been subj e c t to the
oxid i sing in u e n c e s of surfac e wat e rs gold occu rs in a fr ee milling,
-

c o 11dit ion tha t is to say it unit e s r e adily wi th m e rcury t o form

-
,

amalgam being fr e e from t ellurium and bas e sulphid e s

,
1
.

Below th e r e ach of oxidising in u e n c e s th e gold is oft e n ,

associated with m e tall i c sulphid e s g e nerally i ron pyrites in which

, ,

it oft e n e xists entangled in an excessiv e ly n e condi ti on so n e ,

that wh e n the recov e ry of the gold is att e mpted by ch e mical

dissolution with a qu e ous sol u tions of potassium cyanide s u fc ie n t ,

e xtrac t ions can only b e obtained wh e n th e sulphides hav e b e en

groun d e xtrem e ly n e so as to e nabl e e ach particl e of gold to co m e
,

in contact with the solvent .

The Waih i bullion extract e d by th e cyanid e proc e ss from th e

M artha Hill lodes contains from on e quart er t o on e third per cent - -
.

o f selenium and on som e occasions as much as 1 p e r c e n t

, bu t .
,

no trace of this rare m e tal can be det e cted i n th e or e itself by

chemical te sts .

S ilv e r or e is generally convert e d in the upp e r part of lodes into

the freem i lling chloride which below water lev e l is displaced by
, ,
-
,

sulphides N ative silver bromid e s a n d iodide often accompany

.
, ,

the chloride .

The sulphides of copp e r lodes ar e conv e rted in th e upp e r portion

of the vein into sooty secondary sulphid e s ox i d e s a n d carbona tes , ,

often of great richn e ss A t th e outcrop t h e copper cont e nts have

.
,

been oxidised and remove d leav i ng rus ty brown caps of ironstone

,

mor e or l e ss quartzose and porous .

P o s itio n o f Va lu a b l e C o nt e nts Som et imes th e m e tallic .

contents of a vein are evenly d i str i buted throughou t the gangue .

1
t e e be e t t go
I t m u s al way s b e r m m r d h a ld m ay b e fr a n d y e t ee ex i t i s n
parti e cl s s o n e t tt e e o i be e i
h a h r is c n s de ra l m c h an c a l dif c u l ty in r n b i ging th e

p rti e
a o t t it e
cl s in c n a c w h th e m rc ury s o a s to obt i
a n a n ad ua rc eq te e overy o f
t h e p e io et o o
r c u s m al in th e f rm f am al am g .
 OR E VEI NS . 71

G e nerally ho w ever t h e y occur mor e a t on e po i n t t han anoth e r

, , ,

ex i s ti ng i n m a sses known as bu n ch es n es ts c h im ney sh oots p ip e s , ,

-
, ,

cour se s , p a tcor bon a nzas

h es , p o c ke ts .

O nly i n rare cases do v e ins carry payabl e valu e s for t h e ir whol e

lengt h or i n th e ir full w i dth from wall to wall Henc e a pay
, , ,
.

shoot may be de n e d as t ha t por ti on of an or e body wh i ch is -

comm e rc i ally valuabl e .

Th e majo rity of pay shoo t s dip in t h e sam e dir e ction as t h e -

lod e s bu t g e n e rally at a a tt e f or s tee p e r angl e mor e often th e

, ,

la t ter H e nc e t he pay shoo t is no t always co e x te n s ive wi t h th e

.
- -

lod e a n d often pas s e s ou t in d e pth

,
.

N arrow v e rt i cal or n e arly ver ti cal payabl e po rtions of a v e in

, , ,

ar e te rmed c h imne ys or p ip es 5 and a t n e arly horizonta l por ti ons

, , ,

c ou r ses or ben ch e s .

The caus e s which hav e brought abou t th e unequal dis t rib u t ion
of t h e valuabl e con tents of a lod e i n shoo ts pock ets or cours e s , , ,

ar e eith e r no t known or bu t imp e rfec tly unde rstoo d It has , .

how e v e r b e e n no te d tha t gol d beari ng v ei ns b e com e e n riched a t

,
-

th e int e rs e c t ion of i nd i ca to r beds a n d in ty cro s s cours e s 5 and -

tha t veins traversing propyl it ised andes i te becom e e nrich ed or

impo verished wi t h a s l i gh t chang e in th e charac t er of the ande site .

Th e conn e ct i on of c i rcumstanc e s in thes e cas e s i s manifest but ,

t he exp lanation is dif c u lt .

P a y S h oo t s Th e s e may b e of any s hap e a nd size Th e y

. .

may d i p in th e sa m e dir e c ti on as the lod e and ye t b e inclin e d i n ,

lin e ar e xtension .

FI G . 4 2 L on gitu di n al S ec t io n
. o f Vei n , sh owi g n e io n o f p
suc c ss a y -s h oot s .

( )
a P a y -s h oot s .
( b) Poor gro n d u .

Pay shoots vary from a f e w yards to t housands of feet i n

-

leng th and som eti m e s t wo or mor e shoo t s occur i n th e cours e of

,

a v ei n s e parated by long e r or sho rte r str et ch e s of poor or e as

, ,

shown in g 4 2 . .

The d i p and p i tch of a pay sh oot sho ul d always be carefully -

noted so as to ob ta in a clu e as t o the probabl e pos i ti on of th e

valuable or e a t d i ff e rent l e v e ls .

I n many v e ins t h e payabl e mat e rial do e s not always extend

,
72 MIN I N G G E OL OG Y .

from wall t o wall The valu e s s om e tim e s li e on th e foot wall and

.
-
,

sometim e s on t h e hanging wall or i n a band of o r e situate d n e ar

-
,

th e c e ntre of th e vein or i n a th i n s t r e ak which crosses th e v ei n

,

obl i quely passing from wall to wall

,
.

The ext e nt of the payable ore can always b e a s certained by

syst e matic sampling provi ded a ca r eful r e cord is mad e of th e
,

values on th e m i ne assay plan -

.

G o l d B o na nz a s The rich bonanzas for which th e Tham e s

.

and Coromandel g olde lds are c e l e brated o c cur in th e richer z on e s .

T h ey are places where the quartz contains coars e daubs or mass e s

of gold forming wha t is lo ca lly call e d p icke d or sp e c im e n ston e
, ,

wh i ch i s frequ e ntly found to yield as much as six ounc e s of gol d

to t he pound of ston e .

Th e Hauraki bonanza vari e d from 1 00 to 1 2 0 f e et wide and ,

ext e nd e d to th e 300 f eet level from a poin t about 60 fe e t from

the surface It pitched sl i ghtly to the nort h e ast and was cut
.
,

o ff by a fault abou t 30 f ee t from Bunk e r s boundary

.

I n t h e se g olde lds t he pay shoots commonly occur along t h e lin e

-

of int e rsect i on of a cross v e in or inty wh i ch is a thin indicator

-
,

v ei n consist i ng of dense in ty quartz g e nerally pyrit i c , .

Wa l l M o v e m e n ts O i Ve in s F aulting has tak e n place along

.

the course of most larg e veins I n som e cases the faul t ing took .

place before the llin g of th e ss u r e and i n o ther cas e s when th e , , ,

veins were partially formed but not consoli dat e d .

When th e faulting t ook pla c e after the consoli dation of the lode
matter th e r e sult was the pro duction by attriti on of a lay e r of
,

pug or clay 0 11 th e wall 0 11 which th e movement took place O n .

the sid e on which th e pug occurs all th e small v e ins and dropp e rs
are thus cut o ff or displac e d 5 and it is for this reason that branch
ing veins are only fo und on t he sid e on which no movem e nt has
tak e n place .

I n some classes of country faul t ing along the cours e of a vein

has caused the formation of friction breccias on one or bo t h walls -
.

S uch breccias seldom e xce e d a f e w feet in t h i ckn e ss a n d mos tly ,

form le n ticular shaped mass e s of varying l e ng t h and de pth

-
.

I n hard country movem e n t on th e walls has oft e n produced

,

sl i ck e n sides 5 and in som e cases th e u ca n or clay partings b e tw ee n

-

t h e vein matter and walls has assum e d a a ky or platy charact e r

-

t hrough the str e ss of lat e ral pr e ssure .

I n u e n c e O f C o u nt ry -R 0 c k O bs e rva ti on in many countries

.
-

h as shown that t h e valuable cont e nts of a ve i n are oft e n in u e n ce d

by th e character of the country rock trav e rs e d by th e vein I t i s -
.

also recognis e d that ce rtain rocks favour the occurr e nc e of

par t icular or e s a n d min e rals Thus tin has a pr e f e r e nc e for
.

gran it e rocks 5 whil e copp e r is usually associated w i th serpentines ,

 O RE VEIN S . 73

diori te s chlori t ic schists and slates L i meston e mor e especiall y

, ,
.
,

wh e n dolom iti c y ie ld s lead i n many coun t ri e s I n Ch i li a n d

,
.

A us t r ia lia i t y ie l ds lead a n d s i lv e r ; i n Belgi u m z i nc 5 and i n ,

E nglan d iron a n d l e ad ,
.

A chang e i n t h e roc k of t en causes a chang e in th e richn e ss of

a vein .

I n th e Hauraki g olde lds and in Tra n sylvania the veins are ,

produc t ive in al ter e d and es i t e bu t barren in the br e cc i as a n d ,

A t Cr i ppl e Cre e k t he v ei ns a r e m os t productiv e in and e s i t i c

'

tu s .
,

breccias .

I n Y orksh i r e t he l e ad vei n s are good in limestone not so good in

,
-
,

grit and lim e stone wo rse in shale and l i m e ston e and wo rst in shal e
, ,
.

S a n db e rg e r strongly urged th e in u e n c e of coun t ry rock upon -

th e con ten ts of v e ins 5 and his rese arches have be e n su pplemen t ed

and v e ri ed in la te r y e a rs by those of many accomplish ed Am e rican
g e ologists whos e oppo rtuni t i e s for obs e rva ti on in th e e ld hav e
,

been w i de a n d varied .

I n t h e H au rak i g olde lds th e au thor found that th e productiv e ,

cha ra cter of th e v e ins was s trongly in u e n c ed by the containing

rocks The r e sults of h is res ea rch e s in this r e gion du ring a period
.

of tw e lv e yea rs may b e s ummaris e d as foll ows z

( )
a Th e rock which has y ie lded t h e largest quan t i t y of gold is

a m od e ra tely ha rd y e llow i sh gray alte red an de si te t h e -

,

k i n dly san dston e of t h e min e rs .

( )
b Th e m o s t favourabl e country is not too sof t nor y e t too ha id , ,

be i ng s hoo ti ng ground requi ring two or thre e shots to th e ,

shif t .

( )
0 I n v e ry hard country rock t h e v e ins ar e g e n e rally small e
-
r ,

than i n soft roc k 5 and wh e n a v e in passes in to hard

and e si te it invariably becomes smaller a n d of t en th i ns
, ,

out to a m e r e clay pa rting or clay h ea d - -
.

( d ) Th e v e ins in the ha rd rock hav e not prov e d so remunera ~

tiv e as those i n the miner s kindly sa ndston e and this

,

i s du e not so much to t heir leann e ss as to th e ir small e r

siz e and the grea te r cost of working t h e m .

( ) When a v e in pass e s from alte red and e s it e in to a tu or

br e cc i a i t in variably becomes barr e n or too low grad e

, ,

to b e payable This i s true in a ll pa r ts of the Hauraki .

P e n i n s ula 5 and e xp e r ience has shown tha t the v e ins

which e xis t in t u s or br e ccias ar e of te n s u pe r c ia l i n
'

charac ter and s e ldom reliable as gold produc e r s al though

,
-
,

som e have been found to conta i n small shoo t s of a pa y

able natur e 1
.

1
J Park T h e G eol ogy a nd Vei n s o f Hau raki G old e lds N Z
, T r a ns ,
. .
,
.

N Z I lf im n g E n g i n e e r s , v ol i 1 8 97 , p 4 6,
'

. n s t. i . . .
74 MI N IN G G EOLOG Y .

P ro du c t iv e Th e m i ning op e rations of t h e past

Z one s .
-

th i r ty v e years in th e Hauraki ar e a have shown t hat in the

d i ff e rent belts of alt e r e d an de s i te th e r e ar e certa i n zon e s wh i ch

ar e mor e productiv e than o t h e rs E v e n in th e cas e of several .

parall e l v ei ns i t has be e n found that all becom e e nrich e d on

,

e nt e ring the favourable zone t her e by a ff ording a graphic i llustra ,

t ion of t h e min e r s aphorism ore a g a inst ore

,
- -
.

Th e re ar e several such zones in the M oa n a ta ia ri end of th e

Thames e ld th e best known being those at Ku ra n u i Hill and
,
-

Po i nt Russell T h e latt e r a ffords p e rhaps th e most graph i c

.
, ,

ill u stra t ion of th e in u e n c e of favourabl e country A t that .

plac e the M oa n a ta ia r i mine is traversed by four large parall e l

lod e s nam e ly th e D aun tl e ss R e ub e n Parr G ol de n Ag e and
, , , ,

Waiotah i all pursuing a N N E

,
cours e . . . .

O n en te ring t h e productive zone th e ore chang e s from e x ,

c e s s iv e l
y low grade t o h i gh grad e t hi s character b e ing maintained ,

ti l l t h e zone i s pass e d through This zon e crosses t h e course of .

th e lod e s n e arly at right angl e s 1

.

The following d i agram shows the general d i stribution of the

productive zones on this e ld

FI G . 43 .
-
Pl
o f N o th ern Po rtion f T hame G ld ld N Z
an r o s o e , . .

(a h ) G r at M
e t i i f lt
oa n a a a r au ( ) N 9v i e o . e n .

( bb) Poi t R ell pro d ti e zo e

n u ss uc ( f ) C ledo i vei
v n . a n a n.

( cc ) K ur a n ui pro d ti ve zo e o f l tered a de ite

uc ( g ) W io t h i vei
n a n s . a a n .

( cl ) S h oto v r vei
e n .

M ining opera t ions disclosed th e circumstanc e that th e rich

zones w e re not only limited in wid th but also in d e pth F urth e r .
,

th e y w e re found to dip to the southward t hat is in t he opposi te , ,

dir e ction to th e dip of t he veins .

The cross s e ct i on along the l i n e j oining c c shows th e r e lation

-

of th e parall e l v ei ns to t h e K u r a n u i pro duc ti ve zon e .

The shade d portion repr e s e nts t he Ku ra n u i productiv e zon e of

alt e r e d andesite .

J P rk Z it p 5 0 1
. a ,
oo. c , . .
76 MININ G GEOLOGY .

bl e nd e gal e na r e algar st i bn ite and calcit e show a marked

r h ot it e , , , , ,

t e ndency t o aggr e gat e t h e ms e lv e s in horizontal zones in th e

orde r named 1
.

R i ckard m e ntions th e ord e rly distribution of ores in Colorado 2

.

W ee d stat e s that i n th e Castl e M ountain district in M ontana th e , ,

ord e r appears to be gal e na on top passing i nto h i ghly zinc i f e rous ,

ores b e low and th e s e i nto low grad e pyr it e

,
3 -
.

A t Brok e n Hill l e ad and silv e r min e s in N ew South Wal e s , ,

th e gen e ral distribution of ores in v e rt i cal depth has b ee n as

follows :
( )
a O xidised or e s of l e ad and silv e r .

G alena with bl e nd e ,
.

( )
c Blende with galena , .

W ee d in a pap e r on O r e D e pos it ion and V ein E nr i chm e nt

,
1

by Ascend i ng Hot Waters app e ars to support the hypoth e s i s ,

which assumes t hat t h e d i s tribu ti on of ores in hori z ontal zon e s is

th e r e sult of primary conc e ntra t ion by ascend i ng hot solutions .

This vi e w has much to commend it .

Th e e rupt i on of ign e ous magmas is of te n succ e ed e d by int e ns e

solfataric act i on of wh i ch notable e xamples are found in t h e
,

Y e llowston e Park in t h e Unit e d Stat e s a n d in the volcanic r e g i on

, ,

of th e N or t h I sland of Ne w Zealan d .

Th e asc e nd i ng waters slowly circulating in contact with h e ated

rocks b e low b e com e sup e rh e at e d and in their upward cours e d i s ,

solv e vari ous substanc e s wh i ch th e y carry with th e m along th e ,

line o f leas t resis tanc e that is t owards th e hot spring pipe or , ,

vent
.

M any substances insolubl e in normal con di tions are r e nd e r e d

, ,

e asily soluble in the pr e s e nc e of h e at and pressur e Th e un de r .

ground wat e rs will therefore possess their gr e at e st solvent pow e r

, ,

wh e r e the gr e atest h e at and pr e ssur e preva i l wh i ch w i ll naturally ,

be at th e great e st de pth .

W i th loss of hea t and pressur e the l e as t soluble substanc e s ,

will be pr e cip it at e d tha t i s those substanc e s whos e dissolu t ion ,

was eff e ct e d un de r e x t r e m e h e a t a n d pr e ssure .

As the wat e rs asc e nd t h e y w i ll con ti nu e to los e h e at a n d b e

r e liev e d of pressur e wi t h th e resul t tha t th e d i ssolv e d m i n e rals
,

w i ll b e pr e c i pita te d i n th e inv e rs e order of th ei r solub i l ity

When th e hot wat e rs r e ach th e surface the only subs tanc e s i n ,

solution in most cas e s will b e the extr e m e ly solubl e alkal i n e

1
. . p
J H S u rr, loc c it , p 8 4 1 . . . .

2
J . ik
A R c ard, T r a n s I ns t M in a n d M e t , L n d n , v ol Vi
. . . . o o . .
,
1 8 99, p 1 96
. .

3
Weed a nd P irs s on , B u l le ti n 1 39, U S C eol S u r ve y , 1 896 . . . .

1
"

W H . . We
e d, T r a ns A me r I n s t M E , v ol xxx .
,
1 90 3 . . . . . iii . .
 O RE V E IN S .
77

sulphat e s carbonates and silicates I n support of this i t may be

, , .

ment ioned that hot spr i ngs commonly deposit silica and rarely
m etallic s ul phides a t th e surface .

I n many lod e s it is a common f e atur e to nd sulphi des or t h e ir ,

ox i dised produc t s a t the surface but in such cases it i s always

, ,

well to bear i n min d that veins wh i ch ou tc rop a t t h e surfac e may

hav e been t runca te d t o a gr ea te r or l e ss d e gr ee by d e nuda t ion .

Th e obvious i nferenc e to b e d rawn from th i s proc e ss of ve in

llin g is that impov e rishm e n t hi t h e or e mus t ta k e plac e i n all
v e ins at grea t d e p t hs du e to th e migra t ion of th e valuable
,

minerals from t he zo ne of dis so lu tion b e low to t h e zone of p r ec ip ita

tion abov e .

S e c o n da ry E n ric h m e n t O f V e in s I t h as be e n not e d in all .

parts of the globe that r i ch masses of or e ofte n oc cur in t h e

ox i dise d por ti on of the or e b ody or in t ha t po rti on ly i ng n ear
-
,

water l e vel
-
.

M icroscopic invest i ga t ion has shown tha t t h e s e r i ch mass e s are

not of primary but of s e condary origin Th e ir g e nes i s is supposed .

to be due t o the m i gra t ion of t h e valuable me tallic con t en t s from

t he higher pa rt of t he ve i n t o the lower pa rt of t h e oxidised zone
by the agency of meteoric wa t ers .

I n some cas e s the process e s of d i ss olut i on mig ra ti on and

, , ,

red epos i tion may have taken pl ace over and ov e r again each cycle ,

resulting i n an i ncr e as i ng d e gr e e of concentra ti on .

The veins in which secondary enr i chm e n t ar e mos t ofte n s e en

are thos e of gold s ilver copp e r lea d and zinc
, , , ,
.

G old ores in t he zone of wea ther in g are ofte n augm e nted in

, ,

value by the long con ti nued disintegr a t ion of the v e in and the e n
-

closing rock thus perm i tting the gold s e t free from its matrix t o
,

conc e ntrate at the outcrop .

E xtensive areas of th e Aus t ralian contin e nt have be e n subj ect

to sub ae r i al d enuda ti on sinc e the close of t he Pal aeo zoic p e r i od
-
,

and it is doub tl e ss du e to this caus e that so many no tabl e exampl e s

of mech a nica l enrich m en t of gol d bearing veins have b e en found i n
-

V ictoria and West e rn Austral i a .

Th e m i gr ation of gold copp e r s i lver lead and zinc from t h e

, , , ,

upper to t he lower par ts of t he ve i ns i s affe ct e d by d e sc e nd i ng

surf ace wat e rs in t h e zone of vadose circula t ion The processes .

involv e d i n t h e m i gra t ion are ( a ) chemi c al dissolut i on and ( b) ,

e lec t ro ch e mical deposi t ion

-
.

Ch e mical proc e ss e s may op e rate in various ways t o ca us e

secondary e nr i chmen t as follows ,

( ) y
1 B t he r e moval of wor thl e ss me ta l s t h e r e b y l eaving t h e ,

valuable cont e n t s i n a pur e r form .

78 MININ G GEOLOGY .

( ) y
2 B r e moval of worthless metals and their replacements by
valuable m e tals remov e d from a high e r par t of the vein .

( ) y
3 B d e position of valuable m e tals on primary sulph i d e s in ,

thos e por t i ons of the ve i n subj e c t to the in u e n c e of

circulating surface waters I n t h i s case th e primary .
,

sulphides may form th e nuclei for the d e posit of th e

s e condary sulph i des .

M anife s tly the rs t op e ration in the proc e ss of s e condary e n

r ic h m e n t is the ch e mical w ea t h e r i ng and oxidat i on of th e m etall i c

cont e n t s of the v e in i n the Katamorphic zon e .

Th e ox i dation of bas e sulphid e s can b e s ee n in op e ration e v e ry

day I n a mass of mixed sulphides of iron copp e r z i nc and
.
, , ,

galena th e iron will be the rs t to be a ffecte d from i t s a f n ity for

,

oxygen .

I ron pyrit e s is decompose d and forms ferrous sulphat e which is ,

changed into Fe ( O H) 3 Fe 2 ( S O4 )2 and H2 S O4 The

,
attack s , .

mor e iro n sulph i de and forms ferrous sulphate liberating 112 8 , ,

wh i ch at onc e comb i n e s with free oxyg e n to form H2 8 0 4 .

The ferrous sulphate changes to the ferri c sulphate which attack s ,

gold and sulphid e s of copp e r lead zinc and silver The process , , , .

of dissolution must n e c e ssarily be slo w on accoun t of the extreme ,

dilution of t h e solutions .

F or many y e ars i t was beli e v e d that th e only secondary enrich

ment that could take place was th e formation of rich bonanzas of
carbonate or e s and chloride of silver in th e zone above water level ,
-
.

But careful inv e s t igation in later years has shown that primary
sulphides have b e en e nriched by th e d e posit i on of secondary
sulph i d e s even in places below pr e sent water l e vel -
.

I t was prov e d e xp e rimentally by Sk e y in 18 70 and c on r m e d

1
,

by L iversidg e in 1893 t hat gold is mor e read i ly prec i p i tat e d

2
,

from its solut i ons by metallic sulphides than by organ i c matt e r .

F ur t h e rmore Skey show e d that sulphides of the base m e tals w e re

,

readily pr e c i pitated from alkaline sulphide solutions in a solid

coh e rent form in t he presen c e of iron pyri t es galena blend e , , ,

stibnite etc , .

Th e descend i ng acid solutions form e d in th e zone of oxida t ion

will attack th e constitu e nts of th e rocks through which they per
colat e with the production of alkaline silicat e s and sulphid e s .

G ol d dissolved by ferric sulphate would b e also carried down

and d e posi t ed as l e af scale or wire gold in cracks i n sulphide ore
, , ,

th e r e by caus i ng local e nrichm e nt .

It is main t a i ned by some writers that secondary sulphides have

1
W .ke S y ,
T r a ns N. ew Z ea l a n d I ns t .
,
v ol . iii
1 8 70 , p 22 6
.
, . .

2
Pro e o f s s r L v rs di e i ge ,
P r oc . R oy . S oc . N e w S ou th Wa les , v ol xx v 11 . .
,
1 893,
p.2 8 7 .
 O R E VE N s I . 79

b e en formed below water l e v e l The ev i d e nce on th i s qu e stion is -

.

not qu it e conclusive I n some cas e s chang e s of wa te r l e v e l may

.
-

have ta k e n place sinc e the secondary s u lph i d e s w e r e de pos ite d .

Th e researches of E mmons W e e d a n d o th e rs have thrown

1 2
, ,

much l i gh t on th e s e condary enr i chm e nt o f v e in d e po s its bu t much ,

s t ill r ema i ns to be don e before safe g e n e ral i sa ti ons can b e form e d .

Som e ve i ns through mov e ment of th e wall s hav e b e en sha tte red

, ,

to som e e xt e n t a n d r e c e men ted by m i n e ralis e d w a ters Such .

wa t ers asc e nding through t h e crush e d 1 ei n ma t te r woul d d e pos i t -

th ei r m e tall i c con te nts as sulphide s t hrough t h e re ac ti on of

pr i mary sulph i des conta in e d 1n t h e or e .

I n t his way a s e condary concentra t ion of primary sul ph i des

,

may be eff ected by ascending wate rs .

T h e A bsorp tion of M e tal s by C l a y s in R e l a tion to S e c ond a r y

E n mch men t 1t of ten happ e ns tha t t he or e in t he zon e of
'

s e condary e nrichm e nt is associa te d wi th , or con t a i n e d in , a ma t rix

cons i s ti ng of clay or oth e r n e ly di v i de d m i neral ma tte r Of .

th i s th e r e ar e no mor e cha ract e r i stic examples than th e Kaol i n

silv e r ores of Brok e n Hill and the talcose gold or e s of Kalgoorl ie .

Clay a n d clay e y ma t ter ar e t h e natural produc t s of t h e a lte ra

t ion of rocks and ores i n t h e zon e of Katamorphism Th e i r .

pres e nce calls for no comm e n t ; bu t th e fr e qu e nt occurr e nc e of

rich or e s i n a clay e y ma t rix in certain lodes has led t o much
spe cula t ion as to t h e r e la t ion existing betwe e n th e clay and its
m e tallic con t ents .

I t has b ee n sugg e st e d by som e wri te rs t hat the a s socia t ion is

not acc i d e n tal nor t h e resul t of parag e n e s i s bu t du e to som e ,

absorp ti v e quali ty of the clay Tha t clay and n e ly d i v i de d .

ma t ter poss e ss t he prop e r ty of abs o rb i ng or e x t rac ti ng m eta l s

from th e ir a qu e ous solutions has long b e en known a nd wi t h t h i s ,

knowledg e i n mind i t has been contend e d t hat th e clay e y mat te r

ac t ing as a porous lt e r in th e lower part of the zone of ox i da ti on ,

t hat i s i n th e b e lt of cem e n ta t ion has absorbed t h e m etals from ,

t h e d e sc e nding solu t ions t h e r e by e ff e c t ing a concen t ra t ion of ,

the valuable conten t s .

Ther e is much t o b e sa id in favour of this vi e w b u t it has st i ll ,

t o b e d e termin e d wh e th e r clay e y mat t er and c e r ta i n porous

substances ar e primary or m e rely con t ribu ti ng causes i n t h e ,

forma t ion of zon e s of s e condary e nr i chm e n t .

Walt e r Harvey W ee d e arly i n 190 5 d e scr i bed some e xp e r i

3
, ,

1
S . F E mm
. o ns , T r a ns A m I ns t M E
. . . . .
,
1 0 1 .xxx 1 90 0 .
, .

2
W . H . Weed , B u ll G e l S oc A na ,
. o . . v ol . xi 1 900 p
.
,
. 1 79 ; a nd T ra n s .

A m I . n st .

3 W . H . Weed ,
Ab orption i

s n O re Depo s ition ,
T h e E n g i neer in g a nd

M in ing J ou r . N e w Y ork 2 3 d F b , r e . 1 90 5 .
80 MININ G GEOLOGY .

ments on the absorptive property of clays e tc made by himself , .

,

and others in the laboratory of the U nited S tates G eological

Survey in Washington The results c on r m e d the researches of .

W S k e y made in 186 9 and of E Kohler in 1 90 3 Wh o found

.
1
, .
,

that clays and porous substances such as gelatinous silica , ,

carbonaceous and colloidal matter possess th e power of extrac t ing ,

metals from their dilute aqueou s solutions .

I n 1 8 6 9 Skey prove d experimen tally that n e ly pulveris e d

2
,

massive quartz rock crystal a n d s i lica possess the power of, ,

e xtract i ng the ox i de of iron from its acetate solution He also .

found that prepar e d silica especially manifests th i s prop e rty i f

ignited at a low temperature and besides takes oxides of copp e r ,

and chromium fro m their acetate solutio n s T h e mor e n e ly .

divid e d the silica the more apparent is the abso rption .

I n 18 7 1 he found that wh e n a w e ak ammon i acal solution of

,

copper containing a little c aus t ic potash is pour e d upon a lte r

of S wedish paper (cell u los e ) the li quid which pass e s through th e ,

paper is quit e or n e arly colourless and the lt e r is found to have ,

r e tained all or nearly all of the copper of such solution

,
3
, .

I n 1874 the same chemist showed that clay possesses the

,

property of absorbing and xin g natural petroleum i n su ch a way

as to form a subs tance resembling natural oil shale the oil being -
,
4
chemically combined with the clay .

S ke y s discovery that g e lati n ous silica and porous substances

possess the prope rty of absorbing metals from their solutions has
an impo rtant bearing upon th e ch e mistry of ore deposition in -

veins and in se c ondary enrich m e nt .

I m p ov e ris h m e nt o f Ve in s in D e p th T A Rickard when . . .

,

discussing Professor P os e p n y s classic paper 0 11 The G enesis of

O r e D eposits states that the general non pe rsist e nce of ore in
,
-

depth is a fact capable of proof 5

He contends that sinc e h e at .

and pressure are the two great factors which incr e as e the solubility
of mineral substan c es the de e p region will favour solut i on the ,

most wh i le the shallow zone will favour precipitation owing t o

, ,

t he decrease of heat a nd pressure .

There i s much in favour of this c ontention Progressive poverty .

1
Koh ler Z it ch if t f p kti h G l gi 1 903 p 4 9
E .
,
e s r ur ra sc e eo o c, , . .

W S key O th Ab orpti ve Propertie o f S i li a d it dire t Hy d

2
.
,
n e s s c an s c
i c o ta t with Water
n n

T ncN w Z l n d I n t Wel l ingt o n N Z 1 86 9
, ra s. e ea a s .
, , . .
, ,

vo l ii p 15 1
. . . .

W S key
3
Ab orption o f Copper from its A mm oni l S ol tion b y
.
,

s aca u

C ell l o e in pre e e o f C u ti Pot h T

u s N w Z
s nc l nd I n t l iv a s c as ,
r a ns . e ea a s . vo . .
,

p 332 1 87 1
.
, .

4
W S y, N
. ke
s on th e F rm a n an d ns u oten fT r o tio Co tit tio o o b nite a an d

i i
s m lar M n ra l s ,

i e
T r a ns N ew Z ea la n d I ns t v ol v p 3 8 7 ,
1 874
. . ii . . . .

5
T A R c ard, . G n s is f O re D
. ik s s, D tsm ss ion , p 1 90 e e o epo it . .
 O R E VE IN S . 81

in depth below a c e rtain depth must be the natu ral corollary of

th e g e neral law governin g the o rderly d i s t r i bution of ores in
horizontal zones through t he agency of as cending wate rs
,
.

I n some cas e s impoverishment i n d e pth i s dete rmi n e d by t he

,

prevail i ng geolog i cal conditions O re v e in s which ar e con n e d .

~

to a s i ngl e ov e rly i ng form ation often die out or becom e exhausted

on reach i ng the un de rlying rock .

A notabl e e xample of th i s is affo rd ed by t he hydro t hermal -

ve i ns of th e Tham e s Tapu Co romandel and Kuao t un u m in i ng, , ,

d i str i ct s in th e Hauraki m i n ing reg i on of N ew Zealand wh e re

, ,

the gol d bearing v ei ns are contain ed in al te red an des it es which

-
,

r e st on a h i ghly e rod ed surfa ce of L ower Me sozoic shales gr e y ,

wacke a n d ad i nole
, .

M ining op e rations have in all cas e s shown that when the veins
wh i ch occur n ear the bo rde r s of the and e si te o ws r ea c h the
bas emen t rock th e y d i e out completely or end in small strings
, , ,

which soon disapp e ar in depth .

Th e pr i nciple of secondary en richmen t preclude s the c ont i nuance

of th e enri ched po rt i on of t he v e in downward in ve rt ical dis tance .

When the valu e s of secondary enrichm ent are added t o ore

already of a payabl e quali ty t h e r e sul t is a rich shoot or bonanza 5 ,

but when as often happens th e secondary values a re added to lean

, ,

or e then th e n e t r e s ul t is to rend e r the l e an ore j us t payable

, .

Below th e zone of enrichment th e lean ore will be u n p ro ta b le , .

Thus secondary en richmen t is a concen tration o f values in

th e oxidised or Kata mo rphi c zone due to t h e tra n fe re n c e of th e
valuabl e con tents from a high e r to a lower l e v e l by the o w of
mete oric waters O nly in rare c ases w ill prima ry s u lphid e s b e
.

enriched by t his ag e ncy .

Th e Mi ning Comm i ssioners of V i c tori a includ i ng the late

1
,

Profe ssor M Coy and M r Alfred S e lwyn t h e S tate g e ologist

, ,

r e ported in 1 85 7 t hat e xper ie nc e in e v e ry country h ad p roved

t hat th e yield of gold decreased wi th the depth afte r a ce rta in
small lim i t was reached .

Th e conclusion of the Commi s s i on e rs was in unison wi t h the

1

O pinion alr e ady expressed by S ir Ro derick M ur ch i s on i n th e rs t

ed it ion of his S itu ma This distingu i shed g e olog i s t a s th e
2

.
,

resul t of f urt her knowledge was induc e d to ma te r i ally mod i fy h i s ,

v ie w par t icularly h e tells u s as r e spec t s t he colony of V ic tor i a 5

, , ,

bu t he still adher e d to t he belief t hat in g e neral gold ve i ns

d i m i nish in value as they d e scend 2
.

1
R e po r t to S u r v eyor C e ne ra l -
a nd Ch ief S ec re ta ry o n the M in in g R es o ur ce s of
th e Co l on y of Victor i a , 1 85 6 -5 7 .

2
o eri k
S ir R d c I m p e y M u c h r i s on ,
S i ln r ta , th i nd editio n, 1 85 9, p . 4 94 .

3
L oc c it , p 4 96
. . . .
82 MINI N G GEOLOGY .

The discovery of payable gold in a saddle reef in the N ew -

Ch u m Rail way M ine at B e ndigo at a d e pth of 4 15 6 feet in , ,

M arch 1 90 5 proves that the limit in depth assumed by M urc hiso n

,

must be exten de d t o a dept h probably not under 5 0 0 0 feet .

I n dic a t o r B e ds I t i s now generally r e c ognised that a.

-

vein may become e n riched or impov e r i shed in passing from

one kind of rock to another Thus lead veins which are .
,

productiv e in limeston e are often poor in sandstone or shale 5 ,

and gold v e ins payable in andesite are often barren in tufts or

, ,

breccias :
There are som e w e ll known cases wher e this in u e n ce is -

e xhibited in a sp e cial an d notable man ner I n Kongsberg in .

,

N orway the prevailing rocks are gneiss and c rystallin e sch i sts
,
.

C e rtain bands or zones of the latter are impregnated w i th n e ly

divid e d sulphides of iron copper zinc and oc c asionally o r es of , , ,

l e ad ni ck e l cobalt and s i lver

, , , .

Thes e mineralised bands locally known as fa h lbands conform , ,

to the strike and d i p of the enclosing gneiss and schist .

The c ountry rock and fahlbands are inte rse c ted by silv e r bearing
- -

veins and it is notorious that these veins ar e only productive

,

where they t ravers e th e fahlbands .

T h e indicator beds of Ballarat in V ictoria have exercised a

-
, ,

remarkable in u e n ce upon the distribution of the gold in the

v e ins of that ar e a .

Th e countryrocks are Silurian slates and sa ndstones which ,

are generally tilt e d at high angl e s and often approa c h t he ,

vertical position They ar e interb e dded with ce r tain thin seams

.

of black carbonaceous shale or slat e to which th e nam e indica tor s ,

is locally applied from the circums tance that wher e ver a qua rtz
,

v e in cross e s one of these shale seams it uniformly be c omes rich e r -

,

a long th e plan e of inters e c tion .

The most p e rsistent of the shale seams known as T h e I ndica tor -

, ,

is describ e d by E L idg e y as a narrow bed of dark slat e

1
.
,

usually showing cleavage planes and con taining a large per ,

centage of pyrite distributed irregularly through it ,
I t varies .

from a mere sheet to an inch thick and c an be tra c ed for a ,

d istance of 7 or 8 miles I t is nearly vertical and is .

,

int e rs e cted by a s e ries of nearly hori z ontal quartz s e ams which -

,

ar e commonly enriched a t or in the vicinity of the indicator 2

, ,
.

D r Jack in his report on G ymp i e g olde ld in Qu e ensland

, , ,

stat e s that t h e v e ins are richest i n c e rta i n bands oi black shale 5 -

1
E L idg e y , R ep or t
. on th e B E a st C oldf te ld
a lla r a t .

2
T . A R c ard, . ik i to ei
T h e I n d ca r V n , B al lara t A tralia T ,
us ,
r a n s.

A m er ica n I n st . v ol.
,
xxx
1 90 1 , p 1 0 94
. i paper o t in
Th . . s c n a s an
i tere ti g
n s n s u mm a ry o f i b e t e ti g to
th e a va la l da a r la n i di ator
th e n c s
,
84 MININ G G EOLOGY .

P a ra g e n e s is .

I t has be e n shown by mining operations everywhere that

certa i n m i nerals and or e s are mor e frequently associated with
e ach other than with other minerals The g e netic processes .

wh i ch caus e d t he format i on or deposition of a certain mineral

oft e n Operated so as to cause the deposition of anoth e r mineral ,

or minerals at the sam e time and in the same pla c e

,
.

This parallel or synchrono u s genesis of ores and minerals

, , ,

which has brought about a common association in the matrix is ,

known as p a r ag en esis and is probably governed by the laws of ,

chemical solution and pre c ipitation Substances soluble at th e .

sam e t e mperature and pressure will pass out of solution together

i n the zone of decreas e d pressure or temp e rature The causes .

which led to the constant association of certa in minerals su c h for , ,

example as gold and quartz tin and wolfram are still very
, , ,

obscure .

The following table on the basis of that comp i led by V on Cotta , ,

affords a clear V iew of the ores and mineral commonly asso c iated
in metalliferou s deposits
A SS O C I AT ED O RE S AN D M I N ER A L .

T wo M m e ber s . T hr ee Member s . F o ur o r M ore Member s.

G alena , b l en de ,
G alena
e blende i ron p yrite ,
b lende ,
i ro n G al n a , ,
s,

pyrites q artz , u .

Iron p yrite ch l Iro p yrite h l py Iro p yrite

s, a h al op yrite
n s, c a co n s, c c ,

copy it r rite q artz

e, g lena b le de q rtz ,
u ,
a ,
n , ua .

G o ld q rtz
,
ua G o ld qu rtz
, G o ld quartz i ro n p yrite,
a , , ,
s,
pyrite b le de g lena r eni cal s, n ,
a , a s

p yrite s .

G ol d tel l ri m
, G o l d te ll ri m q rtz G o ld tell ri m i ron pyrit
u u , ,
u u ,
ua ,
u u ,
es ,
q rtz ua .

Cob l t n d n i k l Cob l t d n ickel

a a c Cob lt nd ni kel ore
e a an o1e s , a a c s,

ore s, p yrrh otite pyr h otite q artz , r ,

u .

T wo l fr m
111-ore , Ti w lf q
a t Ti , wo l fram q rtz
n -ore , o ra a1 , u ar z n o re , ,
ua ,

to rm line u a .

Ci b r
nn a a Ci b r i ron p yrite C i b r iro n py rite
, n na a ,
s, nn a a ,
s,
p yrit es, q artz q rtz l p r u , ua ,
ca c s a .

M g eti t
a n h l orite M g etite
e, c h lorite M g etite ,
h lo r ite gar et
a n ,
c ,
a n , c ,
n ,

g r et pyroxene py rite a n , ,
s .

C h o m ite
r
p C h ro mite erpenti e C h ro mite er penti e ol i i e
,
ser en ,
s n , ,
s n ,
v n
,
ti e n ,
o l ivi ne py o xene , r .

I n a general way e xp e rience has shown that tin tungsten or e s , , ,

and gol d hav e a preferenc e for siliceous rocks ; and iron c h ro ,

m i um platinum nick e l and copper for basic rocks

, , , .
 O R E y am s . 85

R oc k T Un t il r e c e n t y e ars
e m p e ra tu re s in D e e p M in in g .

i t was bel ie v e d by phys i c i sts t hat the i ncr e a se of te mp e ra t ur e ,

nam e ly 1 F ahr for ev e ry 6 0 fee t obs e rved in th e driving of t h e

, .
,

Sain t G othard tunnel was th e normal rat e in all pa rts of t h e ,

crust of the ea rt h Thi s b e l ie f is n o w known to b e e rron e ous . .

