Revision For Bio
Revision For Bio
Revision For Bio
[2]
thick peptidoglycan cell wall
a polymer of modified sugars cross linked by short peptides.
Suggest the advantages of forming endospores. [1]
start to grow again when the environment is suitable
Explain why the type of immunity gained by G is described as passive immunity. [2]
1. No immune response elicited (no memory B cells produced)
2. Antibodies not made/ come from other sources
3. High concentration/ figure from graph, immediately/after injection/ on Day 0-1
4. Antibody concentration fall
5. Does not last long/ only approximately 2 weeks/ temporary
Explain why person H is considered to be better protected against future exposure to the tetanus toxin compared to
person G.
1. Person H has immunological memory (has memory B cells in circulation)
2. able to elicit a secondary response
3. which is rapid (by mitosis, clonal expansion)
4. and leads to larger production of antibodies (binds to specific antigens )
Explain why the vaccine is not effective for people aged 46 and above. [2]
1. As people age, the thymus shrinks
2. repertoire of naive T cells will be lower
3. Activation of T cells and B cells by the vaccine will be lower
4. unable to form memory T cells and B cells.
State how a B cell is able to produce IgM and IgD at the same time. [1]
- Alternative splicing of the pre-mRNA.
Explain what is meant by mutation, and outline its advantages and disadvantages to animals. [13]
Explain what is meant by mutation
1. inherited change in nucleotide sequence
2. base-pair insertion, deletion and substitution
3. changes to chromosome structure and number
Single Gene Disorder
1. sickle cell anaemia
2. base-pair substitution (CTT--> CAT GAA --> GUA)
3. in B-globin gene
4. reduced ability to carry oxygen (Glu --> Val) --> block vessels, cell death if no O2 --> respiration
Multi Gene Disorder
1. accumulation of several diff mutations in a single cell lineage
2. lead to the development of cancer
3. gain of function of proto-oncogenes to oncogene
4. loss-of-function mutation in tumour suppressor genes
5. dysregulation of cell cycle checkpoints/ uncontrolled cell division
Chromosomal mutations
1. non-disjunction of chromosomes
2. during meiosis
3. leads to aneuploidy/ polyploidy
4. gives rise to a named genetic disease (Klinefetler (XXY), Down's syndrome) physical abnormalities,
impaired cognitive abilities
Evolutionary significance
1. raw materials for evolution (by increasing genetic variation)
2. give rise to phenotypic variation
3. allows natural selection to take place (select for different phenotypes)
4. increase chance of survival of species
5. lead to microevolution/ speciation
Increased affinity of antibodies
1. mutations in VDJ/ VJ regions (variable regions)
2. B lymphocytes produce antibodies with higher affinity
3. leading to affinity maturation
4. more effective immune response
Ref to fig and your own knowledge, describe the formation of granulomas in M. tuberculosis infections. [3]
M. tuberculosis ingested by aveolar macrophages
replicate intracellularly
destroy aveolar macrophages
infect more macrophages
leads to activation of T cells
which surround infected macrophages
forming a barrier shell
Suggest how persistence of M. tuberculosis within granuloma allows it to replicate intracellularly. [2]
foamy macrophages provide lipids
for the formation of new mycolic acids
With reference to figure, explain why administering pencillin will not effectively treat TB. [2]
Penicillin only interferes with the interpeptide linking of peptidoglycan
but does not prevent formation of arabinogalactan
newly synthesised still have protective cell wall
will not die from osmotic instability/ autolysis
Outline the role of antibiotics in the treatment of infectious diseases, such as TB.
kill bacteria by causing bacteria to lyse
prevents bacterial growth/ prevents bacterial replication
antibiotics interferes with the modulation of chromosomal supercoiling through topoisomerase- catalyses
strand breakage and rejoining reactions is required for DNA synthesis, mRNA transcription and cell division
prevents protein synthesis (initiation and elongation)/ inhibit RNA polymerase
antibodies may also result in protein mistranslation by promoting tRNA mismatch with mRNA codon
Antibiotics may also inhibit cell membrane function which result in leakage of important solutes essential for
cell's survival
Do not affect human cells/ tissues/ not toxic to humans
From passgae, 'Isoniazid is administered as a prodrug, and must be activated by a bacterial enzyme known as KatG. Upon
activation, isoniazid inhibits the action of fatty acid synthase, inhibiting synthesis of mycolic acids and thus preventing the
synthesis of the mycobacterial cell wall..'
Explain how strain K131 is resistant to isoniazid. [4]
KatG is located in the 2.0-2.5Mb region
mutation to the gene would alter the mRNA encoded
amino acid sequence of KatG is altered
affect folding of KatG
change in conformation of active site -- rmb: activation <--> active site also keyword: bind
unable to bind to isoniazid to activate it talking about how resistance conferred prevents activation of drug
fatty acid synthase function not inhibited --talking about how resistance conferred inhibits function of the drug
mycolic acids still synthesised
Using a named disease, discuss how vaccination is an effective measure to control the disease. [11]
smallpox
caused by Variola minor virus
infect respiratory tract, lymphatic system, skin
prolonged direct face-to-face contact, direct contact with infected bodiliy fluids or contaminated objects
mass vaccination programme to achieve vaccination in 80% of the populations in each country
Infectious disease:
disease caused by a pathogen
transmissible/ passed from one organism to another
Affects the normal functions of the body
Suggest why TB is more likely to be fatal in people who have HIV/AIDS than in those who do not have HIV/AIDS.
HIV/ AIDS leads to weak immune system
details: reduced action of phagocytes, T helper cells low in number, B cell response is low
(so TB) pathogens can multiply faster are not destroyed before they cause disease
Idea that important organs may already be suffering from consequences of HIV/ AIDS (so more likely to stop functioning)
ref to inactive/dormant/latent TB more likely to become active