The Unique Role of Computing in the Design and Construction

of Tensile Membrane Structures:

David M. Campbell1

Abstract

This paper provides background and overview of the methods and utilization of
computing in the design and construction of tensile membrane structures. In addition the
author outlines the general methodology employed in the use of automated processes in
the design, fabrication and construction of these structures.

Introduction

No other class of architectural structural systems is as dependent upon the use

of digital computers as are tensile membrane structures. The shape or form and
prestress of tensile structures are determined using true "computer aided design".
Typical simple structural systems defy classical analysis. Structural behavior is simulated
under load using computer modeling techniques. The procedures for prestressing the
system are determined in similar analysis. Finally, the drawings or templates used to
cut and fabricate the fabric membrane surface are typically computer generated.

The modern use of tensile membrane structures as a means of permanently

covering large spaces has been wholly dependent upon the use of digital computing.
Many of the developments in membrane structure technology have occurred in the last
twenty years precisely because of the accessibility of relatively powerful digital
computers. Significant pioneering work of Frei Otto was accomplished using physical
models (1), which while they well illustrate the desired form of a membrane are not
conducive to the precise communication and/or documentation of the membrane's
structural characteristics in a manner necessary for the construction of large and/or
complex systems.

Tensile membrane structures have unique difficulties that have made them
resistant to classical methods of design and analysis. Generally, they are nonlinear in
behavior. Typically structures exhibit both geometric non-linearity due to large
deflections in addition to material non-linearity. The nature of tensile membrane
structures is such that much of their stiffness is achieved by virtue of initial prestress in
the membrane and its supporting components. This prestress is an internal stress
condition usually prescribed by the designer to achieve the desired performance of the
structure and must be induced into the system in its construction.

The general methodology pursued in the design and construction of a tensile

membrane structure is illustrated in the flow chart shown in Figure 1. Processes which
are typically automated are highlighted. As with most design methodologies the process
is iterative, such that anticipation of the results in the conception of a structure will reduce
the general effort involved in the design and engineering of the system. While there are
a number of algorithms presently used with success for each of the computer processes,
the general methodology illustrated is appropriate for a wide variety of prestressed tensile
systems.

1 Principal and Chief Executive Officer, Geiger Engineers, Two Executive Blvd., Suite
410, Suffern, NY 10901-4164

1 Campbell
The Unique Role of Computing in the Design and Construction of Tensile Membrane
Structures, paper presented at and published in the proceedings of ASCE Second Civil
Engineering Automation Conference, 11/19/91, New York, N.Y.

Boundary & Support

Definition
SHAPE
(Form Finding)

no Shape
Architecture
Evaluation Pattern Boundary
Definition

no Prestress SHAPE
Evaluation (Pattern Surfaces)
Support Structure
Model
ANALYSIS
Initial Element
Sizes PATTERN
(Cutting
Templates)

no no
Prestress Structural Element
shape Evaluation Sizes

Erection/Stressing DESIGN
Sequence Definition (Element Sizes)
Joint Design &
Detailing

ANALYSIS
(Stressing Sequence)
Fabrication
Construction

Typically Non- TYPICALLY

automated AUTOMATED
Process PROCESS

Figure 1. Flowchart Illustrating General Approach to Tensile Membrane

Structure Design and Engineering

Form Finding

2 Campbell
The Unique Role of Computing in the Design and Construction of Tensile Membrane
Structures, paper presented at and published in the proceedings of ASCE Second Civil
Engineering Automation Conference, 11/19/91, New York, N.Y.

In the simple case of air- supported structures the membrane prestress is

achieved by loading a synclastic shaped membrane with a differential air pressure. The
simplest form of air-supported structure for which the prestress can be easily determined
is a spherical dome. Assuming that the unit weight of the membrane is small with respect
to the internal operating pressure, the membrane stress at a given pressure is
proportional to the radius of curvature of the sphere. While analysis of such a structure
under real wind loads is non-trivial, both membrane patterning and determination of
prestress are easily accomplished without the aid of computing. Consequently, it is not
surprising that the first widely used air-supported membrane structures were the
spherical air-domes designed and built by Birdair Inc.