O bservations tak e n i n d e ep m i n e s and bore holes in diffe r e nt par t s -

of E urop e America and Aus tralia during t he past de cad e hav e

, , , ,

prov e d t hat o

( ) Th
a e t emp e rature of t h e cr u st i ncreas es with the d i stanc e

from th e surfac e .

That t h e ratio of i ncr e as e of temp e rature to d e p th t e t h e ,

. .
,

temperatur e gradient is not the same in all places -

, .

( )
0 That t he t emp e rature gra d i e nt is not uniform for all d e p t hs -

e v e n in t he sam e plac e ; tha t is isog e oth e rms ar e no t ,

parall e l in the uppe r part of the crus t 1

.

( )
d That t he temperatur e g rad i ent incr e as e s with th e d e p t h -
.

I n the Comstock lod e which i s e nclosed in and e sit e s of middl e ,

T e rtiary dat e the temperatur e w as found to ris e 1 F ahr for

, .

every 30 f ee t in d e p th 2
Th i s i ncr e a s e is e xc e p ti onal and .

appar e ntly caus e d by a s t rong upwa rd o w of h e a te d wa te rs i n

th e v e in s s u r e s The g e olog i c condi ti ons sugg e s t t h e waning
-
.

phas e s of solfataric ac ti on as th e sourc e of th e h e a te d wa ters .

A t t h e O haeawa i qu i cksilv e r m i n e s in N ew Z e alan d th e rock ,

t e mp e ratur e incr e ased so rapidly tha t boil i ng water was met w i th

at a dep t h of 2 0 0 fe e t from th e surface H e r e again w e ar e .

man if e s tly d ealing with expir i ng volcanic heat Th e basa l t cap .

of quite late T e rt ia ry dat e t he ho t springs and sinters sulphur , , , ,

and cinnabar d e posits leav e lit tl e room for doubt in t h i s ins t anc e .

Volcanoes whe th e r r e c e nt or Te rtiary ar e situa t e d in a h

, ,

n o rmally ho t parts of the crus t Som e parts how e ver a re .

, ,

abnormally cool F or in stanc e P rof e ssor Agassiz found in t h e .

,

Calum e t and H e cla mine at L ake Supe rior a ris e of only 1 ,

F ahr for e very 2 2 3 feet in d e pth

.
3
.

I n four gold mining centr e s in V ictoria t h e increase of 4 -

,

temperate was foun d to b e as follows

South M aldon M ine M aldon ,

1 F ah r for e v e ry 8 1 feet i n d e pth down to 1 700 feet

. .

1
Pro fe or R e dmay n ,
ss e
U nd r r und T m ra ur s , S ou th S ta or dsh ir e ego e pe t e '

a nd E as t Wor ces ters h i r e I ns t M in E ng , 190 4 . . . .

2
G F B c r,.

. e ke
T h e G l y f th e m s c L d , Jlf onog rap h I I I , eo og o C o to k o e .

p . 2 6 3 , 1 88 2 , U S G a l S u r v ey , a sh n t n
. . o . W i go .

3 Poe o
r f ss r A iz
s e , A me r ic a n J ou r n a l of S c ien ce , v ol 18 95, p 5 03 i . . .

1
H C J e n in s ,

.

.R c

T m ra ur s in V c r a, P r oc A us t A ss oc o k e pe t e i to i . . .

A dv S e , v ol ix p 30 9, 1 90 2
. . . . .
86 MININ G GEOLOGY .

South G a i d e n G ully Bendigo ,

1 F ahr for every 1 7 fe e t m depth do wn to 300 0 f ee t

. .

Band and Albion Mi ne Ballarat ,

1 F ahr for e v e ry 80 f ee t in dep t h down to 2 0 80 fe e t

. .

Ne w Chum Railway B e ndigo ,

1 F ahr for ev e ry 7 7 5 feet i n d e pth down to 3 6 4 5 fee t

. .

Th e country rock l n each case is S ilu i ia n slate and sandston e

-
.

The following tabl e s of rock temperatures prepared by Professor -

E ver e tt are of much i nt e r e st in c onn e ction with this que stion

1
,
.

T AB L E I .
OB S ERVAT I ON S O F T E M PER A T U RE A T MI N ES

AN D V ER T I C AL B o a m e s .

F e et
Depth D e ree o f
pe r
( feet )
c
O

I mercas e
.

P a ru s c h ow itz ( S l s a ) iei ,

eb epi
S c h lad a c h ( n ea r L i s c ) ,
Spe b g e e i
re n e r ( n ar B rl n ) ,
W ee i g We t i gi i
h l n ( s V r n a),
Pe eto e
n dl e te
n ( n ar Man c h s r) ,
Port J k o n ac s

R b idg ( e r Wig )
os e r e n a an ,

D ki l d ( M n h e ter)
u n e a c s ,

A h to M o ( n ar M h
s n ss e an c e s te n

T m r k ( L ke S perio r )
a a ac a u ,

S arle ( L i o l h i re )
c nc ns ,

Ki g woo d ( ne r Bri tol )

n s a s ,

T AB L E 11 .
D 1 E THS A T WH I C H 10 0

FA H R .

T A B L E I II .
C A L C U L AT ED D EP T H S A T

WO U L D B E FO U N D .

F eet .

R os e b ridg e ,
S carl , e 344 9
Kin g s w o od , 34 69
D u kin e ld , 3 6 72
W e i g
h el n , 37 2 2
A to o
sh n M ss , 4 1 92

Pro fes or e ett

,

1
s J D Ev r
.
,
Ev ide nce bef or e th e Roy a l Co mm iss ion
Coa l S u pp lies , Lo o
nd n , 1 90 4 .
 88 MININ G GEOLOG Y .

tur e it is r e markabl e how lit t l e trus t worthy info rma t ion has b ee n
,

record e d i n regard to progr e ss i v e und e rground t e mp e ra t ur e s e ven ,

i n plac e s wh e r e mining has b e en carr ie d on for g e nera t ions Th e .

ti m e i s approaching when the recording of rock t e mp e ratur e s -

must b e s yst e matically und e rtak e n in all d ee p m i nes .

T e mperatures should b e noted w it h r e asonabl e skill and pr e

c is io n a t regular int e rvals both when sinking a n d d r i ving i n n e w

ground 5 and at all plac e s wher e ther e is a chang e of rock .

O bserva t ions taken in a carel e ss or haphazard mann e r are of no

valu e a n d in som e cas e s may ev e n be worse than usel e ss as th ey
, ,

may l e ad to th e formation of e rron e ous conclusions .

Th e pr e caut i ons to b e obs e rv e d in taking und e rground t e m

e ra tu r e s have been succinctly summarised by H C J e n kin s
1
p as . .

follows
Temperatures should be taken in ne w g r ou nd that is i n th e
( )
1 , ,

fac e or head i ng fr e shly brok e n wh e r e th e work is b e ing ,

rapidly pushed ahead Th e rock walls soon becom e .

cool e d by v e n ti lating currents .

( )
2 Where possibl e th e rock should b e free from sulphid e s
easily oxidised since chemical r e actions a t t e nding ox i da
,

t ion are e xo t herm i c When sulphide s ar e pres e nt t he .

t e mperature should b e tak e n at onc e .

( )
3 V ery w e t ground must b e avoid e d as i t will gen e rally giv e ,

a lower r e ading than th e true on e s i nce t he water w i ll ,

in mo s t cases be descending surfac e wa te r O n th e -

.

oth e r hand ascend i ng de e ps e ated wat e r will t e nd t o

,

exaggerate th e temp e ratur e .

( 4 ) After drilling s u f c ie n t t i m e ,must be giv e n to p e rm i t th e

abnormal h e at of drilling to diss i pat e its e lf befor e taking
a rock t e mperature A f e w minutes will generally s u f c e
-
.

for t his .

( )
5 Th e drill hol e must be -
deep e nough to avoid th e tempera
tur e of the face of rock Agass i z used holes 10 f e et deep . .

I n th e maj ority of cases 6 f ee t holes are s u f c ie n t .

( ) The bor e hol e s should be horizon t al by pref e rence

6 -
.

7
( ) T h e t e mp e ratures should b e tak e n with a high class clinical -

t hermometer graduated from say 80 t o 1 15 F ahr a n d

, , ,

reading to 0 0 5 F ahr and corr e cted against a standard

,
.

thermom e ter Wh e n ins e r t e d in th e hole the t h e rmom e ter

.
,

should be wrapped round with three layers of a n n e l .

L im its O f D e e p M in in g M ining at great depths w i ll be .

limi t ed by t h e underground temperature and economic considera

1
H C
. . J e n kin s , R o k T em perat re
c u s in V i c tori a , P r oc . A u st . A ssoc . A dv
.

S e v ol . ix .
p 30 9, 1 90 2
. .
 O RE V E I NS . 89

t ion s B y t h e ad op tion of secon dary v e n ti la t ion a n d m et hods of

.

r e frig e ra ti on mining coul d doub tl e s s b e ca rr i ed on a t de p t hs

ranging up to 65 0 0 fe e t according to t h e local i ncr e men t of
temp e ra t u re .

M e tas o m a tic R e p lac e m e n t Unt i l lat e ly it wa commonly s

b e l ie ved t ha t or e d e posi t s m e r e ly lle d pr e ex i s ti ng ss u r e s a n d

- -

cavi tie s in coun t ryrock I n r e c e nt y e ars write rs on or e forma ti on

.
-

hav e been incl i ned to plac e mor e or less s t ress on wha t has be e n
t ermed me tas om a tic r ep la ce men t
.

Accord i ng t o this it i s surmis e d tha t i n many cas e s a t l e as t no

, , ,

previous caviti e s e x i sted but tha t t he waters p e rcola t ing thr ough
,

t h e rocks dis solved cer t a i n t ra cks or zon es which t h e y r e plac e d

wi t h or e mat ter and gangu e
-
.

This proc e s s of r e placem e nt is w e ll known to petrologists to

have tak e n plac e among t he constituents of many roek mass e s no -
,

ma t te r how dens e includi ng all me tamo rphic rocks and all ol d er

, ,

i gn e o us and e rupt i v e mass e s .

I t is known as metasomatism ( mean i ng chang e of body ) a n d is ,

du e to inte rnal ch e mical r e ac ti ons wh i ch s e e m to tak e plac e as ,

r eadily in rocks as do th e m e tabolic chang e s in liv i ng organ i sms .

I n many cas es m i n e rals are replaced mol e cul e by molecul e ,

giving r i s e t o wha t i s te rm ed min e ral ps e udomorph i sm Bu t i n .

t h e processes wh i ch a ff e ct chang e s i n rock mas s e s r e ac ti ons ar e -

,

s e t up b et w e en t h e di ffer e n t cons t i t uen t m i nerals ther e by to ,

in g n e w min e rals capable of segr e ga t ing t hem s e lv e s i nto mass e s of

all siz e s .

G n e iss and mica schist a r e famil i ar exampl e s of t he work of

-

segr e ga t ion and mol e cular r ea rrang e ment of t he domin ant con
s t itu e n ts of alt e r e d sedimentary rocks Such altera t ion i s te rm e d .

anamorph i sm and always ta kes plac e in the anamorph i c zone .

Th e i nternal chang e s that affect eruptives ar e known to e v e ry

pe t rologist Bes i d e s t hese chang e s which are c h ie y mol e cular
.
, ,

rock masses and especially e rup ti v e rocks may b e so al te r e d by

-
, ,

th e a ct i on of c i rc u la t ing waters as to bear no r e s e mblanc e to t h e

o r iginal rock .

Thus in many cases andesi t es have b e en chang e d to propyli te

by t h e removal of c e r tain e ssential consti t u e nts a n d the s u bs t i
t u tion of o t he rs Rock r e plac e m e nt is doub tless pr e c ed e d by
.

alt e ration .

M e tasomatic r e placem e nt as de n e d by Van Hise and Emm ons

1
,
2
,

does not n e cessarily imply a mere subs t i t ut i on of mat ter mole ,

c ul e for mol e cul e as happens in the process of pseudomo rph i sm

, ,

which involves t he pr e servation of the o riginal form of t h e sub

1
V a n Hi se l 6th A n nu a l Rep o rt U S G eol S u rve y Part I
, p 6 89 . . .
, .
,
. .

2
S F Emm o ns U S G ao l S u rve y M mzog r ap h " I I
. .
, . .
p 5 65
.
, .
, . .
90 MININ G GEOLOGY .

stan c e replaced but an int e rchang e of substanc e th e dissolved

, ,

rock b e ing replac e d by gra i n s or cry s talli n e aggr e gat e s of on e or

nao r e nahne r a ls .

That subs ti tution did howev e r take place in some kinds of , ,

deposits is w e ll known I n t h e tin impregnat i ons in granit e .

-
,

in N ew S outh Wales pseudomorphs of t i n oxide in the form of

,
-
,

orthoclas e are not uncommon 5 and many o t her examples coul d b e

,

quoted having r e ference principally to th e r e placement of isolated

,

crystals in crystallin e and eruptiv e ro c ks

, .

Slow replac e men t of substan ce by a progressive movem e nt of

th e solu t ions in a de n ite dir e ction must b e assum e d to have
tak e n place in the formation of or e deposits compos e d of massiv e -

aggregates I n most cases the direction of movem e nt would be

.

determin e d by a rock fracture or line of fault .

I n the case of deposits formed by de e pcirculating solutions it ,

is manifest that circulation could no t be rapid as the fac e or breast ,

wher e metasoma t ic process e s w e r e active would form a blind end

or cu l de s a c Whatever circulation ex i st e d would be du e to con
- -
.

vection currents whi c h in deep seated cavit i es could only b e

,

feeble .

This now raises the question as to the transfer e nc e and supply

of dissolved matter to the continually advanc i ng fa c es of meta
somatic action .

The energy which caused or at any rat e ac c elerated this trans ,

f e rence was probably osmotic pressure which has been shown by

, ,

van t Ho ff to be a for c e of great intensity

.

I t has b e en p rov e d that when a po rt ion of dissolved substanc e

i s deposited from a solution at any point the osmo t ic balanc e is ,

dis t urbed 5 and immed i a t ely more dissolved mat t er travels to that
point i n accordance with the well e stablishe d laws of osmotic
di ff usion ther e by providing new matter to augm e nt the growing
,

mass of ore .

Arrhenius and G ill e tte hav e urged the claims of osmo t ic

pressur e t o be consid e red a facto r in ore format i on 1 -
.

O smotic pressure is the ch e mical principl e which compels

solut i ons to maintain an equal state of concen t rat i on throughout
th e ir whole mass and since it is always called into being when
,

deposition commences its operation as an agency in vein llin g ,

-

must have been assumed by writ e rs on th i s subj ect although ,

seldom s p e c ic ally m e ntioned .

M etasomatism is a proc e ss of lode formation by replacement -

,

an d does not concern itself with the source or origin of the

dissolved matte r contained in th e solutions .

1
G illette O sm osi s as a Fac tor in O re F ormatio n T r a ns A m I ns t M E
,

, . . . .
,

1 903.
92 MI N IN G G EOLOGY .

for many v e ins but admit s that for many others p e rhaps th e
,

maj ority of s s u re v e ins th e r e se e m s to b e som e thing lacki n g in

-

this explanation .

Vogt c la s s ie s th e metasoma ti c process e s caused by the circula

t ion of or e solu tions as follows
- 1

( a ) Al t eration forming greisen cassit e ri te rock et c , , .

( )
b S c a ol itis a t io n
p .

( c ) Propylitisation .

( ) Kaolinisation
d .

( ) Sericitisation
e .

(f ) Carbonatisat i on ( with dolomiti sation ) .

(g ) S il ic i c a t ion .

( )
h Z e o l itisa t i on .

()t I ntense con t act m e tamorphism .

He agr e es with E mmons Beck e r L indgren and othe rs , ,

m etasomatic replac e men t plays an important pa r t in the forma

tion of min e ral veins and ore bodi e s
- -
.

I nformation w ith r e gard to vein structur e charac t er a n d in -

, ,

u e n c e of wall rock should b e place d on record on all possibl e

-

occas i ons A p et rographical exam i na t ion of t h e vein ma tte r a n d

.
-

wall rock for som e d i stance on e ach s i de of t h e ore body will

- -

oft e n t hrow much l i ght on the genes i s of t he or e 5 but care mus t

b e taken i n forming g e neral i sat i ons on microscopic e vidence alon e .

1
Pro fe or V ogt
ss ,

Problem s in th e G eo l ogy of O re D epo s its ,
l oo
.
'

czt .
,

p 66 0
. .
 CH A P T ER IV

T H E DY NA M I C S O F L O D E S A N D B E D S .

C ON T E N T S D niti n o f F ults F lt pa r ll l with B e l D ip F lt

: e o a au s a e i au s

S t p F l t T ro gh Faul ts R le fo r In l ined L od Z i mm er m nn

e au s u u s c es a s

G rap h i M et h od
c .

D e n itio n Of M in e ral beds and v ei n s may be ben t

F a u lts .

or frac t ur ed e l e vat e d or depressed by t h e slow s e cular move

, ,

ments which build u p continental areas 5 or til te d and d i slocated

by th e sharper mov e ments propaga te d by the intr us i on of an
igneo us magma 5 that is th e d i sturbing agent s may be orog e n i c
,

or hypogenic .

D i s locations wi t hout movem e nt of the rock on eith e r wall ar e

simple fractures 5 bu t in th e maj ority of cas e s t here has no t only
be e n fra cture but also displacemen t I n oth e r wo rds th e ren t s .
,

have b e come faults .

A faul t may be de n ed as a fractur e on on e s i de of which

movemen t has tak e n plac e whereby the roc ks on one s i de have
be e n displaced r e lativ e ly to thos e on t h e o ther sid e .

F aults ar e ca us ed by c rust stresses Th e y run i n all direct i ons .

,

but the maj or faults of a r e gion ofte n run in the same gen e ral
dir e c t ion .

A faul t may run parallel with the cours e or strik e of a bed , ,

or v e in 5 or cross t he c ou rse a t r i gh t angles or at any o t h e r angl e , .

F aults are no t often ve rtical bu t i ncl i n e to on e s i de or t h e

,

other A fault is said to hade wh e n it inclin e s from the ve rt i cal

.

plane The had e of a faul t is ther e for e t h e angl e which th e

.
, ,

fault makes w it h the v e rtica l plane .

The had el i ne of a fa u l t i s the oblique resulta n t of t wo

pri ncipal component forces namely gravitat i onal s t ress ac ti ng
,

v e r t ically or rad ially towards the centre of the e arth and la t eral ,

t hrust ma inly du e to subs i d e nce .

Faults ar e of two kinds namely ,

( ) a N or m a l f a u l ts .

b
( ) R e ve rs e d or o ver l ap fa u lts .

93
94 MININ G GEOLOGY .

I n normal faults th e downthrow is towards th e side to which

the fault hades .

FI G . 45 N
. ormal F a ul t .

I n F ig 4 5 the hade of the fault and downthro w of th e beds a re

.

tow ards t he west .

I n rev e rsed or overlap faults the downthrow is on the foot wall -

sid e of the fractur e .

FIG . 46 R
. ever ed o r O verl p Fa lt
s a u .

I n the above g u r e , t he hade is to the west ,

and the
thro w 0 11 the foot wal l si de
-
.

FI G . 47 R
. ever ed or O verlap Fa lt
s u .

FI G . 48 S h. arp F o ldi n g with o u t F ract ure .

Reversed faults are intimately connected with sharp

and synclinal fold i ng T h e stress e s i ntroduced by th
.

of beds are ofte n r elieved by faulting a n d shearing .

96 MININ G GEOLOGY .

The vertical line a h shows the vertical displa c e

m i n e rs d ownth r ow or up th r ow according as th e fault is ,

from th e e ast or west .

FI G . 52 .
S h o wi ng D i s placements by S trike F aul t .

The lin e c b shows the amount of horizontal displacement

d i sseverment whi c h is sometimes erroneously termed h e a ve .

FI G 53 p rt P l f Bed tr er ed b y S trike F lt L o we p rt
1
1p pe r

a an

. .
, o s av s au r a
.
,

C ro s s -s ec tl o n o f Bed lo g li e A H h o wi g r p titio o f di lo cat d bed

s a n n ,
s n e e n s e s.
 T HE DYN A MI C S OF L O D ES A N D B E DS . 97

When a fault displ a ces s tra tied rocks th e lin e s of bedding ,

afford a measure of t h e vertical displac emen t 5 bu t in t h e absence

of bedding pla nes or some rock marked by a dis tinc t ive peculiari ty
-

of colour or compos i ti on th e r e is no c e rta in means of measuremen t

, .

A str i ke fault ca uses no la te ral d ispl a cement of the beds wh i ch

-
,

i t inte rs e cts 5 but wh e n the beds ar e inclin ed i t may produce a ,

rep et i ti on of thc d i slocated b e ds as shown in g 5 3 , . .

I n reg i ons which have been subj ect to long con t in ued denu da -

t ion on e s i d e of a faulted seam may be en t irely r e moved as

, ,

shown i n g 5 4 Th i s i s no t un common in th e cas e of young

. .

S e condary a n d T e r t iary coal me a sures h angin g on t h e a n ks of

-

mounta i n cha i ns .

FI G . 54 S . e tio o f N ormal Fault h o wi g

c n ,
s n on e s i de o f eam re mo ved
s

b y de datio nu n .

The s e am may be pa rt ly removed by d e nudat i on 0 11 on e or

both sides of th e faul t as indicat e d in gs 5 5 and 5 6
,
. .

55 Sec tion sh owi g S am p rtly remo ved

n e a on One S d i e al on g l in e
o f F lt
.

au

When a fault po ssesses t he sa m e dip and strik e as a seam or

min e ral v e in t ha t is when it conform s to t he bed din g pla n e s it
-
, ,
-
,

ca uses no apparent d i sturbance in the r e lat i on of the rock s on

98 MININ G GEOLOGY .

The only evidence of the existence of su ch a fault is the

smooth pol i shed and slicken sided s u rfaces on the line of move
, ,

FI G . 56 S
. e tio n
c sh o wi g S eam p rt ly re mo ed
n a v on Both S i des alo ng li e
n
o f F lt au .

ment I n t he case of a min e ral vein , the faul t ing may result in
.

t he product i on of a lay e r of friction breccia on the side on which

th e movement took plac e .

FI G . 57 .
S ec tio n o f Par llel T hr t P lane
a us .

Such a fault i s mer e ly a thrust plan e more often th e result oi -

,

shear i ng thrust than v e rtical or tangential stress .

D ip F l
a u ts A faul t which runs in the same general direction
.

as th e dip of a b e d or ve i n is te rmed a d ip fa ult ,

-
.

The d i st i nction bewe e n s t rik e faults and dip faults is not always - -

w ell marke d A fault may pursue any cours e b e tween th e s tr ike

.

and dip of a bed When i ts course is m i dway between th e d i p

.

and strik e of the b e d the fault may b e termed either a dip fault
,
-

or a str i ke faul t -
.

D ip faul t s produc e an app a r en t lat e ral displacement of th e bed

or v ei n wh i ch th ey cross
,
.

Wh e n faul t ing tak es place th e pr i ncipal movement is a vertical ,

on e Consequently wh e n the faulted v ei n is vertical there is no

.
,

la te ral displac e ment or heave as the diss e vered e nds merely slide ,

upon e ach other .

E v i denc e s of lateral thrust and shear i ng ar e often obs e rved

among Pal aeozoic sch i sts and gneiss but ar e sometimes seen in fault ,
1 00 MININ G GEOLOG Y .

displacement or downthrow ; and the cross c u t a o the amou nt of -

lateral d i splaceme n t or h e ave .

When th e drive da in g 5 8 reached the fault the vein was .

, ,

lost The lost vein was found at point c by cross cutting toward s
.

the east ; but obviously the pa rt of the vein struck at c was not
th e part corresponding to that driven on along da ( g .

I n this example th e fault dips t o the north 5 t her e for e the

, ,

d ownthrow i s on the north sid e of t he fault Henc e the crosscu t .

,

w i ll strik e a higher part of the v e in than that driven upon along ( ta .

The downthrow is the distanc e a b and at I) will be foun d th e ,

conti nuation of the portion of th e vein driven on at a .

S ometimes two or mor e faults run parallel with each other or ,

cross each other at an angl e I n other cases it happens that one

.
,

group of faults is int e rs e c t ed by another group of a later dat e .

When faulted veins or s e ams are again faulted many complicat e d ,

problems becom e involv e d i n the recov e ry of the lost portions .

S te p F a u lts A s e am or bed is sometimes cross e d by a

.

number of faul ts runn i ng more or less parallel to e ach oth e r and

, ,

FI G . 59 . Cro ss
-
s c e tion sh owi g G ro u p o f S tep Fault
n s .

d i pping in the same direction 5 or by some d i pping one way and

some another .

S uch faults are often small and their e ffects best seen wh e n ,

they dislocat e a seam of c oal .

FI G 6 0 C ro s s e tio n o f T ro gh Fault in D dley Port Mine S ta ords h ire

'
. . s c
-
u u
, .

( ) S am o f c oal
a e ( b) B l t . a sa .
 T HE DYN A MI C S or L O D ES AND B E DS . 101

T ro u g Wh e n two pa rall e l faul t s d ip towa rds ea ch

h F a u l ts .

o t her p e rmit t ing a po rt ion of s t rata to b e t hrown down betw ee n
,

them they form what is spok e n of as a trou g h fa ul t A w e ll

,
-
.

known example is the t rough faul t of D udl e y Po rt Mi ne in -

,

S ta o rds h ire which has t hrown down the gr eat 10 ya rd seam a

'
-
,

distance of 4 5 0 feet as shown below , .

R EC O VER Y . 0 F L o sr L O D ES .

R u le s fo r I F our c a ses may occur when

n c lin e d L o de s .

driving on a vein dislocated by a faul t The v e in may dip to th e .

right or l e ft hand and the faul t towards you or away from you
, .

1 .When the vein dips to th e l e ft and is cut o ff by a fault ,

dipping to wa rds you th e lost vein will be found by dr iv ,

ing to the l e ft .

11 Wh e n th e vein dips to t he left and is cut o ff by a fault

.
,

dipping away from you t h e lost vein w i ll be foun d by driv ,

ing to the right .

111 When the vein dips to th e right and is cu t o ff by a faul t

.

dipping towards you th e lost v e in w ill b e found by driv ,

ing to the right .

IV When th e vein dips to t h e right and is cut o ff by a faul t

.
,

dipping away from you th e lo s t v e in will be found by driv ,

i ng to t he l e f t .

Th e faul t may cross th e fac e of th e d riv e s quare ly or it may ,

cross obliqu e ly Th e angl e a t which th e fault inte rs e cts th e v ei n

.

do e s not affe c t t h e application of th e rul e s .

V 1Vhen a horizon tal s e am i s cut o ff by a fault d i pping toward s

.

you its con t inua t ion w i ll be found a t a h i gh e r l e vel 5 bu t

,

wh e n t h e fault dips away from you th e los t sea m w ill ,

be found und e rfoo t .

Thes e rules are alway s t ru e e xcep t in t he cas e of revers e d ,

faults and strike faults which run parall e l with th e s t rik e of th e

-

v ei n or s e am .

Z imm e rm a n s G ra p h ic M e th od

Zimm e rman s graphic .

me t hod for n din g t he lost or faul t ed po rt ion of a lod e is as

follows
1 . L y down
a upon paper t he l i n e of st r ike of the lod e and faul t ,

producing t he l i n e s ti ll t hey in te rs e c t .

2 . D ete rmine by cons t ruction t h e poin t of inte rsection a t any

imaginary lower l e vel .

3 . D raw a line j oining t h e po in ts of inters e ct i on of th e lode and

fault a t the two levels .
10 2 MININ G GEOLOGY .

4 . P roduce the lin e of i nt e rsection through th e fault at upper

l e vel .

5 D ra w a line pe rpendicular to the fault at the point wh e re

.

the lin e of i nt e rsection e merges from th e faul t .

R u le O n what e ver side of the lin e of int e rse c tion produced

.

the perpendicular falls 0 11 that side will the lost l ode b e found
, .

Z i mmerman s law is always tru e ex c ept in the c as e of r e versed

faults and strike faults -

.

Unl e ss beds c a n b e recognised on each side of the fault the ,

e xtent of the throw cannot be dete r mined .

A p p lica tion of R u le E xa mp le 1 S uppose t h at in driving

. .

north on a lod e a fault is met wi th which displaces the lode The .

fault dips south at an angl e of and the lod e dips w e st at

an angl e of I n which dire c tion should th e lost portions
of the lode be found ?

FI G . 61 .
S ketc h Pl n to i llu tr te Example 1
a s a .

Procure a she e t of pap e r and plot t he approximat e position of

t h e lode and fault showing th e direction of dip of e ach with an arrow
,
.

L et the lode a n d fault be sho wn by a rm black l i ne as shown , ,

in g 6 1. .

Plot th e position the lod e and fault would occupy at a low e r

depth say at 10 0 f e e t representing them by a t hin l i n e Produc e
, , ,
.

t he lin e s till they meet T h e approxima te positions a t a lo we r .

l e vel can be plotted by inspection for i t is ev i dent that if the lod e ,

dipping at 6 0 deg travels out say i ih ch in 1 0 0 feet th e lode

.
, ,

dipping at the a tte r angle of 4 5 deg will d i p much faster and .

,

hence travel r e lativ e ly further out .

The exact d e parture or dis tance the lode and fault will trav e l
out i n 100 feet can be found by mult i plying the cotangent of the
angl e of dip by 10 0 .

D raw a l i ne through t he points of inte rsection and erect a per ;

,
1 04 MININ G GEOLOGY .

north instead of south at the sam e angle the diagram would be

, ,

as shown below .

E xa mp le 5 S uppose in d r iving no rth west on a lode dipping

.
-

FI G 6 4 T o i llustrate Example
. . 4 . FIG 6 5 T o ll us
. i tr te Ex
a a pe
m l 5 .

south west at an angle of

-
a fault were met with
E and W and dipping no rth at an angle of
. .
,
on which
would the lost lode be found ?

FI G . 66 . T o ll us
-
i trate Ex mple 6
a .

Suppos e in driving east on a lode dipping sou t h

6 .

at an angle of a fault were met with running N E . .

and dipp i ng S E at an angle of . wh e r e should the los t

portion of the lode be found ?
 C H A FT E R V .

O R E D E P O S I T S G E N E T I C A L LY C O N S I D E R E D .

C ON T EN T S Genetic Cl ic ti
'

as s Mag m ti c S egregatio
a on C h ro mite i
a n n

Peri dotite N i kel I o N tive Copper P lati num M t l

c l n a Ore e a s s

fo rm ed b y Er pti ve A fter actio n

u S o l fat ri A tion o f A
- s di g a c c sc e n n

A lkal i e Water Fumaro l i Conta t Metamorph i c Depos it Region l

n s c c s a

M eta m orp h i D e po its M eteo ri c W ter O rg ni

c s a s a c .

O R E D EP O S I T S are of dive rse form and composition

-
Th e y ar e .

foun d as tru e veins , as d e tached mass e s , and as members of a

sedim e nta ry forma t ion I t is now known that t h e ir mod e of
.

occurr e nc e and to som e e xtent th e ir compos i t ion and form w e r e

, , , ,

d etermined by th e g e ological conditions prevail i ng at the ti me of

the i r form at i on .

I n t h e pas t decade a vast ma s s of fac ts has b e en add e d to th e

,

li te ratur e of the subj e ct par t icularly i n Am e rica wh e r e th e

, ,

magnitud e of th e op e rations conn e c te d wi th m i ning h as a ff orde d

gr ea t facil i ti e s for obs e rva t ion and res e arch .

Th e gen e s is of or e d e pos its pr e s e nts many dif c u l t probl e ms ,

and natur ally th e li teratur e of the subj e ct i s rich in t h e or e t i cal

d e duc t ions .

Th e i n t roduction of pet rographica l m ethods of investigation ,

and th e d e mons t rat i on of th e princ i pl e s of metasomatic r e plac e

men t and s e condary e nr ichm e n t hav e mark e d a n e w po i n t of ,

d e pa rt ure and le d to a t ru e r conc e ption of th e forma t ion of or e

,

d e pos its than form e rly exi s t ed .

I n this investigation w e m u st r e m e mb e r tha t e xis ti ng condi ti ons

ar e bu t a r e e c tion of th e pas t Th e ag e nci e s tha t bu i l t up t h e
.

crust of th e ea r th in i t s pr e s e nt form ar e still in op e ra t ion a n d ,

s ti ll govern e d by the sam e na t ural laws .

We ar e l i ving on th e e dge of a geolog i c e poch and i f w e woul d ,

righ t ly und e rs tand t h e pas t we mus t s t u dy t h e pr e s e n t Th e

,
.

occurr e nc e of or e d e p os its i s m e rely a g e ologic happ e ning an

inciden t in th e te c tonic arrangement of t he materials form i ng the
out e r sh e ll of t he globe .

Rec e n t petrogr aphi c al inv e stiga t ion has shown that ore d e posi ts
10 5
1 06 MININ G GEOLOG Y .

are always mo re or less intimately connected with ign eous rocks .

This c onstant association naturally l e ads to th e broad g e n e ra lisa

tion T h a t ore dep osits G 7 6 g enetica lly connected with th e ei up tton
-

of i neous m a mas
g g .

G e ne tic C las s i ca tio n .

The genetic c la s s ic a t ion which seems to most near ly sa tisfy our

present knowledge relati n g to mineral deposits is as follows
1 M agmati c segregation
. .

II E ruptive afte r actio n s

.
-

( ) S
a o f
l a tar ic .

u ma r olic
( )
b F .

( )
0 C on ta c t m e ta mmp htc
'
.

eg ion a l m e ta morp h ic
( )
d R .

III M eteori c waters

.

( )
a Ch e mi ca l .

( )
6 M ech a n ica l .

IV . O rga n ic .

I . M A G M AT I C
S E G RE G A T I ON .

I t has b e en shown by Professor and others S a n db e rg e r ,

igneous rocks c ontain all the co n stituents of min e ral veins .

Professor Vogt of Christiania maintains that a deep s e ated

, ,
-

ina c c e ssible re pository of the heavy metal s can no longer b e

sustained 1
M odern geologists h e points out hav e abandon e d
.
, ,

t h e old conception of the earth s inter i or condition which su pposed

f

,

that the int e rior was an enormously compress e d liquid molten

mass of high s p e c i c gravity charg e d with heavy m e ta ls .

The compos i tion of the molten magmas that hav e issu e d at th e

s u rface in suc c essive geologi c al ages do ,

th e sis which assumes th e e xis t ence of a

h e avy metals in the barysphere than in the upp e r crust or litho
sphere .

R e ferring to the distribution of the e l e ments in the e arth s

crust V ogt states that of th e entir e crust i ncluding

, ,

and atmosphere oxygen cons t i t utes by weight about,

2
silicon above one quarter -
.

1
Pro fe or ss in th e O rigi n o f Ore Depo s its
,

G en es is o Or e D ep os tt3 f
,
1 90 1 , p 6 37
. .

2
L oc. c it , p . 6 39.
1 08 MI N I N G GEOLOGY .

resulting from direct di ff erentiation in th e cooling magma are , as

follows
( )a Ch r omite in peridotit e and se rpentine .

Copper and nickel iron in serp e ntine -

.

0 ) Platinum m e tals in highly basic eruptives

( .

( )
d M agnetite and titanite in basi c and semi basic eruptives -
.

C h ro m ite in P the South I sland of Ne w

e rido tit e .
-
I n

Zealand there are two mo u ntain masses of p e ridotite in which

, ,

th e magmatic segrega t ion of c h romit e is exhibited on a large

s c ale .

A few m iles from the city of N elson D u n M ountain rises to a ,

h e ight of over 40 0 0 feet abov e sea l e vel I t cove rs an area of -

.

about 4 square mil e s and is compose d of massive olivine in wh i ch

, ,

chromit e of iron is uniformly disseminated in the form of n e

1
grains but occasionally occurs in large masses
, .

Th e adj ac e nt ro c ks ar e slaty shales and limestones of probably

J u ra ss ic ag e th e limestone occurring at the base of sedimenta ry
,

formation B e tween the lim e stone and the olivine to which

.
,

Ho c hstetter gav e th e distinctive nam e dunite there is a belt of

2
,

s e rpentin e half a mile wide .

The serpentin e contains l e nticular shaped masses of chromit e -

,

native copp e r and copper ores principally chalcopyrite with th e

, , ,

usual prod u cts of oxidation I t also contains thin irr e gular v e ins .

of diallage bronzite enstatite scapolit e wollastonite and chryso

, , , , ,

tile .

T h e larg e r masses of chromit e in the olivine and serp e ntin e

o c cur along t he ma rgin or boundary of t hese rocks .

Th e s e cond g rea t mass of peridotite forms R e d M ountain ,

situated 2 0 miles north of M ilford S ound in O tago 3

I t is over ,
.

6 0 0 0 feet high and covers an area of about 1 0 square miles

, .

The mountain is composed of olivine and chromite Th e latter .

occurs in much greater proportion t han at D u n M ountain .

Th e p e ridotit e is anked on two sid e s by bel t s of s e rp e n t in e ,

which separate it from the adj a c ent slat e s and sandstones of

suppos e d Pal aeozoic age .

The olivin e n e ar th e con tact with the sedimentary rocks 1s

, ,

often so highly charged with chromit e as to form massiv e bodies

of ore N o d e posits of c hromite are known in the se rpentine but
.
,

1
S H . x, . Co
hr m D
s s C o e epo it o
f N l s n, N ew Z ea la nd G eol R ep or ts e o
.

a nd E xp lor a tions , 1 88 1 8
, p . .

2
Dr F Von H O Ch S te tte r 2 5 1 3 0717 173 de f deu ts che n ge ol G esells , xv p 34 1 ,
'
0

. . i . .

1 864 .

3
J . P k
ar , N e w Z ea la nd G eolo ica l R e or ts a nd E x lor a tions ,
g p p 1886 -
87,
 ORE D E P O S IT S G E N ET I C ALLY C O NS I D E R E D . 1 09

they may poss i bly exist as th e count ry is still p ra cti ca lly , un

N ic k e l I ro n
The sands in the s t reams which dr ain th e R e d.

M ountain se rpen t in e area yield small quant i t i es of th e rare nick e l

i ron alloy Awaruite d iscover e d by W Sk e y i n
,
I t has , .

be e n found in situ i n t he s erp e nt i ne , ,

.

A ni ck e l i ron alloy th e sa m e as or r e lated to Awarui t e h as b ee n

-
, ,

found i n gold bea ri ng sands a t t h e Riv e r B ie lla P i ed mon t-

, ,

ass oc i a t ed with chrom it e se para ted from per i do t ite ; i n s e rp e n

3

ti n e i n J os e ph in e County O r e gon ; in sands to ne ass oc i a te d wi t h

4
, ,

chromi te i n Fras e r R i v e r British Col u mb i a ; and i n Smi t h

,
5
,

R i ver D e l N o r te County Cal i fornia

, ,
.

N a tiv e C o p p e r The associa ti on of co pper and chromite in .

the serpen t ines a t D u n M oun ta in has alread y b e en m e n ti on e d .

N a t iv e copper is foun d in s e rpent ine in Cornwall Ne w Sou th ,

tales a n d ma ny oth e r pa rt s of t he world

, .

Larg e mass e s of na ti v e copper assoc i ated wi t h silver are found , ,

in amygdalo i dal d i aba s e a t L ak e S u perior .

I n 18 7 9 Prof S H Cox di s cover e d in th e M anukau d is trict a

, . . .
, ,

number of dyk e s of and e s it e which near the i r bo rders wer e , , ,

foun d to con tain small gra i ns of na t ive copper n e ly d i ss e m i na te d ,

throughou t the i gneous ma t rix 6

The dyk e s ar e i n t ruded in .

volcan i c br e cc i as of probably la ter Mi oc e n e ag e .

P l a tinu m M e tal s Pla t inum has only b ee n found i n a f e w .

cas e s i n t h e ma t rix in mtu a n d i n most case s i n basic or ul t ra

bas i c rocks I n the Ural M oun ta i ns i t occurs as gra i ns in

.
,

p e r i do tite and s e rpentin e .

The b e d rock of t h e Vy za j and Ka iv a rivers on t h e western

-
,

a n ks of t h e Ural s cons i sts of olivin e gabbro con ta i n i n g d i s ,

-
,

s e m i na t ed g rains of pla t inum but not apparently in pa yabl e ,

quant itie s .

A n ol i v i ne rock was d iscovered in 1 8 93 at G or ob la g e da ts k , ,

on t he wes te rn s i de of th e Urals conta i n i ng ch romite a n d ,

p la ti num t he la tter at th e rate of 1 4 d wt 9 g r to t he to n of rock

,
. . .

Carm i chael in 1 90 2 repo rt e d the occur renc e of plat i num i n a

7
, ,

n egra i ned dark basal ti c rock .

1
W . S key
T r a n s N Z I ns t , v ol x x
, , p
40 1 , 1 885 . . . . . iii . . .

9
G H U lr c h ,
. O u t h e D sc v ry , M od
. i i o e
f cc urre nc , a n d D s r u i n eo O e i t ib t o
o f th e N ic keI - r n ll y waru on th e io A o A
s ite
as f th e S u h I sla n d f We t Co t o o t o
e

N e w Z a la nd , Qu a r t J ou r G eo S oc L nd n . . . . o o .

