applied

sciences
Article
Research on the Mechanical, Thermal, Induction
Heating and Healing Properties of Steel Slag/Steel
Fibers Composite Asphalt Mixture
Quantao Liu 1,2 , Bin Li 1 , Erik Schlangen 3, *, Yihan Sun 4 and Shaopeng Wu 1, *
1 State Key Laboratory of Silicate Materials for Architectures, Wuhan University of Technology,
Luoshi Road 122, Wuhan 430070, China; [email protected] (Q.L.); [email protected] (B.L.)
2 Key Laboratory for Highway Engineering in Special Regions of the Education Ministry of China, Changan
University, Xian 710064, China
3 Faculty of Civil Engineering and Geosciences, Micromechanics Laboratory, Delft University of Technology,
Stevinweg 1, 2628 CN Delft, The Netherlands
4 Zhejiang Provincial Institute of Communications Planning, Design & Research, Hangzhou 310015, China;
[email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected] (E.S.); [email protected] (S.W.);
Tel.: +31-15-278-6535 (E.S.); +86-1380-717-6062 (S.W.)

Received: 13 September 2017; Accepted: 4 October 2017; Published: 20 October 2017

Abstract: In this paper, steel slag/steel fiber composite asphalt mixture were prepared. The effects
of the addition of steel slag and/or steel fibers on the mechanical, thermal, induction heating and
healing properties of asphalt mixture were investigated. The results showed that adding steel slag
and/or steel fibers improves the water stability, particle loss resistance and fracture energy of asphalt
mixtures. The addition of steel fibers increased the thermal conductivity and thermal diffusion of
the asphalt mixture, and steel slag showed a reverse effect. Steel slag asphalt mixture cooled more
slowly than steel fiber asphalt mixture, which is beneficial to crack healing of asphalt mixture. The
composite of steel fibers and steel slag can enhance the induction heating speed, heating homogeneity
and thus enhance the induction healing ratio of asphalt mixture. It is concluded that steel slag/steel
fibers composite asphalt mixture achieves good mechanical and induction healing properties.

Keywords: asphalt mixture; steel fiber; steel slag; induction heating; healing

1. Introduction
Asphalt concrete is a self-healing material which can close micro cracks during rest periods
through bitumen flow and diffusion [1]. The potential benefits of applying self healing technology to
asphalt pavements include reduced road maintenance with a subsequent reduction in CO2 production,
improved safety for both road users and road workers, improved road life span, and reduced cost of
road maintenance [2]. However, the healing rate is quite slow due to limited bitumen flow at ambient
temperatures. As a temperature sensitive material, the self-healing capacity of asphalt concrete can be
enhanced by increasing the ability of wetting and diffusion of asphalt molecules through heating [3].
For this reason, an advanced self-healing technology named induction healing was developed to
enhance the self-healing capacity of asphalt concrete through induction heating [46]. Steel fibers were
added to the asphalt mixture to make it electrically conductive and induction heating was applied to
increase the healing capacity of asphalt concrete when cracks occurred in asphalt mastic [710]. During
induction heating, the asphalt mastic containing steel fibers was heated very quickly while the mineral
aggregates could not be heated [10]. In such a way, the cracks within asphalt mastic can be healed
quickly without affecting the stone structure. It has been proven by many researchers that induction
heating can restore the stiffness, strength and fatigue life and prevent the raveling and cracking of

Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 1088; doi:10.3390/app7101088 www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 1088 2 of 13

asphalt concrete efficiently without ageing asphalt binder due to very short heating time [1018].
Therefore, induction healing is a promising maintenance technology for asphalt pavement, which can
heal the microcracks and prevent them from developing into cracking, stone loss and potholes.
However, the induction heating speed of asphalt mixture is limited. Sun et al. prepared asphalt
concrete by replacing mineral aggregates with steel slag and found that it can be heated at 11.6 C/min
with induction heating [11]. He et al. prepared asphalt mixture by adding 4% steel shots and found
that its induction heating speed is 33.8 C/min [15]. Liu et al. prepared conductive asphalt concrete by
adding 8% steel wool fibers (by volume of bitumen) and its induction heating was 43.8 C/min [16].
Norambuena-Contreras also prepared conductive asphalt concrete by adding 8% steel wool fibers and
its induction heating was 38.1 C/min [17]. Garcia prepared asphalt concrete by adding 6% coarse steel
fibers and its induction heating was 62.0 C/min [18]. In the aforementioned research, the induction
heating speeds of the asphalt mixtures designed still need to be improved to allow fast onsite healing
on asphalt pavement.
In this paper, steel slag and steel fiber composite asphalt mixture was prepared to enhance the
induction heating speed and healing efficiency. Asphalt mixtures containing steel fiber or steel slag
were also prepared for comparison. The water stability, mechanical properties, thermal parameters,
heating/cooling characteristics, and healing ratios of different asphalt mixtures were studied.

2. Materials and Test Methods

2.1. Materials
70# Base bitumen (SK Corporation, Seoul, South Korea), basalt aggregates (Jinshan Songhe
Aggregates Company, Yidu, China), limestone filler (Maliang Aggregates, Jinmen, China), steel slag
and steel fibers were used in this research to produce different asphalt mixtures. The basic properties
of the bitumen tested according to Chinese Standard test method of bitumen (JTG E20-2011) are shown
in Table 1. The specific gravity of coarse and fine aggregates used in this paper is 2.951 g/cm3 and
2.877 g/cm3 respectively.