The consideration of low profile non-spherical air-supported membrane

structures required better analytical tools. Both the geometry or "shape" of the cablenet
and the analysis of the air- supported roof of US Pavilion at Expo '70 were accomplished
on a digital computer by David Geiger Associates with assistance from Dr. Michael
McCormick. This is believed to be the first use of the digital computer in form finding and
analysis of a built membrane structure. In this case as with all of the early air-supported
structures engineered by Geiger, the fabric surfaces were patterned by "hand" as the
surface geometry of the membrane was simple enough that this could be accomplished
satisfactorily. The first computer patterned fabric membrane for a low profile cable-
restrained air-structure was used in the Minneapolis Metrodome roof, patterned by
Birdair.

Prestressed anticlastic tensile structures present a more difficult problem. A wide

variety of complex forms can be determined from physical models. As demonstrated by
Frei Otto, minimal surfaces can be created using soap films. However, none of these
techniques can precisely communicate to the fabricator the prestress and surface
geometry information required to fabricate and stress the membrane shape. This
became a pressing issue as desirable materials suitable for permanent structures, such
as TEFLON coated fiberglass fabric became available. Fabrics such
TEFLONcoated fiberglass have desirable attributes such as their non-combustibility,
however, they are significantly stiffer than other materials commonly used in tensile
membrane structures and consequently require greater precision in patterning. The
development of algorithms for defining the surface form or shape of a general class of
prestressed networks was the key to the general exploitation of tensile membranes in
structures of significant scale.

There are a number of form finding algorithms currently in use. Geiger

Engineers employ software based upon the force density method (2). This matrix
method solves directly for the geometry of a general network of prestressed tensile
components. Iterative techniques allow the designer to prescribe desired prestress
conditions for cable and membrane elements. Birdair Inc. successfully employs their
matrix analysis algorithm for form finding. Basically elements are given very low
mechanical stiffness and a prescribed prestress. Equilibrium geometry is determined in
an iterative analysis of the structure. Another method of form finding in common use is
the method of dynamic relaxation with kinetic damping (3). This method is employed in
the form finding software used by FTL Associates.

The ability to generate shapes on a digital computer within a prescribed

boundary with a prescribed prestress quickly lead to computer patterning of shapes.
The problem is to determine the pattern for flat strips of fabric which when seamed
together will approximate the shape's surface. As the shape geometry is determined for
a prestressed condition, patterns must be compensated for strain in the fabric.
Compensated strip patterns are used for cutting.

3 Campbell
The Unique Role of Computing in the Design and Construction of Tensile Membrane
Structures, paper presented at and published in the proceedings of ASCE Second Civil
Engineering Automation Conference, 11/19/91, New York, N.Y.

While physical models are still utilized to study membrane forms, the geometry
and stress conditions of the membrane surface are now almost exclusively determined by
designers utilizing computing techniques. Data from form finding, typically comprised of
connectivity, nodal geometry and element prestress represents a complete model
description of the membrane structure, sans the element properties. Consequently,
shape results can be utilized directly for analysis. Often, additional elements, such as
struts and or beams, are added to a shape model to create an analysis model of a
complete structural system.

Structural Analysis

General analysis of membrane structures requires geometric non-linear

techniques. Typical matrix methods employ an iterative procedure using the Newton-
Raphson method or a variant, often with a damped solution strategy. Many tensile
structural systems are strain hardening. A variety of common tensile structural systems
are initially strain softening and begin to exhibit strain hardening behavior once sufficient
load is applied. Consequently, non-linear solution strategies that anticipate strain
hardening have been employed with success and can speed convergence in a wide
variety of commonly encountered problems. There are significant exceptions, such as a
class of "tensegrity" type structures that become strain softening as load is increased (4).
The dynamic relaxation method is also used with success for the general analysis of
geometrically non-linear problems.

Most architectural/structural fabric materials exhibit non-linear behavior, as a

consequence of being woven composites. Almost all architectural/structural fabrics in
use today are coated composites. However, material non-linearity is rarely modeled.
Mechanical behavior of textiles is primarily dependent upon the properties of both the
yarn and weave. Coating properties also have an effect upon the composite's
mechanical behavior, albeit to a lesser extent than the properties of the base cloth.
Fabric is commonly modeled utilizing LST or CST membrane finite elements or a network
of string elements. Both of these modeling approaches have been widely used with
success while each has attendant limitations that the analyst must consider.
Development of membrane elements that better simulate the non-linear behavior of
woven composites have been developed ( 5). While fabric material non-linearity is
typically not modeled, it will likely prove to be useful when the mechanics of fabric
failures are better understood and utilized quantitatively in a limit states design approach.