3
Comp te s R on d us , c x p 171 ii . . .

4
A m J ou rn S e . xi x p 3 19, 1 90 5 . . . . .

5
L oc cit , p 31 9. . . .

6
S H . . Co
x, G l gy f a Ro dn y , N Z G eol Rep orts a nd E xp lor aeo o o C pe e . . .

timw, 1 8 79 80 , p 2 7 -
. .

7
E n g a nd M in J o an , N e w Y r , Fe b 1 2 , 1 90 2
. . ok . .
1 10 MI N I N G GEOLOG Y .

I .Pond in 18 86 discovered native platinum in serpen tine at

A .
, ,

Wade n ear Auckland and in a great vein traversing propylitised

, ,

and e site at the Tham e s g old e ld .

S i nce the discov e ry of platinum in the nickel c opper sulphid e -

ore at Sudbury in Canada careful analysis has d i s c los e d th e , ,

presence of the metal in minut e quantity in many sulphide ores

t hroughout the world But in this and all cases where platin u .
, ,

occurs in sulphid e b e ds or in veins its oc c urren c e is probably not ,

th e result of d i rect magmati c segregation .

II .
-
O R E s F O R M ED B Y E R U P T I VE AF T ER A C T I O N S
-
.

I t is manife st tha t the whole series of e r uptive after actions w ill -

commence at th e movement of intrusion of the magma and c on ,

tin u e until the rocks hav e become compl e tely c ooled .

I gneous magmas are now admitte d by petrologists to contain

mor e or less water toge ther with many constituents of a hydrous
or gaseous charact e r .

Hence th e fusion of magmas is not believed to be pyrogenet i c ,

that is th e result of dry hea t alone but h yda to pyrogenet i c t hat

, ,
-
,

i s fusion by heat in the presence of water According to

, , .

Arrhenius water renders the magma more l i quid

1
, .

I t has b e en shown by e xperiment that magmas which require a

te mpera t ure of 3000 F t o prod uce dry fusion can be fused "

.
,

i n th e presence of water at 5 00 F F urther it has b ee n

shown that the pr e s e nce of water aids in giving a magma u idity .

Barus was abl e to fuse glass at 2 00 C in the presen c e of water

2
. .

According t o Arrh e n i us water i n a mag m a a c t s the pa rt of an , , ,

ac i d l i bera t ing free s i licic acid a n d free bases

,
.

The a c tivity of wat e r at high t emperature is very gr e at .

Barns has shown that wa t er heated above 18 5 deg C a t tacks

3
, . .
,

th e silicates compos i ng soft glass with remarkable rapid i ty and

L e mberg has proved experim e n t ally that water at a temperature , , ,

of 2 10 C slowly dissolves anhydrous powdered silicates
.
, .

I t is probable that at gr e at depths the pressure will be , ,

s u f c ie n t to hold the water in the form of a liquid in a sup e r ,

h e at e d condition 4
A t high temp e ratures both wa te r and steam .
,

possess a great capaci ty for d i ssol ving min e ral substanc e s .

1
S v an rrh n u s , Z ur te A
hy s e i
de s V u l a n sm u s , G eol F or e n F k

P ik k i . . or .

S tockh ol m , 1 90 0 .

2
C B aru s , A m J ou
. S ci , i p 2 70 , 1 8 98 r . . v . . .

3
C a rn s , . B a Hot W te
r a n d S f G lass in h r T h rm dy n am c Re la n s
ot t ei e o i tio .

A m J u . o r
S ci I V , v ol i , 1 90 0 , p 1 6 1
. . . . x . . .

4
O R Van . s , S m . Hi e
r nc l s c n r ll n th e D s n f r s , o e P i ip e o to i g epo itio o O e
T r a n s A merica n I ns tztu te of M i ning E ng in eer s , v ol
.
p 2

7 . xxx . . .
1 12 MININ G GEOLOGY .

Where the hot springs ov e r ow on the surface they form ,

thick mushroom shaped mounds of silica The silica is some

-
.

times soft and porous and often de n se hard and chalc e donic
, , , .

I n all c ases the hot springs and geys e rs are grouped around
,

th e volcanic vents and along s s u r e s in lavas n e ar th e point of

,

e miss i on .

I n th e Hauraki gold mining area which a dj oins th e north e rn

,

e nd of this volcanic region t he country rocks consist of a vas t ,

-

p i l e of and e sitic lavas tu s and br e ccias of M ioc e ne ag e resting

'

, , ,

on slaty shales and greywack e of probably Tr i ass i c age .

Th e gold bearing v e ins traverse both the and e s i t e s and t u s

-

but are only pro ductive in th e former They are s s u re v ei ns .

-

but strictly speaking th e y do not conform to the usually acc e pt e d

, ,

d e fi nit i on of a t rue ss u r e v e i n since th e y are g e ne rally c on n e d

-
,

t o th e igneous rock formation -

.

Ne ar the bord e rs of th e and esites the veins are small and u n ,

important and g e nerally die out when they reach the underly i ng
,

basement rock On t h e other hand th e larger and more pro

.
,

du c t iv e veins are group e d around the old vents and have been ,

found to descend as deep as m i ning operat i ons have followed them .

Ther e seems to be no reason why t h e y should not des c end to

great depths .

Th e country rock on the walls of t he veins is propylitised to a

-
, ,

moderat e ly hard gray rock When two or more v ei ns run parall e l

.

with each other as th e y do in all th e Hauraki mini n g centr e s

, ,

the country rock between the v ei ns is often entir e ly altered or

-
,

propylitise d .

I n the Tham e s district the distance b e tween the numerous ,

parallel veins which traverse the g old e ld seldom exc e eds 2 00

yards and in almost every instan c e th e veins are s e parat ed from
,

each other by a narrow belt of hard unaltered andesite These .

hard bands or ba rs as the mine rs term them possess the sam e

, ,

general strike and dip as the veins and in cross sect i on pres e nt ,
-

t h e appearanc e of l e nticular and hourglass shap e d masses They -

.

vary from a f e w feet to 30 yards in width .

The country rock has b e en found to be propylitised down to a

-

d e pth of nearly 10 0 0 feet below sea l e v e l wh i ch is th e greatest -

,

depth reach e d by mining op e rations up to th e pr e s e nt time .

The propylitisation of t he andesites is not wid e spread but ,

c on n e d t o small areas grouped around th e old volcanic vents .

Away from the eruptiv e c entres th e andesites have su ff e red ,

surfac e decomposition but are not propyl i tised , .

The propylit i sa t ion was apparently e ff ected by hot mineral

waters circulating in fissures wh i ch are now ll e d wi t h ve i n
matter F rom these ssu re s the mi n eralised w aters a c ted on the
.
 O RE D EP O S I T S G E N ET I C ALLY C O N S I D E R E D . 1 13

rock on e ach wall ; and where the ss u r e s wer e near eac h o t her ,

th e m etasoma ti c ag e nc i es opera ti ng from one ss u r e m et t hos e , ,

coming from th e o t h e r Wh e re the proc e ss e s of al te ra ti on did .

not m eet narro w irregular sh e e tl ik e mass e s of unal ter e d rock

, , ,

th e bars of the m i n e rs w e r e left b e twe e n the v e in s su r es -

.

A t Waih i a n d surroun di ng d i s t ri cts t he veins are pr i ncipally

, ,

compos ed of chalc e don i c quart z possess ing all the chara c t e ri s ti cs ,

of solfat ari c or i g i n S om e of th e larg e r lod e s can be t raced on .

t h e surfac e for a d i s t ance of f e et but th e l e ngth of the ,

majority i s und e r 5 0 0 0 fe e t .

Be s i des the v e in s having l i n ea r e xtens i on th e r e are many hug e ,

mush r oomshap e d mass e s of chalced onic quar t z clos e ly r e s e mbl i ng ,

in form t h e s i l i c eous deposits now forming in th e volca n i c r e g i ons

around Rotorua and L ak e Taupo .

A t Kuao t unu and G reat Ba rr ie r I sland t her e ar e many of these

mushroom shaped deposi t s in some cas e s covering hundreds i n
-
, ,

o th e rs t housands of acr e s A t Kuaotunu t hey ar e more or l e s s

, .

circular in s hape and s e ldom e xc e ed 2 0 f e e t i n thickness

,
.

A t G reat Barri e r I slan d the larg e st d e pos i t is of an unusual ,

charac ter 1
It i s nearly 2 m i les long h alf a mile wid e a n d
.
, ,

from 5 0 to 7 00 fe e t thick .

The pip e i s c omple t ely lle d wi t h mineral matte r I t has b e en .

i ntersected i n fo u r m i nes in a distan c e of a mil e and opened up , ,

by lev e ls for many hundreds of ya rds It varies from 1 2 to 4 0 .

f ee t i n w i d th and i s filled wi t h v e ry de n s e banded chalced on i c

,

qua rtz in wh i ch i ron and s i lver sulphides are s pa r i ngly d i s

,

tribute d .

The evidence furnished by t he mine workings implies t hat t he

overlying mushroom or umbr e lla of quartz was depos i ted on th e
surfac e from th e r mal wat e rs i s s u in g from a ss u r e i n t h e an de s it e .

Th e molybd e nit e depos its at Jeff s Camp in t h e Hodgki nson ,

,

g o ld e ld in Qu ee nsland
,
ar e d e scr i b ed by W E Cameron 2 as , . .

roughly c i rcular or oval shape d outc rops of quartz or blows ,

-
, ,

carrying wolfram and na t iv e bis muth .

The blows wh e n follow e d down d e velop into i rr e gul ar p i p e

, ,

shap e d masses surroun ded on a ll sides by gran i te wh i ch is t h e

, ,

co u ntry rock Wh e n t he quartz i s extracted there remain only

-
.
,

e mpty pipe s or vents .

These p i p e l i k e or e bodies poss ess a pecul i ar in te rest from a

- -

g e ne t ic s tand po i n t Th e y appear to closely r e s e mbl e t he s i l i c e ous

.

p i pes formed i n rhyolite by th e hot springs in t he Rotorua

1
J . P rka ,

T he G eol ogy an d Veins o f H au raki G o ld e lds ,

T r a ns .

N . Z . I n s titu te M i n ing E n g ine er s , ol i p 1 37, 1 8 97 v . . . .

2
W al te r E C am r n .

eo
l fram a n d M ly d n e M n
,
Wo o b e it i i g i Q ee
n n u ns
l and,

Q ue e ns la n d G eo ] S u r v ey R ep or t, N o 1 88 , p 7 , B ris an
f
. . . b e 1 90 4 , .

8 .
 114 MININ G GEOLOGY .

volcanic region and the mushroom shap e d quartz blows at ,

- -

Kuaotunu .

S everal of the massive d e posits of chalc e donic qua rtz a t Waihi

are stated by F rank Rutl e y to be r e placements of the an desi t e
1
c ountry ro c k -
.

A similar r e placement of andesite by silica is d e scr i b e d by

Spurr as oc c urring at M onte Cri s to district i n Wash i ngton 2
, .

He mentions that t h e s ilic ica t ion has proce e ded un t i l most of t h e

rock is made up of quartz wh i ch he says varies from coarsely to , , ,

very n e ly crystalline in structure and conta i ns sulphides c h ie y , ,

blende pyrit e s ; and chalcopyrite in lenses of ore concentrat e d

,

along j oint p1anes bedd i ng planes and c on tacts

-
, ,
.

Spurr continues Thus we hav e a complete and gradual transi ,

tion from andesite to a sulphi d e ore with a quartz gangue by the , ,

progressiv e r e pla c ement o f t h e original materials by s i lica a n d

metall i c sulph i des .

I n 18 94 and 1 896 the author mad e an exhausti v e examination ,

of the Hauraki and e sit e s for gold and s i lver .

The samples subj e c t e d to examination were s e lect e d in s itu

, , .

Th e analyses wer e conducted by th e cyanide test on s amples ,

ranging from two to v e pounds in weight The pulv e rised .

material wa s l e ached w ith a 0 3 per cent aqueous solution of pure .

potassium cyan i d e for seventy two hours -

.

The cyan i d e solut i ons and washings w e r e e vapo rat e d u xe d ,

with pure lith a rge and the result i ng but t on of l e ad cupelled , .

S i multaneous tes t s w ere made on pure subs tan ces so as to check ,

the results .

All the and e sit e s were found to contain gold at the rat e of 1 5 g r .

per ton and silv e r varying from 3 g r to 30 g r p e r ton of rock

,
. . .

Th e aug i t e andesit e at 30 0 0 feet from th e mou t h of th e

-
,

M oa n a ta ia r i tunnel conta i ned 1 % g r of gold and 3 g r of silver to , . .

th e ton and the hyp e rsthene aug i te and e s ite from th e wat e rfall - -
, ,

in Waio tahi Creek near the F ame and F ortun e mine contain e d , ,

1 4 g r of gold and 30 g r of silver

.
3
, . .

A petrolog i cal examinat i on of the rocks showed that the felspars

were often kaolinised and the pyroxenes generally much alter ed 4
, .

The samples were s e l e cted from the least altered rocks obtain ed ,

and in no c ase did th e y contain v i sible pyrites .

1
J P a1k an d F R u l y ,
. N s o n Rh y l
. s te
f th e aura G olde lds , ote o ite o H ki
Qu a r t J ou r na l G eol S oc , L n d n ,
.
,
1 8 99 . . o o lv . .

2
. . p . .

J E S u rr, U S G eol S u r v ey T we n ty S ec on d A n n u a l R ep or t, 1 90 01 .

P t
ar I I O re D . s s,

p 833 epo it . .

3
J P k ar ,

T he G l y a n d V n s f au ra eo og
G ol d e lds ,

T ran N ew ei o H ki s
.

Z ea la nd I ns t M E , 1 897, p 5 2
. . .

1
J. ar

P k
S m ,
nd s o e A e ite
s fr m th e T h a m s G ol d e l ds , T r a n s N ew

o e .

Z ea la n d I n s ti tu te , v ol i , p 4 35 xxx v . . . .
11 6 MIN IN G GEOLOGY .

charg e d to gal e na from th e V esuvian mine F r eihung in Bavaria , ,

.

I n thes e th e b r e a n d annular r i ngs coul d be eas i ly recogn i s ed ,

b ei ng extr e m e ly pla i n on polish ed surfaces 1

.

M r R B A u dr em on t (B u ll d e la S oc G ol B e lg iqu e) stat e s that

. . . .

in a pitchblende min e at Joachimsthal in Bohemia a pi e ce of , ,

carbon i s e d wood from a dec i duous plant was found in a ssu re , ,

ll e d with volcan i c tu ff at a d e pth of 915 f ee t .

I n th e tu fts assoc i at e d with the Hauraki gold b e aring andes i tes -

,

mass e s of wood partly or wholly s ilic ie d and spangled with nests ,

and v e ins of iron pyr i tes are of common occurrence ,

.

T h e M artha lo d e and i ts num e rous ramify i ng branches a n d , ,

th e S i lverton Union and Amaranth lod e s at Waih i are all con

, , , ,

t a in e d in an area of abo u t a square mile Th e huge lod e s w i d e .

,

zones of s il ic i e d and e sit e and ex te nsiv e propylit i sation of the

and e s i te prov e that Waih i was an area of int e nse hydrothermal
,

acti vity som e time prior to the eruption of the later rhyolit e
o ws which now form the plains and wrap around the M artha
, ,

and Silverton veins .

The propylitisation has already been shown by the Waihi mine

workings to e xtend to a d e pth of nearly 8 0 0 feet below pr e sen t
water lev e l that is some 4 0 0 feet below sea l e vel O bviously th e
-
, ,
-
.
,

alteration of the and e site was due to the action of as c ending and
lat e rally moving thermal wa t e rs .

A t Thames and Coromandel som e of the m ost productive v ei ns

do not reach th e surface of the e nclos i ng rock 5 and th e m i n e

workings at Waih i have d i sclosed a similar f e ature in conn e c ti on

with a few valuabl e v e ins in th e Waih i Company s property 2
.

I n 1 8 98 Captain F W Hutton ,
as the r e sult of a . .
,

petrographical examination of th e Tham e s mining district con ,

clud e d that the veins w e re of hydroth e rmal orig i n 3

.

T A R i ckard a well known American geologist who exam i n e d

. .
,
-
,

the same g old e ld in 1 891 wh en discuss i ng Professor P os e p ny s ,

pap e r on The G enesis of O r e D eposits describ e s t he character ,

is tic features of t he district with the view of adducing a dditional ,

ev i d e nce of the associat i on of thermal springs and la te r e ruptiv e

rocks 4
He states t hat his examination of the ore occurr e nc e s and
.
-

vein structure though incomplete led him to con clude that the
-
, ,

1
Pro fe or Fra z P p y ss n os e n ,
T h e G en esis of Ore D ep os its , p 1 2 9, 1 90 1 . .

2
P 0 M o rga
. N ote . n,

s on th e G l y , Quar eo og R fs , a n d M n ral s f tz ee i e o
th e Waih i G ld ld T

o e ,
r a ns. A u str I n s titu te of M in ing En g in e ers , v ol
. .

viii .
p . 1 68 , 1 90 2 .

3
F . W
O u th e R c s f th e au ra
. H tton
u G ol de l d , T 7 a n3
,
ok o H ki '
.

A u s t A ssoc A d v S o ,
. vi p 2 4 5 , 1 888 ; a n d S u rc f G ld a th e
.

. vol . ii . . o eo o t

e
T h am s , N Z J ou r n a l of S c ience , 1 p 146 . . vol . . . .

4
T A . . ik
R c a rd, T he G enes is of Or e Dep o s its D s c u ss n , N e w Y r , i io ok
1 90 1 , p 2 22 . .
 oar. D EP O S IT S G E N ET I C ALLY C O N S ID E RE D . 1 17

d e posi t ion of the gold and its associated minerals h a d followed

ce r tain lines of altered coun try rock which h ad be e n e xpos e d t o -
,

th e e ffe c ts of dying but ling e ring s olfataric ag e nci e s .

Th e O ha e awa i Hot Spri ngs quicks i lv e r de pos its nort h of t h e ,

Hauraki peni nsula ar e of gr e a t importa n c e on accoun t of t h e

, ,

evid e nce which t h ey furni sh in conn e ction wi th th e g e n es is of

solfa ta ric or e d e posi ts -
.

The bas e m e nt rocks co nsist o f low e r M esozo ic shal e s and

s ands t ones ov e rlain by gr ee nsands of lo w e r T e rti ary or uppe r
Cr e tac e ous age which are cov e red wi t h o ws of basal t and bed s
,

of scoriae It i s agr e ed by all geo log i s ts t ha t th e basal t cons t i t ut es

.

t h e young e st roc k forma ti on in t h e dis t ri c t

-
.

Th e surro u n din g coun t ry is studd e d wi t h old c rate rs ; and t h e r e

is e v e rywh e re e vidence of former i ntens e volcanic ac t ivi ty .

Th e ho t springs aroun d which th e quicksilve r d e pos i ts ar e

,

cl u s tere d are situa t ed abou t two mil e s sou t h ea s t of La k e

,
-

O map e r e wh i ch i ts e lf occupi e s t h e site of an old cra te r

, .

Th e y occur along the ed g e of a o w o f basalt wh i ch is ov e r ,

lain a t t his poin t by d e pos i ts of ca lcar e ous and sil i c e ous s i nte r
and so lidied sil i ceous and carbonaceous muds t h rough wh i ch ,

s ulphur and cinnabar ar e n e l d i ss e mina t ed

y .

There ar e a lso d e pos i ts of py rites w i t h or wi thou t c innabar in ,

som e cas e s conta in in g trace s of bo t h gold and s ilv e r 1

Th e .

s in ters also contain gold and s ilv e r .

The ground around t he springs is g e nerally very hot 5 and all

a t temp ts to d e v e lop the quicksil v e r deposits have b e en frus t rated
by t h e large volum e s of hot water e ncoun tered a t shallow d e pths
be low th e s u rfa c e .

Th e d is t r i c t has been e xamined a t diffe r e n t t im e s by Cap ta i n

Hu tton Sir Jam e s H e ctor A M Ka y and t h e au thor ; bu t t h e
, , .

,

bes t d e s cri pt i on is that of Andr e P G rif th s who con ducted .

,

e x tens iv e pros pec ting a n d mining ope ra ti ons ther e i n 18 95 a n d

18 98 .

The mining O pera t ions and bori n gs disclos ed many im po r ta n t

d e tails wh i ch could not be gathered from a surfac e e xamin a
,

The iron pyrite s occu rs in ma ss e s near th e basalt and also fill ,

ing c racks a n d ss u re s i n that roc k Th e thickn e ss of th e masse s .

varies from 3 inch e s to 3 f ee t but their oth e r d i me ns ions ar e ,

extrem e ly irr e gul ar .

Clos e to the pyri t ic mass e s th e re is a hard whi te s i l i c e ous ,

sinter from 8 to 1 0 i nch e s t hick w h i ch G r if ths fo u n d to

, ,

contain gold and s ilver in places O n e assay of th e sinter gave a .

1
An dre P G rif th s T h e O h ae a wai Qu ic k s il ver Depos its T r a ns N ew
.
,

,
.

Z e a l a nd I n s tit u te M in ing E ng .
, v ol . ii .
p 8
. 4 .
11 8 MININ G GEOLOGY .

valu e of 3 per ton but unfortunat e ly th e propor ti ons of th e

,

gold and silv e r are no t g i v e n 1

.

Th e cinnabar g e n e rally occurs l i ning small caviti e s and cracks

in th e s olidi e d muds and sint e rs surround i ng the original ss u re s
in th e basalt I t also occurs impr e gnating the sinter in an e x
.

t r e m e ly n e ly divided form .

S u lphur occurs throughout the sinter in larg e r propo rtion than

eith e r the cin n abar or pyrites .

T h e hot springs give 0 11 large quantities of H 2 8 and occasion ,

ally a lit tl e steam Th e gas escaping through the wat e r of th e

.

pools and small streams is partially oxidised l i berating sulphur ,

which imparts a milky white colour to th e pools locally known ,

as whit e lakes .

The b e a c hes of the so call e d whit e lak es co n sist of sulphur

-
,

mixed with magn e tic ir on sa n d and a small proportion of alum , .

Sulphur is also b e ing sublim e d at th e vents or openings in th e ,

rocks from which 11 2 8 and S O 2 gases e scape

, .

T h e prospecting work conducted by G r if th s disclosed som e

inter e st i ng features .

A d e posit of cinnabar and pyrites crops out a t the foot of th e

hills to the south w e st of the main deposits A shaft was sunk
,
-
.

n e ar it and cut the lode at a depth of 35 f ee t The or e was 2

, .

f e et thick and consisted of small crystals of pyrites cem e nted by

,

cinnabar A t th i s d e pth t here was a strong evolution of HZ S

.
,

a n d th e h e at of the rocks increased so rapidly with the d e pth

that mining was extremely dif c u lt .

I t is noteworthy as showing th e r e c e n t formation of th e cin

,

nabar that n e ar the outcrop of this lod e was found th e charr e d

,

t runk of a tr ee part i ally emb e dd e d in hard siliceous mud Th e

,
.

trunk and roots of th e tre e were coat e d with a t h i n lm of c i n

nabar as also w e re some pi e ces of fossil kauri gum found near
,

the roots .

I n a small trench sunk over a fumarol e t h e temperatur e of th e ,

rock at a d e pth of 10 feet was found to be 1 8 5 F ahr

N o 1 bor e hole cas e d with 3 inch piping was put down to a

.
-
,
-
,

d e pth of 10 4 fe e t wher e it e ncountered th e e dg e of th e basal t

,
.

A t th e same t i me it struck a ss u r e from which hot mud was ,

proj e ct e d a h e ight of 60 fe e t abov e the s u rfac e for about forty

e ight hou rs .

The mud was succeed e d by boiling water charg e d with H28 ,

gas w hich was found to issue at a pressure of 30 1b p e r square

, .

inch .

G r ifth s further ment i ons that th e richest deposits of cinnabar

were found in clos e proximity to th e hottest fumarol e s and that ,

1
A ndre P G rif th s loo cit p 5 0 .
, . .
, . .
120 MININ G GEOLOG Y .

Baron von Richthofen who examined th e Comsto ck lode at ,

1
,

a time wh e n no abnormal te mperatu re was noticeabl e ascrib e d th e ,

origin of t h e lod e to e arl ie r solfa taric action .

Th e quicksilv e r mines at Sulphur Bank in Californ i a furnish , ,

impor tant e videnc e in r e lation to the gen e sis of or e d e po s i ts

.

A t this plac e the basement rocks are slate and san dstones ,

ov e rla i n by a freshwater form ation which in turn is capp e d by ,

a o w of basalt The geologic f e atur e s ar e almost id e n t ical with

.

thos e existing a t O haeawai .

Th e sandstones and slates are broken and s s u re d in such a

way as to form a br e ccia Th e int e rspac e s ar e lle d partly wi t h .

a still sof t or alr e ady indurat e d siliceous past e containing n e ly ,

diss e minat e d metallic sulph i d e s and partly wi th cinnabar for th e , ,

most part in coh e r e nt crusts 2

.

I n th e sam e min e th e basalt i s reduc e d to a porous m ass ,

and trav e rs e d by irregular s s u re s lle d wi th sulphur and ,

cinnabar 3
.

Hot m i neral wat e r and gas e s carrying H2 S forc e their way , ,

through th e int e rstic e s of t h e d e po sit i n the s s u r e d sandston e s

and slat e s .

The silica deposits are found in all stages of consolidation from ,

a g e latinous mass to chalcedony and alt e rnat e with layers of ,

m e tall i c sulphid e s consis t ing of cinnabar and pyrites , .

Unfor tuna t ely no i nformation is ob tainable as to th e nature of

th e fr e shwat e r formation lying b e tw e en the Cr e taceous sa nds ton e
and basalt .

According to B e cker the hot water is rich in c hlo r ides borax , , ,

and sodium carbonat e The gas e s l i be rat e d from th e wat e r con .

sist e d of 8 93 parts of 0 0 2 2 parts of HZ S 7 9 parts of marsh gas , ,

and 2 5 parts of ni t rogen in 10 0 0 parts .

Accord i ng t o D r Me lvill e th e marcasit e associated with th e , ,

cinnabar contain e d traces of gold and copper and in th e

,

e lor e s c e n c e from the m i n e workings Becker detected trac e s of

,

cobalt a n d nick e l .

I n t he upper zone only sulphur was found low e r down sulphur

and c i nnabar and in depth c i nnabar and pyrit e s occurring upon ,

or within d e posits of silica .

The St e amboat Springs in N evada furnish equ ally important , ,

1
F
. v on R i h th o fe
T h e Com stock L ode I ts Cha r a cte r a nd P r oba ble M ode
c n,
of Contin u a nc e in D ep th , S a n F ranc sc
,
1 86 6, p 5 4 i o . .

2
JL eC o te
n ,
O u M n ral V n s n ow in r r ss a S am a S r n s i e ei p og e t te bo t p i g
o p e it
c m ar d w h th e s a m

e t p
a S ul h ur B an , A m J ou r of S cie nce, k . . vol xxv . .

p . 40 4 .

3
Pro fe or F P T he G e e i of D epo s its A m ee
'

ss . ose p n
y, n s s O re ,
T r a ns . zc a n
'

I ns t . M in in g En g , v ol . xxiii .
p 1 97 . .
 O RE D EP O S I T S G E N ET I CAL LY C O N S I D ER ED . 12 1

e vidence of v e in g by h ot s rin
p g action Th e y hav e b ee n
ll in r .

fully d e scrib e d by L e Conte Beck e r and o th e r wri te rs

1 2
, ,
.

I n a valley surrounded w it h e rup ti v e rock s and u nd e rlain by

al te r e d s e d i m e n taries b e liev e d to b e of arch aean age t herma l , ,

s prings issu e from s e v e ral po i nts from no rth a n d sou t h s s u r e s .

Th e oor of t he vall e y is cov e r e d i n plac e s wi t h a sh ee t of , ,

ca lcareous s in t er in which t h e r e ar e many ss u re s h e r e and t h e r e

, ,

still op e n bu t mos tly cl os e d by t he d e pos it of sil i ca on th ei r wall s

, .

F rom som e of t he sp rin gs hot vapours and gases c h ic y COQ ,

a nd H S
2
s t ill i ss ue , .

Beck e r fo u nd in th e mineral water small amoun ts of m e rcury , ,

sulphi de and sod ium sulphide .

About a mil e to t he w e st of th e ma in group t h e r e are similar

ss u r e s yield i ng s t ea m and C O I n th e s i n ters of t h e s e occur
s e v e ral m e tallic s ulphid e s .

Beck e r analys e d t he llin g of s e v e ral s s u re s and fo u nd , ,

b e si des hydra te d fe rric ox i d e l e ad copper and m e rcury s ulphid e s , , ,

gold and silver a n d t rac e s of zinc man g an e se cobal t a n d n i ck e l

, , , , .

The occ ur renc e of m e tall i c sulphid e s i n t he s i n ters a t Sulphur

Bank Stea mb oa t Springs a n d O ha e awai Hot Spring s ; th e
, ,

mushroom capped lod e s a t Wa i hi and G r e a t Barri e r I slan d ; t h e

-

t r ee stems replac ed by sulphides found in v e ins a t gr e a t d e p th s

-
,

below th e pres e nt su rfac e afford conclusiv e e vid e nc e of th e llin g ,

of veins by hot asc e nding wa ters and gas e s in areas occupi e d by

late e r uptiv e rocks .

It is a no torious circums ta nc e t ha t ore depos its are mo s t

.
-

common i n the n ei ghbourhood of e xt e nded zones of ign eous rocks ,

as in Hungary Transyl v ania Ne vad a Colo r ado and Ne w Zealand

, , , , ,

wher e th e v e in b e ar i ng rocks ar e pr i ncipall y andesi te phonol ite

-
, ,

and t rachyte I n o ther rocks vein s ar e f e w e r and mor e s c a t ter ed

. .

F or v ei ns in th e alt e r e d la ter e ruptiv e s L i ndgr e n s ugg e s ts th e

nam e propyl i te v e ins bu t i t is doub t ful whether t h e g e n et ic
-
,

diff er e nc e b e tw ee n t h e m and t ru e ss u r e v e in s is s u f c ie n t ly -

marked to j ustify th e d i s tinction M or e ov e r t h e roo ts of propyl i te .

,

v e ins would be dif c u l t to distingu i s h from ss ur e v ei ns conn e cte d -

w it h a plu ton i c intrusion .

Profe ss or S u ess speaking of t he impo rta nc e of th e 1 01e

3
,
'

played by th e wan i ng phases of volcanic phenom e na in t h e

forma ti on of mineral v e ins says Ho t springs may b e tak e n as -
, ,

1
J L C onte O M i ner l Vein w i Progre t S tea m b t S pri g
. e ,
n a s no n ss a oa n s
co m p red with th am e t S lph r B a k A m J r f S n
a e s l xxv a u u n ,
. ou . o cze ce , v o . .

p 424
. .

3
G F B c r, . . e ke
G l y f th e Qu c s l v r D e s s f th e P eo og o iki e po it o a c i c

o e
S l p , U S G eo l S u rv ey , ash n n , 1888, p 3 3 1
. . . W i gto . .

3
Poe o
r f ss r Edwa rd S u ss , L c ur s , T he G eog r ap h ic a l J ou rn a l , v ol e et e . xx .
,

N ov 1 90 2 , p 5 2 0
. . .
12 2 MININ G GEOLOGY .

the latest phases of a whol e seri e s which led up to th e pr e sent

deposits of ore .

A c tion of a scend ing A lka line Wa ter s Th e wat e rs wh i ch r i s e to

the surfac e in th e r e g i on about L ak e Rotorua ar e alkalin e neu t ral or , ,

acid Shafts and bor e ho l e s pu t down in th e pum i c e a n d rhyoli tes

.
-
,

which constitute th e great b u lk of the rocks in this ar e a hav e shown ,

that th e alkalin e waters come from a d e ep seated sourc e whil e th e -

,

acid wat e rs hav e quite a s u pe r c ia l origin This has l e d to th e .

erron e ous conclusion that all the wa t er s have not a common origin .

L ake Rotorua is an old crater lak e the southern shor e s of which -

,

are crus t ed ov e r with deposits of s i nt e r formed by the exis t ing hot

springs Below the sinter ther e is a thick deposit of pumic e and
.
,

below th e pumic e o ws of rhyolite g e nerally pum i c e ous or p i solitic .

I n th e pumic e ther e ar e m a n y de pos its of n e ly diss e m i nated'

marcasite which were apparently formed by solfatari c action at

some e arlier dat e in th e way t hat th e d e posits of pyrit e s and
,

cinnabar are now being formed at O ha e awai Hot Springs nor t h ,

of Auckland The hot ascend i ng alkaline chlorinated waters

.

becom e partially or wholly oxid i s e d into sulphates by contact with

the decomposing iron sulphid e with forma t ion of free sulphuric
and hydrochloric acids and liberation of sulphurett e d hy drogen
,

and sulphurous acids I n this way the ascending alkaline waters

.

that happen to com e in contact wi t h masses of pyrites b e com e

oxidised in t h e superficial laye rs of th e pumice and ris e to the ,

surfac e as neutral or acid springs according to the d e gree of oxida

tion th ey have u n dergone .

Thus within a small ar e a we have the sing u lar phenom e non of

,

waters that r e ach the surface in all conditions ra n ging from the
highly alkaline to th e ex t r e mely acid according to the degree of
oxidation of the contain e d salts .

Th e composition of the salts in the alkaline waters of Ra c h e l

1

Spring in grains p e r gallon is as follows

Sodium chlorid e ,

Potassium chlor i d e ,

L ithium chlorid e ,

Sodium s u lphat e ,

Silica ,

Sodium silicat e ,

Calc i um silica te ,

M agn e sium silicate ,

O xides of iron and alumina ,

Total ,

1
T h e M ine ra l Wa ters a nd H ea lth Resorts of N ew Z ea la nd , Dr Woh l mann ,
P t
a r I , 190 4,
.
p 3 9. .
 OR E D EP O S I T S G E N ET I C ALLY C O NS I D E R E D . 12 3

Also sul phur ett ed hydrog e n and carbon dioxi de no t estimated .

I n th e major ity of c a s e s th e alkal i n e spr i ngs d e pos it lay e rs of

,

s i lica on th e walls of th e v e n t and at th e su r fac e th e latte r ofte n ,

form i ng larg e mushroom shap e d mass e s -

.

Th e composi t ion of th e wat e rs of th e Pri e st ho t spring wh i ch ,

may b e tak e n as typical of th e acid wate rs is as follows ,

G rai ns pe r g allo n .

Sulphate of soda ,

po tash trac e s
,

lime ,

magn e s i a ,

alum i na ,

iron ,

Sulphur i c acid (free ) ,

Hy drochloric acid (free ) ,

S i lica ,

96 7 7

Th e t e mperature of the alkal i n e wa te rs as their de e p seat e d ,

-

o rig i n would sugg e s t is very high varying from 180 to 2 1 2

, ,

Fahr whil e tha t of the acid wat e rs is low commonly ranging ,

from 98 to 1 10 F ahr

.

The sinte rs are found of all degrees of ha rdn e s s Th ey ar e .

soft spongy and v e sicular or hard and compact Th e sin te r

, , , .

encrus t i n g the walls of t h e ss u re s and pip e s from which th e

wat e rs escap e at th e sur fac e is generally hard and chalc e donic
a n d arrang e d in laye rs wh i ch often present a n e ribbon s t ructur e -

Hand sp e cim e ns of the hard e r sint e rs canno t b e

from much of th e o r e found a t t h e outc rop of th e
Martha lod e at Waihi I n pl a c e s t h e s i nt e rs conta i n n e ly d i s
.

sem i nated marcasit e and a t rac e of gol d and s i lv e r .

Around Roto rua we can see or e d e pos its of th e solfa ta ric clas s
still in process of formation on a scal e of consid e rable magn i tud e .

O f th e genesis of the ascending alkal i n e waters nothing is known

.

at pre s e nt .

( ) F u m a ro l ic
6 I n this class ar e group e d d e posi ts of s ulph ur
.
-
,

f e rr i c chlorid e cupric oxid e and boron sal t s forme d by t h e e scap e

, , ,

of steam and gas e ous emanations in volcan i c r e gions O f th e se .

,

sulphur and boric acid alone ar e of economic value .

Boron salts are common in many vol can i c reg i ons Th e ent i r e .

production of boric ac i d from Ita ly is ob ta i n e d from t h e s te am

fumarol e s in th e provinc e s of Pisa a n d G rosse to .

Sulphur is subl i m e d from fumarol e s and crat e rs by t h e mutual

r eac t ion of hydrog e n s u lphide and sulphur d io xid e I t is found .
124 MININ G GEOLO G Y .

impregnating vesicular lavas tufts and sili c eous sinters and mix e d , , ,

wi th volcanic muds and gypsum deposits .

Th e most important known d e posits of sulphur occur in Italy ,

Spa i n Hungary Chili Me xico Japan Uni te d S tat e s and Ne w

, , , , , ,

Zealand .

The sulphurd e posits of I taly occur in veins or len t icular

masses in rocks of Mi ocene ag e c h ie y in the provinces of
, ,

Cal tan i setta and G irg e nti .

I n N evada the sulphur b e aring rock oc c u rs in b e ds lying

,
-

b e twe e n limeston e and magnesian rocks .

111 Utah th e sulphur occurs associat e d with gypsum near an

, ,

old crater .

A t Tiki te r e in N ew Zealand th e re are e xt e nsive deposits of

, ,

sulphur in an old crat e r A large proportion of the sulphur is.

th e black amorphous variety The heat of the fumaroles and hot .

S prings is too gr e at to permit the excavation of the sulphur to a

gr e at e r depth than 6 or 8 feet .

A t Whit e I sland th e d e posits of sulphur occur in and around

,

th e crater lake mixed with gypsum The crat e r water is ho t

-
, .
-
,

and highly charged with free hydrochloric and sulphuric acids .

Th e gypsum is deposit e d in crystall i n e incrustations on the sides ,

and oor of the cra t er lak e The sourc e of the lime has not y e t
-
.

be e n d e termine d ; but the supply must be constant as gypsum i s ,

b e ing deposi t ed continuously .

The sulphur is depos i ted in the wat e r from gas springs which -

are s e en bubbling e verywhere in th e oor of the lake and also

from fumarol e s around th e margin of the crater .

6 ) C o n t a c t M e ta m o r h ic D o i
( p e p s ts A molten magma .

t e n ds to e ffe ct changes in th e rocks with which i t com e s in

contact I n th e case of ov e r o w magmas the thermal chang e s
.
,

ar e g e nerally t r i in g and in many cases hardly appr e c i abl e

, .

E v e n magmas tha t hav e cool e d in r e nts in sedimen t ari e s at

shallow d e pths hav e not al ways caus e d great chang e s in the
,

enclosing rock .

The gr e at e st alteration will naturally tak e plac e in the case of , ,

magmas that do not reach t h e surfac e but cool slowly under ,

gr e at pr e ssure .

Th e gr e a t er the mass of the intrusive magma th e slow e r wil l ,

b e the rat e of cooling ; and th e slow e r the rate of cooling the ,

long e r will th e adj acent rocks b e h e at e d .

Th e rate of cooling will be mainly dependent upon the mass

of the i ntr usion th e dis tance from the su rface a n d the rela ti v e
, ,

thermal conductivity of the adjac e nt rocks .

The changes effect e d in the country rock by the intrusion of an -

igneous magma will be mechanical and thermal .

12 6 MININ G GEOLOGY .

I t is probable that t he cir c ulation of the heated mineralised

solutions in the later phases will t e nd to effe c t a redistribution of
, ,

the ores and minerals d e pos i t e d in the e arlier stages I n some cases .
,

t he ascending wa te rs and gases may reach the zon e of surface

circula ti on and mix wi th t he met e oric waters which may then
, ,

reapp e ar as hot springs forming ore bodies and v e ins not directly ,
-

in con tact w i th th e eruptive magma .

W ee d and som e oth e r wri te rs have made an attempt to

s ub di v id e conta c t metamorphic deposits i nto groups dep e nding
-
,

mainly upon the mode of occurrence B u t the form and mode of .

d i s t ribut i on may be du e to accid e n t s of de n sity or porosity ,

composition and hydrous condition of the rocks a ffecte d rather ,

than d i ffe r e nces in genetic formation .

M oreover the mass of the magma the weight of s u pe rin c u m

, ,

b e n t rocks t he amount of hea t and subsequent contraction a n d

, ,

phase of t he af t er action are all doub tless contr i buting factors in

-
,

connection with the form and distr i bution of th e heavy metals .

M asses of ore occurring as contactdepos i ts ss u re v e ins and

, ,
-
,

bed impr e gnations in the zon e of metamorphism may all be t raced

-
, ,

t o the same gen e tic caus e s .

Professor L de L aunay of Paris supports the vi e ws of the school

.
, ,

of D e Beaumont and D au b r e e i n respect of th e primary in u e n c e of

volatil e m i neral i se rs emanating from eruptive magmas The emana .

t i ons he contends must have prepar e d th e way by in t roducing into

, , ,

t he enclos i ng rocks or simply by deposit i ng in the vein ss u r e s

,
-
,

const i tuents such as sulphid e s u or ide s chlor i des etc which s u b s e , , , .

, ,

qu e ntly dissolv e d ane w by th e circulation of s u p e r c ia l wat e rs hav e ,

rend e red the latter essential aid in th e proc e sses of al t eration 1

.