Table 1. Properties of 70# base bitumen.

Properties Results Technique Index

Penetration (25 C,100 g, 5 s) (0.1 mm) 62.3 6080
Softening point (ring & ball) ( C) 47.8 4454
Ductility (5 cm/min, 15 C) (cm) >100 100
Density (g/cm3 ) 1.034 -

Steel slag and steel fibers were used as conductive materials in this paper. Steel slag was used to
replace coarse aggregates partially. The steel slag used was produced by Wuhan Iron industry (Wuhan,
China). The test method of coarse aggregate was used to evaluate the properties of steel slag. The
specific gravity of steel slag was 3.396 g/cm3 , and the water absorption was 3.26%. The Los Angeles
abrasion and crush values of steel slag were 12.6% and 13.5% respectively. Chinese standard test
method for effect of water on bituminous coated aggregate using boiling water (80 C and 30 min,
similar to AASHTO Guide) was used to determine the adhesion property between asphalt and steel
slag, and the adhesion grade of asphalt and steel slag was 5, which is the best adhesion grade in the
Chinese specification. Steel fiber used in this paper was produced by Shanghai Odika metal materials
company (Shanghai, China). The equivalent diameter of steel fibers ranged from 70 m to 130 m and
the average length was 4.2 mm. The recommended steel fiber content 6.0% (by volume of bitumen)
was used in this research [19].
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 1088 3 of 13

2.2. Gradation Design and Specimen Preparation

A dense
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7,asphalt
1088 mixture AC-13 was used in this research, and the gradation curves were shown 3 of in
13
Figure 1. Two different gradations were used in Figure 1, where BA means basalt asphalt mixture and
andmeans
SS SS meansbasaltbasalt mixture
mixture modified
modified withslag.
with steel steel SS
slag. SS asphalt
asphalt mixture mixture was by
was made made by replacing
replacing the
the coarse
coarse aggregates with size 9.513.2 mm in BA with steel slag (steel slag in other
aggregates with size 9.513.2 mm in BA with steel slag (steel slag in other sizes was not available in sizes was not
available
the laboratoryin theforlaboratory for theSteel
the time being). timeslag
being). Steel slagspecific
has different has different
gravityspecific gravity
from basalt from basalt
aggregate, thus
aggregate, thus the coarse basalt aggregates were replaced by steel slag with
the coarse basalt aggregates were replaced by steel slag with the same volume. Another two kinds of the same volume.
Another twoasphalt
self-healing kinds of self-healing
mixtures asphalt
(SF (steel mixtures
fibers) and SF(SF (steel
+ SS) werefibers) and SF
obtained by+adding
SS) were6%obtained by
steel fibers
adding
(by volume 6% steel fibers (by
of bitumen) to volume
BA and of SSbitumen)
mixtures.to BA and SS mixtures.
The optimum asphalt-aggregate
The optimum asphalt-aggregate ratio of ratio of BA
BA determined
determined using
using Marshall
Marshall Mix
Mix design
design method
method was was
4.8%. The optimal asphalt-aggregate ratio of SF, SS and SF + SS were 5.0%,
4.8%. The optimal asphalt-aggregate ratio of SF, SS and SF + SS were 5.0%, 4.9% and 5.1% [20]. 4.9% and 5.1% [20]. The
The
volume indices
volume indices ofof the
the four
four asphalt
asphalt mixtures
mixtures were
were tested
tested and
and calculated
calculated according
according to
to Chinese
Chinese standard
standard
and shown in Table 2. According to the gradation results, Marshall Specimens were prepared
and shown in Table 2. According to the gradation results, Marshall Specimens were prepared for for
further tests.
further tests. Marshall
Marshall Specimens
Specimens used
used for
for all
all tests
tests had
had similar
similar airair voids
voids content
content (difference less than
(difference less than
1%) to
1%) to avoid
avoid itsits effect
effect on
on properties
properties ofof asphalt
asphalt mixtures.
mixtures.

Figure 1. Gradation curves of basalt asphalt (BA) and steel slag (SS) mixture.
Figure 1. Gradation curves of basalt asphalt (BA) and steel slag (SS) mixture.

Table 2.2. Compaction

Table Compactionlevels
levelsand
andmix
mixdesign parameters.
design BA:BA:
parameters. basalt asphalt;
basalt SF: steel
asphalt; fibers;
SF: steel SS: steel
fibers; slag.
SS: steel
slag.
Mixture types BA SF SS SF + SS
Optimum asphalt content Mixture
/% types4.8 BA5.0 SF SS 4.9 SF + SS 5.1
Optimum
Air voids /% asphalt content
3.53 /% 4.84.36 5.0 4.9 3.795.1 4.25
Voids in mineral aggregates /%voids /%14.9
Air 3.5314.34.36 3.79 14.14.25 13.5
Voids filled with asphalt
Voids /%
in mineral 76.3
aggregates /% 69.4
14.9 14.3 14.1 73.413.5 68.6
Voids filled with asphalt /% 76.3 69.4 73.4 68.6
In this paper, semi-circle samples were used to study the fracture energy and healing ratios
In this paper,
of different asphaltsemi-circle
mixtures. Thesamples were
failure formused to study the fracture
of semi-circular bendingenergy
(SCB) and healing
test is tensileratios of
failure,
different other
avoiding asphalt mixtures.
types of damageTheonfailure
samples.form of semi-circular
Therefore, SCB test isbending (SCB)totest
usually used is tensile
analyze failure,
and evaluate
avoiding
the fractureother types of asphalt
properties damagemixtures
on samples. Therefore,
[21]. All SCB samplesSCB were
test iscutusually used to Samples
from Marshall analyze with
and
evaluate
a thicknesstheoffracture
30 mm properties
and a notchofofasphalt
20 mmmixtures [21]. All
in the middle SCB
of the samples
radial were cut
direction. Thefrom Marshall
samples used
Samples
for heatingwith
anda healing
thickness of 30
tests mm
were theand
samea notch
as SCBof samples.
20 mm inThe thesamples
middle for of the radialparameters
thermal direction. The
test
samples
were cut used
from for heating
Marshall and healing
Specimens with tests were the
diameter 100same
mm andas SCB samples.
height 30 mm. The samples for thermal
parameters test were cut from Marshall Specimens with diameter 100 mm and height 30 mm.