Construction and Stressing Analysis

The ability to create, analyze, design and fabricate complex membrane forms
has in turn created difficult construction problems. Prestress is a much a property of
these structures as say element properties and/or geometry. A prestressed state for a
structural system can be created without direct regard for the manner in which the
prestress is developed in the structure. In a wide variety of structures, this is in fact
preferred. Consequently, with redundant structures techniques to establish the sequence
of stressing is necessary to assure that the structure will in fact realize the prestressed
state desired. Moreover, in many complex tensile systems analysis of the stressing
sequence is necessary to assure that various components of the system are not over
stressed during stressing. A technique developed by Geiger Associates of analytical
disassembly of a prestressed structural system in reverse order of stressing has been
utilized by the author, as well as others at Geiger Engineers and Birdair Inc. with great
success. The erection and stressing of some structural systems such as Geiger's
Cabledome, its variants, and other complex prestressed structural systems can be
determined in this manner. Generally, the accurate construction of these structural
systems would not be possible prior to the development of appropriate software and
suitable techniques for determination of stressing sequences. This was the key in the

4 Campbell
The Unique Role of Computing in the Design and Construction of Tensile Membrane
Structures, paper presented at and published in the proceedings of ASCE Second Civil
Engineering Automation Conference, 11/19/91, New York, N.Y.

realization of many significant membrane structures including, the Haj Terminal at

Jeddah, Lindsay Park Athletic Centre, Calgary Alberta, the Ontario Pavilion Roof at
Expo'86, Vancouver, B.C. and all the Cabledomes including the Florida Suncoast Dome
Roof and the Georgia Dome roof system.

Hardware

The hardware demands of tensile structure design and analysis are somewhat
greater than that needed for more conventional structures as a consequence of the
relatively large models involved and their non-linear nature. Until very recently, typical
analysis models were too large for desk top hardware. Even with the current generation
of powerful desk-top processors, modeling of large and/or complex structures requires
larger capacity machines. Clearly, if current trends in hardware continue this will change.

All three firms represented by speakers in this session utilize mini

computers for their work in membrane structures.The various mini systems have
proven to be quite serviceable for a wide variety of structural models. As with structural
analysis in general, this has been a relatively recent development. Earlier complex
models necessitated the use of very large mainframes. For example, the first commercial
time-share use of the Cray I "supercomputer", was Geiger Berger's erection and
stressing procedure analysis for the world's largest fabric roof, the Haj Terminal at
Jeddah, Saudi Arabia in 1978. Both design and stressing sequence analysis of the
Lindsay Park roof structure were conducted in 1982 on a Cray II. Similarly, form finding
requires graphic display hardware and plotters that were unique in the 70's, but are
common place and relatively inexpensive now with the widespread use of CAD for
general architecture and engineering.

5 Campbell
The Unique Role of Computing in the Design and Construction of Tensile Membrane
Structures, paper presented at and published in the proceedings of ASCE Second Civil
Engineering Automation Conference, 11/19/91, New York, N.Y.

References:

1. Otto, F., Tensile Structures, M.I.T. Press, Cambridge, 1969.

2. Schek, H. J., "The Force Density Method For Form Finding and Computation of
General Networks" Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and Engineering 3,
North Holland Publishing Company, 1974, pp 115 - 134.

3. Barnes, M.R., and Wakefield, D.S., " Form-finding, Analysis, and Patterning of
Surface-stressed Structures" Volume I Invited Papers, 1st International Oleg
Kerensky Memorial Conference, Tension Structures, 1988.

4. Hamilton, K.P., Campbell, D.M., and Davidson, C.C., "Comments on Limit States
of Tension Structures", Proceedings of the Structures Congress '87, ASCE, 1987,
pp 479 - 488.

5. Testa, R.B., Stubbs, N., and Spillers, W.R., " A Bilinear Model for Coated Fabrics",
Columbia University, 1977.

6 Campbell