The extent of contact me tamorph i sm e ff e cted by the granite -

intrusions of Albany i n N ew Hampshir e was fully i nv e stigat e d by, ,

Hawes 2
His analyses show e d a progr e ss i ve series of changes in
.

the schists as th e y approach th e gran i te The rocks are de .

hydrat e d boric a n d silicic ac i ds have be e n added to them and

, ,

there appears to have b e en an inf u sion of alkal i at the time of

contact He regarded th e schists as having been impr e gnat e d by
.

hot vapours and solut i ons emanating from t h e grani te .

Contact deposi t s frequently lie at th e boun dary b e tween the

-

erupt i ve and the country ro c k ; also at variable distances from -

t he e ruptive but nev e r outsid e th e zone of metamorph i sm

, .

M ore par ti cularly conta c t ores occur in limeston e s ma rly and

,
-
,

clay slat e s a n d are accompanied by the usual c ontact min e ral s

-
,
-
,

garn e t v e suvianit e scapolite wollastonit e aug i te m ica horn

, , , , , ,

bl e nd e e tc and in clay slat e by chiastol i te e tc

, .
,
-
,
.

1
L de L a u n a y T he G e nesis of Or e D ep os its 1 90 1 D i sc u ss io n p 6 1 6
.
, , , ,
. .

3
G W Hawes A me r J o u r n S c i xx i 1 88 1 p 2 1
. .
, . .
, .
, , . .
 O RE D EP O S IT S G E N ET I C ALLY C O N S I D ERED . 12 7

Contact ores ar e pr i nc i pa lly magn etit e a n d spec ular i ron bu t

-
,

sulphi de s of copp e r l e ad a n d zinc oft en oc cur , , .

con tact d e pos its ar e typ i cally repr e s e nte d by t h ose of

-

in N orway R i o Tinto Tharsis and San D omin go i n , , , ,

Spa i n .

Th e pyr it i c or e mass i n M oun t L yell M ine i n Tas mania is

-
, ,

g e n e rally d e scrib e d as a r e plac e m e n t conta c t d e pos it al though its ,

g eo log i c occurr e nc e d oes no t s trj c tly conform t o t h e co m mon de

n it io n of such a body Prof e s s or G r e gory d esc r i bes i t as a b oa t
.

shap e d mass ly i ng b et w ee n talcos e sch i s t a n d conglom e ra te s

,
1
.

Th e m i ne worki ngs hav e shown t hat i t gradually t ape rs down

-

wards from the ou t crop b ei ng cu t o ff w it h a rounded base by a ,

gr e a t t hr us t plane ( too a t )
-
.

There ar e no eruptiv e s i n ac t ual c on tac t w it h t he or e body -

,

bu t dykes of d i abase and o ther i gn eous rocks occur in t h e dis t ri c t ,

a t no gr e at distanc e Th e pr e s e nc e of t h e s e dyk e s and of ban d s

.
,

of sch i s t i mpr e gna t ed w it h sulphides forming fahlbands woul d

, , ,

lead to t he b e lie f tha t a t o ne ti m e ther e ex i s t ed chann e ls of com

m u n ica t ion l e ad i ng from the e ru p ti v e magma s to t h e v e in cavi tie s -
.

I n all p robab i l ity th e M oun t Lyell sul ph i de ore bod ie s a n d be d -

impregna ti ons were forme d in t h e la ter or solfata r i c s ta ges of , ,

e rup ti ve aft e r ac t ions -

.

( )
d R e g io n a l M e t a m o r p h ic D e p o s it s To t h i s group .

belong t he d e posi ts of iron o r e which occur i n al tered sed i -

m e n t ary rocks g e n e rally of old e r Pal aeozoic age

,
.

Th e i ron probably ex i sted or i gi nally as sed i men tary d e posi ts ,

and b e cam e conc e n t ra t e d a n d r e arrang e d und e r the in u e n c e of

th e h ea t pressur e and solu t ions wh i c h caused the me tamorph i sm
, , ,

of t he enclos i ng rocks .

E xampl e s of d epos i ts of ore due to regional m e tamo rph i sm i n ,

wh i ch m e tasoma ti c proc e ss e s doub tl e ss took an activ e pa rt ar e ,

foun d among t h e valuable magnet i c d e pos i t s of Swe d en and t h e

vas t specular iron and magn etite mass e s of M ich i gan .

Mass i v e aggr e ga te s of magne tite ar e common i n chlori t e schis t -

and m i ca sch i st in all par t s of t h e globe

-
.

Metamorph i c rocks also e nclos e be d s of iron pyri te s and pyr

r h ot it e t h e or i gin of which is st i ll obscur e
, .

III M E T E O R I C WA T ERS . .

( )
a C h e m ic a l I n this group are i nclud
. e d d e posits of sal t ,

borax nitr e bog i ron ore and some d e pos it s of gypsum a n d

, ,
-
,

mangan e s e .

1
P ro fe or J W G regory T h M o nt Lyell Mi i ng F iel d T
ss .

A u t ,

e u n ,
r a ns . s .

I t Mi
ns . E n . l 1 Part I V J ly 1 90 4 p 2 8 1
vo . . .
,
u , . .
128 MININ G GEOL OGY .

M This group includ e s all sedimentary ro ck s

( )
b e ch a n ica l .

form e d by th e ag e ncy of water i n lak e s and seas also alluv ial

drift s wh e th e r loose or compac t of river or lake origin con tai n
, , ,

ing gol d t i n pla t inum a n d g e ms and ore bear i ng

, , ,
-

d e posi t s.

IV .
OR G A N I C .

V b 1 o u p e mbraces all vari e ti e s of

( )
61 e g e t a l e This
.
g
fuel rang ing f1 o m peat t o an thrac i te also graph i te 0 11 shal e
, , ,

m i n e ral o i l and natural gas

,
.

A n im a l .The m i nerals i nclud e d in t his subdivision are

l im e stone s including chalk and m i n e ral phosphates
,
.
1 30 MININ G GEOLOGY .

belonging to the r st group are i n frequent and

O re -deposits ,

therefore economically subordinat e in impo rtanc e to those of the

se c ond group They include according to Vogt
.
,

( )a The o c currences of titani c iron ores in basi c and semi basi c -

eruptives .

( b) Chromite in peridotite .

( )c S ulphide deposits i n c luding the ni c keliferous py r rhotite of

,

Sudbury in Canada ,
.

( )
d Platinum metals in highly basic eruptive ro c ks
-
.

() e Copper and metalli c ni c kel iron in serpentinised peridotite .

That sulphides c a n be segregat e d from e ruptive magmas in the

rs t conc e ntration has yet to b e proved and it is still doubtful
how far V ogt s c onclusions respe c ting the occurrence of sulphide

or e as a product of primary segregation from a molten magma

, ,

a re admissibl e .

I n all cases metasomati c pro c esses a re sa id to have played an

important part in th e formation of these valuable depos i ts .

111 the e ruptive after action group V ogt i n c ludes cassiterite

-
,

and apat ite veins and ore deposits of contact metamorphic zone - -
.

Cassiterite deposits are everywhere conne c ted with acid crup

t iv e s principally granite and oc c asionally qu a rt z po rphyry and
, ,
-

rhyolite Partly for this reason and partly because of the

.
,

chara c teristi c paragen e sis of u or ide bora t e and phosphate , ,

minerals he supports the common view that tin deposits are

,
-

genetically connect e d with granitic eruptions a n d that various ,

volatile u oride s took part in th e ir formation .

Cassiterit e veins were forme d he thinks by p neu matoly tic , ,

1
p ro cesses that is by the action of gases and water at high
, ,

t emperature and pressure .

H e further urges that they were formed immediately after the

eruption and before t he c omplete cooling of the granite one
, ,

proof o f which h e thinks is the o cc urren c e of tin vein mine rals in

, ,
-

veins of pegmatite in th e granite .

Cassiter it e veins are admittedly independent of the immediately

adj acent country rock and for t his r e ason seem to be mo r e nearly
-
,

related to deposits of magmatic s e gregation than to conta c t meta -

morphi c d e pos i ts .

I t is probable that the magmatic segregation of chromite in

peridotite was in some cases e ffe ct e d by pneumatolytic agencies
b e fore the complete cooling of the magma It i s not uncommon .

to h n d chromi t e in v ei n like masses that have the appearan c e of

-

hav i ng be e n segregat e d i n cavit i es of c ontra c tion in the pasty

1
Pn eumatoly s i s is a term rs t u sed by B unsen to describe th e c ombi ned
actio n o f gases a nd water .
 T H EO R I ES o r V E IN F O RM AT I O N . 1 31

magma As the agency of unde rground wate r cannot hav e been

.

act i v e i n this class of ore d e posit t he aggregat i on must hav e be e n -

,

e ffected by metal bearing s t eam and gas e s occluded i n th e igneous

-

P e gmatite veins while generally conne c ted w i th grani t ic ,

e ru p ti ons s ee m to be of lat e r format i on than the ca ssiterite veins

, .

They often pass into quartz a n d frequently possess sha rp w e ll ,

de n e d walls wh i ch suggest the ir forf na tion i n shr i nkag e cracks

by p n e u m a toh y da to gene t ic ag e ncies in t he wan i ng phas e s of t h e
-

aft er act i ons d ev e loped by th e progress i v e cool i ng of t he eru p ti ve

-
,

ma gma Teall h as sugg e sted that micrope gma tite is an eu t ec ti c

.

wh i ch crystallis e s at the lowest poss i bl e temperature a n d re ,

pr e s e nts i n c e rta i n rocks th e n a l mo t her l i quor from which th e -

o th e r minerals have crystallis e d ou t .

The di ffe r e n t phases of af t e r ac ti on must nec e ssar i ly m e rg e i n t o -

each o ther and henc e we may e xpect to n d as w e do ti n v e in

, , ,
-

minerals and e v e n c a ss it erite in veins of pegma tite .

Among ore deposi t s of contact m e tamorph i c origin V ogt in -

,

c lu de s the or e bod i es wh i ch occur with in th e m e ta morphos e d

-

contact zon e of d ee p e ruptiv e s esp e c i ally grani te

-
,
.

He d i s t i ngu i shes s e veral typ e s of contact d eposit Th e -

.

Christian i a typ e i nclude s i ron or e d e pos i ts tha t appea r t o have -

b e en formed befor e t h e solidi ca tion of th e grani ti c magma .

Th e se ores are n e ver foun d i n the gr ani te but al ways i n t he ,

adj acent rocks I f they h a d been introduced aft er th e cooling of

.

th e magm a they would also hav e been depo sit ed in th e granite

, .

Th e eruptiv e magma i s b e l ie ved to be the sourc e of th e

me tal which is ex pelled in th e heated steam into t he surround
.
i ng rocks .

I n 1 90 2 Weed proposed t h e following provisional g e n e t i c

1
,

c la ss ic a t ion bas e d on t ha t of V ogt

(
L I g n e ou s magmatic s e gr e gation )
( )
a S i liceous .

( )
6 Bas i c .

11 I gneous ( e manation deposits )

.

( )
a Contact m e tamorphic d e posits -
.

( )
6 V eins ( related to magmat i c v ei ns and d i vis i on IV
III F umarolic
. .

IV G as aqu e ous (pn e u m a toh yda to genetic) d e posits

.
- -

( )
a Fi lling d e pos i ts .

( )
b Replacement deposi t s .

1
W H Weed . . O re D epo s its near I gneo u s Co nta c ts
,

T r a ns A , . mer .

I ns t M E
. v ol xxx iii ,
1 903 p 71 5
. .
, , . .
1 32 MI N IN G GEO L OG Y .

V . M eteoric waters
( ) Underground
a .

( )
6 S u e r c ia l
p .

I n this c las s ica tion the maj or subdivisions are based upon
magmatic segr egation at one end and cold a queous deposition at
the oth e r w i th i nt e rmediate groups chara c teristic of the diff e rent
,

phases of erup t ive after a c tions -

.

Weed divides magmati c segregations into two groups namely , ,

S ili c eous and Basi c The latter embra c es deposits of iron c opper
.
, ,

e tc
.
,
found at igneous borde r s and as dykes and the former the ,

ore bear i ng pegmatites with quartz v e ins as extreme e xamples

,
1 -
.

This is a dist i nct departure from V ogt s con c eption of magmatic

segrega t ion I t is almo s t certa in that the segregation of ores

.

from basi c magmas and th e formation of cass i ter i te and pegmat i t e

,

ve i ns ar e genetically connected with the after act i ons of de e p

,
-

seated erup ti ons and as such must in some degree be relat e d and
, , ,

merge into each other But this genetic conne c tion whil e i t .
,

increases the dif c u lty of formulating a satisfac t ory c la ss ic a t ion ,

ha rdly j u s tie s th e subdivision proposed by Weed .

Th e synthetic exper i ments of D au b re e seem to support the

views of V ogt Beck and other observ e rs who maintain t hat
, ,

cass i teri te a n d pegmatite veins are formed by gaseous and aque

ous e manat i ons and not by direct segregation
,
.

G ol d is commonly assoc i at e d with acid ro c ks but it do e s not ,

o cc ur in such a mann e r as to suggest dire c t segregat i on 111 .

Queenslan d Ne w South Wal e s and N ew Z e aland it i s found in

, ,

quartz v e ins i n granite and quartz porphyry but in these cas e s the
-
,

veins m anifestly ll contraction c ra c ks .

Weed strongly dissents from the view expressed by Van Hise ,

that meteoric waters are an important creative fa c tor in the for

mation of ore veins He thinks however that primary hot ore
-
.
, ,

bear i ng solutions and hot vapours m a y rise into th e zone of

circulating meteoric wate rs heating the latt e r and charging th e m ,

with metall i c salts and such a c tive mineral solvents as u orin e ,

chlorine and bo ron He summarises his views relating to the

, .

formation of contact deposits as follows -

Contact metamorphic ore deposits oc c ur about the margin

of intrusive masses of granular i gneous rock either at the actual ,

contact or in the zone of metamorphosed sedimentar i es The .

depos i ts of e conom i c value oc c ur only where strata or blocks of

impur e limestone have been crystallis e d as garnet i f e rous or
act i nolite cal c ite rocks with cons e quent porosity
-
,
The ore .

minerals are intimately associated with these alum i nous silicates ,

1
Weed ,
Z oe . cit p 7 17
. .
1 34 MININ G GEOLOG Y .

Th e latter do not compare with the fo rme r as an e f c ie n t

cause .

T h e o ry o f L a te ra l S e c re t io n According to this th e ory it . ,

is assum e d that m e t e oric wat e rs percolating t hrough the c ountry

rock by the aid of carbon dioxid e and alkalies dissolve out
, ,

c ertain c onstituents which are afterwards d e posited in fissures ,

ther e by forming mineral veins -

.

The origin of the theory is unknown but it is certai n that ,

D elius in 1 7 7 0 G e rh arde in 1 7 8 1 and L asius in 1 7 89 wer e

, , ,

supporters of it th e latte r basing his conceptions u pon a c ar e ful

,

e xamination of the veins of th e Hartz mountains 1

.

I n 184 7 Professor Bischof of Bonn a distinguished geologi s t

, , ,

and chemist in his fascinating T ex book of Che mica l a nd P h y sica l
t
,

G eolog y dis c usses the chemical processes which take plac e when
,

met e oric waters and different kinds of aqueous solutions com e in

conta c t with rocks His work crea t ed a new s c ie n ti c basis of
.

r e sear c h in this branch of economi c geology He contended that .

ores were obtained by leaching from th e rocks travers e d by th e

v e ins and suggested the possibility of the v e in constituents
,
-

being found in th e adj ace n t r ocks .

I n 18 5 5 Forch h a m m e r th e famous chemist of Cop e nhagen

, , ,

found traces of lead copper and zin c in the r oo n g slates of , ,

N orth Wales a discov e ry which was held to a ff ord conclusiv e

,

proof of the or i gin of ore v e ins by processes of lateral secretion -

.

I n 18 7 3 Prof e ssor F S a n db e rg e r of Wurzburg dis sa tis e d with

,
.
, ,

the meagre results obtained from th e e xamination of sedimentary

rocks dir e cted his attention to a systematic chemical investigation
,

of the rocks t raversed by ore veins in di e r e n t mining centres in -

the Black F orest and of the v e in stuff itself ,

-
.

I n clay slate he discovered copper zinc l e ad arseni c antimony

-
, , , , ,

t i n cobalt and nickel in sandstone lead and copper ; whil e

, , ,

ti tanic and phosphori c acids were found to be present e verywher e

in small quant i ty .

S a n db e rg e r s r e sults showed that a clos e r elationship exist e d

b e tween v e in contents and the country rock ; but he was by no

- -

m e ans s a tis e d as to the origin of the heavy metals He accord .

in g ly extend e d h i s investigation to an examina t ion of the con

s t itu e n t s of ign e ous ro c ks .

He crushe d large samples of rock and separated the cons t ituent

minerals by solutions of different densities Samples of th e .

individual crystallised silicates thus isolated were subj ected to

c areful analysis and by this means w er e found all the usual
,

elements p r esent in metall iferous v e ins .

1
G eorge :Las i u s O b servations on th e H artz M ounta ins Ores a nd
, ,

M in er a ls v ol ii Han o ve r 1 789
,
. .
, , .
 T H E R ES O I O F V E IN F O RM A T I O N . 1 35

Thus in olivin e h e foun d iron nickel c opp e r and cobalt in , , ,

aug it e coppe r cobalt i ron n i ck e l lead ti n a n d z i nc ; and in t h e

, , , , , , ,

m i cas many bas e metals Gol d mercury and tellurium were not .
, ,

sought for .

I n 1880 S a n db e rg e r announced his beli e f that t he mineral

,

con t en t s of veins w e r e d e r i v e d not from some unknown d e pth , ,

but from the immediat e wall rock -

.

G old b e aring v ei ns are common in slates and sandstones of

-

marin e origin and as s e a wa te i according to the announcem e nt - '

of S on s ta dt in 18 7 2 and of Profe s sor L iv e rs e dg e i n 1 893 con tains , , ,

according t o th e la tte r amounts ranging from 0 5 4 to 1 grain to ,

t h e ton it is held by the exponents of lateral se c r e tion t hat the

,

sea is t h e r e for e t h e source of th e gold in veins trave rsing ma rin e

, ,

s e dimentari e s .

I t is ma i nta i ned that wh e n sedimen ts are formed on the oo r

of the sea t h e y must nec e ssarily e n t angl e a c e rtain propo rtion of
s e a water and t hat when these s e dim e n ts b e com e consol i dated
,

th e gold must r e ma i n in th e m .

Th e theory of lat e ral secre t ion received a n e w impulse from th e

res e arch e s of S a n db e rg e r I t seem e d compet e n t to e xplain t h e .

origin of many orev e ins and although strongly opposed by ,

Prof e ssor S te lz n e r of F r ei b e rg and Professor P os e pn y of P r z i , , ,

bram it found much support in America in a mor e or less

, ,

m od i e d form .

Thus E mmons 1 discus s ing t he manner in which he consid e rs ,

t h e L e adv i lle ore d e pos i ts w e r e prod uced summari s es his vi e ws ,

0 11 ore formation in g e n e ral as follows

-

( 1) O r e d e posi ts hav e b e en d e pos ited from solu ti on rar e ly in

-
,

op e n cavi ti es mos t fr e qu e ntly by metasoma t ic interchang e ,

.

( ) Solu ti ons do not n e c e ssar i ly come dir e c t ly upwa rd s bu t

2 ,

simply follow th e e as ie st chann e ls of approach .

( ) Th e mat e rial was d e rived from sourc e s with i n limited and

3
conc e ivabl e d i sta nc e v e ry ofte n the older in t rus i v e r ocks ,
.

E mmons while s upporting th e principle of lateral s e cr e tion

, ,

disclaims th e narrow views of S a n db e rg e r who limi t ed t h e sourc e ,

of the ve i n con te n ts to th e wall rock i n immediate conta ct with

- -

the vein 2
.

I n th e cri t ical discussion which follow e d th e publica tion of

Professor P os e pn y s paper 0 11 The G enesis of Ore D epos i ts i n

,

18 93 Blake a n d W i nslow r e a f rm ed their b e lief t hat t he z i nc and

,

lead ores of Wiscons i n were form e d by lateral secret i on

- 3
.

F E m m o ns T h e G enes i s o f Certain O re D epo s its

1
S . .
,
T r a ns A m

,
. .

I ns t
3
. M E . .
, v ol
p 12 5. xxx . . .

T he G e n es is of Ore D eposits , 1 90 1 , p 1 99 . .

3
L oc . cit ,
p 1 88
. . .
1 36 MI N IN G GEOLOGY .

Becker whil e strongly dissenting from P ose pny s view that

,

metasomatic repla c ement was inc apable of producing such pro

n o u n c e d ore bodies as those at L eadville makes a clea r statement
-
,

of the supposed operation of metasomatic proc e sses He says .

,

Replacement like solution must o c cur along ss u r e s or channels

, , ,

and metasomatic ore bodies will present analogies in form to th e

-

Open spaces of caves of solution ( loo cit p .

,
.

Rickard dis c usses the problem of ore fo r mation from a wide -

standpoint and is n ot a dogmatic suppo r te r of the ext r e me doc

,

trines of e ither as c e n sion or late ral se cr etion 1

He a f rm s that .

there is n o ground for the belief in the existen c e of a r ese rvoir of

water at g reat depth and maintains that all ascending water
,

must at one tim e have been desce n ding water .

This last ca n only be true in regard to meteoric wate rs S o far .

as the existen c e of deep seat e d water is c once rned his view is not
-
,

in accord with the hydrofusion theory of modern petrologists .

Rickard poss e ssing a personal knowledge of the g old elds of

,

Australia and Ne w Zealand discusses the probable orig i n of the ,

veins of the Thames g old e ld in the latter country ; and in the

main agrees with Captain H utton that th e y were formed by pro
cesses of lateral secretion by th e rmal waters .

Professor J L e Conte i n a carefully prepared thesis combats

, ,

the extreme views of both P os e p ny and S a n db e rg e r (toe c it p

'

,
. . .

He makes an earnest attempt to combine what is true in

each a n d reconcile their di ff erences I t is manifest however
, .
, ,

that h e leans favourably to the sid e of lateral se c retion processes ,

al though not de n e d as such .

He conside rs both sid e s partly right a n d both pa r tly w ro n g .

Asce n sionists he thinks are righ t in de riving metals mainly

, , ,

by as c ending solutions from great depths but wrong in imagin ,

ing th e se depths to be an exceptionally metalliferous barysphere

and wrong in not allowing subordinate contributio n s by lat e ral
curr e nts from t h e wall rock high e r u p-
.

The lateral s e cre tion is ts on the othe r hand are right he thinks
-
, , , ,

in deriving metals by l eaching from the wall ro ck but wrong in -

,

not making the thermospher e the main source .

L e Conte succinctly summarise s his views in the following

terms '

( )
1 O re -
deposits using the term in its widest sense may tak e
, ,

pla c e from many kinds of waters but especially from ,

alkalin e solutions ; for these are the natural solvents of

metallic sulphides and metalli c sulphides are usually the
,

original form of such deposits .

1
L oc . cit. , pp.1 90 a nd 2 11 .
1 38 MININ G GEOLOGY .

cha ra c te rs are certainly due t o the e e c t of descending

'

waters .

( )
8 That the maj ority of ore deposits if not all are partly -
, ,

deposited in pre existing op e nings and are partly replace-

,

m e nts of wall rocks -

.

From the above he seems to attach too little importa nce to the

genetic connection existing between ore deposits and eruptive
processes and pla c es much dependence upon the formative power
of meteoric waters .

Professor Ke m p contends that mining operations in America

1

show conclusively tha t mines become drier with incr e asing depth
and deep mining in South Africa Australia and N ew Zealand , ,

adds con rm a tion to this view The dryness of mines in dep t h .

seems to destroy the foundations of V an Hise s main contention

respecting the u nderground circulat i on of meteoric water .

V an H i se admits that there are ore deposits which have a dir e ct -

ign e ous origin but thinks they are of limit e d e xtent I n his
, .

rej oinder to Kemp he seems to som e what modify his former con
c e p t ion with respect to the r 61e of meteori c waters in v e in forma -

tion and admits that the r l e of igneous intrusions may b e very

,
2
considerable .

I t has b e en suggested by the oppon e nts of lateral secretion

that the m e tals contained in the silicat e minerals of eruptive rocks
ar e not primary but seconda ry consti t uents According to t h e ir
, , .

vie w lat e ral s e c r e tion is only a process of concentration

, .

A s c e ns io n O f S o lu tio ns Accor ding to this theory i t i s . ,

assumed that the material whi c h lls a lode has b e en brought in

solutio n from gr e at depths and not from th e rocks in th e immediat e
,

vicinity of the lode .

I n his classic memoir on T h e G enesis of Or e D ep osits the ,

late P r ofessor P os e pn y an ardent su pporter of the as c ension hypo

,

thesis laid great stress upon the occurren c e of sulphur and

,

cinnabar at S ulphu r Bank impregnating a de c omposed basalt and ,

still mildly in pro c ess of formation from gaseous emanations and

hot mineral waters .

Similar con ditions exist at S tea m boat S prings in West e rn

N evada wh e re we hav e an exampl e of a mineral vein in proc e ss
,

of formation The matrix is banded siliceous ve i n stone conta i n

.
-

ing iron and copper sulphid e s sulphur and metall i c gold , ,

.

S a n db e rg e r who was an equally strenuous supporter of lateral

,

se c retion obj e c ted to this view on the ground that he knew of no

, ,

1
J F . m ,
. Ke p
T h e R6l e f

u u s R c s in th e o Aq eo ok F ormatio n o f Vei n s,
T h e G en es is of Or e D ep os its , 1 90 1 , p 6 8 1 . .

3
C R Va n
. Hi e
s , T h e G en e sis of Or e D ep os its , 1 90 1 ,
. D i scu ss ion , p 76 3
. .
 O I
T H E R ES or VEI N FO R M AT I O N . 1 39

spring which deposited mineral incrusta t ions on the walls of t h e ir

chann e ls He regarded t h e Sulphur Ban k and Steamboat Sp rings
.

phenomena as exceptional .

Becker who made a special examination of the d e po sits at

,

Sulphu r Bank a n d S t eamboat Springs s t rongly opposed t he views ,

of t he ex t rem e asc e n sionists And wi t h r e ga rd t o the orig i n of.

the deposits he e xpr e ss e d th e following views

,

Th e ev i d e nce
is ov e rwhelming that t he cinn a bar pyr i te and gold of the quick , ,

s i lver mines of t h e P a c ic slop e r e ached t he i r present pos it io n s

in hot solutions of doubl e s u lphid e s which w e re leached out fr om ,
1
masses underlying th e gran i t e and th e grani t e its elf F u rt h e r .

on h e says : I r e gard many of the gold vei ns of California as

having an origin entir e ly simila r to that of t he quicksilver

deposits .

Beck e r s views postulate a new hypothesis which lies midway

,

betw ee n the as cension and lat e ral secre t ion theori e s and e xpresses -
,

our pres e nt knowledge of oreformation more nea rly than th e

e xtr e me views of P os e pn y and S a n db e rg e r .

According to th e de n it ion of la t eral secretion by the latter ,

t h e d e sc e n d ing wate rs b e ca me charg e d with mineral matter by

l e aching th e rocks in the region of vadose circulation O n the .

oth e r hand P os e pn y ass umed tha t the asc e nding wa t ers b e cam e
,

charged a t gr e a t d e pths by coming in con ta c t w ith a de e p seated -

b u t hypoth e tical repository of metalliferous ma t ter .

Th e m odi ca t ion sugg e s t ed by Becker favours the ascension

t h e ory and di ffers only from th e lateral s e cr et ion hypothesis in

,
-

assuming a d ee p e r sourc e for the mineral conte n ts of the v e in

matter .

S u m m a ry F rom t h e da ta r e co rd e d in th e pr e ceding pages

. ,

we may deduce the following conclusions r e spe c ting th e g e nesis of

ore deposi t s
-

( )
1 That t he maj ority of ore d e posits are g e n e tically connect e d
-

with ign e ous i n t rusion s wh i ch may be plutonic or volcan i c .

(2) That c i rc u lating und e rgr ound wa ters a n d gas es are th e

princ i pal agents conc e rn e d i n t h e d i s s olu ti on primary ,

conc e ntration and deposition of vein ma tte r

,
-
.

( )
3 Tha t oredepo sits do not necessar i ly occupy pre e xisting -

s s u r e s and cav itie s .

( )
4 That vein llin g was in many cas es effected by metasomatic
-

repla c em e n t .

( )
5 That vein llin g waters are a scending waters bu t not
-
,

nec es sa r i ly d e epseated .

1
G . F . c Be ke
r, T h e G l y f t h e eo og o Qu i ck s il ver D epos its o f th e P ac ic
Sl ope ,
U n ited S ta tes G eol S u r vey , M n
. o ograph xx iii , . 1 8 88, p 44 9. .
1 40 MININ G GEOLOGY .

That the mine ral contents are d e rived from rocks contiguous
to the zone of fractur e or zone of metamorphism .

That the accessory agents of dissolution are heat and

pressure aide d by dissolved alkaline minerals
,
.

That precipitation from th e asce n ding wat e rs tak e s plac e

in mor e or less o rd e rly hor i zontal zones in a cc ordance
wi th the laws governing solution a n d precipitation .

That s e condary enri chm e nt is in the maj ority of cases due

, ,

to the migration of mineral c ontents from a high e r to a

lower level through the agency of des c ending m e teori c
,

waters .

The theo ries of lateral secr e tion and as c ension of solutions are
based on the f u ndam e ntal assumption that the mineral matt e r
llin g cavities was deposited from circulating wate rs Th e ir .

d i fferenc e s lie principally in th e di ff erent c onceptions as to the

direction and operation of the circulating liquids .

( )
1 The lateral secretion theory supposes
( )
a That th e ll in
g of cavities was the work of des c ending

met e oric wate rs .

( )
6 That the ll in
g matt e r was principally obtain e d from

the adj a c e nt rocks by a process of leachi n g .

The asce n sion theory assumes

(a ) That the ll in
g of veins was eff e cted by d e ep c ir c u la t

ing wat e rs ascending t hrough open or partially

, ,

op e n ssu re s .

( )
b That th e mineral and metallic contents were deriv e d
from a de e p seat e d mineralised zon e
.

M any write rs assume that as c ending and descending wate rs a re

merely units in what may be termed a hydraulic circ uit th e ,

interchange being caused by gravitation ass i sted by capillary act i on

,

and the difference of tempe rature of the ascending and d e scending

waters .

M u c h of the mov e men t it is claimed is n e c essarily lateral a nd

, , ,

towards channels lle d with ascending waters .

I t was mainta i ned by Prof e ssor P os e pny and D r Raymond

that d e scending waters w e re mer e ly oxi dis i ng and incapabl e of
depositing sulphid e s Th i s contention has however be e n succ e ss
.
, ,

fully disproved by E mmons Becker V an Hise and other Am e rican

, , ,

geologis t s who hav e shown the e xistence of s e condary sulph i d e s

,

both above and below water level or in what may be termed the
-
,

zone of vadose circulation .

 C H A P T ER VI I .

O RES A N D M I NE RA L S CONSI DE R E D
E C O N O M I CA L L Y .

CO N T E N T S Al
A l um i n i m
um A nti mo ny A rseni c A be to
u s s s
A sph ltum Barytes Bi mu th Bor x Cement C h rom i u m Co l
a s a a
Cob lt 0 0 pp Cry o l ite D iam o n d
a er F i recl y F l orite G old a u
Graph ite Gy p m Iron Le d Mag e iteM a gane e M i
su a n s n s ca

M o ly bdenu m N i ckel O il S h le Petro le m Pho ph ate R o k

a u s c
P l ti n m
a Q i c ks i lve r
u S i lver
u S late S l ph ur T lc T in u a

T un g ten Z i
s nc .

E VER Y mini n g student should possess a general knowledge of

the conditions under which the c ommonly useful ores a n d minerals
occur in N atur e and of the market condition quality and value , ,

of the m i nerals inten ded for metallurgical and manufactur i ng

purposes .

The market values are subj ect to cont i nual u c tu a t ion s and ,

the quotations given must be regarded more as a guide than a

standard of s e lling pri c es The min e rals and o r es are dealt with
-
.

in alphabeti c order .

A LUM .

The principal sou rc es of alum are alunite alum shales bauxite , , ,

and cryolite .

A lu m te o c curs in veins and masses in eruptive rocks and for

'

the most part in acid lavas of later date in which it has probably ,

been formed by metasomatic replacement attending waning

solfataric action .

A t Tolfa n e ar Civita V e cc hia in the neighbourhood of Rome it

, , ,

occurs as thin irregular veins wh ich are supposed to have been

, ,

formed in contraction c racks by th e action of hot wate rs and

-

sulphurous gases upon the felspars of the containin g trachyte .

A n important deposit of alunite oc c u rs at B u lla h de la h

M ountain in N e w South Wales I t c onsis t s of minerals rang i ng
,
.

from pu r e alunite to an impure form containing 4 0 per cent of .

silica The deposit is over a m i le long nearly three qua rte rs of a

.
,
-

142
 O RE S A N D M IN ER AL S CON S I D ERED E C O N O MI CA LLY . 14 3

m ile wide and th e thickest band of stone varies from 6 0 to 7 0

,

yards wide I t is gen et ically connec ted with felsitic dyk e s which
.
,

t rav e rse Carboniferous slat e s The averag e compos it ion of t h e .

mineral is as follows

Wat e r ,

Alumina ,

I ron oxide ,

Po tash ,

Sulphuric a c id ,

S i l i ca ,

Alum is obtained by calci n ing and washing aluni te a n d

evaporating the liquors .

N atural alum is obtained in c ons i derable quanti t i e s in E ngland

and S cotland from the coal shales and alum c lays - -
.

Bauxi t e i s an i mpo rtant source of alum and aluminium sulpha t e

c entrated alum ) i n America F ranc e and G erma ny It
( con is an , , . .

aluminium iron hydra te a n aluminous form of l i moni te conta i n

-

i ng generally fr om 5 0 to 60 per cent of alumina .

O f Am e ri can bauxi te from 65 to 7 0 per cent i s produc e d , .

in t he S tate of G eorgia and the balanc e i n Arkansas and ,

. Alabama .

The bauxite deposits i n the D epa rtment of Var in F rance are , ,

mostly massive ooli ti c and c emented by carbona t e of l i me They

, .

o c cur in old lak e b a s i ns extending westwa rd from Cannet du L uc

, .

Th e or i gin of the mineral is still doubtful but by some w r ite rs i t

1s supposed t o hav e b ee n genetically conn e c t e d w i t h solfata r i c
act i on i n and around t he anc i ent lak e s .

A t Ba ux near Arle s t he bauxite occu rs ooli t ic and as gr ain s in

, , ,

a compact l i mestone .

O nly t h e varie t i e s of ba u xite free from iron oxide ca n be ut ilised

in the manufac t ur e of alum Th e purer grad e s are used for t he .

preparat i on of aluminium hydrate from whi ch the metal aluminium ,

is man u fac tured .

Cr y olzte another i mpo r tan t source of alum still continues to be

'

, ,

d e rived from th e min e s at I vigtut in G ree n land , .

Th e aluni te of Ne w South Wales is valued at abou t 3 per ton .

The American domestic bauxi t e ranges in value from 1 4 8 to .

1 8 8 per ton
. F r e nch bauxite is d e l i v e r e d at Am e r i can seapo rt s
.

a t a somewhat lower rat e than the domestic mineral on accoun t of

the railroad freight charges -
.
144 MIN I N G GEO L O G Y .

A LU M I N I UM .

This metal is largely manufa c tur ed in G ermany A me r i c a and , ,

F ran c e from bauxite principally produ c ed in the D epartment of

Var in S outhe r n F rance ( F or B a u xi te see
, .
,

A N T I M ON Y .

The only commercial ore of antimony is the sulphide antimonite ,

the oxides are secondary produ c ts found near the out c rop The , .

sulphide generally o cc u rs in veins in schist slate and sa ndston e , ,

and also asso c iated to a small ex t ent with ores of lead bismuth , ,

and copper .

The principal produ c e rs of antimonite ar e F ran c e Alger i a I ta ly , , ,

M exico Turkey Hungary Ch i na and Canada Considerable

, , , ,
.

deposits o c cur in N ew South Wales and N ew Zealand but the ore ,

is generally of too low a grade to be payable .

The ore must be very pure to be worth handling When u nde r .

2 5 per c ent in the mine it is pra c tically impossible to separate the

.

ore from its gangue .

Antimony ores are bought by smelters on a b asis of 45 per cent

-
.

of metal ea c h unit above that being pa i d for at s c hedule rate s

, .

Und e r 4 5 per c ent there is a discount until the limit is reached

.
,

below which the or e has no commerc ial valu e E n glish smel te rs .

do not care to tou c h ores containing unde r 4 0 p e r cent of metal . .

I n America an ore to be marketable must contain not less than

,

5 0 per cent of antimony . .

O res intended for the E ngl i sh market must be free from lead ,

arseni c c opper and zinc O n e per c ent of lead will r ende r the
, , . .

ore unsaleabl e .

The size of the ore also a ff e c ts the market val u e of the dr e ssed
mat e rial whi c h should not be b roken in pieces smaller than a
,

hazel nut
-
.

A n allowan c e is made for gold and silver when present in

s u f c ie n t quantity to pay f or extraction

The smelters payments .

are based on the dry weight The percentage of m e tal shoul d b e .

d e termined by the wet assay the re assay not being s u f c ie n tly ,

reliable .

Antimony is mostly used for the manufacture of type metal -

.

I ts value u ct u a t e s conside rably

A RS E N I C .

The arsenious oxide of c omme rc e is manufactured from ars e nical ,

pyrites which is generally mined in association w ith o r es of gold

, ,
14 6 n un1 no GEOLOGY .

of rain wate r The lake contains no liquid asphalt N early

-
. .

everywhe re the d e posit i s r m enough to walk upon .

A c cording to M alo th e average compos i tion of the c rude

1
,

asphalt is as follows

The g reater part of the U nited States production is obtained

f rom bituminous sandstones in Califor n ia and Kentucky The .

bituminous sandstone of California occurs in large qua n tities at

various points between San F ran c isco and L os Angeles 2
It .

contains from 1 2 to 1 8 per c ent of bitumen the remainder being .

,

quartz sa nd -
.

The asphalt deposits of Kentucky oc c ur in n early horizontal

n e grai n ed sandstone belonging to the lower Carboniferous
-

e r iod
p .

Bituminous limesto n es are the most important sou rc e of asphalt

in F ra nce Switzerland Cuba and the States of U tah Texas and
, , , , ,

I ndian Territory in the U nited States .

The Val de Travers mine at N eu c h atel in Switzerlan d and , , ,

the S eyssel mines in F rance yield an asphalt from bituminous , ,

l i meston e extensively used for paving purposes A t S e yssel .

there are seven beds of bituminous limestone varying from 10 fe e t ,

to 2 0 feet in thickness and containing from 4 to 10 per c ent of , .

bitumen .

The Tu rkish supply is mainly derived from Albania and

Pales t ine The depos i ts in th e D ead S e a region hav e long b e en
.

notable The bitumen springs at N ebi M usa contain from 30 to

.
-

4 0 per cent of asphaltum . .

The ozokerite deposits at Boryslaw in G alici a Austria supply , , ,

p ra c ti cally the world s annual output .

B ARY T E S .

This mineral is found as irregular masses in schists and l l me

s tone I t is often associated wi t h lead ores
.
-
.

The world s production is pr i ncipally obtained from G ermany

,

G reat Brita i n U n ited States and B e lgium On e of the largest

, , .

1
Leon M al o L ,
A sp h a lte, p 2 0 , ar

. P i s, 18 88 .

2
F V G reene
. .
,
Ap
s h al t
a n d its U s e s T ra n s A m I . . n s t. AL E ,
v ol . vii
x .
,
3 5 5 , 1 888
p. .
 0 3 11s A N D MIN ER ALS CO N S I D ERE D E CO N O M IC A LLY . 14 7

known deposits occu rs at Silver I sland near the no rt h end of ,

Lake Supe rior .

Baryt e s is now largely employ e d i n t h e manufactur e of paints .

Th e price of th e raw ma ter i al varies from 1 2 3 to 2 18 per t on . . .

B AU " I T E .
( S e e
Alu m .

B I S MU T H .

M etall i c b i smuth g e n e rally occu rs in v e ins in gne i ss schist and , ,

clay sla t e accompany i ng or e s of silver cobal t lead wolfram z i nc

-
, , , , ,

and gold It i s c h ie y derived from t h e s i lv e r and cobal t m i nes

.

in Saxony a n d Boh e mia .

The p rinc i pal ores of commercial value are th e sulphi de ,

telluri d e and carbonate which ar e found ass ociated wi t h m oly b

, ,

de n ite u o rite pyr ite s chalcopyr i te and apat it e

, , , ,
.

The worl d s supply of bismu t h comes pri ncipally from the S ta te

mines in Saxony Small quan titi es come from Colo rad o Ne w

.
,

South Wal e s and Queensland , .

The supply i s greater than the demand and or e s conta in i ng le s s ,

than 5 per c e nt of the m e tal leave no margin of pro t Th e

. .

price is abou t 68 pe r pound . .

B O RA" .

This mineral occurs as i ncru s tations in old lak e bas ins i n rain
less r e gion s and mix e d w it h clay in mars hes and shallow lagoons
,
.