2.3. Moisture Susceptibility Test

The water susceptibility of asphalt mixture is directly related to the durability of asphalt
pavement. Thus, there is need to study the effect of steel fiber and steel slag on the moisture resistance
of asphalt mixture. The moisture susceptibility of the mixtures studied was evaluated by moisture
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 1088 4 of 13

2.3. Moisture Susceptibility Test

The water susceptibility of asphalt mixture is directly related to the durability of asphalt pavement.
Thus, there is need to study the effect of steel fiber and steel slag on the moisture resistance of asphalt
mixture. The moisture susceptibility of the mixtures studied was evaluated by moisture indices using
Marshall Stability Ratio (MSR) for different kinds of specimens following ASTM D1559 standard
method. The MSR was calculated according to Equation (1).

Ms
MSR = 100 (1)
Mo

Where:

Ms : the average stability of specimens which were placed into the water at 60 C for 48 h;
Mo : the average stability of specimens which were placed into the water at 60 C for 30 min.

2.4. Cantabro Test

The adhesion property between asphalt and steel fiber or steel slag has a great impact on
mechanical properties of asphalt mixture. Therefore, it is necessary to investigate the adhesion
properties of four asphalt mixtures. In this paper, the particle loss values of Marshall Samples with
steel fiber or steel slag were measured in standard Cantabro test. The tests were carried at 20 C in
a Los Angeles abrasion machine without steel balls according to the Chinese standard test method
(JTG E20-2011 T0733-2011). The weight loss ratio, which is calculated according to Equation (2),
is an indication of anti-loosening capacity of the asphalt mixture. Lower ratio means better adhesion
between asphalt with steel fiber and steel slag.

W1 W2
PL = 100 (2)
W1

Where:
PL: the particle loss ratio (%);
W 1 : the weight of original samples;
W 2 : the residual weight of test samples.

2.5. Semi-Circle Bending Fracture Test

Fracture energy is an important indicator to characterize the cracking resistance of asphalt
mixture and post-cracking energy can be used to characterize the ductility of asphalt mixture [22].
A constant displacement of 50 mm/min was applied to the samples with Universal Testing Machine
(UTM-25) until the samples were totally broken into two pieces to obtain the force-displacement curves.
According to the RILEM TC50-FMC specification [23], fracture energy and post-cracking energy of the
samples were calculated from the curves to evaluate the mechanical properties of different asphalt
mixtures. The fracture energy and post-cracking energy Gf was calculated as Equation (3).

W0 + mg0
Gf = (3)
Alig

Where:

W 0 : The area below the measured load force-displacement curve at 0 to peak force for fracture
energy and peak force to end of line for post-cracking energy;
m: Weight of the specimen; g: 9.81 m/s2 ;
0 : Deformation at 0 to peak force for fracture energy and peak force to end of line for
post-cracking energy;
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 1088 5 of 13

Alig : Area of ligament (product of ligament length and thickness of a specimen)

2.6. Thermal Constants Test

Thermal conductivity is one of the important parameters that influences the heating and cooling
efficiency of asphalt mixture. The heat delivered to surface is increased by using high thermal
conductive asphalt mixture. In addition, thermal diffusivity of the asphalt mixture determines how
rapidly the heat can transfer from inner to the surface. Asphalt mixture with a lower thermal diffusivity
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 1088 5 of 13
can maintain the temperature for a longer time. Hench, accurate determination of thermal properties
of asphalt mixtures
diffusivity can maintaincontaining steel fiberfor
the temperature or/and steeltime.
a longer slagHench,
are essential for determination
accurate the heating/cooling and
of thermal
healing analysis.
properties of asphalt mixtures containing steel fiber or/and steel slag are essential for the
The thermaland
heating/cooling constants
healingofanalysis.
asphalt mixtures were measured by a Hot Disk Thermal Analyzer (TPS
2500S, Hot Disk, Gteborg, Sweden).
The thermal constants of asphalt mixtures The thermal conductivity
were measured by akHot
andDisk
diffusion
Thermal can be directly
Analyzer (TPS
obtained
2500S, Hot Disk, Gteborg, Sweden). The thermal conductivity k and diffusion can beradius
and the volumetric heat capacity was calculated by Equation (4). The selected probe directlyis
14.61 mm,and
obtained heating time is 80 sheat
the volumetric andcapacity
the test power is 350 mw.
was calculated by Equation (4). The selected probe radius
is 14.61 mm, heating time is 80 s and the test power is 350 mw.
k = cp (4)
k cp (4)
Where:
Where:
kk :thermal
:thermal conductivity,
conductivity,W/(m
W/(m K);
K);
thermal diffusion, (mm 22/s);
: thermal diffusion, (mm /s);
:
ccpp: volumetric heat capacity, MJ/(m33K).
capacity, MJ/(m K).
As shown in Figure 2, the pieces of the Marshall sample were in contact with the two surfaces of
As shown in Figure 2, the pieces of the Marshall sample were in contact with the two surfaces of
the probe, which is connected to the thermal constant analyzer. The probes cannot completely cover
the probe, which is connected to the thermal constant analyzer. The probes cannot completely cover
all aggregate and mortar, thus the thermal constant results may be unrepresentative. Therefore, it is
all aggregate and mortar, thus the thermal constant results may be unrepresentative. Therefore, it is
necessary to increase the test times to reduce data bias. Four regions of the center of the sample were
necessary to increase the test times to reduce data bias. Four regions of the center of the sample were
chosen for thermal test and each point was tested for 3 times. The average of 12 test results was used
chosen for thermal test and each point was tested for 3 times. The average of 12 test results was used
to characterize the thermal property of each sample. The waiting time between two successive tests
to characterize the thermal property of each sample. The waiting time between two successive tests
was at least 10 min.
was at least 10 min.