Col e manite which is a ca lcium bora te is found in Californ i a i n

, ,

bedde d depos its as larg e mass e s mor e or l e ss connected by ,

s t ring e rs a n d bands N ear D agg et t th e coleman i t e deposits vary

.
,

.
from 5 f e e t to 30 fe et in thickn e ss 1
.

The worl d s supply i s derived from t he Un ited S ta te s Chili

, ,

Peru I ta ly and Turk e y The produc t ion of th e United States

, , .

i s ch ie y deri v e d fr om th e col e mani te d e pos its in Californ i a .

B owie a c id which i s largely u s e d in t he manufactur e of borax

, ,

is obta i ned from th e gas e ous e mana ti ons of steam fumarol es i n

vol c anic regions The ent ir e yi e ld of it from It aly is d erived from
.

the fuma rol e s in th e Provinces of Pisa and G ros seto .

C EME N
T .

Ch e mically considered cement i s an int i ma te admixtur e of lim e ,

and clay Ther e ar e two kinds of cement in th e mark e t namely

.
,

a rt i c ia l and natural .

R C am pbell Rec o nnai sa n e o f th Borax De p it o f D e th

.
,
s c e os s a

M oj ave De ert B l let in f the U S G l S

s y N
,
2 00 u o . eo . u r ve ,
o .
,
14 8 MININ G GEOLOGY .

c e ments are made in almost all civilised c ountries

A r ti c ia l .

N a tu ra lc e m e nts are produc e d direct from rock containing

more or less the requisite proport i ons of lim e an
United States and N e w Zealand produce c on s id
,

of natural c e ment from argillaceous limestone deposits of great

e xt e n t
.

Th e hydraul i c limestone at G renoble in F rance from which , ,

the n e s t natural cement in th e world is produced occurs ,

bed 15 feet thick interbedded i n a c ompact l i mestone I ts com

,
.

position is as follows
P e r c en t
.

S i l i ca ,
to
Alum i na ,

I ron oxid e s ,

Calcium carbonate ,

M agn e s i um carbo n ate ,

traces
Water loss etc , ,
.
,

10 0 0 0

The hydraulic limestones in Ne w Z ealand are of Upp er

Cretac e ous age They vary from 2 0 f e et to 1 4 0 feet in thickness
. .

Cement manufactured from the rock at M ahurangi show e d th e

follow i ng composition

S i lica ,

Alumina ,

I ron oxides ,

L im e carbona t e ,

M agnesia carbonate
Alkalies and loss ,

10 0 0 0

Th e iron seldom exceeds 3 per cent I t mostly o c c urs as .

grains of glauconite .

N a tu ra l c e ments ar e often e qual to the best a rtic ia l Portland

cements bu t g e nerally speaking t hey lack th e uniformi ty in
, , ,

composi t ion of the a rti c ia l prod u ct .

C H R O M I UM .

Chromite of iron occu rs in irreg u lar masses in peridotite and

s e rp e nt i ne The world s supply is principally produced by
.

Turkey N ew Caledonia G ree c e Ne w South Wal e s Canada a n d

, , , , ,
15 0 MININ G GEOLOGY .

hydrous oxide of manganese mixed with a variable pe rcentage of

cobalt .

The ores of cobalt are g e n e rally found accompanying those of

nickel and silver and som e tim e s t hose of copper and manganese
,
.

Th e cobaltif e rous bands at S ku tte ru d i n N orway cons i s t of , ,

alt e rnating thin b e ds of m i ca schist and quartz schis t th e latt e r - -

,

impregnated with pyrites cobalt glan c e cobaltif e rous mispick e l and

, , ,

a li t tl e chalcopyri t e S o far th ey hav e not proved of much va l ue

. .

The hydrat e d oxid e of cobal t of N ew Caledonia is largely

expo r ted to E urope and America I t occu rs intimately associated .

w ith hydrat e d oxide of manganese which is found in irregular ,

p oc k e ts of red clay in serpentin e This c obaltif e rous wad contains .

from 2 5 to 5 p e r ce n t of cobalt and at present is the principal

.
,

source of the world s supply .

U p till th e end of 1 90 1 a consid e rable po rtion of the domestic

supply of the United States was obtained as a by product in the -

treatment of the lead ores from M ine L a M o t te in the S tate of-

,

M issouri .

C O PP ER .

The chief sou rc es of cop pe r are the sulphides prin c ipally the
yellow sulphid e and nativ e coppe r When t he ore occu rs in .

large masses capable of being c heaply mi n e d 1 to 3 per cent of ,

.

th e metal is payable Th e great bulk of th e copper annually .

placed in the market 1s produced from very low grade or e s -

,

asso c iat e d with iron pyrites and often c ontaining a little gold and ,

silver .

The most important copper mines of t he world at the presen t -

t ime are those of M ansfeld in G e r many 5 Rio Tinto and Tharsis , ,

in Spa i n 5 San D omingo in Portugal 5 L ake Superior M ontana , , ,

and Arizona in the United States 5 and M ount L yell in

, ,

Tasmania .

The world s production of c opper amounts to over tons ,

of which the Uni t ed S tates p r odu c es over 5 5 per cent .

U N I T E D S T A T E s A t L ake S uperior in M ichigan the copper is

.
, ,

found in beds of conglomerate and sandstone in t e rs tra tie d with ,

o ws of amygdaloidal diabase forming what is known as th e ,

K e weenawan series and which is probably of pre Cambrian age .

,

The c onglome rates are the most productive I n th e m the copp e r .

occurs as the cementing material 5 it has evidently been deposit e d

from an aqueous solution The diabase o ws are amygdaloidal i n .

their upper layers and o cc asionally the lower side also may be
,

vesicular 1
They contain ri c h patch e s of native copper associated
.

with native silver .

1
T A R i c k ard T h e Copp er M ines of L a ke S up er ior p
. .
,
N e w Y ork ,
.
.
 0 11115 AN D MIN ERALS C O N S I D ER ED E C O N O MI CA LL Y . 15 1

Copper i s also found in s s ur e veins crossing th e Keweenawan -

se ri es of th e nort hern end of th e peninsula Th e v e ins vary from .

10 feet to 30 f eet in wi d t h Th e y ar e riches t in th e diabas e

.
,

i n which t he copp e r occurs in the nativ e s tate being gen e rally ,

foun d in mass e s t he larg e s t mass w ei ghing nea rly 600 to ns

, .

Th e mos t productiv e min e s i n t h i s reg i on are th e Calum et

and Hecla O sceola
, Tamarack and Quincy
,
The two ,
.

fo rmer have shaf ts r e ach i ng th e great d e pth of nearly 5 0 00

fee t
.

It sho uld b e noted tha t e xtr e m e ly low grade or e containing as -

,

littl e as 1 5 p e r c e n t of coppe r ar e mad e to y ie ld large p ro ts in ,

t h e Lak e Superior dist ric t To achiev e this resul t enormous .

quanti t i e s of or e ar e min ed and stampe d .

Th e d i stinguishing f e atur e s of the M ichigan copper mines are -

t he e normous tonnag e of low g rade ore stamped t he low cos t of -

,

produ c tion and th e gr eat depth of th e mines

,
.

The production of the copp e r min e s in Butte distric t i n -

,

Montana is e v e n gr eate r than that of th e L ak e Superior m in

,

Th e mos t product i ve min e s a re the Anaconda Pa rr o t Bu t te and , ,

Boston Boston and M on ta na and Colo rado

, , .

The copper is found in east and west lod e s in gr anite The .

main lod e which runs t h rough t h e An a conda and Pa rrot mines

, ,

has proved p rod uc t ive for a dis tance of 3 m il e s alo n g the stri ke .

Th e av e rage width of t h e lod e s is 10 feet T h e coppe r occ ur s .

princ i pally as sul phides which ar e s ilv e rbearing t he propo rt ion

, ,

of s ilver varying from 5 o z to 2 o z pe r un it of c opper . . .

The Arizona copper m ines produce larg e quantities of oxides

-

and ca rbonates which occur in or n ear a Carbo nif e rous limesto ne

, ,

often nea r the poin t of contact with gr anite or with sandston e s ,

.

S P A I N AN D P O R T U G AL Th e copp e r depos its a t Rio T i n to

.
-
,

Tharsis and San D omi n go ar e of great exte nt They con sist

,
.

of compa ct pyrit e s conta i n i ng from 1 to 2 5 per c en t of copper

.

pyrites d i ss e minated t hroughout t he whole mass .

N ext to the Calum e t and H e cla t he Rio T i n to is t he greatest ,

c opp e r m in e in t he globe
-
.

G ER M AN Y The M ansfe ld copper min e s i n S axony have b e e n

.
-

work e d sinc e the twelf t h centur y The or e is found in a a t .

lying bed of cupriferous shal e of Upp e r P e rmi an ag e and not , ,

withstand i ng its th i nn e ss and compara t iv e ly low g rade in metal ,

it can b e work e d wi th p ro t It occurs in n e ly dis sem inated .

pa rticles throughout t h e shal e A gold e n y e ll ow colour indicates .

-

chalcopyr i tes ; a bl u ish a n d reddish va ri e gated colour in dicates

borni t e ; a ste e l gray copper glanc e 5 a grayish yellow i ron
,
- -
,

pyri tes ; and a l e ad e n gr ay gal e na-

,
.

Th e whol e bed conta i ns c opper but o nl y th e botto m 3 inch or ,

15 2 MININ G G EOLOG Y .

4 inch are rich and on an a ve rage contain 2 to 3 p e r c e nt of

,
.

copp e r and 16 3 oz of s ilver to the ton of copper

. .

A U S T R ALA S I A M ount L yell M ine on th e w e st coast of T a s

.
,

mania is on e of the principal copper produc e rs in th e Com mon

,
-

w e alth of Australia .

A t t he surfa c e the lode was a huge gossan consist i ng of dense ,

dark h ae matite and friabl e limonite containi n g gold and silver .

Below the oxidis e d zon e the ore pass e d into massive pyri te s l y ing
between talcos e sch i sts on on e side and conglom e rates on the other .

I n N ew S outh Wal e s there is a copper bearing area variously -

estimated at from 5 0 0 0 to 6 5 0 0 square mil e s I t is situate d in .

the great arid plain lying b e tween the D arling Be gan and

, ,

L achlan rivers The c ount ry r oc k is Silu r ian slate whi ch is

.
-
,

trave rs e d by s su re veins N one of the mines have been work e d

-
.

continuously .

C RY O L I T E .

This is a u oride of sodium and aluminium containing ,

about 5 1 per cent of sodium u oride when pur e . Practically .

the whole of the world s supply is obtained from the D anish

cryolite mines at I vigtut on th e west c oast of G reenland

-
, .

Th e white cryolite o cc urs in great snow white masses which -

,

ar e par t ially transparent I t constitutes a large bed or mass in.

a granitic dyke which traverses a gray gneiss .

Associa te d with the cryolite are quartz siderite gal e na pyrit e s , , , ,

chalcopyrite wolframite ; also u orite mispickel and cassiterite

, , ,
.

The ore is c on n e d to the granite but there is no clear lin e of ,

demarcation between i t and the surrounding roc k into which it

pas ses The mineral is mined by ope n cuts about 2 0 0 feet wide
.

and 10 0 feet or more d e e p 1

.

T h e G reenland mines pr oduce nearly 8 0 0 0 tons of c ryolit e a

year valued at about 3 per ton at the mines Th e bulk of t h e
, .

output is exported to the U nited States for the manufactur e of

alumini u m for making sodium and aluminium sal ts and for the
, ,

manufacture of s odium u oride which is used to prev e nt incrusta ,

t i ons forming in steam boilers -

.

Cryolite is also used to a limited e xtent in the man ufacture of

an opalescent glass which resembles F r e nch porc e lain .

D IA M O ND .

Until the dis c overy of the mines at J a g e rs fon t e in and Kimberl ey ,

in the years 18 70 and 18 7 1 th e re is no record that diamonds h a d ,

been found exc e pt in alluvial deposits or conglomerates .

1
M in er a l R e sou rces of U n ited S ta tes 1 90 1 Wash i n gt on p 883 , , , . .
15 4 MININ G GEOLOGY .

blue or dark green colour in pla c es resembling some va r ieties of

-
,

serpentine .

F our fth s of the material forming the blue gr o und is a dark

-

green dense serp e n t in e which c ontains glistening plates of brown ,

mica small dark red garn ets ( mostly pyrope ) larg e dark green
,
-
,
-

crystals and grains of olivine b e sides enstatite smaragdit e , , ,

ch rome diopside ch romite magnetite and ilmenite Small frag

-
, , ,
.

ments of al t ered black shale are often so abundant as to giv e t he

rock a b r ec c iated appearance .

FI G . 67 .
S e c tion o f Ki mberley D iamond Pipe .

a, Y ll w e o gro und . a ct , B lue gro u nd . 5, Ba l t heet

sa s . a, S h a le s . d , M ela
ph y re . f Q artzite
,
u .
g, S late s .

The blu e g round is g reasy to the touch When e xposed to .

the weather for a time it soon disintegrates and is then eas i ly ,

crush e d th e diamonds being afterwards extracted by washing and

,

hand pick i ng .

Th e late Prof e ssor H G L e wis described the blue ground as a

1
. .

porphyritic vol canic peridotite of basaltic stru c ture for which he

proposed the name Kimberlit e .

I t has be e n not e d by several write rs that while the c o mposition

of th e m aterial llin g the pip e s appears to be th e same in all e ach ,

mine has its own parti c ular kind of diamond which is so distinctive
1
Pro fess or H 0 L ewi s T h e Matri x o f th e D iam ond Manch ester
. .
,

,

M eeti ng B riti sh A ss oc iation A u g a nd S ept 1 8 87

, , . . .
 oa a s A N D MIN ERAL S C O N S I D ER ED E C O N O MI C A LLY . 155

tha t an exper t buyer can usually say from which mine any
pa rticular s tone is derived .

A ce r tain propo rtion of the diamonds are broken crysta ls and ,

s e ldom or p e rhaps n e ver hav e th e corr e sponding p i ec e s b ee n

, ,

M any of the diamonds ar e in a state of str e ss and som e y t o ,

pieces or splinte r wh e n re moved from t h ei r ma t rix and wh e n

being cut .

Professor Bonney b e li e v e s that the d i amond is a primary

1

cons t itu e nt of t h e i gn e ous rock as much as th e garn et m i ca and , ,

oth e r minerals with which it is assoc iated He believ e s tha t th e .

diamond was forme d nei t her by th e a ct i on of molte n rock on

carbonaceous ma t ter nor by th e action of ste am or ho t wa ter in
a subsequent solfata ric stage of t he vol ca no but w as se g re g ra te d ,

by the usual proc ess e s of di ff erentiation in so me d e eps e ated ,

magma which was afterwa rds forced up from b e low into the
s
p 1 .

Williams agrees with Profess or Bonney that the

F
blue gr ound must b e d e signated a breccia w hi ch h as been
forc ed up from b e low by som e igneous ag e ncy poss ibly in th e ,

nature of a mud volcano Among the fac t s which led h i m to .

thi s belief h e mentions the fr e quent oc c u rrenc e of b r oken diamonds

e mb e dded in th e hard Kimb e rlite as well as pebbl e s and boulders ,

with po lished surfaces as if wat e r wo rn -

.

Professor L ewis advan ce d the theory that t he diam on ds were

formed from hydrocarbons de rived from t he fra g ments of
carbon a ceous shale enclos ed in the blue gr ound which he ,

r e garded as a true lava This view is contested by M r .

Williams who sta tes that all the pipes co nta ining Kimberlite
,

do no t conta in diamonds while diamonds exist in som e mines , ,

such as t hos e in the Pr e toria district wher e no carbonac eous ,

shal e s are to be foun d .

P ar e nt R o c k o f D ia m o n d M r Williams while agreeing .

,

with Profess or Bonney that th e diamonds ar e a primary con

s t it u e n t
of some deep seated ign eo us r ock d e ni e s that e clog i te ,

i s the parent roc k of t he g em s at Kimberley .

Profe ssor Bonney in 1 8 99 r e ported the discove ry of diamonds

3
, ,

in sp e c i mens of a coa rsely crysta ll ine garnetiferous roc k rela t ed t o ,

eclogite obta ined from the N e wla n ds min es situated about 4 0

, ,

miles fr om Kimb e rley Commenting on th i s discove ry h e

.
,

1
Pro fe or ss T . G . B onney ,
P r oceed in gs f
o th e R oy a l S ociety , v ol . lxv .

p .

3
G ardn er
Will iam T h G ene i o f th D iamond T
F . s,

e s s e ,
ra n s . A m I. ns t.
M E P p et S ept 190 4
,
am h l , . .

Pro fe or Bonney P r ed i g f th R y l S oci ty vol l x v

3
ss ,
oce n s o e o a e ,
. .
p 2 2 5 , 1 8 99
. .
15 6 MININ G GEOLOGY .

c on c lu de d
th a t e clogite was the pa re nt rock of
dia m ond in -
th e
S ou th Africa a view which has generally been acc e pt e d by
,

E nglish geologists since that date .

The s tatem e nt that eclogit e was th e or i ginal ma t rix of the

diamond caused M r Williams for many y e ars G e n e ra l M a n a g e r of , .

th e Kimb e rley min e s to carefully exam i n e th e eclogit e wh i ch

,

occurs in tons in all the pip e s w h e re i t is tr e at e d as waste rock , .

T w e nty tons of this rock wer e coll e ct e d and tested by crush i ng

and j igging in a test plant but not a single diamond was found -
,

in th e material M r Williams further states that h e had also

.

examined hundr e ds of pi e ces of e clogit e but nev e r found a ,

diamond nor had he ever h e ard of a diamo n d having been

,

found in this rock during all th e y e ars the min e s had been
worked .

The occurren c e of diamonds in the eclogi t e from N e wla n ds M ine

must be regarded as sporadic and not general That a peridoti t e .

or some ultra basi c igneous rock was the parent

-
rock of S outh
African diamonds may be inferred from the laws of magmatic
parage n esis .

G e n e s is o f D ia m o nd Assuming the diamond to be a primary .

constituent of an igneous ro c k the original condition of the ,

carbon is still a matter for conj e c tur e D id t he gem crys t allise .

from carbonaceous matter from a hydrocarbon carbon dioxide , , ,

or a carbide ? Oi the source of the carbon nothing de n ite is

known or of the proc e sses which prevented its oxidation along
,

w i th the iron with which it is always associated I t is important .

to remember that th e diamond bea ring pip e s in the Transvaal -

penetrate carbona c eous shales .

Williams mentions that large diamonds have been found en clos

ing small ones while twins a re not rar e from which it may be
, ,

inf e rred that th e formatio n or growth of the diamond follow e d

the ord i nary laws of c rystallisation in a magmatic solution of rock
mat e rial .

M oissan in his diamondmaking experiments fused 1ron I l Ch in

, ,

carbon and allowed it to cool in such a way tha t the separation

,

of the e xcess of carbon took place under pressure I n t his way .

micros c opic diamonds were formed M ic ros c oP ic diamonds hav e .

been found in ordinary cast iron 5 hen c e it is inferr e d that -

abno rmal pressure is not ne c essary to ensure success in the

exp e rim e nt .

The exp e riments of D r F riedlander have a close r bearing upon

the natural formation of d i amonds Fr ie dla n de r l fused a small .

pie c e of olivine a c e ntimetre in diamet e r by m e ans of a gas blow

, ,

1
E F He n e ag e
. . T h e P h en omen a o f th e D i a m o n di fero us D epo s its in S ou th
,

A fri ca T r a ns I n st M in a nd M et v ol xii p 1 2 5
, . . . . . . .
15 8 MININ G GEOLOGY .

ravines to the c onglomerate beds which provided the material

c ontained in them The conglomerates are c h ic y composed of a
.

micaceous sandstone which is manifestly not the original matrix

of the diamonds The gems wer e pro bably d e rived from some
.

rock surface subj e c ted to denudation a t the time the sandston e

-

was being formed .

The greatest diamonds of whi c h there is any re c ord prior to

1 90 5 are the Koh i nor 7 93 c arats the G reat M ogu l 7 8 7 5 c arats
-
, , , ,

and the Regent 4 10 carats all found in the great mines of G an i

, ,

Cou l ou r and G ani P a r te a l in I ndia -

A ston e of over 4 0 0 carats
, .

was found at Kimberley in 18 8 4 and one of 97 2 carats named , ,

the E xcelsior at Jagersfontein The great Cullinan diamond

,
.

found e arly in 1 90 5 in the Prem i er M ine 3 1 miles from Pretoria , ,

is r e ported to weigh carats its size being 2 5 inches by 2 ,

inch e s by 4 inches Th i s is th e larges t stone i n the world I t

. .

is said to b e p e rfe c t l n c olour and free from a ws .

The great bulk of t h e world s supply of diamonds at present
comes from the Kimberley m i nes wh i ch in 1903 are reported to ,

have produced stones to the value of nearly four millions sterli n g .

FI RE C L A Y .

This material occurs in s tra ti e d laye rs or beds generally in

associat i on with seams of coal As a rule it lies u n d e 1 the coal .
,

and is the soil on which the c oal vegetation grew .

F ire clays are found in all c oal bearing regions but all coal seams -
,
-

are not u n derlain by material suitable for use as a r e clay G ood .

r eclay s should contain from 5 2 to 62 per cent of silica 2 2 to 3 2 .

,

per cent of alumina and 10 to 14 p e r cent of wate r The presenc e

.
, . .

of 1 per cent of lime magnesia potash or soda renders a clay

.
, , ,

too fusibl e to be u seful for r e c lay pu rposes I ron oxides ar e .

also inj urious and when over 3 per cent of the protoxide is
, .

present the clay should be dis c arded S tou rbridge re c lay con .

tains about 2 per cent .

China clay or kaolin is found in veins and irre g ular deposits in
places where granite has b een altered probably by the emanation
of steam and gases from c racks and ssu r e s .

I nvestigation has shown that the kaolinisation of granite a n d

other highly acidic rocks is not the result of mere atmospheric
weathering That decomposition of th e f e lspa rs in the zon e of
.

katamorphism does take pla c e is well known but the deep seated ,
-

kaolinisation which h as been noted in Corn wall D evon N ew , ,

S outh Wales Qu e ensland and N ew Zealand must be ascrib e d to

, ,

fumaroli c age n cies .

 O RES AN D MIN ERAL S C O N S I D ERED E C O N O M I C A LLY . 1 59

FLU O R I T E .

This mineral ofte n called ,

u ors p a r is generally found i n
,

veins in limestone gneiss sandstones and c lay sla t e I t also

, , ,
-
.

occur s as the gangue of meta lli c ores especially of lead , .

F luorite is c hie y used as a u x for iron -ores A small quan tity .

is employed in the ma n u fa c tu 1 e of opalescen t glass and for th e ,

produ c tion of h y d1 o u or ic ac i d .

The world s output amoun t s to over

tons a y e ar of ,

wh i ch th e Un i ted Sta tes produces about one t h i rd and Pru ssia -

abou t on e quart er Th e value varies from 1 68 t o 1 2 s p e r ton

-
. .
, . .

G O LD .

This m e tal is found in v e ins in nearly all kinds of rock wi thou t ,

r e ga rd to ag e compos i tion or si t ua ti on The most produ c t iv e

, , .

v ei ns ar e thos e t rave rsing Pal aeozoic s e dimentar i es anc ie n t ,

granites and older Tertiary e ruptives especially thos e of a s e m i

, ,

bas i c type .

Th e d e nudation of gold b e aring rocks has libe rated large -

quantiti e s of gold which ha ve become more or less conc e n tra t ed

,

in alluv i al gravels or place rs These plac e rs ar e foun d of all ages

.
,

exten ding from M iddl e Te rtiary to recent t imes .

Th e gold found in veins traversing rocks of Pal aeozoic or older

Secondary age i s g e n e rally of high valu e wh i le tha t derived from ,

veins in andes ite and o t her old e r Tertiary e ruptives is commonly

of low valu e being largely alloyed with s i lv e r
, .

The gold of Aus tral i a mainly or en t irely der i ved from roc ks of
,

Pal ae ozo i c ag e is of h i gh value 5 as also is tha t of t h e Transv aa l

, .

The gold found in t he Pal aeozo i c mica schis t s and sla te s in t he -

South I sland of Ne w Zealand i s al mos t pur e 5 while tha t deriv e d

from the Te rtiary andesi t es in Aucklan d i s of low value being ,

alloyed wi th on e third in w e ight of silv e r

-
.

Th e same f eature characterises t he gold produc ed in t he

N or t he rn H e mispher e Russian gold is of high value wh i le that
.
,

derived from the andesi tes of Transylvania is of low valu e .

Th e vein and pla c er gold of Cal i fornia is commonly v e ry pure 5

but that of Ne vada and Colorado mos tly deri v e d from veins ,

trav e rs i ng later e r uptives is of low grad e being gen e rally alloyed

, ,

wi t h a larg e propor ti on of silver .

This p e cul i ar phenomenon is too general to b e accidental I t i s .

a happ e n i ng of wh i ch no adequat e e xplanation can at presen t b e

off e r e d
.

A cons i derabl e quantity of gold i s d e rived from s i lver copp e r , ,

16 0 MININ G GEOLOGY .

and lead ores 5 and a smaller amo u nt from ores of antimony ,

ars e nic manganes e a n d tungsten

, , .

The value of the world s production of gold for 1 90 4 was

e stimated at 7
The gold produced by t he v e gr eat producing r egions i n 1904

and 190 5 according to M r F Hobart wa s as follows

, .
,

1 90 4 .

Transvaal ,

U n it e d Stat e s ,

Australasia ,

Russia ,

Can ada ,

Th e most productive g old e ld centres in the globe are the Rand ,

Kalgoorli e and Cr i pple Cr e ek, .

I n the Commonwealth of Australia and United S tates which ,

are of continental d i m e ns i ons the gold bearing d e posits o cc ur ,

-

under many vary i ng geological condition s .

V I C T O R I A I n th i s State the gold is derived from thre e principal
.

sources namely from quartz veins from Tertiary deep leads and
,
-
, ,

from recent gravel drifts .

The de e p leads consist of placer gravels of M ioc en e and Pliocene

-

age The latt e r hav e prov e d th e most prod u ctive and are in many
.
,

places as for example near Ballara t protected by a thick sheet

, , , ,

of basalt the lava having o we d down the ancient valley and

,

cov e red up th e river gravels and sands .

The quartz veins occur mainly in Silurian slates The gold

-
.

bearing veins at Bend i go belong to the interesting class of or e

d e posits termed sa ddle reefs wh i ch occur in the crown of a n t i cl i nal
-
,

arches and send down tapering prolongations or legs r u nn i ng

, ,

more or l e ss parallel with b e dding plan es of the country rock - -

.

The distin c t i ve feature of the veins in t h e Ballarat G olde ld is

the presence of the famous indica tor beds These are thin beds .

of black carbonaceou s pyritic slate which occur in th e Silurian ,

slates and consequently constitute a dis t inct member or horizon

,

of the country rock T h e slates stand in a nearly v e rtical

-
.

position wh i le th e contained gold bearing ve i ns l i e nearly hori

,
-

z on ta l . Along the plane of intersect i on of the quartz veins and -

indic a tors ther e g e nerally occu rs ri c h ore .

W E ST ER N A U S T RA L I A Tu this State the c rystall i ne schists

.

which form the base m ent rocks of th e country are trav e rs ed by

wide belts of ancient eru ptives These eru pt i ves are dioritic or .

hornblendic in different pla c es and are often so much altere d th a t ,

the i r original c h aracter i s not always easily det e rm i ned : A t

Kalgoorli e th e hornblendic belts have been altered and s ilic ie d ,
1 62 MININ G GEOLOGY .

Silurian age 111 the L isle and G ol c onda G olde lds gold occurs
.

in veins intersecting a belt of granite .

N E W Z E ALAN D I n this colony gold is found in r e cent and

.

Tertiary place rs and in quartz v ei ns I n O tago the gold bearing

,
-
.
-

veins o cc ur in Silurian mi c a schist 5 in Reefton distr i ct in clay -

,

stones and sandstones of suppos e d Carboniferous age 5 and in t he

Hauraki Peninsula in altered andesites of M iddle T e rtiary age
,
.

Th e quartz conglomerates and cements at the bas e of th e

M iddl e Tertiary coal measures contain wat e r wo rn gold but - -
,

seldom in payabl e quantities It is noteworthy how e ver that .

, ,

many of the richest pla c ers in O tago and Westland are a rewash
of these ancient grav e ls .

U N I T ED S T AT E S The gold of th i s country is obtained from

.

veins or from plac e rs resul t ing from the e ros i on of gold bearing
,
-

country and th e concentrat i on of the valuabl e contents .

I n the State of Cal i for n i a the vein system known as th e ,

-

M other L ode is contain e d i n slates a n d al t ered ign e ous rocks
of Carbonif e rous and J u rass ic age I n Tuol u mne and Calav e ras .

counties and more particularly at N evada City and G rass V alley

,
1
,

the v ei ns o c cur in a n d near intrusiv e masses of granod i orite Th e .

placers along t his gold belt are among the richest in N or th

America Th e age of this remarkabl e stretch of gold bearing
.
-

veins i s believed to be Cretaceous The contained gold is of .

high quality .

A second gold belt of great importance li e s in E astern Cali

f o r n ia w i thin the watersh e d of th e Colorado River
, 111 this b e l t .

the v e ins o c cur in andes i tes phonol i t e s and trachyte of probably , ,

Mi ddl e Tertiary age The gold is alloy e d wi th s i lver and assoc i

.
,

ated with silve r or e s pyri te s et c -

, , .

Th e larger part of t he gold produ c tion of California is obtained -

from the Cr e taceous b e lt .

The gold produced in the State of Colora do is mainly deriv e d

from ve i ns trav e rsing Archaean granit e or the overlying andesitic ,

tu fts and breccias wh i ch are typically develope d in the Crippl e

,

Creek district These i gneous rocks wh i ch cons i st of h e avy o ws

.
,

as well as fragm e ntary mat t er are beli e ved by American g eolo ,

g i sts to be of post M iocene age -

.

A cons i derabl e quantity of gold is also derived as a b y product -

from the s i lv e r lead or e s of L eadville and other m i ning centr e s

-
,

wh i ch occur in v e ins in alter e d sed i m e ntari e s and e ruptives of

M esozo i c age Colorado is th e larg e s t gol d produc i ng Stat e i n
.
-

Am e rica The placer d e posits are not of gr e a t extent

.
-
.

The bulk of the gold of M ontana is derived from l e ad silv e r -

1
Waldemar L i ndgren T h e G e ol ogical Featu res o f th e G old Produ ctio n
,

o f N orth A m e rl ca T r a ns A m I nst M in E n g v ol xxxiii p 81 7

.

, . . . . .
, . . .
,
 oat s A N D MIN ERALS C O N S ID ERED E C O N O M IC A LLY . 1 63

v e ins in Arch aea n rocks or from v ei ns of c opper or e occurring in ,

-

intrusiv e gr an i t e s of suppos ed Uppe r Cretaceous or L ow e r T e rt i ary

age princ i pally d e v e lope d near Butte
,
.

I n th e Sta t e of N evada the basem e nt rocks are sedimenta ri e s ,

of Pal aeozoic a n d Me sozoic ag e i n t rude d by many dyk e s of por ,

h
p y y r and smothered
,
by T e r ti ary rhyoli tes andes i t e s and , ,

basal t s Th e Comstoc k L od e long cel e bra t ed for its dry gol d

.
,

silver ores is con tain ed in a nd e si te The silver l e ad ore s of

,
.
-

E ur e ka occur in lim e s tones near e rup t ives a n d carry on e t h i rd

1
,
-

of th e ir value i n gold Th e gold s i lv e r m i ne D e Lamar i n .

-
,

Sou th e rn Ne vada occurs in Pal aeozo i c quart z ite s ,

.

Th e gold bea ring deposi t s of Black H i lls in South D akota

-
, ,

b e long to two groups I n on e group t h e mos t i mportan t t her e .

, ,

ar e t he mas s i v e lod e s of t he Homestake d i strict wh i ch cons i s t of ,

a bel t of Arch aean sch i sts clo s e ly in te rs ected in gr e a t ar e as by ,

th i n s t rings a n d v e ins of quar t z carry i ng free gold a n d gold

b e aring pyr ite s Th i s d e pos i t locally known as T h e B e l t is 6 0 0 0
.
, ,

f eet long and 2 000 f eet w i de 3

The or e is very low g ra de a n d i s .
,

only rend e r e d p r o ta ble by t he magn it ud e of t h e O pera ti ons .

Th e gold ou tput of Br iti sh Columb i a i s d e r i ved from placers

and v ei ns inte rsecting old e r M esozo i c and Pal ae ozo i c rocks I n .

the Kootenay d i s t rict t h e gold occurs principa lly i n copper b e ar -

ing v ei ns wh i ch inters e ct rocks of L ower Me so z oic ag e

,
.

A LAS KA Th e gol d of th e c e l e brate d Treadw e ll Mi n e s on

.
,

D ouglas I s lan d in Alaska is d e ri v e d from a m i neral i s ed alb ite

, ,

d i or ite wh i ch accord i ng to Professor Beck e r has be e n al te r e d

, , ,

a n d s ilic i e d by solfataric or hydro t h e rmal ac ti on Th e d i ori te .

occurs as i n t rusiv e dykes in black s la te s th e b e d d ing planes of ,

-

wh i ch th e y clos e ly follow .

A C Spenc e r
.
3
s ta te s that th e or e b e ari ng dyk e s b e long t o a
.
-

seri e s of i n t rus i ons wh i ch app e ar i n te rrup te dly along th e s t r i ke

for a di s tanc e of about 3 m i l e s i n a zon e approximat e ly 30 0 0 fe et ,

w i de I n t h e gr e a te r par t of t h e i n t rude d area e xposur e s ar e

.

few a n d only small dykes outc rop on t h e s id e towa rd t h e centr e

,

of t he islan d 0 11 t h i s s i d e the zon e s e ems t o b e irr e gularly

.

l i mi t ed but nex t to t h e shore of G atineau chann e l th e bo rde r i s

,

de n e d by a h e avy b e d of gr ee ns t on e runn i ng parall e l w it h t h e

sla te s a n d th e in t rusiv e dyk e s and d i pp i ng w it h them toward ,

t h e adjac e n t chann e l Th e m i n e ral i sed dyk e s wh i ch cons tit u te .

t h e known minable ore occur j u s t b e nea t h this gr e ens tone wh i ch ,

1
L i n dgren ,
Fe a tu r es , e tc ,
G eol og ic a l 82 9 . .

3
F B . . ar nC pe te
r, T h e O re D s s f th e B lac

epo it o k Hi ll f Dakota s o ,

T r a ns A . m I nst 111311 E ng ,
. . l x v p 5 7 0 , 1 88 9
1 . vo . . ii . . .

3
A C . . p
S e n c r, G e
l y f th e T r a dw ll r D eo og o
s e e O e epo it A la ka P m ph s, s ,
a

l e t, A m I ns t .11 E , p 14 , 1 90 4

. . . . . .
1 64 MININ G GEOLOGY .

thus c onstitutes the hanging wall both of the intrusion zone and -

of the ore bodies M any of the dykes of a lb ite d iorite away from
-
.

the hanging wall have been greatly altered and impr e gnated with
-

pyrite but workable ore bodies have no t yet be e n discovered

,
-

i n them .

T h e r e lat i ons of th e mineralised diorite dykes to the asso c iated

country rock are shown in th e accompanying diagram
-
.

Fig 6 8
. . C ro e tio th ro gh A l k a T re dwell M i e
ss - s c n u as -
a n and N orth e rn
S i de o f D o gla I la du ( A fter S pe er )
s s n . nc .

The gold is g e nerally associated with pyri te s in str i ngs of

quartz a n d calci t e ramifying t hrough th e or e body 1 -
.

The ore i s e xtr e m e ly low g rad e b u t notwithsta nding this the , , ,

annual pr o ts are large and r e gular .

I n th e Yukon and N om e di stric ts th e gold is deriv e d from

placers .

T R AN SV AAL Pract i cally th e whol e of the gold of this Sta t e is

.
-

d e riv e d from b e ds of pyr i tic quar t zose conglom e rat e int e rbedd e d ,

w i th quartzi te s of L ow e r Pal aeozo i c ag e Th e ba n ke t re e fs as .

,

thes e gold b e ar i n g conglomerates are locally t e rm e d vary from a

-
,

f e w i nches to 4 fe e t in thickn e ss Th e y d i p south at angl e s w hi ch .

a r e st e eper at the outcrop than e lse where The most productiv e .

beds occur in a b e lt of quartzite about 1 1 5 feet thick .

T h e gold i s not contain e d in th e quartz p e bbl e s bu t in th e ,

siliceous cement i ng matrix Th e bankets a r e r e markabl e for th ei r .

great extent a n d un i form value over wide str e tch e s A deta i l e d .

description of th e chi e f ba n k e t beds is given in Chap t er I I -

.

R U SS I A Almost all th e gold produc e d in Russ i a is d e rive d

.
,

from plac e r d e posits on the western a n ks of th e Ural M oun t ains

-
.

Th e footh i lls on th e west e rn slop e s of the range cons i st of younger

Pal aeozoic sedim e ntar ie s intruded by mass e s of granite dior i t e , ,

and diabase G old bearing veins but not generally v e ry pro

.
-
,

1
R A. . Ki zie n T h e T r adw l l G r u
,
fMn e e o p o i e D o gla I land A l k
s, u s s ,
as a,

P p et
am h l , p 9, T r a n s A m I n st M in E ng , v ol
. . . . . . xxx i v p 334 1 894
. . .
, .
1 66 MI NIN G GEOLOGY .

At the presen t tim e F ranc e produces mor e than half th e

world s output Then follow the Unit e d Sta te s with an output

.
,

amounting to 30 p e r c e nt Canada with 8 p e r cent and G reat .

, .
,

Brita i n wi t h 7 p e r c e nt of th e total product i on 1

. .

Gypsum is used in th e manufacture of plaster of Paris of ,

plast e r for interior walls of hous e s and for agricultural purposes ,

.

The price vari e s according to locali ty from 6s to 1 2 s per ton

, , . . .

Th e ores of iron of commercial valu e are sid e rite limonite or , ,

brown h ae matite magn e t i te and h aematite or specular iron

, ,
.

The carbonat e or spathic ores commonly occur in beds forming

members of a s tra ti e d s e ri e s or in lay e rs of nodular masses more , ,

e specially in as sociation wi th coal measures Clay ironston e an - .

,

impure arg i llac e ous carbonat e of iron is common in most of th e ,

British c oa le lds and in thos e of P e nnsylvania and O hio in the

, ,

Uni te d S tates I n S cotland i t contains a large proportion of

.

carbonaceous matter and is known as bla ckba nd or e , .

The clos e association of coal and iron or e e nabl e d Britain for -

many years to occupy a dominant position in the manufactur e of

iron and ste e l .

Beds nodular layers a nd even veins of sp a thic iron occur in

, ,

many g e ological formations The v e ins are g e n e rally small and .

of littl e value Among th e most valuabl e deposits of spathos e

.

ore outsid e th e Carboni fe rous coal measures ar e those of Cleve

,
-

land wh i ch occur in th e Mi ddle L ias of E ngland

,
.

The red and brown h ae matite deposits of B i lb oa in Spain are

, ,

of gr e at ext e nt and furnish about 7 0 p e r cent of th e raw ore

, .

import e d into G rea t Britain for the manufacture of iron and st e el .

They occur in bed s in a limes ton e of Cretaceous ag e .

The brown h aematite deposits of the Unit e d Sta t es a r e of great

e xtent and valu e They e mbrac e all the vari e ties of hydrat e d
.

s e squioxid e of iron recognis e d as limoni t e g o thit e turgite bog

' '

, , ,

or e s e tc T h e principal produc e rs ar e the Stat e s of V irginia

,
.
,

W e st V irgin i a Alabam a Colorado and Pennsylvania

, , , .

The H u ron i an and L aurentian rocks of N orth Am e rica c ontain

vast d e posits of magnetite and red h ae ma t ite which occur as hug e ,

contact deposits and as r e gional metamorphic masses in te rs t ra tie d

-

with th e crystalline rocks with which they are associated .

The most valuable depos i ts of magn e t i c or e occur in L aurentian

rocks in the S tates of Pennsyl vania N ew J e rse y N ew Y ork and , , ,

M ichigan 3
.

1
T h e M in er a l R esou r ces of th e U n i ted S ta tes Wash i n gto n 1 90 1 , ,
.

3
T h e M in e ra l R sou r ces of th e U n ited S ta tes 1 90 3 Was h i n gto n
e 44 , , , .
 0 112 s A N D MIN ERALS C O N S I D ERED E C O N O M IC A LLY . 1 67

Red h aemat i t e const i tu te s 8 3 per cen t of t he annual output of .

iron or e i n t h e Uni te d S tates a n d con t inues to b e suppl i ed by t h e

-
,

L ak e Sup e r i or r e g i on Th e principal sourc e s of supply ar e t he

.

Me sabi Ra ng e in Mi nnesota w it h an annual o u tp u t of

, ,

tons 5 th e M enomine e Rang e in th e S ta tes of M ich i gan and ,

Wis c onsin with an ou tput of

, to ns ; M arqu e t te Ra ng e ,

i n Mi chigan , to ns ; and G og e bic Rang e tons , .

The annual output of the M esabi Ra ng e ha s n e v e r be e n

reached by any oth e r iron or region in th e world the cl oses t -
,

compe titor being th e Bil b oa district i n Biscayan Spain which , ,

produces tons .

The ou tput of iron ore in G r e at Brita in amounts to nea rly

-

tons being ma in ly spa thic and haematite ores

,
.

The magne t i t e and sp e cular iron ore d e posi ts of S c andinavia -

,

more espe cially of Sw e d e n ar e of g r e at e x te nt Th e y occur , .

g e nerally in crys t alline rocks in som e districts as r e gional ,

m e ta morphic d e posits and in o t h e rs as c on ta c t d e po s its g e n eti cally

,

co n necte d with eruptiv e s The to tal annual o u tput is about .

tons the bulk of which i s e xpo r ted t o G ermany

, .

I ron o r e s of comm e rcial valu e are not very abundan t in

Australasia What h as b e en d e scribe d as t h e mos t importa nt is
.

tha t at th e I ron Knob and I ron M onarch 4 1 m i l e s W S VV of ,

. . .

Port Augus ta i n Sou t h Australia which has been es ti ma t ed to

, ,

conta i n tons of h i gh grad e h aema tit e and mangan i c i ron - 1

.

111 N ew Z e alan d a large d e pos i t of l i mon ite oc cu rs a t Pa rapara 5 and

,

e normous quan t it ie s of ti ta nic iro n sa n d ar e d i s tributed along th e

s hor e s of Taranaki and Patea .

I ron or e s con ta i ning l e ss than 4 0 per cent of the metal ar e

-
.

rarely smelt e d and only t hos e conta i ning over 50 p e r c e nt ar e

,
.

consid e r e d rich A rich commercial sampl e of r e d h ae ma t i te

.

should con tain from 60 to 6 5 pe r c e nt of t h e m e tal . .

A d e posi t of i ron to b e com e of any marke t valu e mu s t b e of

gr e a t e xt e nt mus t con tain rich or e be fr ee from s i l i ca sulphur
, , , ,

and phosphorus e as i ly smelted s i tuated in th e proxim ity of coal

, ,

and limeston e or so acc e ss i bl e to d ee p wat e r t ha t i t could b e

,

transpo rt e d to t h e sm e l t ers a t a min imum cost for handl i ng and ,

w i t hin e asy reach of t h e grea t mark e ts of t h e world .

Sil i ca i s t h e most d e l e t e rious matt e r found i n iron ores and -

,

should not e xce e d 1 0 per c e n t Sulphideor e s ar e of no com .

m e r c ia l valu e for t he produc t ion of i ron as the whole of t he ,

sulphur can only be r e moved by a dead oxi di sing roas t wh i ch is ,

a cos tly op e ration I ron pyri t es howev e r i s m i n e d for the manu

.
-
, ,

facture of sulph u ric acid D e posits of rich h aema ti te are some

.

1
H Y L B ro w n
. . . N ote s on th e Iro n a n d P ho s ph ate D epo s its o f S o u th
,

A u stralia S u pp le me nta ry M in i ng R ecords 1 90 5 p 6 A dela i de

, , , . . .
1 68 MININ G GEOLOGY .

times rendered val u eless by the presence of a percentage of

sulphid e or e -
.

Arsenical pyrites is generally of 11 0 value as a source of arsenic ,

e xc e p t it conta i ns gold or tin .

The pr e sence of sulphur c opper or arseni c in iron or e s should , ,

-

i n no case exc e ed per cent The cok e availabl e for smelting .

must not conta i n sulphur exce e ding 1 per cent .

I ron ores for the manufacture of ac i d steel must be practically

-

fr e e from sulphur or phosphorus O n th e other hand or e s r i ch .

,

i n phosphor u s may be us e d for th e manufactur e of basic steel .

I n normal blastfurnac e work n e arly the whole of t he phospho rus

presen t in the or e goes into the p ig .

F or steel making purposes the relative value of iron ores as -

,

regards their phosphorus contents depends on the process i n view ~

, .

F or th e Bess e mer acid process or e s r is e in val u e i n proportion as ,

th e phosphorus 18 low the maximum b e ing about 0 0 3 p e r cent

,
.

F or t h e Bessemer basic proc e ss the valuation is the reverse .

A n average sample of pig for the basic process contains

P er c e t
n .

Silicon ,

Sulphur ,
0 0 5 0 1 5
M anganes e ,
0 35 2 0 0
Phosphorus 30 0
,

Ore s containing a phosphorus p e rc e ntage between th e abov e -

limits ar e suitabl e for foundry work in wh i ch however an e xcess

-
, , ,

of phosphorus is very obj e ctionabl e .

L EA D .

The most valuable and abundant ores of lead are gal e na and
c e russite which ar e generally found in veins in limestones
, ,

calcareous slat e s and sandstones and occasionally in gneiss

, , ,

mica sch i st and andesit e Cer u ssit e in only found in th e shallow

-
, .

parts of l e ad min e s G al e na usually contains a small proportion

-
.

of silver varying from 2 o z to 3 oz to hundr eds of ounces p e r

, . .

t on and i s commonly as sociated with blende and pyrit e

, .

Th e world s produc t ion of l e ad amounts to about

short tons of which the Unit e d S tat e s dom e stic ou tput is e qual
,

to 2 6 per c e nt of t he whole The other chi e f producers of l e ad

. .

are Spa i n G ermany M exico a n d N e w S outh Wal e s

, ,
1
, .

The Broken H i ll Proprie t ary Company ( L imited ) in Ne w ,

S outh Wales is th e mos t productive lead mine in the world

,
'
.

L ead ores ar e purchased by smelt e rs on the r e assay

-
.

1
T h e M ine ra l I n du stt y v ol x iii 1 90 4 , .
,
.
1 70 MININ G GEOLOGY .

M I CA .

M ica is a cons t ituent of many rocks but only possesses a ,

commercial value wh e n it occurs in blocks or mass e s that are

capable of b e ing spl i t into sheets a square inch or mor e in size .

Th e valuable d e posits ar e not abundan t and occur generally in ,

p e gmatitic veins in grani te and in micaceous gn e iss in hornbl e nd e ,

and mica schist Th e veins vary from a f e w inches to s e v e ral

-
.

hundred feet thick .

These pegmatite veins or dykes as some writers suppose them , ,

to b e c onsist of the thre e ess e ntial min e rals quartz felspar and
, , ,

mica in varying proportions They commonly r e semble a coars e

.

granit e and in general the best mica is found in thos e veins in

,

which th e constituent min e rals hav e crystallised in larg e masses .

Wh e re the f e lspar and qua rt z are in small mass e s the mica is ,

usually of little valu e Th e Canadian mica is found in apa t it e

. .

Valuable mica occurs in th e vein in rough crystals call e d blocks ,

or books sometimes e v e nly distribut e d t hroughout th e mass a t

, ,

oth e r times near the contact with th e country rock -

.

M ica when found on the surfac e is soft and cracked Clear e r .

and better coloured mineral is found low e r down in the solid 5 a n d
th e harder and more uniform the rock formation th e bett e r is th e -
,

mica in colour and substance I n other words th e quality .

,

improves with the depth .

V eins under 2 fe e t in width seldom contain mica of commercial

value exc e pt as scrap mica
,
-
.

As a g e n e ral rul e not more than 10 per cent of the mica min e d .

is c apable of being c u t into plat e s the balanc e b e ing waste or ,

scrap mica 111 some m l n e s in the Un i t e d S t ates the yield of

-
.

sheet mica is l e ss than 3 p e r cent

- 1
.

I ndia and Canada ar e th e chi e f sources of the mica us e d in

E urope and the United States The latter country contains mica .

d e posits in many places but f e w ar e of co m mercial value a n d at

, ,

pr e sent the supply for dom e stic us e is ma i nly d e riv e d from I ndia .

111 th e mica mines of B e ngal in I nd i a t he b e st m i ca is found in

-
,

ro ck Th e gr e at e st demand ther e is for sh ee ts of the ruby

.

colour e d var ie ty from 3 square inches upwards , .

Sheet m i ca is larg e ly used for furnac e and stov e windows and

doors lamp protectors and insulators for electrical mach i n e ry
,
-
,
.

F or furnac e and stove doors and windows t he mater i al must b e

clear and fr ee from spots Th e cho i cest is in blocks of win e .

colour whit e mica b e ing pref e rr e d next Biotite or black m i ca is

, .

of lit tl e value T h e sta ndard sizes for the purposes stat e d abov e
.

range from 15 in by 2 in up to 8 in by 10 in S mall e r sizes

. .

. .

1
M in e r a l R e ou r ces of th e U n ited S ta tes p 8 7 4
s Was h i ngton 190 1 , . .
,
.
 O R ES A N D MIN ERAL S C O N S I D ER ED E C O N O MI C ALLY . 17 1

seldom pay for m i ning and pr e paration La rg e s i z e and n e n e ss .

of gra i n ar e essential cha r ac t ers .

The bulk of th e mi c a plac e d on the mark e t is us e d for e l e ctr i ca l

purp os es p rincipa lly in t h e construct i on of dynamos alterna tors

, , ,

transformers e tc F or thes e us e s th e sheets must be e x ib l e fr ee

, .
,

from cracks capabl e of withstand i ng high temperat u res and must

, ,

b e non conducting a low percen tage of iron be i ng an essential for

-
,

t h e la t ter Colour is of l i ttl e mom e nt but pe rfec t cl e avag e is of

.
,

th e high e st impo rta nce as e l e ctrical m ica must be of un i form
,

thickn e ss and i s oft e n gauged to th e t housand th pa rt of an inch

, .

Th e following co mmunica ti on r e c e ived by the Ag e n t G e n e ral ,

-
,

in L ondon for S o u t h Australia from M essrs N athan

, Co of ,
.
,

L on don gives so me us e ful pa rticula rs as to t he pr i c e and mark e t

,
1
co ndition of mica

A l l th e sizes which the native crysta l will yield ar e at pr e sent
readily sal ea bl e by auction at p r ices ranging from 3d p e r po und .

for 2 in by 3 i11 to 78 6d per pound for 8 in by 1 2 in Thick

. .
, . . . .

n e ss must not exc e ed 1 in Anyth i ng from 7 3 ih to g in is

1
. . . .

sa l ea bl e All qual iti e s are saleabl e bu t i t is obviously i mposs i bl e

.
,

to give an e s t ima te of probabl e pric e s as no two prop e rt ie s yi e l d ,

precisely s i milar mica and it would b e necessary to s ee a ca s e or

,

t wo of th e actual s t u ff b e fore any th i ng approaching a n a l

j udgm e n t co uld b e passed upon it .

O n e or two important points may be made Th e mica crystal s .

,

after being split may be trimmed with ord i nary hand s hea rs all
,
-
,

cracked edges b e ing r e moved D o not was te th e mater i al by .

aiming at regularity of shape but as far as possibl e w i t hout , , ,

such wast e r e m e mb e r that r e cta ngular plates are pr e ferred

, .

Th e chi e f thing to s e cure is soun d ar e a wi t hou t crack s for it is ,

obvious tha t even mic ro scopic cra cks would m i l itat e agains t a
mat e rial to be us e d as an elec t ric insulator .

Th e n e xt in impo rtance is to s e cur e a perfe c tly at surfac e on

split t ing th e mica i n t o sh eets Any lumps or un e v e nnes s b et w ee n
.

th e laminae ar e du e to hydration or of te n to m etall i c i ns e rt ion ,

a n d the latt e r shows i tself in spot s M ica w i th m e tallic ins e rtion s .

is us e d for a vari ety of purpo ses but i s us e l e ss for insulating ,

.

Summarising
Avoid marginal cracks .

( )6 S pl i t to a t hickn e ss of 1
15
in to 1 in
. .

0 ) Avoid uneven plat e s as far as poss i bl e

( .

( ) Cut in recta ngular plates as far as poss i bl e

d .

( ) Throw out broken plates alto ge t h e r t hey w i ll

e

a
p y fr e ight and charg e s .

1
T h e N e w Z ea la nd M in es Rec or d Feb ruary 1 90 5 p 2 99 , , . .
172 MININ G GEOLOGY .

F or some purpos e s small irregular pi e c es of mica otherwise ,

usel e ss are cemented together and built up into sh e e ts of any

, ,

desired size and thickness .

G round mica is used as a lubri cant and for decorative pu rpos e s .

The greatest care must b e exercised in the preparation of mica

for th e market 1
T h e sheet sho u ld be about 4 in thick and cut
. .
,

cleanly and sharply into r ectangular shapes if possible .

The plates should be tr i mmed so as to c u t away any crumpl e d

or a we d pieces and sorted ac c ording to their colour
, .

The pr i c e of mica va ries a cc o rding to its size and c olour I t .

rises rapidly with increase of size ; thus E nglish pri c e lists quote
sh e ets 2 in by 6 in at 2 8 6d per 1b and 3 in by 6 in at
. . . . .
,
. .

68 6d p e r 1b
. . .

FI G . 69 .
S ec tio n th ro ugh
Peg m tite Vei n ( A fter H K S ott a . . . c .
)
a, M et m o rp h i c h i t 5 b de o m po ed peg m tite with
a sc s , c s a
m i a book 5 q rtz
c s c, ua .

M O L Y B D E N UM .

The comm e rcial o res of this metal are molybde n ite the sulphide 5 ,

molybdit e t h e yellow oxid e 5 and to a small extent wulfenite the

, ,

molybdate of l e ad .

M olybdenite occurs in beds or diss e minated in scales through ,

out crystallin e rocks such as granite gneiss and granular lim e , ,

stone I t is produced in co m mercial quantit i es in California and

.

Canada I n th e Haliburton district in O ntario it o c curs in

.
, ,

quartz veins commonly associated with pyrites pyrrhotit e and

, , ,

chalcopyrite .

A t Wolfram Camp in the Hodgkinson G ol d e ld Queensla n d

, , ,

molybd e nit e has been found in payable quantities in c l e an whi t e

1
H Ki l b u rn S c ott
. 0 11 th e O c currenc e o f M i c a in B ra zi l a n d on its
,

Preparation for th e Market T r a ns I nst M in a nd M et vol xi 1 902 3

, . . . . .
,
-
.
1 74 MININ G GEOLOGY .

has been attended with great success during the past few years ,

and the production of nickel has be e n so large that the monopoly

so long enj oyed by the N ew Caledonia mines has been complet e ly
brok e n u p .

I n addition to nick e l the Sudbury ore contains copper about ,

2 8 p e r cent and cobalt about 0 8 per cent and a littl e

.
,
.
,

platinum about 1 o z in 10 00 lh of nickel matt e

,
. . .

I n the S udbury district there is no regular vein system The -

.

ore bodies occur separately or in detached groups

-
, .

The d e posits are commonly lenti c ular pinch i ng out in both ,

directions and conforming to the general strike of th e enclosing

Huronian schists The ore always occurs in and contains frag .

,

ments oi a basic and altered eruptive of the gabbro type relative

,

to norite .

Accord i ng to C W D ickson the ore bodies occ u r either We ll

1
. .
-

with i n this erup t ive or at its contact with th e oth e r pr e va i ling

rocks of the d i strict namely grani te or granitic gneiss quartzi t e , ,
-
, ,

or th e metamorphosed repres e ntative of a series of basi c sed i

m e n ta rie s 11 0 W termed gre e nstones by the Survey of Canada
,
.

S ec tio n
o f O D e po it at Copper Cli ( A fter J H Co l li ns
'
?
70 . re s . .
)
a, H uro i n h i t 5 b D iorite (n orite ) 5 Py riti
n a sc s s , c, c o re - bo dy .

Three main belts of these norites and associated micro pegma -

t it e s are n o w recognised des i gnat e d as the N or th e r n Mi d dle and , , ,

Southern belts respectively They are at present mapped as .

, ,

s e parate bu t gen e tically and mineralogically t hey are e ss e nt i ally

,

identical E conom i cally the Southern bel t i s the most important

. .

1 O . W D i c k s on
.
,

T h e Ore -
Depo s its o f S ud b ry O tario
u ,
n ,
T r a ns . A m .

I n s t. M E , v ol
. i p 3 , 1 90 4
. . xxx v . . .

2
, ,
o i
J H C ll n s , Qu a r t J o u r G eo . . . S oc L
. o nd
on , v ol xl i v
. .
p 8 34 , 1 88 8
. .
 O RES AN D MIN ERAL S C O N S I DER ED E C O N O M IC A LLY . 175

Th e genesis of t he pyrrhotite of Sudbury is still a question of

doubt . Acco rding to som e write rs includ i ng V ogt it i s du e to , ,

t he d e v e lopm e nt of magma t ic differentiation in a c ooling roc k

magma .That many d e pos i ts of magnetite chromite and , ,

corundum hav e originated in th i s way is almos t c e rtain 5 bu t

tha t m etall i c sulphid e s can separate out as primary con sti t uents
of a rock magma is s t ill op e n to doub t
-
.

Phil i p Argall cons i d e rs th a t th e nick e l and copper were leached

1
.

out of t he nori t e i n which they w e re ori g i nally form ed and con

c e n t ra te d along zones of fra c t ure by a p roc e ss of replacement a view ,

supported by Profess or Be ck of F re i b e rg who mainta ins t hat th e

3
,

br e ccia ted nature of th e ore must have be e n due to depos i t i on

during or after the m e tamorph i sm
, ,
.

The most i mpo rtan t us e of nick e l is in t he manufacture of

nickel steel conta i ning about 3 5 per cent of n i ckel Cons i derable
-
,
. .

quan ti t ie s ar e used for pla t ing iron goods and i n the co i nage of ,

the Un i ted S ta tes and many E uropean co u n t ri e s .

O I L S HA L E
-
.

Th i s occurs in beds or laye rs as membe rs of a s tra tie d forma

tion It yi e lds m i n e ral oil by slow d i st i llat i on
. .

The orig i n of the hydro carbon a ceous ma t te r in these shal e s is -

s om e wha t obscure I n many cases it h as b e en shown by m i cro

.

scop i c observa ti on to be du e to accum ul a t ions of gela ti nous algae

wh i ch lived in s hallow fr e sh wa t er lak e s and lagoons -
.

Th e shal e de pos it s i n t he L othians of Sco tland ar e of grea t

-

e x t en t and of poor qual ity Th e B roxbur n shal e s yield from

,
3
.

2 4 to 30 gallon s of cru d e o i l and 4 2 lbs of ammon i um sulpha t e .

p e r ton wh i l e th e D r u ms h or e la n d shal e s yi e ld 2 0 gallons of

,

crude o i l and abou t 6 0 lbs of ammonium sulpha t e The in du s tr v . .

i s maintain ed by th e product i on of bye produc t s -

.

Th e Fe rmo carboniferous shales of N ew South Wal e s ar e of

-

high grad e but occur gen e rally i n thin seams Th ey are now
, .

n e arly e xhaus t ed .

Th e o i l shal e s of Ne w Zealand are of Mi ddle T e rtiary ag e

-
.

Th e y ar e i n pl a ces of great exten t but gene rally poor and low i n

, , ,

a m monia .

P E T R O L EUM .

Mi neral o i l is found i n geological formations of all ages but i n ,

commerc i al quan ti t i es occurs c h ie y in two horizons nam e ly ,

t h e Mi d dl e Pal aeo z o i c a n d low e r half of t he T e rt i ary .

P C l S 1S c De em ber 1 893
r oc . o . e . o .
,
c .

R B k L h 3
d E l g
. t it t
ec 1 90 1 ,
e re vo n en rz a e rs c
'

e n, .

T n I 3
t Mi E g v ol xx ii p 5 8 1 1 90 2
ra s . ns . n . u .
,
. . .
, .
17 6 MININ G GEOLOGY .

I n Ameri c a it is found mostly in rocks ranging from S ilurian

to Carbonif e rous and in E astern E urope and Asi a in ro c ks of the
,

E ocene and M iocene periods .

G enerally speaking petroleum is found beneath the crowns of

,

anticlinal folds saturating porous unc e mented sandstones

, .

The genesis of natural oil has not y e t been satisfactorily

e xplained The F rench school maintain that it is chemica l
.
,

r e sulting from the r e action of alkali metals at a h i gh temp e rature

0 11 steam and carbon dioxide Crude petroleum in many r e spects
.
,

the same as natural oil was prepared synthetically by Ber t helot in

,

th i s way Th e hydrogen of the wat e r and the carbon of the

.

carbon dioxi d e hav i ng been deprived of th e ir oxygen unite to form ,

an oily substanc e closely r e sembling rock oil -

.

Th e d e structive d i s t illation of shal e peat w ood and animal , , ,

matter prod u c e s an o i l having the same carbon and hydrog e n

compounds as the natural oil of Pennsylvania But 0 11 the oth e r .
,

han d oils have be e n fou n d in Canada Tennessee and elsewher e

, , ,

of a d i ffe rent compos i tion llin g cavities in a richly foss i liferous

,

rock The rock in wh i ch the oil is imprisoned is a thickly b e dd e d

.

lim e stone of Silurian age probably d e posited in a d e e p sea swarm

,

i ng with animal lif e I t is gene rally ass u med that the oil wh i ch
.
,

can apparently b e liberated only when the rock is broken is ,

indigenous to th e rock in wh i ch it occurs .

The porous o i l bearing sandston e s of Pennsylvania are under

-

lain com for m ab ly by a formation of shale more than 1 0 0 0 f ee t

t hick containing fossil animals and fossil seaweed in vast quantiti e s
, .

E xp e riments hav e shown that th i s fucoidal shal e wh e n subj e ct e d ,

to slow destructive dist i lla t ion in some cas e s yiel ds as much as,

5 0 gallons of crude o i l to the ton of rock This o i l in many .

resp e cts can hardly be distinguished from the natural crude o i l .

The commonly accepted theory is that petrol e um is a na t ural

d i st i llate from carbonaceous or a n i mal remains imprison e d in rocks .

The distillate would naturally rise into the ov e rly i ng strata wher e ,

it would b e come c ondensed 5 and where the rocks w e r e porous i t

would accumulate .

The heat required for the dist i llation may hav e b e en d erived
from igneous in t rus i ons plutonic or volcanic from t h e r e act i ons
, ,

of d e epseated metamorphism or from the heat due to pres ,

sure i n cases where th e s t rata have been involved i n d e ep crust

folds .

Mi n e ral oil i s produced i n vas t quantities in the Unite d States ,

particularly in the States of Pennsylvania Texas O hio Cal i fornia , , , ,

a n d I ndiana ; in the Baku region i n Southern Russ i a 5 G alicia in , ,

Austr i a ; Roumania Burmah Borneo Sumatra a n d J ava

, , , , .

The output of the Appala c h i a n oil e lds in Pennsylvania a n d -

1 78 MININ G GEOLOG Y .

The once famous beds of South Carolina ar e considered to be of

-

Post Pliocene ag e
- 1
.

Th e phosphate of lime formerly work e d a t Aruba and Sombrero ,

in t h e West I nd ie s was or i g i nally a coral l i m e s ton e conv e rte d

,

into a phosphat e by the p e rcol a t i on of water containing phosphoric

ac i d de rive d from t h e ov e rlying deposits of b i rd guano -
.

A valuabl e de pos it of rock phospha t e was d i s c over e d i n 1 90 1 a t -

Clar e n don i n t h e Province of O tago in N ew Z e alan d I t occurs

2
, ,
.

in ch e m i cally e ro ded pock e ts and hollows on th e upper surfac e of

a Mi oc e ne l i m e s tone as shown i n th e following d i agram ,

FI G . 71 .
S e ctio n o f Cl re don R o k ph o ph atea n c -
s .

A ,
L oo se ph os l i h a t ic s a n d 5 B ro k ph o p h te 5 C l i me to n e g nerally
s , c -
s a , s ,
e

gl au c oniti 5 D gla on iti c gr e

c ,
d uc e nsa n s.

The geological conditions wh i ch accompany and doubtl e ss

determ i n e th e e xist e nce of workabl e d e posi ts of phospha t e ar e th e
presenc e of a pho s pha te b e ar i ng format i on at th e surface lying in -
,

a favourabl e posi ti on for un de rground w eath e ring ov e r cons i der

able areas a n d subsequ e n t concentrat i on of phosphate by replac e
,

m e nt or s e condary e nrichmen t .

Th e phospha te d e pos it s in York e s P e n i nsula South Australia

, ,

occur in cav e s and s s u r e s i n a Cambr i an l i m e stone Th e y ar e .

r e por t e d to be of large e xt e n t high grad e and favourably s i tua te d , ,

3
for working .

To b e come of comm e rcial valu e a phosphate deposit should f u l l -

the follow i ng r e quir e ments

( )
1 B e of such magnitu de as to j ustify th e e rection of tramways .

and o t h e r surfac e plan t nec e ssary for d e velopmen t and -

winning of mineral .

Pe o e
1
nr s ,
U S G eol S u r v ey B u ll etin , N
. .

. o . 46, p . 6 0 , 1 8 98 .

J P rk f o k p o p te o O tago vol
3
. a , T he R c h s ha s -
,
T r a ns N . . Z . I ns t , .

xxxv p 391 . .
,
1 90 2 .

3
H Y . . L . Bro wn , N ote s on th e Iron a n d P h o s ph a te Depo sits o f S o uth
A u s tra l ia , S u pp l e m e n ta r y M ining Recor ds 1905 p 5 A del a i de
, , . . ,
 0 112 s AN D MIN E RALS C O N S I D ERED E C O N O M I CA LLY . 179

( )
2 B of h i gh grad e av e ragin g not less t han 5 0 per cent of
e , .

t r i calcic phosphate befor e dr e ss i ng .

( )
3 I n a po s iti on easy of access to a ra i lway or s e aboard .

( 4 ) E asy to win t ha t i s in a pos i tion in wh i ch i t can b e ,

work e d wa terfr ee by op e n cuts a n d quarry i ng Th e .

ov e rburde n mus t also b e shallo w and e as i ly r e mov e d .

Wh e n it e xc ee ds 20 f eet th e cos t of s t r i pp i ng run s a wm

w it h th e p ro t .

I t is on ly in e xc e p ti onal cas e s t ha t i t pays t o m i ne phos pha t e by

underground work i n g s A t Ross F arm i n P e nn s ylvan i a dur i ng .
, ,

t h e y ear 18 99 2 000 long tons w e r e min e d from a s t ratum 30 feet

,

th i ck 4 000 f eet long a n d i ncl i n e d a t an angl e of 60 from t h e

, ,

hori zon ta l The stratum was mined to a dep t h of 30 0 fe et b e low

.

water l e v e l a n d averag e d abou t 5 6 p e r cen t of phospha te H e r e

,
. .

t h e ma t rix consis t ed of a y e llow marl e as i ly a n d cheaply brok e n , .

The produc e rs how e v e r d id no t comp ete in d i s ta n t mark e ts w it h

, ,

t h e h i gh e r grad e s of phospha te from Sout h Carol i na T e nn e ss ee , ,

a n d Flor i da but l ooked only for a r e mun e ra ti v e local mark et

1
,
.

P LA T I N UM .

Th i s valua ble m etal is g e n e rally found sparingly d i ssemina t ed

in olivi ne in ol i v i n e gabbro s e rp e n ti n e and o t h e r ul t ra bas i c rocks
,
-

, ,
-

i n Rus s ia G e rmany F ranc e and Ne w Z e aland I t i s foun d in

3
, , , .

gold plac e rs i n many part s of t h e world i n small quan tit ies .

It is commonly assoc i a ted w it h chromi te of i ron which also has ,

a pr e f e r e nc e for magn e s i an erup t ive rocks .

Pla t inum as sperryl ite t he ars e n i de of platinum occurs in t h e

, , ,

cupri fe rou s n i ck e l ores of Sudbury i n Cana da a n d i n th e cop pe r

-
, ,

or e s of Ramb le r Mi n e i n t h e M ed i c i n e Bow M oun ta i ns of Albany

,

Coun t y in t h e S ta te of Wyoming R e n e d m ethods of analy s i s

,
.

hav e shown t ha t th i s m etal i n m i nu te t rac e s e x is ts i n cupr i f e rous

sulph i d e or e s i n many pa rts of the worl d
.

Hunde shag e n records th e occurr e nc e of pla ti num in Suma t ra

m wollas ton ite wh i ch i s as soc i a te d with sch i st s gran ite a n d , ,

aug ite d i or ite He t hinks t ha t th e or e d e pos it was or i g i nally a

-
.
-

big l e ns of l i m e s to n e i mb e dded i n t h e sch i s t s s u bsequ e n t ly al te r e d ,

to garne t a n d wollasto n ite and min e r alised by ho t soluti ons carry ,

i ng copper g old and pla ti num

, ,
.

Th e worl d s suppl y of plat i num is ma i nly d e rived from placer

d e po s i ts in t h e Ural M oun ta i ns mos t ly s it ua t ed on t h e w e s te r n ,

1
2 13t A nnu a l R ep t U S G eol S u r ve y , p 4 94 , 1 8 99- 1 90 0
. . . . . .

3
J . F . Ke p m , B u ll U S G eol S u rvey , N o 1 93, p 7 2
. . . . . . .

3
L . S . H e u n d sh a ge
n , T T a n s I ns t M i n a n d 111d , .l . . . v o xiii. . 1 90 4 .
18 0 MININ G GEOLOGY .

slopes I n 1 90 4 the output of Russia amounted to

.
,
lb s .
,

equal to about 90 p e r c e nt of the world s produ c tion In .

.

S e p t ember of tha t year two lum ps of plat i num were found a t

K r e s to wos d wis c h e n s k on e weigh i ng 7 5 6 lb s the other ov e r 3 60
,
.
,

lbs. A small part of the domest i c r e quir e men t s of the Unit e d

States is obta i ned as a s e condary product from the gold plac e rs i n -

Trinity and Shasta Count ie s in Cal i fornia .

Som e of the gold plac e rs of Colombia Alaska S i beria Austral i a

-
, , , ,

a n d Ne w Zealand con ta i n plat i num but rarely in payable quant ity ,

.

Th e Fi e ld G oldfie ld i n N ew South Wal e s yi e ld e d in the y e ar

, , ,

1 90 2 3 7 5 o z of pla ti num valued at 7 5 0

, . 111 th e sam e year ,
.

Russ i a prod u c e d oz which repr e s e nt e d ov e r 90 p e r cent .

, .

of th e world s outpu t The balanc e i s mainly furn i shed by t h e

.

State of Colomb i a i n South America , .

QU I C K S I LVER .

The only valuable or e of this metal is cinnabar the sulphid e , ,

wh i ch occurs i n veins trave rsing slates and san dstones or d i s ,

seminated in al te red an desites I t is however found in rocks of .

, ,

all ag e s and all k i nds but shows a preference for sa ndstones and
, ,

i n mos t cas e s is found alon g lines of country t ha t have been

affe cted by volcanic disturban c es .

Some c i nnabar has b ee n d e pos i ted from hot solutions bro u gh t

up by volcan i c spr i ngs A t O ha e awa i Hot Springs in Ne w .
,

Zealand th e cinnabar d e pos i ts were formed in this manner as

,
-
,

probably w e r e thos e of Almaden .

The pr i nc i pal quicksilv e r prod u cing min e s at the pres e n t time -

ar e s i tua t e d at Almaden in Spain Ne w Almaden in Cal i fornia 5 , ,

I dria in t h e Provence of Carniola in Austria ; a n d Russ i a

, , .

Th e averag e yield of the Almaden or e s is from 7 to 10 per cent .

,

but or e s con t a i n i ng as little as 1 p e r c e nt hav e b ee n m i ned wi t h .

p r o t The. grade of th e Russian or e i s g e nerally u nder 1 p e r

cen t .

S I LV ER .

Among t he principal or e s of silv e r are ke r a rg yr it e or horn ,

s i lv e r embol i te and argen ti te t he subsulph i d e

, ,
L arg e mas s e s ,
.

of th e t wo form e r were found at the Brok e n H i ll m i nes in N ew ,

Sou t h Wal e s d i s s e mina t e d throughout kaolin clay

'

, .

M asses of na t ive silv e r have be e n foun d in S axony a n d Har t z

M ounta i ns but th e larg e s t masses we re d i scover e d i n Me x i co a n d

,

P e ru a n d i n th e L ak e S u p e r1or min e s assoc i ated with nativ e

, ,

copp e r .
182 MININ G G EOLOGY .

slat e s ar e of te n infe rior in durab i lity M arcasit e 1s obj ectionabl e .

in slat e as it oxidis e s readily Cubical pyrit e s do e s not oxidis e

,
.

r e adily and is ther e for e not so obj e ctionabl e

,
.

A goo d s la t e should b e capable of b e ing spl it into smooth thin

lamin ae parallel to the plan e s of slaty cl e avag e .

The s p e c ic gravity of slat e vari e s from 2 7 to 2 9 .

L arge quant i ties of slate are quarried in the Unit e d S tates ,

F rance and E ngland

,
.

S U LPH U R .

T he sulphur of comm e rc e is d e rived from native sulphur and

pyrit e s .

N ativ e sulphur is common in most volcanic region s mor e ,

e sp e cially around th e vents and s su r e s both activ e and e xtinct , .

Th e world s production of native sulphur in 1 90 4 amount e d t o

tons of which I taly produced over 93 per cent Th e

, .

balance is mined in Japan United States F ranc e Austria a n d , , , ,

G re e ce .

Th e price of crud e sulphur vari e s according to quality from

3 to 4 per ton The sulphur is principally used in the manu

.

facture of sulphuric acid .

The principal producers of pyrit e s for th e manufactur e of sul

h r ic ac i d ar e Spain F ranc e United S tates G er m any N or wa y
p u , , , , ,

I taly Canada and Russia

, ,
.

T ALC .

This min e ral in its b rou s and massive forms occurs in beds
and l e ns shaped masses in ta lcose and chloritic schists I t is
-
. .

often associated w ith granular limestone .

Th e massive form is gen e rally known as steatit e or soapston e .

Talc is used as ou r talc and as piec e s cut i nto various

-
,

Th e ou r is us e d as a base for r e p roo f paints for e l e ctric in ,

s u l a t or s for boiler and s t e a i n pipe coverings as a bas e for dyna

,
-
,

mi te in the manufactur e of wall pap e r for l e ather dr e ssing and

,
-
, ,

as a lubricant .

T h e harder vari e ties of soapstone are cut into h earthst on e s ,

l i nings for fur naces laboratory tabl e s ov e ns pencils and gas

, , , ,

t i ps Th e talc produced in th e United S tates is valued at abou t

.

3 5 s per ton
,
. .

T H O R I UM .

Th i s rare and valuable metal is obtain e d from the min e ral

monaz i te which is essentially an anhydrous phosph at e of th e
,

rare e arthy metals c e rium l a n t hanum and di dymium having the, , ,

 O RES AN D MIN E RALS C O N S I D ERED E C O N O M ICA LLY . 18 3

formula (Ce L a D i) P O 4 A small but var i abl e propor t ion of thoria

.

T h O I S n e arly always pr e s e n t
( o .

M onaz i te i s d e scr i b e d by J H Pra t t as l i gh t

1
y e llo w hon e y . .
,

y e llow red d i s h brownish or y e llow i sh gre e n in colour w it h a

, , ,
-
,

r e s i nous to vi t r e ous lus t re It i s t ransluc e nt to sub t ran s luc e nt ; .

bri ttl e w it h concho idal fr ac t ur e and hardn e ss from 5 to 5 5 :

, ,

monocl i n i c and i n crystals up to 2 in long P e rfe c t crys tals ar e

, . .

generally small from g i n to T 3 i11 do wn wa rd to t hos e of m i c 1 o

,
. .

sc op i c s i ze Th e spe c ic gravity i s h i gh a n d rang e s from 4 6 4

.
,

to 5 3

It i s incompl etely in s oluble in hydrochloric ac i d bu t compl et ely ,

and readi ly i n sulphuric acid I f oxal i c acid is ad d ed to t h e v e ry .

dilu te lt e r e d s u lphuric acid solut i on or to t h e solu ti on ob ta i n e d ,

by fusing the min e ral wi th soda and i f t h e m a ss is t r e a te d wi t h ,

wa te r a n d the r e s i du e lte r e d a n d d i ssolv ed w it h hydrochlor i c

acid a pr e c i pi tate i s ob tain e d wh i ch upon igni t ion b e comes
, , , ,

brick re d due to t h e pres e nc e of c e rium ox i de

-
,
.

B e for e the blowp i p e the m i n e ral t ur ns gr e y bu t is infus i bl e , .

I f h eated with s ul phur i c acid it colours th e a m e blu i sh gr ee n -

,

due to ph osphor i c acid .

M onazite i s found i n granite gn ei ss i c rock s a n d m ica sc h is t in , ,

~

th e Mar iti me M ountain s of Braz i l i n S o u th M ounta i n reg i on of ,

N o rt h Carol i na a n d many oth e r plac e s but only in minu te

, ,

quant ity The monazi te of commerc e is d e r i v e d from sands or

.

place rs r e sul t ing from t h e de nuda ti on of th e m i n e ral b ea ri ng rock -

.

Th e Bra z i lian de pos i ts occur as b e ach sands 3

.

Tho r ium is c h ie y us e d in th e manufactur e of mantl e s for

inca nd e scen t gas ligh ts .

Th e value of monazite is about 4d per po u n d . .

The only ore of thi s m e tal of comm e rcial valu e is th e oxi de ,

cass i terite wh i ch occurs i n lodes b e d s a n d stockworks a n d i n

, , , ,

alluvia l dr i f ts .

Tin ore i s found i n grani te f e lspar porphyr y and oth e r a cid

-
,
-
,

e ruptives and in sed i m e n taries which hav e be e n in t rud e d by

,

gran ite et c ,
.

A t M ount B is c h o 3 one of th e gr e a t e s t tin m i n e s 0 11 t h e

,

glob e t he Pal aeozoic sla te s and sands t on e s ar e i n t rud ed by dyk e s

,

o ep H e P tt
1
J s h y d ra ,
M in er a l R es ou r ces of th e U n ite d S ta tes , p 11 63, .

W i gto
as h n n , 1 90 4 .

3
130 0 cit , p 95 1
. . . .

3 e
S y dn y Pote Fa v m s N s on t h e M u n
.
B isc h o fi T in M n ,
,
T r a ns o t '

i e .

. P p et
I ns t M i n a n d M e t am h l , p 16 , L n d n , 190 5
. . o o .
18 4 MININ G GEOLOGY .

of porphyritic f e lsite which c arries topaz both c rystallin e and

amorphous Th e t op a z isa tion was probably a pneumatolytic
.

proc e ss proceeding from de e p s e at e d granit e The f e lspar of th e .

ground mass is replac e d by topaz The analysis record e d by .

Baron Von G ro dde ck showed no alkali Th e rock cons i st e d .

practically of quartz topaz a n d tin Wolfram do e s not occur in

, ,
.

payabl e quant i ty in the topaz tin ore -

.

The common associa t es of tin ore are wolfram quartz mica and -
, , ,

tourmaline .

About 6 5 p e r cent of the world s supply is derived from th e tin

.

plac e rs in th e Straits S ettlements and D u tch E ast I ndies wh e r e ,

t h e tin bearing gravels cover hundr e ds of squar e m i les

-
.

The world s annual production is about

tons .

Tin containing 5 5 p e r cent of arsenic is usel e ss for commercial .

purposes and requir e s further purifying .

Tinore is bought by the smelt e rs from the results of the dry

assay and is subj ect to certain sch e dule d e d u ctions
, .

T UN G ST E N .

The principal ores of tungst e n are sche e lite th e tungstate of ,

lime 5 wolfram the t ungstat e of iron ; and 111 e g a b as ite th e

, ,

tungstat e of mangan e se .

Wolfram i s usually associated with tinston e S c h ee lite occurs .

in v ei ns in schis t s and sa ndston e s generally associat e d with ,

quartz Wh e n th e v e in stuff con ta i ns gold or silver as often

.
-
,

happ e ns th e sch e eli te can be produc e d very cheaply as a

,

b y product
-
.

The b e s t known deposit of m e g a b a s ite is that i n th e I ma

-

M inin g Company s prop e rty at Patt e rson Cr ee k in th e s tate of

,

I daho wher e i t occurs with wolfram in a ve i n varyi n g from

,

5 f e et t o 1 5 f e e t wid e and assay i ng from 5 p e r cent to 5 0 p e r c e n t

, . .

of tungstic aci d .

Th e princ i pal sourc e s of the world s tungsten are E ngland

,

Austria Hungary Saxony G ermany Ne w South Wale s and

-
, , , ,

Queenslan d .

The pric e vari e s wi th th e quality of the ore G e rman and .

E nglish buyers g i v e f rom 7s to 8s per unit . . .

I n the Un ite d States prices are somewhat higher the val u e of ,

sch ee li te conta i ning from 4 5 p e r cent to 5 5 p e r cent of tun gs ti c acid . .

b e ing about 8s per un it whil e ores conta ining from 5 5 p e r cent

.
, .

to 6 5 per c e nt of tungst i c aci d command 10 s p e r un it of scheel ite

. . .

The f e rro tungst e n ore wolfram is mainly prod uced in Cornwall

-

( E ngland ) Hungary
,
Ne w South Wal e s and , Queensland I t is ,
.

s ol d on th e tungs ti c acid basis Wolfram to be mark e tabl e mus t .

 C H A P T ER V I I I .

M I N E - S A M P L I N G A N D O R E -VA L U A T I O N .