Figure 2. Thermal
Figure 2. Thermal parameter
parameter test
test points
points of
of specimen.
specimen.

2.7.
2.7. Heating
Heating and
and Cooling
Cooling Characteristics
Characteristics Measurement
Measurement
Heating
Heating and
and cooling
cooling characteristics of different
characteristics of different types
types of
of asphalt
asphalt mixtures
mixtures can
can be
be quite
quite different
different
due
due to the properties of materials. As BA is not electrically conductive, it cannot be heated
to the properties of materials. As BA is not electrically conductive, it cannot be heated with
with
induction
induction energy.
energy. Other
Other three
three asphalt
asphalt mixtures
mixtures were
were heated
heated with
with an
an induction
induction heating instrument,
heating instrument,
and the top surface temperatures of the samples during heating process were recorded. The cooling
process was also recorded after the top surface temperature of the samples reached 80 C. The heating
and cooling temperature testing system was shown in Figure 3. The output power and frequency of
the induction machine was 8.3 kw and 123 kHz, and the distance between the coil and the surface of
samples was keep at 10 mm, which is a typical heating distance used for onsite heating in the
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 1088 6 of 13

and the top surface temperatures of the samples during heating process were recorded. The cooling
process was also recorded after the top surface temperature of the samples reached 80 C. The heating
and cooling temperature testing system was shown in Figure 3. The output power and frequency of
the induction machine was 8.3 kw and 123 kHz, and the distance between the coil and the surface
of samples was keep at 10 mm, which is a typical heating distance used for onsite heating in the
pavement. An infrared camera with pixels of 320 240 was used to record the surface temperature
of samples during the whole test. The average temperatures at the top surfaces of the samples were
calculated with
Appl. Sci. 2017, the software of the infrared camera.
7, 1088 6 of 13

Figure 3. Heating and cooling testing system

Figure 3. Heating and cooling testing system.

2.8. Induction-Healing Test

2.8. Induction-Healing Test
The healing tests were carried out as follows: (1) Semi-circular specimens were placed in 10 C
The healing tests were carried out as follows: (1) Semi-circular specimens were placed in 10 C
for at least 4 h, then fractured with three-point bending setup of UTM-25 machine until failure
for at least 4 h, then fractured with three-point bending setup of UTM-25 machine until failure
(stopped automatically) and the original broken force F0 can be obtained. The loading speed of axis
(stopped automatically) and the original broken force F0 can be obtained. The loading speed of axis
was 50 mm/min. (2) The broken samples were induction heated to different target temperatures
was 50 mm/min. (2) The broken samples were induction heated to different target temperatures
(60 C/70 C/80 C/90 C) using the heating method described in section 2.7. After the healing test,
(60 C/70 C/80 C/90 C) using the heating method described in Section 2.7. After the healing test,
the samples were kept at room temperature for 3 h to cool down. (3) The healed samples were broken
the samples were kept at room temperature for 3 h to cool down. (3) The healed samples were broken
again at 10 C as step (1) to get the broken force F1 after healing. The healing ratio is calculated as
again at 10 C as step (1) to get the broken force F1 after healing. The healing ratio is calculated as
Equation (5):
Equation (5):
F1
RR= F 1 100
F0 100
(5)
(5)
F0
To avoid overheating and excess expansion of the samples, the maximum heating temperature
To at
was set 90 C.
avoid overheating
Inductionand excess
healing expansion
test of the samples,
was not conducted on BA thebecause
maximum heating
it cannot betemperature
heated and
was setwith
healed at 90induction
C. Induction healing test was not conducted on BA because it cannot be heated and
heating.
healed with induction heating.
3. Results and Discussion
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Effect of Steel Fibers and Steel Slag on the Moisture Susceptibility of Asphalt Mixture
3.1. Effect of Steel Fibers
The adhesion and Steel
between Slag onand
aggregate the bitumen
Moisture is
Susceptibility of Asphalt
crucial in asphalt Mixture and has a strong
pavements
influence on the moisture
The adhesion between susceptibility
aggregate andand service is
bitumen time of the
crucial in road [24]pavements
asphalt The stability
andandhasmoisture
a strong
susceptibility of four kinds of asphalt mixtures were shown in Figure 4. Compared with
influence on the moisture susceptibility and service time of the road [24] The stability and moisture BA, the
Marshall
susceptibility of four kinds of asphalt mixtures were shown in Figure 4. Compared with BA,that
stability of SF, SS and SF + SS increased by 11.1%, 18.4% and 28.9% respectively. It means the
adding steel fibers or steel slag can improve the high temperature property of asphalt mixture
Marshall stability of SF, SS and SF + SS increased by 11.1%, 18.4% and 28.9% respectively. It means [25]
that adding steel fibers or steel slag can improve the high temperature property of asphalt mixture
[25] and the composite of steel fibers and steel slag shows the best improvement. The samples
containing steel fibers or/and steel slag still shows higher stability after moisture damage. The MSR
of all mixes satisfied the minimum index of typically standardized value (80%) for asphalt mixture.
The MSR of SF, SS and SF + SS increased by 8.0%, 14.7% and 10.4% respectively compared with BA,
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 1088 7 of 13