CO N T EN T S z S a m p l i n g Eq u ip m e n t S a m p l i n g I nterval s Rec ord o f S a m p le s

B rea ki ng t h e S a m ple S a m pl i ng Redu c tio n o f S am p le A s s ay o f
S a m ples C al c u la ti n g V al ue F ut ure P ro s pects S a m p l e V a l ues a n d
M i l l V a l ue s S a m p l i n g D u m p s a n d H e a p s
-
.

I N the maj ority of min e s sampling proc ee ds s i multaneously with

the mine d e v e lopment th e results being recorded 0 11 a ssa y p la ns
, ,

which are generally longitudinal or stop e plans Wh e r e the .

sampling during dev e lopment has been car e fully and s y s te m a ti

cally don e the averag e s should approximat e those obtained by th e
,

mi n e e xaminer .

S a m p ling E q u ip m e n t This include s n e w sample bags of

.

canvas or stout calico say 1 4 in long a n d 9 in wid e 5 a canvas

,
. .

she e t about 6 ft long and 5 f t wid e 5 a short handled 4 lb or

,
. .
-
.

5 lb hammer 5 a gad or two ; small linen tap e or foot ru l e ; a

.
-

numb e r of small metal tags or strips of soft wood each with a ,

distinc t iv e number or mark 5 and a stout canvas lock u p sack -

for th e safe custody of sampl e s .

S a m p l ing I nte rv a ls B e gin th e sampling of a l e v e l at t he

.

end of th e main cross cu t or at som e po i nt e asily located with

-

r e sp e ct t o a surv e y station .

Wh e n th e whole width of th e v e in or seam is expo se d 1n t he

drive it is customary to sampl e th e high e r or foo t wall portion
lying on th e back of th e lev e l as the lower po rt i on may b e par tly
,

und e rfoot and often covered wi th mud and wat e r

, .

D ivid e t h e lev e l into se c tions of 5 f t 10 f t or more according .

, .
, ,

to t h e e xt e nt of th e op e n ground and charact e r of or e M ark .

the divisions wi t h chalk or by blackening th e wall wi th a candl e

,

am e .

With r e spect to th e sampling intervals it is well to r e member ,

t hat a large number of small samples tak e n a t sho rt intervals are

often mor e reliable than a small n u mber of large sa mples taken at
wid e interval s .

Wh e n the ore is known to b e consist e nt in valu e and is ,

186
 MIN E S A M P L IN G AN D O R E
- -
V A LU AT I O N . 1 87

exposed in long str e tche s th e sa m pl i ng intervals may be 2 0 f t , .

apar t ; but wh e n th e vei n i s som e wha t i rr e gular in w i dth a n d

valu e t h e 5 ft intervals will g i v e th e mos t tru s t worthy r e sults
. .

o
R e c rd O f S am p e s
l Car e fully me a sur e and r e cord t h e
.

wid t h of th e v e in in fe e t and inch e s at e ach i nterval .

A simpl e and a c curate m ethod of r e cording t h e sampling

intervals w i d t hs and sa mpl e numb e rs i s to d raw a diagram in
, ,

FI G . . o i g Reco rd o f Wi dth Value

72 S h w n d S m p l i ng Inte r l s, s, an a v a s.

e ld b ook repr e s e nting a longitudinal s e c t ion of t h e lev e l

-
Ou .

th i s d i agram which n e ed no t be drawn to scal e all t h e n e cessary

, ,

i nforma t ion can b e shown graph i cally Th i s m ethod h as also .

t h e a d van ta ge t hat the assay values can aft e rwa rds b e lle d in a t -

th e di ff ere n t intervals thus completing the r e co rd, .

<0 h b m m b h c} co cc
V V V 0 : v 00 0: 09 cc
V ' '

FI G . 73 L
. o git di
n u n al S ection o f B lo k between 15 0 c an d 30 0 feet Le ve ls .

The widths numb e rs and values ar e commonly r e corded on

, ,

m i n e assay plans in di ffer e nt coloured i nks accord i ng to th e

-

i n di v i dual fancy of the e ng i n ee r 5 but t his is not n e cessa ry in t h e

e xamin e r s e ld book which i s a p riva t e r e cord

-
, .

I n th e above g u re th e widths of ore ar e shown in inch e s und e r

188 MIN IN G GEOLOGY .

the l e vel and the valu e in dwts abov e th e level The sampling
,
. .

intervals ar e r e pr e sent e d by dots .

111 the M eyer and Charlton 1

M in e at J oh a n n e sb u rg th e , ,

values entered upon th e continuous s e ction are not th e assay

values bu t t he recovery valu e s whi c h the di ff e rent processes i n
,

use are est i mated to be capabl e of recovering .

B re a k ing t h e S a m p l e D ress the face down with a pick so ,
.

as to e xpos e a fr e s h surfac e and i f ne c essary cl e an it with , , ,

water .

With t h e hammer and gad br e ak a sample at each interval ,

allow i ng th e mat e rial to fall on to the canvas sheet or into a stiff ,

felt hat or narrow box held by an assistant .

Th e sample is taken from a groov e cut at r ig h t ang les t o the

plane of t h e dip 5 or in oth e r words a cr oss th e thickness from , ,

wall to wall as shown in g 7 2 ,

. .

I n cases wh e r e the width of th e v e in is l e ss than that of the

lev e l or stop e it is n e cessary to squar e t he or e on the back of the
,

level or stope in order that the true width of th e v e in from wall ,

to wall may be exposed for sampling

,
.

I n or e of fairly uniform hardness the width of the groove will

vary from 4 in t o 6 ii1 and from 3 in to l % in dee p T h e
. .
, . . .

sampl e will generally weigh from 2 lbs t o 1 0 lbs for every foot
'

. .

of vein or b e d .

Wh e n the v e in matt e r is arranged in distinct bands of c r u s ti

- ~

cat i on that is wi t h a ribbon structure it is advisabl e to sampl e -

e ach band s e parately to determine where the values li e .

W i de lodes shoul d also be sampl e d in widths of 2 ft or 3 ft as . .

,

sometimes th e valu e s are carried by the foot wall por t ion som e -
,

times by th e hanging wall or by the central portion I n s uch .

cas e s a singl e sampl e taken from wall to wall may convey quite
an e rron e ous impr e ssion as to th e comm e rcial valu e of th e lode .

Where a lev e l is driven on a wid e lode only a small portion of ,

th e or e is e xpos e d for examination I n such cas e s it is customary .

for th e manag e ment during th e progress of d e v e lopm e nt to cross

cut the lode at int e rvals of 2 0 ft or 5 0 ft according to th e . .
,

m et allif e rous character of the or e Th e se cross cuts w i ll a b rd .

-

th e examin e r an opportun ity of sampl i ng th e lode from wall to

wall in such manner as th e cas e may r e quire Where there ar e .

no cross cuts through the l od e from the level the ful l o r at any
-

, , ,

rat e the payable width of ore will generally be found exposed in

, ,

t h e stopes .

It of t en happens in the case of a tlying veins that the l e vel

, ,

has been driv e n on th e footwall of the vein or that the level has ,

1
T A R i c k ard T h e S a mp lin g a nd Es tim a tion of Or e in ( 1 M ine p 1 74
. .
, , .
,

N ew Y ork ,
1 90 4 .
1 90 MININ G G EOLOGY .

groov e s cut at right angles to the plane of the d i p The thick .

n e ss of ore i s m e asured and recorde d on a d iagram in the e ld

b ook togeth e r wi t h th e sample numb e r at each int e rval
,
.

R e du c ti n o fo S a m p le Th e weight of th e sample broken

.

down will vary wi t h the wi dth a n d hardness of th e or e Wh e n it .

i s larger th a n t he capaci ty of th e sampl e bag th e sh ee t mus t b e -

,

carri e d to a convenien t plac e und e rgroun d and its con te n t s ,

broken down to the si z e of a walnut When this has b ee n don e .

,

t h e sampl e i s thoroughly m i xed formed i n t o a v e ry a t t runcated ,

con e and quar te r e d

, .

T wo opposi t e quart e rs ar e r e j e cted be i ng r e mov e d c o mp le te ly ,

with all th e ir nes from the sh ee t The ma te rial in the t wo .

r e main i ng quart e rs is th e n brok e n down t o a s i z e half th e d i am ete r

of a walnu t t horoughly mix e d and again quar te red Th e two
, ,
.

quar te rs ly i ng in the pos it ion of th e t wo quart e rs retained in th e

r s t op e ra ti on ar e r e j ec t ed a n d removed from th e s h ee t .

A common m et hod of mixing th e ore on t h e sampling sheet i s -

to toss the material from one s i de to th e other I n th i s process .

care must b e t aken to insure that th e n e s are not concentrate d

in on e particular par t of th e sample but e v e nly distribu t ed ,

t hroughout the whole mass before e ach quart e ring .

I n thr ee qu a r te rin g s a sample w eigh i ng 8 0 lbs will thus be

-
,
. .

cu t down to 1 0 1b s which is about the maximum capacity of th e

.
,

sampl e bags .

The t im e required to break down a sampl e will depend upon

th e hardness and s i ze of the lode I t seldom i s l e s s than half an .

hour a n d may ext e nd to several hou rs depend i n g upon th e

, ,

number of quar t e rings needed to reduce th e sample to a conv e nien t

we i ght Th e sampling of a large mine may occupy several week s
.
,

a n d run into a cost of sev e ral hundred pounds .

A s s a y O f S a m p le s The whol e of t h e sampl e should be dri e d

. ,

crush e d in a rock breaker in t he laboratory to pass through a

-

10 m e sh sieve mixe d a n d sampled by quartering t ill reduc e d to

-
, ,

a pound or t wo in w ei ght all of which sho u ld be n a lly p u lver i sed

, ,

pass e d t hrough a 60 mesh si e ve again mixed and d ivided into

-

, ,

two portions On e portion is handed to th e assayer wh i l e t h e

.
,

o t her is r e tain e d as a duplicat e sample for subsequent referenc e

and v e r i c a t ion if the n e c e ssity should aris e .

Carelessn e ss in the labora t ory may stultify all the care exercis e d
in the sampling underground .

I f th e mi n e examiner submit his samples to an assayer whos e

-

q u a l i c a t io n s are unknown to him he should ta ke car e t o be ,

pr e sent dur i ng th e crushing pulverising and n a l division of th e

, ,

assay sampl e s .

The d upl i ca t e sampl e s should be put in t o small cal i co or s tou t

 MIN E S A M P L IN G A N D
-
O RE V A LU AT I O N . 1 91

brown pa per bags lab e ll e d

-
,
s e cured in a lock u p sack which
,
and -
,

shoul d b e remov e d from the labora to ry .

Th e e xam i ner s sampl e s shoul d never b e submitt ed to th e min e

assayer 5 a n d only i n very exc e p ti onal c i rcums t anc e s shoul d t h e

sampl e s b e placed in th e han ds of an unknown assayer .

C a l c u l a t in g A v e ra g e W id t h a n d Va l u e o f V e in Th e .

a s s ay valu e s may b e expr e ssed i n p e nnyw e ights of gol d per ton 5

-

p e rc e n tag e of m e tal 5 o r in the cas e of low valu ed gold or bul li on

,
-
,

t h e mon e y valu e may b e s ta te d i n dol lars or 8 ( l p e r ton

-
. . .

Th e th i ckn e ss of t h e or e is mos t conven ie n tly e xpr e ss ed in

i nch e s for v ei ns up to 8 f ee t or 10 fe et th i ck Tak e t h e cas e of .

te n sampl e s from a gold b e ar i ng v ei n as follows ,

A s s ay - val ue
p T o n in
er I n chd w t .

p Pe n ny w e h ig t s .

Th e av e rag e w i dt h i s foun d by di vid i ng t h e sum of t he wi dths

by t h e numb e r of sampl e s Th u s i n t his cas e we have T ? 35 6
.
3
,

i n ch e s av e rag e w i d t h .

Th e av e rag e assa y val u e is foun d by d ivi ding t h e sum of t h e

-

inch dwt by th e sum of t h e w i dt hs as un d e r :

-
. d wts .

p e r ton for a w i d t h of 35 6 i nches .

When a ve i n conta i ns t wo ban ds of payable or e se para te d by a

band of no valu e wh i ch cannot b e sorted ou t economically t h e
, ,

av e rage assay valu e is asc e r ta i n ed as follows

L et band A b e 1 8 inch e s wid e and hav e an as say valu e ,

of 2 per ton .

B 6 i nch e s wi d e and wor t hless .

C 1 2 inches w i d e a n d wor t h 3 p e r ton .

per 10 11
18
1 92 MININ G G EOLOGY .

I f it is practicable to sort out half of t he worthl e ss ban d then ,

t he av e rag e assay valu e of th e ore will be found as under

2 3S . 8d P . er t0

I n est i mat i ng the n e t p r o t in sig h t i n a block of or e i t is man i ,

f e st that th e r e covery valu e and not the assay value must form
, ,

th e ba s i s of th e calculation .

H ig h A s s a y Va l u e s A sample giv i ng an e xc e pt i onally

.

h i gh as s ay valu e may b e de alt with in d i ffe ren t ways It may b e

-
.

d i scard e d e n ti rely and not includ e d i n th e av e rag e 5 or asc e r t ain

t h e av e rage valu e w i t h i t include d and replace th e orig i nal e x ce p
,

t ion a l v al u e by th i s av e rag e and then calculate the average valu e

,

for th eaverage width .

F or e xampl e : F iv e Samples gave values of 10 dwt 2 0 dwt .

,
.
,

2 5 d wt 1 2 0 dwt and 2 5 dwt per ton

.
,
.
,
The av e rage i s 4 0 dw t
. . .

Replac e the exc e pt i onal val u e 12 0 dwt by 4 0 dwt and then

, .
,
.
,

proc e ed with t he calculation of resul t s .

Th e exc e ptional value may r e present a small patch of rich or e ,

or a bunch of rich ore i ncreasing in d i mensions going upwards or

downwards or e ven a soli tary speck of g ol d The most sat i s
, .

factory manner of d e al i ng with an e xc e ptionally r i ch assay from a

sampl e is to resample th e v e in a s e cond t i me T A R i ckard 1
. . .

also r e comm e nds the tak i ng of i n t erm e diat e samples as a fur t her
precaut i on against fraud or m i stak e .

F u tu re P r o s p e c ts When sat i sfac tory valu e s hav e b ee n

.

obta i n e d around a block of ground t he na t ural i nferenc e is that ,

th e area of ore is of the same approx i mate value .

E xp e r i enc e has shown tha t wher e a block i s e xpose d on four

si des such inference is fair and reasonable Wher e the block i s
, .

e xpos e d on three sid e s the infer e nce is op e n t o doubt .

B e fore arr i ving at a de n it e conclusion as to th e future

prospects of th e mine it i s advisable for th e e xam i ner or min i ng
,

e ngine e r to c ar e fully consider the following quest i ons

( )
1 I s there any chang e of rock formation enclos i
-
ng th e lode
in any part of the mine ? I f so what in u e n c e do e s ,

this change of country e x e rcis e upon the value of th e ore ?

( )
2 I s there any i ndication of barren zones of or e e ither 111 ,

depth or hor i zontal extension along the cours e of th e ,

lo de ?
( )
3 Ar e the values i n t h e zone of oxidation l i k e ly to be mam
ta in e d in the unoxidis e d portion ?

( )
4 What are the probab i lities of impov e rishm e nt i n d e p t h "
"

T A R i c k ard Z oe cit p 4 2
1
. .
,
. .
,
. .
1 94 MININ G GEOLOGY .

( )
a E ach block can now be sampled separately by p i cking
piec e s of or e from i ts four s i d e s .

r t h e ma te r i al e xcavat e d from th e t r e nch e s can b e wh ee l ed

( )
5 O
to a cl e an p ie c e of ground s pawl e d in t o small p i ec e s , ,

m i x e d and quart e r e d rep e at e dly unt i l a sampl e of con

,

v e n ie n t s i z e i s ob t ained B e for e e ach quart e ring th e

.

larg e r pieces of ore must b e brok e n to half th e ir diam ete r

i n th e pr e c e ding quartering .

r the mat e rial from the t r e nches can be crush e d in a rock

( )
0 O
break e r mix e d and quart e r e d down t ill th e assay sampl e
, ,

i s obta i ne d .

S a m p l ing H e a p s O f T ai ling s I f t he accumulation of .

ta i lings i s larg e i t should b e sampl e d i n separate s e c t ions as ,

larg e piles of sands are liabl e t o vary consi de rably in valu e i n

d iff erent parts .

Stake o ff the heap so as to divid e it in t o sections about 5

,

yards square M ak e a diagram in e ld book corr e spon ding t o

.
-

s e c t i ons
. Record t h e d i mensions of the sections and d i stinguish ,

e ach section by a l e tt e r as A B 0 etc , , , , .

Sampl e e ach section b e g i nn i ng with s e ction A

,

( )
1 W i th a sampling i ron tak e-
s ampl e s all ov e r the s e c ti on at ,

say every foot or two

, .

( 2 ) I f t h e r e is r e ason to b e li e v e tha t t h e values ar e not the

sam e from t op to bot t om put t he top mat e r i al into on e ,

bag a n d th e lower into ano ther 5 o r i f nec e ssary separat e , ,

sampl e s can b e taken for e v e ry foot of d e pth .

( )
3 I f th e r e i s no sampling iron availabl -
e holes ar e d u
g a t ,

int e rvals of e v e ry 4 f ee t or 6 f e et Th e san ds from t h e .

holes are whe e l e d to a clean place m i x e d a n d r e duc e d by , ,

quartering to a conv e ni e nt size .

I f r e quire d th e sand obtain e d from di ffe r e nt depths can b e

,

kept separate .

S a l t ing O f M in e s By
salting is m e ant the illegal
.

e nrichmen t of th e ore w ith th e obj e ct of giv i ng th e prop e r ty

,

a c t it iou s value .

Th e m i ne e xamin e r should be fam i liar with the m e tho ds adop te d

-

by unscrupulous p e rsons so as to b e abl e t o pro te ct t h e in te r e s t s

,

of his principals .

A common metho d i s t o t amp e r with t h e e xam i n e r s sampl e s ;

a n d for th i s r e ason t h e sampl e s shoul d always b e 111 saf e custody

unt i l th e assay r e sults are known .

Cas e s ar e known where th e sample bags have b ee n e nriche d -

befor e th e sampl e s were put into them It is t her e fore a wise .

precaution to k ee p t h e sampl e bags i n a lock u p sack unt i l th e y

- -
 MIN E S A M P L IN G
-
AN D O RE-V A L U ATI O N . 195

are requir ed A n d e ven then it is advisable to turn each bag

.

i nside out and shak e vigorously befor e us e .

I n the case of gold mines sof t or e has bee n a rti c ially e nriche d
-
,

to a d e pth of a foo t or mor e wi t h a strong solu ti on of c h lori de

F raud has b ee n prac t ised on m i n e e xamin e rs by str e tc hes of -

rich ore havi ng b e en sk i lfully buil t i nto t he wall of a l e v e l a t

d i ff e r e nt i n tervals and a t t he work i ng fac e t h e j o i n t s b e in g ,

obscured by libe ral splashes of m u d I n t h e same way a rt i c ia l .

ou tcrops hav e b ee n prepar e d .

D umps of ore hav e b ee n stac ke d w it h ri ch ore on t he sid e s and

top surfa c e A n impos t ur e of this k i nd is a t onc e d isclos e d by
.

t h e proc ess of tr e nch ing wh e n procur i ng sample s for assay .

Sampl e s of gold wash i n te n de d for e xam i na ti on by panning

-

have b ee n e nrich e d e i t h e r b e fore or d ur in g th e wash in g by th e

, ,

ag e ncy of gold bea r i ng tobacco ash p e ll ets of clay a n d gol d

- -
, ,

b e aring n g e r na i ls The gol d obta i n e d from t h e pa n ning of gol d

-
.

wash or ta ilings sho ul d b e e xam i n e d un der th e m i croscop e .

Bul k sampl e s of ore hav e b e en sa lted dur i ng th e proc e ss of

t r e atmen t i n t h e ba tte ry e i t her by t h e ad diti on of gold or
,

Th e exa m in e r s samples may b e unlawfully e nriched a t any

stag e from t he break i ng of t h e mate rial i n th e m i n e to th e

assay i ng i n th e la b ora to ry S t rong solu t ion s of gol d chlor i d e
.

hav e b ee n inj ec te d i n to t h e bags w ith a syr i ng e a n d gol d du s t ,

-

adde d to t h e li t harg e a n d u x e s F raud is so e as i ly prac t ise d .

in t his s tage t ha t th e e xam i n e r should eit her suppl y h i s own assay

mate r i als or te s t t hos e plac e d a t h is di s posal .

I n t h e s e day s of min e valua ti on by sys te ma ti c sampl i ng cas e s

-
,

of s tac king or sa l ttng of t h e or e i n t h e min e ar e ra r e a n d e asily ,

circumven te d by th e wa t chful e xam i n e r But b e s i d e s cov e r t ac t s .

,

inte nded to b e gu ile t he e xamin e r m a y be m i sled by t h e s u p pr e s

,

s ion of i mpo r tan t dev e lopm e n t s or by t h e blocking u of work i ngs

p ,

wh e r e unf avourabl e r e sul t s m i gh t b e ob ta in e d .

Ou h i s pa r t t h e m i ne e xam i n e r mu s t b e car e ful no t to as sum e

-

an attit u d e of r e s t ra i n t a n d d i strus t toward s thos e conn e c te d w it h

th e manag e ment I n th e writer s e xp e r ie nce min e rs ar e a s
.

,

hon e st as mos t m e n ; a n d if t h ey som eti me s put th e b e s t si d e

befor e you it is mor e from a f ee l i ng of loyal ty to t h ei r e mploy e rs
t han a d el i bera te d e s i re to d e c ei v e Probably no t mor e than on e .

i n a hun dre d woul d w i lfully m i sl ead you or u s e un lawful m e an s ,

t o e nr i ch your s ampl e s Bu t t h e hundr e dt h man i s g e n e rally

.

a cl e v e r rogu e a n d needs clo s e wa t ch i ng 5 a n d beca u s e of t h i s

,

on e man you mus t tak e no r i sks eit her i n t h e min e or i n th e ,

 CH A P T ER I " .

T HE E " A M I NA T I O N A N D VA L U A T I ON O F
M I N ES .

C O N T E N T s z V al uation of M eta l M i nes D e v el ope d M i n e s a n d G oi ng

Con r n Cl i ti o f O
ce s as s ca on re in a M i ne V al uatio n o f Coal Areas
Val tio o f A ll vi l Grou d
ua n u a n .

T HE payable ore in a vein or c oal in a s eam is manifestly a

certain n ite quantity 5 therefore the greatest c oa l e ld and largest
ore deposit must eventually see a day of exhaustion And if the

-
.

total quantity of ore or coal and the annual output are know n ,

the date of exhaustion is a matter of simple c al c ulation .

A mining property bl e ssed with a good constitution that is ,

e ndowed with a considerable quan t ity of valuabl e ore from the ,

dat e of discovery to th e point of e xhaustion naturally passes

through th e successiv e stages of infancy youth full grown m a n , ,
-

hood middle age old ag e and e xtinction

, , ,
.

I nfancy is th e discov e ry stage of mine e xistence 5 youth th e ,

dev e lopmen t stage 5 full grown the payabl e going conc e rn in th e ,

meridian of lif e 5 middl e age the going concern past the meridian 5 ,

old age the period of d e cad e nc e and exhaustion But all this is
, .

tru e only of the mine that survives the early stages of e xistenc e ,

and l i ves what may be termed a full a n d pr otab l e life leaving ,

an honoured nam e behind .

Som e min e s give promise of their later vigour ev e n in e arly

infancy a n d oth e rs tha t are weakly in i nfancy d e v e lop into a
,

robus t manhood T h e gr e at e st mortality t akes place in infancy and

.

youth S cores of promis i ng m i neral d i scov e ries ar e unabl e to sur

.

viv e th e stage of d e v e lopm e nt They n e ver becom e going conc e rns

. .

But sud de n exhaustion is not an affection pecul i ar to th e v e ry

old or the very young mine Th e re ar e many notable e xampl e s of
.

v i gorous mines coming to a sudden e nd through exhaustion of the

ore reserv e s i n a way not e xpec te d or provided for by the
manag e m e n t .

Th e m i ne e xam i ner will therefor e lik e t h e careful physic i an

-
, , ,

1 96
1 98 MININ G GEOLOGY .

has bee n located by the prospector and a l e gal title obtained

l e dg e ,

for the ground forming what may be term ed a s urfa ce sh ow 5 or

,
-

e claim has b ee n pegged out on p osition alon e no vein

( )
b that t h ,

or seam of valuable m i neral be i ng e xposed a t the surfac e .

A S u rf a ce S h ow I n th i s case th e outcrop has probably been

.

prosp e cted by trench e s and shallow shaft s su ff ic ie nt to disclose ,

t h e wid th d i rection of str i k e and d i p of the deposit

, , .

Hav i ng prov i d e d h i ms e lf w i th the best topographical and

g e olog i cal maps ob t a i nabl e the mine e xaminer will p ro c e e d w ith
,
-

h is exam i nat i on which will embrac e a considera ti on of th e

,

followi n g points

( )
1 The g e olog i cal f e atur e s .

( )
2 The phys i cal f e a t ure s part i cularly with r e f e rence to t he
,

subs e quent work i ng of t h e proper ty s hould t h e r e sults ,

warrant this course 5 note such po i n t s as th e ba cks ava i l

able that s if the vein can be work e d wa t er fr ee 5 bu t
i ,

,

i f not m e nt i on i f sinking is l i kely to b e w e t or dry

, ,

m i n e t i mber and wat e rpower ava i lable etc

-

,
.

( )
3 Sample the outcrop at di fferent points noting the width ,

of v ei n and p e cul i ar i ti e s of structure .

( )
4 Me ntion th e prox i mi ty or absence of valuabl e or worthless
, ,

min e s i n the dis trict .

( )
5 Make inquirie s as to past history of the e ld ob t aining ,

o f c ial stat i stics when possible .

( )
6 G a i n a p er son a l knowl e dge of th e local pe c uliar i t i es of the
o r e d e os it s in the n e ighbour i ng m i n e s e specially noting
p ,

v e in structur e average width and value of or e accessory

-
, ,

m i n e rals country rock in u e n c e of di fferent kin ds of

,
-
,

country faults i ntrusive dykes meth ods of trea tmen t

, , , ,

mon thly output m i n i ng costs etc ,

,
.

When once 0 11 the groun d th e mineexam i ner should make a ,

point of acqu i ring all th e gen e ral a n d part i cular informa ti on he

can ob t a i n for his future ref e r e nce and g u idanc e .

Th e r e sults of th e sampling and obs e rvat i ons may b e satis

factory but the e xp e ri e nced min i ng e ngine e r will b e careful not
,

to comm it h i ms e lf to a de n it e opin i on as to th e potent i al valu e of

the prop e r ty upon surfac e in di ca t ions alon e Th e young e ngin ee r .

must no t b e afrai d t o r e por t t o h i s pr i nc i pal s that t he d e v e lop

ment work i s in s u f c ie n t to e nable m e to form a de n ite op i n i on

as to th e probabl e valu e of th e property Th e e xp e rienced .

engineer n ds no dif c u lty in doing s o .

Bear in mind that th e outcrops of silv e r l e ad z i nc a n d copp e r , , ,

lod e s ar e of te n less valuable than they ar e at some depth below the

surface 5 whil e those of gold are in many cases m or e valuable .
 T HE E X A MIN A T I O N A N D V ALU AT I O N OF M I NES . 1 99

Henc e w it h t h e former t h e j udgm e nt mus t b e gui de d mor e by

, ,

m i neralogi cal and geological cons i de ra ti ons t han by sampl in g .

I f t h e ou t crop values a n d g e n e ral surround i ngs ar e sa tisfac tory ,

th e e xa m i n e r w ill i n most cas e s b e warran te d i n r e comm e nd i ng

f urth e r d e v e lopm e nt work b ei ng under ta k e n i n ord e r to op e n up
t h e ground for a f u ll e r exami nation Th e m i n e e xam i n e r from .
-
,

his knowl e dg e of t h e groun d will b e abl e t o i n di ca te to h i s ,

principals th e na t ur e e x te n t and proba bl e cos t of s uch work

, , .

111 t h i s cas e it w i ll man i f e stly be to t h e i n t er es t of t h e i n te n d

ing purchasers t o acqu i r e a working op ti on ov e r th e prop e rt y for
a per i od of s ix nin e or t w e lve mon t hs or m a y be i f t h e work t o
, , , , ,

b e unde r tak e n is consi derabl e t wo y e ars ,

.

Th e dee d of op tion s houl d b e l e gally e xecu te d be t we e n th e

int e res te d pa rt ies 5 cl ea rly s p e c ify t h e term of purchas e a n d s ta te ,

wh i ch part y is un de r obl i ga ti on t o pay ren ts tax es royal ty and , , ,

comply with t h e labo u r r e gulations e tc dur i ng t h e curr e ncy of ,

.
,

t h e op ti on .

The v e n dor may som eti m e s r e qu i re an im m e dia te ca s h payment

of an agr e ed sum of mon e y on th e e xecut i on of th e d ee d of op t ion ,

such sum t o be cons i de r e d par t of t h e purchas e mon e y s houl d th e -

prope rt y be tak e n ov e r ; or h e may cov e nant that a c e rtain

s e c i e d s u m be spent
p i n m i n e d e velopm e n t eit h e r-
monthly or ,

dur i ng t h e whole p e r i o d of t h e op ti on a s a guarante e tha t t h e ,

work w i ll b e pros e cu te d w it h v i gour .

It should be r e memb e r e d how e v e r tha t t h e engin ee r for t h e

, ,

purchas e r i s g e neral ly t h e bes t j udg e as to wha t sum shoul d b e

s p e n t i n t he d e v e lopm e n t work n e c e ssary t o e nabl e h i m t o form a

r e liabl e opinion of t he value of th e propert y O u th e o t h e r hand .

,

t h e chanc e of do i ng good bus i n e s s shoul d no t b e lost by pursu i ng

a n i ggardly pol i cy w i th t he v e ndors Th e refor e e ach case mus t .
,

b e j udg e d on its own m e r it s .

S o far we hav e a ssumed tha t t h e surface ou t crops gav e

s u f c ie n t values t o warran t furt h e r de v e lopm e n t be i ng und e r
tak e n w it h a v ie w of op e n i ng up t h e groun d for a more cr iti cal
e xam i nat i on According t o t h e c on g u ra t io n of th e s urfac e a n d
.

pos iti on of t h e ou t crops t h e or e v e in w i ll b e prosp e c te d by lev els

,
-

dri v e n
e n d on t e along . t h
. e cours e of t h e or e body or by ,

cross c u t s and l e v e l s t h e r e from or by a shaf t or s haf ts

-
,
.

I n s e l e c ti ng th e s ite s for t h e afor e sa i d l e v e ls or shaf ts i t i s i n

mos t cas e s a dvisabl e t o k ee p i n m i n d t h e poss ib i li ty of th e s e works
b ein g u ti li s ed i n th e p e rman e n t work i ng of t h e m i n e should t h e ,

r e sul t s j us t ify t h i s cours e .

Aga i n th e surfac e ou t crops may be wor t h l e ss a n d t h e prosp e c ts

,

in s u f c ie n t t o warran t any expe n dit ur e on prosp e ct i ng O n t he .

o t h e r han d t he valu e of t he prop e r ty m ay b e so obvious tha t th e

,
2 00 MININ G GEOLOGY .

m i ne examiner is j u s ti e d i n r e comm e nding th e imm e diate

-

purchas e I n this cas e no prospe c ting should b e unde r tak e n by

.

th e e xamin e r until a r m Op tion of p u r ch a se has b e en acquir e d on

b e d rock t erms
-
.

Und e veloped properties of such obvious valu e are rare and ,

h e nc e e xtrem e cau ti on must be ex e rc i se d by th e e xaminer before

recomm e n ding an i mm e diate purchase L edg e s of silver l e ad ore .
-

and gossans of pyri ti c or e bodies hav e be e n d i scov e red in s i tuations

-

t hat left littl e room for doubt as to th e ir gr e at valu e e v e n from sur ,

face sampl i ng and examination 5 and th e sam e h a s proved t ru e of not

a few valuable deposits of magnetite sp e cular iron and manganes e , , .

Bu t e ven if the exam i ner have the immediate purchase of the

property in h i s mind h e will seldom hav e much dif c u lty in
,

obta i n i ng the right (under an opt i on of purchas e ) to sp e nd a

mon t h or two in sampling a n d surv ey i ng preparato ry to the

completion of the purchas e .

P egg ed on P os ition This is generally an un de v e lop e d property

.
,

often possess i ng no surface ind i cations of valuabl e ore or mineral .

I t is how e ver not on all fours with th e cases we have already

, ,
-

d i scuss e d I n som e cases position means e verything 5 in othe rs

.
,

nothing F or exampl e an ar e a surrounded by working coal m i nes

.
,
~

iron mines or oil wells occurring in the same formation in the

-
,
-
,

FI G

. 74 .
S ectio n o f Val ble Bedded D po it
ua e s .

absence of faults or igneous dykes is an area already proved ,

valuable by its j uxtaposition to valuable mines Or a cla i m .

p e gg e d out on the strik e of a lode that has proved to be payable

up to the boundary i s a potentially valuabl e property O r a .

claim pegg e d out on the d i p of a a t lying lod e seam or b e d that -

, ,

has been proved to be valuable by th e outcrop m i nes i s a prope rt y ,

in the absence of great faults igneous dyk e s or a change of rock , ,

formation that may prov e to be of great value

, .

I n the above g u re A is an ou t crop cla i m assumed to b e

,
2 02 MININ G GEOLOGY .

( )
6 Particulars of ve i n outcrops prosp e c t ing work don e
-
, .

( 7 Values obta i n e d from sampl i ng .

( ) i scuss i on of general surroun di ngs

8 D .

( ) pinion as to futur e prospects a n d r e comm e nda tions

9 O ,
.

Thr ee cours e s may b e pursu e d accord i ng to th e circumstances ,

the property may b e

( )
a Rej e cted .

( )
b S e cur e d on working option .

P urchas e d .

I f th e e ng i n ee r r e commen ds t hat an opt i on b e s e cur e d he

should g i v e full d e tails of th e charact e r and ext e nt of the proposed
work i t s probabl e cost time r e quired for th e work its e ffe c t wh e n
, , ,

complet e d and proposed method of supervision

, .

D e v e l o p e d M in e s a n d G o ing C o n c e rn s Th e commercial .

valuation of a m i n i ng prop e rt y in th i s sta g e is based upon t h e

following cons i derations
( )
1 Th e quant i ty and valu e of or e de e Op ed, and quan t ity of
or e be ing d ev elop e d .

( )
2 Th e n e t p rot per ton .

( 3 ) Th e annual ou t put to yield a n et

p ro t per cent . 0 11 a
certa i n cap ital i sation .

( 4 ) The probable l i f e of min e .

Th e quant ity of or e that m i ght b e expected to b e Op e ne d up by

furth e r d ev e lopment work mus t not b e los t s i gh t oi But t h e .

quantity a n d valu e of such or e are unknown quanti ti es and th e ,

i mpor tance t o b e at tach e d to th e m i n calculat i ng th e mine val u e

must in e v e ry cas e b e d e t e rm i n e d by th e charact e r of t he
ore bo dy a n d the value of the or e alrea dy d e v e loped and won
-
.

I n all cas e s the fundamental basis of m i ne valuation is the ne t

p r in
ot s ig h t .

Som e ve i ns are notoriously patchy wh i l e others are e qually ,

consis te nt as m e tal produc e rs 5 hence 11 0 saf e rul e can b e laid down

-

as t o th e prosp e ct i v e valu e of un de velope d ground Th e local .

cond iti ons mus t gov e rn e ach cas e I t is how e ver well for t h e .
, ,

engineer t o r e m e mb e r that th e ore values of ve i n deposi t s are - -

mor e li able to sudd e n var i ation than thos e of b e dded de pos i ts .

As i n th e former cas e s th e min e e xam i ner will proceed t o th e

,
-

ground e qu i pp e d w i th th e best topographical and geological

maps obtainable ; also of c ia l reports a n d statisti cs if any are ,

ava i labl e .

When onc e 0 11 th e groun d t he e xam i ner will n d it a dv a n

,

t a g e ou s t o pursue t he follow i ng course of proc e dur e al though i t ,

 T HE E X A MIN A T I O N A N D V ALU AT I O N 0

must b e clearly und e rstood t hat c i rcums tanc e s alter cases The .

suggestions g i ven h e re are general ra th e r t han special and must ,

b e m odi e d to su it th e n ee ds of each case

( )
a Car e fully exam i ne th e mine plan G e t t he min e manager
-
.

to e xplain th e general scop e a n d ext e n t of t h e un dergroun d

workings .

( )
b E xamine t he surface ou tc rops (ii any ) a n d no te the ,

geolog i cal and phys i cal fea tur e s .

( )
c E xamin e th e boundary l i nes and car e fully no te t h ei r pos iti on
-
,

w it h r e sp e c t t o th e dip a n d cours e of t h e v ei n or e body -

or s e am b e ing work e d i n t h e m i n e .

( )
d N ote the r e la ti on of th e u n de rg nou n d work i ngs t o th e
surface boundar ie s .

()
e Hav e a look at t h e or e coming to t h e surfac e also a t t h e ,

rock on th e d u m p .

(f ) E xam i ne and mak e a not e of t h e surfac e e qu i pm e n t i nclud ,

i ng mills and all m e tallurg i cal plant a n d appl i anc e s .

When d e s cr i b i ng s te am e ng i n e s g i v e t h e numb e r a n d
-
,

size of cylind e rs maker s name pressure of steam carri ed

,

,

by boiler e t c,
.

Th e rs t da y or t wo is spent in get t ing your bearings and ,

becom i ng ac qua i n t ed wi t h th e manag e r a n d no ti ng wha t mann e r

of a man he i s A f e w da ys occup i ed on t h e surfac e i n pr e
.

l i m i nary work i s g e nerally t ime w e ll sp e n t M ak e a not e of any .

fac t s presented or o ffer e d to you D o not no te O p i n i ons and 0 11

.
,

your side b e car e ful to o ffe r none .

(g ) E xamin e t h e u n d erground work i ngs accompan ie d by th e

m i n e manager or his d e puty According to t he e x t en t of
.

t he workings it may tak e a day 0 1 t wo to do t h i s

,

.

( )
11 Aga i n e xam i ne t h e m in e plans Y ou w i ll b e
. able t o follow
t h e m i n te llig e n tly fr om th e informat i on you have ga i n e d
undergroun d .

Y ou have now rea ch e d the cri ti cal stag e i n your e xamina ti on .

You have nex t to d ete rm i n e th e con diti on of t h e m i n e ; a n d

among th e qu e s ti on s tha t w i ll na t urally com e i n to your m i n d w i ll
be t h e follow i ng
( )
1 I s t h i s a young m i n e w i th a prosp e rous fu t u r e ahead of it ?

s thi s a young m i n e doom e d t o e arly e xhaus ti on ?

( )
2 I
( )
3 Has t h i s min e r e a ched i ts max i mum po i n t of pr od uction ?

( )
4 I s t h i s an old m i n e approach i ng e xhaus ti on ?
s t his an old mine with th e e y es p ic ke d ou t ?
( )
5 I

The answer to these questions is to be found in th e quan tity

2 04 MININ G GEOLOGY .

an d valu e of ore in s i ght D o not forget that in a vigorous w ell

.
,

manag e d m i n e the d evelopmen t work w i ll be commonly two years

ah e ad of the m i ll .

G underground with your own a ss is ta n t and sk etch out

o ,

your sch e me of sampling .

Sample the min e in a systemat i c manner This may take .

a week or s e veral weeks ac c ording to th e magnitude ,

of the workings and siz e of ore bodies ( The g e neral -

.

princ i ples of m i ne sampling are described in the chapt e r

-

treating of M in e sampling and O re

Complete your surface invest i gations G e t min e returns of .

output of ore an d values e xtracte d or of min e ral shipp e d ,

or exported min i ng and milling costs etc

,
Carefully ,
.

verify doubtful po i n t s .

Before leaving th e district make as c ompl e te an exam i na

ti on of the neighbouring mines as circumstances will
p e rmit noting character of country ore bodies being
, ,
-

worked general characteristics of said or e outpu t

, , ,

returns methods of treatment costs of mining a n d

, ,

m i lling .

Ou no account allow yourself to be hurried in your examination .

Tak e your own time Cultivate a deliberate temperament

. .

Base your est i mates on facts but be sure of your facts 5 a nd in

,

your report be car e ful to differentiate between facts and opinions .

Y our next care is the assay of your mine sampl es and in this ,

you must be gui ded by local considerations I f you are a skilful .

assayer it is pr e ferable for you to hir e an as say oice for a day or

,

two supply your own u x e s crucibles etc and perform your own
, , , .
,

assays 5 or your assistant will probably be able to do so for you .

I n whatever way the work of assaying is done it is imperat i ve ,

th at the results must be accurate and reliable .

( )
m Plot your assay values on tra c ings of mine plans and th e n -
,

consid e r th e results .

The form of your report will d e pend upon your r e com m e n da

t i ons M an i festly th e prop e rty may b e
.

( )
1 R e j ect e d .

( )
2 S e cur e d on option .

( )
3 Purchased a t onc e .

in your Opin i on t h e property should be rej ected it w i ll b e

I f, , ,

unnecessary to furn i sh elaborate details conce rn ing it B u t i f .

2 06 MININ G GEOLOG Y .

ta in e d in mo r e or l e ss rectangular blocks of limited size exposed

by workings on all s i d e s Th e y are only applied to or e that can .

be e xtracted and treated at a pr o t .

Th e phras e or e in s ig h t i s amb i guous and may m e an ore e xposed ,

0 11 o n e two or more s i des

, ,
I t may thus be misl e ading and should
.
,

th e r e for e be allow e d to fall into disus e .

A simpl e and clearly de n e d c las s i c a tion of ore is as follows

r e D e ve lop ed Blocks of ore exposed on four sides
()
i O . .

( )
ii O r e P a r tl y D e ve lop e d Blocks of ore e xposed on three or .

two sid e s .

r e E xp e cte d to be D e ve lop e d Blocks of ore that may be

( )
iii O '

r e asonably expected to exist beyond or below t he last

v i s i ble or e E xposed on one sid e . .

Philip Argall cons i de rs that th e thr ee phrases or edevelozyed ore

1
,

being dev e lop ed and ore e xp ec ta n t should cov e r all t h e estimates

,

a mining e ngineer i s called upon to make .

I n th e cas e of a v e in expose d by surfac e ou t crops only ther e ,

is no ore in sight notwithstanding that the valu e s may b e high

,
.

FI G . 76 . L ongitu dinal S e tion

c on Co r e o f L o de
u s .

t h e l e tt e rs a b e
in On e D tm ens zon I 76
'

Or e exp os ed . n fig .
, , ,

a n d cl r e pr e s e nt promin e nt outcrops on th e cours e of a lode .

The hollows between t hes e outcrops ar e assum e d to b e obscur e d

by ov e rburde n A numb e r of sampl e s s e lect e d at each ou t crop
.

show e d th e pr e sence of valuabl e or e M an i f e s tly any e stimat e of .

th e quanti ty of payabl e or e woul d b e m or e gu e sswork .

Ther e i s noth i ng t o show tha t th e payabl e or e i s con ti nuous

b e tw ee n t he di ff e r e n t ou t crops I t may or may not b e s o Again .
,

th e payable or e a t the d i ff e r e n t ou t crops may b e m e r e loca l

patch e s or the t runca te d r e ma i ns of a pay shoo t that may have
,
-

b ee n of considerabl e d i m e n s i ons pr i or t o th e later sculp t ur i ng o f

t h e country .

1
T A R i k rd T h S mp lin g
. . c a d E tim ti
, f O in M ie a
p 80 an s a on o re a n e, .
,

N w Y ork 1 90 4
e , .
 T 1I 11 E X AM IN AT I O N A N D V ALU A T I O N or M I N ES . 2 07

I n th e above e xampl e we have t h e proof of th e rs t p rin cip le ,

i n accordance wi th wh i ch a n or e body e xp os e d in on e dimen sion -

a ff o rds no basis for th e e stima ti on or e in s ig h t .

O re exp osed in T wo D ime ns i ona We w i ll n o w assum e t ha t

surfac e e xcavat i ons hav e proved t h e con t inuanc e of th e pay shoo t -

from poin t s a to 0 g 7 7 and tha t a shaf t has b e en sunk on t h e

,
.
,

v e in at po i n t 6 to a d e pth of 60 f ee t .

FI G .
L o git di
n u nal S e tio n o f L ode
c .

Th e shaf t su n k at b e xposes t wo s i des or dim e ns i ons of th e

t riangles of ore a b e and c b e for a thickn e s s e qual to t h e w i dth
of t h e breast of or e e xpo sed in t h e shaf t .

Let a ft 6 ft and b e = 60 ft a n d t h e m e an
.
, .
, .
,

wi dth or th i ckn e ss of pay or e = 4 ft Assum i ng t ha t t h e payabl e

-
.

valu e s c on t inued to t h e bot tom of t h e shaf t w e hav e t wo t r i angl e s ,

of or e par t ly d e velop e d .

F rom th e above w e ge t the m i n i ng e ng i n e er s s e cond pr i nc i pl e

T h a t a n o r e body exp ose d in two d im ens ion s g iv es a tri a ng le of or e

-

only p a r tly de vel op e d .

Or e exp os ed on F ou r S ide s I n t his e xampl e a l e v e l has b ee n

.

driv e n on th e cours e of th e v ei n , a n d a r i s e pu t up from po i nt f t o

th e surfac e , a n d ano th e r ris e from 2 t o n Th e do tt ed l i n e 3 n 771 . .

s hows t h e lim it s of the pay shoo t on t h e w e s t s i d e of t h e shaf t

-
.

Th e or e de ve lop ed now i nclud e s th e r e c tangul ar block Z) 6 f c Th e .

i rr e g u lar block b s m e is e xpos e d on thr ee s i d e s , a n d th e r e for e

con ta i ns or e no t ful ly d evelop e d Th e r e l i anc e t o b e placed upon .

est i mat e s of valu e in t his block w i ll d e p e n d upon th e charac te r

is t ic s of the ore body a n d loca l con diti on s
-
Th e capac ity of th e s e .

or e bodies can eas i ly b e c alcula te d for any g i v e n wi dth

-
.

F rom the above w e g et th e th i rd pr i nc i pl e T h a t a n ,

o re- body

exp ose d in f om

dime n sion s g iv e s a r e c ta n g u la r a r ea o f or e

de vel op ed known app r oxi m a te m ea n wid th a nd v a l ue

f
o a .
2 08 MININ G GEOLOGY .

I t is manifest that three d i mensions do no t fu lly expos e a

rectangula r body of ore I f in t he abov e e xampl e we take sid e s
.

6 e e f and f e as th e known dim e nsions t hen t h e value of the

, , ,

triangle b k c is an unknown quantity Again if e b b e and e f .

, , ,

are th e known dim e nsions t hen th e t riangle of or e e h f is ,

unknown .

FI G . 78 .
-
L ongitu dinal S e ctio n o f L o de .

I n working mines with the d e velopment well in advan c e of th e

,

mill the lev e ls and rises by means of which the ore is cut up into
,

r e ctang u lar blocks for stoping a ffo rd four dimensions or sides for
e xamination and sa mpling .

O nly in exc e ptional c ases should the length of a block ex c eed

twice th e h e ight The smaller the blocks the more trustwo rthy
.

will be the estimates of or e de velop ed .

E stima tion f
o T onn a g e .
This is found
by div i ding the number
of cubic f e et of sol i d or e contain e d in the block by the number
of cubic fe e t of solid ore in a ton The number of cubic feet in a .

ton of ore depends on the specific gravity of th e or e and varies ,

from 1 2 to 1 5 cubic fe e t for a ton of 2 0 00 lbs .

I n m e asuring up ground which is f u lly d e veloped allowance must

b e mad e for faults dykes probabl e h or s es of rock and pillars of or e
, ,

that will nev e r b e tak e n out A d eduction of 10 per c e nt will . .

b e s u f c ie n t in most cas e s 5 but obviously no e mp i rical rule can

be laid down Th e c haracter of the ore body and contain i ng rock
.
-
,

and lo c al experience will a ff ord the safest gu i des to follow

, .

P r o ba bl e Or R e
e es rv es I n many cases the m i
. nee xaminer may
be j u s ti e d in assuming that the payable ore e xt e nds above 0 1

below the working faces or open gr ound I n this matte r he must .

exerc ise great caution His only guide is the general metalliferous
.
.
2 10 MININ G GEOLOGY .

I n the maj ority of cases t he e xaminer s r e port will d e al with

the following points

( )
1 S ituation and means of access .

( )
2 Area title
,
owners ,
r e nts or ,
royalty et c , .

( )
3 G eological structur e illustrat e,d wi t h cross s e c t ions -
.

( )
4 Phys i cal fea t ur e s with r e,
f e renc e to for e s t s ra i nfall wat e r , ,

pow e rs etc ,
.

( )
5 Th e area of c oa l e ld
( Th i s should
. b e shown on a colour e d
plan ) .

6) Thickness of seams and pr e senc e of ston e par t ings

, .

7 ) E xistenc e of faul t s and dyk e s .

( )
8 Probable tonnag e of coal 5 pr e s e nc e of r e c la
y and irons t one .

( )
9 Quality of coal I s it har
. d and strong or soft and friabl e ? ,

G ive an alys e s of coal state wh e th e r it i s us e ful for st e am ,

household gas sm e lting e tc purpos e s D iscuss pro

, , ,
.
, .

po rtion of sulphur pr e s e nt water ash et c , , , .

( )
1 0 S tate i f any portion of th e e ld lies so as to b e wat e r fre e -
,

and if s o what ar e a
, ,
.

( )
11 G iv e probable cos t of min e d e v e lopm e nt .

( )
1 2 Cost of su r fac e equipment .

( )
1 3 State probable cos t of produc t ion .

( )
14 State situation of mark et for coal access and probabl e ,

cost of transport of sam e .

( )
1 5 D iscuss e xtent of market probabl , e competition et c , .

( )
16 S tate the probable n et p r o t p e r ton .

I n an a r e a in wh i ch the quant i ty of coal i s d e duced from surfac e

outcrops and a f e w borehol e s it i s a ne e dless r e n e m e n t to at te mpt
to calculate t h e quant i ty of coal with math e mat i cal e xactn e ss .

Having determin e d th e approx i mat e ar e a and t h i ckn e ss of coal ,

and made du e allowanc e for brok e n coal along outcrop faults , ,

and dykes th e quantity of coal that can b e e xtract e d may be

,

c al c ul ated on the following bas i s

T o n s p e r A cre .

F or e v e ry foot of brown coal ,

10 0 0
p i tch coal , 1 10 0
b i t u m i nous coal 12 00 ,

cann e l coal , 1300

anthracit e ,
15 00

Seams of c oal a n d beds of shal e ar e sampl e d in th e sam e way as a

v e in that is by cu tt ing a narrow groove from roof t o o or a t r i gh t
,

angl e s to the plan e of t h e d i p Surfac e outcrops should b e dr e ss e d

.

down with a p i ck before th e sample is broken as ou t crop coal is ,

often wat e rlogg e d 5 and som eti m e s t he cracks ar e lle d with n e

sedim e nt or sand carried over t he exposure by running water or rain .
 T HE E XA MIN AT I O N AN D V AL U AT I O N 0 11 MI NES . 2 11

VAL U AT I ON or A LL UV I A L G RO U N D .

Th e val u at i on of alluvial or placer depos its e ither for dr e dging ,

or hydraul ic sl ui cing i s a ff ec t ed by dete rm i ning th e amou n t of

,

gol d con taine d i n a m e asur e d quan tity of mater i al ob ta i n e d from

sh a f t s or boreholes placed a t reg ular i nterv als i n th e ar e a under
con s i de ration .

T h e Wor of S mp lzn g Fi rs t su r v ey the block of ground a n d

k a
.
,

plot it on pap e r to a larg e sca l e say 2 chains to th e inch for ,

areas b et w ee n 5 0 and 10 0 acr es and 1 cha in to the in ch for areas ,

und e r 5 0 a cr e s .

D ivi de th e ground on t h e plan in to bloc ks of 1 to 5 or 6 acr e s .

Th e shape of t h e blocks w i ll d ep e nd on t h e surface con tours ,

t h e di r e c ti on of th e dr a i nag e and t h e probabl e direction of th e

,

gol d leads
-
.

I n som e cas e s t h e ground i s a long narrow s t r i p s i t ua t ed on one

or bo th s i de s of a riv e r 5 in o t hers te rrac e lands i n a vall e y wh i ch , ,

ar e i n many cases in te rs e c te d by la t eral str e a m s .

M ak e a mark i n t h e c e n t r e of e ach block and th e n number t h e ,

blocks in cons e cu ti v e o rd e r Proc ee d to t h e groun d and put a

.

s tak e or ag i n th e c e ntr e of e ach bloc k Th e s e s takes mark t he .

s it e s of t h e sampling hol e s .

Th e dep t h of grav e l may vary from no t h i ng to 40 fee t or mor e i n ,

v e ry dee p groun d .

Wher e th e groun d is dry and no t d e e p i t i s cus tomary to sink

hol e s or shaf ts a t t h e s e l e c t e d po ints Th e whole of t h e ma te rial .

e xcava t ed from t h e hol e is car e fully measured i n a box of kno wn

capac ity w a shed by cra dl ing the gold con ten ts w ei ghed and t h e
, , ,

results r e c o rded .

Th e reco rd of each hole emb ra ces informa t ion on th e following

po i n ts
( )
1 D e p t h of ground .

t t e e f se b o t tom
( )
2 Character of botto m ha is wh th r slate or a l,
.

( )
3 Charac t er of grav e ls ( note pa rtic ul arly if b e d s of clay large ,

bould e rs or drif t ti mb er ex i s t in ground )

,
.

( )
4 Quant it y of mat e ri al excavated i n cubic yar d s plu s 2 0 pe r ,

c en t ( all t h e boul d ers bo t h small and gr eat must be in

.
, ,

cluded i n t h e measur e m e n t ) .

( ) Quan t i ty of gol d ob ta i ned

5 .

( )
6 Quan ti ty of gold per cubic ya rd .

I n ground wh e r e t h e si n king of hol e s woul d b e impe d ed to a ny

cons i d erabl e e xte n t by wa ter it i s usual to pu t down 5
,
inch or 6 i nch -

bor e hol es at t h e s e lected poin ts Th e holes ar e l i ned w it h tubing

-
.
,

a n d th e ma teri al ex t racted by t he san d p u m p c oll e cted in a ,

wood e n t rough w a shed a n d t he gol d conten ts w ei ghed

, ,
.
2 12 MININ G GEOLOGY .

Re c ord the depth of the hole a n d calcula t e th e cub i c cont e nts

,

from the outside diameter of t he p i pe plus 2 0 per c ent The ,

.

excess is add e d because experience has shown that the gold values
cal c ulat e d from the di splacement of the pipe alone ar e always
higher than t he actual r e turns This is no doub t larg e ly due t o
.
, ,

the c i rcumstance t hat a h i gher e xtraction or saving of the gold is

e ffe cted in th e sampl i ng t ests than i n actual pract i c e .

Wr ong M e th ods of S a mp ling The method of s e l e cting the test

samples from open fac e s or from the sides or oor of small
streams has often l e d to erroneous conclusions I n th e se places .

th e gold is generally mor e or less concentrated thus render i ng it ,

impossible for th e examiner to form an approximate estimate of

the average value of the gravels .

Pannings taken from t he to e of gr avel faces and from water

cou rs e s cut through th e gr avels are in t eresting but infer e nc e s ,

drawn from the gold ob t ained are usually v e ry misleading .

F urthermore it must not be inf erre d that a plac e r claim whi ch

,

r eturns good wag e s to a small party of working mates w i ll

necessarily pay dividends to a company working on a larg e scal e .

Working on a small scale the m i n e rs are always on the track of

t h e g old I f the lea d is lost the fact is known at once 5 but work
.
,

ing on a large scale where the shifting of quan t ity is an impo rtant
,

factor in order to insur e adequate retu r ns for the capital invested ,

ri c h and poor g ravels al i k e are moved th e reby reducing the ,

gen e ral average .

Cal cu la ting the A v er a g e Va lua Th e average value per cubic

yard is found by multiplying the numb e r of gr ains of gold per
cubi c yard found in each hole by the depth of the hole in feet ,

and dividing the sum of these produ c t s by the sum of the dep t h
in feet as follows
,

D epth o f Hole Gra i n s o f G ol d 3

1 1 0 3 113
F eet C bi Y rd 3
in .
p e r u c a .
 I N DE" .

A G E S o f geol ogi l time 4 ca ,

. e i e
B lu carm n , 1 73 .

A ll v ial depo it m pli g d l

u s s , sa n an v a ua B lueg or u n d, 1 5 4 .

tio n f 2 1 12 13 o , . i o epo
B og - r n d s s, 22 it .

Al m 1 4 2 1 4 3
u , , . Bo z
n a n a s , 7 1 , 72 .

A l m i i m 14 4
u n u ,
. o t o o
B ra e f s da, d s s of 2 5
,
epo it .

A l m h ale 1 4 2 1 43
u s s, , . Bo rax , de osits of, 2 5 , 3 7, 1 4 7 .

A l ite 1 4 2 1 4 3
un , , . Bo i
r c a c i 1 2 3, 14 7
A am or ph i m 6 8
n s ,
. o ite o
B rn ,
c c u rr n c of, 42 , 5 8 e e .

A ata e 91
n s , . o e i
B s s s, 5 5 m n ral s f u nd in , 6 e o .

A de ite m i er l fo u d i 6 7 ;
n s s, n a s n n, , e o
B ras s s in c al , 30 .

f iti
a 7 ; prop y liti atio
n f 1 12
e s, s n o , ,
i e pi g
B r n s r n s a s nd ca rs f sal , 7 0 i i to o t .

o i eo i
Br m d f s l v r , ccu rr nc of, 4 4 e o e e .

A nth ra ite g fc 29 5 l ignite ,

a e o ,
B e
u n ch s , 7 1 .

ch ged to by ba al t 30
an ,
s ,
.

A ntim o n ite 1 44 , . C A I N O Z O I C period 4 ,

.

A nti m ony 1 4 4 , . C i r gorm a o iated With pp h i re

a n ,
ss c sa s,
Ap tite 1 77
a , . 22 .

Arge tite o rren e f 4 2 1 80 5 i

n ,
ccu c o , ,
n Cal mi ne 1 85
a , .

l o de 5 4 s, . C l ite verti al di trib tio f 7 6 5

a c ,
c s u n o ,

Ar eni c 1 4 4 1 4 5
s , ,
. q rtz p e dom orph f 91
ua s u s o , .

Ar e opyrite i
s n vein 6 1 1 4 4 ,
n or e s, , ,
C m brian g 4
a a e, .

1 4 5 5 m i er l a o iated with 8 4 n a s ss c , . Carbon a o iation o f prod ti ve ore

,
ss c uc s
A be to 1 4 5
s s s, . with 8 3 , .

A ph al tum 1 4 5 14 6
s , , . Carbon diox i de 1 15 1 2 1 1 34 , , ,
.

A gite a prod t o f o ntact meta

u ,
uc c C rbonation o f mineral 6 8
a s,

m orp h i m 1 2 7 s , . C rboni fero g 4

a us a e, .

Ca iterite S T i n tone
ss . ee s .

B A LK S ,
30 . C t y a oc iated with pph ire
a

s e e, ss sa s,
B ket
an ,
m d o e of o c cu rrence o f, 33, 22 .

Cell l o e ab orption o f opper

u s ,
s c by ,
B ry te 1 4 6 1 47
a s, , . 80 .

B l t affi ity f 7
a sa ,
n o , . Cem ent 1 4 7 14 8 , , .

B xite 1 4 2 1 4 3 1 44
au , , ,
. Cem e t pla er w ith g old 1 6 1 7
n c s , , .

B e he 71
nc s, . C em e t tion belt f 6 8
n a ,
o , .

Biotite h a ge f 91 ,
c n o ,
. Cer ite o rren e f 43 4 4
u ss ,
c cu c o , , .

Bi m th 14 7
s u , . C h l opy rite o rren e f 4 4 4 6
a c ,
cc u c o , , ,

Bit me S A ph lt m
u n . ee s a u . 58 5 i vei 6 1 5 verti l di
n ore ns, ca s

B l k b nd
ac 1 66
- a or e , . t ib ti
r f 7 5 5 mineral a o i t d
u on o ,
s ss c a e
Ble de i ont t depo it 3 9 12 7 5
n ,
n c ac s s, , with 8 4 , .

at Broken Hi ll 4 4 5 t B kto , a uc n, C h ly be te pri g

a i di tor o f
a s n s as n ca s

45 5 i ga h vei 52 5 i n s ns, n ore ir o 7 0 n, .

vei 6 1 5 verti l di trib tio f

n s, ca s u n o , Ch i tol ite a prod t o f onta t
as ,
uc c c

7 6 5 m i er l a o iated with 8 4 5 n a s ss c ,
m etam or ph i m 1 2 7 s , .

th mai o rce o f zi 1 85
e n s u nc , . C h im ey h oot 7 1
n -
s s, .
 I N D E" . 2 15

Chl o ride o f ilver o ur e e f 5 8 s ,

cc r nc o ,
. D EEP l e a ds wi h g t old 1 4 15 1 6 , , , .

C hl ori t e min er l o iated with 84

, a s ass c ,
. D eep min i g s o n , lim it f 88 8 9 , , .

C h romi te m in eral a o iated with ,

s ss c ,
Denudati on 2 3 , ,
.

8 4 5 in peri dotite 1 0 8 1 30 5 i , ,
n Dev on ian a g e 4 , .

s erpentine 1 0 8 1 4 8 5 f 1 49 , , u se s o ,
. D i a base af n ities o f 7 , , .

C hro mi m 1 48 1 4 9 u , , . D iam o n d placers 2 1 1 5 7 , , .

C h ry l ite 1 4 5
so , . Diam onds ass oc iated With sa pp hires , ,

Ci n bar m in eral a o iated with

n a ,
s ss c ,
2 2 5 at Ki m berl ey 38 5 K im berley ,

8 4 5 depo it f 117 1 18 1 19 s s o , , , . diam o nd m in es 1 53 1 5 5 5 parent ,

-

C la ti ro k S S edim e t
s c c s . ee n s . 0 roc k 1 5 5 1 5 6 5 genes i s of 15 6 5
, , ,

C l y ab o rptive po wer f for metal

a ,
s o , , in do leri te 1 5 7 5 larges t 158 5 , ,

7 9 8 0 5 fo rm ation f 7 9 5 petro
, o ,
pply f 1 5 8
su o , .

le m ab o r bed by 8 0
u s ,
. D io rite f iti f 7 ,
a n es o ,

G oal origin f 2 72 9 5 m ode o f

,
o ,
Dip o f trata 2 6 2 7 s , ,
.

o c rre c e 2 9 5 g f 2 9 5 effe t
c u n ,
a e o c s Dip f ul t 98 a s, .

prod ed i byuc dy ke 30 5 n, s, D olerite di m ond i 1 5 7 ,

a s n, .

v rietie f 32 ; t
a i fo rma s o , s a es n D ow th row 96 1 00
n , ,
.

tion f 32 33 ; w orl prod tion D y b lo wi g pl

o , , s uc r -
18 n ace ls ,
.

o f, 1 49 . Dy ke 5 5 m i neral fo d
s, s un in , 6 5
C o l areas val ation
a , u o f,2 0 9, 2 1 0 . eff e t prod d by 30
c s uce , .

C o l e m po itio n
a s a s, s of, 2 9 5 ul fa ti n g
o f, 2 9, 3 0 . E A R T H evolution o f t h e
, ,
2 .

Cob t al , 1 4 9, 1 5 0 . Ec logite 15 6 ,
.

C obalt ore m i eral s, n s a ss o iated with

c , e ent di t b ti
El m f i s, s n u
'

on o , n th e
84 5 o rren e f ccu c o ,
15 0 . earth r t 10 7
s c us ,
.

Cob l ti e 1 4 9
a n , . Em bo l ite o rren e f 4 3 1 80 ,
ccu c o , ,
.

Col e m a n nite , 14 7 . E rgite o

na rren e f 6 2 ,
ccu c o , .

C oi
o ll ds , w r o f, po e to ab orb s m etal s, E o ene g
c 4 a e, .

80 . Equise tum s in C arbo i ferou n s ag e ,

C o m b tru tur e 6 7 s c , . 28 .

C o ngl o m erates 3 , . E m b esc ite oc rren e , cu c o f, 38 5 in

Conta t depo it 38 4 6 1 2 41 2 7
c s s, -
,
. ontac t dep it 39
c os s, .

C onta c t m et m orp h i m 12 4 12 7 a s , . Ex el io r diam o nd 1 5 8

c s , .

Copper occ rren e f 34 35 38 5

,
u c o , , ,

ore f in ontact depos it 4 0 ;

s o ,
c s, F A H L B A N D S 9 46 4 7 82 12 7 , , , , , .

ore f in ein 70 5 abs orption f

s o ,
v s, o ,
F h l e occ urren e f 4 2
a or ,
c o ,
.

by c ell l o e 8 0 5 in erpentine
u s , s ,
Fa l t in c oal eam 2 9 30 5 exte n t
u s, s s, ,

e tc 1 0 9 1 30 5
.
, o urc e nd pro , s s a f 3 0 5 alo ng vein
o ,
7 2 5 d n it i n s, e o ,

d c tion f 1 5 0 1 5 2
u o ,
-
. 93 94 5 dyn m i,
f 93 1 0 4 a cs o , ,
.

Copper gl n e in onta t depo it

-
a c c c s s, Fel pa r h an ge f to kao l i 5 8 5 to
s ,
c o ,
n,

39 5 in l od e 5 8 s, . topaz 1 8 4 ,
.

Copper in toc k works 38 5 in

ore s ,
Fern geo l ogi cal devel op m ent f 2 8
s, o , .

l od e 5 3 5 7 5 8 ; in erpe n ti ne
s, , , s F ir ec lay 15 8 , .

a n d oth er o k 7 2 7 3 5 pseudo r c s, , Flin tie s , 8 3 .

m o rp h o s after w ood 8 3 u , . o te
Fl a r , 6 7 .

C opp r py rite oc rren ce f 3 8 4 5 5

e s, cu o , ,
Fluca n , 7 2 .

in o nta c t depo it 39 1 2 7
c s s, , . o ite
Flu r ( u or s ar) 1 5 9 -
p , .

C opro lite o u rrence f 3 6 s, cc o , . o o

F l ds in c a l , 3 1 , 32 .

C o untry in n f n, vein ue ce o ,
o o re s, o e t o C bo i e o
F r s s f ar n f r u s a g e , 2 8 .

7 2 , 7 3 , 8 1 , 8 2 , 1 3 4 , 135 .

Co e
u rs s , 7 1 . G A L E N A in c ontac t depo its 3 9 1 2 7 5
,
s , ,

C eta eo g 4
r c us a e, . at Broken Hill 44 5 at B u c kto n , ,

Cr h zo e 4 2
us n ,
. 4 5 5 in gas h vein s 5 2 5 in o re ,

Cry ol ite 1 4 3 1 5 2 , , . vein s 6 1 5 vertica l di str ibu ti on o f

, ,

C llin an di m ond 1 5 8
u a , . 7 6 5 minera l s ass oc iate d with 8 4 5 ,

C prite o r ence f 38
u

, cc u r o , . p seu dom orp h s of a fter wood 1 1 6 , , .

2 16 I ND E " .

G arn ets as soc iated with g ol d 1 8 ;

, ,
Iron h a t 6 9 , .

minerals as s o c iated with 8 4 5 a ,

I ron ore in l imestone 73 , .

pro du ct o f c o n ta ct m etam orp h is m ,

Iron p y rite s in c ontact depo sits 39 , , ,

12 7 . 4 1 4 3 1 2 7 5 n ea r gran ite 4 1 5 at
, , ,

Garn ierite 173 ,

. B roken Hil l 44 5 in fahl bands 4 6 5 , ,

G aws 30 31 , , . in l o des 5 6 5 7 5 in ore vein s 6 1 ;

, , ,

G eo l ogi c al ti m e ,
2 5 period s of , 4 . verti cal di s tribu tion o f 75 76 , ,

G ol d form s o f al luvial 18 5 as so c i a tes

, , o x i dation of 7 8 5m in eral s a ss oc i ated ,

o f allu vi al 1 8 5 origin o f al lu vi al , ,
with 8 4 5 o ccu rrenc e of in s sure s
, ,

18 1 9 5 p rec ipitates of 19 2 0 5 in
, , ,
o f basalt 1 1 7 5 in m etam orph ic ,

th e R a n d b a n ket reefs 3 3 3 4 5 in , ,
ro ck s 1 2 7 5 gold reduc ed by 1 41
, ,
.

T readwell m i n es 37 38 5 in c o nta c t ,
Iro n ston e b l o ws 6 9 ,
.

depo s its 4 0 ; in s a ddle reefs 4 9 ,

-
,

5 1 5 in l o des 5 35 7 5 in vei n s 7 0 5 , ,
JU RA S S I C ag e, 4 .

in bo z 72 5 i l y 7 9 5 n a n as , n c a ,

i di ator bed f 82 8 3 5 m i er l
n c s or, ,
n a s I
KA O L N , 1 5 8 .

a o iated with 8 4 5 i ande it

ss c ,
n s e s, Kt op i
a am r h s m , 6 8 .

water

11 4 1 15 ; i,
1 35 ; n sea ,
Ke ra rgy rite , 1 5 4 .

so r e prod tio
u c s, d y iel d f uc n, an o ,
Koh -i-n or d a m nd, 1 5 8 i o .

1 5 91 6 1 5 am pl i g d val atio s n an u n

o f all vi l depo it o nt i i g u a s s c a n n ,
L A N D origi n o f s u rfa ce features o f 2
, , .

2 1 1 2 1 3 . L a teral secretio n th eory of 1 341 41 , , .

G ol d ore e o dary enri h ment f s, s c n c o ,

Laurenti an a g e 4 ,
.

i zo e o f weath e i g 77 5 dim i
n n r n ,
nu Lava 5 5 m i n era l s fo und in 6
, ,
.

tio f with depth 81 8 2

n o , ,
. Lead ores o c curren c e o f 36 5 in , ,

G ol d p l er 1 0 1 9 1 5 9 1 6 0
ac s, , , . l o des 53 5 ,in l i m estone 73 5 ,

G o a 69ss n , . s o urc es a n d
y iel d o f 1 6 8 , .

Gr n ite ti
a i 6 5 l ,
i t i n ore n, c as s ca on L eader 75 , .

o f, 7 . L ead zi n c ores in c o nta c t depo s its

-
, ,

G raph ite , ag e 1, 2 9 5
0 for matio n of, 40 .

30 5 s o re u c s and u s s e of, 165 . Lepi do den dro n s in Carboni fero u s ag e ,

e
G rav l s , 3 . 28 .

e t og i o
G r a M u l d am nd, 1 58 . L ig n ite ,
ag e of , 29 5 m d o e of o c r c u
p
G y s um , depo it s s o f , 2 5 , 36 5 s o urc s e ren ce of , 3 2 , 33 .

e
a n d u s s o f, 1 6 5 , 1 6 6 . L i m esto n e ,
3 .

L i m o n ite epo it ,
d s s o f, formed by
HAD E of fault ,
93, 94 . de e di g water
sc n n s, 2 3, 2 4, 1 66 ,
H em tite
a a ,
in o e
l d s, 5 7 ; d epo it s s of , 16 7 .

1 6 6 , 16 7 . L o des ,
ch a ac r ters
53 58 5 w d h o f, -
i t
He ve o f t 99 100
a fau l s, , . o f , 6 3, 6 4 ; l n h o f , 64, 65 5 e gt
Hor ble de n prod t o f o t t n ,
a uc c n ac t ike
s r o f, 6 5 5 dip o f, 6 5 , 6 6 5
m et m or ph i m 1 2 7 a s , . dept h , 6 6 ; arra n m n f ma r ge e t o tte
H orn sil v e r . S ee Ke rargy rite . in , 66 , 6 7 ; r c v ry f l s , 101 eo e o ot
Hor e s s, 30 , 6 7 , 6 8 . 104 .

H y dra tion o f m i e l n ra s , 68 . L y c opo di u m s in C rbo n i ferou

a s ag e ,
H y dr oge l p h i de
n su , 7 9, 1 1 1 , 118 , 28 .

M A MASG . S ee Pl to i ro k u n c c s .

I G N E OU S ro c k s S ee Plu ton i c ro c k s . . Ma ma g ti c s egreg tio o f ore a n s, 10 6

I lmenite asso c iated with ti n sto n e
, ,
1 33 .

20 ; ge f 91 ch an o , . Ma g e ite 169
n s ,
.

I m preg tio 9 4 748 na ns, , . Ma g etite i bea h nd 1 2

n ,
n c sa s,

I di ator bed 82 83 1 6 0
n c s, , , . a o iated W th g ol d 1 8 5 with ti
ss c 1 ,
n
I o dyrite o c rren e f 43 4 4 ,
cu c o , , . o re ,2 0 5 in o nt t depo it 39 5 c ac s s,
Iro o r e d pro d tio f
n , s u c s an uc n o ,
1 66 m i neral s o i ated with 84 5
s a s c ,
cc

16 8 . r e e f i m gm
cu r n c 107 ; a o ,
n a as ,
2 18 I ND E " .

Po ket 7 1
c s, . timu us formation f 3 5 e rth
c o , a

s
Pot bl ow 30 3 1
-
s, , . r t hi cy form ed f 3 5 al tera
c us c o ,

Prim ry period 4 a
, . tion f 3 o , .

P e dom orph i m o f m ineral 8 9 91

s u s s, ,
. S erpenti ne m i eral a o iated with ,
n s ss c ,
P ilom ela e depo it f 2 3 2 4 1 6 9
s n ,
s s o , , , . 84 .

Py rite S Iron pyrite . ee s . ke o

S ha n c al , 3 0 , 31 .

Pyrol ite depo its f 2 3 2 4 1 6 9

us , s o , , , . e
S h al s , 3 .

Pyro xe e m ineral a o iated with

n , s ss c ,
i e ite
S d r , 1 66 .

84 . ii
S l ca , d epo itio
s ns of, 77 1 1 1- 1 1 7 5
P rr otite o
y h , c cu rren c e of ,
4 5 , 4 6 , 1 73, b o pti e po e o ge ti o
a s r v w rs f la n u s a nd
174, 1 75 5 in l d s , 5 7 ; o e verti cal p eie
u lv r s d , 80 5 pe o op
s u d m r h o f,
di t ib tion
s r u o f, 76 5 m ineral s te oo
af r w d, 1 1 6 .

a o iate
ss it c d w h , 8 4 5 in m eta i i
S lur an a g e , 4 .

m o r p i ro k h c c s, 12 7 . i e o e e
S lv r , c c u rr nc of, 3 5 , 3 6, 4 4 5 in
b oe ei
fah l ands , 46 5 r s o f, in v ns ,
QU A R TZ a gangue o f mi neral s 5 9
,
as , ,
i e to e
7 0 5 in l m s n , 73 5 in clay , 7 9 5
6 6 6 7 ; verti cal di strib u tion o f
, ,
o e
s u rc s a n d ie
y ld o f, 1 8 0 , 1 8 1 .

75 5 ab sorption o f o x i de o f i ro n i e e oe o t t epo it
S lv r l ad r s , in c n ac d
-
s s,
by p u lveru lent 80 5 m in eral s a s ,
o e ie
40 5 s urc s a n d y l d of, 1 81 .

s oc ia t e d with 8 4 5 p s eu do m orp h o u s ,
te
S la s , 3, 1 8 1 , 1 82 .

after calc ite a n d orth oc las e 91 5 ,

i ke i e
S l c ns d s , 7 2 .

depo s its o f c hal c edo n i c 1 13 1 1 4 , , ,

ip
S l s, 2 9 .

1 15 . S mal tite 14 9 .

Quartzite 3 , . o t i
S l fa a r c ac tio po
n ; e Hec ts of, in r
Qu i c k s i lver ,
s o ur e c s an d ie
y ld o f, 1 80 . i e
du c in g m n ral d epo its s , 1 1 11 2 3 .

Spe c u lario o t t epo it

r n , in c n a c d s s,
G
R EA L A R , v r ca l d s r u n of, e ti i t ib tio 39, 1 2 7 5 a p o t o egio
r duc f r nal
76 . et o p i
m am r h sm , 1 2 7 5 d epo it s s of,
ee t
R c n ag e , 4 .

e t ite o
R dru h , e e
c c u rr n c of, 4 2 .
p e r ry l ite , 1 79 .

R ege t i o
n d am nd, 15 8 . pi e o i te it ol
S n l , as s c a d w h g d, 1 8 .

ee e t
R v rs d fau l s , 94 . S tep-
t
fau l s , 2 9, 30 , 100 .

Rhy l o ite
,
a f n itie s o f, 7 . t b te e ti
S i ni , v r cal d s r u i t ib tio
n o f, 7 6 .

i e
R d r, 6 7 . to k o k
S c w r s , 9, 3 7, 3 8 .

o k te pe t e
R c s, m ra u r o f , 8 5 , 8 8 . t ike o t t
S r f s ra a , 2 6 .

Ru bies, o i te it ol
ass c a d w h g d, 1 8 5 t ike
S r t
fa u l s , 95 , 97
-
.

it pp i e
w h sa h r s, 2 2 . p i e o oppe
S ul h d f c r S ee C opper .

b p e
R u y la c rs , 2 1 , 2 2 . pyrite s .

ti e p e o o p o o
Ru l , s u d m r h u s f rm s o f, 91 . S l ph i de o f l e d
u S G le a . ee a na .

S l p h i de o f i lver
u S Arge tite s . ee n .

S A D D L E -B A C K S , 30 . S l p h i de o f zi n
u S B lende c . ee .

S addl e ee
r fs , 42 , 45 , 4 9, 5 0, 1 60 , S ul ph i de pre ipit nt o f g old 1 9
s, c a s , ,

161 . 78 8 3 1 4 1 ; verti al di tribu tio n

, , c s
t epo it
S al , d s s of, 2 5 . o f 75 7 6 7 7 7 8 7 9 5 o x i datio
, , f
, , , n o ,

ti g o i e
S al n

f m n s , 1 94, 1 95 . 7 8 5 fo rm tio n f 1 1 4 1 4 1 5 in a o , ,

p i g et o o
S am l n , m h ds f ore , 1 8 61 96 . s il i eou inter 1 2 1 5 i er ptive
c s s s, n u
S an ds , 3 . ro k 130
c s, .

to e
S ands n s , 3 . S l p h r depo it
u u f 2 5 2 6 37 1 11
,
s s o , , , ,

pp i e p e
Sa h r lac rs , 2 2 . 1 1 7, 1 1 8, 1 19, 12 0, 12 3, 12 4 ,
po ite p o
S ca l ,
a r du c f c n ac m a to o t t et su l ph rettedu h y dr g n o e as a n in

op i
m r h sm , 12 7 . dic at or o f, a nd
yi ld 7 0 5 s u rc s o e e
ee ite
S ch l ,
184 . of, 1 8 2 .

it
S ch s s , 3 . p io i e
S u l h u r d x d , 111 , 1 2 3 .

e o igi tio
S as , r na n o f, 2 p
S u l h ur c ac d , f rma i i on 0 tio
eo
S c ndary pe io r d, 4 S we llie s , 30 , 31 .

e i e t
S d m n s , rs t 0 1 1g i11 o f, 2 5 c on

Sy n e ite ,
a nitie s of, 7 .
 I ND E " . 19

VE NS , r I n o igi o
f c av i s in , 6 0 ; a ge it e
of g ol d , o ur en e
cc r c o f, o
f ll in g o f, 6 1 63 5 u c r s o f, o t op -

68 , 6 9 5 c nd i n f m a ll c c o n o it o o et i
te t
n s of, 70 ; s n f c n n s , po itio o o te t
7 1 5 w a l l m v m n s o f, 7 2 5 s c n do e e t eo
,
8 58 8 . a ry e
nri c hm n of, 7 780 5 im e t
po e i
v r sh m n of , w h d e t
h , 80 it ept
82 5 r c v ry e o e o ot
f l s , 1 0 110 4 5
t
h eo r s ie o o to
f f rm a i n o f, 12 91 39 5
val u a n o f, 1 92 , 1 93 tio
ei
V n s , s s ul e , 9, 5 2 5 8 , 1 1 2 .

2 0 5 in l d s o e ,
ei g
V ns , as h , 9, 5 1 , 5 2 .

ei eg eg te
V n s , s r a d , 9, 4 8 , 5 1 .

e
V su vian ,
ite
and po
r duc f c n ac to o t t
cc of, 4 7, et o p i
m a m r h s m 12 7 , .

72 ,
84 5 WA N T , 30 .

p e do morp h o after orth o l e

s u us, c as ,
Water tion f 2 3 1 36,
ac o , , ,
-
1 40 5
90 5 i er pti e ro k
n u v 1 30 131 c s, , ,
w h en de e di g 2 2 2 4 1 3 7 sc n n ,
-
, ,
13 9,
1 32 5 o r e
s d y ield f 1 8 3 1 8 4
u c s an o , , . 1 4 0 5 at h igh tem pe ature r s ,
1 10
T itanifero us iro n in a d 21 5 i s n s, n 1 2 3 5 w h en a end ing 12 2 sc , ,
12 3,

b lt f 6 8
Wea t h e 1i n g ,
e o , .

Wol fram m i eral a o i t d with ,

n s ss c a e ,

8 4 1 84 1 85 5 o
,
rre e f 1 73 . cc u nc o ,
.

T o rmal ine
u ,
m ineral a o iated with
s ss c , Wo lla t nite a prod t o f onta t
s o ,
uc c c
metam o rp h i m 1 2 7 s , .

W od a pre ipit nt o f g ol d 1 9 5 o f
o ,
c a ,

h o rn il ver 8 3 5 o f opper o re 8 3 5
s c s,
p dom o rph o f g le a after
se u s a n ,

116 5 d f il i after 1 1 6 an o s ca , .

W l fenit 1 72
u e, .

Z e
l N o, s u rc s a n d o
y ield f 1 85 o , .

Z inc i lim e to e 7 3
ore n s n ,
.

Z ir on a o iated with g old 1 8

c ,
ss c , .

P R IN TE D B Y NE I L L A N D CO .
, L TD E D IN B U R GH .