and the composite of steel fibers and steel slag shows the best improvement. The samples containing
steel fibers or/and steel slag still shows higher stability after moisture damage. The MSR of all mixes
satisfied the minimum index of typically standardized value (80%) for asphalt mixture. The MSR of SF,
SS and SF + SS increased by 8.0%, 14.7% and 10.4% respectively compared with BA, which indicates
that the water resistance of asphalt mixture was improved as well by the addition steel fibers or/and
steel slag. It can be seen that the residual stability of SS was higher than SF and SF + SS. It can be
attributed to two reasons. First, steel slag is alkali and has strong adhesion with asphalt. Second, the
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 1088 7 of 13
SS mixture is a little denser shown in Table 2.

96
22 Stability before moisture MSR
Stability after moisture 94
20
92

18
Stability (kN)

MSR %
90

16
88

14 86

12 84

82
10
BA SF SS SF+SS
Mixture Types

Figure 4. Marshall Stability and Marshall Stability Ratio (MSR) of different asphalt mixtures. SF:
Figure 4. Marshall Stability and Marshall Stability Ratio (MSR) of different asphalt mixtures. SF: steel
steel fibers.
fibers.

3.2.Effect
3.2. EffectofofSteel
SteelFibers
Fibersand
andSteel
SteelSlag
Slagon
onthe
theParticle
Particle Loss
Loss Resistance
Resistance of
of Asphalt
Asphalt Mixture
Mixture

ItIt can
can be
be seen
seen from
from Figure
Figure 55 that
that BA
BA has
has the
the largest
largest particle
particle loss
loss ratio
ratio compared
compared to to other
other three
three
asphalt mixtures, while SF + SS shows the lowest particle loss ratio. Adding steel
asphalt mixtures, while SF + SS shows the lowest particle loss ratio. Adding steel fibers to asphalt fibers to asphalt
mixturecan
mixture can reduce
reduce the
the particle
particle loss,
loss, indicating
indicatinganan improvement
improvementof ofthe
the strength
strengthofof the
the mixture.
mixture. The
The
specific volume characteristics and surface texture structure of steel fibers can improve
specific volume characteristics and surface texture structure of steel fibers can improve the absorption the absorption
andstabilization
and stabilizationofof asphalt.
asphalt. Furthermore,
Furthermore, the spatial
the spatial network
network structures
structures formed formed
by steelbyfibers,
steel which
fibers,
which
was was distributed
distributed betweenbetween the aggregates,
the aggregates, has a reinforcing
has a reinforcing effect oneffect on the mixture.
the mixture. The resultsTheofresults of
SF + SS
SF + SS presented the same conclusion that the addition of steel fiber can enhances
presented the same conclusion that the addition of steel fiber can enhances the cohesion of asphalt the cohesion of
asphalt mixture.
mixture.
The addition of steel slag can also decrease the particle loss slightly comparing with BA. The reason
for this can be explained by the properties of steel slag which has high wear resistance and porous
10
structure. More asphalt was absorbed resulting the increased bonding area between asphalt and steel
slag. Basicity property of steel slag also contribute to good adhesion between asphalt and steel slag,
making better wrapping 8 with asphalt [26]. SF + SS has the highest Particle loss resistance due to the
9.46
reinforcement of steel fibers and the strong adhesion between asphalt and steel slag.
Particle loss ratio%

7.84
6

4
4.88
3.97
2

0
BA SF SS SF+SS
mixture can reduce the particle loss, indicating an improvement of the strength of the mixture. The
specific volume characteristics and surface texture structure of steel fibers can improve the absorption
and stabilization of asphalt. Furthermore, the spatial network structures formed by steel fibers, which
was distributed between the aggregates, has a reinforcing effect on the mixture. The results of SF + SS
presented the same conclusion that the addition of steel fiber can enhances the cohesion of asphalt
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 1088 8 of 13
mixture.

10

8
9.46
Particle loss ratio% 7.84
6

4
4.88
3.97
2
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 1088 8 of 13

porous structure. More

0 asphalt was absorbed resulting the increased bonding area between asphalt
BA
and steel slag. Basicity property of steel slagSFalso contributeSSto good adhesion
SF+SS
between asphalt and
Mixture types
steel slag, making better wrapping with asphalt [26]. SF + SS has the highest Particle loss resistance
due to the reinforcement of steel
Figure fibersloss
5. Particle andresistances
the strongofadhesion between
different asphalt asphalt and steel slag.
mixtures.
Figure 5. Particle loss resistances of different asphalt mixtures.
3.3.
3.3. Effect
Effect of
of Steel
Steel Fibers
Fibers and Steel
andslag Slag
Steelcan on
on the
Slagalso the Fracture Resistance
Fracturethe
Resistance of Asphalt Mixture
The addition of steel decrease particle of Asphalt
loss Mixture
slightly comparing with BA. The
reasonThe fracture
for this canenergy
be and
explained post-cracking
by the energy
properties of
ofthe four
steel asphalt
slag which
The fracture energy and post-cracking energy of the four asphalt mixtures were mixtures
has highwere
wear shown ininFigure
resistance
shown Figure
and6.
6. The fracture energy ranking of different mixtures was: SS + SF > SS
The fracture energy ranking of different mixtures was: SS + SF > SS > SF > BA. Compared with> SF > BA. Compared with
basalt
basalt asphalt
asphaltmixture,
mixture,thethefracture
fractureenergy
energyof SF, SS and
of SF, SS andSF +SFSS+increased by 20.9%,
SS increased 29.1%,29.1%,
by 20.9%, and 41.2%
and
respectively.
41.2% respectively. It indicates that the addition of steel fiber and steel slag can improve the fracture
It indicates that the addition of steel fiber and steel slag can improve the fracture
resistance
resistance ofof asphalt
asphalt mixture.
mixture. Steel
Steel slag
slag has
hasrelatively
relatively high
high strength
strength characteristics
characteristics and
and good
good adhesion
adhesion
with
with asphalt binder, increasing the fracture strength of the mixture. Steel fiber increases increases
asphalt binder, increasing the fracture strength of the mixture. Steel fiber the maximum the
maximum fracture strain of the mixture, consuming
fracture strain of the mixture, consuming more energy. more energy.

3.5

Fracture Post-Fracture
3.0 Peak Load
Types (kN)
energy cracking
(J/m2) (J/m2)

2.5 BA 2.75 405 427

SF 2.87 512 563
SS 3.11 523 280
2.0
Force (kN)

SF+SS 3.38 572 487

1.5
BA
SF
1.0
SS
SS+SF
0.5

0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
Displacement (mm)

Figure 6.
Figure Fractureenergy
6. Fracture energy and
and post-cracking
post-cracking energy
energy of
of different
different asphalt
asphalt mixtures.
mixtures.

Figure
Figure 66 also
also shows
shows that
that the addition
addition of steel fiber can significantly improve the post-cracking
post-cracking
energy
energy of
of asphalt
asphalt mixture,
mixture, while
while adding
adding steel
steel slag
slag decreased
decreased the
the post-cracking
post-cracking energy.
energy. It can
can be
be seen
seen
from Figure 6 that the post-cracking energy of SF and SF + SS increased by 31.9% and 14.1% compared
with BA. The results demonstrated that the addition of steel fiber improves the toughness of asphalt
mixture. The addition of steel slag reduces the toughness of asphalt mixture due to brittle damage of
the asphalt mixture. The post-cracking energy of SS decreased by 34.4% compared with BA.

3.4. Effect of Steel Fibers and Steel Slag on the Thermal Parameters of Asphalt Mixtures
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 1088 9 of 13

from Figure 6 that the post-cracking energy of SF and SF + SS increased by 31.9% and 14.1% compared
with BA. The results demonstrated that the addition of steel fiber improves the toughness of asphalt
mixture. The addition of steel slag reduces the toughness of asphalt mixture due to brittle damage of
the asphalt mixture. The post-cracking energy of SS decreased by 34.4% compared with BA.

3.4. Effect of Steel Fibers and Steel Slag on the Thermal Parameters of Asphalt Mixtures
The thermal parameters of asphalt mixtures modified with steel fiber or/and steel slag were
shown in Table 3. Compared with BA, the thermal conductivity and thermal diffusion of SF increased
by 10.2% and 16.3% respectively, while the volumetric heat capacity decreased by 5.3%. The thermal
conductivity and thermal diffusion of SF + SS increased by 6.6% and 18.1% respectively, while the
volumetric heat capacity decreased by 9.7%. It means that steel fiber increased the thermal conductivity
and thermal diffusion while decreased the volumetric heat capacity of asphalt mixture. Steel slag
showed a reverse effect on the thermal parameters of asphalt mixture. The thermal conductivity and
thermal diffusion of asphalt mixture decreased by 5.7% and 18.3% after adding steel slag in BA, and
the volumetric heat capacity increased by 15.4%. It can be concluded that the addition of steel fiber and
steel slag will influence the thermal parameters of asphalt mixture. However, the thermal parameters
of SS + SF showed the least difference from BA due to the opposite effects of steel fibers and steel slag.

Table 3. Thermal parameters of four kinds of asphalt mixtures.

Thermal Conductivity Thermal Diffusivity Volumetric Heat Capacity

Mixture Type
(W/(mK)) (mm2 /s) (MJ/(m3 K))
BA 1.521 0.717 2.121
SF 1.676 0.834 2.009
SS 1.434 0.586 2.447
SF + SS 1.529 0.692 2.210

The material properties of the mixtures are the main reason for the changes in the thermal
constants. As a kind of metal material, steel fibers possess good conductivity and diffusion of heat.
Compared with basalt stone and asphalt, the conductivity and thermal diffusion of steel fibers were
higher. While the heat capacity of steel fibers is lower than that of basalt and asphalt. In spite of
containing some metal elements, a large number of tiny pores within steel slag obstruct the heat
transfer and diffusion, decreasing the conductivity and thermal diffusion of the mixture. The tiny
pores also have a heat storage capacity, which helps for the increase of the heat capacity of the mixture.
Due to the opposite effects of steel fibers and steel slag, the thermal parameters of SS + SF will be
strongly related to the ratio of steel fibers and steel slag.

3.5. Effect of Steel Fibers and Steel Slag on the Heating and Cooling Characteristics of Asphalt Mixture
The average surface temperature variations of different asphalt mixtures during induction heating
and cooling were shown in Figure 7. As shown in Figure 7a, the average surface temperature of the
samples increased linearly with heating time. The heating speed can be obtained by fitting line to
get the slope of each curve. The induction heating speeds of the three mixtures (SS, SF, and SS + SF)
were 0.15, 1.11 and 1.25 C/s respectively. Steel slag containing a limited amount of metal oxides can
be induction heated. Due to the limited amount of steel slag replacing mineral aggregates (only size
9.513.2 mm), the induction heating speed of SS mixture was quite low. In SS mixture, steel slag was
the heat generating source and heat transferred from steel slag to mortar and other basalt aggregate
was slow, leading to a more uneven heating in asphalt mixture. The steel fibers distributed quite
uniformly in mortar of asphalt mixture, forming loop coil which can produce closed current. So, steel
fibers can be heated very quickly under electromagnetic induction heating and SF showed a high
heating speed. The heating speed of asphalt mixture containing both steel fibers and steel slag was
the highest because of the co-heating effect of steel slag and steel fibers. The heating speed of SS + SF
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 1088 10 of 13

Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 1088 10 of 13

mixture was exactly the sum of the heating speeds of SS and SF, indicating that the composite of steel
fibers andthe
air, thus steel slag can enhance
temperature decreasedinduction heatingthan
more rapidly speed
theof asphalt
inner mixture.
positions. It is expected
SF mixture thatmore
lost heat the
induction
quickly asheating speedhad
the material of asphalt
higher mixture
thermal can be furtherand
conductivity improved
thermalby increasing
diffusion, the proportion
which of
explained the
steel slag replacing
difference mineral
of cooling aggregates.
rates of the two different kinds of mixtures.

120 SF
y=1.1085x+30.095 R2=0.9828
SS
y=0.1476x+26.347 R2=0.9821
Surface temperature (C)

100
SF+SS
y=1.2507x+31.388 R2=0.9806
80

60

40

20

0 15 30 45 60 75
Heating time (s)
(a)

80
SF
SF+SS
Surface temperatureC

70

60

50

40

30

20
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Cooling time (min)
(b)
Figure 7. Temperature-versus-time curves of asphalt mixtures with induction heating. (a) During
Figure 7. Temperature-versus-time curves of asphalt mixtures with induction heating. (a) During
heating;(b)
heating; (b)During
Duringcooling.
cooling.

3.6. Effect of Steel Fibers and Steel Slag on the Induction Healing Efficiency of Asphalt Mixture
Crack healing occurs both during induction heating and cooling after heating. But the healing
speedThe willhealing ratios
gradually of different
decrease due types
to theofdecrease
asphalt mixtures at different surface
of the temperature. heating
Therefore, temperatures
it is necessary to
were shown in Figure 8. In this experiment, the surface temperature of the
analyze the cooling process of different types of asphalt mixtures after induction heating. Thesample was used as the
heating
ofheating
SS wastemperature,
quite slow and while induction
uneven, so theheating
coolingshows
curvestrong
of SS wasgradient heating characteristics.
not discussed in Figure 7b. The The
temperature decreased with the depth of the sample, resulting in lower and
cooling curves of other two kinds of mixtures were shown in Figure 7b. The samples were heated to lower healing ratio of
80theCsample
(averagevertically. Besides,
top surface some stones
temperature) andwere
then crushed
placed induring the fracture
a constant test, which
temperature room also limited
to monitor
the healing efficiency of the sample. It can be seen in Figure 8 that the healing ratios
the cooling process with an infrared camera. As shown in the cooling lines of the two asphalt mixtures, of all mixtures
increased
the gradually
temperature of SF with the increase
decreased of the heating
faster compared with SFtemperature, indicating
+ SS. The difference that theperformance
of cooling temperature
isplays an due
mainly important
to the effect on the healing
performance efficiency.
of materials, Thethe
because healing
initialratios of the three
temperature and kinds of mixtures
the environment
temperature are the same. It has been demonstrated from the thermal constants test that therelated
showed the same ranking at the different temperatures: SS + SF > SF > SS. This is mainly thermal to
the differences of the heating characteristics of different mixtures.
Steel slag and steel fibers are the heating units in SS and SF asphalt mixtures respectively. In SS
mixture, the mortar cannot be heated with induction heating and its temperature is much lower than
steel slag. While the mortar containing steel fiber was directly heated in SF asphalt mixture. In SS +
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 1088 11 of 13

conductivity and thermal diffusion of SF are the highest, and the volumetric heat capacity of SS is
highest. At the surface of the specimen heat transfers both to the lower part of the sample and to the
air, thus the temperature decreased more rapidly than the inner positions. SF mixture lost heat more
quickly as the material had higher thermal conductivity and thermal diffusion, which explained the
difference of cooling rates of the two different kinds of mixtures.

3.6. Effect of Steel Fibers and Steel Slag on the Induction Healing Efficiency of Asphalt Mixture
The healing ratios of different types of asphalt mixtures at different surface heating temperatures
were shown in Figure 8. In this experiment, the surface temperature of the sample was used as the
heating temperature, while induction heating shows strong gradient heating characteristics. The
temperature decreased with the depth of the sample, resulting in lower and lower healing ratio of
the sample vertically. Besides, some stones were crushed during the fracture test, which also limited
the healing efficiency of the sample. It can be seen in Figure 8 that the healing ratios of all mixtures
increased gradually with the increase of the heating temperature, indicating that the temperature
plays an important effect on the healing efficiency. The healing ratios of the three kinds of mixtures
showed the same ranking at the different temperatures: SS + SF > SF > SS. This is mainly related to the
differences of the heating characteristics of different mixtures.
Steel slag and steel fibers are the heating units in SS and SF asphalt mixtures respectively. In SS
mixture, the 7,
Appl. Sci. 2017, mortar
1088 cannot be heated with induction heating and its temperature is much lower11than of 13
steel slag. While the mortar containing steel fiber was directly heated in SF asphalt mixture. In SS + SF
SF mixture,
mixture, both both
thethe steel
steel slag
slag andandthethe mortar
mortar containingsteel
containing steelfibers
fiberswere
wereinduction
inductionheated,
heated,resulting
resulting
in aa more homogenous
in homogenous heating.heating. Thus,
Thus,thethetemperature
temperatureofof the
themortar
mortarin in
different
differentmixtures ranks:
mixtures SF
ranks:
+ SS
SF > SF
+ SS > SS.
> SF As As
> SS. temperature
temperature is is
thethe
key
keyfactor
factorcontrolling
controllingthethehealing
healingratio
ratio of
of asphalt
asphalt mixture, thethe
ranking of
ranking of the
the healing
healing ratios
ratios of
of different
differentmixture
mixturewaswasalso
alsoSFSF++SS SS>> SF
SF >> SS.
SS. It
It is
is concluded
concluded that
that the
the
incorporation of steel fiber promotes the temperature increase of the mortar, contributing
incorporation of steel fiber promotes the temperature increase of the mortar, contributing to higher to higher
healingratio
healing ratioofof the
the mixture
mixtureat atthe
thesame
sameaverage
averagetemperature.
temperature.SS SS++ SF
SF asphalt
asphalt mixture
mixture hashas the
the highest
highest
healing ratio
healing ratio due
due toto the
the more
more homogeneous
homogeneous temperature
temperature distribution
distribution which
which indicates
indicates aa higher
higher bulk
bulk
temperature of the
temperature of the mixture.mixture.

80
SF
70 SS
SF+SS

60
Healing ratio %

50

40

30

20

10

0
60 70 80 90
Heating temperature C

Figure8.8. Healing
Figure Healingratio
ratioof
ofasphalt
asphaltmixture
mixtureunder
underdifferent
differentheating
heatingtemperatures.
temperatures

4. Conclusions
In this paper, the water stability, mechanical properties, thermal constants, heating and healing
properties of four asphalt mixtures BA, SF, SS and SF + SS were compared. The following conclusions
can be drawn.
(1) The addition of steel slag and/or steel fibers improves the water stability of asphalt mixture.
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 1088 12 of 13

4. Conclusions
In this paper, the water stability, mechanical properties, thermal constants, heating and healing
properties of four asphalt mixtures BA, SF, SS and SF + SS were compared. The following conclusions
can be drawn.

(1) The addition of steel slag and/or steel fibers improves the water stability of asphalt mixture.
Marshall Stability and residual Marshall Stability ratio of asphalt mixture are increased by adding
steel slag and/or steel fibers.
(2) The addition of steel slag and/or steel fiber can improve the particle loss resistance and the
fracture energy of asphalt mixture. Steel fiber increases the toughness of asphalt mixture, while
steel slag reduce the toughness of the mixture.
(3) Steel fibers increase the thermal conductivity and thermal diffusion of asphalt mixture, and steel
slag shows a reverse effect. The volumetric heat capacity of steel slag mixture is higher than plain
and steel fiber asphalt mixtures.
(4) The composite of steel fibers and steel slag can enhance the induction heating speed of asphalt
mixture. The heating speed ranking of different asphalt mixtures is SF + SS > SF > SS. The cooling
rate of the SF and SF + SS mixture show different ranking SF > SF + SS, which can be explained
according to the thermal constants of the mixtures.
(5) The composite of steel fibers and steel slag can increase the heating homogeneity and thus
enhance the induction healing ratio of asphalt mixture. Due to different heating units in different
asphalt mixtures, the healing ratio ranking of the three mixtures is SF + SS > SF > SS at the same
surface temperature.

Acknowledgments: This research was supported by the Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 51508433 and
No. 51778515), the Open Fund of the Key Laboratory of Highway Engineering in Special Regions of Ministry
of Education of China, Changan University (No. 310821161105), the Open Fund of the Key Laboratory of Road
Structure and Material of Ministry of Transport (Changsha University of Science & Technology, No. kfj150302),
and the Scientific Research Foundation for Returned Overseas Chinese Scholars, State Education Ministry.
Author Contributions: Quantao Liu, Yihan Sun and Shaopeng Wu conceived and designed the experiments; Bin Li
performed the experiments; Erik Schlangen analyzed the data; Yihan Sun contributed reagents/materials/analysis
tools; Quantao Liu and Bin Li wrote the paper.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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